769-1015 - International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral

Transcription

International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(4), May, 2014
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Title
Authors
page
1
The relationship between Adler’s life styles and parents’ parenting styles
Ronak Moradizadeh*1, Karim Afsharinia
1-7
2
Different approaches of treatment in private centers, abstention-oriented groups,
groups of anonymous addicts (NA), center of decreasing addiction (DIC) and
prisons in Amol
Ali Vatan Doust*1
8-10
3
Relationship between dysfunctional attitudes and different aspects of Islamic life
style in the adolescents
Mojtaba Toghyani*1, Mohsen Darbanian2, Mehdi
Bahrampour3
11-19
4
Effectiveness of Career Counseling Based on Krumboltz's Social Learning Theory
on Teachers' Emotional Labor
Samane Salimi1, Mohammad Reza Abedi2, and Iran
Baghban3
20-25
5
The relationship between personality and social creativity in students
Marzieh Hasanzadeh*1, Mohammad
Hasanzadeh2and Ahmad Hasanzadeh3
26-31
6
Expressive arts group therapy with middle-school aged children in family-like
community centers
Shiva Zarezadeh Kheibari‫٭‬1, S.Mohsen Asghari
Nekah2, Masume Horoof Ghanad3, Mohammad
Ebrahim Hokm Abadi4
32-38
7
The improvement of production, distribution and consumption system in the
elimination of poverty (based on governmental method of Imam Ali)
Seyyed Adnan Lajavardi1, Amin Akbarzadeh*2,
Moien Akbarzadeh*3
39-46
8
The relationship between the components of creativity and academic achievement
motivation in the students studying in the male high schools of the 7th borough of
Tehran in the academic year of 2013-2014
Amin Bidokhti1, Laleh Jamshidi2, Mostafa Gharib*3,
Mojtaba Gharib4
47-53
9
Effectiveness of emotion-focused couple therapy in marital commitment and
emotion regulation
Majid Ahmadi*1, Bahareh Chitsazzadeh Alaf1,
Mohsen Rasouli2, Fatemeh Saki Zadi1
54-63
10
The Study of Effects of Career Counseling Based on Construction Theory on
Personal Adaptability of Isfahan University’s Female Students
11
A study of the role of cultural intelligence and social capital in teachers' work
adjustment
Majid Dadashzadeh*1, Peyman
Yarmohammadzadeh2
73-84
12
Comparison of social growth of children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder
and normal children
Azam Yousefi Ghalati1, Mojtaba Hadi Zadeh2,
Haniyeh Heidar Niya3
85-89
13
Prediction of school dropout based on the components of educational involvement
among the first grade students of high schools located in Hamadan City
Hossein Souri1, Davod Mirzaei Far2, Ebrahim
Soheili3, Morteza Shahmoradi2
90-96
14
The causal model of Relation between Marital Relationship Status and Mental
Health in Infertile Individuals
Saiedeh Safari1, Sayed Habibullah Ahmadi
Foroushany1, Fariba Yazdekhasti2, Mehdi Esfahani3,
97-102
Motahareh Moosavi1, IranBaghban2, and Mohammad
RezaAbedi3
64-72
Mohammad Hossein Nasr Esfahani4
15
The relationship between emotional intelligence and social self-efficacy among
teenagers
16
The relationship between spiritual intelligence, moral judgment and mental health
of students
17
Predicting the adolescents’ social adjustment based on their attachment styles with
parents among the first and second grade high schools students
18
Defect in meeting emotional and sexual needs in family, the trap of men for married
women
Mehrazar Cheraghi*1 , Dariush Esfandiari Bayat2 ,
HojatolahShayeghifard 3
Samaneh Mohammadi Shemirani*1, Esmail
Saadi Pour2, Soghra Ebrahimi Qavam Abadi2
Ali Siyah Mansouri*1, Kiyoumars Farahbakhsh2,
Maryam Abdollahi Moghaddam3
103-106
107-112
113-118
119-124
Parvin Moslemi Bidhendi
19
Worry in Adolescents: Role of The metacognitive beliefs thought control strategies
Bayan Ghaderi1, Shahram Mohammadkhani2 and
Hamid Reza Hassanadadi3
125-138
20
Observation of relationship and family relations in Razavi culture (Imam Reza
tradition)
Mousa Kazemzadeh 1
139-146
21
A Study of the Spiritual Intelligence and Quality of Life
Zahra Askarpoor Karimi1, Mehrdad Mazaheri2
147-151
Among Imprisoned Women of Zahedan City
22
Effectiveness of Therapeutic model of DIR (Family-based Floor time) in Improving
of oppositional defiant symptoms and reducing maternal stress
Seyede Elham Sadri1, Seyed Amir Amin Yazdi2,
Zahra Tabibi3
152-160
23
Effectiveness of teaching locus of control skill in increasing sexual satisfaction and
marital satisfaction of couples
Askari Asghariganji*1, Kamo Vardanyani2, Shokouh
Navabinejad3, Masumeh Sadat Tabaripor4 , Mahintaj
Gohagani5
161-170
24
Effectiveness of narrative therapy in changing the identity of adolescent high school
girls in Tehran
Seyedeh Fatemeh Heydari*1, Somayeh Azarakhsh2,
Hossein Eskandari3
171-181
25
The relationship between perfectionism, psychological hardiness and students’
academic achievement: mediating role of social health
Abolghasem Yaghoubi1, Faezeh Jahan*2, Ali Akbar
Naderi3
182-187
26
Investigate the relationship between creativity, spiritual intelligence, and
perfectionism, with mental health Bushehr artists
188-192
Mahnaz Arian Manesh*1, Mitra Sarkari2, Mehdi
Gazderazi3
27
Effectiveness Role of mentally retarded children on social adjustment of mothers
Mahnaz Arian Manesh*1, Mitra Sarkari2, Mehdi
Gazderazi3
193-197
28
198-202
Comparison of self-esteem and mental health of handicapped athletes
and non-athletes
Seyyed Emad Mousavi*1, Shahrbanou Salehi2
29
The assessment of story-telling literacy of pre-elemntary instructors in Paveh
Province
Saeed Ahmadi*1
203-207
30
Influential factors of male high school student’s delinquency
Saeed Ahmadi*1
208-215
31
An Investigation of the relationship between locus of control and job burnout among
hospital administrators in Urmia
Amir Hemmati*1 Profesor Mir Mohammad Seiyed
Abaszadeh1
216-223
32
The relationship between work overload and marital stress and mental health in
marriage women employees in Tehran martyr foundation
Ali Raanaee 1, Mohsen Rasooli2 , Kianoosh
Zahrakar3 , Hamideh Tahani Saadi 4
224-233
33
Studying the relationship between spiritual health With Marital satisfaction among
married nurses(male and female) of nezam Mafi Hospital in shush Danial
Mozaffar Sharifzadeh1,
234-243
34
The casual relationship between emotional intelligence and academic performance
with the mediating role of coping strategies in students
Zeinab Amini Nasr*1, Zahra Bonabi Mobaraki2,
Behnam Makvandi3
244-252
35
The Study of the Comparison of Stress-Coping Strategies Between the Prisoners
Committing Self-Injury (Para-suicide) And the Ordinary Prisoners of Mashhad
Central Prison in 2012
1TalebzadehSani Kazem,2TalebzadehSani Hadi,3
BahrainianS.Abdolmajid,4 Babaei Ali.
253-259
36
The Study of the Effect of Cochran’s Career Narrative Therapy on
Emotion Regulation
Samane Salimi1, Arezou Gholami2, Ali Iravani and
Sahar Khanjani Veshki3
260-264
37
Effectiveness of career counseling based on career narrative therapy in teachers'
emotional labor
Samane Salimi*1, Mohammad Reza Abedi2, and Iran
Baghban3
265-272
38
Causal relationship modeling between attachment styles, differentiation of self and
forgiveness
Arezou Ahangar*1
273-285
Bahram Saleh Sedghpour
39
Investigation of the Relationship between the Attitude toward Information and
Communications Technology and the Extent of Using It among the Professors of
University of Qom
Farnoush Oghani Esfahani 1, Mohammad
Mahmoudvand 2, Vajiheallah Allahverdi 3
286-291
40
Position of Different Aspects of Multiple Intelligence in elementary Second grade
Textbooks
Ali Akbar Ajam1, Behrooz Mahram 2
292-300
41
Comparing the external efficiency of technical-vocational and Kar-Danesh fields of
education during the fourth development plan from 2005 to 2010 in Ilam province
Mehdi Vali Nejad1, Masoud Nazar Zadeh2, Reza
Maleki3, Ali ghaednia jahromi4
301-310
42
Effectiveness of Group Reality Therapy on the love Trauma syndrome
Zahra Tavassoli1, Mohammad Ebrahim Hokm
Abadi2, sara mostafavi3 , mohsen nazemi4, shiva
zare zadeh khaibari3
311-318
43
Effectiveness of group new reality therapy based on choice theory in substance
abusers’ hopefulness
Mohammad Ebrahim Hokmabadi, M.A.1, Ali
Mohammad Rezaei,Ph.D2, Mohammad Javad
Asghari Ebrahimabad, Ph.D3, Shiva Zarezadeh
Kheibari, M.A.1
319-324
44
Choice theory and effective learning
Seyed Mohammad Mahdi Moshirian Farahi 1,
Mohammad Javad Asghari Ebrahim Abad 2, Seyedeh
Maryam Moshirian Farahi* 3, Mohammad Ebrahim
Hokm Abadi 4
325-328
45
The impact of the Internet on knowledge, attitudes and performance of Shahroud
university faculty members in updating the teaching
Masoumeh Fallah Nodehi*1, Monireh Sadat Shariat
Zadeh2
329-335
46
The effectiveness of the family life education in increasing marital satisfaction of
mothers with ADHD children
Chonoor Rahimzadeh*1, Mahmoud Goodarzi2,
Hamzeh Ahmadian2
336-344
47
Correlations of Graphology features with Age and Education
Farnaz Holekian1, Yaser Madani2, Masoud Gholami
Lavasani3
345-357
48
A Comparison of sensation Seeking among Athletes, Non-athlete in Combat
Sports, and Non-athlete
Hana pezeshki 1, Nader Hajloo 2
358-364
49
Customer Satisfaction withService Quality
Roghayeh Dehghani1, SeyyedAbdolRasoul Hossieni2
365-374
(Case Study of Iranian National Bank in Arsanjan)
50
The comparison of mother- child communication and anger self-regulation skill
between children with ADHD and normal children
Sara Abedzadeh hejaz1, Asghar Jafari 2
375-382
51
Comparison of parenting style and mental-behavioral disorders of mothers with
children suffering from externalizing disorders and mothers of normal children
Sana Pishroyan Varaki *1, Alireza Kakavand2
383-390
52
Predicting psychological well-being based on attachment to God and identity styles
in married teachers
Ahmad Nayeri1, Zhaleh Refahi*2, Bahman Bahmani3
391-399
53
Comparing selective and divided attention between individuals with and without
mental retardation: evidence from functional perspective
Hossein Hashemzadeh Vaez*1, Siavash
Talepasand2
400-411
54
Comparison of career adaptability among male and female students of Isfahan
University
Nooshin.Pordelan1*, Hamid Heydari2
412-416
55
The relationship between the assessment of religiosity and faith in career issues
and social acceptance
Seyyedeh Zahra Sadati*1, Momammad Mehdi Kazimi
Kaverdi2, Ommolbanin Bagher Nezhad3
417-421
56
Effectiveness of problem solving skills’ training in the increase of self-efficacy and
creativity of students
Kheirolnesa Shirdel*1, Omolbanin Bagher Nezhad 2
422-428
57
Experience of Primary school teachers about bilingual students learning difficulties
Yousef Adib1,Eskandar Fathiazar2,*Ayatollah Fathi3
429-436
58
Impact of the educational level of the parents and IQ on students' benefit from the
training program for critical thinking
Mohammad Sharifi1 Jalil Fathabadi2Mohammad
Asadi3
437-442
59
Investigating the effect of communication skills on coping responses of freshman of
Welfare Sciences in Kermen University
Parastoo Mostafa Nezhad1*, Farhad Dortaj2,
443-449
60
An investigation into the role of organizational, demographic and personality factors
in job burnout
Fatemeh Talavari*1, Reza Mazrae Zadeh2, Atefeh
Torabi3
450-458
61
Spiritual Intelligence approach to rethink the spiritual curriculum of children
Zahra fayez1, Zohreh fayez2 Batool Sabzeh3
459-466
62
Analysis of Divorce Consequences on Children's Behavioral and Emotional
Problems
Zahra fayez1, Rohaty Mohd Majzub2, Fatemeh
Farsad3
467-475
63
The Relationship between Self-Esteem and Resiliency in Male and Female
Students
Ali Sheykholeslami*1, Nastaran Seyedesmaili Ghomi2
476-480
64
Comparisons of marital satisfaction, family cohesion and power structure between
the individuals working on long-hour working shift and individuals working on
normal working shift
Ali Mohammad Nazari1, Zeinab Rezaei*2, Masoumeh
Nikroo3, Neda Smaeeli Far3
481-487
65
An investigation into the therapeutic motivation of addicted patients referring to five
therapeutic centers in the province of Amol
Ali Vatan Doust*1
489-492
66
The effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral group therapy on young female students'
self-concept
Zahedeh Rahmanian1*, Bahram Mirzaian2
493-500
67
Designing a native pattern for improving counselors' performances in schools
Loghman Ebrahimi1, Kiiumars Farahbakhsh2,
Maasumeh Esmaaili3, Hossien Salimi Bejestani4
501-510
68
The effectiveness of human validation process model training in couples’ marital
satisfaction
Loghman Ebrahimi*1, Seddigheh Sobhanikhah2,
Nasim Soheili3
511-519
69
Comparison of attachment style in people with and without drug abuse
Abbas Ali Hossein Khanzadeh1, Hossein Heydari2,
Mahboobe Taher3, Seyyedeh Zahra Seyyed Nouri4,
Nader Karimian5, Hossein Abedi6
520-526
70
Comparison of educational performance and resilience male and female students
Eghbal Zarei*1, Hossein Heydari 2
527-536
71
Comparison of the effectiveness of Islamic communication model and marital
enrichment model in the adjustment of couples under the support of martyrs’
foundation of Kermanshah Province
Hamed Ghasemi Arganeh*1,ozra Etemadi2, Seyed
Ahmad Ahmadi3
537-542
72
Relationship between social support and social capital with Spouse abuse
Jafar Bahadori khosroshahi1*, Touraj Hashemi
nosratabadi2, Sedige Taraghijah3
543-549
73
The analysis on consequences of psychoactive pills in behavior of addicted people
Behnam Sahranavard1 , Roghayeh
Haj Hosseini2
550-557
74
Explanation of Different Indicators of Ethnic Conflict Occurrence from the Political
Economy Approach Perspective
Dr. Mohammadkazem Kaveh Pishghadam1, Zahra
Ghasemi2, MohammadHossein Behzadi3
558-566
75
The effectiveness of stress management on volunteer mothers’ anxiety and
depression to cesarean surgery
Vahideh Montazeri- Khadem3, Rezvan
Sadr Mohammadi4,
567-571
Seyed Abbas Haghayegh5 ,Zahra Jabari
76
A Legal view into the computer pornography as one of the pathological social
phenomena of the current era
Babak Pourghahremani*1
572-585
77
Father’s unemployment and career related variables of his adolescent child
Arezou gholami
586-603
78
Paired Comparisons of Substance Dependent Individuals and Normal People in
Personality Disorders
Mansour Beyrami1, Esmail Ashrafi Pileh Rood*2
604-611
79
The description and sociological analysis contrast of youth and retirees in the labor
market of Isfahan Carpet
Azam Amini1 , Zahra Mohammadi2 and Zeinab
Haghshenas3
612-620
80
Comparing life skills between Shahed and Normal Students of Tehran
Javad Kavosiyan1, Zeinab Haghshenas*2
621-626
81
The Effectiveness of Problem-Solving Skills Training in Reducing High School
Students' Procrastination in Semirom
Zeinab Haghshenas1*,Roohollah Toghraie2
627-636
82
Social and cultural vulnerability of college students in Zabol
Reza Momeni1, Sahar Mehrabi Pari*2
637-643
83
Prediction of internet addiction based on the role of identity styles, sensation
Esmaeil Kheirjoo, Farnaz Farshbaf Manei Sefat,
644-650
seeking and loneliness
Sarvin Ansar Hossein
84
Women and Social Trust (Case Study in Yasuj)
Mohammad Hosein Ebtekari*1 Siroos Ahmadi2
651-655
85
Explaining domestic violence and verifying
the status of counselors and social workers in prevention of violence against
children
Yousef Amini1
Mohammad Amini2
Kamran Majid Ali 3
656-666
86
Effectiveness of cognitive-behavior therapy in infidelity tendency among female
prisoners of Isfahan province
Fereshteh Habibi1, S.H.Sayed Alitabar2, Ali
Sarvestani3
667-673
87
A Study of the Relationship between Family Cohesion and Mental Health of
Students of Islamic Azad University of Karaj
Dr. Mohammad Saeed Ahmadi1,Zahra Barzegar
Asadabad2,Hatam Ghalandari3
674-679
88
The Relationship between Adjustment Dimensions and Academic Performance
Regarding to Gender
Mohammad Reza Tamannaeifar1 , Azam
Mansourinik2
680-688
89
A Comparative Study of Social Support, Adjustment and Self-Efficacy among the
Students with High and Low Academic Performance
90
Mohammad Reza Tamannaeifar1 , Hakimeh
Leis2 , Azam Mansourinik3
689-699
The study of relationship between switching cost, service quality,
reliability and customer satisfaction on customer loyalty
(Case study: Irancell Telecommunication Company)
Jaber Hajitabar1, Reyhane Shahraki2, Keivan
katebi3, Mohsen abdoli vishteh4, and Ali shirazi5
700-712
91
The relationship between the degree of playing computer games and problem
solving ability
Mohsen Roshanianramin*1
713-718
92
The relationship between high-risk behaviours and mental health in the students of Bu-Ali
Sina university
Khosro Rashid61, Galavizh Alizadeh2, Mostafa Shah
Amirfattahi3
719-730
93
Effectiveness of optimism in the increase of psychological hardiness of students
Salah Soufi1, Galavizh Alizadeh2, Mohammad
Dokandar3
731-740
94
The contribution of happiness and psychological hardiness in the prediction of life
satisfaction of single and married students
Salah Soufi1, Galavizh Alizadeh*2, Mohammad
Dokandar3
741-750
95
An investigation on the effectiveness of life skills training programs in reducing
conflict between first-year high-school boys and their parents in Roshtkhar-iran
96
Management, leisure, lifestyle, social media conference space
105
*Hassan Rahmanpour1, Mohammad Rahmanpour2
Maryamsadat Sayyedsharifeekakhkee3, and Sadigheh
Hajebi4
751-759
*Hassan Rahmanpour1, Mohammad Rahmanpour2
Maryamsadat Sayyedsharifeekakhkee3, and
Sadigheh Hajebi4
760-768
97
Marital satisfaction than couples with an emphasis
Davood Bagheri1 , Askarian Mahnaz2, Afkari
Fereshteh3
769-777
On style factor attachment
98
Pathology of contemporary approaches to moral education in elementary school
social studies curriculum
Afkari Fereshteh
778-801
99
The comparison of early maladaptive schema and quality of life in the obese
women in different body mass indices (BMI) with the normal women residing in
Tehran
Hamid Amiri 1, Abdolmajid Bahrainian2, Abdolreza
Pazouki 3, Leila Kargari 4, Fardin Farmani 4
802-808
100
Predicting Adolescent Emotional Autonomy Based On Trust, Communication and
Alienation Quality Of Attachment To Parents In Shiraz, Iran
Maasomeh Fallahi1, Mohammad Aflaki-Far2, Fatemeh
Darnjany-Shirazi3, Habib Dehghani4
809-814
101
11Investigating the Effect of Metacognitive Therapy in Recovery of the Patients
with Migraine and comparing it with Drug Treatment
1Maryam valipour*,2Ali Khademi
815-823
102
Comparing the Effects of Work Shift on Personality Traits and Marital Satisfaction
among the Doctors and Nurses of General and Psychiatric Hospitals
103
Parents-children conflict in life style
Mohammad Allah Virdian*1, Ehya Norouzi2, Zahra
Allah Virdian3
830-842
104
The relationship between nurse’s hardiness and burnout in Oshnavieh and Bokan
City
Hassan Aminpoor1 Shafie Azari*2 Mansour
Agashteh3 Farideh Karimiazar4 Hajar Khatampoor5
Ziba Khanjari6
843-848
106
The effectiveness of Michael Frey’s cognitive group therapy in reducing anxiety and
increasing mental health in divorced women in Urmia city
Shafie Azari1 Mansour Agasahteh2 ،Hassan
Aminpoor3 Farideh Karimiazar4
849-855
107
The Relationship Between Job Burnout, Marital Intimacy, And Public Health Among
Married Counselors In Schools
Shiva Farmani Shahreza1, Ali Ghaedniay Jahromi2,
Amirhossein hoseein pour1, Mahbubeh Shahbazi
Afra3
856-860
108
The Relationship Between Emotional Intelligence, Job Satisfaction And Marital
Satisfaction Among Married Teachers
Fahimeh Pourmand1, Mohsen Rasuli2, Shiva
Farmani Shahreza3, Amirhossein Hosseinpour3
861-864
109
Impact of cooperative learning on students’ critical thinking and attitude toward the
textbook of Science in the elementary schools
Maryam Sadat Seyyed Sharifi Kakhaki*1, Mohammad
Rahman Pour2, Fateme Khanlqy3 Hasan
Rahmanpour4
865-875
110
The effectiveness of behavior therapy training in mothers of children with attention
deficit and hyperactivity disorder and in the reduction of disorder’s symptoms
Abolghasem Yaghoubi*1, Kamran Ganji2, Farangis
Dalvand3, Galavizh Alizadeh4
876-883
111
The Role of Type D Personality in Predicting Dysfunctional Attitudes in Students
Mahdis Hassannia Jurshari1, Aida Yahyazadeh2,
Abbas Ali Hossein Khanzadeh3
884-891
1Vahid sam, 2Maryam valipour*, 3Ali
Khademi,4Ahmad Esmaili
824-829
112
Surveying the Relationship between Differentiation of Self, Responsibility and
Mental Health among Dormitory Students
Sayyed Mohammad Hosseini1
892-900
Marziyeh Razeghi2
113
Studying the unwillingness of young individuals for marriage
Narges Arbabi
901-908
114
Relationship between extroversion and introversion personality traits and marital
satisfaction of housewives in the 14th borough of Tehran City
Marzieh Poursalehy Navideh*1, Mahnaz Ghiasi1
909-914
115
Effectiveness of social skills training in women’s social health and pro-sociality
Majid Saffari Nia7, Marziyeh Poursalehy Navideh*8 ,
Sousan Alizadehfard 3, Maryam Khajouyi Nia4
915-921
116
Relationship between parenting schemas and psychological security of
adolescents
Marziyeh Poursalehy Navideh*1, Maryam Khajouyi
Niya 2, Zohreh Feiz Abadi 3
922-927
117
The relationship between locus of control, self-esteem and sexual satisfaction
Askari Asghari Ganji*1, Shokouh Navabinezhad2,
Kamo Vardanyan3
928-935
118
The relationship between locus of control, marital satisfaction and sexual
satisfaction
Askari Asghari Ganji*1, Shokouh Navabi Nezhad2,
Kamo Vardanyan3
936-942
119
Exercise and quality of life in female athletes
Hanieh Kamkar*1, Fereshte Bagherizade
moghaddam2, Bahare Kamranpur3
943-946
120
Mental health in postmenopausal and premenopausal women
121
Pilot study of Reading Comprehension and Reading Vocabulary
Zeinab Mihandoost
951-953
122
Examining the Relationship Between Organizational Trust and Organizational
Development in High School Teachers in Shahrekord
Saadat Zafarizadeh1, Aliakbar Zafarizadeh 2,
Dr.Sayed Ali Siadat3, Gholamreza Shams4
954-956
123
Effectiveness assertive training by role-playing method on mental health among girl
students in high school in the city AZNA
Mohammad hajivand1, Mohammad Reza vajdian2, Ali
Akbar Zafarizadeh3,Arezoo lashani4 , and Shayesteh
gharaee ardakani5
957-961
124
The relationship between emotional creativity and identity styles with internet
addiction among male adolescents of Mahalat city
Somayeh Firouzi1
962-972
125
Sports tourism, job creation and green economy
Mohammad Hossein Mirsoleymani1,
MohammadReza Mirsoleymani2
973-975
Hanieh Kamkar*1, Fereshte Bagherizade
Moghaddam2, Mahnaz Modabberi3
947-950
126
The investigation and comparison of individuals’ risking under the treatment of
MMT and normal individuals
Mohammad Shahkarami*1, Sirous Moradizadeh2,
Leila Mirzaie3, Atefeh Veiskaramian4
976-979
127
The effect of cognitive-behavioral couple therapy on marital conflict and marital
intimacy
1- Hamid RezaSaeidi AbuEshaghi2- Fariborz
JabbariFard3- yaser madani4- dawood nazarpoor
980-990
128
The role of internal and external religious beliefs in mental health and depression of
elderly resident and non-resident in nursing home
129
Compare the psychological profile of women and men with HIV in Kermanshah
Hamid Reza Saeidi Aboeshaghi1, Fariborz Jabbari
Fard2, Shiva Kad Khoda Zadeh3sayed Elyas
Hosseini Baraftabi4
991-1000
1001-1006
Behrooz Khosravi zad1*;Masoud paydar2
130
Effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral family therapy in parent-child conflicts
Seyed Elyas Hosseini Baraftabi*1, Farshad Zareei2,
Farzaneh Saadati Behbahani3, Vahid Sarmadi
Soltan4
1007-1015
131
The effectiveness of group reality therapy based on choice theory in the quality of
life of substance abusers
Mohammad Ebrahim Hokm Abadi1, Ali Mohammad
Rezaei‫٭‬2, Mohammad Javad Asghari Ebrahim
Abad3, Shiva Zarezadeh Kheibari4
1016-1020
132
The Relationship betweenCulturalIntelligence and Decision-makingStyles of
Managers ofTehranMunicipality SportCenters
Dr.faride Ashraf Ganjoyee1Dr.reza
nikbakhsh2MaliheFaghrGanji3
1021-1033
133
Attitudes of student toward drug use in Islamic Azad University
Mahnaz Askarian1, Fereshteh Afkari2
1034-1040
134
Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Clinical Guide for School Psychologist
Hadi Hashemi Razini.PHD1 Mohammad Hadi Omid.
PhD2
1041-1050
135
The Comparison of Defense Mechanisms and Metaccognitive Beliefs in Addicts
and Normal People
Karim AbdolMohamadi1 Farhad ghadiri surman2
Gorbanali shafahi3 Ayatollah Fathi4
1051-1056
136
Iranian validation of the somatization inventory(PHQ-15)
Karim Abdol Mohamadi1 Mansur Beirami2 Ali
Mohammadzadeh3 Ezatollah Ahmadi4 Mohammad
Hossein alizade5
1057-1061
137
Knowledge of students to E-Learning in Education (Case Study: Shahid Chamran
University)
138
Comparison of the dimensions of identity among the normal couples and conflicted
couples referring to the dispute resolution councils in Isfahan
Vahid Rangi1, Rezvanolsadat Jazayeri2,
Maryamolsadat Fatehizadeh3
1071-1081
139
An investigation into the communication patterns of conflicted couples and normal
couples in Isfahan City
Vahid Rangi1, Ozra Etemadi2, Fatameh Bahrami3
1082-1091
Ayoob Garshasbi1, Morteza
Armin2
1062-1070
140
Examine the relationshipe vil, modesty, morality and lifestyle of the Quran and AhlulBayt
Sead Hesam Bostani 1, Mahsa Tavangar zamin 2, Ali
Ranjbar 3
1092-1097
141
The relationship between coping strategies, perfectionism, beliefs pain and the
chronic pain after controlling the age effects in firefighters
Shiva Nematpour Kapour Chal*1, Ali Poladi Reishari2,
Seyyed Mousa Golestaneh3, Mohammd Kianbakht4,
Sedigheh Naghel5, Hossein Kohandel6
1098-1107
142
The effectiveness of group spiritual therapy in reducing stress, anxiety and
depression in adolescents
Ali Farhadi1, Yazdan Movahedi*2, Behzad Nekzad3,
Masume Movahedi4, Haniya Karazi Notash5, and
Reza Mohammadzadegan6
1108-1117
143
The Study of the Relationship between Social Support and Internet
Addiction in Students of University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences
(2013)
Mehdi Karimi1, Faeze Saiedy2, Mostafa Eghlima3
1118-1125
144
Access of all the children to education as an educational right
Masoumeh Amiri*1, Yahya Ghaedi2,
Saeed Zarghami2, Gholamreza Haji
Hossein Nezhad2
1126-1129
Family and Emergence of New Social Damages
Hossein Mehrabi
146
The effect of seizures on the fetus in pregnant women
Sead Hesam Bostani 1, Seade pegah Moshkin 2,
Sead Ehsan Sherafat 3, Ali Ranjbar 4
1136-1142
147
EPIC solutions to economic and financial strength of Islam
*Hassan Rahmanpour
1143-1147
148
Comparison of Depression, Anxiety, Stress and Loneliness among both Boy and
Girl Students of Day & Boarding Schools
Fardin Farmani1, Hourieh Karami2, Mina Tavangar3,
Hamid Amiri4, Ameneh Ahmadi5
1148-1154
Ali Mohammad Nazari1, Kiyanoush Zahrakar2, Zinab
Azizi*3
1155-1161
1130-1135
145
149 ffectiveness of group solution-focused counseling in decreasing the tendency of suicide
ideation in adolescents
150
The Function and Application of Employment Interview
Sadaf Khalijian1
1162-1174
International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(4), 769-777, 2014
Available online at http:// www. ijpbrjournal.com
ISSN 2322-4002 ©2014 Victor Quest Publications
Marital satisfaction than couples with an emphasis
On style factor attachment
Bagheri Davood 1, Askarian Mahnaz2, Afkari Fereshteh3
1- MS Educational Technology; Farabi University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran
2- Department of Psychology, Saveh Branch, Islamic Azad University, Saveh, Iran
3 - Department of Biology faculty, Tehran North Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
Abstract
Family the main body of each community mental health center is maintained. Several factors may play a
role in marital satisfaction. One of these factors, the acceptance and deployment of a variety of styles in
family involvement. The purpose of this study is to compare the marital satisfaction of spouses with
emphasis on the attachment styles. This study is a survey or a survey questionnaire to collect data of
attachment styles and marital satisfaction ENRICH Bartolommeo used. After entering the experimental
data with SPSS with emphasis on models, ANOVA, t- test and Chi-square test findings were obtained in
both groups .Factor style attachment significant effect on marital satisfaction of individuals and the
effectiveness of the alpha 0.01, there is, so that people with secure attachment of marital satisfaction
higher than any other style, and enjoy. Attachment styles and understanding of factors affecting marital
satisfaction across subjects, so that marital satisfaction in individuals with a secure attachment style are
more than others. Persons, who are secure, indicated that deeper understandings of the relationships
and interpersonal relationships have a higher share. No significant effect of gender on their marital
satisfaction for women is different attachment styles. Also, the term marriage marital satisfaction has
shown a significant impact.
Keywords: attachment styles, marital satisfaction, marital agreements
Introduction:
With the increasing development of technology and the emergence of modern technologies in the field of human
communication, interpersonal communication and the importance of never-based relaxation and relief in everyday
life has not diminished. Hence, the loops of the chain of communication theorists have recently become aware that
every day more than ever highlighted the need for and the role of interpersonal relationships appears. "Attachment
Styles" consists of the loop is discovered that today large number of theories, research, and research is devoted.
However, there are still thousands of openings theorists to explore this issue and they have seen the studies and
advanced research leads. Since the foundation of strong attachment styles at birth, the human body is affected, the
primary emphasis on infant and maternal interaction is necessary. Affects their behavior specified (Gebsson, 2005).
Attachment theory will no doubt be one of the leading achievements of modern psychology into account. This
theory explains the formation process and cut emotional ties. This theory is extensive and profound influence on the
development of children left behind and has many applications in various fields of behavioral science (Mazaheri,
2002).
Many theorists have developed approaches in this area can be the most important approach to Balbe, Iynes
Werth approach and Bartolommeo cited. Balbe greater emphasis on opportunities to establish continuity firm in
early childhood and believes that the saturation of the children of the effective interaction with the mother, one of the
most important parts based attachment styles best in people and in terms of attachment towards styles Secularly
Attach leads that Otherwise people with insecure attachment styles4 and avoidance5. Balbi's attachment theory
suggests areas in the four stages: The first stage from birth to three months of age, stage of diffuse reaction against
humanity, the second of three to six months of age, stage, focusing on familiar subjects, the third phase from six
months to three years. , Active proximity Stage of the fourth stage at age three through adolescence, phase
behavior is partnership. In each of these stages, children's behavioral and psychological characteristic of special
shows and has laid special attachment styles. Thus, the role of the bulb holder in each of the above steps is
emphasized. Balbe believed that attachment is a special emotional relationship that involves an exchange of
pleasure, is the care and comfort. Research on attachment roots can be traced back to Freud's theory about love,
but another researcher often called the father of attachment theory.
John Balbe's attachment to the practice of extensive research. His attachment is described as
"psychologically stable relationship and bond between human beings" (Balbe, 1969). Balbe agreed with the
psychoanalytic view that early childhood experiences significant impact on the growth and behavior later in life.
According to him, the initial attachment styles in childhood and the relationship with the child . caregiver arise. Balbe
believed that attachment also has a component is evolving to help humans survive. "The tendency to create strong
emotional bonds to particular individuals, a major component of human nature." (Balbe, 1988). His opinion is
attached to four different features:
* Maintain close - tend to be close to those who are interested.
* Safe Haven - back to the person that we attached to it when faced with danger.
* Secure basic - there is a person attached to it, safe and dependable base for the child to explore he environment
and create a world with pay.
* Separation Distress - Anxiety caused by the absence of the person who is attached to it.
During the 1970s, Balbe Mary Ainsworth expanded previous work. His own study "Strange Situation" called.
Based on these studies, Ainsworth concluded that there are three major styles of attachment: secure,
ambivalent attachment - avoidant insecure - insecure. Later in 1986, two researchers named Maine and Solomon,
also called a fourth attachment style unorganized - adding uncertainty to the previous styles. Several studies later
confirmed the conclusions Ainsworth and have determined that the initial attachment styles influence on behavior
later in life.
Spent a lot of time between childhood and adulthood and experience gained during this time will also play a
major role in attachment styles in adulthood. What ambivalent or avoidant attachment in infancy is described as an
attachment is safe for adults and vice versa. The person's mood also plays a role in attachment.
But research in this area has been made clear that the patterns formed in childhood have an important impact
on later relationships. Hezen & Shever (1987) different beliefs about human relationships with different attachment
styles among adults discovered. Were securely attached adults tend to believe that love is emotionally stable and
durable? But those who were ambivalent attachment over love the trap who had been caught and those who were
avoidant attachment, love is temporary and ill-finder described.Children who are securely attached, when separated
from the caregiver or caregivers, so they do not feel uncomfortable. These children fear, for relaxation and comfort
are usually the parent or caregiver. Any contact can be established by the parents of the children with open arms to
embrace and respond to it with a positive attitude.
Although the absence of the children's parents were not too happy, but they clearly prefer foreigners. Parents
are usually more willing to play with their children. In addition, parents react quickly to the needs of children in
general than parents of children who have insecure attachment, are more responsive to their children. In adults,
those who are securely attached are usually stable and reliable relationships. Other key features include securely
attached adults in high esteem, enjoy intimate relationships, seeking social support, and the ability to share feelings
770
with others. In one study, researchers found that women who have secure attachment styles are more positive
feelings about their romantic relationships. (Mackarty, 1999).
Children with ambivalent attachment are highly suspicious towards strangers. The children at the time of
separation from a parent or caregiver, but they return a lot of discomfort show also seems to have relaxed. In some
cases, the child may turn to their parents abandoned them and obviously they are not, or not aggressive. According
to studies Kassedi & Berlin (1994), ambivalent attachment is relatively uncommon and only 7 to 15 percent of
children there. Kassedi & Berlin about the stuff that is written about ambivalent attachment as well as observational
studies found that all attachment ambivalent - uncertain enough linked with maternal unavailability. The children
gradually become larger, their teachers, dependent as others have described. In adults, that who are ambivalent
attachments are often reluctant to approach others and fears are mutually opposite side does not respond to their
feelings. This straight cut relationship, often because they feel cold and distant relation leads. After the end of a
relationship, a feeling that the turmoil and confusion. Kassedi & Berlin another pathological pattern is written for
adults who are ambivalent attachment style, so that the people as a source of safety to young children who become
dependent (- Feeney, 1994).
Parents and caregivers of children who have an avoidant attachment style are staying. This avoidance is often
expressed after a period of absence. The children and their parents do not give a complete stranger preferred. In
adults, those who have an avoidant attachment in close relationships have problems. These people have little
emotional investment in relationships with others and if they do not end a relationship, do not bother too much. They
are usually some pretexts (such as labor disputes), the closer are avoided. Research has also shown that adults
with avoidant attachment style are more receptive to sexual relations coincidence (Novar & Petty, 1993). Children
with attachment unorganized - are uncertain, indications of a lack of clear attachment behavior exhibited. Nurses
often mix their interaction behavior, including avoidance and resistance. These children seem confusing and
sometimes confused or concerned in the presence of nurses.
Mine & Solomon (1986) suggested that inconsistent behavior from parents can cause the attachment is
created. Maine & Hess (1990) concluded that in future research as well as parents who fear factor and factor in
ensuring their children are manifest in the development of these children are involved in the attachment. For parents
of children with a sense of awe and a feeling of comfort, and this leads him to confusion.
Iynes Werth the unconditional Balbe's work in this area should be taken into experimental and children's
reactions to a particular environment, was investigated and it was mentioned as a strange situation. The three types
of avoidant attachment as attachment in children, safe Dlbsth second paper (ambivalent) emphasized.
Also, based on two main Bartolommeo anxious, avoidant attachment pattern of the four designs and four
raised. As Bartolommeo that there are two different types of avoidance: avoiding the fear of others and refrain from
denying the other two negation and fearful as they can remember. Also, replace those concerned with making
anxious. Finally, he secure attachment styles of individuals in the four people in a safe range persons individuals
concerned and fearful of negation, can be divided into groups that each have their own special features. Secure
people are emotionally close to others easily, and only seem to look very worried. Who wants friendly relations are
concerned, but others feel like they want closer ties with them are not and therefore are not satisfied with the
relationship. Frightened people do not trust other people and eating for fear of hurting the other hand, they are not
nearly finally, negation people do not feel an emotional attachment and self-sufficiency, and having relationships
with other people prefer.
Thus, the central loop attachment styles as seen in the continuum of communication that is causing the other
hand, the desire and motivation to initiate interpersonal relationships and on the other, lead to the maintenance and
strength of these relationships is to give it, since the most important relationships between individual is considered to
be the impact of attachment styles on marital satisfaction ignored.
However, research has suggested that the lack of parental involvement or lacks of communication tools are
focused. The main approaches to the study of attachment styles and marital satisfaction can be cited by Mazaheri.
Results of this study indicate that there is a correlation between attachment styles and marital satisfaction, and this
correlation is statistically significant. Marital satisfaction of the couple's relationship and the highest (safe - safe) and
771
the lowest rates in couples (avoidance-oriented - the avoidance-oriented) were observed. Brand. Brnn research and
Shaver (1995) as the dimensions of adult attachment style and its impact on understanding the determinants of
marriage was found that the attachment style of interpersonal relationships, including marital agreement. People
who are secure, a deeper understanding of the relationship to a higher and higher share of these people are
interpersonal.
In another study, Simpson (1990) as the effects of attachment styles on marital understanding the effects of
secure attachment style, anxiety, avoidance of marriage is about understanding and ultimately determined that
secure attachment with respect, reflection and understanding in relation to avoidant attachment style or anxiety, as
well as research and Colin Finney (2000) is consistent.
In a study of Hazen & Shaver close relationship between attachment styles and interpersonal relationships
intimate referred the case shows that adults with different attachment styles in different relationships are consistent
experience.
According to the results of this study, the relationship between anxious attachment style for men and women,
with 95% confidence that there is no difference. The results show that there are differences between men and
women with avoidant attachment styles means that avoidant attachment style are more common among men than
women. However, no research has not addressed that issue.
Therefore, the question can be raised as follows:
They emphasize the validity of those with different attachment styles?
Do attachment styles with an emphasis on the gender differences are significant?
The relationship between marital satisfaction with the emphasis on gender and marital duration, there is a
Significant difference?
Method
Population, sample and methodology:
This study is a survey research community that includes all married men and women and changing gender and
marital duration and level of education are seen as moderating variables.
Sample and Sampling Method:
In this study, cluster sampling was used. Thus with an emphasis on gender and randomly samples are used
as samples.
Measuring instruments:
The study questionnaire tool " attachment styles Bartolommeo " and " marital satisfaction " that the question of
" attachment styles Bartolommeo " according to two axes having anxiety anxiety and lack Shun Shun four secure
attachment concerned to avoid the negation of the other and defines . The value of this test for discrete variables to
attachment styles indicates that the axes but not anxiety, anxiety and failure avoidance continuous interval scale to
avoid the take into consideration. The questionnaire had a reliability coefficient above 83 . 0 is a valid index for both
avoidance and anxiety subscales of the table is as follows:
772
Subscale
Reliability coefficient
Acceptability
Avoid
.82
So beautiful
Anxiety
84.0
So beautiful
Total
83.0
So beautiful
Therefore, it is concluded that this test has acceptable reliability and validity and can be easily measured to the
attachment styles. The question "marital satisfaction" as a measure of 47 questions and the Likert and the
psychometric properties are optimal.
Statistical Models and Methods: In order to identify differences between samples with emphasis on attachment
styles and marital satisfaction and marital duration factor ANOVA model was used. Attachment styles and gender
differences also factor in the adverse findings of the Chi-square statistical models to determine the gender
differences in marital satisfaction and the Model T two independent groups have benefited.
Results
In the field of statistical indicators for each of the axes attachment and marital satisfaction according to sex and
marital status for the following results were obtained:
Statistics in Table 1
Marital satisfaction and attachment styles compared by one-way analysis of variance
Significant
level
0.01
Amount
Degree freedom
Averages
square
Square
Source variations
3
49.42621
5.127864
Between-group
F
44.36
Dependent
variable
Marital
Satisfaction
Inward- group
116
38.1169
135649
According to the above table, it could be between Marital Satisfaction those with secure attachment styles concerned - are fearful of rejection and there is a significant difference. These differences in the alpha 01.0
defensible the details of the differences in order to achieve Related post hoc tests are used.
Scheffe test
773
Fearful
Negation
Concerned
Securely
Attachment styles
87.80
69.75
-87.37
---
Difference scales
0.01
0.01
0.01
---
Significant level
-99.42
81.37
---
-87.37
Difference scales
0.01
0.01
---
0.01
Significant level
-17.5
---
81.37
69.75
Difference scales
Securely
Concerned
Negation
---
---
01.0
01.0
Significant level
---
-17.5
-99.42
87.80
Difference scales
---
---
0.01
0.01
Significant level
Fearful
According to the above table, it can be stated that the marital satisfaction of individuals with Securely
Attachment styles with a preoccupied and Fearful rejection, with no significant difference at an alpha level of 0.01 is
the difference between Attachment styles and fearful of rejection is not significant. With emphasis on the mean of
each group could be concluded that the average marital satisfaction with secure attachment style (62.192) of those
with preoccupied attachment style (74.154), individuals with attachment negation (92.116) and people with a Fearful
attachment style (75.111) is higher.
Inferential statistics in Table 2
Comparing the marital satisfaction of two independent groups t-test, with an emphasis on gender factor
Significant
level
Scales
t
Degree
freedom
-..85
116
----
Standard
deviations
Averages
Research samples
52.47
35.153
Men
69.46
94.145
Women
Dependent variable
Marital Satisfaction
According to the above table, it can be said that marital satisfaction is not significantly different between women
and men. Hence it can be stated that the marital satisfaction of men and women alike and is on one level.
Analyzed with Chi-square tests comparing sex marital satisfaction
Significant
level
01.0
Degree
freedom
3
Chi-square
test
14.13
Frequently
observed in men
Frequently
observed in
women
Attachment style
21
14
Securely
10
25
Concerned
20
8
Negation
9
11
Fearful
According to the above table, it can be said that the attachment styles between men and women is a
significant difference. With emphasis on the frequency of attachment styles can be stated that most men and
women with secure attachment styles are concerned that high levels of anxiety and avoidance and their
interactions.
774
Marital satisfaction and marital duration compared with emphasis on analysis of variance table
Significant
level
05.0
Amount
F
Degree
freedom
Mean
Squares
Total
Squares
Source variations
2
55.6503
11.13007
Between-group
113
51.2108
8.238261
08.3
Inward- group
Dependent variable
According to the above table, it could be between marital satisfaction and those less than 5 years 5 to 11
years and above 11 years of marriage have there was a significant difference. The difference in the level of alpha
05.0 defensible and to obtain details of these differences can be applied post hoc test.
Scheffe test
11 years and over
5 years to 11 years
less than 5 years
Duration of marriage
8.58-
-21.25
---
Difference scales
---
0.05
---
Significant level
16.62
---
-21.25
Difference scales
---
---
0.05
Significant level
---
16.62
8.58-
Difference scales
---
---
---
Significant level
less than 5 years
5 years to 11 years
11 years and over
According to the above table we can say that the people who spent their married 5 years and 5 to 11 years
are significant differences in marital satisfaction at the alpha level of 05.0 there. While those less than 5 years of their
marriage for more than 11 years, the difference was not statistically significant. With emphasis on the mean of each
group could be concluded that the average marital satisfaction marriage for people who are between 5 and 11 years
(86.162) of those older than 11 years for their marital status (23.146) and under 5 years (64.137) is higher.
Discussion
The present study focuses on identifying the impact of attachment styles on marital satisfaction, and it was
found that the attachment styles of their marital satisfaction is a factor. Marital satisfactions as compared to those
with secure attachment style are more concerned with attachment, rejection and fear more. These findings with the
775
results of Sempton (1990), Harreson Grir &Lian Annie (1991), Ednick &Kembirle Jill (1994), Birn & Shiveer (1995),
Gackob& Faee Mesheel at university Ford Hamm (1998), Hibard & Cristean kare (2000), Hinni El Losse (2005) and
Brown.B, Englid Sebby (2005) is consistent. In research Birn & Shiveer (1995) attachment styles of the
determinants of interpersonal relationships, including marital understanding and reconciliation with a secure
attachment style are, a deeper understanding of the relationships of these people are more and subscriptions have
higher interpersonal relationships. In the study, Sempton (1990), secure attachment style with respect, commitment
and understanding in relation to avoidant or anxious attachment style. Results Harreson Grir &Lian Annie (1991),
Hibard & Cristean kare (2000) indicate that individuals with a secure attachment style are more married formed and
had higher levels of marital satisfaction and less conflict were married.
The results, by Gackob& Faee Mesheel at university Ford Hamm (1998) was performed, which revealed
their spouses with secure attachment styles more happiness and more marital satisfaction and report those with
insecure attachment styles of confusion and lack of mutual support of each other are reported fortunate predictor of
perceived support for secure attachment style and marital satisfaction, whereas psychological distress is indicative
of a lack of perceived support. Marital satisfaction as a mediator between secure attachment style and the
perception of happiness and the happiness of supporting acts.
Ednick &Kembirle Jill (1994) in their study found that marital satisfaction scores for males and females
showed significant interaction between positive and negative arguments depends on the anticipated. Most people
report higher marital satisfaction were safe and were more satisfied with their husbands.
In a study Hinni El Losse (2005) results indicate that this approach withdrawal, avoidance, causal attribution
and safety, moodiness and attachment avoidance, mediation and mediated the relationship between depressive
symptoms and marital satisfaction in the sample were women, whereas the association causal attribution and
constructive accountability mechanisms mediating significant levels of depressive symptoms in the male sexual
satisfaction.
The findings indicate that marital satisfaction for people 5 to 11 years of their marital, their marriage than those
who spent less or more years.
Finally, according to the statistical analysis in this study, it can be said that gender has no significant effects on
their marital satisfaction, but women are different attachment styles. Also, the term marriage marital satisfaction has
shown a significant impact. According to the research findings and research Frilly & Shiveer (2003), which can be as
effective and gender in research on marital satisfaction with the results of this study do not match the findings of the
study, the study of Culling (2005) and Feeney (1994) is consistent. Thus, men and women alike show that marital
satisfaction.
In the study limitations, including the use of measuring tools in terms of attachment Bartolommeo cultural
context, not controlling nuisance variables such as economic - social, schooling and selective sample size and lack
of desire to participate in the study sample, including which may limit the extent of generalizability of the findings.
Hence, it is recommended that the following paper Normalize Bartolommeo attachment questionnaires were
discussed and tried according to our culture, to more accurately measure attachment styles in place and the tool for
adaptation to be able to finding, and Normalize of other groups to obtain the desired norms.
It also recommended that future studies of larger sample size and the use of a variable such as socioeconomic
status are also emphasized as modulators variable to specify their effects.
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777
Pathology of contemporary approaches to moral education in
elementary school social studies curriculum
Afkari Fereshteh
Department of Biology faculty, Tehran North Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
Abstract
Todays, despite significant developments in the field of education, moral education approaches
and methods in the field of ethics and values necessary efforts haven't have been taken.
Weakness and failure in this area causes numerous injuries that threaten future generations.
Information on how moral values reflected in the content of textbooks can be a preventive role to
play in this regard. the degree of attention paid to approaches to moral education approach
(virtue -oriented, character education, values clarification, development - cognitive, and Islam) are
the primary social education curricula from the perspective of the preventing individual and social
damages. Statistical population consist of social teachings books of primary school year 20122013, which is also the sample. Based on the theoretical fundamentals, the components of
mentioned approach were determined and its validity was obtained. The contents of books in
relation to components were investigated using qualitative content analysis. The units of analysis
were (texts, questions, assignments, and pictures) respectively.
By applying descriptive statistics methods the results of data analysis indicated that the
components of virtue-oriented approach are mainly used in third grade, Islam is mainly used in
fourth grade and components of developmentalcognitive approach are mainly used in fifth
grade. The least attention is paid to the components of values explanation and developmentalcognitive approaches in third grade and components of values explanation approach also
received the least attention in fourth and fifth grades. Despite the importance of moral education
in primary school , the components of these approaches were not considered equally and some
approaches ( especially the Islamic approach, as the most complete reference for receiving moral
values) that could have a significant influence on the knowledge of students concerning
components of moral education , have been neglected. Lack of awareness of students concerning
the components of moral education can induce irreparable injuries, such as irresponsibility,
disregard the rights of others, avoiding kindness and a sense of altruism, unfounded prejudices,
preferring sensations over intellect in the field of moral decisions, and finally, getting away from
clear nature of human and lack of efforts to enhance it in achieving excellence in all aspects to
create the next generation.
Keywords: Pathology, Contemporary approaches to moral education, Social education, Content
analysis, Elementary school level.
Introduction
Due to their important role in humans’ fate and society moral education and ethics
have been considered by scientists and religious leaders. A large part of Islam, Chritian
and Judish teachings consist morality and most of religious saints’ activities include
moral education (Sajadi, Seyed Mahdi, 1980).
From Mesbah Yazdi’s view, concerning the importance of education it can be said:
providing the grounds for spiritual and inner development and growth education for
human beings is mainly the responsibility of education institution; because by the wa y
of teaching accurate ontological beliefs and accurate axiology based on accepted moral
and legal values we can extend and deepen deism and humans’ spiritual development
(Dehghan, 1980).
Islam teachings pays special attention to educate of human’s soul and body,
because human can complete humanity stages through self- education and spiritual
refinement to finally gain welfare and felicity. At present, the society suffers the crisis
of spirituality and moral identity. Hence, humans need to refinement and nurturing more
than education. There is no doubt that one of the goals of establishing official schools
in country is moral education of students. School is defined as an establishment
instituted for moral, scientific and physical education of humans. In this regard, the
students are trusted to the hands of educational centers and these centers have
effective contribution in the blossom of talents, creativity and moral education of them
which is attained under awareness and insight (some writers, 2009). Therefore,
investigating moral problems of students is highly important such that they are known
as pathology.
Pathology of moral education is defined as identification of all phenomena that
impact moral and educational growt h of individuals negatively and they may endanger
the destiny of humans’ societies in long term. Family, society and school can make
challenges and damages from different aspects. In order to escape them in this field, at
first, causes and factors should be identified. Assessing and rooting the reasons that as
sets of complex phenomena may impact on personality and behavior formation and also
on societies’ directions and structure is one of important tasks of practitioners of
education and nurturing and educational sociologists. The elders' main duty is
education and sociology education.
In family dimension, problems such as family disputes, prejudice, excessive poverty
and extreme wealth, unawareness and lack of the sense of adherence to moral values
by parents, divorce, and remarriage and parents’ unawareness about educational
problems and methods should be investigated. Among social factors we can refer to
social and economic inequality, unsuitable friends, population extreme growth, lack of
suitable and healthy recreational places, diversity and contrast of informers,
accessibility of vulgar books and tapes. Pathologic factors in schools may result from
lack of rational thoughts enhancement, unawareness of school authorities concerning
moral problems, punishment and rigor, emphasis on theoretical teaching only, wrong or
incomplete reflection of moral components in textbooks, unsuitable planning for
students’ free times.
So, education institution that is one of the most effective and directive institution in
all countries, as respect its numerous and talented addressees and given its
educational duties should consider moral education as a main and central issue in its
educational problems. This necessity which arises from the role and the position of
ethics in human life is emphasized when we believe that the main duty of this institution
is revival of religious nature of human being; because the educational authorities’ task
is wakening the human’s innate and cleaning the default dust of them in order that
human touches the GOD’s presence in his life and his tendency toward ethics and
religion is revealed. (A group of writers, 2008)
In education discussion, it’s important to use moral teachings to recognize the
learners’ action and they understand its importance and become informers of those
teachings. In teaching, the moral points shall be followed. Also the goal should be
divided into proper characteristics and everybody should be able to transfer it to the
others.
In Iranian educational system, based on Islamic beliefs, available rules and orders,
the general priority and direction of all programs and activities is supporting divine and
spiritual values in students. The total purpose is to educate a Muslim and believed
human who can grow in social, political, biological, cultural, artistic and scientific
dimensions. These dimensions together with moral and religious ones constitute
779
different aspects of our education system, so we can say that idioms like political
educations”, “moral education and “artistic education” supervise all activities, plans and
designs that help to accomplish the approved aims. For instance, we can call the series
of designs, plans and activates relate to achievement of religious and moral aims as
“religious and moral education”.
Approach means the direction of educational action; namely, the effect of approach
must be observable in all activities, principles and fundamentals defined for a book.
Approach is a general affair that fundament al positioning concerning teaching- learning
and different theoretical and applied aspects determine it. Some of these aspects
include: educational aspirations, adaptation from learners’ subjects and learning
process, teaching process, learning environment, role of teacher and evaluation of
lessons learned (Mehrmohammadi, 2008).
Moral and value- oriented education approaches denote to what is conducted in
schools and other educational institutions to help the individuals to think about
wrongfulness and accuracy of affairs and tendency toward social well- being and also
helping them to behave morally and value- oriented. What is conducted consciously in
schools (direction of moral and value- oriented education) refers to planned and
targeted learning in curricula. Such informed activities relate to curriculum- that
includes the subject of courses, contents and special skills and predetermined
attitudes. There are many studies in this field and they indicate that these approaches
are very diverse, such that this diversity is observable in moral and value- based
education models and methods (Sajadi, 2001).
This diversity results from diversity of interpretations of moral education concept,
our expectation about it and problems that moral and value- based education is faced
with them. In present research, from among various approaches concerning moral
education, four approaches are investigated: explanation of values, nurture-based,
developmentalcognitive and Islamic approaches. Nurture-based approach has its roots
in moral beliefs of virtue- oriented philosophies and it is based on methods such as
habit formation, including presentation of moral stories, biographies and films and that
is why this approach is accused for using empathic methods. Approach of values
explanation has its roots in positivistic, analytic, phenomenological, existent-oriented
and pragmatic attitudes and it benefits from methods such as group discussion with
emphasis on selection of morals by leaners and neutrality of teachers, suggesting
neutrality and relativism is the main weakness of this approach. developmentalcognitive approach the promoter of which are Piaget and Kohlberg has Kantian base
and performs moral education through presenting moral dilemmas; due to sever
emphasis on
intellect and moral judgment and disregarding moral behavior, this
approach has been criticized.
But Islamic moral education that originates from Islamic worldview is the most
comprehensive approach that covers much of others’ weaknesses by avoiding the blame
and punishment and methods such as pattern development, parable and story- telling,
although it needs a lot of applied researches (Haghighat, 2009).
Certainly, among the different educational levels, elementary level is very sensitive
and important one and it is vital and important in forming the ideology and behavior of
student, but in many cases, schools has some inefficacies in this field. Inefficiency of
schools concerning moral education is not just the result of inattention and ignorance.
Since elementary schools can increase knowledge and awareness, develop the norms
and moral desired behaviors and prevent various individual and social damages via text
books content and providing opportunities and educational programs. Therefore, if
elementary level is a good place to start moral education and nurturing, there is no
doubt that curriculum and educational content are the main path of education.
Hence, on one hand moral education becomes critical as a necessity in educational
system of country and on the other hand its position in curricula and educational
780
content becomes highly important. Curriculum content includes the most essential
executive procedures for achiev ement of educational aims that can prevent probable
damages by presenting useful and proper data. Because of their importance in
determination of educational content and procedure, textbooks are central for all
educational practitioners. In Iranian educational system textbooks are the main source
of learning and we can say they are the only educational tool available for students and
teachers. Students are obliged to learn and memorize the textbook contents and that is
why the expertise should attempt to investigate the contents of textbooks in order to
identify their shortages and deficiencies. Therefore, in compilation of textbooks caution
must be paid and their shortages and deficiencies should be removed through research
and investigation.
Given existing problems and challenges in this area, investigating the degree of
attention paid to moral education approach components in curriculum of social studying
in elementary schools was chosen in order to investigate the related components from
theoretical spects and also the aims and textbooks of social studying of this level that is
the source of learning and teaching experiences in terms of applying the components
and characteristics of moral education.
In analyzing the content of social sciences and children’s literature books it has
been demonstrated that concepts such as kindness, usefulness, social behavior have
been considered and other moral concepts have not been emphasized enough (Zarin
Poush,1988) In a similar study (Farzad and Naziri,1987) titled “an investigation and
analysis on Persian literature content” they demonstrated that moral concepts have not
been dealt with sufficiently.
The results of a research (Nejati Parvaz, 2010) carried out with the purpose of the
recognizing the degree of applying moral goals components approved by high council of
education in textbooks content of (Quran, The Heaven Gifts, Read Persian and civics)
elementary schools indicate that 21 components of moral goals have not been applied
equally in surveyed textbooks and there have been considerable differences in their
distribution.
The results of another research (Nejad Sharifie, 2004) with the subject of analyzing
the contents of religion and life textbook content in high schools indicate that the
degree of attention paid to fundamental concepts (seven concepts) and 24 component s
in the book “religion and life” for second grade is higher than that in first and third
grade books and based on a comparison between the results obtained from involvement
coefficients and the results of interviews performed on the teachers of “religion and life”
course indicate that authors mainly have paid attention to the fundamentals and
principles of religion. Hence, “religion and life” books of high schools require revision
concerning their content and this shall be done by organization of textbooks
compilation.
The research findings of the research council of educational organization for Kerman
province titled “evaluation of production capacity of curricula” (Kerman research council
of Kerman educational organization, 2008) imply that the goals with moral concentration
are more frequent in both books and social- oriented, scientific-oriented and
educational- oriented goals follow. Moreover, distribution of the goals of three
mentioned principles in “Divine gifts” book is more than that of “Let’s read Persian”. The
highest frequency was observed for moral, social and scientific- educational oriented
goals in “divine gifts” book of second grade.
Among these three axes, the frequency of moral axis is higher than other t wo axes,
i.e. social and scientific- educational axis among five educational grades. Also in the
fifth grade compared to other four grades the frequency of three principles: moral,
social and scientific- educational ones is higher. The highest frequency relates to moral
axis in fifth grade and the lowest frequency relates to social axis in second grade.
- Hass in his survey concludes that important concepts in social studying field in
civics textbooks of elementary level have not been presented (Hass, 1991).
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Torok et al (2001) in USA analyzed the main approaches of moral education
applied in American public schools for students and they found that the argument
about social learning approaches, psychology and growth and development have
special importance.
Because they disagree about the under study purposes in many moral
approaches defined as a perfect one and in fact they don’t have necessary
effectiveness.
- Cuevas survey’s results (Cuevas, 2011) aimed at clarifying whether observed
behaviors and art have positive effect on students’ moral self- confidence
indicate that the contents presented in textbooks can increase student's selfconfidence and will have positive impact. So, they tried to extend this idea to
present it in educational content sections being matched to students’ moral
values.
- In his article with the subject of using story and the procedure of story- telling as
a central part of moral education and also as a base for training the values which
fade in learning and is replaced by educat ional methods and content- oriented
plans Hunter (Hunter, 2011) concludes that story- telling procedures can be
considered as a tool for understanding and reasoning moral ambiguities. In this
study story telling was investigated as one of important moral education methods
for elementary students.
Findings indicate that story-telling can create the power of recognition and visionary
in students and provide an opportunity for teachers to understand the complexity or
children’s moral world better. Likewise, the data show that by challenging the simple
moral understanding of the youths their difficulties will reveal in daily moral decisionmaking.
In comparative investigation of moral and religious curricula in elementary schools
in Iran and some of the world’s countries it was found that in many countries, ethics
training is considered as a curriculum in different courses and its aim is nurturing moral
behavior in students to enhance their ability in moral judgment and enriching their moral
emotions in society (Sha’bani, 2007).
In analyzing the contents of civics and children’s literature books, it was found that
the concepts of kindness, usefulness and social behavior are considered and other
moral concepts are emphasized less (ZarinPoush, 1988). In a similar study for
analyzing Persian literature book’s content, it was found that moral concepts have been
emphasized less in schools (Farzad, 1986).
-
Contemporar y approaches to moral education
One of the problems considered by many thinkers, practitioners and trainers who are
responsible for compiling the approaches and methods of moral and value education is
the problem of exact explanation of suitable methods and approaches for moral
education and such explanation is dependent on the quality of the answer given to the
question concerning the possibility of moral education. This considered possibility
includes practical and philosophical ones. So, many trainers are looking for new
methods and approaches for value and moral education; the methods by which students
can, firstly understand the real meaning of texts, secondly, satisfy the learners’
interests and needs, thirdly, learners can apply them in their life and finally, attract
more listeners and interested ones.
Some believe that there are three different approaches in moral education: values,
insight, and behavior related approaches. Some others speak about two main
approaches in moral education: cognitive and nurturing approaches. John Elias names
five important approaches in moral education: virtue- oriented, wisdom- oriented,
justice- oriented, care- oriented and moral based on social criticism (Elias, 1995).
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Some believe that there are two basic camps in moral education: values training
camp and behavior training comp. Boultin and Afroon believe that moral education has
seven cities: behavior training city, cultural heritage, just society, careful society,
training peaceful co-existence, moral researches and social action. Sajadi also
introduces ten approaches in moral education (Sajadi, 2011:
- Indirect approach or implied approach; it means religious beliefs and values
should be incorporated in curriculum implicitly.
- Approach based on emphasizing mental aspects of ethics and values like Piaget
and Neo-Kantian approach.
- Care- oriented moral approach or social responsibility one.
- Consequence- based approach which deals with moral behavior’s cause and
effect not to moral rules and principles.
- Theological approach which considers moral behaviors as a supra human affair.
- Scientific approach which deals with other and objective effects of moral
behavior and considers them as judging criteria.
- Values clarification approach. It also states that only values should be explained
for students and avoid dictation;
- Values analyze approach, it assumes that student should justify the reasons of
moral values and this is the best way to train ethics.
- Psycho- analysis assumes that humans’ behaviors have their roots in their
unconscious and their stimulations must be controlled;
- Social learning, it assumes that human learns moral behaviors through observing
enhanced behaviors, so direct training, modelling, imitation and enhancement
have great role in moral education (Sajadi, 2004).
The researches done in Islamic world about moral education can be divided into two
general groups:
First, leading researches and scientists’ works like Khaje Nasir-e-ddin Tousi and
Qazali, is an approach governing moral education which is mainly a natural and
therapeutic approach; whereby they believed that for making the virtue and removing
bad features we should recourse to nature and medicine. Recourse to nature means at
first ego strength must be refined and educated that grows and develops more than
other powers in humans. Recourse to medicine means that at first we should identify
the causes of abnormal moral behaviors and then remove them by using different
methods, and then we must try to keep moral health in individuals and second is the
researches done about moral education in contemporary era. We can refer to two
approaches in this regard:
A) The approach of extracting Islam’s philosophical arguments in moral education;
in this approach, the researcher attempts to extract certain implications and
demonstrations of Islamic philosophy concerning moral education (philosophical
approach);
B) Discovery and extraction of moral education from Islamic sources, i.e. Quran and
tradition. In this approach, the researcher presents subjects and problems of
moral education to Quran and tradition and tries to infer their answers from
religious texts (text- based approach).
Text-based approach (of Islamic approach of moral education) the one that is not
included in any mentioned subjects, hence it must be included in an independent
subject called religious (Islamic) approach.
Therefore, it’s clear that the all approaches considered in moral education are not in
the same level. We can categorize them into three groups:
First level: approaches with philosophical or religious background.
Second one: approaches with psychological background.
Third level: approaches with educational background.
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In final sum up we can classify moral educating as follows:
Religious
approaches
Text-based
approach
(Islamic)
Philosophical
approaches
1. Islamic
philosophical
approaches
2. scientific ethics
3. theological ethics
5. virtue- based
ethics
Psychological
approaches
1.cognitive approach
2.social learning
approach
3. psycho-analytical
approach
Educational approaches
1. approach of condition
ability training and
understanding moral
reasoning
2.character- training
approach
3.combined approach
4. therapeutic- natural
approach
Since many of these approaches are repetitive and they have overlap in this survey,
the most common contemporary moral education approaches (virtue- oriented,
character education, individual explanation of values, developmentalcognitive of
Kohlberg and Islamic approach) that have had highest influence in educational systems
are investigated.
Purpose of research
This study’s purpose is to identify the components of moral education contemporary
approaches that is, character education approach, individual values explanation,
developmentalcognitive and Islamic approach and the degree of their application in
the elementary schools civics books; for this purpose some questions arise:
1. What components do the contemporary approaches to moral education
involve in elementary civics books?
2. How much components of each approach in used in civics books in
elementary schools?
3. What is prevailing moral education approach in the elementary level?
Method, execution and collection of research data
This research is qualitative and for this content- analysis method is used. Baraden
calls the content- analysis as a technique which is applied for objective and regular
description of communication and its purpose is interpretation (Zarin Push, 1988). One
of the most important research methods is content- analysis which is extensively used
and we can claim that any researcher applies it anyway. (Farzad, 1987).
Since this course is presented after third grade in elementary schools, the statistical
population of this study include civics textbooks of, third, fourth and fifth grades of
elementary schools, compiled in the year 2011- 12. So, the whole population considered
as the statistical sample.
By using documentary and library methods and based on theoretical fundamentals
and survey studies, some components are determined for character education,
individual value clarification, developmentalcognitive and Islamic approaches and thei r
validity was assessed by educational science experts and professionals. Then, content
analysis of considered books was done by considering analyze unit, whole pages of
texts, questions, assignments and pictures. Gathered data were coded and classified
and analyze using descriptive method including determination of frequency indices and
percent.
Findings
The survey findings are presented based on research questions as follows:
784
1) What components do moral education contemporary approaches include?
2) How much of components are used in each approach in civics textbooks of
elementary schools?
3) What kind of personal and social damages will the students suffer by not using
the components of moral education contemporary approaches?
Component means structure, constructive and constitutive. (Lourance, 1997) and in
common it means a number of the similar affairs under a structure. Before presenting
the components, each approach is explained.
Virtue- oriented approach in moral education
The approach of virtue to moral education has historical priority compared to other
approaches. The thoughts of Plato, Socrates, especially Aristotle concerning virtues are
the origins of first virtue- oriented ethics (Naqibzade, 1994). Plato introduced four
virtues as “wisdom” “continence”, “brevity” and “justice” for completing the viewpoints of
his teacher and he introduces “wisdom” as the best virtue. (Naqibzade, 1990). In new
conditions, virtue theory wasn’t the only accepted moral theory any longer and it was
overshadowed by ot her theories such as utilitarianism, emotion-oriented, and dutyoriented tendencies of Kant. Based on virtue- oriented ethics, moral evolution is the
product of a serious interaction among all aspects of human and all great theorists of
virtue from Aristotle to present have tried to present a coherent explanation for
interaction of reasoning, emotions and behavior in virtue- oriented actions. Under
virtue- oriented moral education framework, all moments of a day in school, whether at
classroom or out of it are of importance. In virtue- oriented moral education, the teacher
has a cent ral role; but there is no special teacher who is specialized in promotion of
virtues and all teachers contribute in virtue learning and those teachers are required in
this approach who apply those virtues in their life and can be effective by their
behavior. Teachers of virtue- oriented approach should be the manifestation of
personality coherence, tolerance, endurance, honesty, modesty, stability, attention,
good will and other qualities that have been valuable in different periods (Kar, 2004).
In summary, in this approach, such concepts and qualities as wisdom, justice,
continence, brevity, rationalism, logic and preventing hatred are considered.
Moreover, based on t his approach happiness results from acting based on wisdom
and reason. Behaving based on wisdom is distinguishing aspect of all virtues
(Naghibzade, 1998). Facing with realities, having exact understanding of life, promoting
moral virtues, using good and bad predicates are suggested. Applying skill learning and
exercising the virtues in practice through calibration of behavioral qualities (good,
better, the best), recommending justice, honesty, charity, kindness, generosity versus
greed, preventing duplicity and selfishness, suspicion, stinginess, presenting patterns
by introducing the teacher as a trustable and suitable person, familiarity with good and
acceptable features such as chivalry, benevolence, honesty, modesty, stability,
tolerance, endurance and personality cohesion through story telling are main indicators
in this approach.
Character education approach in moral education
This approach was set forth since the first half of twenty century. Since 1980,
fundamentalists like Beneth, Kiplatrick, Rayan, and Veieni introduced it as a substitute
for the approaches like Kelerberg’s values clarification and moral growth. Also, persons
like Likona introduced it as a comprehensive approach that plays key roles in moral
growth. Today, this approach that is popular in the West world, especially in America is
based on this thought that all citizens of any society should inevitably be directed with a
certain character and value system.
Character education which is also known as a traditional perspective has its roots in
the virtue- oriented moral beliefs of philosophers like Aristotle (Alord, 2004). According
785
to it, moral concepts relate to all of human’s actions and behavior and moral virtues are
qualities that are desirable for any human being. Moreover, suitable actions and
behaviors have some regulations and provisions that can be expressed clearly and
transferred to others orally. (Alrod, 2004).
Thomas Likona (Likona, 1993) defines character- education as an intentional
attempt for helping person to understand original moral values, to care about them and
to act based on them. Based upon this definition, Lickona considers moral education as
a process involved with knowledge, feeling and action.
Character education means to help student to internalize the values such that they
intend to make rational selections without the pres ence of teachers and parents. It
develops real and positive imaginations in students, attitude toward the others, ability
to decide and the essence of participating in social activities in students (Kalbasi,
2009).
From the perspective of character education, fundamental moral values should be
promoted as a basis for good personality and yield nice character, cognition, feeling,
thinking and behavior. Moral education plan should be comprehensive, challenging and
careful about certain attributes and objective and practical behaviors. The class and
school’s environment, teachers and the other employees of school must have harmony
with moral education plan and never forget their modelling role. In addition, they must
be responsible about comprehensive moral growth. There must be a close relation
bet ween school and home plans and both institutions must insist on forming social and
personal good moral habits in children. All plan processes should be based on mutual
respect. In values clarification approach, moral education plans should be indirect
completely. They should understand the values without any force considering neutrality
via free discussions and stimulation of rational power and the growth of intellectual and
logical reasoning (Haqshenas, 2004). In this process, learner should have authority to
choose his/her important values and note that values are relative and dependent to
individual. Never solely rely on the preparat ion of environment for selecting value but
you should provide the ground for extension of values in comprehensive behavior.
Emphasis on character (a combination of attitude and behavior) is an intentional
attempt to help people to understand original moral values, take care of them using
examples, explaining, motivating, cooperating, assistance instead of competition,
justice, mutual respect, balance between cooperation and competition, group and
personal responsibility, devotion, adherence to commitment, knowledge value, mental
and imagination development in this approach have a special importance (Hagshenas,
2004).
Virtue- oriented approach in moral education
Virtue approach to moral education has historical priority rather than the others. The
thoughts of Plato, Socrates, especially Aristotle in the virtues background is of the
primary sources of virtue (Naqibzade, 1994). Plato introduced four virtues for “wisdom”
“self-possessed”, “brevity” and “justice” in the completion of his teacher. He knows the
“wisdom” t he best virtue. (Naqibzade, 1990). In new conditions other virtue theory
wasn’t the only accepted moral theory, it inspired from commerce, affection and
assignment-oriented of count but in the last century with attention and interests of
persons like Alsadir Mc entire, Marry Vorn ook, William Franka, Phillip Foot and Michael
Sloot this approach restored. The work of these persons was at the same time of
Kohlberg, they can’t receive much attention of people at the beginning, but gradually,
their approach found some supporters who paid attention to Aristotle’s virtue- oriented
perspective at the same time. Nowadays, fundamental virtue moral in philosophy and
applied approach of virtue-oriented moral education in education are from the know
perspectives. It is accounted a serious competitor for other theories. From vitur point of
view moral revelation is the collection of serious interaction among the human all
786
dimension, all the virtue great theorist from Aristotle up to now want to present a
coherent clarification of reasoning interaction, affection and behavior in virtue-based
ethic. In the virtue-oriented moral education framework, whole the time of day in school
is important whether in the classroom or out of it. The teacher has great role in it. But
there is no certain teacher who preaches virtues and all of them have to teach virtues
and the teachers are needed that re the practical sample of it and impact others with
their methods not just speak about virtues. They should have personality consistency,
tolerance, honesty, firmness, good willing and other qualities which are valuable during
different periods of time (Carr, 1983).
Briefly, in this approach, paying attention to concepts and attributes like wisdom,
justice, self-possessed, brevity, rational acting and a voidance of the evils are
considered.
Also, this approach’s view forms welfare of action in accordance to wisdom. Acting
according to wisdom is the outstanding aspects of whole virtues (Naqibzade, 1999).
Facing with the facts, having a right result of life develop of moral virtues, using good
and bad behaviors are considered. Using skill- getting and virtues practical exercise
methods by defining the behavioral qualities (good, better, the best) advice to justice,
honesty, kindness, avoid from binary, doubt presenting pattern via teacher as a suitable
and confident personlait with telling stories and narratives are of main designed index
in this approach character education approach in moral education.
This approach set forth from the firs t half of twenty century. From 1980,
fundamentalists like Benet, Kiplatrick, Rayan, and Veieni Knewit as a replacement for
the approaches like Kohlberg’s values clarification, moral growth. Also, the persons like
Likona introduce it as a comprehensive approach that plays key role in moral growth.
Today this approach in the west world, especially in America is accepted more than
others is based on this thought that any society’s citizen should be directed with a
certain character and value system.
Character education which is known as traditional perspective, derives in the virtueoriented moral beliefs like Aristotle, historically, (Alord, 2009) according to it, moral
concepts relate to all of human’s actions bad behavior. Moral virtues are attributions
that for anybody are desirable. Moreover, actions and behaviors should have some
regulation that can express clearly and transfer it to others orally. (Alrod, 2009).
Likona (1993) defines character- education an international attempt for helping
person to find out origin moral values, to care them and to act with their basis. Based
upon it Lickona presents moral education as a process involves with knowledge, feeling
and action.
Character education means to help student to internalize the values to choose
interestingly without the presence of teachers and parent's wisely. It trains student's
actual and positive imaginations, attitude toward the ot hers, their ability to decide and
the essence of participating in social activities (Kalbasi, 2010).
From its perspective, basic moral values should be preached as a pillar of good
personality and follow nic e character, knowing, feeling, thinking and behavior moral
education plans should be comprehensive, challenging and careful about attributes and
objective and practical behaviors. The class and school’s environment, teacher and the
other clerk of school must have harmony with moral education plans and never forget
their modeling role. In addition, they are responsible for its moral growth. There are
close relation between school and home plans and both institutions insist on forming
social and personal good moral habits in kids. Whole plan processes should be based
on interactive respect in values clarification moral education plans should be indirect
completely. They should know values without any obligation with neutrality
consideration, via free arguments and rational stimuli and t he growth of wisdom
reasoning and rational learners (Haqshenas, 2009). In this process, learner should have
authority to choose the great values and tend that they are comparative and dependent
787
to person. Never rely on the preparation of environment to select value but you should
develop it.
Emphasis on character (a combination of attitude and behavior) is an intentional
attempt to help people to find out origin moral values, take care of the, use examples,
explain, motivate, cooperate, compete, justice interaction respect, balance between
cooperation and competition, group and personal responsibility, knowledge obtain,
mental and imagination train in this approach have a special importance (Hagshenas,
2005).
Value clarification approach in moral education
This approach was dominant in America’s moral education during the sixth and
seventh decades of 20 t h century. By emphasizing on neutrality of teacher and free
selection of students, it tried to make opportunities for individuals to discuss, decide
about everything including what is “value and what is not value in order to explain his/
her own values, not the values of society of western culture without feeling coercion.
The inv estigations of suggestions of this approach show that it has its roots in human
anthropological psychology from anthropological and psychological points of view and
there are a lot of similarities between it and Carl Rogers’ beliefs. Emphasis on
individual support and respect, free selection, responsibility an d freedom of humans
pursued by followers of this approach implies humanist foundations.
Trainers like Ross and Simon believe that there is an inner powerful force for
learning and success inside all learners that teachers can strengthen this power using
values interpretation procedures (Simon, 1999). Also, in this approach, moral beliefs
are considered as a series of general moral principles that change with the variant
conditions during different times so, every individual should decide to choose rightness
and wrongness for himself and the kind of performance as respect to conditions and the
consequences of his/her activities and in this way no one can present him a decision to
him as a baseline (Simon, 1999). Finally, this moral education viewpoint that
emphasizes critical thinking, personal rational choice and public confirm, looks at the
values as an action rather than directive principles and insists on their relativity
resulted from family and culture (Qoriz, 2004).
On the basis of theoretical bases of this approach, there is no final rightness and
wrongness. Any selection requires evaluation by emotions, beliefs & situations. Its
advocates believe that values aren’t stable and certain affairs and they come from an
individual’s social trade (moral relativism)
If student are regarded as individuals who are able to realize good and bad values
(Noman, 1998), emphasis on individual respect, free choice, responsibility and the
value of way of thinking are considered of significant indices in this approach (Lickona,
1993).
Kohlberg’s developmental- cogniti ve approach in moral education
In this approach, comprehensive principles, abstract justice are discussed that is based
upon rational requirement. Its main rule is justice, equality and rights and the rights are
emphasized more than responsibility (Greeze, 2004).
In this approach, human is an inherently searcher, free and active creature whose
first reason for mental acts is his/her action, namely he/ she potentially and inherently
accepts others’ experiences before being influenced by conditioning process and thinks
about mutual effects of experiences on others and their subsequent extension. In the
other words, any human is a “self- organizer” creature and any realization and cognition
including awareness of moral values is the outcome of his interaction with outer
environment (Sajadi, 2004). In this approach, children pass through six steps to
adulthood: first step, obedience and punishment bias; the child respect to the source of
788
power to avoid pain and punishment; second step, instrumental self- interest and
pleasure seeking, just when the child immediate motivation and interest requires,
he/she obeys the rules. The third step is the tendency to be a good girl or boy and
living according to others’ expectations ir whatever people expect of our role and
responsibility; forth step is the tendency to rules, discipline and dutifulness, the entire
rules should be supported and enhanced unless in exceptional cases that are opposed
to other stabilized social duties; fifth step is ethics based on social contract, knowing
that people have variable and various values and beliefs and most of these values are
relative but some of values should be supported in all societies and the sixth step is the
tendency toward universal moral principles, adherence to those moral principles
selected by individual which are consistent to social agreements. These principles that
are absolute and abstract include: equal rights for humans, respect to human position
(equity and justice) (Kadivar, 2000).
For developmentcognitive approach supporters, paying attention to child’s
preparation in the course of moral education is highly important with emphasis on
stepwise nature of moral growth. Since the subject of ethics relies on cognitive and
intellectual growth, the child’s cognitive ability should be considered. In addition,
because reaching to higher levels of moral judgment is formed in the course of
reciprocal respect to peers, school has to provide the essential conditions for children’s
social communications. School authorities must know that in spite of their responsibility
concerning student's moral education, it is not practical directly and one of those ways
is providing active cooperation conditions for learners to participate in schools’
educational activities (Kohlberg, 1984).
Some of indices considered in this approach are: attention to dutifulness, suitable
intellectual behaviors consistent to developmental characteristics, justice, equity of
rights for all, respect to human’s position, teaching via designing puzzles, enhancement
of decision- making skill in moral real and non-real environments and obtaining proper
values by students (Alrod, 2004).
Islamic approach in moral education
According to great Quran verses (Al-Omran 164, Jomeh 2) and numerous narrative
of prophets, moral education has been their biggest goal specially Mohammad prophet
(peace be upon him). From Quran’s exact view, inherence of value orientations in
human does not make him needless of education and moral talents growth depends on
benefiting from teachings of divine messengers.
The special purpose pursued through moral education and paves the way for
ultimate goal is perfection of human. If human nurtures his talents in the course of his
inherent perfection seeking with awareness and authority and follows developmental
guidance and guidance based on Shariah and stabilizes positive characteristics and
values inside himself he will achieve happin ess, namely obtaining divine characteristics
and moves forward based on God’s satisfaction. Accordingly, by presenting the most
enriched divine teachings through God’s words and bright thoughts of Muhammad
(peace upon him) and his great family Islam possesses the most extensive moral
system and hence moral education.
Moral education in Islam is explained by considering different fields of normative,
descriptive and meta- ethical ethics. The main difference bet ween this approach and
other moral systems is differentiation of beliefs and ideas of Islamic scientists,
particularly in the field of meta- ethics, although there are significant disagreements in
Islamic school particularly about the criterion of good or bad behavior. Islamic moral
system is based on a worldwiev in which God is introduced as the origin and creator of
creatures and humans are considered as a dependent and needful creature.
Therefore any planning, including moral education in Islam is based upon the
relationship between humans’ devotion and lordship of God. The human defined in
789
Islamic school, although having a close relationship with God, but is absolutel y
surrendered to him and receives numerous gifts from God blown in his/her soil-based
body and this is development and divine breeze. His/ her soul and self deserves to bear
divine trust as an agent of God. Based on this interpretation, self-knowledge is the
highest divine characteristic for him/ her; a kind of self-knowledge that is possible only
through moral purification and education to achieve salvation known as the main goal of
humans in Quran. This goal is achieved only under individual’s attempts.
Islamic ethic opposed to other approaches isn’t the ethics of a thinker or a series of
Islamic researchers but it is the ethics of Quran, GOD’s messenger and prophets, its
range is more extensive than the ethics that is understood by practical intellect
(Sobhani, 2004). What is essential in Islamic moral education to obtain the best ethics
is to make a suitable educational environment at home, school and society. It is for this
purpose that we observe many verses and narratives from the first steps of formation of
family entity, namely choosing wife/husband up to considering moral hints in childbearing and way of behaving the children by parents all over the life. The duty of
directing to good acts and preventing from bad acts which is one of ten principles of
secondary articles of religion is designed for making educational environment healthy.
In addition, paying attention to children’s needs including the need to be loved and
safety and self-esteem (respecting to personality that is inherent dignity and honor of
humans resulted from self- love) must be considered in moral education process.
Different moral problems and subjects have their roots in human’s nature and human’s
intellect testify that all humans have tendency toward some affairs and has more willing
to do some actions and in the other hand they avoid some acts and hate them
.Intellectuals admire and encourage those who perform good things and blame those
who do bad things. On the other hand, in any school and culture, the criterion for
distinguishing bad from good varies; sometimes, the criterion is personal interest and
benefit and sometimes it is national and cumulative interest and sometimes it is
achieving perfection based on a certain worldview and attitude governing the society
and their thoughts and in divine religions, criterion is achieving real perfection that is
closeness to God.
Divine religions specially Islam clarifies the actual criterion for moral virtue for
everybody and guides people to attaining those virtues for more development and
growth and perfection. Since religion is sent to complete the human with attention to
their spiritual and physical conditions it contains all suitable and proper human needs
and the methods by which they are met and it is a strong backbone for general moral
principles of moral values needed by humans and humans would not have a healthy and
right life without them (Shameli, 2000).
Religiosity is the main and key factor to keep and grow moral affairs in related
behavioral, emotional and intellectual aspects and only this can meet his natural and
actual needs logically and remove all his/her problems in all areas by using proper
ways and provide welfare and happiness for him/her; therefore it seems that more
grounds could be provided for introducing and restoring religion and spirituality and
attract peoples’ attention to moral virtues and inform them about potential and actual
dangers of modern society and contemporary world that is combined to different crises
and moral damages; then a healthy generation and dynamic and religious societies will
result and we can prevent new generation from tendency toward luxury, lust and deep
tendencies to western decadent cultures and other political, economic and social crises
and we can pave the way for them to become religious and benefit from moral and
religious values of Islam to witness their prosperity and victory in all areas of life.
Education purposes originate from a theory about “human in world” and ultimate life
and final value that human must pursue all over his/ her life. Since he is created by
GOD, so his/her ultimate goal of life could be free from the ultimate goal of creation and
ultimate goal of human’s creation is not necessarily different from ultimate goal of world
790
creation but they are related to each other. Quran also introduces the destination of
human to GOD (Alamolhoda, 2007, p 139). Islamic education has divine direction and it
considers all effective factors in thinking, behavior, body and soul of human. Education
in Islamic point of view is: “providing t he grounds and factors of total development and
completion of perfection trend toward an absolutely perfect existence by regular
planning based on predetermined principles and contents”.
Approaches relating to Islamic education approach are full of advices in the field of
moral education. Based upon them in first phase, moral education relies on GOD’s
cognition and faith him and doing proper action based on virtue, such that ethics
without theological bas is like fiat money. Education is a continuous process that is
effective in all steps of humans’ life (EbrahimZade, 2004, p 35).
Quran says human is a dignified and valuable creature that is created with the best
forms. In this regard, Islam has presented some components concerning moral
education. The reference sources of Islamic approach components are wisdom, holly
Book and tradition; of course the validity of divine Book, tradition and methods of the
prophets are proved by wisdom as the validity of wisdom is confirmed by holy Book and
tradition.
Human must determine his/her developmental course using his/her great abilities
and unlimit ed capacities gifted to him/her and also using divine guidance to become
able to creat divine ethics in order that the ultimate goal of his/her creation that is
reaching to the climax of substitution of God is achieved (Zouelm, 2001, p 24). As
regard to any approach’s perspective, we can present their components as the
following:
Table 1: Components of moral education approaches
Approach name
Virtue-oriented
Character education
Value clarification
Developmentalcognitive
Islam
791
Components of Approach
- Appearance of rational and intellectual behaviors in facing with
problems and difficulties
- Attention to quality in doing works
- Having kindness, generosity and helping to the others
- Use of pattern and modelling to get success
- Considering trustworthy and tolerance
- Respect to others and respecting to their rights
- Sense of responsibility to do works
- Priority of friendship instead of competition
- Attention to the value of obtaining knowledge
- Considering justice and commitment
- Ability to recognize good characteristics from bad ones
- Consideration of group and individual rights
- Attention to individual freedom choice
- The value of way of thinking
- Responsibility in doing works
- Assigning responsibility by considering ability level
- Attention to comprehensive participation in different activities
- Nurturing the sense of curiosity and problem solving methods via making
problematic situations
- Enhancement of decision making skills in moral areas
- Developing accurate judgment morale and attempt to obtain the values
- Adopting the rule of unity and God’s oneness
- Attention to humans’ clean innate and nurturing it in all aspects to reach
perfection
- The value of learning science and obtaining knowledge
-
Using correct patterns and models in nurturing good moral attributions
Promoting thinking morale and wisdom and informed choice
Second question: how much of components of each approach have been used in the
civics textbooks of elementary school?
In the tables 2-4 there are cont ent analysis data of civics textbooks from third to
fifth grades of elementary level in terms of benefiting from components of moral
education.
The frequency sum of moral education components achieved in the civics textbook
of third grade is fourteen cases. Such that, in virtue- oriented approach, the
components of rational and intellectual behavior in the face of problems is 25%, having
kindness and generosity and helping others is 12%, using the models to get success is
63%, in character education approach, the components of respect to others and their
rights is 50%, attention to the value o f knowledge is 50%; in Islamic approach, the
value of knowledge obtaining is 25%, using the patterns and suitable models in
development of good moral characteristics is 75%.
Based upon it the extent of using virtue- oriented approach, character- education
and Islam had been 57%, 14% and 29% respectively in civics textbooks of third grade.
None of the components of value clarification and developmentalcognitive approaches
have been used in compiling this book.
Table 2: frequency distribution of components of moral educati on approaches
in civics books for third grade of elementary level
Approach name
Virtue-oriented
Appearance of rational and intellectual behaviors in
face of problems and difficulties
Attention to quality in doing works
Having kindness, generosity and helping to the others
Use of pattern and modelling to get success
Considering trustworthy and tolerance characteristics
Sum
Character education
Sum
Value clarification
Sum
Developmentcognitive
792
Respect to others and consideration of their rights
Sense of responsibility to do works
Priority of friendship instead of competition
Attention to obtaining valuable knowledge
Considering justice and commitment
Ability to recognize good characteristics
ones
Consideration of group and individual rights
Attention to individual freedom choice
Considering the value of way of thinking
Assuming responsibility in doing works
from bad
Assigning responsibility by considering ability level
Attention to comprehensive participation in different
activities
Enhancing the sense of curiosity and problem solving
methods via making problematic situation
frequency
2
percent
25%
1
12%
5
8
1
1
2
-
63%
100%
50%
50%
100%
-
-
-
-
-
Enhancing decision making skills in moral areas
Developing accurate judgment morale and attempt to
gain the values
Sum
Islam
Assuming the rule of unity and God’s oneness
Attention to humans’ clean innate and enhancing it in
all aspects to reach perfection
The value of learning science and obtaining
knowledge
Using correct patterns and models in enhancement of
moral good characteristics
Promoting thinking morale and informed choice
Sum
-
-
-
-
1
25%
3
75%
4
100%
The frequency number of moral education components analyzed in civics textbook of
fourth grade of elementary level is 36 cases that of virtue oriented approach these
components have been considered: kindness and generosity and helping others 29%,
using patterns and models do get success 71%, of character education approach, t he
components of respect to others and their rights 29%, sense of responsibility to do
works 57%, considering justice and commitment 14% ; of values clarification approach,
the components of assuming responsibility to do works 25%, recognizing the ability of
good characters from bad ones 50%, respecting individual and group rights 25%; of
Islam approach, the components of assuming the rule of unity and GOD’s oneness 17%,
attention to humans’ clean innate and nurturing it in all aspects to reach perfection
25%, using patterns and appropriate models in nurturing moral good characteristics
50%, promoting thinking and informed choice 8% had been considered.
Also, the components of emerging rational and logical behavior in face of problems
and difficulties, attention to quality in doing works, considering the honesty and
tolerance from virtue-oriented approach, the priority of friendship instead of
competition, considering the value of achievement of knowledge from character
education approach, attention t o individuals’ freedom of choice, the value of way of
thinking in value clarification approach, enhancement of decision- making skills in moral
areas, enhancement of sense of curiosity and the ways of problem solving via making
hard conditions from value clarification approach, the value of obtaining knowledge
from Islamic approach, haven’t been considered.
Table 3: frequency distribution of moral education approach components in
ci vics textbook of fourth grade of elementary level
Approach name
Virtue-oriented
Emerging rational and intellectual behaviors in face of
problems and difficulties
Showing kindness ,generosity and help to the others
Sum
Character education
793
Respect to others and considering their rights
Attention to the value of obtaining knowledge
frequency
-
percent
-
2
29%
5
7
2
4
-
71%
100%
29%
57%
-
Sum
Value clarification
Sum
Sum
Islam
Sum
Ability to recognize good characteristics
ones
Considering group and individual rights
Attention to individuals’ freedom of choice
The value of way of thinking
from bad
Attention to comprehensive participation in different
activities
Nurturing curiosity and problem solving methods via
making problematic situation
Developing proper judgment morale
Attention to humans’ clean innate and nurturing it in all
aspect to reach perfection
knowledge
Using correct and suitable patterns and models in
nurturing good moral attributions
Promoting thinking morale and wisely choice
1
7
2
14%
100%
50%
1
1
3
2
25%
25%
100%
50%
33%
-
-
1
6
2
3
17%
100%
17%
25%
-
-
6
50%
11
12
8%
100%
From the sum of 65 cases obtained from the analysis of civics textbook of fifth grade
of elementary level, in virtue- oriented approach the components of emerging rational
and intellectual behavior in face of problems and difficulties is 33%, attention to quality
in doing works is 6%, having kindness and helping others is 33%, using pattern and
models to get success is 22%, considering tolerance and honesty is 6%; in character
education the components of respecting individual and group rights 50%,, considering
the value of knowledge is 50%; in values clarification approach, the components of
respecting individual and group rights is 100% in developmentalcognitive approach,
the components of attention to comprehensive cooperation in different activities is 11%,
nurturing curiosity sense and problem-solving methods via making hard situations is
16%, enhancing decision- making skills in moral areas 11%, developing correct
judgment morality and trying to get values is 62%; in Islamic approach, the components
of accepting the rule of unity and GOD’s oneness is 6%, attention to humans’ clean
innate and training it in all aspects to reach perfection is 12%, using suitable patterns
and models in nurturing good moral characteristics is 41%, promoting thinking morality
and conscious choice is 41%.
Also, any attention didn’t pay to these components in compiling the contents of
mentioned textbook: sense of responsibility for doing works, priority of friendshi p
instead of competition, consideration of justice and commitment from character
education approach; the ability to realize goo d characteristic from bad ones, attention
for individual freedom of choice, the value of way of thinking, accepting responsibility in
doing works from values clarification approach; Assigning responsibilities with regard to
ability levels, from developmentcognitive approach; the components of obtaining
knowledge and wisdom from Islamic approach.
Table 4: frequency distribution of moral education approach components in
ci vics textbooks of elementary school fifth grade
794
Approach name
Virtue-oriented
Emergence of rational and intellectual behaviors in
face of problems and difficulties
Kindness, generosity and help to the others
frequency
6
percent
33%
1
6
6%
33%
4
1
18
1
1
2
-
22%
6%
100%
50%
50%
100%
-
3
3
2
100%
100%
11%
3
16%
2
12
19
1
2
11%
62%
100%
6%
12%
-
-
7
41%
7
17
41%
100%
Sum
Character education
Sum
Value clarification
Respect to others and consideration of their rights
Attention to the value of obtaining knowledge
Ability to recognize good characteristics from bad
ones
Consideration of group and individual rights
Attention to individual freedom of choice
Considering the value of way of thinking
Sum
Attention to comprehensive learning in different
activities
Nurturing the sense of curiosity and problem solving
methods via making problematic situation
Developing proper judgment morale
Sum
Attention to humans’ clean innate and developing it in
all aspects to reach perfection
knowledge
Using correct patterns and models in nurturing moral
good characteristics
Promoting thinking morale and wise choice
Islam
Sum
Table 5: Degree of application of moral education approach in civics textbooks
of elementar y school level s
Grade
Approach
name
Virtue-oriented
Character
education
Value
clarification
795
first
----
second
----
Third
frequency percent
forth
frequency percent
fifth
frequency percent
-------
-------
8
2
57%
14%
7
7
20%
20%
18
3
28%
5%
----
----
----
----
4
11%
8
12%
Developmentalcognitive
Islamic
Total sum
----
----
----
----
6
16%
19
29%
-------
-------
4
14
29%
100%
12
36
33%
100%
17
65
26%
100%
Third question; what kind of social and individual damages will emerge for students
as a result of not using the components of moral education approaches?
The study result concerning third question in terms of probable social and individual
damages made by not caring to moral education approaches in elementary level reveal
that the kind of training, beliefs, habits and attitudes formed during childhood play an
important role in decision- making during adulthood; hence, elementary educational
level is a base for higher grades and students’ experience that would be effective,
motivating and beneficial if they are relevant. So it is necessary to start teaching moral
principles from this level and to be completed in higher levels. In this regard, textbooks
should be respondent to student s’ educational and moral needs and give them the
opportunity to recognize themselves, their surrounding world and values and induce
hope and peace in them in order to take suitable measures in the case of damages
threatening them. No society can act independent from value and moral considerations
toward organizing its cultural and social affairs, because ethics and values are subjects
that influence all social, cultural, economic, political and behavioral relations.
Since the emotions have more active role in students, thus education process must
be started from emotions in order that moral beliefs become deeper and inner and make
root in the hearts of learners; then emotions can be trimmed by intellectual arguments.
Most of textbooks face problems from this respect because from the beginning they
consider rationality as the milestone of education and they want to prove the presence
of God through reasoning, while if emotions and emotional excitements and innate
manifestations are used for blossoming of this religious belief and in next stage,
intellect is used for backing and reasoning more effective results would be obtained. In
Quran, God says to Islam’s prophet:
So you are kind to them because of divine blessing and if you were rule and
obdurate, people left you, so pardon them and want them forgiveness.
Inattention to moral components in textbooks content s and using rigorous methods
at home and in school have no attraction but also make students far from inner and
emotional relation and make them resistant against gaining characteristics such as:
kindness, having friendly relation instead of competition, helping to others and
modelling the great people, therefore they may suffer from damages such as
indifference, non-reception of responsibility to do the given affairs, feeling to be
excellent and non- healthy competition, self- preference in hard conditions, inability to
decide and being far from honesty. The lie will ruin the pillars of society made on
honesty and benevolence bases and paves the way for any form of social and individual
deviations.
In social aspect, many damages will emerge such as non-respect to others’ rights,
tendency to leave the group, tendency to evils, earning through incorrect sources,
tendency toward non-values, tendency to delinquency and deviations, illegality,
promotion of duplicity and flattery culture and reluctance about religion. These people
turn into self- administer humans who al ways need others’ admiration and they never
pay attention to peoples’ needs and feelings. Due t o unawareness, they lose their
identities and feel as if their needs are suppressed and their inner desires are not met;
they hate school and home and tend to abnormal behaviors such as escaping from
home, school, robbery and addiction.
Extending such perspectives and beliefs will endanger their individual and group
responsibilities to be morally declined; under such circumstance, no rule- oriented
system would be able to prevent crime with the most rigorous anymore, because if
796
supposedly they arrest all criminals and send them to the prison, those who could come
out of prison, will become more dangerous than before.
Since no other moral education approach is perfect that Islamic approach and
possess deficiencies, the lack of moral values obtained from Islamic principles will face
learners with numerous unknowns that are accessible easily in the contents of
textbooks. In fact, accomplishment of humanity of mankind and being safe of damages
depends on suitable presentation of social and individual moral values.
Discussion and conclusion
The issue of education generally and moral education specially are multidimensional
issues that can’t be limited just to family, society or school. Even the education in its
general sense cannot be limited just to school. The education organization is a central
entity that the contents of its textbooks have had a key and effective role in children’s
education and they are al ways emphasized as a tool for preventing different damages.
In our educational system, particularly in schools, textbooks are considered as the most
fundamental sources of learning. If this important source becomes useful by
incorporating proper contents it can prepare children to overcome different damages
and this provides enrichment in terms of education, research and culture.in this regard,
ethics and moral education has an important role and position.
Present study has been done with the aim of studying and investigating the degree
of contemporary moral education approaches being incorporates in civics textbook of
elementary schools in terms of preventing individual and social damages and in
responding research questions, following conclusions are obtained:
The results related to the first question imply that contemporary moral education
approaches and related components have been used in content analysis and thei r
validity are confirmed by education professionals. They are as follows:
Virtue oriented approach is related with these components: emergence of logical
and intellectual behavior in face of problems and difficulties, attention to quality in
doing works, kindness, generosity, helping others, using patterns and models to get
success, considering truth and tolerance.
Character education approach is related to these components: respect to others and
their rights, sense of responsibility in doing works, priority of friendship instead of
competition, value of obtaining knowledge, considering justice and commitment.
Value clarification is related with these component s: ability to recognize good
characteristics from bad ones, respect to group and individual rights, attention to
freedom of choice, the value of way of thinking, sense of responsibility in doing works.
Developmental- cognitive approach is related with components: Assigning
responsibility by considering the ability level, attention to comprehensive participation
in different activities, enhancement of curiosity sense and problem solving methods
through providing problematic situations, strengthening decision- making skills in moral
areas, making proper judgment and attempt to achieve values.
Islamic approach is related with these components: admitting the rule of unity and
GOD's oneness, considering humans’ clear innate and nurturing it in all aspects to
reach perfection, the value of learning, using patterns and suitable models in nurturing
proper moral attributes, promoting thinking and wisdom and informed choice.
As respect to obtained results about second question in terms of the degree of
attention paid to contemporary moral education approach, we can say that in compiling
the content of civics textbook in elementary schools in Iran moral education approach
components are not incorporated sufficiently and many components are neglected. Just
some of them in limited extent have been referred. Also, some of approaches and
components aren't used in other grades. Since attention to moral education in
elementary level has special importance, applying them in textbooks can lead to
formation of ethics- based personality in childr en. Also failure to consider this important
797
point may lead to promotion of bad features and missing the opportunity of learning by
students.
Hence, disregarding the components of Islamic approach, character education, value
clarification, developmentalcognitive in third grade, paying less attention to the
components of value- clarification and developmentalcognitive in fourth grade and
finally not incorporating all components of character- education and value clarification
in fifth grade is significant.
According to research results, we can present some critics to these approaches.
Virtue- oriented and character-education approaches emphasize on forming suitable
habits, while nurturing good behavioral habits (moral virtues) will not accomplish moral
education goal which is nur turing independent moral persons without enough
understanding and awareness. So, we can't rely just on character- education and virtueoriented approaches for moral, but the ability of understanding and moral reasoning
must be enhanced in them together with nurturing good habits and behaviors.
Extreme emphasize of value clarification approach on moral neutrality and relativism
particularly by teachers in classrooms is the most important weakness in this approach;
because believing in moral relativism may induce many social problems in society. The
other main weakness of this approach is that it weasels from performing the main duties
of moral education namely, teaching and transferring best values to new generation
accepted by society because claiming that this is equal to dictation of values.
One of the vital aspects of developmentalcognitive approach which is criticized
seriously is the extreme faith to rational deciding as a basis for moral education.
(Attaran, p: 34). For critics, providing independent deciding making opportunity
particularly for children doesn’t have any result but wasting the time. Also, because
cognitive approach makes a relationship between cognitive growth and moral growt h it
is criticized, for there is no guarantee for such relationship.
This approach is not able to yield a real understanding about nature of individual’s
moral performance and in many cases, moral reasoning that is considered as a main
criterion for moral growth is used as a shield for non- moral behaviors. Hence,
developmental approach can't provide all moral education requirements.
Many aspects of weakness of previous three approaches are omitted in Islam; for
example, by emphasizing on issues such as teachers as patterns and reliance on fixed
principles and rational foundations, the problem of neutrality of values clarification
approach, shortage of reasoning, thinking, moral judgment with action and behavior is
solved which ic one of the main problems in cognitive approach and considering
authority, will and respecting to Islam and emphasis on willful action together with
divine intention modifies the problem of dictation that is annoying in character
education approach. Of course, these advantages do not mean that in this area, there is
no need to new scientific and survey attempts. Undoubtedly, we should think of a more
applicable model consistent to teachings and fundamentals of ideological worldview of
Islam.
In spite of Islamic approach’s advantages and excellence that can cover the lacks
and weaknesses of other approaches with its comprehensiveness we observe that it
isn't used properly in compilation of contents of civics textbooks in elementary school,
so the children are deprived from receiving the components of it that have valuable role
in their character education and thinking manner.
As respect to research findings, we can say that the contents of mentioned books
can't play effective role in training and strengthening moral features because these
textbooks don’t cover all components of moral education approaches.
The results of this study are consistent to the former ones, because all of them
imply to inattention to moral education components in the contents of different
textbooks of the education in different educational levels.
The results of some studies are consistent to the results obtained from present
study. Despite of effectiveness of moral components in elementary school level in
798
forming personality and children’s thinking manner, they are not considered enough in
textbooks (Zarin Poush, 1978). Moral concepts are not considered and incorporat ed
sufficiently in Farsi textbooks of elementary schools (Farzad, 1986). 21 components of
moral goals aren't applied in studied textbook identically, and there is a considerabl e
difference in their frequency (Nejati, 2009). Important concepts of social studies and
education haven’t been presented in civics textbooks of elementary level (Hass, 1991).
Since the content of textbooks have positive influence on increasing self- confidence of
students, so we should extend this idea and those contents are presented that are
consistent to moral values of students (Cuevas, 2011).
We should not neglect effective role of other various factors such as: inattention to
emotions to transfer religious beliefs, paying attention to behavioral aspects of moral
education instead of knowledge aspect, non- use of expert and religious teachers in
moral education, lack of a comprehensive religious plan in all range of ages for
students, not suing of auxiliary educational tools in religious and moral education, not
considering an independent course titled moral education in all educational levels and
grades, emphasizing on education and neglecting moral and educational issues in
schools, unsuitable environment of families and modelling the medias and peers in
unsuitable manner and social and economic inequalities that lead to moral damages.
It is clear that the current situation of education and identification of values in civics
textbooks of element ary level is far from Islamic values and what is presented as moral
education in curricula is mainly abstract without applied and practical applications. So,
it is suggested that they should be revised and the components of moral approach
particularly Islam are considered in terms of application through presenting them in the
texts, images, questions and assignments and with regarding the principles of content
organization, the principle of balance is met in their design.
Refer ences:
- Alroad, Frederick, (2003), contemporary philosophies of moral education Translator:
H. Karamad; source: internet website of ideas club.
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The comparison of early maladaptive schema and quality of life in the
obese women in different body mass indices (BMI) with the normal
women residing in Tehran
Hamid Amiri 1, Abdolmajid Bahrainian2, Abdolreza Pazouki 3, Leila Kargari 4, Fardin Farmani 4
1. PhD Student in Clinical Psychology, Faculty of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences,
Tehran, Iran; Minimally Invasive Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
2. Associate Professor; Faculty of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences,
Tehran, Iran.
3. Assistant Professor; Minimally Invasive Surgery Research Center, Tehran, Iran.
4. Clinical Psychology Department, Allameh Tabataba’i University, Tehran, Iran.
Abstract
Obesity is a complex physical disorder brought about by different biological, psychological, and
social factors. Identification of the psychological factors and consequences of obesity is one of
the main elements of its control and treatment. The present study was carried out to compare
early maladaptive schema and quality of life in the obese women in different body mass indices
with the normal women. for each three groups of obesity 40 and in total 120 women were selected
of all the visitors of the Specialized Center for Control and Treatment of Obesity of Iran University
of Medical Sciences using available sampling method and based on the BMI table in a causalcomparative design. 40 women made up the normal women sample. Instruments of the study
were composed of a questionnaire of personal information, Early Maladaptive Schema (YSQ-SF),
and Health-Related Quality of Life Questionnaire (SF-36). The data were analyzed using MultiVariable Analysis of Variance (MANOVA), One Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), Bonferroni
Post hoc Test, and Pearson’s correlation coefficient as well as the SPSS 19 software. The results
suggested a significant difference between the obese women in different levels of BMI and the
normal ones concerning early maladaptive schema and quality of life at P<0.01. In addition, it was
revealed that there is a significant negative association among the obese women in different
levels of BMI concerning early maladaptive schema and quality of life at P<0.01. Regarding the
different psychological variables such as early maladaptive schema in obesity, psychological
interventions can be useful in the prevention, control, and treatment of obesity as well as
promotion of the patients’ quality of life.
Keywords: Obesity, Body Mass Index, Early Maladaptive Schema, Quality of Life.
Introduction
Nowadays obesity is one of the significant concerns in general health. According to the recent reports given by
World Health Organization (WHO) there are more than 400 million obese people and 1.6 billion overweight all over
the world. In a research by Khabazkhoob and his colleges (2008) found that the range of obesity and overweight in
Tehran citizens is 13.6% and 24.9% respectively. In addition, obesity is more prevalent in women. Research
conducted by Abtahi and colleges (2009) indicated 15.2% obesity in girls from north areas of Tehran while this
range is 26.7% in the south ones.
As far as diagnosing reasons of obesity is the main part of every action for preventing and treating the disorder,
the uncertainty about etiology of the disorder is still one of the major obstacles in finding permanent and effective
treatment. Psychological factors are known as main elements in etiological theories of obesity and on the other
hand obesity has widespread consequences on psychological aspects of people's life (Conradt, and et al., 2008).
Great amount of researches thus studied the relation between obesity and psychopathology.
One of the suitable approaches that could reveal mental factors related to obesity is the Early Maladaptive
Schema (EMS) model (Young, Klosko, and Weishaar, 2003). According to EMS, difficulties that obese people
experience in preserving modified behavior in the course of treatment, could be based on their need to overeating
which therefore leads overweight again. The result of this process is that they can develop negative emotion related
to maladaptive schema. Supporting this relation, Carels, Douglass, Cacciapaglia (2004) found out diet abandon or
overweighting again among obese people is relevant to a complex of coping behaviors in response to stressful
factors in life and specially tendency to eat in response to negative emotions.
Researches carried out in Iran by Shayeghian, Agilar vafaee, and Rasoul zade tabatabaee (2011) display that
teenage girls suffering overweight in contrast with girls having symptoms of Anorexia Nervosa and normal weighted
girls reported more maladaptive schemas specially defectiveness/shame. In another research (Moloudi, Dejkam,
Mutabi, omidvar, 2010) it was revealed that obese people suffering overeating disorder in contrast to obese people
not suffering overeating disorder got more significant scores in schemas like abandonment/instability, emotional
deprivation, and Insufficient self-control/self-discipline.
Anderson, Rieger, & Caterson (2006) suggested that people suffering from obesity in comparison to normal
weight group, got more significant scores in schemas as Social isolation/alienation, defectiveness/shame, and
Failure. In research done by Gongora, Derksen, & van Der Staak (2004) maladaptive schemas in people suffering
from eating disorders were more disturbed.
Obesity has significant and negative impacts on different aspects of life quality in obese people. WHO (2008)
defines quality of life as understanding one's situation in life related to cultural context, environment, and value
system of the person according to his/her goals, standards, and interests.
The results of Cameron and et al. (2012) suggested that higher the baseline BMI is more deduction in different
aspects of life quality in 5 years is anticipated. In women all subscales defining mental quality of life have significant
negative relation with increase in BMI. Kortt, and Dollery (2011) also indicated that higher BMI has significant
negative relation with quality of life. That means obese women got less in quality of life in comparison with normal
group. In a similar research Castres, Folope, Dechelotte, and Tourny-Chollet (2010) studied the relation between
levels of obesity and quality of life. Findings suggest suffering from extreme obesity is associated with more
disturbance in physical aspects of quality of life, compared to people suffering from mild or light obesity. Moreover
studies implied a negative relation among early maladaptive schema and quality of life in obese women (Bidadian,
Bahrami zade, and Poursharifi, 2011.)
As most of studied carried out on obesity didn't do much about existence and severity of mental and physical
symptoms in Iran, and also according to determinant role of early maladaptive schema and quality of life in
psychopathology, in this study researches are striving for a scientific answer to the following question that what is
the relation between early maladaptive schema and quality of life in the obese women in different body mass index
compared to the normal women.
Method
The present research is a cross-sectional causal-comparative design. Population for the study were the
whole women living in Tehran who visited the Specialized Center for Control and Treatment of Obesity named
Rasul Akram, subordinated to Iran University of Medical Sciences, in winter 1391 and spring1392. Using available
sampling method and based on the BMI table for each of 3 groups of obesity, 40 women were chosen; on the
whole 120 adults were selected. 40 women made up the normal weighted sample, including clinic staff, patients
accompanies, university students, and so on.
Instruments:
At first, every participant was asked to complete the forms about personal information and to fill in Early
Maladaptive Schema (YSQ-SF) and Health-Related Quality of Life Questionnaire (SF-36).
Young Schema Questionnaire- Short Form (YSQ-SF):
The Young Schema Questionnaire-Short Form is a 75-item self-report questionnaire designed to assess
schemas. Patients are asked to display their agreement with each item on a 6-point scale. Every 5 questions
803
measure a schema. Higher item scores than 3 reflects a maladaptive schema. YSQ-S had been reported to be
acceptable with patients suffering from eating disorders (Waller, Meyer, and Ohanian, 2001). Reliability of internal
consistency on subscales is reported in the range 79% to 93% in Persian form of the questionnaire. In the same
research the re-test reliability for schema was between 0.67% to 0.84. (Fata, Moutabi, Dobson, Moloudi, and Ziaee,
2009). In this research, Cronbach Alpha was ranged 0.74% -0.89%, that indicates appropriate internal consistency
and reliability of YSQ Short form.
Quality of life Questionnaire related to health (S-F 36):
SF-36 is a general questionnaire that is composed of 36 questions. It measures health condition and the
efficacy of therapy. As recommended, responses were computed to create 8 sub scores (physical functioning, role
limitations due to physical health, role limitations due to emotional problems, energy/fatigue, emotional well-being,
social functioning, pain and general health).They were then summed to create 2 global scores for the physical
component score and the mental component score. Each of 8 criterion scores a number of 0 to 100, higher scores
shows better function (Ware, J. E.‚ & Sherbourne, 1992).
Data analysis of internal consistency, in a research conducted by Montazeri, Gashtasbi, and Vahdani nia
(2005) showed that SF-36 Questionnaire had standard reliability in the range of at least 0.77 to 0.90 except for
energy (Cronbach Alpha= 0.65). Convergence validity test was done to investigate the measurement hypothesis by
Using congruent of each question with the hypothesized scale that results in Favorable findings. All the correlations
were more than 0.4 (the recommended as base). In the current study Cronbach Alpha of the questionnaire was
0.93 and was in the range of 0.75 to 0.91 for the aspects composing.
Assessing obesity and overweight is based on standard criterion released by WHO which made up Body
Mass Index. This index is the weight (kg) ratio divide to square of height (square meter). In this research we
considered the amount of BMI 18.5-24.9 kg/m2 as normal, 30-34.9 kg/m2 as light, 35-39.9 kg/m2 as mild, and more
than 40 kg/m2 as extreme obese.
In the research MANOVA, ANOVA, and Bonferroni post hoc test was used, in addition to descriptive
statistics for comparing the differences of early maladaptive schema with quality of life in women with different BMI
levels. Pearson correlation was used to investigate the relation between early maladaptive schemas and quality of
life.
This research is a research project approved by Tehran University of Medical Sciences and ethics is
considered in all phases.
Results
Average age of participants was 35.36±10.94. Average BMI for participants at age 34.32±9.76 was in range of 18.6
to 65.2. The percentage of single subjects was 33.1 and 66.9% were married. 20.6% of all subjects had college
degrees.
Table 1: some of demographic features of samples (n=40)
Variable
Class
Frequency
Percentage
Reliable percent
Condensation
percent
Marital status
Single
53
33.1
33.1
33.1
Married
107
66.9
66.9
100
Educational Level
Primary
elementary
Diploma
College
BS – BA
MS – MA
12
28
68
19
28
5
7.5
17.5
42.5
11.9
17.5
3.1
7.5
17.5
5
11.9
17.5
3.1
7.5
25
67.5
79.4
96.5
100
Table 2: descriptive statistics related to different levels of Body Mass Index (BMI)
Level of Obesity
Number
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
Standard
Deviation
Light obesity
40
30
34.6
32.26
1.63
Mild obesity
40
35.5
39.8
37.42
1.19
Extreme obesity
40
40
65.2
46.50
6.03
Normal
40
18.6
24.8
21.12
1.81
804
As maladaptive schemas are consisting of 15 major schemas, Multi-Variable Analysis of Variance
(MANOVA) was used to show the differences in 4 groups of women. Therefore Multi-Variable Tests were done firs
and considering that (F(15,45) = 1.97, P < 0.01, Wilks' lambda = 0.57)there is a significant difference in combination
of early maladaptive schemas between 4 groups.
Because the authors were interested in comparing the scores of 15 early maladaptive schemas, One Way
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used. As illustrated in table 3 there were significant differences among 4 groups
of women in defectiveness/shame, dependence/incompetence, vulnerability to harm or illness,
enmeshment/undeveloped self, Subjugation, and self-sacrifice. In contrast, among 4 groups of women in other
schemas, there were no significant differences.
Table 3: One way variable test for comparing scores belonging to 4 group of women with different BMI levels, in
each of early maladaptive schemas.
Source
Dependent Variable
Sum of
Freedom
Mean
F
Significancy
Squares
degree
square
level
emotional deprivation
4.60
3
1.53
0.76
0.516
BMI
abandonment/instability
4.16
3
1.39
0.78
0.505
mistrust/abuse
6.81
3
2.27
1.59
0.193
Social isolation/alienation
8.26
3
2.75
2.26
0.083
defectiveness/shame
7.26
3
2.42
2.68
0.049
dependence/incompetence
7.56
3
2.49
2.66
0.049
vulnerability to harm or
illness
enmeshment/undeveloped
self
Subjugation
14.12
3
4.71
4.36
0.006
12.43
3
4.14
3.44
0.018
14.59
3
4.95
3.60
0.015
self-sacrifice
31.26
3
10.42
7.10
0.001
Emotional inhibition
8.73
3
2.91
1.62
0.188
Unrelenting standards
1.05
3
0.35
0.26
0.855
Insufficient
self-control/self-discipline
entitlement/grandiosity
1.90
3
0.63
0.56
0.647
6.45
3
2.15
1.61
0.191
Failure
8.82
3
2.94
2.53
0.059
Later and for revealing the differences in quality of life criterions, among obese people with different BMI
levels, ANOVA test was used. As it is clearly illustrated in table 4, the sum of between group squares is 12444.29
and within group’s squares are 52733.77. These findings leads to F =12.27 which is significant with df (3,156) , P
<0.01. These results suggest that there are significant differences in life quality scores among groups.
Table 4: ANOVA used to compare the 4 groups in quality of life scores.
Sum of Squares
Freedom Degree
Mean square
F
Significancy
level
Between Groups
12444.29
3
4148.09
12.27
0.001
Within Groups
52733.77
156
338.04
Sum
65178.05
159
To clarify the difference between groups Bonferroni post hoc test was used. The results suggested that
there is a significant difference (P <0.01) in life quality between light and mild obese women, mild and extreme
obese women, normal and mild obese women, and finally normal and extreme obese women.
As quality of life is composed of 8 major aspects, to show the difference between 4 groups of women in
these aspects, ANOVA analysis was used. Considering the results (F(8,24) = 1.97, P < 0.001, Wilks' lambda =
0.61) it was obvious that there is a significant difference in linear combination of life quality between the groups. To
explore the differences of 4 groups in each aspect that make up quality of life, between subjects effects test was
used. All correlations between 4 groups of women in 7 aspects of quality of life (except for Role limitations due to
emotional problems) were significant (P<0.01). (Table 5)
805
Table 5: between subjects effects test to show the difference in 4 groups of samples in every aspects of life.
Source
Dependent variable
Third type of
Freedom
Mean
F
Significancy
sum of Squares
degree
Square
level
Physical functioning
24641.72
3
8213.91
14.05
0.001
Role limitations due
265587.13
3
8859.38
6.88
0.001
to physical health
BMI
Role limitations due
4555.56
3
1518.52
0.89
0.448
to emotional
problems
Energy/fatigue
7097.9
3
1755.16
3.88
0.001
Emotional well-being
8773.44
3
2365.97
5.64
0.001
Social Functioning
8773.44
3
2924.48
4.67
0.004
Pain
15465.31
3
5155.10
9.02
0.001
General health
14814.22
3
4938.07
13.46
0.001
As BMI modifies the relation between early maladaptive schemas and quality of life, Pearson Correlation
was used to investigate the correlation between these items in different BMI levels. This correlation in most of
groups was significant and negative. The results are illustrated in table 6.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
*P< 0.05
Table 6: Correlation to investigate the relation between early maladaptive schemas and quality of life
scores in different BMI levels.
Dependent Variable
Light
Obese Mild
Obese Extreme
Obese
Women
Women
Women
emotional deprivation
-0.57**
-0.44*
-0.23
abandonment/instability
-0.41**
-0.19
-0.34*
mistrust/abuse
-0.53**
-0.38*
-0.16
Social isolation/alienation
-0.44**
-0.54**
-0.33*
defectiveness/shame
-0.54**
-0.49**
-0.25
dependence/incompetence
-0.54**
-0.31*
-0.35*
vulnerability to harm or illness
-0.38**
-0.55*
-0.14
enmeshment/undeveloped self -0/08
-0.38**
-0.18
Subjugation
-0.58**
-0.45**
-0.25**
self-sacrifice
-0.49**
-0.10
-0.12
-0.47**
-0.50**
-0.28
Unrelenting standards
-0.28
-0.37*
-0.01
Insufficient
-0.61**
-0.14
-0.19
self-control/self-discipline
entitlement/grandiosity
-0.34**
-0.30
-0.02
Failure
-0.59**
-0.30
-0.46**
**P< 0.01
Discussion
The present research suggested that there are significant differences between 4 groups of women in schemas
like defectiveness/shame, dependence/incompetence, vulnerability to harm or illness, enmeshment/undeveloped
self, subjugation, self-sacrifice. More the BMI, more extreme they become. The results were similar as the results of
Shayeghan and et al. (2011), Gongora and et al. (2004), and Anderson and et al (2006) that meant increasing in
BMI associates with significant increase in schemas. To explain the findings using the model presented by Young
and his colleges (2003), it can be suggested that bad feeling which obese people experience toward themselves
about their obesity, social prejudice about their appearance, and social discrimination leads to negative behavioral
and emotional reactions. Thus, increasing weight anticipates worse maladaptive schemas. On the other hand,
being dysfunctional in any schemas causes overeating, as an action to reveal negative feeling. The results suggest
that more obese people are, more maladaptive schemas they have.
Findings also show that increasing in BMI leads to significant decreasing in quality of life scores, among 4
groups of women. Although the difference between groups of normal weighted and light obese and mild and
extreme obese women was not statistically significant, it is clinically significant. The findings are paralleled with the
806
study results of Cameron and et al. (2012), Kortt and Dollery (2011), and Castres and et al. (2010). All the studies
suggest that increasing in BMI results in decreased quality of life (or some aspects of it).
To explain the findings negative impacts of high BMI on physical functions is mentioned. As frequent studies
suggest obesity is comorbidity of debilitating diseases like high blood pressure, cardiovascular illness, rupture of
heart, diabetes, and many types of cancer (Scholtz and Morgan, 2009). Simultaneous and probable existence of
some diseases specifically in people who have higher BMI scores, can develop physical dysfunction and therefore
decreases quality of life in physical aspects.
Obesity has physical and psychological consequences. These mental consequences double the discomfort
people experience. As mentioned by Conradt and his colleges (2008), obese people when are assessed to be fat,
become sad and feel ashamed. These factors, as well as experiencing anxiety, depression, distorted body image,
and low self-steam; in addition to decrease in body satisfaction and weaker psychological adjustment (Klaczynski,
Daniel, and Keller, 2009) can bring about inefficiencies in mental functions and therefore diminish the mental
aspects laid in quality of life.
The current research shows that by intensifying schemas, different aspect of life quality reduce significantly.
The findings are paralleled to the result from research by Bidadian and colleges (2011) which pointed negative
relation between maladaptive schemas and quality of life. Obese people often have schemas about helplessness,
weakness, and incompetency. These schemas largely originate from one's attitude about high weight and being
obese. Continuity of such attitude causes depressed mood and symptoms of depression. Existence of mental
disorders has widespread and negative impact on quality of life in people suffering from obesity (Aben and et al.
2002).
Considering the fact that identifying and recognition of mental causes and consequences of obesity can lead
preventative programs, using therapies which emphasize the role of psychological variables such as maladaptive
schemas in intervention for obesity problems is a beneficial step in health services. These services can develop
mental functions and quality of life.
The present research is causal-comparative design, so the causal relations between variables are not definite.
In addition using available sampling method limits the generalizing the finding to community. In the future
researches using larger amount of samples and other methods of sampling is suggested.
Acknowledgment
This article is originated from a research project named "comparison of early maladaptive schemas,
depression, and quality of life in obese women in different body mass index (BMI) with normal women." The
mentioned project is approved and sponsored by Tehran University of Medical Sciences and Health Services in
2011 coded as 90-04-140-16211. The authors are much indebted to Abdolreza Pazoki, MD., Chaychian, MD.,
Tamanaee, MD, Mokhber, MD., for her help with setup of the project. We wish to thank the staff at the Obesity
Services of Minimally Invasive Surgery Research Center of Tehran University of Medical Sciences (TUMS), for their
support and assistance throughout the study.
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808
Predicting Adolescent Emotional Autonomy Based On Trust,
Communication and Alienation Quality Of Attachment To Parents In
Shiraz, Iran
Maasomeh Fallahi1, Mohammad Aflaki-Far2, Fatemeh Darnjany-Shirazi3, Habib Dehghani4
MA, Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Young Researchers And Elite Club, Marvdasht
Branch,Islamic Azad University, Marvdasht,Iran
2
MA, Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Young Researchers And Elite Club, Marvdasht Branch,
Islamic Azad University, Marvdasht,Iran
3
MA, General Psychology, Islamic Azad University, Marvdasht
4
MA, Clinical Psychology, Persian Research University, Marvdasht
1
Abstract
Introduction: Adolescence is the most challenging and sometimes even the most difficult
period of life, during which one of the critical stages of a person's intellectual and social
maturity is established. Because of the importance of studying teenage issues, the topic
has been a priority for many researchers. The present study was carried out to predict
adolescent emotional independence based on such variables as trust, communication
and alienation, quality of interest to parents, in Shiraz city, Iran, 2013-2014. Correlation
method was used in this study. The samples included 19,000 students, studying third
grade in Guidance School (Middle School) in shiraz. To reach the goal, 340 students (171
girls and 169 boys) were selected through cluster sampling to answer the research
questions. Two questionnaires, emotional independence (EAS) developed by Armsden
and Greenberg (1986), and Interest Styles (IPPA) by Armsden and Greenberg (1987) were
used. Data obtained were analyzed using the correlation coefficient and stepwise
regression. Results showed that there was a significant relationship between
adolescents’ emotional independence components and trust, quality of communication,
and father's alienation of interest. Also, trust, quality of communication, and parents'
alienation of interest can predict adolescent emotional independence.
Conclusion: it can be argued that one of the prominent features in adolescence is
emotional independence. The child, in the family, learns from parents' behavior to be
serious or outgoing, developing most of his/her emotional behaviors.
Key words: emotional independence, trust, quality of communication, alienation of interest
Introduction
Studying various aspects of adolescence has a long history, especially in Iran, in which has the
population of the adolescents is high compared to other age groups. This group, then, cannot be simply
ignored in developing and improving the society. Some believe that this period is the peak of emotional
instability and excitement. Although this possibility may be true, in a minority of adolescents, it may not be a
valid assumption. For most teenagers, feelings toward friends are more positive than feelings towards family
members (especially parents). Consistently, research has shown that increasing physical maturation can
lead adolescents to have more negative emotions toward their parents. This attitude moves parallel to the
negative feeling of parents to their teens. In addition, researches based on observation have shown that
positive excitements will reduce from early stages of puberty to the last stages of it. Despite of the increasing
negative emotions among family members, most teenagers keep positive emotional relationships with their
parents, having a warm relationship with their families (Rice, 2002/2008). Undoubtedly family and social
relationships are one of the crucial factors in the formation of values and personal standards, all of which
can determine the course and worldview of the person, and these personal aspects will not be successfully
developed unless the relationship and communication within the family is healthy (Rahmanian, 2005). One of
the tasks of adolescent is establishing a balance between interests and emotional independence. When a
person knows his feelings and expresses them in interaction with other people, the person is thought to have
reached emotional independence (Grazyna, 2001). Such a person can properly express his/her feelings and
identify and understand the feelings of others as well. If one is able to separate himself from others and have
independent thoughts, ideas and desires, the person has developed emotional independent (Cozzarelli,
Karafa, Collins, and Tagler, 2003). Emotional development is a process that begins at birth and parents play
an important role in this process. The mother is first human being linking the child to the outside world
(Suninder and Rupan, 2006). Mother-child interactions will affect the child’s interaction with the outside
world. Maternal interaction satisfies the first need of the newborn to communicate with the outside world and
anything that can secure this interaction. The outside world would be safer for the child through this maternal
linkage. If this feeling is not shaped during growth and development, the person will start his/her marital life
with the same undeveloped feelings and will have insecure interests. This attachment style has a direct
relationship with the child's attempts to gain independence (Stnbrg and Selorbrg, 1993). The child
understands the concept of "my toys", "my mom", and so on, from at the age of 2-3 years, seeking his/her
identity. By relying on a secure attachment to the mother, the child will seek to achieve independence
(Nikkhah, 2011). Sense of emotional independence, individuality, dependence on parents reduction, and the
feeling of independence, are the topics discussed during the transition from childhood to adolescence and
youth. Emotional autonomy is represented as a series of changes in relation with parents and also changes
in parents’ understanding. Thus, with increasing emotional independence, children's dependence on parents
will reduce, leading to changes in parents’ attitude about their child. So the child does not see parents as a
single source (Meng, 2011). In this regard, Stnbrg and Selorbrg (1993) believe that emotional
independence will be created when abandoned thoughts and childish dependence on parents are gone.
Keml, Vanbr and Valerie (1995) also believe that independence is freedom in deciding about how to think
and is a feeling about how to do things. Another important topic in the study of childhood is attachment
(interest), which shows the quality of emotional relations to important people in ones’ life. Prior to youth and
adolescence, parents are the major source of interest (attachment), and because of this special relation it is
thought that emotional independence is the tendency to have freedom in decision-making and is opposite of
attachment (interest) (see Foam, Dekoes and myoz, 1994, as cited in Keml, Vanbr and Valerie, 1995). Bykrtz
(1998) also contends that independency is the person's understanding of the degree of dependence of
choices on internal and external factors. Bykrtz also believes that independence is in the category of the
factors that are effective in forming the “self” (as cited in Moayed Far, 2006). Bowlby (1973) states that
dependent behavior has a biological origin and is the basis of long-term emotional linkage, and because of
the interest behavior and close relationship of mother and child, the chance of child survival will increase.
According to the Interest Theory, the child at birth has a set of especial behaviors like crying, smiling and
catching (holding), which probably increase his/her proximity with the mother. Rean Vleng (1989) at the
beginning of a study on emotional autonomy versus independence, proposes and discuses concepts of
independence, individuality and independence. He believes that despite the link between the two concepts,
each of them has its own meanings. Rean Vleng further points out that freedom means a person's selfregulation and self-ruling and is the opposite of independence that shows accepting and subjugating to
external force. The concept of independence refers to self-reliance and self-care and ability to protect one’s
self, and it is the opposite of dependence that refers to reliance on others for satisfying one’s needs.
According to these definitions, it is clear that a person can maintain his independence when s/he has interest
(attachment) to another. Rean Vleng (1989), in his research, studied the relation between teenagers'
emotional independence and attachment (interest), showing that emotional independence is associated with
feeling less secure to parents and least enjoyment of emotional care from parents' emotions. According to
this study, the construct in emotional independence measurement suggested lack of attachment. Elson and
MaKoben (1983), examining the relationship between emotional autonomy and scale adaptation of family
cohesion, showed that emotional independence is negatively related to the degree of family solidarity. Based
on the survey results, the researchers concluded that what is measured by the emotional scale is that
teenagers experience very low family solidarity. The two researchers, in their second study, investigated the
relationship between emotional independence and degree of acceptance or rejection from parents or peers.
The results of the study showed that there was a negative relationship between emotional independence and
the degree of parents' acceptance, and it is not related to the independence from parents. According to the
results, the construct in emotional independence measurement indicated a problem in attachment (interest),
in such a way high emotional autonomy in Steinberg and Silverberg’s scale was associated with less
810
acceptance and love from parents. The results of Mikulincer and colleagues' study (2001) showed that
individuals with secure attachment have positive emotional reactions to neutral events and those with
insecure attachment experience negative emotional reactions to neutral events. In addition, individuals with
anxious attachment styles tend to assume sad faces but this is less severe in people with avoidant
attachment styles. Train and Hayden (2007) investigated the relationship between emotional expressions
and emotional connections with the experience of attachment in the early stages of social evolution. The
study consisted of 78 participants in four periods of life (infancy, early childhood, adolescence and early
adulthood) and was conducted in 25 years. The results showed that participants with secure attachment in
infancy were identified in mid-childhood to have more competence and social competence among peers. In
adolescence and early adulthood, in close relations with friends and life partners, they showed more suitable
emotional and emotional expressions (as cited in Rutkowski, 2011). Kenny and Hart (2006), in a study on the
relationship between parental attachment and adolescents' emotional autonomy, concluded that there was a
positive impact between secure attachment and emotional support of parents, and that secure attachment
caused independence and low sense of futility. Rutkowski (2011), studying the impact of emotional
independence and individuality and family support on motivation and self-report to change in adolescent,
found that there was a significant relationship Between emotional independence to individuality and
independence and high motivation to change in adolescence. In addition, emotional independence was
higher in boys than girls. In this regard, the aim of this study is to answer this question whether trust, quality
of communication, and alienation attachment can predict emotional independence?
Method
The study design is based on a correlational method. The population consisted of 1900 people who were
in middle school (native: Guidance School) in third grade in Shiraz, Iran, in 2013-2014 academic year. The
study sample consisted of 350 individuals sampled by multi-stage cluster sampling. More specifically, the
areas of Education Districts 2 and 4 were randomly selected and 2 middle schools for boys and girls were
selected randomly. One class was randomly selected from each school. A Total of 8 classes were selected
and finally 340 questionnaires were used for analysis. For data collection in this study, the following
questionnaires were used:
•
Emotional independence questionnaire
To assess the degree of emotional independence, EAS was used. The scale has been prepared by
Steinberg and Silverberg (1986) and includes four factors, 2 of which are about the emotional and
excitement factors (independence and individuality). The 2 other factors are related to cognitive aspects of
independence (non-ideal parents and parents' perceived to be ordinary people). Among these four factors,
the parents perceived as normal due to the gradual transformation has been less researched (Rean Vleng,
1989). Also, in his study, Rean Vleng pointed out that the this construct’s validly was not adequate through
using experimental evidence. So, in the present research, too, we used the three-factor form of emotional
independence measurement. The three-factor form includes 16 four-score scaled questions. The results of
preliminary studies (Samani, 2001) on this scale indicate the adequacy of this scale to be used in Iran.
Reliability coefficient of the total score of this measurement in preliminary studies was found to be 0.70. The
original form of this scale was translated by three psychology experts (PhD holders). In the present study,
Cronbach's alpha reliability test was founded to be 0.83.
Table 1: Coefficient alpha reliability for the scale of emotional independence
Agent
Individuality
Independence
Non-ideal parents
0.78
0.80
.082
The alpha coefficient
0.72
0.79
0.78
Reliability coefficient
•
Interest steles questionnaire (IPPA)
This questionnaire was prepared by Armsden and Greenberg in 1987 and has both short and long
aspects and is used to examine emotional and cognitive dimensions of secure attachment and trust in
presence and responsibility of parents and peers. In this study, the short form of this scale was used which
has 10 items or questions that measure three aspects of trust, quality of relation, and estrangement with
parents and peers. Each item has five options (entirely true, it is true, I think, is not true, absolutely not true)
that one of them must be selected. In the present study, Cronbach's alpha reliability of this test, is obtained
81.0.
Table 2: Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficients for the scale of parents and peers interest
Reliability coefficients
811
Trust
Quality of communication
Alienation
Father
Mother
0.78
0.79
.080
0.76
0.77
0.78
Results
In order to determine the variables compared, primarily the descriptive statistics (mean, standard
deviation) are presented in Table 1.
Table 3: Mean, standard deviation, maximum and minimum scores on the components of emotional
independence, trust, quality of communication, alienation, attachment to mother and father
Statistics
Average
Standard
Maximum
Minimum
Variables
deviation
2.40
0.63
1
4
Componen Individuality
2.56
0.69
1
4
of emotiona Independence
2.66
0.65
1
4
autonomy Non-ideal parents
2.55
0.41
1
5
Emotional autonomy
4.13
0.81
1
5
Trust
3.90
1.05
1
5
Mother
2.08
0.92
1
5
Alienation attachment
3.69
1.04
1
5
Trust
Father
3.86
1.04
1
5
2.10
0.92
1
5
In order to investigate the relationship between the components of emotional independence, trust, quality
of communication, and alienation of interest, the Pearson correlation coefficient was used (see Table 2).
Table 4: Correlation coefficients between components of emotional autonomy, trust, quality of
communication, alienation of interest
Individuality
Independence
Non-ideal parents
-0.06
-0.20**
-0.17**
Moth
Trust
-0.02
-0.08
0.13*
0.24**
0.05
0.03
-0.05
-0.18**
-0.16**
Fathe
Trust
-0.03
-0.08
-0.17**
0.19**
0.07
0.08
P<0.05*
P<0.01**
As Table 4 shows, there is a significant relationship between components of emotional independence
(individuality, independence, non-ideal parents) with trust, quality of communication, and alienation of
interest. According to the above results, there is a reverse direction between the coefficients of the
components of emotional independence (individuality, independence, parental non-ideal) with trust, quality of
communication, but the coefficients of the components of emotional autonomy (individuality, independence,
non-ideal parents) are in the same direction with alienation of interest.
In order to investigate the prediction of emotional independence based on trust, quality of communication,
and alienation of interest in mother and father, stepwise regression test was used (see Table 5).
Table 5: Prediction of emotional autonomy based on trust, quality of communication, alienation of interest
with mother
Stage Variables
B
Beta
t
P<
R
R2
F
df
P<
First
Constant
2.17
----19.07 0.0001 0.18 0.03 11.28 1,338 0.0001
Trust
0.09
0.18
3.35
0.001
Second Constant
1.18
----12.43 0.0001 0.27 0.07 13.45 1,337 0.0001
Trust
0.13
0.26
4.62
0.0001
0 .09 0 .22 -3 .89 0 .0001
Third
Constant
1 .66 ----10 .31 0 .0001 0 .29 0 .08 10 .55 1,336 0 .0001
Trust
0 .10 -0 .19 2 .99
0 .003
-0 .13 -0 .28 -4 .44 0 .0001
Quality of communication 0 .06 0 .15 2 .11
0 .03
812
As Table 5 shows, the results of this analysis indicate that in the first-order, correlation coefficient
between trust and adolescent emotional independence is 0.18 and r2 is equal to 0 .03, indicating that trust
can predict emotional independence and remaining is related to accident. However, r2 in second-order was
found to be 0.07, indicating that trust and alienation of interest can predict emotional independence, and the
remaining is related to accident. Furthermore, for the third-order, r2 was obtained 0.08, which shows that
trust and alienation of interest and quality of communication can predict emotional independence and the
remaining is related to accident. According to the above results, one can argue that the coefficient of trust
and quality of communication with emotional independence has a direct relationship to emotional
independence and, in other words, has a positive correlation with the variable. However, the coefficient of
alienation of interest is in the reverse direction with emotional independence and, in other words has a
negative correlation with the variable.
Table 6: Prediction of emotional independence based on trust, quality of communication, alienation of
interest to father
Stage Variables
B
Beta t
P<
R
R2
F
df
P<
First
Constant
36.4 -----26.42 0.0001 0.18 0.03 11.70 1,338 0.001
Trust
0.40 0.18
3.42
0.001
Second Constant
32.6 -----16.81 0.0001 0.23 0.05 9.65
1,337 0.0001
Trust
0.52 0.23
4.17
0.0001
-0.2 -0.15 -0.15 0.007
Third
Constant
30.4 ----------0.0001 0.25 0.06 7.78
1,336 0.0001
Trust
0.36 0.16
0.16
0.02
-0.3 -0.18 -0.18 0.002
0.31 0.13
0.13
0.04
As Table 6 shows, the results of this analysis indicated that in the first-order, correlation coefficient
between trust and adolescent emotional independence was 0.18 and r2 was equal to 0.03, indicating that
trust can predict emotional independence that the remaining is related to the accident. However, in secondorder, r2 was obtained 0.05, which indicates that trust and alienation of interest can predict emotional
independence and the remaining is related to accident. Also, in third-order, r2 was found to be 0.06, showing
that trust and alienation of interest and quality of communication can predict emotional independence, and
the remaining is related to accident. According to the above results, one can argue that the coefficient of
trust and quality of communication with emotional independence are in direct contact and, in other words,
has positive correlation with the variable. However, the coefficient of alienation of interest with emotional
attachment is in the reverse direction and, in other words, has a negative correlation with the variable.
Discussion and conclusions.
As Table 2 shows, there is a significant relationship between the components of emotional independence
(individuality, independence, non-ideal parents) to trust, quality of communication and alienation of interest.
Present results and Mikel's et al results showed that individuals with secure interest have positive reactions
to neutral events and those with unsafe interest show negative reactions. Keni et al (2006) found that there
was a positive relationship between safe interest and parents' emotional support, and that safe interest
brought about independence and lower feeling of inefficiency. Among the different aspects of emotional
independence, individuality is has the strongest relationship to interest alienation. The more a person
experiences alienation of interest, the more sense of individuality s/he feels and experiences that s/he is
more different from his parents and will have more emotional problems. In a situation in which an individual
has alienation of interest s/he will feel more different from his parents and is less satisfied with their behavior
styles and the possibility of more emotional problems is greater. Based on the results of this study, the most
difficult situation for a teenager is when the feeling of family interest (the parents) is the low and sense of
individuality is high. Rean Vleng (1989), in a study on emotional independence against independence,
proposed and discussed concepts of independence, individuality, and independence and believed that the
connection of these concepts, each of them has their specific implications. In this paper, he expresses that
freedom means the person's self-regulation and self-ruling and is the opposite of independence, which refers
to accepting control from external forces. The concept of independence refers to self-reliance and self-care
and the ability to protect one’s self, and it is the opposite of dependence, which refers to reliance on others
for satisfying one’s needs. According to these definitions, it is clear that a person can maintain his
independence when he has interest in or attachment to another person. In this study, there was a negative
relationship between independence or self-reliance to trust. Such individuals heavily rely on their abilities,
which lead to their ability to realize most of their ambitions. Because of the ability of realizing most of their
ambitions, they have a weaker connection to others and this causes less trust to others. People who have
non-ideal parents have less relation with and trust to others, experiencing a decline in their communication
quality. Because of their thoughts about their parents, they will reject to communicate with others, because
they think this relation may cause shame. As you can see in Tables 3 and 4, trust, quality of communication
813
and alienation of interest can predict emotional independence. Present results and Mikulincer's et al results
(2001) show that individuals with secure interests show positive responses to neutral events and those with
insecure interests have negative emotional reactions. Kenny et al (2006) found that there is a positive impact
between secure interest and parents' emotional support. Also, secure interest brings about independence
and low sense of inefficiency. The mother is the first connector of child with the outside world. So the
interaction of child to his/her mother can determine his/her interaction to outside world. Interest or contact
between mother and child is the first child's need to communicate with the outside world and more security in
this interest can create a safer outside world (Nikkhah, 2011). Bowlby (1973) believes that the dependent
behavior has a biological origin and is the basis of long-term emotional bonds; because of the interest
behavior and close relationship between the child and the mother, the chance of survival will increase.
According to Interest Theory, at birth, a child has specific behaviors such as crying, smiling, and catching
(holding), which increase the probability of being closer to his/her mother. So we can conclude that the initial
relationship between the child and the mother creates the core sense of trust or distrust in the child. If this
relationship is shaped improperly, it will affect the child’s future life. Negligence, misbehavior and exclusion
from affection in early stages of a child's life can cause temporary and sometimes permanent distrust.
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814
11Investigating the Effect of Metacognitive Therapy in Recovery of the
Patients with Migraine and comparing it with Drug Treatment
1
Maryam valipour*,2Ali Khademi
1.M.A Student of Clinical Psychology, , Islamic Azad University,West Azerbaijan Science and
Research Branch,Department of Psychology,Urmia,Iran.
2.Assistant Professor, Islamic Azad University,Urmia Branch, Department of Psychology,
Urmia. Iran.
Abstract
The preset study aimed to investigate the effect of metacognitive therapy in recovery of the
patients with migraine and comparing it with drug treatment. For this purpose, 15 people were
selected and investigated randomly from the people referred to neurology clinics and elected
neurologists and according to the doctor's diagnosis, at least 6 months have been passed since
the start of their headaches.
The questionnaires used in this study consisted of a migraines questionnaire and a metacognitive
questionnaire. The research method was quasi experimental study. Descriptive statistics methods
and covariance method and T-test were used in order to analyze the data. The results showed that
there is a significant difference between the means of posttest in metacognitive therapy group
and drug treatment group which indicates the effectiveness of training in the test group. Also,
intervention and training could positively affect the patient's metacognitive skills. But no
significant difference was found between the effectiveness of metacognitive therapy and drug
treatment among the patients.
According to the results of the present study, metacognitive therapies could be viable alternatives
to other high-risk treatments. Being a short-term treatments with no side-effects, the
metacognitive therapies are very popular and also the patients can use the metacognitive skills
they have learned in all stages and situations of their life and deal effectively with it.
Keywords: metacognitive therapy, Migraine, Drug treatment, Disease recovery
Introduction
Headache is one of the most common health medical complaints of the people. Severe and recurring
headaches limit daily activities of living, decrease the quality of life and diminish and reduced the
efficiency (Kurt & Kaplan, 2008).
Migraine is a headache with recurrent attacks, with moderate to severe pain and sometimes
accompanied by nausea and vomiting, sensitivity to light, sound and other neuro-stimulators that usually
lasts 4 to 72 hours (Luis, 2002).
Migraine is the most common type of headache that appears in one half of the head, mostly pulsating in
nature and usually includes headache, nausea, vomiting and other symptoms of nerve dysfunction
emerged in different forms (Kasper et al, 2005).
Due to the severe and recurring nature of the headaches, they typically reduce performance, activity and
quality of life. So treatment of this disease is among the most important duties and priorities of the
physicians and psychologists. In the past, treatment had three main aspects: trigger avoidance, acute
symptomatic control, and pharmacological prevention.
These methods are highly controversial because of having long-term treatment period, lack of
functionality and having side effects that become stable in cases. Headache resulted from constant
overuse of medication could lead to severer pain with greater frequency. This problem might appear via
use of Triptane, Ergotamine and analgesics, especially narcotic analgesics. Nowadays, new treatments
have been developed to improve or reduce the severity of psychological disorders which are noticed and
used greatly because of having short-term treatment period, having stabile effect, active interception of
the patient in the treatment process, lack of serious side effects and etc. among these new methods,
cognitive and metacognitive therapies could be noted.
One of the most valuable achievements of the recent century is the development of theories that
emphasize on the role of the supreme processes affecting the control and guidance of cognitive
processes. These supreme processes are called “metacognition”. The term was formally used by Flavell
(1979) for the first time.
Cognition is called to the intellectual processes of humankind including perception, memory, and
language and includes the most supreme level of data process. Metacognition is the conscious control of
cognitive activities. Literally, metacognition means awareness from cognition and it comes from the root
word "meta", which means going beyond and giving a more fundamental analysis.
Metacognition is a term used for a certain level of thoughts and cognition. Generally, metacognition is a
cognition used for metacognition (Fisher & Wells, translated by Beyrami & Khademi,).
According to Flavell & Miller (1993) metacognition refers to the knowledge of a person about his cognitive
processed, action process, organization and coordination of a series of streams, as well as any
knowledge or cognitive act with subject of cognition or regulation of cognition (Quoted by Karshky,2002).
The main aim of metacognitive therapy includes enabling the patients to communicate with their thoughts
in a different manner and increase their flexible metacognitive awareness and control. In other words,
metacognitive approach grants the guidelines and skills to the patients to free their thoughts from being
locked in fear situation, threat monitoring and
One can think of locking himself in fear, threat monitoring and controlling their release incompatibilities
and incompatible self-control and could consider a suitable plan for encountering the threats and harms
via training flexible process of thoughts (Wells and Simbey,2004)
In a research carried out by Khademi & Saif (2010) under the title of “The Effects of Metacognitive
Components Instruction in Reducing Antisocial Behaviors in Youth of Urmia Central Prison” the
results showed that disordered metacognitive factors are one of the factors of anti-social behaviors of
young people and metacognitive interceptions are effective in decreasing anti-social behaviors regarding
the under investigation sample.
In a similar research by Shafie-Sang-Atash et al. (2013) titled “The Efficacy of Metacognitive Therapy
on Anxiety and Metacognitive Components in Individuals with Generalized Anxiety Disorder” the findings
showed that the mean values of anxiety, meta-worry and the factors of metacognitive beliefs were
decreased significantly in the sample group after metacognitive therapy interceptions in comparison with
the control group.
In another research carried out by Hosseini-Ghaffari et al. under the title of “The Effectiveness of Group
Metacognitive Therapy on Metacognitive Beliefs, Worry and Worry Domains in patients with Generalized
Anxiety Disorder” the results showed that group metacognitive therapy have significant effect on
decreasing negative metacognitive beliefs. Also, group metacognitive therapy significantly have
decreased worry, and worry Domain.
816
Rabie et al. (2011) in a study titled “efficacy of metacognitive therapy in reducing thoughts fusion in
outpatients with body dysmorphic disorder” reported the results that metacognitive therapy was followed
by a significant decrease in thoughts fusion in outpatients with body dysmorphic disorder. Compared with
the pretest, the experimental group showed a 65% decrease in the rate of thoughts fusion in the
immediate post-test and a 56% decrease in the follow-up.
The findings of a study carried out by Khorramdel et al. (2010) under the title of “Effect of Wells’
metacognitive therapy on thought fusion in patients with obsessive compulsive disorder” revealed that
using Wells’ metacognitive model is beneficial in decreasing thought fusion in obsessive compulsive
disorder patients.
The results of another research by Fallah et al. titled “Evaluation of efficacy and safety of Propranolol for
pediatric migraine prophylaxis” showed that the drug was effective for monthly frequency, duration,
severity score and pediatric Migraine Disability of headache.
In a research under the title of “comparing the effect of metacognitive therapy and drug treatment on
obsessions” carried out by Abdolahzadeh et al. (2010) the results showed that reduction of the
obsessions severity, stress and negative metacognitive beliefs have better results in comparison with
drugs treatment. But regarding the overall functionality, the results of medication is better.
The investigations of French et al. (2000) revealed that patient’s belief about his capability to prevent or
control the headache could predict the headache-related disability. Persistence of feeling helpless against
headache can also provide desperation against headache and establishment of negative mood states
and depression. (Sajadinejad, Mohammadi, Taghavi, Ashgazadeh, 2009)
The results of a study by Lever et al. showed that people with migraine headaches have a pattern of
excessive reproach and blaming themselves and others as well as anger and aggression (quoted from
Aghayusef & Bazyari Meymand, 2012).
Considering the above mentioned issues, no research has been carried out with the purpose and title of
the present study and the researcher aims to answer this question that whether metacognitive therapy
has any effect on the patients with migraine, and whether these effects vary by drug therapy or not?
Method
The statistical population of the present study includes all patients with migraine in Tabriz City who visited
the elected neurology departments and psychologists in a 3 month period (20 March to 20 May 2014) and
according to the doctor's diagnosis, at least 6 months have been passed since the start of their
headaches.
As the subjects were selected randomly from patients with migraine, and they were intercepted for the
purpose of the present study, some other factors related with the subject such as nutrition and etc. were
not under control, so the present study is a semi-experimental research.
Measuring instrument:
Short form of Metacognition Questionnaire
Short form of metacognition questionnaire (Cartwright- Hatton & Wells, 2004) is revised to measure
metacognitive beliefs. The questionnaire consists of 30 items and each subject answers the questions in
a multiple choice format with four alternatives (disagree, partly agree, agree, and strongly agree). These
answers are scored 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively.
817
Cronbach's alpha coefficient of this questionnaire and its subscales was reported 0.72 to 0.89 and testretest reliability was 0.76 to 0.89. The Cronbach's alpha coefficients of metacognition questionnaire was
0.92 in the research by Jamal Mohammadi et al. (2005). The correlation coefficient of metacognition
questionnaire with Spielberger’s state-trait anxiety Inventory is 0.26 to 0.73. The research by Jamal
Mohammadi (2005) reports the elation coefficient of metacognition questionnaire with Goldberg general
health is 0.46.
Migraine Questionnaire
First, a questionnaire including 58 questions about different mental and physical symptoms of migraine
headache was conducted according to psychological literature. Then, at the initial phase of the research,
five questions of this collection was eliminated since they were recognized ambiguous questions by a
group of subjects. For scoring purpose, each response alternative of the questions is quantified by a
score as (1) never, (2) seldom, (3) sometimes and (4) always.
By performing a scree test (Cattell, 1987) on the answers of 382 respondents to the remained 53
questions, it became clear that Eigenvalues is just three factors higher than one (in these analysis, the
minimum loading factor 0.5 was used). Investigating the peak point of scree curve lead to the conclusion
that maximally three factors can be extracted from the existed data (Child, 1990). However, the
psychometric properties of factors 2 and 3 indicated that they did not have satisfactory reliability and
validity. Also, it was found that the latter two factors do not indicate migraine structure and cluster
structures and a consistent clusture with significant symptoms of it. Si, factors 2 and 3 were not used and
a single-factor structure was selected as symptoms of migraine headache.
The Eigenvalue of this factor with 25 questions is 11.7 and percentage of variance justifiable with it is
22.1%.
In order to assess the internal consistency of the migraine headaches’ factors questionnaire, Cronbach's
alpha coefficients were used. The coefficients obtained for the total sample was 0.91, and 0.81 for female
subjects and 0.89 for male subjects which were satisfactory.
The questionnaire of migraine headache test were handed to the 95 people of the initial sample subjects
after 4 to 6 weeks and correlation coefficients were calculated between their scores in two stages. The
coefficients of test-retest are 0.80 for total subjects, 0.47 for female subjects and 0.75 for male subjects.
Considering the significant relationship between some psychological variables with migraine headaches,
in order to assess the validity of migraine headache symptom questionnaire and its simultaneous
implementation, three other scales were used as follows: correlation coefficient of migraine questionnaire
with hospital anxiety-depression questionnaire (r= 0.49), scale of aggression in Ahvaz City (r= 0.46),
Hypochondriasis scales (r=0.36) IPMM and hysteria (r= 0.34) was significant.
The methods used for analyzing data include: descriptive statistics (Mean, Frequency …) and Inferential
statistics: covariance and T-test. Also, SPSS software was used for the purpose of data analyses.
Results
First Hypothesis: is metacognitive therapy effective on treatment of patients with migraine?
Table (1) the results of T-test of two samples for comparing migraine scores in metacognitive therapy and
drug treatment groups in pretest and posttest stages
Scales
Variants
Test Position
Calculated T
Significance
level
Result
Migraine
Pretest
1.73
0.09
Migraine
Posttest
4.19
0.00
No
significant
difference
significant difference
Table (1) shows that there is a significant difference between the posttest mean values of metacognitive
therapy group and drug treatment group indicating the effectiveness of the training program.
818
Table (2) the results of covariance analysis for experimental and control groups in migraine’s posttest
variable values
References
Corrected Model
Intercept
Pre-migraine
groups
error
Total
total correction
Type
III
squares
2374.802a
3.226
717.168
2212.744
1919.365
127815.000
4294.167
Degree
freedom
2
1
1
1
27
30
29
of
Mean
squares
1187.401
3.226
717.168
2212.744
71.088
of
F
significance
16.703
0.045
10.089
31.127
0.000
0.833
0.004
0. 000
The sum of
squares
0.553
0.002
0.272
0.535
According to the data in table (2) after correcting the scores of pretest, there was a significant effect
between group subjects with effect size 0.535. In other words, the research hypothesis of the present
study based on "effect of metacognitive therapy" is confirmed.
Table (3) the results of T-test for comparing the scores of metacognition scores in metacognitive therapy
and drug treatment groups in pretest and posttest stages
Scales
Variants
Test Position
Calculated T
Significance
level
Result
Metacognition
Pretest
1.1
0.27
Metacognition
Posttest
10.6
0.00
No
significant
difference
significant difference
The data shown in table (3) reveals that there is a significant difference between the posttest mean
values of metacognitive therapy group and drug treatment group indicating the effectiveness of the
training program.
Second Hypothesis: is metacognitive therapy effective on metacognitive skills?
Table (4) the results of Box test
Box's M
F
Degree of Freedom 1
Degree of Freedom 1
Significance level
26.844
0.979
21
2.884E3
0.487
Table (4) shows that results of Box test. Box test examines whether the data confirm the assumed
homogeneity of variance - covariance matrices or not. The significance level above shows that the
assumed of homogeneity of homogeneity of variance - covariance matrices is observed.
Table (5) the results of multivariate variance analysis
819
F
Significance
level
Etasquare
456.300
104.155
0.000
0.788
456.300b
1
456.300
65.498
0.000
0.701
50.700c
1
50.700
7.632
0.010
0.214
496.133d
1
496.133
86.106
0.000
0.755
307.200e
1
307.200
79.156
0.000
0.739
8534.533f
1
8534.533
112.473
0.000
0.801
9756.033
1
9756.033
2.227E3
0.000
0.988
8909.633
1
8909.633
1.279E3
0.000
0.979
7776.300
1
7776.300
1.171E3
0.000
0.977
8200.533
1
8200.533
1.423E3
0.000
0.981
9648.133
1
9648.133
2.486E3
0.000
0.989
219820.800
1
219820.800
2.897E3
0.000
0.990
456.300
1
456.300
104.155
0.000
0.788
456.300
1
456.300
65.498
0.000
0.701
50.700
1
50.700
7.632
0.010
0.214
496.133
1
496.133
86.106
0.000
0.755
307.200
1
307.200
79.156
0.000
0.739
8534.533
1
8534.533
112.473
0.000
0.801
122.667
28
4.381
195.067
28
6.967
186.000
28
6.643
161.333
28
5.762
Dependent
variant
Type
III
Sum
of
Squares
Corrected
Model
Posttest
first factor
metacognition
Posttest
Second factor
metacognition
Posttest
third factor
metacognition
Posttest
fourth factor
metacognition
Posttest
fifth factor
metacognition
Posttest
Total score
metacognition
Posttest
first factor
metacognition
Posttest
Second factor
metacognition
Posttest
third factor
metacognition
Posttest
fourth factor
metacognition
Posttest
fifth factor
metacognition
Posttest
Total
score
metacognition
Posttest
first factor
metacognition
Posttest
Second factor
metacognition
Posttest
third factor
metacognition
Posttest
fourth factor
metacognition
Posttest
fifth factor
metacognition
Posttest
Total score
metacognition
Posttest
first factor
metacognition
Posttest
Second factor
metacognition
Posttest
third factor
metacognition
Posttest
fourth factor
Intercept
Group
Error
820
Mean
of
squares
456.300a
Degree
of
Freedom
1
Reference
Total
Total
Correction
metacognition
Posttest
fifth factor
metacognition
Posttest
Total score
metacognition
Posttest
first factor
metacognition
Posttest
Second factor
metacognition
Posttest
third factor
metacognition
Posttest
fourth factor
metacognition
Posttest
fifth factor
metacognition
Posttest
Total score
metacognition
Posttest
first factor
metacognition
Posttest
Second factor
metacognition
Posttest
third factor
metacognition
Posttest
fourth factor
metacognition
Posttest
fifth factor
metacognition
Posttest
Total score
metacognition
108.667
28
3.881
2124.667
28
75.881
10335.000
30
9561.000
30
8013.000
30
8858.000
30
10064.000
30
230480.000
30
578.967
29
651.367
29
236.700
29
657.467
29
415.867
29
10659.200
29
The table above shows that significance level of F is significant in all subscales. That is the interception
was able to affect the metacognitive skills in intercepted group. The last column shows the effect size for
each case. The minimum effect size was observed in the third metacognitive subscale and the maximum
effect size was in total metacognition.
Third hypothesis: is there a difference between the effect of metacognitive therapy and drug
treatment for improving patients with migraine?
821
Table(6):T test
Equal
assumed
variances
F
Significance level
t
Freedom degree
Sig. (2-tailed)
0.923
0.345
-4.196
28
0.070
According to the results shown in table (6), the significance level of the considered variables is not
significant. That is metacognitive therapy was not more effective than drug treatment for improving
patients with migraine.
Discussion
The aim of this study was to examine several variables including metacognitive therapy and migraine.
Considering the results of first hypothesis, there is a significant difference between the posttest mean
values of metacognitive therapy group and drug treatment group. The result indicates that metacognitive
therapy was effective in improving patients with migraine and metacognitive therapy leads to decreased
symptoms of illness.
These findings of the present study has a concordance with the results of the studies carried out by
Hashemi et al. (2011), Shafie-Sang-Atash et al. (2012), Hosseini-Ghaffari et al. (2013), Khademi & Saif
(2010),
Abolghasemi
(2007),
Rabie
et
al.
(2011),
Khorramdel
et
al.
(2010),
Dargahian,Mohammadkhani,Hassani & Shams (2011).Well's and Mathews (1995), and Michael et al.
quoted by Khademi & Saif (2010).
The results of second hypothesis showed that there is a significant difference between the posttest mean
values of metacognitive therapy group and drug treatment group in all factors and also according to the
results of table (5) significance level of F is significant in all subscales. That is the interception was able to
affect the metacognitive skills in intercepted group.
These findings of this study has a concordance with the results of previous studies carried out by Well's
(2004), Khademi & Saif (2010), Abolghasemi (2007), Rabie et al. (2011), Khorramdel et al.
(2010),Dargahian,Mohammadkhani,Hassani & Shams (2011).
Well's and Mathews (1995), Michael et al. quoted by Khademi & Saif (2010), and Valipor & Neishaburi
(2014).
Brown(1982,1978 quoted by lacangly & Kornolt,1997) believed that metacognitive processes such as
predicting the performance level of a specific task, designing practices that lead to the target, monitoring
the cognitive actions and evaluating the applied approaches are among the important processes in
performing mathematical operations (quoted by Guya,1998).
Regarding the third hypothesis, the results showed that the significance level of the considered variables
was not significant. In other words, there is no significant difference between the effect of metacognitive
therapy and drug treatment in improving the patients with migraine.
These findings have a concordance with the results of study carried out by Fallah et al. (2013) and not
concordance with the results of study carried out by Share, Gharai & Atef vahid (2010), and
Abdolahzadeh et al. (2010).
Also in their paper, Lever et al. showed that people with migraine headaches have a pattern of excessive
reproach and blaming themselves and others as well as anger and aggression (quoted from Aghayusefi &
Bazyari Meymand, 2012).
822
According to the results of the present study, metacognitive therapies could be viable alternatives to other
high-risk treatments. Being a short-term treatments with no side-effects, the metacognitive therapies are
very popular and also the patients can use the metacognitive skills they have learned in all stages and
situations of their life and deal effectively with it. Considering the issue that no significant difference was
found between drug treatment and metacognitive therapy, it could be noted that as the group with drug
treatment was the control group and the researcher had not any control on the procedure of theit
treatment, this factor could be regarded as one of the main factors.
References
Flovell, J .H.(1979). Meta cognition and cognitive monitoring. A new area of psychological inquiry .
American psychologist,34.906-911.
Fisher, P., Wells, A. (2009) Metacognitive therapy: distinctive features, translated by Beyrami, M.,
Khademi, A. Tehran: Elm Publications (2010)
Shafie-Sang-Atash, S., Rafienia, P., Najafi, M. (2013) The Efficacy of Metacognitive Therapy on Anxiety
and Metacognitive Components in Individuals with Generalized Anxiety Disorder. Journal of Clinical
Psychology Vol. 4, No. 4 (16)
Klapper JA.The efficacy of Migraine prophylaxis,Headache quarterly 2(4)1991,278-284
Khademi, A., Saif, A, A., (2010) The Effects of Metacognitive Components Instruction in Reducing
Antisocial Behaviors in Youth of Urmia Central Prison. Journal of Behavioral Researches. (3). 186-196
Khorramdel, K., Neshatdoost, H, T., Molavi, H., Amiri, SH., Bahrami, F. (2010) Effect of Wells’
Metacognitive Therapy on Thought Fusion in Patients with Obsessive Compulsive Disorder. Journal of
Fundamentals of Mental Health. Vol. 12, No. 1(45), P. 400-9
Hosseini-Ghaffari, F., Mohammadkhani, P., Pourshahbaz, A., Dolatshahi, B. (2013) The Effectiveness of
Group Metacognitive Therapy on Metacognitive Beliefs, Worry and Worry Domains in patients with
Generalized Anxiety Disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychology. Vol. 5, No. 1 (17)
Moses LJ,Barid JA(2002).Metacognition In:Wilson RA,Keil FC(Eds).The MIT encyclopedia of the
cognitive sciences.Cambridge:MIT press.
Fallah, R., Divanizadeh, M., Karimi, M., Ordooei, M. (2013) Evaluation of Efficacy and Safety of
Propranolol for Pediatric Migraine Prophylaxis. J Shahid Sadoughi Univ Med Sci 2013; 21(1): 94-100.
Sajadinejad, M., Mohammadi, N., Taghavi, S., Ashgazadeh, N. (2009) Therapeutic Effects of CognitiveBehavioral Group Therapy on Headache Disability and Depression in Patients with Migraine and Tension
Headache. IJPCP. 2009; 14 (4) :411-418
Aghayusefi, AR., Bazyari Meymand, M. (2012) Study of General Health, Resiliency, and Defense
Mechanisms in Patients with Migraine Headache. ISMJ 2013; 16(2): 118-27
823
Comparing the Effects of Work Shift on Personality Traits and Marital
Satisfaction among the Doctors and Nurses of General and
Psychiatric Hospitals
1
Vahid sam, 2Maryam valipour*, 3Ali Khademi,4Ahmad Esmaili
1. M.A of Public Psychology.
2*.M.A Student of Clinical Psychology, , Islamic Azad University,West Azerbaijan Science and
Research Branch,Department of Psychology,Urmia,Iran.
3. Assistant Professor, Islamic Azad University,Branch Urmia,Department of Psychology,Urmia,Iran.
4. Assistant Professor,University of Maragheh, Department School of Humanitarian Scences,
Maragheh, Iran.
Abstract
The present study investigated the role of shift work on mental personality traits and marital
satisfaction among doctors and nurses in general hospitals and mental Urmia was carried out.
Methods of Ali - was a comparative selection of subjects for the study of cluster sampling method
was used. The sample was 210. To collect data from the General Health Questionnaire, the NEO
Personality Inventory (short form) and Marital Satisfaction Questionnaire was used. Data collected
by statistical methods of multivariate analysis and t-test for independent groups was examined.
Findings from the study showed that between in terms of components and agreeableness
NEUROTICISM Neo questionnaire between doctors and nurses’ working day and night, there was
a significant difference in terms of components, extroversion, conscientiousness flexibility and
significant differences between the two groups.
Keywords: personality characteristics, marital satisfaction, doctors and nurses working day and night
Introduction
In various situations different people differ in terms of cognition and encountering with a variety of
assignments and conflicts. This issue is related to their personality traits. Some of personality traits could
play important roles in the etiology and progression of disorders. One’s personality could lead to his
illness indirectly and via creating unhealthy behaviors (McCrae & Costa, 1986).
The term "personality" refers to stabile characteristics of a person manifested in diverse situations in his
behavior. Cattell (1959) believes that personality theory should aim to predict a person's behavior in
different situations. So, he defines personality as "the concept which permits a prediction of what a
person will do in a given situation" (Saatchi,2011).
Marital satisfaction is in fact a positive and delightful attitude that a wife and husband have in different
aspects of their marital relationship (Soleimani, 2011).
Alice (1989) defines marital satisfaction as "feeling objective happiness, satisfaction and pleasure by the
wife or the husband, when considering all the aspects of conjugal life."
Albert Alice argues that the rate of marital satisfaction and dissatisfaction could change during the natural
growth of people. The relationship of a wife and husband that is considered very satisfied in their twenties
could be decreased when they become 40 (Ordubadi, 2001).
Shift work is a social phenomenon existed since old times and today it exist because of technologic and
economic reasons. By definition, shift work includes any kind of work which is accomplished during the
times out of regular daily working time (from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m.). The shift work phenomenon exists in most
of the industries and factories such as steel manufacturing companies, oil industry, power stations and
generally in any kind of industry which had a huge financial investment as well as some jobs such as
medicine, nursing, law enforcement, etc. which offer services all 24 hours of a day. People with these
carriers should sleep during the day, when the society is active, and work a nights while the society is
sleeping. Most of the problems observed among the shift workers is rooted in their lifestyle that they could
not cope with this phenomenon.
When a person works in swing shift, he shall set his sleep-wake cycle for the shift he works, but other
Circadian rhythms could not be regulated instantly with shift and it takes a week or more to be set with
sleep-wake cycle (While a change in work shift from daily shift, Circadian rhythm may require two to three
weeks of steady and continuous night shift for a full compliance). Regulation of Circadian rhythms with a
new sleep-wake cycle depends on internal factors such as age, gender, physical health as well as
external factors such as shift pattern, work load and family and social environment.
Necessarily, different social, economic, service systems are obliged to use their human resources and
personnel in different work shifts. Shift work causes sleep disorder which is the main problem of shift
workers. Most of the shift workers have difficulties in their lifestyle and also they experience changes in
the rhythms of life and physical and mental situations as well as social functions (Costa, 2001).
Although nowadays shift work is an inevitable issue, it harms the people who work in shifts. The people
working in night and evening shifts suffer from various disease more than people working in day shifts
since their irregular working times affect their body and soul and physiological rhythm and also the risk of
accidents is higher for them because of their sleeplessness (Madid, 2003).
Personality is the unrepeatable collection of those physical and sensual characteristics which is known by
close friends. In other words, personality is a mask that a person wears for compatibility with
environments as a player in the great scene of the life (Izadi,1972).
Personality traits show the general image of a person’s responses towards different situations. McCrae &
Costa (1990) define personality traits as a dimension of individual differences tending to show consistent
patterns of thought, feeling and action (Garusi farshi, 2001).
Doctors working the night shifts suffer colitis disease 9 times more than the others. Even though the
workers prefer to work the night shifts rather than swing shift since they believe they could adjust their
body physiology with their work shift quickly. Additionally, extra working could lead to emotional and
physical depression which includes feeling hopelessness, chronic fatigue and loss of energy (Heather,
2001).
Generally, it could be stated that working in irregular times, especially night shifts have negative effects
on physical, mental, social and family life of the workers and these effects are amplified through
interaction with each other.
In a research carried out by Mani Kazrun (2004) under the title of investigating the relationship between
attachment levels and personality traits with happiness feeling among the students, he found out that
there is a positive relationship between secure attachment levels and personality dimensions of
extraversion and conscientiousness as well as feeling happiness and negative relationship with
neuroticism. According to this research, all five factors of personality have significant relationship with
happiness variable, among which two factors including neuroticism and extraversion specify happiness
feeling mainly. Students with secure attachment level have reported higher rate of happiness feeling in
comparison with insecure attachment level students. So, happiness is a state related to the events and
situations of life including attachment levels as well as people’s personality.
The findings of a study carried out by Nakao et al. under the title of investigating the relationship between
work and stress rate, depression and lifestyle among nurses in Japan (Yamaguchi City) including 946
female nurses working at day and swing shifts in a general hospital showed that stress rate is higher in
nurses working swing shifts much more than day shift nurses. Additionally, signs of depression and
tendency to smoke is high among swing shift nurses. The nurses who work day shifts tend to have daily
exercises, and this tendency is especially higher among middle aged nurses. On the other hand, there is
a positive correlation between depression signs and lifestyle of swing shift nurses.
In the research carried out by Asadzadeh (2000) under the title of comparing marital satisfaction among
the nurses working fixed shifts and swing shifts in health care centers and educational hospitals in Tabriz
City including 150 nurses, the results showed that there is not a significant difference in the field of marital
satisfaction between two groups of fixed and swing work shifts.
825
In another study by Heidari (2005) titled the influence of work shift on marital satisfaction of nurses which
included 120 nurses, the findings showed that considering two variables of sexual relationships and
financial monitoring, the night shift worker women have lower average with significance level of 0.02. This
level indicate that people have been adopted with this phenomenon over time and now, shift work has its
effects on the issues which need more physical relationships among the spouses. Analyzing the path
revealed that work shif has a direct effect with 0.09 coefficient and indirect effect via the relationship and
its effect on sexual relationships and financial monitoring with 0.08, that total direct and indirect effects of
shift work on marital satisfaction is 0.17.
The results of research by Lashyngtn and Dawson (1997) shows that the number of female nurses who
work in non-standard hours has increase in recent fifty years. This research also reveals that according to
the nurses, swing shifts have negative effects on their family and social issues and cause disruptive
mutual social activities with their husbands which increase inter-personal conflicts and significantly put
their mental health to risk.
Perser (2000) studied the behavior of 3552 people and found that marital satisfaction of people who work
swing shifts is significantly less than other people and people who work more hours show to have less
marital satisfaction.
The study of Kalygan & Rosa (1990) sowed that people who work in daily shifts have higher levels of
marital satisfaction in comparison with night shift workers, and night shift workers have higher levels of
marital satisfaction in comparison with evening shift workers, although the sexual problems is more
among night shift workers.
Considering the issues mentioned above and its importance in the field of national hygiene and
healthcare, the researcher attempted to carry out the present study to investigate the state of mental
health, personality traits and marital satisfaction among the doctors and nurses working daily shifts and
night shifts in general and psychiatric hospitals in Urmia City.
Methods
The statistical population of the present study includes all doctors and nurses of general and psychiatric
hospitals in Urmia City who were working in year 1392 (March 2012 to March 2013). In order to select the
study units, random cluster sampling was applied. The sample included 210 people. The criteria to enter
to sample category is being doctor or nurse. After selecting the sample, by previous coordination with
samples and hospitals, the researcher admitted to the hospitals and gave the questionnaires to the
subjects and asked them to complete the questionnaires.
The NEO Personality Inventory (short form)
This measure includes 60 questions. In each question, the subject rates a degree from zero to four. Each
of the questions measure one of the Big Five personality trait factors of McCrae & Costa which are
Neuroticism (N), Extraversion (E), Openness (O) Agreeableness and Conscientiousness (C) respectively.
Each of the factors have 12 measure questions. Totally, for each factor, the subject obtains a degree in
the range of zero to 48.
Considering the validity of NEO-FFI, the results of several studies showed that the sub-scales of NEO-FFI
have fine internal correlation; for instance Costa & McCrae (1992) reported the Cronbach's alpha
between 0.68 (for Agreeableness) to 0.86 (for Neuroticism). Also, Heldan (1999) reports alpha coefficient
of these five factors in the range of 0.76 (for Openness) to 0.87 (for Neuroticism). The results of Nzlk &
Mvradyan (1995) shows that Cronbach's alpha for Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness
and Conscientiousness were 0.84, 0.75, 0.74, 0.75 and 0.83 respectively.
NEO-FFI questionnaire has been normalized in Iran by Garusi (1998). The validity of this questionnaire
has been calculated via test, re-test for 208 students with an interval of 3 month to be 0.83, 0.75, 0.80,
0.79 and 0.79 for factors N, E, O, A and c respectively.
According to the aims of study, data analysis was accomplished using descriptive and inferential statistics
method as follows. In order to determine the characteristics of group, commonly used descriptive
statistics such as frequency distribution and measures of central tendency and dispersion tendency were
utilized, and for research hypothesis analysis Multiple Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) and t-test were
used.
826
Results
Table (1) shows the frequency distribution and gender percentage and work shift of the under investigate
sample.
Table (1) Frequency distribution and gender percentage and work shift of the sample
Gender
female
male
total
Frequency
117
93
210
Percentage
55.7
44.2
100
Work Shift
Day shift
Night shift
total
Frequency
110
100
210
Percentage
52.3
47.6
100
Table (1) shows that total number of subjects is 210 people among which 117 people (55.7 percent) are
female and 93 people (44.2 percent) are male. Also, from total number of subjects, 110 people (52.3
percent) were working day shifts and 100 people (47.6 percent) were working night shift.
Table (2) shows the statistical indices of NEO questionnaire components.
Table (2) Statistical indices of NEO questionnaire components
Variable
Work shift
Mean
Standard
deviation
Number
Neuroticism
Day shift
19.77
7.14
110
Night shift
Day shift
Night shift
Day shift
Night shift
Day shift
Night shift
Day shift
Night shift
22.11
29
27.61
26.15
25.38
30.35
28.93
35.32
34.39
7.17
5.08
5.2
3.74
3.94
4.12
4.28
5.26
5.45
100
110
100
110
100
110
100
110
100
Extraversion
Openness
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
According to the results of table (2) it can be seen that the highest mean belongs to the
Conscientiousness component in day shift and night shift which is 35.32 and 34.39 respectively. Also the
components Agreeableness and Extraversion have the following rates according to their mean.
Table (3) reviews the results of Levene Test for the under investigate variable.
Table (3) The results of Levene Test
variable
F
df1
df2
Level of Significance
Personality traits
1.77
1
208
0.18
As shown in table (3), the value of Levene test for the variable of this study, i.e. personality traits is
P>0.05, so the assumption of equality of variances is acceptable. Also the assumptions of normality,
linearity, univariate and multivariate outliers were studied and there was not any violation.
Table (4) shows the results of t-test between the mean value of doctors and nurses working day shifts
and night shifts in the personality components.
Table (4) the results of t-test between the mean value of doctors and nurses working day shifts and night
shifts in the personality components
827
variable
Work shift
mean
Standard
deviation
T
df
Neuroticism
Day shift
Night shift
Day shift
Night shift
Day shift
Night shift
Day shift
Night shift
Day shift
Night shift
19.77
22.11
29
27.61
26.15
25.38
30.35
28.93
35.32
34.39
7.14
7.17
5.08
5.2
3.74
3.94
4.12
4.28
5.26
5.45
2.35
208
Level of
Significanc
e
0.02
1.94
208
0.07
1.44
208
0.14
2.43
208
0.01
1.24
208
0.2
Extraversion
Openness
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
According to the results shown in Table (4) the value of observed t for Neuroticism component is 2.35
which is statistically significant in level P<0.05. This means that there is a significant difference between
Neuroticism of the doctors and nurses working day shifts and night shifts in general and psychiatric
hospitals in Urmia City. In other words, Neuroticism is significantly higher among the doctors and nurses
working night shifts comparing with the doctors and nurses working day shifts. Also, for agreeableness
component, the value of t is 2.43 which is statistically significant in level P<0.05; i.e. there is a significant
difference between agreeableness of the doctors and nurses working day shifts and night shifts in general
and psychiatric hospitals in Urmia City. In other words, agreeableness is significantly higher among the
doctors and nurses working night shifts comparing with the doctors and nurses working day shifts. Other
components showed no significant differences.
Discussion
This study aimed to comparing the effects of work shift on personality traits and marital satisfaction
among the doctors and nurses of general and psychiatric hospitals. Researches show that excessive
night work and being sleepless in arrow puts even the doctors and educated people at the risk of
depression and drugs abuse (Naserinejad, 2009).
The findings of researches show that working swing shift is a great source for creating occupationalfamily conflicts (Smith, Hammond, Mc Donald and Folkard, 1998). Shift work decreases the marital
quality of via social isolation, increased depression and decreased marital interaction (Johnson,
1999).Diaz,Muralez and Aparicio(2003).
As the findings showed,Diaz,Muralez and Aparicio(2003) noted that the behavior and attitude of people
correspond with their personality dimension. Most of day shift workers are thinking-oriented people and
consider previous experiences in their behaviors and act logically and analytically, not according to their
emotions and personal values. Additionally, these daily workers behave collaborative and respectfully and
their behavior is formal (Murales,2007) while night shift workers have creative thoughts.
In order to respond the second hypotheses that “there is a significant relationship between the component
of Neuroticism among the doctors and nurses working daily shifts and night shifts in general and
psychiatric hospitals in Urmia City” the findings confirmed this hypotheses and showed that Neuroticism is
reported to be significantly higher among the doctors and nurses working night shift than the doctors and
nurses working day shift. General tendency towards negative emotions including fear, sadness,
confusion, anger, feeling guilty and hate form the collection of field N. Although N is not limited to
preparation for psychological inconvenience. It is likely that fragile emotions hinder the compatibility. Men
and women with high scores on N prone to have irrational beliefs and have less control on their
impulsivities and are weaker than the others to cope with their stress.
The findings of this study that there is not a significant difference between the doctors and nurses working
day and night shifts in the field of marital satisfaction is nor in correspond with the statements and results
of the studies that investigates the relationship between marital satisfaction with shift work and working in
irregular hours which believe that shift work and working in irregular hours lead to decreased quality of life
satisfaction and marital satisfaction. It is natural that people might not be able to cope with new situations
and circumstances of their life and feel that they are not able to continue their life. On the other hand, the
changes in social life could lead to changes in the old attitudes and behavioral patterns and be able to
continue their life and the anticipated behaviors via cognitive coordination. In addition to the power of
compatibility, the environment of the study and the governing culture in the society could be the possible
reasons of contradicted results. This finding is correlated with the findings of Malekiha et.al.(2008). Also
Malekiha noted that the reason of no difference in marital satisfaction of the doctors and nurses working
fixed shifts and swing shifts is the compatibility power of human being.
828
In another study carried out by Mc Cutchen(1998) it was found that night shift workers are more
independent. Hence, considering personality traits as a whole, this study found no significant difference
between two groups of daily workers and night workers.
References
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University no4, Central Tehran Branch 4.
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and Swing Shifts in Health Care Centers and Educational Hospitals in Tabriz City. Tabriz Nursing &
Midwifery Journal, No 20, pp 52-58.
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Soleimani, Mohammad Ali. (2011). Comparing the General Health of Nurses Working Fixed Shift and
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Nurses. Journal of Family Research, (8)2, pp 341-354.
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147-152 [Persian].
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Unpublished master’s thesis. Department of human work sciences division of industrial ergonomics,
Luella University of the technology, Sweden.
829
Parents-children conflict in life style
Mohammad Allah Virdian*1, Ehya Norouzi2, Zahra Allah Virdian3
1- Faculty member of social sciences department, Payam-e Nour
University, postal code: 19395-3697
2-Manager of education organization, Naghadeh, Iran
3-Teacher of education organization, Naghadeh, Iran
Abstract
In recent decades, a wide range of social and cultural developments has occurred in
Iran. These developments have been remarkable, especially in families. Changing in the
lifestyles of young people is one of the most important developments that have given
rise to dramatic and revolutionary changes and knotty problems in the families. These
changes have altered the traditional form of the family. Changes of norms and family
values between parents and children are amongst the most crucial problems that into
which families run. Debates revolve around the norms that are in contrast with traditional
norms. The origin of these changes must be sought in the development of new media
development, education, access to information, individualism, change of the reference
group and the emergence of new values. Therefore, this study employed a survey
method in Nagadeh educational borough and among the high school students. The
statistical population comprised 4622 individuals, out of which a sample of 355 was
selected based on Cochran formula. The statistical techniques which were used included
distribution, bivariate correlation and multiple regressions. Parental conflict was the
dependent variable and independent variables included the individualism, modernity,
democratic behavior of the parents and the tendency toward another reference group.
Results showed that there is more congruence and alignment between parents and
children as compared to conflict and only 16.8% of children had serious and sharp
conflicts with their parents. In fact, conflict is more in some aspects of life and less in
other aspects. The most conflicting dimensions in parents-children life style is in making
friends with the opposite sex, smoking and independence. Furthermore, areas of less
conflict are in religious worship, same-sex friendship, and attention to personal hygiene
and the use of television programs. It can be concluded that conflicts arise from some
aspects such as individualism, modernity, parents’ democratic behavior and tendency to
other reference group. The result indicates that the mutual rights and duties of parents
and children must be accompanied by intimacy, coordination and flexibility from parents
toward children.
Keywords: Media, family, lifestyle, society, children in conflict with parents, reference group
Introduction
The most fundamental aspect of human social life is human beings’ conflicts and contradictions.
These conflicts can be seen in various forms in the society including the family. Today, the gradual
differences between parents and children in the lifestyle have taken the form of the conflict (Rosenthal
1989; Dekovic, 1999; Yau 2003). The importance of subcultures and the youths’ new ways of life has
given rise to some problems in the family, many of which provoke familial strife and leaving home
(Saeedi, 2003). Substantial differences can be seen in attitudes and behaviors of young people and their
parents. The young generation does not define itself according to frameworks of norms and looks for new
patterns of life and some of the norms of the past and their applications have faded or are missing. In
other words, we witness less alignment in public culture, such as women's employment, pre-marital
relations, relationship with relatives, leisure time activities and religious behaviors. Even in some areas of
the normative authority, we witness a paradigm shift from the clergy men to other authorities, such as
university professors, athletes, actors and other groups. The results indicate that cultural developments
have occurred in the family and subsequently in the society.
These evolutions are more observed in the young generation. The current situation of Iran’s
society has prompted discussions on cultural and social evolutions, change of lifestyle and change of
norms and values in the society and among the researchers (Abdi and Goudarzi, 1995; Teimouri, 1998;
Moeed Far, 2004; Nariman, 2004; Azad and Ghaffari, 2004; Fazeli, 2005; Jalilvand, 2006; Zakayi, 2007).
The proceeded evolutions demonstrate that young people are exposed to a wide range of information and
their information has given rise to the emergence of new values in the developing and fast-paced
changing world, they have got acquainted with new theories and viewpoints and their expectations have
been heightened (Moeed Far, 2008: 195).
Transformation of families in recent decades has caused families to face serious problems.
Problems that have undermined the traditional family form. Educational growth of children, increased use
of new media such as the Internet and satellites, as well as access to extensive information, employment
of women, relative freedom, right of making choice, lifestyle changes, and also change the reference
group are listed among the problem areas of families. The most fundamental problem facing today's
families is the rapid and major changes in family norms and values between parents and children which
introduce the subject of competing norms beside traditional norms. These competing norms are the
source of many conflicts in the family. Spouse selection, making friends, leisure time activities,
relationship with the opposite sex, religious attitudes and selecting the consumption of cultural products
are the realms of the competing norms.
The present study attempts to examine parents and children conflicts in lifestyle and believes that
events and conditions such as: violence and marital strife, runaways, drug addiction, depression, anxiety,
insecurity, apathy, lack of trust and so are the outcomes of the conflict in the lifestyle of parents and
children. According to what was mentioned, this article seeks to answer two basic questions: What is the
level of conflict in the life of parents and children? And what are the factors that affect it?
The concept of lifestyle has been conceptualized in two forms in the literature of sociology. In the
first impression, life style is indicative of individuals’ wealth and social position and is often used for the
determination of social stratum. Is this sense, the theoretical grounding of life style is seen in the works of
classical theorist such as Torstein Veblen, George Simmel and Max Weber. These theorists have
assessed the life style from the perspective of consumption. More contemporary studies by Liser, Soubel
and Bourdieu have somewhat shed light on the concept of consumption in their analysis of life style
(Tamin, 1994; Bordieu, Liser and Souble, cited in Fazeli, 2003; Kivisto, 2007; Wandberg, 2007). In the
second impression, the lifestyle has been considered as a modern social from that can only be
considered in the context of cultural change, modernization and development of the culture of
consumerism. In this sense, life style is a way to define individuals’ values, attitudes and behaviors with
increasing importance in the social analyses. This theoretical formulation of lifestyle can be more
observed in the works of Ingle hart, Giddens, Gibbons and Barmier (Inglehart, 1994; Giddens 1999;
Gibbons and Barmier, 2002). This article deals with the second most concept of lifestyle. One of the
important areas of life style is clearly visible within the relationships of the family.
831
Simply defined, lifestyle is a way of life and refers to favorable personal patterns of life that covers
worldview, attitudes, values, habits, accessories and patterns of social relations, leisure and consumption.
The individual introduces himself to the world through his way of life. Life style is stated through
appearance (selection of clothing and behaviors), actions and behaviors (selection of leisure activities), or
selecting life accessories or friends (Gibbons and Barmier, 2002: 104).
Children, parents and Conflict: Conflict is one of the most important aspects of human social
relations. Conflict is a form of mutual social interaction. Each cooperation has an element of conflict and
involvement of a member of society in hostilities is almost inevitable. According to Simmel, conflict is a
sign of difference and hostility (Wandberg, 2007: 77). Conflict happens when the groups or individuals act
or behave in a way that can’t be tolerated by others or is regarded as an opposition. The micro-level
manifestation of this conflict is seen in parents-children differences (clotting and type of behaving), and
teacher-student difference. The organizational manifestation is seen in work setting between the
employer and employee and the macro-level manifestation is seen between the countries.
One important area that provokes an area of conflict is the confrontation of lifestyle and
behavioral patterns between parents and the children. Conflict in life style means the absence of
agreement on the expectations, values and norms of family (Fisher, 1990: 31). Conflict can be examined
at different levels. Conflict in families and the interactions between parents and children means the
existence of significant differences in attitudes toward important aspects of life with manifestations such
as the lack of empathy and intimacy, negative reactions, oppositions, conflicts, verbal and violent
arguments and aggressive behaviors.
One of the fundamental approaches to establishing mechanisms of the phenomenon of the
generation gap and insight and cultural conflict between the generations is found in Mannheim's
approach (Cavalli, 2004; Korston, 1999; Ayer Man and Turner, 1998). Mannheim believes that new
generations are not always the initiators of root and distinguished self-awareness of the earlier
generations. Conversely, the generational breaks are mostly followed by a period of rapid cultural
changes. In such an era, the relative big path of individuals is presented as agents of fast social change,
with traditional and alternative interpretations (Moeed Far, 2004: 59).
There exist many perspectives about the conflict in lifestyle and its contributory factors. In the
literature of sociology, individuals such as Durkheim, Tocqueville and Simmel (Modernity and the growth
of individualism) and in the previous decades, people like Giddens and Inglehart (change in lifestyles and
changing values) have studied the social and cultural developments in similar contexts such as
generational relationships, life style and transformation of values.
Transformation and evolutions of the modern world are affected by changing social and
cultural structures that is called the concept of modernity. Lifestyles are reproduced in the context of
these structures. The attitudes and behavior of individuals and groups are being subjected to extensive
changes that result from the new world. At this point, we try to shed light on modernity, the growth of
individualism, the emergence of new media, the changing values and changes in the reference group.
Modernity: Marx, Weber, Durkheim and Simmel as the founders of classical sociology are
theorists of modernity that have reflected on the nature of the modern world. Modern society has
developed with the development industry, science, technology development and democratic regimes that
has promoted the individualism. Some considered Simmel as the first modern sociologist. His theories is
important in understanding the modern culture and different ways of people’s experience (Kivisto, 2007;
166). According to Simmel, all the restrictions of the traditional society have been eased and loosened by
the growing individualism in the context of urban communities. It has also given rise to individuality and
self-expression in relation to others and in the form of lifestyle. In such circumstances, people are seeking
identity through symbolic consumption. Modernity is often considered versus tradition and represents the
separation from tradition. If tradition looks upon the past, modernity seems to have fixed its gaze into the
future. Modern culture is related to words such as progress, development, liberation, freedom, growth,
832
accumulation, enlightenment, healing and pioneering in communication (Kivisto, 2007: 167). Many of
these developments have been accompanied by the development of cities. Giddens believes that the
development of the modern cities has exerted great impact not only on habits and modes of behavior, but
also on patterns of thought and feeling (Giddens, 2007: 829).
Expanding urbanization has brought about the social hierarchy. This hierarchy is often associated
with greater mobility as compared to the hierarchies of traditional societies and is influenced by the
political, economic, social and cultural situations. From socio- cultural perspective, cities have been a
place for the development of communication, education and literacy that have led to the breakdown of
traditional and old rigid frames and redistribution of power often with considering the benefits of young
people.
The rise of intellectual and material-oriented values, growth of individualism, belief in the
transformation of the environment versus the traditional values that were mostly destination-oriented have
developed. These developments along with modernization have had and will have a great impact on
families including the changes in the power relationships in the family, loosening the family ties and
overall change of behavioral patterns. Changes of behavioral patterns are largely influenced by public
media and lead to the formation of new tendencies and attitudes that disrupts the mental and cultural
balance of the society. Therefore, the role and status of individuals in the family and in the evolution is
constant (Behnam, 2004: 171).
Media, transformation of values and evolution of life style: new media such as satellite, television
and internet have significant role in the process of individuals’’ socialization in modernized societies and
individuals allocate a considerable amount of time to these media. Media inculcate this feeling that what
they represent is the true reflection of society. They can both reinforce or violate the social norms. In fact,
media are one of the various sources of determination of social norms (Coen, 2004; 80).
Giddens emphasizes the role of the media in his discussion on personal identity. The media
have an important role in promoting diverse lifestyles. Spectrum of utopian lifestyles or symbolic ways of
life styles that that are portrayed by the media even if limited are more extensive than the life styles that
individuals adopt in their daily lives. Media alter individual’s perception of the relationships. Information
and thoughts that are distributed by the media are not only a reflection of the social world but one of the
influencing factors and forces in shaping the social world. These media have key role in modern
rethinking, determine our choices and introduce the lifestyles (Giddens, 2005: 25).
In fact, the presence of the media and particularly the satellite has exerted strong effects on the
family. Satellite has penetrated into the walls of families bringing the national and international level
phenomena into them. The difference between what is received by the media and what exists in the real
life provokes the conflicts in the family, diminishes the familial values, and forms conflicting desires.
Lensky asserts that the influence of mass media on adolescent have had enormous impact on families
and the emergence of many family conflicts (Lensky and Nolan, 2004: 456). The development of
technological communication such as satellite and internet not only has altered the lifestyles of individuals
but has also provided this opportunity for them to turn themselves into a universal stratum with common
interests and common literature. As a result, adolescents have formed a distinct stratum of the society
with their own needs and issues.
According to Inglehart, each culture has several dimensions. Possible changes might occur in
sexual norms, our food tastes, musical and political interest, believing in the government, religious views
and countless other aspects of life (Inglehart, 1994: 15). Inglehart asserts that cultural transformation is
gradual and is the reflection of transformations in constructive experiences that are shaped by different
generations. Therefore, the traditional values and norms were quite extensive among the past generation,
while the newer tendencies are extremely dominant among the younger generations. The common
worldview of the societies has transformed with the substitution of the younger generations with older
generations. The hypothesis of scarcity proposes that individuals’ priorities are a reflection of their social
833
and economic environment and individuals place the highest subjective value to things that are distributed
at low levels. The hypothesis of socialization proposes that individual’s main values are the reflection of
the dominating situation prior to his/her maturity. Inglehart with emphasis on empirical investigation
asserts that the value priorities of western people will change from material values to super-material
values, from prioritizing the natural and secure life to the necessity of belonging to others and the right to
express opinion and the quality of life (Inglehart, 1994).
Growth of individualism: Individualism is a term used in the nineteenth century made and has
been evaluated by different methods. On the one hand, individualism is pictured positively when it’s the
freedom from social forces and oppression is related measures. On the other hand, it’s sometimes
considered to be negative when it’s the separation from others and lack of mutual commitment (Kivisto,
2007: 117). One of the changes that have occurred in the family is the growth of individualism. Thomas
and Zenaniki are the social scientists that have studied the lack familial disorganization and know its
reason in individualistic attitudes as opposed to collective attitudes. They believe that the impact of
familial organization are due to new values such as pleasure-oriented and hedonic satisfaction,
egocentric values, the modern type of individualism and new forms of sexuality (Kozer and Rosenberg,
1999: 483). According to Thomas and Zenaniki, traditions and customs are the fundamental of social
organization and family, neighborhood and society control the people in stable periods. Urbanization,
industrialization and immigration disturb these lasting impacts and thereby impair the authority of the
traditional social system. The policy of modern society leads to rapid changes and these changes may
contribute to the lack of social organization (Rabington and Weinberg, 2003:53).
According to Lensky, one of the main reasons of the decrease of traditional domination of families
can be attributed to the new democratic worldview that highlights the individuals’ rights rather than group
responsibilities. The process of democracy altered the traditional roles of political, economic, educational
and familial institutions. The last influencing factor in this process is the emergence of more diverse
choices and facilities that exist for people who want to be separated from their family. Modern family has
less solidarity and strength as compared to the past family (Lensky and Nolan, 2004: 456).
In a new era, the process of development in the economic, social and cultural structure of the
society has given rise to the growth of individualism among people. It means that people tend to be more
self-centered and gratify their needs as personal goals. Personal interests and tendencies are far more
important than the traditional obligations. Individuals usually think of their personal favor as opposed to
the expectations of parents and others. In fact, individualism can be considered as an important source
for the creation of conflict among parents and children.
Reference groups: in the process of decision making, actions and even adoption of the attitudes
of people in the society, some of the factors play significant role, one of which is the individuals or groups
that are the most basic measure of value judgments and assessment of social actors. Reference groups
have two main functions. Firstly, they inculcate norms, practices, values and beliefs in others and inspire
them to have a normative function and secondly, provide individuals with standards and criteria by which
they can test their attitudes and actions. This is called a comparative and adaptive functioning. Basically,
they can refer to the reference group, draw comparison and resolve the dilemma that is created due to
living in the society with others and not having any objective criteria to verify the behaviors and beliefs.
This reference plays dominant and pivotal role in the decisions and actions of the members of the society
(Sedigh and Hasehmi, 2002: 150).
According to Sheferz, social institutions of young people are shaped by the influence of two
phenomena: one is the individuality of the young individual and the other is the social structure that are
the most important factors in shaping the character and identity of young people and include: family,
school, peer groups, media and religion. Young people live in the family and individuals’ family is the most
important reference group for them that exert large impact on their actions, behaviors, motivations,
perceptions, judgments, prejudices and orientations as a reference group. There are also some reference
groups of which the young people are not a member but play significant role on their tendencies and
834
orientations. The effect of family on the youth takes different forms. Social environment in which the
process of socialization takes place, the language used in the family, the practical method of upbringing,
the cultural level of the family, parental attitudes to culture, society, politics, religion, and even the critical
space in the family are among these factors (Sheferz, 2004:140).
On the other hand, there are some general trends beside the family that are important in the
socialization of young people. For example, family relations and their role in diverse areas such as
schools, and other institutions in the outdoor environment are weakening. Peer groups and the media
beside educational centers have become the competitors of young people’s socialization in the family
environment. In other words, the traditional reference of the family has reduced. Parents’ words are not
as influential as the past so that they are required to justify their orders to be legitimate. In competition
with these institutions, parents and families must prove that their values and behavioral patterns are
worthy of being accepted.
Method and materials
In general, the process of modernization has been along with the development of educational
systems and the development of new media in recent decades. On one hand, the development of modern
systems and new media has led to the change in the structure of the families, out of which the change in
the traditional attitudes of families and more democracy in them can be mentioned. On the other hand,
education, communication and change of structure in the family relationship have resulted in the growth
of individualism modernism and change of the reference group. With the growing trend toward
individualism and modernity, the relationship between the individual and the family has changed and most
of these changes have been different in diverse levels.
The changes of values among the newer generations that are susceptible of accepting new
attitudes differ from the preceding generations. The young generation has less resistance against these
developments and even welcomes such evolutions. Many of these value confrontations are important
sources for the challenge between parents and children in the family. For want of a better word, we
witness important changes in the mutual relationship between parents and children, out of which
contradiction of attitudes, values and norms between parents and children can be mentioned.
Based on the aforementioned literature, the variables are inferred and their relationship with
each other has been presented in the model below. This model demonstrated the relationship between
the independent variables and the dependent variables. Parent-child conflict in life style is influenced by
the reflection of new values (modernity), growth of individualism, change of the reference group,
democratic behaviors of family and parents’ traditional tendencies.
Traditional attitude
of parents
Growth of
individualism
Parent-child
conflict in life style
Change of
reference group
Democratic behavior
of parents
835
Children’s
modernity
With regard to the theoretical foundations, the relationship between individualism, children’s
modernity (acceptance of new values), traditionalism of parents, democratic behavior of parents and
parent-child conflict in life style will be investigated.
There will be significant relationship between children’s attitudes of modernity and their conflict
with parents in life style.
There will be significant relationship between children’s tendency toward the reference group and
their conflict with parents in life style.
There will be significant relationship between children’s individualism and their conflict with
parents in life style.
There will be significant relationship between parents’ democratic behavior and their conflict with
parents in life style.
In order to empirically test the theoretical model, the secondary schools of Naghadeh City were
selected as a target population, out of which a sample of 355 students was selected using random
stratified proportional sampling. Data gathering was done through survey method and they were gathered
by in-person interview and answering to the questions of the standardized questionnaire. The validity of
the indices was based on the face validity and the criteria were evaluated and judged by the
professionals. The Cronbach's alpha coefficient was used for assessing the internal reliability of the
questionnaire.
The dependent variable is the rate of parent-child conflict in lifestyle. Conflict in parents and
children life styles means the absence of agreement on expectations, values, attitudes and behaviors of
family. This conflict means that there are important differences between parents and children in various
aspects of life. The 15-item measurement of parent-child conflict is designed on five-point Likert scale.
This represents the amount of disagreement between parents and children in the spouse-selection
pattern, cultural consumption pattern, leisure time activities, religious behavior and attitudes toward sex
and the body.
Children’s individualism: individualism means the tendency of the actor to pursue personal goals
versus collective goals. Personal goals are goals in which personal interests and desires are far more
important than collective commitment and expectations. In this situation, the individual has a weak sense
of commitment to others. The measurement of individualism is made using 10 items. These items assess
the respect for the rights of others, precedence of individual interests over the collective interest, a sense
of belonging to selfish desires and wishes, individual interests against family expectations and
responsibility toward others.
Students’ modernization (adoption of new values) values are referred to socially shared beliefs
about what is good, right and desirable. Individuals’ core values of individual are relatively important and
profound vision of a person about life (cultural, social and political values). Measure of modernization has
been made with 16 items. These terms are in realms of attitudes to fashion, women, women's
employment, opposite-sex relationships, the presence of religion in our personal life, attitude toward
limiting satellite, gender segregation and participation in traditional and religious ceremonies.
The tendency of students to different reference groups: reference group is a group of individuals
to whom we assess and evaluate our actions, appearances, values, aspirations and life style. The
concept of reference group has different divisions including the reference group of insiders and outsiders
and reference group of members and non-members. Reference group of insiders and outsiders is
considered in this study. This measurement with 3 items evaluate children’s tendency to cultural patterns
in developed countries, tendency to live in developed countries and comparison of the enrichment of
Islamic culture versus Western culture.
836
Traditional attitudes of parents: Parents tendency to traditional patterns (values and norms
governing the family) is desired. This measure is constructed from a combination of 7 items that
evaluates parental attitudes to observe the customs, religious issues, privacy, direct influence of parents
in spouse selection of their children, opposite-sex friendship and the attitude toward the satellite
programs.
Democratic behavior: parental democratic behavior means placing value for the rights,
participation of family members in the process of decision-making and acceptance of the opinions of other
family members. This measure is constructed from a combination of 7 items and evaluates the level of
parents’ flexibility in dealing with the children, children's participation in decision-making, tolerance and
flexibility of parents regarding children’s flexibility and imposing beliefs upon children.
Results and findings
From among a number of 355 respondents in terms of gender composition, the sample
comprised 48.5 % boys and 51.5% percent girls. In terms of age composition, the sample comprised 26%
at the age of 15 years, 31% at the age 16 years, 28% at the age 17 years and 15% at the age of 18 and
above 18 years old. The minimum and maximum age was 15 and 20 years, respectively. Moreover, the
mean and standard deviation were 16.5 and 2.5, respectively.
The frequency distribution of the dependent variable the size and scope of the father-child
conflict: the most severe conflict areas between father and children included friendship with the opposite
sex (41%), smoking (40%) and Independence seeking (34%). The least areas of conflict included
religious practice (16%), socializing with friends of the same sex (17%), attention to personal hygiene (16
%) and use of television (18%).
The size and scope of the mother-child conflict: the most severe conflict areas between mother
and children included friendship with the opposite sex (43%), smoking (38%) and Independence seeking
(32%). The least areas of conflict included socializing with the relatives (19%), the way of spending
money (18%), socializing with friends of the same sex (16%), attention to personal hygiene (17 %) and
use of television (17%).
Conflict of parents and children: the parent-child conflict index is obtained by summing up the
scores of all the respondents' on the parent-child conflict items. In general, by summing the scores of 15
items of the conflict index in the lifestyle of parents and children, it can be concluded that 22 percent of
the conflicts rate high (incongruent lifestyles between parents and children), 14% of conflicts rate
moderate (intermediary lifestyles between parents and children) and 64.4 percent of the conflicts rate low
(compatible lifestyles between parents and children).
Table 1- Frequency distribution of parent-child conflict in life style
837
Disagreement with father
High
Average
Low
Items
(Percent)
Disagreement with mother
High
Average
Low
18
12
72
In spending money
18
13
69
18
18
64
Purchase of the items of interest from
the market
18
17
65
16
9
75
Paying attention to personal hygiene
17
10
77
20
20
60
Appearance
21
22
57
22
11
67
Buying Toiletries
20
10
70
21
15
69
Having fun out of home
21
13
67
18
16
66
Watching TV
17
16
67
17
17
66
Relationship with same-sex friends
16
16
68
41
12
47
Opposite-sex relationship
43
11
46
15
19
66
Interest to select the spouse
16
20
64
18
16
66
Relation with the relatives
19
17
65
40
9
51
Smoking
38
10
52
34
11
55
Sense of independence
32
12
56
16
12
72
Religious practice especially praying
18
11
71
17
13
70
Behavior toward younger children
17
12
71
22.06
14
64.4
Total
23.1
13.9
64
The table 2 has demonstrated the frequency distribution of the independent variables.
2- Frequency distribution of the independent variables
Indicators
High
Average
Low
Total
Conflict in lifestyle
36%
17%
47%
100%
Individualism of children
41%
32%
27%
100%
Relationship with family
28%
38%
24%
100%
Acceptance of new value
44%
39%
17%
100%
Tendency
toward
reference group
43%
35%
22%
100%
Traditionalism of parents
50%
39%
11%
100%
Democratic behavior of parents
52%
38%
10%
100%
another
The table below demonstrates that some of the research variables are confirmed and some
others are rejected. Variables of parents’ democratic behavior and the growth of individualism are
correlated, while others have low correlation with one another.
Table 3- Pearson correlation coefficient of the research variables with dependent variable (conflict in
parent-child lifestyle)
Dependent
variable
Independent variable
Parents’ democratic
behavior
838
Conflict in life style
.47-
.005
360
Tendency to reference
group of outsider
Students’ individualistic
behavior
.09
.256
.254
.002
Acceptance of new values
.21
.005
Parents’ traditionalism
.075
.19
360
360
360
360
There exists significant relationship between individualism and conflict in life style and the
correlation coefficient is equal to .254. The direction of this correlation is positive and its intensity is weak
which is significant at .002. This relationship indicates that higher individualism of children leads to higher
levels of parent-child conflict.
Conflict in children’s life style is significantly correlated to democratic behavior, children’s
modernity and the growth of individualism. Parents’ democracy has the highest share and the effect size
is -.47. It indicates that increase of parents’ democratic behavior decreases parent-child conflict. Growth
of individualism is placed in the second phase of explanation and the effect size of individualism on
parent-child conflict is .254. Put it differently, the increase in the growth of individualism will lead to higher
levels of parent-child conflict. Accepting the new values is placed in the third phase of the explanation and
the effect size equals .21. For want of a better word, the increase in attitudes of modernity will lead to
higher levels of parent-child conflict. Overall, it can be concluded that 30 percent of the total variance can
be explained by the research variables and 70 percent should be investigated in some other studies.
Table 4-Statistical indices and multiple regression analysis of parent-child conflict in life style
Dependent
variable
Independent
variable
Beta
Sig
Conflict in life
style
Parents’
democratic
behavior
Acceptance of new
values
Individualistic
behavior
Parents’
democratic
behavior
Reference group of
outsider
Parents’
traditionalism
Acceptance of new
values
Parents’
traditionalism
Reference group of
outsider
Parents’
traditionalism
Parents’
.47-
.000
.18
.001
.15
.012
-.28
.000
.20
.000
.22-
.000
.16
.000
.47-
.000
.33
.000
.25-
.004
.12
.012
Individualistic
behavior
Acceptance of
new values
839
Multiple
correlation
coefficient
.53
Determination
coefficient
F Test
Partial
correlations
.30
46.5
.000
.53
.29
37
.000
.61
.40
6.125
.000
.26
.08
15.2
.000
democratic
behavior
This research was an attempt to provide answers to two questions. The first question attempted
to evaluate the rate of parent-child conflict and the second question explored its influencing factors. In the
theoretical literature, firstly, the life style, conflict and finally the conflict in life style were defined. It was
said that conflict in parent-child life style means lack of agreement on expectation, values, attitudes and
behaviors in the family and this conflict covers significant differences and disagreement of important
aspects of life such as selection of spouse, consumption of cultural products, leisure time activities,
religious behavior and attitude toward sexuality. We tried to shed light on the theories of modernity,
individualism, globalization and transformation of values to explain parent-child conflict. The total indexes
of parent-child conflict indicate that there exists conflict but not high. 61 percent of the respondents
reported lack of conflict and congruence with parents and only 23.5 percent of the children reported to
have conflict and incongruence with their parents. Indeed, the there was more conflict in some realms of
life as compared to others. The highest rate of conflict belonged to friendship with the opposite sex,
smoking and drinking alcohol, respectively. Furthermore, the lowest amount of conflict was observed in
praying, friendship with the same sex, attention to personal hygiene and listening to the favorite music.
Existence of high conflict in some areas is related to the importance of that specific behavior in the family
and society.
Moreover, many values have secondary importance and are not very challenging. In fact, we
witness relative consensus in some areas. In general, it can be mentioned that we have more conflict in
some areas and less conflict in other areas. The total index indicates that this conflict is not critical.
Findings show that one third of the statistical population has individualistic tendencies and seek for
personal identity. New values and its acceptance by the young individuals have made the individualism
into an inevitable growing process.
With the increase of individualism, parents’ democratic behavior toward children becomes
crucially important. Results indicate that the level of conflict decreases when parents are more flexible
with their children. Put it differently, parents’ more democratic behaviors play key role in familial
challenges and conflicts. This issue indicates that change of behavior toward children is crucial in
understanding and decrease of conflicts. Therefore, it’s important that parents employ more democratic
strategies in behaving toward their children.
Moreover, parents should have more intimacy and empathy in the creation of agreement and
mutual interaction with young individuals. The institution of family and media has provided special
condition for adolescents and young adults and the transference of cultural inheritance and values in the
process of globalization. Therefore, more congruence is needed between the three elements of family,
media and education along with the requirements of time in the transference of values, norms and skills.
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The relationship between nurse’s hardiness and burnout in
Oshnavieh and Bokan City
Hassan Aminpoor1 Shafie Azari*2 Mansour Agashteh3 Farideh Karimiazar4 Hajar Khatampoor5 Ziba
Khanjari6
1- Scientific Psychology Group,Payam Noor University.Iran
2- M.A in Clinical Psychology, Department Of psychologyPayame Noor University,PO BOX 193953697,Tehran,IRAN
3- M.A In Clinical Psychology, Isfahan University ,Iran
4- M.A In Clinical Psychology, Science and Research Branch,Islamic Azad University,West Azar
Bayjan,Iran
5- Bachelor In General Psychology- Payam Noor University, Naqadeh West Azarbayajan .Iran
6- Bachelor Nursing Student , Urmia University, Faculty of Khoy , West Azarbayajan .Iran
Abstract
Job burnout, without job stress consequences is one of the common difficulties among
professionals working in supporting jobs like nursing; and has negative influence on caring of
patient, mental and physical health of nurse and cause treatment and personnel cost. this study
aimed at examining the relationship between hardiness and job burnout of nurses of Oshnavieh
and Bookan cities.this research is a correlative research. Statistical population were all nurses of
Oshnavieh and Bookan cities which 110 nurse (69 women and 41 man) selected by accessible
sampling. They were aged between (23 to 50 years) old and the average of sample age was (30.45
years). Tow questionnaires were used, a: hardiness questionnaire of Kubasa, Maddi and Cohen
which has 20items and b: job burnout questionnaire of Goldard which has 40 items. Pearson
correlation coefficient and regression were used for examining the relationship between variables
and T-test for examining the differences between variables, Chronach; Alpha for validity of tools.
Keywords: Hardiness, burnout, nursing, Bukan, Oshnavieh
Introduction
The role and importance of psychological hardiness as a protective feature of personality against life
pressures have been showed in many studies. Kubasa (1979; Quoted by Shirbym, Sudani and
Shafiabadi, 2009) defines hardiness as a combination of beliefs about personality and world that includes
three components: commitment, control, and defiance. Someone who has high commitment believes in
importance and meaning of who and what activities will be done. These peoples are engaged in some of
their life’s aspects as job, family, and interpersonal relationship. The persons who are so strong in
controlling can predict and control life events and believe that they can have influence what happens
around them by attempting. The persons who have high defiance, consider positive and negative
situations that need readapting as a chance for learning growth, not a threat to security and comfort
(Kubasa,1998; Madi 1990; quoted by Shirrbym, Sudani and Shafiabadi, 2009).
Beginham and Estriker believe that effective factors on girls hardiness derives from family while social
and institutional factors causes boy’s hardiness (Anzlicht, Arenson and Maki, 2006 , quoted by shirbym,
Sudani and Shafiabadi, 2009).
Hardiness factors cause the person not to have a threatening evaluation in stressful situations and
lead him use appropriate strategies for solving problems. (Florin and colleague1995; quoted by Homaei
Asgari, 2010)
People should adapt themselves with inner and world changes during life time continuously. Furthermore
their physiological and non-physiological needs are met in order to protect their health in this changing
world.
Undesirable social and environmental conditions are stressful factors that endanger mental health.
Human’s lack of health can appear because of changed stress and imbalance in physical and mental
situations. Theorists have provided various attitudes about work and its stress (Cartwright and
cooper,1997). A research titled “the nurses’ burnout in relation with workplace and personal
characteristics conducted by Abdi. The result was that burnout happens because of overwork pressure
and workplace conflicts (Abdi, 1994).
The staffs suffering from work burnout will become inactive and uninterested in their works. They
become psychologically indifferent, depressed, irritable and tired. They begin to complain about all work
environment like co-worker and react to others suggestions passively. Both their quality and their quantity
will decrease (Mehrdad, 2008).
Work burnout happens periodically and it is necessary to accept happening of this period and if we
recognize it at the early stages, it is curable easily but the first step in copying with this situation is
awareness about it (Godard, translation by Hosseinyan1993).
Emotional burnout is tiredness and exhaustion in workplace. Depersonalization is emotionlessness
feeling and pessimism. Decrease in work achievements is that a person do nothing important for his work
(Espector, 2009).
The first problem of burnout victims is that they suffer from physical burnout. They are unable and
exhausted most of the time. They have a low power for working and are weak and exhausted
(Saatchi,1996).
The person may think that he has become weak physically and it will be hard for him to work; they will
have low excitement and have physical symptoms like continuous headaches, bellyache, skin disorders,
vomiting, high blood pressure, sleep disorders, habit changes related to eating foods, backache and will
become vulnerable against viral diseases and other illnesses (Goldar, 1994).
The second problem of burnout patients is that they will have excitement burnout. Depression,
exhaustion, and feeling of having problems about work are some of their excitement problems. A
manager who is under pressure and stress will become irritable such that his subordinates try to restrict
their relation with him even sometimes avoid giving important reports and information to him (Seadat,
1995).
The third problem is that they frequently have attitude burnout. These persons will become paranoid and
want to behave with others as an object rather than as a human, also they will have a negative attitude
toward others (Saatchi, 1996). When we say that a burnout person can’t respect others feelings and
requests, it means that his behavior has become without humanistic aspect. This negative attitude and
non-humanistic character may enter family and friend companies (Mehrdad,2008).
The main factor of work burnout disorder is suffering from mental pressure for a long time as a
result of long and excessive work. Stress factors are divided into three groups: environmental,
organizational and individual factors. Individual factors (degree of change in life and it’s important events
,personality, perception, individual differences and values), organizational factors ( factors related to
organization,organization policy, organizational structure, work insecurity, progress and promotion
probablity, organization differences, organizational forming (life) stage, organizational process,
inappropriate and annoying control, performance evaluation, unjust evaluation, goal conflicts, B:related
factors of job:( heavy job, having additional job, role perception, responsibility, individual relationship, lack
of social support, geographical movement) environmental factors: (economical mistrust, political mistrust,
technological mistrust, social changes) (Abzari and Saraydaran,1997).Age has a stable and
unchangeable relation to job burnout, it means young individuals have more job burnout also married
individuals and women have more job burnout than single individuals and men (hoseinpoor and others,
2007).
It is often observed that all individuals who work in the same place won’t experience burnout.
Molaspot write that: job burnout maybe the result of nurses’ personality characters and features.
Controlling some variables, researchers have found that high hardiness causes low levels of disease and
low hardiness causes high levels of diseases. These findings were true in short and long term. This
research also revealed that effects of high hardiness in regard to protecting health will become obvious,
especially when stress and tension levels are high (Haqiqi,Atari,Rahimi, and Solaymani nia 2010).
Rafiei and his colleagues in studying the effective factors about nurse’s answers to job burnout
have found that nurses and patients personal features have influenced answers to job burnout. Maddi
and his colleagues believe that psychological features of hardiness include important curiousness feeling,
interest in having wonderful experience, assertiveness, be energetic, and this thought that change in life
is a natural event and can be useful in copying with stressful life events shows that hardiness has a
positive correlation with mental and physical health, and as an inner resource of persistency can
decrease negative effect of tension and prevent physical and mental disorders(Shakernia, 2010).
844
Method
This research is a correlation research and has two groups include women and men nurses. In
order to examining difference between groups’ means we used independent T-test and applyed Pearson
and Regersion correlation coefficient in order to study difference between variables.Two questionnaires
were used in this research:Hardiness questionnaire: Kubasa, Maddi and Kohen’s hardiness
questionnaire. This questionnaire has 20 questions and answerers express their opinion by responding in
a spectrum never- often- sometimes and usually and about questions. Answers scoring as: never 0, often
1, sometimes 2, and usually3 scores. High scores displays hardiness (Aminpoor, 2007). In this research,
Test validity was chronbach alpha 0.091 by retesting.
Signed burnout questionnaire: Signed job burnout questionnaire has 40 questions and responders
answer to it by giving answers like: I’m agree completely , I’m partly agree, I don’t know, I’ m disagree
partly, I’m disagree, I’m completely disagree. Giving scores are based on Likert scale and every question
has a score from 1 to 7. Sentences: 1,3,4,7,8,9,13,18,21,22,25,27,31,34,35,37,40: are scored in as I’m
completely disagree 7,I’m disagree 6, a’ m disagree partly 5, I don’t know 4, I ‘m completely agree 3,
I’magree2,
I’m
completely
agree1.
Sentences
2.5.6.10.11.1214.15.16.17.19.20.22.23.24.26.28.29.30.32.33.36.39 are scored in a contradictory manner.
Khakpour and Birashk, calculated Cronbach's alpha coefficient .86 and Erfany Using retest gained .73
(Esfandiari, 2000)
Results
Among statistical population of Oshnavieh and Boukan includes 69 women and 41 men who had
bachelor of art and degree, 110 nurses selected randomly. These groups were aged in a range between
(23-50 years) and mean of (30.45 years) and median (28) and mode (25) , highest age and lowest age
were 23 and 50 years respectively.
Tabal1- descriptive Index of studying variable
hardiness
Job burn out
Mean
22.26
133.63
Median
20.00
132.00
Mode
18
118
Standard deviation
11.625
21.254
Is there any difference of job burnout between woman and man nurses ?T-test was used for
examining this relation. The results showed meaningful difference in these variables between two studied
groups by P-value .05 (table 1).
Tabla2- job Burnout mean based on gender
Job burnout
845
gender
number
mean
Standard deviation
T
sig
woman
69
135.14
20.538
0.971
0.334
man
41
131.57
0.433
N=110
Is there any difference of job burnout between woman and man nurses?T-test was used for
examining this relation. The results showed meaningful difference in these variables between two studied
groups by P-value .05 (table 2).
Tabale3- variable mean of hardiness based on gender
hardiness
obligation
control
relation
hardiness
burnout?
defiance
gender
N
Mean
Standard deviation
T
sig
woman
69
23.24
672.11
351.2
021.0
man
41
95.18
672.11
woman
69
96.11
621.5
244.2
027.0
man
41
46.9
653.5
woman
69
42.8
367.4
913.2
004.0
man
41
00.6
937.3
woman
69
88.3
258.3
man
41
44.3
091.3
683.0
496.0
Is there
between
and job
To
investigate this relationdhip ,the correlation coefficient test was used.the results show that relationship
between tow variables.and there is a significeant correlation between the level of a=0.05 (table 4).
Table 4-Relation between hardiness and job burnout variable
mean
Job burnout
Hardiness
Sig
number
0.407
0.000
110
hardness has impact of burnout? Regression was used to examine this relationship. The
results show that 16.5% of burnout can be explained by hardness. (Table 5).variable.
Table5- Rate The relationship between hardiness And burnout
model
R
R Square
Adjusted R
Square
1
407.0
185.0
165.0
F change
391.21
Discussion and Conclusion
846
Df1
Df2
Sig.F
change
1
108
000.0
According to the first hypothesis there is a meaningful relationship between woman and man
nurses’ job burnout. In other words with 95% confidence it can be said that there is a meaningful
relationship between man and woman nurse’ job burnout and gender plays an important role and job
burnout of woman nurses are more than man nurses. The results of this research is consistent with
Ayni(2006) , Tobaee(2006), Abdi(2011) , and Delpasand (2010)research.
According to Second hypothesis, there is a meaningful relationship between woman and man
nurse hardiness , in other words with 95% confidence it can be said that there is a meaningful relationship
between woman and man nurse hardiness and hardiness of woman are more than men. The research
results is consistent with shakerian(2010), Rahimi(2003), and Bigdeli(2006).
According to the third hypothesis, there is a meaningful relationship between nurse hardiness
and job burnout, it means that when hardiness increases, job burnout will increase, and when hardiness
decrease job burnout decrease. The results of research is consistent wiht Varof(1982), Kubasa(1979),
Kashani(1991), Falorin and his co- worker(1995), Nakhoda(2000) and Kanter (1998). According to the
hypothesis there is a positive correlation between hardiness and job burnout. Our hypothesis was
accepted.
The result of this research can be used in nurse services and staffs should consider the factors
which cause mental health disorder. Nurse Managers should try to decrease nurse job burnout by
creating a true and desirable relationship with nurse, supporting them, and by creating a good
environment for continuing professional activities. The results of other researches have shown that social
support is so important in preventing from creation and increasing burnout process. So it is suggested to
consider social and management supports in workplace as an important factor in decreasing job burnout
effects and consider symptoms of job burnout effects such as depression, disregard patients, absence,
and decrease of job quality. Speaking (interview) with nurses, try to find the reasons and sources of these
symptoms and find solutions. these solutions includes appropriate work division, increase of work variety,
replacement of nurses from busy parts to parts that don’t have so much work, give appropriate task to
staffs, holding training classes during service and have meeting in order to nurses can participate in these
meetings and say their problems, avoid irrelevant violence, use proper ways of evaluation, provide
chances and equipment for job progress.
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Aghayousefi, HR , Asgar, Angel , Noor , L ,1999 . A comparative study of daily stressors and ways of
coping with stressors in college students, Journal of Psychology, 164-170 of 100 third year Ismaili
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counseling,Tehran Publications jangal.
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between hardiness and Achievement Motivation of employees with depression. Islamic Azad
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and
847
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and Social Psychology:( 7)pp 413- 423
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publishing, Roshd, Tehran
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working in a
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848
The effectiveness of Michael Frey’s cognitive group therapy in
reducing anxiety and increasing mental health in divorced women in
Urmia city
Shafie Azari1 Mansour Agasahteh2 ،Hassan Aminpoor3 Farideh Karimiazar4
1- M.A in Clinical Psychology, Department Of Psychology, Payame Noor University,IRAN
2- M.A in clinical psychology, university of Isfahan
3- Scientific Psychology Group,Payam Noor University,.Iran
4- M.A In Clinical Psychology, Science and Research Branch,Islamic Azad University,West Azar
Bayjan,Iran
Abstract
Aim and background: this study was aimed at examining the effectiveness of Michael Frey’s
cognitive group therapy in reducing anxiety and increasing mental health in divorced women in
Urmia city. Tools and materials: the research method was semi-experimental with pre- and posttest including experimental and control group. The population was all the divorced women
referring to counselling centres of Urmia city until the end of autumn 2013. The sampling method
was accessible sampling method and sample was divided into two 10 members’ experiment and
control groups. Beck’s 21 item anxiety questionnaire was used for measuring anxiety properties
and Goldberg’s mental health questionnaire (28 items revised form). Experimental group received
12 sessions of 90 minutes training and control group received no intervention. Results: the
results showed that cognitive group therapy was effective in reducing anxiety [F (1.17) = 16.479, P
< 0.001] and increasing health [F (1.21) = 10.160] in divorced women. Conclusion: It can be
concluded that using group treatment methods for divorced women and involving them in such
groups can increase their mental health.
Keywords: cognitive therapy, anxiety, Michael Frey, divorced women.
Introduction
Divorce and separation are the most important factors in collapsing family, the most basic part of society.
Divorce means freeing from marriage commitment. It is some kind of contract which allows man and
woman to disrupt marriage and separate from each other (Malek Mahmudi, 2002). Separation is the most
depressing and discomforting type of freeing from conflicts resulting from cultural and social differeces,
misunderstanding, disease, misbehaviours and addiction in one or both of couple (Aghajani & Naghibi,
2000). The divorce event is a stressful incident which increases vulnerability especially in women in
confronting physical and mental diseases (Guher, 2006). Separation or lack of lovely relationship is the
second big tension of life after death (Aghajani & Naghibi, 2000).
As divorce increases in society, its consequences also threats the life of society and health of people
(Ghodosi, 2000). Although negative outcomes of divorce involve the two partners but undoubtedly as
literature shows the post-divorce vulnerability of women is higher than men (Guher, 2006). There is a
focus on divorce consequences in divorced women (Kurdtamini, 2006). In the population, the divorced
women who have no protector are vulnerable than others (Mindmakers et al, 2010; quoted by Gholami et
al, 2012). Divorce and collapsing of life lead to disrupting psycho-affective equilibrium of family members
and since it is a strong stressor so getting psychological disorders is probable, especially in women
whose affective subtleness is their index state of personality (Ghodosi, 2000). Divorced women have
higher negative emotions than men and rate of distress and anxiety in them is two times more than in
men (Kuratamini, 2006). Economic problems, anxiety and depression each with 41% among women
studied are the most common post-divorce problems (Aramon et al, 2011).
Examining the short-term and long-term effects of divorce in women, researchers found that divorced
women have higher levels of distress than married women at first year after divorce and have higher level
of disorders one decade after (Lorenz et al, 2006). Anxiety disorders are the most common psychological
disorders among divorced women (Amato, 1990, translated by Yazadegan, 2002). Divorced women have
low level of mental health (Hosseinian, 2003).
Until now, different methods have been presented for treatment of mental health and anxiety from which
cognitive approach is the most dominant theory of depression (Sarason and Sarason, 2004). The aim of
cognitive techniques is determining and challenging with negative thoughts, searching help for replacing
new way of thinking and facilitating determining of causes of depression and ways for maintaining these
techniques in therapy. Cognitive therapy due to changing one’s cognitive system leads to change one’s
reactions by cognitive qualities so that the individual be able to perceive the reality truly. Researches
showed that cognitive therapy especially in adults is one of the effective interventions for depression
(Hollon and Beck, 1995; Rowth and Fonagi, 2005; Rink, Ryan and Dabowits, 1997; quoted by Kahrizi et
al, 2011). Cognitive therapy prepares a short-term consistent therapeutic pattern and therapists can
easily teach its techniques (Davison, 2004; quoted by Kahrizi et al, 2011).
Method and population
This study was semi-experimental design. The information and data gathered were analysed by pre- and
post-test. The covariance analysis was used for examining the effect of independent variable, Frey’s
cognitive group therapy for dependent variables i.e. anxiety and mental health of divorced women.
The population of current study was divorced women of Urmia city. Using accessible sampling, 20 people
who referred to counselling centres of city and received high scores in two tests randomly replaced in two
10 members experiment and control group. Experiment group received twelve sessions 90 minutes
Michael Frey’s cognitive group therapy. The two groups answered Beck’s anxiety questionnaire and
Goldberg’s mental health questionnaire at the end of intervention. The questionnaires used included:
Mental health questionnaire:
Goldberg’s questionnaire (GHQ-28) has been used for measuring global health. This test measures
global health in four scales. Global Health Questionnaire GHQ-28 designed by Goldberg and Hiller 1979
and has 4 subscales of physical symptoms, anxiety and sleep dysfunction symptoms, social function and
depression symptoms. Each subscale has 7 items which evaluates by Likert spectrum from 0 to 3.
Adribeg and Georg 1992 reported validity and reliability of this questionnaire .82 and .85 respectively
(Adribeg and Georg, 1992; quoted by Samiei karani, 1383). In another study conducted by Rahimi,
Oftadeh and Dehghani in 2013, Chronbach Alpha was reported 0.76 (MamRahimi, Oftadeh and
Dehghani, 2013). Togfighi and colleague reported 0.70 in their study (Tofighi, Nowzad, Fattahpour
Marandi and Chavoshi, 2013). In another study, Ahmadian reported Chronbach Alpha 0.90 (Ahmadian,
2005). In another study conducted by Taghavi, Chronbach Alpha reported 0.90 (Taghavi, 2011).
Beck’s anxiety questionnaire
This questionnaire introduced by Beck and colleague (1990) has 21 statements. Its scoring is in Likert’s
spectrum and ranged 0 to 3. Options that are 0, means Never and 3 means Severe. This tool is for
850
assessing anxiety in youth and adults (Beck et al, 1996; quoted by Gharayee, 1998). The Chronbach’s
alpha for this questionnaire reported 0.93 (GhasemPour, Jowdat and zalehShabanlo, 2013). Clark and
Watson reported validity of 0.75 (Clark and Watson, 1991; quoted by Gharayee, 1998). In another
research, Kaviani and Mousavi reported alpha Chronach 0.92 (Kaviani and Mousavi, 2008). In another
study, the validity reported 0.80 (Gharayee, 1998).
In this research, experimental group received twelve 90 minutes treatment sessions, based on guidebook
of group cognitive therapy of Michel Ferry (translated into Persian by Sahebi et al). The sessions are
introduced below:
Session 1
Welcome, explain group rules, explain the relationship between physiological, behavioural and cognitive
factors, introducing participants cognitive factors of emotional reactions, determining preliminary thoughts
are between incident and emotional reaction, and writing (A) thoughts or beliefs, (B), emotional reaction
and (C) consequence in three column table of triggering event.
A-B-C tasks: writing 10 worst events of life hierarchically.
Session 2
Learning aspects of cognitive theories of depression, anxiety and anger; recognizing automatic thoughts;
recognizing cognitive distortions and determining them in thinking, recognizing probable resistance in
treatment and designing coping strategies. Daily A-B-C. Categorizing beliefs and determining the worse.
A-B-C tasks: recognizing and writing automatic thoughts.
Session 3
Introducing fundamentals of behavioural consequences; training nature of schemas, core beliefs,
insufficient attitudes and relationship between schemas and automatic thoughts; and determining
schemas using downward arrow.
Daily A-B-C, writing behavioural consequences of A-B-C, tasks: reviewing tasks of second session,
rehearsing thought injection, continuing writing, drawing downward arrow for two of them.
Session 4
1. Working on downward arrow and troubleshooting group member’s in applying downward arrow
method and determining negative schemas.
2. Make participants capable of determining 10 common negative schemas and put their beliefs in
this 10 category.
Tasks: reviewing last session’s tasks, training categorizing beliefs.
Session 5
Make clear imagination of relationship for participants and compatibility of negative beliefs, making a list
of negative beliefs, drawing cognitive maps of relationship between negative beliefs and rating them.
Tasks: reviewing last session’s tasks, making list of core beliefs and reasons of negative beliefs
maintenance. Applying mental distress rating tools, continuing drawing downward arrow and categorizing
beliefs; rating each believe on mental distress scale.
Session 6
Reaching this point that beliefs are changeable and people can revise their beliefs.
Tasks: completing main list of beliefs, objective analysis of beliefs have been determined so far.
851
Session 7
Understanding that beliefs have different advantages and can be evaluate with some criteria.
Tasks: determine our own problematic beliefs and evaluate them, decide to leave or sustain them.
Session 8
Learn use of logical analysis for beliefs.
Tasks: completing logical analysis of all conditioned and absolute schemas.
Session 9
Participants get the point of opponent belief
Tasks: making hierarchical situations of core beliefs, preparing opponent statement with negative beliefs,
finding opponent beliefs, making a card has core beliefs on one side and negative beliefs on the other
side.
Session 10
Two areas of perception change and cortical inhibition will discuss
Tasks: reviewing last session’s tasks, training perception change presenting vague images and rehears it,
practicing cortical inhibition, conducting cortical inhibition or perception change daily.
Session 11
Learn self-punishing and self-reinforcing method
Tasks: reviewing last session’s tasks, practicing self-punishing and self-reinforcing method for thought
change, reviewing opponent beliefs, practicing imagination, completing sustaining plan.
Session 12
Examining participant’s plans for sustaining treatment goals and get feedback from them about treatment
programme.
Because this research was pre-post test with control group and according to normality of data distribution
analysed by Colmogrove-Smirnove test, equivalent of variances analysed by Levin’s test, and
equivalence of Regression inclination, Co-variance analysis has been used and data were analysed by
SPSS 17 software.
Results
Table 1 shows statistical properties of anxiety scores in pre-test and post test
Table 1: statistical properties of anxiety scores in pre-test and post test in 2 groups
group
Mean
variance
Pre-test
experimental
41.000
40.889
control
31.90
36.767
Post-test
experimental
35.900
22.544
control
24.000
12.267
St.Devi
6.394
6.063
4.748
3.502
Table 2: statistical properties of mental health scores in pre-test and post test in 2 groups
group
Mean
variance
St.Devi
Pre-test
experimental
43.800
6.178
2.485
852
Post-test
control
experimental
control
38.900
34.300
36.300
14.989
12.900
15.871
4.998
3.860
5.716
Covariance analysis was used for analysing data. This Test needs below prerequisites:
1. Normality of data distribution
2. Normality for kurtosis and skeweness
3. equivalence of Regression inclination (the relationship between dependent variable be same in
all levels of independent variable)
4. equivalence of variances
Table 3: mean, standard deviation, skewness, kurtosis, normality test of distribution
mean
standard
skewness kurtosis normality
test
of
distribution
deviation
(Colmogrove-Smirnove)
45.35
5.65
-.72
-.429
.431
48.00
6.05
1.51
1.12
.131
As table 3 shows, normality of distribution (Colmogrove-Smirnove) (anxiety: .431 and mental health: .131)
is approved, means that data have normal distribution. In table, skeweness, which is a scale for polarity
and non-polarity, is in range (2 and -2) and data are polarity. In table, kurtosis (shows the height of a
distribution), (-.429 and 1.12) is in range (2 and -2) and kurtosis of data is normal. Using covariance
analysis, prerequisite of equivalence of Regression inclination was examined and results for anxiety and
mental health variables are shown in tables 4 and 5.
Table 4: equivalence of Regression inclination of anxiety
Sum of square
D.f
Mean of square
Group
4.279
1
4.279
Anxiety
113.033
1
113.033
Group* Anxiety
24.358
1
24.358
error
169.934
16
10.621
total
119155.000
20
F
.403
10.643
2.293
Sig.
.535
.005
.149
As table 4 shows, interact between pre-test and group is not significant [P< .149, F (1.16) = 2.293]. Thus
prerequisite of equivalence of Regression inclination is approved.
Table 5: equivalence of Regression inclination of mental health
Sum of square
D.f
Mean of square
Group
8.272
1
8.272
Anxiety
66.935
1
66.935
Group* Anxiety
12.069
1
12.069
error
249.954
16
15.622
total
26782.000
20
F
.529
4.285
.773
Sig.
.447
.55
.392
As table 5 shows, interact between pre-test and group is not significant [F (1.16) = .773]. Thus
prerequisite of equivalence of Regression inclination is approved. For examining equivalence of variances
Levin’s test was used and results are showed in table 6.
Table 6: Levin’s test of equivalence of variances
F
D.f 1
D.f2
853
Sig.
.883
18
1
.360
As table 6 shows, prerequisite of equivalence of variance is approved.
For comparing means of anxiety and mental health scores, ANCOVA test was used in post-test. For
comparing means of anxiety and mental health post-test scores, controlling pre-test effect, Covariance
test was used and results are showed in table 7.
Table7: covariance of anxiety scores
Sum
of D.f
square
Pre-test
119.008
1
group
2.209
1
error
194.292
17
total
19155.000
20
Sum
Square
119.008
188.339
11.429
of
F
Sig.
10.413
16.479
.005
.001
Eta
square
.380
.492
As table 7 shows, the effect of pre-test scores of anxiety on post-test scores is significant [P< 0.001, F
(1.17) = 16.479]. Thus it can be said that there is significant difference between function of group
members in post-test of anxiety. Eta square shows that 49% (.492) of variance of anxiety is explained by
Ferry’s style cognitive group therapy as independent variable.
Table8: covariance of anxiety scores
Sum of square
D.f
Pre-test
group
error
total
166.178
49.806
262.022
26782.000
1
1
17
20
Sum
Square
166.178
49.806
15.413
of
F
Sig.
10.782
3.231
.004
.090
Eta
square
.388
.160
As table 8 shows, the effect of pre-test scores of mental health on post-test scores is significant [F (1.21)
= 10.160]. Thus it can be said that there is significant difference between function of group members in
post-test of mental health. Eta square shows that 16% (.160) of variance of mental health is explained by
Ferry’s style cognitive group therapy as independent variable.
Results of this study showed that Ferry’s style cognitive group therapy can reduce anxiety and increase
mental health in divorced women.
Discussion
Fundamental principle of cognitive therapy is that feeling and behaviour of person is depends on his
perception of world. Cognitive therapy helps client to solve his problems by understanding and changing
his thinking, behaviour and insufficient emotional response. The Michale Ferry’s cognitive group therapy
was effective in reducing anxiety and increasing mental health in divorced women in this research.
Results of current study is consistent with Golden and Grose (quoted by Yousefian and Asgharipour,
2013), Hoit (2006, quoted by Kahrizi et al, 2011) and Belad (2003, quoted by Kahrizi et al, 2011). These
studies reported effectiveness of cognitive group therapy on anxiety and mental health. Anxiety occurs
when thoughts about danger and threat for person, his important relatives or objects rises (Ferry, 1999).
According to Ferry (1999) classic cognitive therapy just change logical beliefs of person but do not
anything for emotional beliefs, and make these interventions as group interventions cause their
effectiveness. In explaining results it can be said that emotional upsets are not product of mysterious and
impermeable forces rather are due to mistakes in learning, misunderstanding and lack of distinguishing
reality from imagination. Sometimes individuals have anxiety without external reasons. In such situations
it can be said that there is a cognitive process (i.e. thought or a memory) caused his anxiety. Sometime
misunderstanding become a habit for person and occupies him so that he is unaware of such
misunderstandings. Sometimes patient distort reality and have illogical thoughts (Beck, 1974).
According to results of this study, we can use group therapy for reducing anxiety among divorced women
who suffer from loneliness. Group therapy is a scale for increasing mental health among divorced women
and using group therapy we can engage divorced people in progress of society and reduce their anxiety.
854
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855
The Relationship Between Job Burnout, Marital Intimacy, And Public
Health Among Married Counselors In Schools
Shiva Farmani Shahreza1, Ali Ghaedniay Jahromi2, Amirhossein hoseein pour1, Mahbubeh
Shahbazi Afra3
1- MA. Student of Family Counseling of social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences University, Tehran
2-- MA in Clinical Psychology, Department of Alborz University of Medical Sciences and Health Services.
3-BA student of Psychology, Azad University of Karaj, (Education employee),Karaj, Iran.
Abstract
Job burnout is a psychological syndrome which is consisted of emotional
exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduction of the sense of adequacy and creates
negative attitude toward self, job and others and risks person’s general health. The
main purpose of present study was to investigate the relationship between job
burnout, marital intimacy, and general health among married counselors in schools
of Karaj. The research design was descriptive-correlational. The study population
included all married counselors in district four of Karaj among which 60 people
(including 21 women, and 39 men) were selected by simple random sampling. To
collect data, the General Health Questionnaire (Goldberg, 1987), Marital Intimacy
Questionnaire (Walker & Thompson, 1983), and Job Burnout Inventory (Gldard,
1989) were used. Finally, the data was analyzed by using Pearson correlation
method. Results indicated that there is a positive significant relationship between
depression, somatic symptoms, anxiety, and social dysfunction and job burnout. In
addition, there was a negative significant relationship between marital intimacy and
anxiety & depression, while there was no significant relationship between job
burnout and marital intimacy.
Keywords: job burnout, marital intimacy, general health
Introduction
Human and work are two main integral components of existence which should be planned in a
consistent manner with each other. Lack of Compliance and proportionality between human capabilities
and the kind of work that he is doing can cause many problems, such as physical injuries and mental
burnout phenomenon can be noted. This would lower the labor productivity (Choobineh and Mowedi,
1999).
Today the problem of job burnout in the workplace is one of the most common problems,
unfortunately this situation is very common in the business world and new life and job burnout as a
structure is the product of several factors the understanding of these factors can play an important role in
its control. With the knowledge of how much and how the factors and burnout and having people involved
in the necessary insights in the field, anyone can make good changes in the working environment or does
your rate of job burnout caused by work and complications from it, such as delays and successive
absence and reduce dropouts.(Nasti creation, 2008).
Effects of occupational stress as a result of too much work, is called job burnout (Chamis, 1980 and
Freudenberger, 1980, 1977 quoted by mahdad, 2002). Freudenberger (1979) was the first who gave
credit to this term in its modern sense. He knows job burnout as weariness and exhaustion atrophy that is
due to the hard work with no interest and motivation, his clinical approach to etiology, symptoms,
procedures, clinical course and treatment in a paper published and described in 1979. He believes that a
fatigue syndrome, indicate its symptoms and severity of the symptoms that they are different from one
person to another person It is typically a year later when the person starts to work at an institution begins
(Freudenberger quoted by Rasoulian, 2004).
Job burnout is a lack of desire that will arise in motivation and the consequences of the increasing
inability of the interests and abilities (Potter, 2001). Job burnout is prolonged response to stressful stimuli
emotion and interpersonal aspects of the job and is testimonial boredom and incompetence (Maslach،
Schaufeli & Albatoori, 2009).
Researches of Maslak and colleagues (1988, quoted Badri Gregory, 1995) concluded that job
burnout is a multidimensional structure and is composed of three related components. These components
include erosion or emotional exhaustion that is concerned with person’s loss of emotional energy. Indeed,
in previous cases that have high levels of motivation, Job burnout disappears and the work is tiring for
him. The second component forming the job burnout of, a desire for this is that the person is not
considered to be human person subjectivity out of it and realize that as a non-human object
(depersonalization). Depersonalization of human professions as an object to interact with people and tags
that are frequently used, it is apparent (Jackson & Maslach, 1988; quoted Badri Gregory, 1995). The third
component of job burnout was feeling of low personal accomplishment. This component has attracted less
attention. The purpose of this component is reduced sense of personal achievement, the individual feels
he is not successful, or to be more precise, performance or achievements of perceptual rather than
performance and actual achievement (Maslach et al, 1988).
However this job burnout has a strong impact on general health and mental health. A person who is
experiencing the job burnout in his social function and develop a feeling of depression and anxiety
disorders and difficulty in movement and physical condition all these factors are part of general health
(Ashouri, 2009).
So we can assume that the job burnout in general health is a major problem that can affect general
health. From factors effective in health, genetic and individual factors, such as age, sex, occupation, social
class, environmental factors, lifestyle, people, extent and quality of services can be noted. There is much
empirical evidence that personality traits play an important role in the creation, reduction or elimination of
symptoms of mental disorders (Nastayy zaey, 2008).
Thus, burnout is not only with person's mental health, but also has a positive relationship with
productivity and through and overcome burnout, mental health can be improved by increasing the
effectiveness and productivity of labor helped (Beirami, 2011). Finally, exhausted from work, followed by
general health has declined due to burnout and have a lot impact on marriage and the level of intimacy
between them according to studies job burnout can affect different spheres of life; one of these areas,
especially in intimate relationships is marriage. Based on Bagarozzi’s definition of intimacy is, proximity,
similarity and a romantic or emotional personal relationship with another person Requires a deep
understanding of the other person to express thoughts and feelings(Bagarorzi, translated by Atash pour
and Etemadi, 2006).
According to the above definition, the intimacy component can be divided into nine areas: Emotional,
Psychological, Intellectual, Sexual, Physical, Aesthetic, Social & Recreational, Temporal (Zolfaghari,
2008).
Now, according to the definitions of the variables mentioned in this research we want to get the
conclusion that there is a correlation between intimacy and burnout and general health. According to the
public health has the scale we want Crumb is the relationship between each of them with devotion and
burnout have been changed as to whether there is a significant relationship between them? And finally to
answer the question whether the degree of intimacy and job burnout in both men and women are alike or
not? The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between the three variables and their
subscales.
Research hypotheses were:
1. the relationship between job burnout and marital intimacy.
2. There is a relationship between burnout and depression.
3. There is a relationship between burnout and there is anxiety.
4. There is a relationship between the symptoms and physical burnout.
5. There is a relationship between job burnout and social dysfunction.
6. There is a relationship between marital intimacy and depression there.
7. There is a relationship between marital intimacy and anxiety out there.
8. There is a relationship between marital intimacy and physical symptoms.
9. There is a relationship between the social dysfunction and marital intimacy.
Method
The method of this study was cross - sectional. Study population was all Married consultants of
region 4 of 2012-13school year in Karaj. The sample consisted of 60 married men and women who were
857
consultant and the member of the Society of Education married Consultants 4 region in Karaj were
selected by simple random sampling. Education subjects were mostly undergraduate in Bachelor of Arts
and duration of marriage and number of children respectively were1-31 years and 0-4. In the first
sampling through education we received a list of the consultants. We separate the married from them and
from 130 consultants we approximately randomly chose 60 people.
Data collection tools consisted of three questionnaires: the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28,
Goldberg, 1987) containing 28 questions and to evaluate the overall health (physical health subscale,
anxiety, social dysfunction and depression) which is graded on a scale of 0 to 3 Such that less than 6 in
each subscale score indicates a favorable condition and a higher score of 6 indicates a desirable
condition. And a total score (0-22) indicating the general health is good, and scores above 22 indicate
symptom. In administering the general health questionnaire (28-GHQ) in Taqvi’s study Cronbach alpha is
0 .9 (18).
The questionnaire of the intimacy provided by Alexis j. Walker and Linda Thompson was built in
1983. Intimacy scale is a 17-item tool has been developed to measure love and intimacy. Subjects' scores
on this scale by summing the scores of questions divided by 17 yields scores range from 1 to 7 that higher
scores indicate greater Intimacy. The scale alpha coefficient of 91% to 97% has excellent internal
consistency (Walker & Thompson, 1983).
Job burnout Inventory (GBI): This questionnaire for the assessment of burnout was built by David
Geldard in 1989, encompasses 40 questions, in such a way that each question describes a situation and
respondent will respond in a range of seven-degree from strongly agree to strongly disagree. Reliability
and validity of the questionnaire and study has been approved abroad.
For data analysis, descriptive statistics (measures of central tendency and dispersion) and inferential
statistics (Pearson correlation test, T) was used.
Results
According to the hypothesis of the study there is a positive and significant relationship between job
burnout and depression and the hypothesis was accepted (r =0.456), positive and significant relationship
between job burnout and physical symptoms at the level of 0 .01 and was accepted (r =0.696), and there
is a Positive and significant relationship between burnout and anxiety in the 0 .01 and the hypothesis is
confirmed (r = 0.634), there is a positive and significant relationship between burnout and social
dysfunction at the level of 0 .01 (r= 0.403), there is a relationship between burnout and marital Intimacy
but not significant. Between Intimacy and depression in 0 .05, there is a significant negative correlation (r
= 0.272-), Between Intimacy and anxiety in 05 .0, there is a negative and significant relationship was
accepted (r = 0.295-).(Table – 2)
Age
Marital
intimacy
38.85
5.47
Table 1 - Mean and standard deviation of variables
Job
Physical
Anxiety Social
General
burnout symptoms
dysfunction health
disorder
113.63 4.62
4.33
5.77
15.50
5.940
1.157
22.187
3.087
3.040
2.158
7.022
Mean
Standard
deviation
Table 2 - Pearson correlation coefficients Job burnout and intimacy with general health subscales
Social dysfunction
disorder
0.403**
Anxiety
Depression
intimacy
0.634**
Physical
symptoms
0.696**
0.456**
-0.168
-0.229
0.295-*
0.089-
0.27-*
1
** < 0. 01 .p < 0. 05 .*
Job
burnout
Intimacy
p
Conclusion and Discussion
The Hypothesis is that there is a meaningful relationship between burnout and each general health
subscales. According to the correlation coefficient in the table no. 2 was raised between job burnout and
general health scale of retail including physical symptoms, depression, anxiety, and social dysfunction,
there is a significant and positive relationship and correlation coefficients are respectively ،0. 696 ،0. 456
858
0. 403 ‫ و‬0. 634 and are significant at the level of 0.01. Therefore, according to the analysis of the data,
these assumptions prove to be that whatever the burnout rate is high between consultants, depression,
anxiety; social dysfunction disorder and physical symptoms will be increased. These findings was
supporting the findings of the study results of Nasti Zayi et al. (2008), which explores the relationship
between job burnout and general health in the Department of telecommunications employees belong to
Zahedan. These findings were consistent with the findings of the Bahri binabaj, et al., Saberi and et al.
(2008) and Mohammadi (2005). The findings showed that there is a significant relationship between job
burnout and physical health, and anxiety. The first damage suffered from job burnout is physical burnout.
People who suffer from this condition experience severe fatigue and energy reduction, moreover, these
people have some of the signs of physical pressure such as headache, nausea, changes in food habits
and sleepless in abundant report (Luckman and sorensen, 1987). Today, anyone in any place and
situation has some degree of stress in the workplace makes sense and this is a tangible and irrefutable
fact, in modern organizations (Weightman, 1999). Job Burnout is one of the results of a variety of stress
which appear as physical symptoms (headaches, stomach ulcers); psychic signs (depression, anger) and
behavioral symptoms (loss of work, absence) (Russell and Altmaier E and Van Velzen D, 1987).
The next hypothesis is that between intimacy and any general health scale of retail there is a
meaningful relationship. As shown in table no. 2 was also seen there is a meaningful negative correlation
between intimacy and anxiety and depression scale and coefficients between them in order was ‫ و‬-0. 295
-0. 272 at level of 0.05 that means whatever the amount of marital intimacy is higher among consultants
levels of anxiety and depression also will be reduced this a reverse relationship and is significant. As well
between intimacy as two other petty scales and means of social dysfunction and physical symptoms,
there was inverse relationship but was not significant. These findings are consistent with research findings
of samimi (2006), which examines the lifestyle with general health. This means that every couple in your
life style must have the necessary amount of sincerity too means if they have enough attention to marital
intimacy in their lifestyle makes adequate General health and reduce anxiety and depression in their lives
as was discussed intimacy as a factor in the lifestyle of people out there that have a large impact on public
health and other factors puts.
There is a relationship between job burnout and intimacy, but not significant, this relationship is
reversed it means that the people who have higher job burnout the level of intimacy in relationships will be
reduced of course, being not significant of the two variables probably because his aides because of being
consultant, won’t enter their fatigue resulting from work to marital life revealing the unpleasant effects on
marital relations and their intimacy.
We want to deal with each of the variables of job burnout and intimacy between two groups of men
and women alike? Researcher has been answered to this question through T-test between these two
groups.
As seen in Table 6 subjects in this study, 21 male patients who their intimacy mean 5 .84 and
standard deviation was 0 .807 and 39 females with intimacy mean was 5 .27 and standard deviation was
1 .271. There was not much difference in terms of variables, and intimacy between men and women in the
sense that one cannot distinguish the difference between the two groups in terms of intimacy thus and
intimacy between men and women was almost identical. Levine's test for equality of variances hypothesis
testing is done because the significance level (0. 061) value is greater than 0. 05 can not reject the null
hypothesis of equality of variances, so the results are valid based on the significance level is determined
and intimacy variance tests the significance level should be less than 0. 05, Here the significance level is
0. 066. Given these findings, we conclude that the intimacy between the two groups is the same of there
is no difference between them cannot be said that and intimacy in men than women, or vice versa. Now
we want to check job burnout rate between the two groups of women and men, we want know whether the
burnout rate between men and women is the same, or we can say that in a group more than other groups,
or vice versa. T test was used for this work. From 60 subjects, 21 males with an average burnout between
107 and standard deviation 263 .20 and 39 were women who the mean was 117 and standard deviation
22 .601, respectively. There is not much difference between the two groups in terms of job burnout mean.
Levine's test is done for equality of variances hypothesis testing because the significance level (0. 275)
value is greater than 0 .05 does not reject the null hypothesis of equality of variances thus, intimacy
ANOVA test results are valid based on the specified significance level, the significance level should be
less than 0 .05 at this point that the significance level of 0089 .. The findings indicate that, there is no
much difference between the two groups in terms of burnout of male and female, and how these variables
were similar between the two groups. So you cannot say that women have more burnout, or vice versa.
There was no Research to evaluate levels of burnout and intimacy between men and women, so no
comparison or analysis could be made of them.
Acknowledgments
859
At the end of it was necessary to appreciate District 4 Education of Karaj that helped us and all the
consultants who completed the questionnaires.
References
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daughters. Journal of Marriage and Family, Journal of the National Council on Family Relations
Badri Gregory R, 1995. Teacher burnout syndrome and psychological coping mechanisms. Master's
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Baggarossy d, 2006. Increasing Intimacy in Marriage (translated h. Atashpour and AS. Trust). Iran:
Islamic Azad University Press. (Original release: 2002).
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860
The Relationship Between Emotional Intelligence, Job Satisfaction
And Marital Satisfaction Among Married Teachers
Fahimeh Pourmand1, Mohsen Rasuli2, Shiva Farmani Shahreza3, Amirhossein Hosseinpour3
1.MA. Student of Family counseling of Kharazmy University, Tehran, Iran
2. Assistant Professor, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of
Kharazmi, Tehran, Iran
3.MA Student of Family counseling of social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences University,
Tehran, Iran
Abstract:
Emotional intelligence is a set of capabilities, competences and non-cognitive skills that
affects someone’s ability to succeed in coping with environmental requirements and
constraints and is one of the most important important factors that affects both marital
and job satisfaction. The present study aimed to investigate the relationship between
emotional intelligence, job satisfaction, and marital satisfaction among married teachers
in Karaj. The study population consisted of all married teachers of secondary schools in
District four of Karaj among which 100 female married teachers were selected as the study
sample by simple random sampling. In order to collect data, the motional intelligence
questionnaire (Bar-an, 1980), the marital satisfaction inventory (Walter and hoodsen,
1992), and the short form of job satisfaction questionnaire (Smith, Kendall, & Hallin, 1987)
were used. Finally, data were analyzed by using Pearson's correlation method. Results
indicated that there was a significant relationship between job satisfaction and marital
satisfaction. Additionally, there was a negative insignificant relationship between job
satisfaction and coping with stress subscale of emotional intelligence variable. In addition,
the results showed that there was a significant correlation between marital satisfaction
and interpersonal relationships subscale of emotional intelligence variable, while there
was no significant correlation between emotional intelligence and job & marital
satisfaction. Given that emotional intelligence can determine individuals’ interpersonal
relationships and the level of marital relationships and affects individuals ‘marital and job
satisfaction, it’s possible to improve interpersonal relationships by empowering emotional
intelligence and emotional management.
Keywords: emotional intelligence, job satisfaction, marital satisfaction.
Introduction
When join an organization bring a set of desires, needs, and past experiences or general job
expectations with them into the organization. Job satisfaction refers to an employee's attitudes.
Employees have particular attitudes for the five factors, including salary, promotion opportunities, and
nature of work, policies, policies and conditions. Degree of employee satisfaction of each of these factors
is different. For example, a person may feel dissatisfied about his receiving, but along with that of other
factors to be satisfied. It should be said that individual job satisfaction and work group simultaneously
may be influenced by colleagues, managers and supervisors (Derakhshani, 2009).
Identifying emotions in oneself and others causes employers to obtain information on the interaction
with colleagues and customers. By the ability to understand emotions, we can understand that what may
be induced or non-arousal individuals or groups and can therefore better to plan to collaborate with
others. The way of emotion management (managing emotions in others’ area) in the workplace can have
a significant impact on performance and job satisfaction (Aqdasi, 2008).
So some believe that job satisfaction is strongly associated with psychological factors; In other
words, these experts explain job satisfaction primarily from the mental attitudes and characteristics.
Fisher and Hannah (1939) consider Job satisfaction as a psychological factor, and perceive it kind of
emotional adjustment with the jobs and conditions of employment. That means if a job provides joy for a
person he will be satisfied of his job if not he will begin to blame the job and change that (Shafi abadi,
2008). Employees with high emotional intelligence are more likely to have high levels of job satisfaction
because they are more adjusted in evaluating and regulating their own emotions than employees with low
emotional intelligence (Sai, 2006; quoted by mirzadeh, and Ostovar on 2008). Emotional intelligence
should not be named a way for knowledge and job skills. Emotional intelligence can lead to improvement
of professional activities and necessary and desirable skills. Emotional intelligence cannot be a necessary
condition and a sufficient condition for having a happy and prosperous life. This is a necessary condition
but not sufficient. For many people, emotional intelligence plays the role of Rorschach test ink spots that
everyone has a very specific infer of that (Jalilvand, 2009 ).
The lines of thought and false emotion moods in addition to its impact on the job satisfaction can
hurt marital relationships so the impact of emotional intelligence on marital satisfaction carefully studied in
recent years. Using complex physiologic scales can investigate emotional fluctuations in a couple's
encounters between them. These physiological scales reveal biological aspects of the couple and hidden
problems. So one of the crucial factors that impacts on marital satisfaction and job satisfaction; is
emotional intelligence. Emotional Intelligence is predictor of success in life and how to deal with stress so
nurturing emotional intelligence is very important. Golman(1995) believes that Emotional intelligence
training can help change people through self-narration and changing beliefs. Among the components of
that are emphasized in emotional intelligence training the ability to deal effectively with issues of
interpersonal and couple relationships, and emotional control (border, 2007). Therefore, emotional
intelligence helps the quality of the working relationship, because emotions are effective in the
communication, social functioning, transmitting information about the thoughts and desires, and also to
deal with the social events and the relationships (Lopez, graol, cris, scabies, and Sulloway, 2006; quotes
from aghdassi, 2009).
Now by considering to the expressed content and the importance of emotional intelligence on job
satisfaction in the workplace and its impact on the marital satisfaction, the question arises whether
emotional intelligence affects job satisfaction and marital satisfaction of teachers. Therefore, this study is
to investigate the relationship between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction, marital satisfaction.
Method
The research was descriptive, cross - sectional. Study population was all married teachers in district
4 in academic year of 20011-12 of Karaj. Our sample consisted of 100 female married high school
teachers who were selected from the mentioned community by simple random sampling. At first in
sampling of will a list of female high school teacher was received from Education organization then
married women were chosen from them of High school And 100 persons were selected through simple
random sampling.
Data collection tools consisted of three questionnaires:
1 - Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (Bar -an 1980) which has 90 questions to assess emotional
intelligence (emotional intelligence subscale of the individual, interpersonal, coping with pressure,
adaptability) a scale from one to five on a five-grade Likert (totally agree, agree, somewhat , disagree,
totally disagree) Grading and question numbers 47, 48, 51, 52, 53, 54, and 58 are reverse scored.
Cronbach's alpha for the total test rates 93/0 is reported. In accordance with the even – odd, reliability of
the test was 0/88 reported in P <0. 0001 is significant.
2-Inventory of Marital Satisfaction (IMS): is a 25-question instrument is provided by Walter Hudson
in 1992 and has been supplying to measure the intensity and extent of the problems in the couple's
marital relationship. According to the original creator validity of 0 .96 and Cronbach's Alpha has been
reported 0 .97 (judgment, 2007).
3- Job Satisfaction Questionnaire: A 30-item instrument that has been adjusted by Smith, Kendall
Hallin 1987 and has been taken for the measurement level of job satisfaction. Scoring as follows is
awarded the points for each question and the end points are gathered in a wide range should between
from 30 to 195. As a general rule, the higher the test score will be the more is satisfied with their work.
Validity of this index 0 .72 (Bombay, 2006), Cronbach's have been reported 0 .83.
For data analysis, descriptive statistics (measures of central tendency and dispersion) and
inferential statistics (Pearson correlation coefficient) were used.
Results
According to the research hypotheses, there is a significant positive correlation between job
satisfaction and marital satisfaction, and the hypothesis was accepted (r =0.366), between job satisfaction
and emotional intelligence, and between emotional intelligence and marital satisfaction, there was no
significant relationship and the hypothesis was not accepted. Between marital satisfaction and
862
interpersonal relations subscale of emotional intelligence there was a significant positive correlation and
the hypothesis was accepted (r =0.209). And between job satisfaction and deal with the stress variable of
emotional intelligence subscales there is a negative relation but not significant, and the hypothesis was
accepted (r =-0.300).
Table 1.Central Index (mean) and the index of dispersion (standard deviation) of variables
Marital
satisfaction
Adjustment
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Emotional
intelligence
Job
satisfaction
100
Dealing
with
stress
100
Number
100
100
100
100
100
Mean
73.33
23.80
25.86
21.71
23.75
263.53
125.22
Standard
deviation
24.717
5.320
4.224
3.385
3.560
17.349
31.567
Table2. Pearson correlation with marital satisfaction and emotional intelligence subscales
Job
Marital
Adjustment Dealing Interpersonal Intrapersonal Emotional
with
intelligence satisfaction satisfaction
stress
0.144
-0.030
0.184
0.165
0.023
1
**0.366
Job
satisfaction
0.189
0.007
*0.209
0.146
0.006
**0.366
1
Marital
satisfaction
p < 0. 01 .p< 0. 05 .*
Conclusion and Discussion
According to the correlation coefficients in Table 2 it was shown that there is a positive and
significant relationship between job and marital satisfaction (r =0.366). The findings of the study are
consistent with findings of Moein and Razavieh’s study (2007) that examined the relationship between
marital satisfaction and job satisfaction among married veterans that Show that there is a significant
positive relationship between personality traits and marital satisfaction and job satisfaction. As seen in
Table 2, there was no significant relationship between job satisfaction and emotional intelligence, and has
not been approved. This finding was not consistent with findings of Hassan Khoi’s study (2006), which
examines the relationship between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction. He Has found that there is
a relationship between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction and motivation of men and women, selfawareness, self-control and social skills are different, but women than men have a higher emotional
intelligence and empathy. As seen in Table 2, there was no significant relationship between job
satisfaction and emotional intelligence, and has not been approved. The correlation coefficient for this
hypothesis was 0 .006; that was not significant at alpha level of 0 .01. These findings was not consistent
with the findings of Deal Breaker (2005) entitled "The Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and
sexual satisfaction". Results showed a significant relationship between emotional intelligence and there
are certain aspects of marital satisfaction.
As seen in Table 2, there were significant negative correlations between job satisfaction and stress
coping subscales that the correlation coefficients between them was -0.030 at the level of 0 .01.These
findings was not consistent with the findings of Ghaedi and colleagues (2006), a research entitled "The
Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and job and Defense Mechanisms " revealed the significant
and positive relation between deal with stress and job satisfaction.
As shown in Table 2 there is a negative and significant relationship between marital satisfaction and
interpersonal subscales of emotional intelligence (empathy, interpersonal relationships, and social
responsibility), that the correlation coefficient between them was 0.209 at the level of 0 .01. These
findings is consistent with the findings of a study on job satisfaction and interpersonal relations within the
individual and provided by shoot, Nicholas, maloof, babek, kosten, jedlica, redzondrof, grisen (2001). The
results showed that emotional intelligence plays an important role in marital adjustment as part of the
overall consistency and people with high emotional intelligence have earned more scores in empathy,
self-monitoring, self-control and social status.
Acknowledgement
At the end of it was necessary to appreciate District 4 Education of Karaj that helped us and all the
consultants who completed the questionnaires.
863
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864
Impact of cooperative learning on students’ critical thinking and
attitude toward the textbook of Science in the elementary schools
Maryam Sadat Seyyed Sharifi Kakhaki*1, Mohammad Rahman Pour2, Fateme Khanlqy3 Hasan
Rahmanpour4
1-MA of educational sciences, Education office of Roshtkhar, Roshtkhar, Iran
2-MA of psychology, Lecturer of Payam-e Nour University, Khaf, Iran
3-MA of Educational sciences, Education office of Nishabour, Iran
4-MA of Geography, Member of Young Researchers and Elite Club, Torbat-e Heydarieh Branch, Islamic
Azad University, Torbat-e Heydarieh, Iran
Abstract:
In the present time, cooperative learning has been widely used on various subjects,
different age ranges and in all the schools and universities throughout the world. Few
writing is found on educational methods, teachers’ journal or educational material that
hasn’t discussed the cooperative learning and this method stands amongst the most
successful phenomena in the realm of psychology and educational sciences. The
present research purpose in to assess the impact of cooperative learning on students’
critical thinking and attitude toward the textbook of Science in the elementary schools.
The study used a semi-experimental method with pre-test, post-test and control group
design The statistical population included all the female students studying in the fifth
grade of elementary schools in Roshtkhar province in the school year run from 2012 to
2013, out of which, a sample of 60 female students was randomly selected and assigned
to the experimental and control groups (each of which, 30 individuals). The research data
gathering tools included Watson and Glaser critical thinking questionnaire, Akbari
attitude assessment questionnaire, and all the books, methods and techniques in
teaching science. The data were analyzed using t-test. Results indicated that cooperative
learning exert significant effects on students’ critical thinking, their attitude toward
inference, recognition of assumptions, deduction, interpretation and analysis, evaluation
and logical reasons on the textbook of sciences. Moreover, cooperative learning
produces effects on the increase of positive attitude and decrease of negative attitude of
students toward the textbook of science.
Keywords: cooperative learning, critical thinking, type of attitude, textbook of science.
Introduction
Cooperative learning was unknown until 1960. The competitive learning was dominant on
educational thoughts. However, individual learning based on Skinners work and on program-based
learning and behavioral changes challenged it. Today, educational functions and thoughts have changed
and cooperative learning is regarded as an acceptable educational method in all the educational levels.
Presently, cooperative learning has been widely used in different realms, for different age ranges and
different universities and schools throughout the world. Few writing is found on educational methods,
teachers’ journal or educational material that hasn’t discussed the cooperative learning and this method
stands amongst the most successful phenomena in the realm of psychology and educational sciences.
In this approach, teaching means the involvement of students in the process of learning; put it
differently, forcing the students to actively participate in the acquirement process of knowledge. The goal
of teaching is not only the transference of knowledge but turning the student from a passive receiver into
an active user and applier of his and others’ knowledge and this is not possible, unless the students
participate actively in the process of learning.
Presently, cooperative learning has found a voluminous and extensive theoretical and scientific
background and is superior to other educational methods and has turned into a strong model that is
linked with other perspective including anthropology (Mead, 1936), sociology (Coleman, 1936), economic
(Van Mies, 1949), politic (Smith, 1959), developmental psychology (Piaget, 1950) linguistics (Vigotsky,
1978), and learning psychology (Bandura, 1977) (Johnson et al, 2000; cited in Keramati, 2005).
In the recent years, the new approach of science has given rise to fundamental evolution in the
condition of teaching sciences at a global level and countries have practically adapted this new
perspective to the issue of education through changing the scientific books in general and public
education. In innovative methods of education, learning gets out of the form of transference and gets
closer to the pole of active learning. Active learning is a king of learning during which the learner has
active participation in the production of educational concepts (Omrani, 2001).
In the curriculum of science, the planner attempts to create condition beside scientific arguments
and thinking skills to redirect the individuals to desirable attitude, values and human characteristics. In the
method of exploration, the leaning opportunities and experience are selected and organized in a way that
student participate in the process of exploring in pair or group activities. This multidimensional interaction
creates the opportunity in which many of the human values and characteristics grow and expand
indirectly (Boodnis, cited in Setayesh, 2004).
I a study entitled the effectiveness of cooperative learning in the academic achievement of
students in physics by Keramati (2008), the results indicated significant difference between the mean of
the educational achievement score of students in the pre-test and post-test and in the experimental and
control groups. This difference indicates the improvement of the scores in both groups, but the more
precise comparison of the data indicates that the educational achievement of students who participated in
cooperative learning was higher than students who received the common teaching method.
In the research by Yaryari et al (2008) the effectiveness of cooperative learning on self-esteem,
social skills and academic achievement of students studying in the third grade of high school located in
Mahneshan Province was investigated. Results indicated that the mean scores of students in self-esteem
866
didn’t differ in the experimental and control group subsequent to the implementation of cooperative
learning method. The scores of students on the scales of social and academic achievement increased
subsequent to the post-test; however, this increase was not significant.
The aim of educational system is educating skilled students and sophisticated citizens. An
adequate foundation should be laid for the growth and enhancement of scientific attitude, creative and
free thoughts, the ability of critical thinking, problem-solving skills and scientific dealing with issues.
Today, one of the learning problems of teaching science in the class is the employment of
ineffective and traditional methods. The traditional methods can’t meet the learners’ needs. These
methods do not allow for problem solving skills, employment of cooperative information and agreement
with each other. Therefore, learners do not perceive the enjoyment of learning and the school becomes a
boring and unpleasant place for them. One of the effective strategies in solving such problems is the
employment of new methods in teaching and learning (Nasr Abadi and Norouzi, 2006).
Obviously, the final product of education is the explorer’s mind and students are considered as
life-long learners that always seek for scientifically solving the life and occupational problems. In the
current era and with regard to the development of technology and evolutions throughout the world, the
explorative model has gained a special position and has redirected the individuals toward actualization in
the classroom. The results of a study by Taghi Pour Sahl Abadi (1975) indicate that the explorative
method enhances the spirit of cooperation and exploration among the individuals.
In the explorative method, students foster their tolerance toward complex issues and persevere
with that. Moreover, critical and logical thinking is demonstrated in the individual’s behavior through the
verbal assertion. The exploration model designs questions and experiments and lets the individual grow
and develop the courage to ask questions and present the lessons (Tarfeh Taban, 1996).
With regard to the mentioned factors, some strategies should be implemented in teaching that
provide the individuals to explore an ask organized questions about the realities and require for critical
thinking and cover diverse practices on a subject to enhance the critical thinking of individuals because
everyone needs to use his/her abilities for thinking and the aim of this method is providing answers for
questions that are posed in everyday life and in educational settings (Bensley, cited in Soltan Algharayi
and Soleiman Nezhad, 2008).
Gholtash (2004) has investigated the effect of cooperative learning in the growth of social skills
on a sample of 40 students studying in the fifth grade of elementary school and concluded that
cooperative learning strategy exert positive effect on the growth of students’ social skills. Mashhadi
(2001) in a study investigated the effect of collaborative education on academic achievement of students
studying in teacher training centers, assessed its relationship with learning styles and compared it with
traditional methods. Results demonstrated that students who received cooperative learning had better
educational achievement as compared to the traditional learning group.
In a study by Mirza Beigi et al (2002) the methods of cooperative learning, education of dialogue
principles and speech method were compared on the academic achievement of geography among the
students studying in the fifth grade of elementary school. Results indicated the significant difference
867
between the score of academic achievement in geography and the stability of the learning that were
acquired through speech training.
In a study of the achievement of cognitive goals of sciences lesson with traditional and
explorative methods by Nasr Abadi and Norouzi (2006), these results were obtained that the
accumulation of the scores of goals was at weak and average levels. The mean of scores differed by one
score from the mean of 3.5 which was acceptable. Therefore, the comparison between male and female
students indicated that there is no between-group difference between male and female students and girls
score higher on understanding, application and analysis as compared to other factors.
The most important finding of another research by Jahani (2001) has investigated and criticized
the philosophical model of critical thinking education by Lipman. He concluded that critical thinking is
exclusively possible through research and explorative processes. Therefore, parents and authorities
should strengthen the spirit of researching and increase the thinking power among the students.
Johnson and Johnson (1994) in a study entitled the effectiveness of cooperative learning on a
sample of 34 elite students in academic achievement, self-esteem, attitude toward school and lesson
subject. They concluded that cooperative learning exerts positive and significant effect both in the
cognitive and emotional aspects. A study by Guralink and Groom (1987) indicated that cooperative
learning strategy has significant effect on the increase of students’ academic achievement and their
interest in education (cited in Keramati, 2003). The results of the research by McTingle (1992) and
McDaniel (1967) indicated that the explorative model is effective in the growth of thinking and educational
achievement.
Cooperative learning will be effective in the critical thinking of female fifth-grade students.
Cooperative learning will be effective in the attitude of female fifth-grade students toward the
subject lesson of sciences.
Cooperative learning will be effective in the deduction of female fifth-grade students.
Cooperative learning will be effective in identifying the assumptions of female fifth-grade
students.
Cooperative learning will be effective in the inference of female fifth-grade students.
Cooperative learning will be effective in the interpretation of female fifth-grade students.
Cooperative learning will be effective in the evaluation of logical reasoning of female fifth-grade
students.
Cooperative learning will be effective in the positive attitude of female fifth-grade students toward
the subject lesson of sciences.
Cooperative learning will be effective in the negative attitude of female fifth-grade students toward
the subject lesson of sciences.
The study used a semi-experimental method with pre-test, post-test and control group design.
The statistical population included all the female students studying in the fifth grade of elementary schools
in Roshtkhar province in the school year run from 2012 to 2013, out of which, a sample of 60 female
students was randomly selected and assigned to the experimental and control groups (each of which, 30
individuals). The experimental group received ten 45-minute sessions of education based on explorative
model. Moreover, the variables of age, gender, educational level and grade and also intelligence were
868
controlled. The research data gathering tools included Watson and Glaser critical thinking questionnaire,
Akbari attitude assessment questionnaire, and all the books, methods and techniques in teaching
science.
The research data gathering tools included Watson and Glaser critical thinking questionnaire,
Akbari attitude assessment questionnaire, and all the books, methods and techniques in teaching
science.
Watson and Gelizro critical thinking questionnaire was translated into Persian and some changes
and reforms were made to some of its examples and expressions because of cultural conditions and the
perception levels of students. This questionnaire was first administered on a few numbers of students
studying in the fifth grade of elementary schools. The ambiguous and vague examples and expressions
were indicated by the learners and the necessary changes were made in the questionnaire. It was given
to a few of the teachers teaching in the elementary level and their opinions were asked on the best
possible form of the questionnaire. Finally, the questionnaire was copied and administered. Moreover, the
content of the attitude assessment questionnaire designed and developed by Abolghasem Akbari was
changed according to the content of sciences text book.
Watson-Glaser 80-item critical thinking questionnaire was used to assess the critical thinking of
individuals in five components of inference, identifying the assumptions, interpretation and analysis and
evaluation. The total score of the test is equal to 80 and the maximum score equals 16 in each section.
The scores in the section of inference are scored by true or false statements. In the section of identifying
the assumptions, lack or existence of the assumptions is indicated in the stated or non-stated expressions
of the situation. In the section of deduction, identifying the extracted or non-extracted results from the
situations, in the section of interpretation and analysis by the analysis of the biographies and finally in the
section of evaluation by assessing the strong or weak reasons, the required results are obtained.
For each correct response, the score one is given to the individual and a total of correct
responses to the questions of the test are regarded as the total score (maximum score of 80). Each
subject can obtain the scores in weak category (less than 45), average (54-59) and strong (60-80) with
regard to the ability for critical thinking. In the categorization of the scores in each section, the weak
category, average category and strong category are regarded to be less than 10 and less, 11 and 12 to
16. The required time for responding to the test items is 60 minutes. This test has been translated into
Persian and the necessary changes were made to that in order to adapt to cultural and social factors of
Iran (cited in Javidi et al, 2010).
The Cronbach alpha of Watson-Glaser critical thinking skills has been reported to be above .70
(Mosalla Nezhad, 2008; Eslami Akbar et al, 2004). In another study by Eslami and Maarefi (2010), the
validity of the questionnaire using paired t was reported to be .4. In a study by Badri Gargari et al (2009)
on a sample of 80 subjects, results indicated significant between-group difference at .05 with t to be equal
to 2.26. The result of reliability using test-retest on a sample of 50 students of teacher training center was
equal to .46.
Another tool of this study was attitude assessment questionnaire which was designed in 2004 to
assess the educational attitude of students. This 29-item questionnaire is scored on 5-point Likert scale
from (completely agree to completely disagree). This questionnaire was originally developed on a sample
of fifth-grade students to assess their opinion on the subject lesson of sciences. It was later developed by
869
its assessment of a sample of 30 high schools students and its psychometric properties was assessed on
a sample of 659 individuals.
The negative questions of (2, 3, 5, 8, 10, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 21 and 22) are scored as following:
completely agree=1, agree=2, indifferent=3, disagree=4 and completely disagree=5. Positive items (1, 4,
6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 16, 19, 20, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28 and 29) are scored as following: completely agree=5,
agree=4, indifferent=3, disagree=2 and completely disagree=1. The individuals’ score in the total scale is
obtained by summing up the scores in each of the negative and positive questions. Educational attitude
assessment questionnaire was administered on a sample of 659 of students and its reliability using
Cronbach alpha was equal to .91.
Table 1- Results of t-test for the comparison of means in two groups in the variable of critical thinking
\group
number
Mean
of pretest
Mean
of posttest
Differences
between the
means
Means
standard
errors
experimental
30
38.06
43.33
-5.26
6.30
control
30
32.20
29.03
3.16
6.19
t-test for the comparison
of two means
t
df
p
5.22-
58
.000
Based on the results of table 1, the mean score of post-test in the experimental group (43.33) has
increased as compared to the pre-test (38.06). Moreover, results indicated that the estimated tob with
degree of freedom to be 58 is equal to -5.22 and the tcr is equal to 2.66. Therefore, the null hypothesis is
rejected and the research hypothesis is confirmed. It can be concluded that cooperative learning is
effective in the critical thinking of the students and there is significant between-group difference.
Table 2- Results of t-test for the comparison of means in two groups in the variable of attitude
group
870
number
Mean of
pre-test
Mean of
post-test
Differences
between the
means
Means
standard
errors
Experimental
30
89.43
100.66
11.23
15.34
Control
30
93.40
82.96
10.43
15.50
t-test
for
comparison
of
means
t
df
p
5.44
58
.000
the
two
Based on the results of table 2, the mean score of post-test in the experimental group (100.66)
has increased as compared to the pre-test (89.43). Moreover, results indicated that the estimated tob with
degree of freedom to be 58 is equal to 5.44 and the tcr is equal to 2.66. Therefore, the null hypothesis is
rejected and the research hypothesis is confirmed. It can be concluded that cooperative learning is
effective in the type of attitude of the students and there is significant between-group difference.
Table 3- Results of t-test for the comparison of means in two groups in the variable of inference
group
number
Mean
of pretest
Mean
of posttest
Differences
between the
means
t-test
for
comparison of
means
Means
standard
errors
Experimental
30
5.16
6.66
1.50-
2.20
Control
30
4.76
4.66
.10
1.93
the
two
t
df
p
2.98-
58
.004
rejected and the research hypothesis is confirmed. It can be concluded that inference is effective in the
type of attitude of the students and there is significant between-group difference.
Table 4- Results of t-test for the comparison of means in two groups in the variable of identifying the
assumptions
group
number
Mean of
pre-test
Mean of
posttest
Differences
between the
means
Means
standard
errors
of two means
t
df
p
2.91-
58
.005
Experimental
30
9.40
9.70
.30
2.53
Control
30
8.16
6.20
1.96
3.42
rejected and the research hypothesis is confirmed. It can be concluded that inference is effective in
identifying the assumptions of the students and there is significant between-group difference.
Table 5- Results of t-test for the comparison of means in two groups in the variable of deduction
group
871
number
Mean of
pre-test
Mean of
post-
Differences
between the
Means
standard
of two means
test
means
errors
t
df
p
2.35-
58
.022
Experimental
30
8.86
9.56
.70-
1.93
Control
30
6.53
5.73
.80
2.90
deduction of the students and there is significant between-group difference.
Table 6- Results of t-test for the comparison of means in two groups in the variable of interpretation and
analysis
group
number
Mean of
pre-test
Mean of
posttest
Differences
between the
means
Means
standard
errors
of two means
t
df
p
2.45-
58
.017
Experimental
30
7.10
8.23
1.13-
2.38
Control
30
6.66
6.13
.53
2.84
interpretation and analysis of the students and there is significant between-group difference.
Table 7- Results of t-test for the comparison of means in two groups in the variable of evaluation of logical
reasons
group
number
Mean
of pretest
Mean
of posttest
Differences
between the
means
Means
standard
errors
Experimental
30
7.53
9.16
-1.63
2.00
Control
30
6.06
6.30
-.63
2.76
t-test
for
comparison of
means
the
two
t
df
p
2.24-
58
.029
interpretation and analysis of the students and there is significant between-group difference.
872
Table 8- Results of t-test for the comparison of means in two groups in the variable of positive attitude
group
number
Mean
of pretest
Mean
of posttest
Differences
between the
means
Means
standard
errors
Experimental
30
55.06
61.43
6.37
8.94
Control
30
55.70
55.00
.70-
13.04
t-test
for
comparison of
means
the
two
t
df
p
2.44
58
.017
positive attitude and analysis of the students and there is significant between-group difference.
Table 9- Results of t-test for the comparison of means in two groups in the variable of negative attitude
group
number
Mean
of pretest
Mean
of posttest
Differences
between the
means
Means
standard
errors
Experimental
30
24.36
39.23
14.86
11.04
Control
30
27.70
27.96
.26
8.42
t-test
for
comparison of
means
the
two
t
df
p
5.75
58
.000
positive attitude and analysis of the students and there is significant between-group difference.
The basis of the model of exploration is education for understanding the fact that the central core
of science is experiment and attempts to present the narration of probing instead of conclusive findings.
The student tries to investigate the history of the subject and follow up the related context to learn the
explorative course to provide answers to the questions through perception, experiment, experimental
investigation, and finally investigating the instances of the exploration.
It appears that in our books, the presentation of critical thinking along with textbook material and
also providing lab books are trying to redirect the educational process of our schools toward designing the
scientific model; however, what the scientists have provided for the facilitation of the implementation of
this model includes several essential points:
873
The existence of experienced, knowledgeable and altruistic teachers is necessary for the
implementation of this model to provide individuals with the opportunity to take part in the explorative
course. One of the effective factors in fast-paced learning is to try for learning the essentials of life and
efforts of parents to achieve higher levels of knowledge and awareness. Therefore, the explorative model
broadens the scientific horizons and widens the educational valves facing the students to encourage
them to try their best, hardest and utmost not to consider science as fixed, definite, limited, and nondevelopmental.
The results of this research indicate that the mean score of post-test in the experimental group
has increased as compared to the mean of pretest and therefore, it can be concluded that critical thinking
and attitude of students toward the subject lesson of science has increased. Moreover, results also
indicated that there is between-group difference. Put differently, use of cooperative learning method has
increased the positive attitude of students toward the subject lesson of science and also their critical
thinking.
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875
The effectiveness of behavior therapy training in mothers of children
with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder and in the reduction
of disorder’s symptoms
Abolghasem Yaghoubi*1, Kamran Ganji2, Farangis Dalvand3, Galavizh Alizadeh4
1- Ph.D. of educational psychology, faculty member of Bou Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran
2- Ph.D. of educational psychology, Islamic Azad University, Malayer, Iran
3- MA of educational counseling, Islamic Azad University, Hamedan branch, Hamedan, Iran
4- Department of psychology, College of psychology, Boukan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Boukan ,Iran
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to assess the impact of behavior therapy training on
mothers of children with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder in the reduction of
disorder’s symptoms. Hence, the research employed a semi- experimental method with
pre-test, post-test and control group design. Statistical population included all the male
and female students with the mixed type of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, who
were selected through a multi- steps random sampling. The sample consisted of 32
students and the subjects were randomly assigned to the control (16 students) and
experimental groups (16 students). The research instrument was the CSL-4 test. Then,
the mothers of the experimental group received eight 60-minute sessions of behavior
therapy. Statistical analysis was conducted by dependent T-test and multivariate
covariance analysis using SPSS-16 software. The results showed that, the impact of
behavior therapy training on parents of children with attention deficit/hyperactivity
disorder exerted significant effect in the reduction of their symptoms (p<.05). These
results showed that, behavior therapy training to mothers is effective in the decrease of
the symptoms of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
Keywords: ADHD, behavior therapy, reduction of disorder’s symptoms
Introduction
One of the most prevalent disorders of childhood which has been in the limelight of psychologists
and psychiatrists is attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (Bussing et al, 2010). This disorder was
first identified by the German medicine named Henry Hoffman (Pliszka et al, 2000). Attention deficit and
hyperactivity disorder has been defined in DSM-IV as, constant pattern of inattention and or intense and
repeating hyperactivity that is typically seen in children of that developmental level. This disorder is also
called as mild brain damage, mild brain performance disorder and hyper-kinesthetic disorder
This disorder is characterized into three types of ADHD-inattentive, ADHD-overactive and
combined ADHD and is a prevalent disorder in school age and before school affecting 3 to 5 percent of
elementary school children and is also more prevalent in boys as compared to girls (with relative ration of
1 to 3). According to the studies on the prevalence of this disorder, 4 to 14 percent of 6 to 12 years old
suffer from ADHD. The combined group develops symptoms such as hyperactivity, talkativeness,
attention deficit and inability in understanding (Eggen, 2012). No single factor is solely contributing to
ADHD. It’s supposed that, this disorder is the complex interaction between genetic, environmental and
biological factors (Kieling et al, 2008). Along this, research has focused on reasons such as brain
damage, neurological illness, sensitivity to nutrition and additives, lack of balance in the brain chemicals,
environmental variables such as lead, environmental limitations and distress (Schmitz and et al, 2006).
Sufferers of this illness do not have powers of concentration on the details and make errors in
doing schools assignment, work or other activities. Mostly, there exists dysregulation in doing activities
and the duties are done in the absence of awareness or lack of thinking. Maintaining the attention for
playing or doing the assignment is usually demanding and challenging for these children and they can
hardly concentrate on completing their assignments (Kenny, 2007). Children suffering from ADHD are
usually intervening, irritable, aggressive, tense, excited, untidy and hyper-active and there’s greater
possibility for suffering from affective, emotional and behavioral disorders (Barkley and et al, 1990).
Children suffering from this disorder also suffer from lack of confidence, depression and problematic
issues with their peers (Anastopoulos and et al, 1992). Based on this, this disorder still remains as an
unsolvable issue for psychologists, psychiatrists, parents and teachers.
The main features of this disorder including attention deficit, inability in learning, aggression,
academic problems, restlessness and excitation are intolerable for parents, teachers and peers (Dineen &
Fitzgerald, 2010). On the other hand, this disorder damages the process of the evolution in mental talents
and affective and social abilities that bring about academic failure, decreased level of self-esteem,
depression, personality disorder, addiction to alcohol, drug abuse, psychological distress and
occupational problems. Therefore, there is great need for effective intervention and therapies to improve,
decrease and prevent the disorder from getting chronic (Fuemmeler, Kollins & McClernon, 20007). In the
families of sufferers from ADHD, the child-parent relationship is largely influenced by the symptoms of this
disorder. These children are usually disobedient toward their parents’ demand and experience the failure
in the initiation and following up the activities and quit soon. They are also more frequently asked to pay
attention as compared to healthy children. Such behaviors trigger feelings of stress for parents and other
main caregivers (Harrison & Sofronoff, 2002).
Befera et al found out that, mothers of children with ADHD were more demanding and had many
conflicts and discussions with their children. These mothers responded with higher levels of negative
emotions and requests to their children. Evidence indicates that, parent-child relationship and parent’s
mental health especially mothers of ADHD improved by employing therapeutic methods (Max et al, 2005).
Donforth et al indicated that, different therapeutic methods of ADHD such as pharmaceutical therapies
and parents’ education can exert positive effect on mothers’ mental health through decreasing the base
line of disturbing behaviors which results in cutting authoritarian interactions (Dineen & Fitzgerald, 2010).
One of the most important therapeutic methods in working with exceptional children especially ADHD
children is behavior therapy. Behavior therapy is one of the helpful methods in helping the children with
ADHD. Gotlip asserts that, behavior therapy along with family therapy and individuals psychotherapy can
be the most important intervention methods by which the therapist can help the children. According to
him, the drug can decrease the child’s problems and behavior therapy can be used to increase the
capabilities of the child. Behavioral therapy is a combination of interventions that are employed to improve
and regulate the behavior and have been designed to result in stable change of behavior. This method
results in the improvement of impulse control problems, problem solving and self-control (Alizadeh, 2005).
In the interventions of behavior therapy, the methods of increasing the existing desirable
behaviors, the methods of establishing the new desirable behaviors, methods of decrease and elimination
of undesirable behaviors are discussed (Seif, 2011). Employment of behavioral interventions in the
classroom and home environment along with impulse control training improves the attention and
controlling the behavioral problems of children with ADHD (Sanders, 2007). Many studies have been
carried out on behavioral interventions on the decrease of AHDH symptoms that will be discussed later.
Monastra et al (2004) contend that, one of the effective methods in the decrease of negative behaviors of
children with ADHD is extinction.
877
Befera and Barkley (1998) introduced a comprehensive therapeutic program that includes token
economy, positive reinforcements, extinction methods, social skills training, lesson skills training and
problem skills training. Oconner (2009) employed cognitive-behavioral therapies for teaching self-control
to hyperactive pre-elementary school children and showed that impulsive behavior decreases by selfcontrol. Fabiano et al (2009) in his research on the self-control techniques for children with ADHD
concluded that self-management techniques decrease the problematic classroom behaviors especially,
non-lesson disturbing behaviors such as restlessness. Gregory et al (2009) carried out a study on multimodel therapies and found out that, behavioral interventions along with educating the parents and familial
interventions decrease the symptoms of attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder in children. Therefore,
given the knotty problems of ADHD children’s parent especially mothers and the effectiveness of behavior
therapy method in working with children with specific problems, the present research aims to investigate
the effectiveness of behavioral therapy training in mothers of children with ADHD and decrease of the
symptoms associated with it.
Method and material
The research employed a pre-test, post-test and control group design. The research population
included all the students aged 6 to 11 years old studying in the elementary schools of Doroud City in
2011-2012 that could have been diagnosed with ADHD, out of which, 32 students with ADHD were
selected through random cluster sampling and randomly assigned into the experimental (16) and control
groups (16). The mothers of both groups were asked to participate in accordance to their children’s
membership either in the experimental or control groups.
The data gathering tool in this research included interviewing with the child, parent or teacher
based on the criteria of DSM-IV-TR, observing the child at school, playing ground, or while taking tests,
Wechsler intelligence scale for children (WISC), Child Symptom Inventory CSI-4, the form for parents
and teacher. The first three tools were used to diagnose the ADHD disorder in students.
Child Symptom Inventory was designed by in 1984, based on DSM-III for screening eighteen
behavioral-emotional disorders in children aging 5 to 12 years old and was revised in 1994 simultaneous
with revising the DSM-IV. CSI-4 has two forms for children and parents. In the research by Grison and
Carlson (1991) the sensitivity of attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder in the teacher form was as .62.
in the research by (1997) the validity of the questionnaire using test-retest with time interval of 6 weeks
in 75 male children aging 6 to 10 years old in both methods of scoring for attention deficit and
hyperactivity disorder was as .67, and .76, respectively (cited in Mohammad Esmaeel, 2004). In the
research by Ganji et al, the validity of the questionnaire based on Cronbach alpha for the parent and
teacher form was as .79 and .75, respectively.
Thirty two mothers of elementary school children suffering from combined attention and
hyperactivity disorder were selected through random cluster sampling and were randomly assigned into
the experimental and control groups. Firstly, CSI-4 was filled out by teachers and parents. Subsequently,
mothers received eight sessions of behavior-therapy training. The group underwent post-test and then
follow up six months later.
Statistical analysis was conducted by dependent T-test and multivariate covariance analysis
using SPSS-16 software.
Sessions
First
Second
Third
878
Table 1- list of behavioral therapy sessions
Content
Goal
Administration
of
the
pre-test, Knowing the disorders and its goals,
introducing the attention deficit and encouraging the parents to follow the instruction
hyperactivity disorder
Introducing the positive and negative Knowing the reinforcements
reinforcement, methods of using it
Introducing the method of establishing
and methods of using it
Increase of desirable behavior
Fourth
Introducing
the
differential
reinforcements and method of using it
Increase of desirable behavior
Fifth
Introducing the method of modeling
and using alive and non-alive models
Training the usage of behavioral
contracts between the child and
parents
Using the methods of penalty,
deprivation, making up and physical
intervention
Summarizing and responding to the
ambiguity and questions of mothers
and administration of post-test
Increase of desirable behavior and decrease of
undesirable behavior
Increase of desirable behavior and decrease of
undesirable behavior
Sixth
Seventh
Eighth
Decrease of undesirable behavior
Table 2- statistical indices of the scores of attention deficit in the experimental and control groups
tests
Control group
Experimental group
T
value
df
Level
sig
frequency
mean
sd
frequency
mean
sd
Pre-test
16
20.44
2.92
16
21.62
3.24
1.07
30
.29
Post-test
16
20.38
2.53
16
18.88
2.78
2.80
30
.01
of
As observed in table 2, there exists no significant between-group difference in the attention deficit
of the pre-test. The mean of the scores in the pretest and posttest was equal to 20.44 and 21.62,
respectively which were not statistically significant. The level of significance of the t-value is higher than
.05 (t=1.07, df=30, p=.29). Therefore, the experimental and control group are homogenous in the scores
of attention deficit in the pre-test. However, the mean of the scores of attention deficit in the post-test is
significantly different in the experimental and control groups. The mean of the scores in the post-test of
the control group was as 20.38 and in the post test of the experimental group as 18.88. Therefore, with
regard to the t-independent test, this difference is significant because the level of significant of t-value
was lower than .05 (t=2.80, df=30, p=.01).
Table 3- statistical indices of hyperactivity scores in the experimental and control groups
tests
Control group
Experimental group
Pre-test
frequency
16
mean
23
sd
2.09
frequency
16
mean
21.5
sd
3.01
Post-test
16
22.94
1.88
16
17.94
3.19
T
value
df
Level
sig
1.64
30
.11
5.39
30
.01
of
As observed in table 3, there exists no significant between-group difference in the attention deficit
of the pre-test. The mean of the scores in the pretest and posttest was equal to 23 and 21.5, respectively
which were not statistically significant. The level of significance of the t-value is higher than .05 (t=1.64,
df=30, p=.11). Therefore, the experimental and control group are homogenous in the scores of
hyperactivity in the pre-test. However, the mean of the scores of hyperactivity in the post-test is
879
significantly different in the experimental and control groups. The mean of the scores in the post-test of
the control group was as 22.94 and in the post test of the experimental group as 17.94. Therefore, with
regard to the t-independent test, this difference is significant because the level of significant of t-value
was lower than .05 (t=5.39, df=30, p=.01).
The first hypothesis: behavior therapy training to mothers of children with ADHD will decrease the
rate of attention deficit of children with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder.
rate of impulsivity of children with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder.
Multivariate covariance analysis was used to test out the hypotheses. Of course, in order to
confirm the linear relationship between the scores of pretest and posttest in the experimental and control
groups, the variances’ hypothesis of homogeneity and regression slopes were investigated.
Table 4- results of multivariate covariance analysis for investigating the difference of the effectiveness of
behavior therapy in the decrease of attention deficit and impulsivity
variables
SS
DF
MS
F value
Attention deficit
63.71
1, 31
63.71
33.68
Level
sig.
.001
Impulsivity
88.59
1, 31
88.59
44.12
.001
of
Eta square
.55
.61
As observed in table 4, the F value in equal to 33.68 in attention deficit and its significance level
with degree of freedom of 1 and 31 is lower than .05 (F (1 and 31)=33.68, p=.001). Therefore, it can be
concluded that, the decrease of the mean of score in attention deficit scores in the experimental group is
significant as compared to the control group. Therefore, with 95 percent of confidence, it can be
concluded that, behavior therapy can significantly decrease the attention deficit of ADHD. The effect size
of Eta square is 55 percent and therefore, the first hypothesis of the research is confirmed.
As observed in table 4, the F value in equal to 44.12 in impulsivity and its significance level with
degree of freedom of 1 and 31 is lower than .05 (F (1 and 31)=44.12, p=.001). Therefore, it can be concluded
that, the decrease of the mean of score in impulsivity scores in the experimental group is significant as
compared to the control group. Therefore, with 95 percent of confidence, it can be concluded that,
behavior therapy can significantly decrease the impulsivity of ADHD. The effect size of Eta square is 61
percent and therefore, the second hypothesis of the research is confirmed.
Wilks' lambda was used to test out the research third hypothesis
rate of attention deficit and impulsivity of children with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder.
Presumption of the homogeneity of covariance matrix
Level of sig.
.272
Table 5- Box test to investigate the homogeneity of covariance matrix
Df 2
Df 1
F value
Box statistics
162000
3
1.3
4.21
As observed in table 5, the value of box test is equal to 4.21. The obtained F value for this index
is equal to 1.3 which is significant at .05 (P>.05). Therefore, the assumption of homogeneity of covariance
matrix is confirmed and Wilks’ lambda can be performed.
Table 6- Wilks' lambda
880
Effects
Level of sig.
Df error
Df
F value
vale
Pillai's trace
Wilks' lambda
.000
.000
27
27
2
2
48.31
48.31
.782
.218
Lawley-Hotelling trace
.000
27
2
48.31
3.578
Roy's largest root
.000
27
2
48.31
3.578
With regard to the table 6, the F value is equal to 48.31 which is significant at lower level of .05
with degrees of freedom of 2 and 27 (P<.05). Therefore, the experimental and control groups differed
significantly in terms of the scores of attention deficit and impulsivity.
Table 7- mean of the scores of attention deficit and impulsivity in the experimental group in the post-test
and follow up
test
Post-test
group
M
Sd
M
Sd
18.88
17.94
2.7
2.24
18.63
18.38
2.13
2.13
Experimental group
Attention deficit
Impulsivity
Follow-up
With regard to the table 7, the mean of the scores of attention deficit in the posttest of
experimental group is equal to 18.88 that was 18.63 in the follow up and didn’t show significant
difference. Moreover, the mean of the scores of impulsivity was 17.94 that increased insignificantly in the
in the follow up (18.63). T-dependent test was used to assess the significance of mean difference scores
of experimental group in the post-test and follow up. The results have been presented in the table below.
Table 8- dependent t-test to assess the significance of mean difference of post-test and follow up scores
variable
tests
Mean
Sd
Mean
difference
T value
df
Level
sig.
Attention
deficit
Post-test
of
experimental
group
Follow-up
study
Post-test
of
experimental
group
Follow-up
study
18.88
2.7
.25
1.45
15
.17
18.63
2.13
17.94
2.24
.44
.89
15
.39
18.38
2.13
Impulsivity
of
As observed in table 8, the mean difference of the scores of attention deficit in the experimental
group in the post-test and follow up is as .25 which is not significant given the t-test. The obtained level of
significance for t-value is more than .05 (t=1.45, df=15, p=.17). Therefore, the difference of attention
deficit has not significantly differed in the follow up as compared to the post-test and it can be concluded
that, the effectiveness of behavior therapy is stable over time.
Moreover, As also observed in table 8, the mean difference of the scores of impulsivity in the
experimental group in the post-test and follow up is as .44 which is not significant given the t-test. The
obtained level of significance for t-value is more than .05 (t=.89, df=15, p=.39). Therefore, the difference
881
of attention deficit has not significantly differed in the follow up as compared to the post-test and it can be
concluded that, the effectiveness of behavior therapy is stable over time.
The research purpose was to investigate the effectiveness of behavior therapy in the decrease of
children’s symptoms of ADHD. The results indicated that behavior therapy for mothers has significant
effect on the decrease of symptoms of disorder (p<.05). This fining is in lie with the results of the research
by Gregory et al (2009), Fabiano et al (2009), Oconner (2009), Max et al (2005), and Harrison and
Sofronoff (2002). In the explanation of this finding it can be concluded that, educating the children change
some parents’ inaccurate attitude about the reason of behavioral problems and decrease the feelings of
responsibility for the problem and feelings of guild. Therefore, parent should ask for more strategies from
the experts (Mirzaeeyan et al, 2006). Parents of these children have enough power and authority to
employ methods of encouragement and punishment. They can decrease the therapeutic cost and
increase the effectiveness of behavior altering methods at home for the treatment of their children.
Behavioral interventions have been designed to improve and regulate the behavior and achieve
stable alteration of behavior through controlling the impulse control, problem solving and self-control
(Alizadeh, 2005). One of the limitations of the research was the absence of fathers in the training
sessions. Moreover, not controlling different influencing variables such as parents’ education, their jobs,
socioeconomic status and demographic variables was another limitation. Given the limitation of the
research, it can be proposed that, future research be carried out with controlling the controlled variables.
Moreover, with regard to the direct interaction between family and school in education and growth of the
child, it is suggested that, educational program be implemented in the format of educational workshops
both for parents and teachers.
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The Role of Type D Personality in Predicting Dysfunctional Attitudes
in Students
Mahdis Hassannia Jurshari1, Aida Yahyazadeh2, Abbas Ali Hossein Khanzadeh3
1- M. A, In Clinical psychology, Islamic Azad University, Rasht, Iran
2- M. A, In Clinical psychology, Islamic Azad University, Rasht, Iran
3-Assistant Professor of Psychology, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran
Abstract
Individual and social factors (individual characteristics such as personality and mood; social
determinants such as parenting and interpersonal relationships) can determine an individual’s
perspective and attitude to life. The present study investigates the role of type D personality in
predicting dysfunctional attitudes in university students. The statistical population of the study is
comprised of all students at Guilan University in the academic year 2013, 138 students (65
females and 73 males) were selected by multistage cluster sampling and responded to the type D
personality questionnaire (Denollet, 1998) and Dysfunctional Attitudes Questionnaire (Beck and
Wissmann, 1978). The results of the data analysis indicate a significant and positive correlation
between type D personality and dysfunctional attitudes in students (p<0.01). The results of the
regression analysis also show that type D personality can predict dysfunctional attitudes in both
female and male students (p<0.001). The mean score of dysfunctional attitudes was higher in male
students than female students (p<0.01). The difference in type D personality between the two
groups of male and female students did not reach the level of significance (p<0.05). According to
the results of this study, type D personality is a predictor of an individual’s attitude towards
herself/ himself and the surrounding environment. It is therefore necessary to develop programs
for modifying individual personality traits and reducing their adverse consequences, such as the
formation of negative attitudes.
Keywords: Type D personality, Dysfunctional attitudes, Students
Introduction
Type D personality pattern is defined by high levels of negative affectivity and social inhibition (Grand et
al. 2010). The concept of type D personality represents the interaction of specific traits that may have
adverse effects on health. Type D personality has two components: negative affectivity, or the tendency
to experience negative emotions over time and in different situations, and social inhibition, that is the
tendency to avoid the expression of such emotions in social interactions. Therefore, individuals with type
D personality show higher levels of negative affectivity and social inhibition (Yu et al. 2010). Negative
affectivity designated an individual’s tendency to experience negative emotions such as anger, hatred,
and anxiety in different conditions whereas social inhibition refers to an individual’s tendency to avoid
expressing these emotions in social interactions (Pederson and Denollet, 2005).
Type D (distressed) personality is strongly correlated with physical and psychological symptoms
(Molly et al. 2012). It is also associated with low self-esteem (Denollet, 1998). Some findings indicate that
Type D personality is linked with a decreased body image (Borkoles, Polman & Levy, 2010) and a
decreased sense of personal achievement (Oginska-Bulik, 2006). Thus, there is a relationship between
negative affectivity and a negative self-image (Watson & Pennebaker, 1989). This type of personality is
also associated with a variety of psychological problems including anxiety and depression (Spindler et al,
2009), poor quality of life and psychological well-being (Pelle et al, 2010), anger, chronic stress,
pessimism and low self-esteem (Pederson & Denollet, 2005).
HuisintVeld, Vingerhoets & Denollet (2011), in a study entitled “attachment style and self-esteem: the
moderating role of type D personality”, concluded that type D personality has a significant relationship
with self-esteem. Also, the results indicated that attachment style is significantly associated with type D
personality. De Fruyt and Denollet (2002) stated that the negative affectivity and social inhibition
dimensions of type D personality are associated with the neuroticism and extraversion dimensions of
Big Five personality traits. Dysfunctional attitudes are ideas and beliefs that predispose a person to
depression or psychological distress (Imanifard & Kamkar, 2011). In fact, Coping with major life events
are affected by mediating factors that are, cognitive factors. In other words, an individual’s cognitive
assessment, schemata, conceptions and perceptions of a situation affect her/ his compatibility (Wise,
Barnes, 2009).
In a study about the relationship between dysfunctional attitudes and stress, individuals with
dysfunctional attitudes assessed their personal experiences, incidents and events as stressful (Koloski et
al. 2001). After admission to university, a large number of students had encountered psychological
problems that had affected their academic performance and mental health, leading to psychological
distress. Researches introduce personality and efficient strategic skills in regulating emotions as the most
important factor in compatibility (Issazadegan, Sheikhi and Basharpoor, 2011).
Based on present findings and evidences, personality types, especially type D, can affect general
health. Since dysfunctional attitudes are beliefs that predispose individuals to psychological trauma, this
study examines the role of type D personality as a predictor of dysfunctional attitudes in university
students.
Method
Participants: This is a descriptive study and the research design is correlational and predictive. In this
study, type D personality is the predictor variable and dysfunctional attitudes are the criterion variable.
The statistical population of the study is comprised of all students at Guilan University in the academic
year 2013, 138 students (65 females and 73 males) were selected by multistage cluster sampling. For
sampling, two faculties (Engineering and Humanities) were randomly selected from among five faculties
of Uneversity of Guilan. Then, ten classes were randomly selected from the classes held at these two
faculties. The average age of female students was 22.98 and the average age of male students was
23.12. Also, the average age of the total sample is 23.06.
Research Instruments: Two questionnaires are used for data collection:
1)Type D Personality Questionnaire:
The type D personality scale has been developed by Denollet(1998). This scale contains 14 items
that measure the components of negative affectivity and social inhibition. Respondents report their
degree of agreement by rating items on a five-point Likert scale ranging from “never” to “always”. The
concurrent validity coefficient of this scale with the type A personality has been reported as 0.63 (Jung et
al, 2007). In a study by Abolghasemi, Zahed and Narimani (2009), a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.72
has been reported.
2)Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale:
885
This scale, which has been developed by Beck and Wissmann (1978), is a self-report scale to
measure negative ideas and attitudes (Ebrahimi, 2007). This scale has been revised and translated by
Yekkeh Yazdandoust (2001). The questionnaire contains 40 items and respondents report their degree of
agreement by rating items on a seven-point Likert scale ranging from “completely disagree” to
“completely agree”. High scores in any item (6 or 7) indicate dysfunctional attitudes. A validity of 0.56 has
been calculated for this scale by predicting general health through the scores obtained from the 28-item
Goldberg General Health Questionnaire. The reliability of this scale is equal to 0.92 as calculated by the
Cronbach’s alpha coefficient (quoted by Ebrahimi, 2007).
Results
From among 138 questionnaires collected, 65 questionnaires were responded by female students and 73
by male students.
Table 1:Pearson correlation coefficient between dysfunctional attitudes and type D personality in male
and female students and in the total sample
Female students
Male students
Total Sample
Variable
Dysfunctional Attitudes
type D personality
0.35**
0.65**
0.55**
0.005
0.000
0.000
As can be seen in the above table, there is a significant positive correlation between type D
personality and dysfunctional attitudes in all the three groups of female students (r=0.35, n=65, p=0.005),
male students (r=0.65, n=73, p=0.000), and the total sample (r=0.55, n=138, p=0.000).
Table 2:One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) for determining the significance of the regression model
(the total sample)
Model
Sum of
Squares
Mean
Squares
F
P
R
R²
SE
22.633
Degrees
of
freedom
1
Regre
ssion
22.633
58.581
0.000
0.549
0.296
0.621
Remai
nder
52.543
136
0.386
Total
75.175
137
Table 2 presents the results of the regression analysis with simultaneous entry method which was
performed to determine the role of type D personality (the predictor variable) in the explaining variance of
dysfunctional attitudes (the criterion variable) in all students. Regression analysis of data show that type
D personality is a significant predictor of dysfunctional attitudes; (0.296= modified squared correlation
coefficient, P<0.001 and F (1,136) = 58.581). The value of squared correlation indicates that about 30%
of the variance of the dysfunctional attitudes can be predicted by the type D personality.
886
Table 3:Indicators of multiple regression analysis with simultaneous entry method in the total sample
Unstandardized
Coefficients
Variable
Standard
Deviation
t
P value
24.502
0.000
β
B
Constant
value
Standardized
Coefficients
2.695
0.110
Type D
0.605
0.079
0.549
7.654
0.000
Personality
As can be seen, type D personality impact factor (β= 0.549) with regard to t-statistic indicates that
this type of personality can predict changes relating to dysfunctional attitudes in students at the 99%
confidence interval.
A regression analysis with simultaneous entry method is conducted to determine the weight of type
D personality in predicting dysfunctional attitudes in female students. The results are as follows:
Table 4:Indicators of one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) for determining the significance of the
regression model (female students)
Sum
Degrees
Mean
F
P
R
R²
Model
of
of freedom
Squares
Squar
es
Regre
3.753
1
3.753
8.591
0.005
0.346
0.106
ssion
Remai
nder
27.524
63
SE
0.66
1
0.437
Total 31.277
64
Predictor variable: type D personality
Criterion variable: dysfunctional attitudes
Table 4 presents the results of the regression analysis with simultaneous entry method which was
performed to determine the weight of type D personality (the predictor variable) in predicting dysfunctional
attitudes (the criterion variable) in female students. The results of the regression analysis indicate that
type D personality is a significant predictor of dysfunctional attitudes; (0.106= modified squared
correlation coefficient, P<0.001 and F (1, 63) = 8.591). The value of squared correlation indicates that
about 11% of the variance of the dysfunctional attitudes can be predicted by the type D personality.
Table 5:Indicators of multiple regression analysis with simultaneous entry method in female students
Variable
Unstandardized
Coefficients
Standard
Deviation
B
887
Standardized
Coefficients
t
P value
15.286
0.000
2.931
0.005
β
Constant
value
2.765
0.181
Type D
Personality
0.428
0.146
0.346
As can be seen, type D personality impact factor (β= 0.346) with regard to t-statistic indicates that
this type of personality can predict changes relating to dysfunctional attitudes in female students at the
99% confidence interval.
A regression analysis with simultaneous entry method is conducted to determine the weight of type
D personality in predicting dysfunctional attitudes in female students. The results are as follows:
Table 6:Indicators of one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) for determining the significance of the
regression model (male students)
Model
Sum of
Degrees
Mean
F
P
R
R²
SE
Squares
of
Squares
freedom
Regression
16.893
1
16.539
53.479
0.000
0.655
0.422
0.561
Remainder
22.356
71
Total
39.196
72
0.315
As can be seen in Table 4, data relating to prediction using type D personality suggests that this type
of personality is a significant predictor of dysfunctional attitudes in male students; (0.422= modified
squared correlation coefficient, P<0.001 and F (1,71) = 53.479). The value of squared correlation
indicates that about 42% of the variance of the dysfunctional attitudes can be predicted by the type D
personality.
Table 7:Indicators of multiple regression analysis with simultaneous entry method in male students
Variable
Unstandardized
Coefficients
Standard
Deviation
Standardized
Coefficients
B
t
P value
20.352
0.000
7.313
0.000
β
Constant
value
2.745
0.135
Type D
Personality
0.651
0.089
0.655
As can be seen, type D personality impact factor (β= 0.655) with regard to t-statistic indicates that this
type of personality can predict changes relating to dysfunctional attitudes in male students at the 99%
confidence interval.
Discussion
Individual personality can be one of the most important factors in creating different attitudes - attitudes
that are the main cause of conflict and inefficiency in cognition and the life of individuals. As a result, this
study was aimed to investigate the role of type D personality in predicting dysfunctional attitudes of
students at the University of Guilan.
888
The results of the regression analysis also show that type D personality can predict dysfunctional
attitudes in the total sample as well as in female and male students (p<0.001). The results of the
correlation analysis indicate a significant and positive correlation between type D personality and
dysfunctional attitudes in male and female students (p<0.01).
The mean score of dysfunctional attitudes was higher in male students than female students
(p<0.01). The results of this study are consistent with the results of previous studies (Pederson and
Denollet, 2005; HuisintVeld & Denollet, 2009; Ahmadi Tahoor et al., 2010; Watson & Pennebaker,1989;
Pelle et al. 2010; and, Matthias, 2010) indicating that type D personality can predispose many instances
of physical and psychological maladjustment and is a predictor of intra-individual and inter-individual
pathologies.
An individual’s perspective and attitude to life can be affected by her/his personality. In fact, various
personality types can affect the mind, ideas and actions of an individual. Ebrahimi et al. (2007) found in
their research that dysfunctional attitudes have a major role in predicting cognitive vulnerability and risk of
disease. Social inhibition means that individuals with type D personality feel inhibited and insecure while
interacting with others. Reticence, lack of energy, lack of desire for interpersonal communication,
discomfort in social interaction and lack of social attractiveness will result in avoidance strategies and this
can in turn exacerbate the effects of negative affectivity (Issazadegan, Sheikhi and Basharpoor, 2011).
Negative attitudes and emotions can predispose an individual to intra- and inter-individual conflicts.
Many psychological and even physical problems can be traced in the individual and in her/ his personality
type that underlies the formation of a special kind of thinking and attitude towards oneself and the world.
According to the findings of this study, type D personality is a cause of dysfunctional attitudes in
individuals. Dysfunctional attitudes can result in various pathologies such as anxiety and depression
(Wong & Moulds, 2011; and, Haeffle et al. 2003) and physical diseases (Mostafaee et al., 2012).
Interpersonal risk factors, which affect all aspects of an individual’s life, can make people prone and
vulnerable to problems and pressures. Individuals with positive attitudes and ideas act more successfully
and show better performances in the face of stressful life events. Regarding the fact that personality type
is a predictor of the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of ideas and attitudes, it is necessary to develop
programs for modifying individual personality traits and reducing their adverse consequences, such as the
formation of negative attitudes. These programs can be implemented in the form of youth empowerment
plans. Among appropriate measures to inform and help individuals, especially the youth, to change
include: holding training classes on learning and applying appropriate coping strategies, teaching emotion
regulation and expression strategies, and providing solutions for improving people’s attitudes.
Acknowledgments
We wish to give thanks to and appreciate the help of the Students of University of Guilan and the
ones who assisted us in performing this study.
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Surveying the Relationship between Differentiation of Self,
Responsibility and Mental Health among Dormitory Students
Sayyed Mohammad Hosseini1
Marziyeh Razeghi2
1. Master student in Rehabilitation Counseling, Faculty of Psychology and Educational sciences,
Allame Tabatab'i University, Tehran, Iran
2-BA student in Clinical psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational sciences, Allame Tabatab'i
University, Tehran, Iran.
Abstract
This study intended to examine the relationship between differentiation of self and
responsibility with mental health among dormitory students of Allameh Tabataba’i University,
Tehran, Iran using a descriptive-correlative research method. Study participants were classified
into two groups of male and female. There were 174 subjects: 84 males and 86 females, selected
by simple random-assignment sampling. We used the following questionnaires to identify the
correlation between variables: Differentiation of self scale, Responsibility Scale and GHQ Scale.
For data analysis, we used the Pearson correlation test and multiple regression analysis for the
total group and according to gender. Pearson correlation test results showed a significant
correlation between differentiation of self and mental health (R=0.17. P≤0.05), as well as between
responsibility and mental health (0.26 P≤0.05). Multiple regression results showed that
differentiation of self and responsibility predicted the following variance for mental health: (0.10).
It is concluded that there is significant relationship between differentiation of self and mental
health as well as responsibility among dormitory students.
Keywords: Differentiation of self, Responsibility, Mental Health, Dormitory Students.
Introduction:
Family is one of the most influential institutions in training human behavior, an important fulcrum,
and the axis of social life. This is because family is the first and most continuous influence on character
development in children, adolescents, and youth underlying psychological, physical, emotional, social and
moral growth for them. In addition to the bases we have inherited from our parents, any first
understanding of how to deal with problems is learned in the family. Families with healthy functioning, in
addition to their survival in a system, cause the efflorescence of the potential of each of its members that
allows them to search for exploration and self-discovery with self-confidence, and thus achieve
independence in all fields. This independence can be helpful to the youth away from family and in coping
with the emotional problems associated with it.
One of the functional components of family which can help family members, particularly the
younger ones, to understand their growing independence is the concept of 'differentiation of self' (Bowen,
1974). Differentiation can be defined as "the ability to separate from the main family at the emotional and
intellectual level." (Bowen, 1974). Another definition puts it as the resistance ability against overwhelming
other individuals’ emotional reactions that takes place through the ability to separate thoughts from
feelings (Peleg-Popko, 2004). Also, Bowen (1998) defines it as a degree in which a individual is capable
of building a balance between a) intellectual- emotional functioning, and b) intimacy and autonomy in
relationships.
Peleg (2004) also argues that differentiation is considered as an ability with which a individual
can take the ownership and responsibility of all his thoughts and feelings. It also refers to the ability to
perform actions based on an informed basis. Separation of family members is directly related to their
ability to encounter each other and deal without emotional reactions, and also the togetherness ability,
with no anxiety and conflict (Peleg-Popko, 2008).
According to Bowen (1988) differentiated individuals have features of which the following can be
noted: They live and practice without much anxiety or excessive dependence on others, rely on
themselves, are strong and self-sufficient, and their sense of worth is not dependent on events, conditions
or external relationships (They are based on a sense of self-worth). Differentiated individuals have more
flexibility in stressful situations, and better adapt to the circumstances. They maintain an ability to manage
their emotions and arousal in stressful situations. As a result, they have full knowledge sources that
enable them to have more logical responses to life circumstances. Differentiated individuals have the
ability to combine thoughts and feelings. They have a great ability to develop intimacy with others, while
maintaining their self. These people are able to act in accordance with their true selves in all
circumstances, while undifferentiated individuals are affected by self-made features. Furthermore,
individuals with high differentiation enjoy a greater consistency and greater ability to cope with stress.
They also experience more emotionally intimacy, while recognizing and maintaining appropriate
boundaries.
On the other hand, Scot (2003) considers several features indicating fusion and lack of
differentiation: 1: Disturbed emotions and speech, 2. Unrealistic assessment of self, 3. Disability to define
closeness-distance related issues, 4. Feeling compelled to assume responsibility for the welfare of others,
and 5. Expecting others take responsibility for his welfare. Differentiation is generally defined as the ability
to explain “who am I?” “what do I want?” “what do I think?” “what are my goals and what am I ready to
do?” Set of answers to these questions distinguishes any individual from others. This process begins at
birth and never ends. These features are defined by support, safety and sustainability in family
environment where the process of gradual separation from family is being experienced by children. In an
evolutionary framework, there are two major periods in the life process to differentiate oneself from
others, namely 2.5 to 5 years and 13 to 15 years. The process of separating from the family reaches its
peak in this period. Among the most important issues in Bowen Family Theory, are the individuality force
and the force of association with others as part of a social group. Bowen argued that social, emotional,
and physical competence and having a significant relationship for adjustment is created as a response to
a balance of individuality and togetherness.
As explained above, one of the distinguishing characteristics of undifferentiated individuals is
escaping the responsibility. They expect others to take responsibility for their behaviors (Scot, 2003).
Another variable in this study is responsibility. Dort and Reuter (1973) define it as being
responsive . A responsible individual is an individual who is responsive for his behavior, hence taking
responsibility for the profit and loss, obligation or duty that he has and takes. It is just in this case that
individuals deserve credit and blame. A responsible individual is an individual who is sensitive to the
needs of his self and others and strive to meet them (Gelaver, 1973). According to Aristotle's definition a
responsible individual is someone who knows the answer to the needs of others, recognizes what he can
do to meet them, and tries to do what he can properly. Responsibility means that our responsibility
towards ourselves, others, our families and our community. Responsibility means to have respect for
893
others’ possessions and achievements, respect for community values and individual and human rights
(Gader, 2001). This means that the responsible individual is accountable for his actions and behaviors
before himself and others which requires a high cognitive rationality and ability because the individual
must be able to properly understand and interpret others' needs and provide appropriate responses. This
kind of ability creates a strong incentive for action; but acting in a responsible way may be in conflict with
the interests and wishes of a responsible individual (Host, 2000).
On the other hand, advocates of existential school, particularly Frankel (2002) consider
responsibility as one of the characteristics of people with mental health. This means that if people take
responsibility for their lives, set their future purposes, and invest for them, enjoy good mental health.
Frankel believes that human efforts to search for existential meaning and value in life is not always a
cause of balance, rather may be stressful. Hence, mental health needs stress as well. A stress caused by
the distance between what you have achieved and what you have to forge. It is the only way by which
seeking meaning wakes up inside us (Frankel, 1985; translated by Tabrizi, 1385). Glasser (2010) also
defines responsible individual as someone who accept responsibility for his life and behavior, act
responsibly, thus complete acceptance of responsibility is a sign of mental health. Researches conducted
in this field have also confirmed the claim, including a research by Younesi, Moeen, & Shamshirnia
(1388) the results of which indicate that there is a positive relationship between responsibility and mental
health; therefore increase of responsibility in youth improves their mental health. According to Bowen,
more differentiated individuals tend to have more psychological adjustment, while less differentiated
individuals are more affected by stressful situations, and act more ineffectively, therefore suffer more
physical and psychological symptoms (psychotic disorders, anxiety, depression and alcoholism). (Bowen,
1976; Kerr & Bowen, 1988; Titelman, 1998). The studies done on the campus have also confirmed the
claim, including a study by Skowron, Stanley, et al. (2009) on the relationship between differentiation and
psychological and interpersonal well-being among students over time in which those who responded
more emotionally and with less ability to regulate their emotions, and those who had difficulty to have a
certain feeling of themselves in a relationship,
Also those who had emotional disconnections or fusion in their relationships with others were
reported to be more psychologically distressful in relationships, and have greater psychological problems,
which was consistent with the statistical predictions earlier in the semester. Another study, by PelegPapko (2004) conducted on college students, revealed that students, who had a high level of
differentiation, enjoyed low levels of social anxiety, especially fear of negative evaluation, and also
experienced fewer somatic symptoms. Murdock & Gore (2004) also found that increased psychological
distress along with increasing levels of perceived stress was expressed higher than those with low levels
of differentiation compared with those with less differentiation. Skowron, Wester, et al. (2004), in a crosscultural study on students concluded that a high level of differentiation can help improve psychological
adjustment and social problem-solving skills among students. There are also evidences suggesting that
the family of origin patterns, especially differentiation pattern have a great influence on social
performance and psycho-physical symptoms (Papko, 2004). According to the definitions suggested and
the studies conducted in this field a close relationship between responsibility, differentiation, and mental
health can be observed. So we will give a serious consideration to the concept of "mental health" now.
According to the definition suggested by World Health Organization (2010) mental health is a
state of complete physical and mental welfare, and not merely the absence of disease. Kaplan & Sadock
(2000) believe that mental health is at core of health definitions. What seems to be interesting is that
mental health, like physical health, has become a challenging issue and caused a series of disputes. To
draw a semiotic perspective of this concept we will review major definitions of mental health. Another
definition by Kaplan & Sadock (2007) suggests that individuals with mental health possess the following
characteristics: 1. Psychologically and mentally healthy people feel comfortable. Accept themselves as
they are. Benefit from their talents and make the most of them. They are patient about their failures and
physical defects and are not bothered by them. 2. Individuals with psychological and mental health feel
good about others. Such individuals are able to develop good relationships with others and continue
them. They pay attention to the interests of others, respect them and do not try to dominate over others.
They have a sense of responsibility towards other people besides having a sense of oneness with the
894
community. 3. Individuals with psychological health have the power of facing with life needs, feel
responsible for their own actions and treat with problems in the same way that they occur. They have
realistic thoughts about what they can or cannot do.
In addition to the issues mentioned, expressing Islamic view on mental health is also important.
From the perspective of the Quran, those who have chosen blasphemy and hypocrisy in action, have no
mental health and suffer from mental illness. "In their hearts is a disease (of doubt and hypocrisy) and
Allah has increased their disease." (Surah Al-Baqarah (The Cow) /10). Neuroticism is not only in behavior
but also in the belief and faith. Since the balance of personality is the balance of individual in good deeds
and faith in God, the imbalance in each of the two will result in "Neuroticism" and lack of mental health.
Mental health, as already mentioned, is not only the behavioral health rather it is only a sign of
mental health. So the non-believers in monotheism such as Kafirs (unbelievers) and the hypocrites, and
even believers with weak Iman (faith) suffer from neuroticism. Neuroticism has external manifestations in
behavioral and practical responses. Furthermore, anxiety, fear, worry, temptation and depression are all
signs of neuroticism. These symptoms are reflected in both individual and social forms. Here we have
some of the symptoms of mental health quoted from the Quran. Therefore, in addition to negative
symptoms, we will present also positive symptoms of mental health: Tranquility and peace in humans will
be created when an individual act according to his religious, self and social duty. If you ignore any of
these you will suffer from mental and psychological illnesses. Being away from the remembrance of Allah
and His commands or lack of faith in Allah can cause mental illness. Just in the remembrance of Allah
hearts and minds find rest and peace. (Surah Ar-Ra'd (The Thunder) / 28). Companionship and
acceptance of His authority, wipes off fear, dread, and grief from the hearts (Surah Yunus (Jonah) / 6264), and creates optimism and hopefulness about the future; as fear of the future takes away tranquility
and comfort. When suffering from an unknown future, today's comfort and peace will become difficult
upon in humans, while faith and hope in the future makes humans hopeful and also enables them to
enjoy and make the most of present pleasures (Surah Fussilat (Explained in detail) / 30).
Based on the above, we can say that the first growth and development environment for all
individuals is the family. Given the important role of the family, it can take important steps towards helping
self-sufficiency and independence of individuals. As noted above, one of the components of family
function is the concept of differentiation of self. If individuals could be differentiated in the process of
family interactions, they will have a better future of independence and self-sufficiency. Otherwise, not
being differentiated, individuals can not develop a coherent and integrated self. Also one of the most
important distinguishing characteristics of undifferentiated individuals is the lack of responsibility. This
index is considered as an important component of human character that can improve differentiation. In
this regard, students, especially non-native students who live in dorms and away from their families for
education, if are correctly differentiated and responsible, perhaps they can better adapt to the new
environment away from family and parents. Also being highly responsible, they would be able pave the
way of development in their universities. On one hand, as was shown in previous studies, which were not
highlighted in this context, responsibility and differentiation are independently associated with mental
health, especially among students. On the other hand, given the important role of mental health which is a
basic requirement for human development, and considering that few researches was done on dormitory
students, this study intends to examine the relationship between differentiation of self, responsibility and
mental health among students living in the dormitories of Allameh Tabataba’i University in Tehran. And
the following important question is whether there is a relationship between differentiation of self,
responsibility and mental health among the dormitory students of Allameh Tabataba’i University?
Research hypotheses:
1. There is a significant positive relationship between differentiation of self and responsibility among
dormitory students.
2. There is a significant positive relationship between differentiation of self and mental health among
dormitory students.
895
3. There is a significant positive relationship between responsibility and mental health among
dormitory students.
Methods and materials:
This study is descriptive - correlation. The population of this study is two groups of male and
female students of Allameh Tabataba’i University in Tehran. The sample consists of 180 subjects
selected by simple random sampling from Allameh Tabataba’i University dormitories. For data collection
we used self-differentiation, responsibility and mental health questionnaires.
Responsibility Questionnaire: Responsibility assessment scale is taken from California
Psychological Inventory (CPI). Responsibility scale is designed to assess the normal subjects of twelve
years and above, and the subjects answer the questions on a true and false basis. California
Psychological Inventory (CPI) is one of the best paper and pencil questionnaires to measure the
characteristics of normal individuals which is both conducted on individuals and in groups for a maximum
of one hour. It is remarkably accurate for the prediction of behavior. It was first published in 1951 by
Histone Guff with 648 questions and 15 scales to measure 15 individuality characteristics. Then in 1957,
the number of scales was decreased to 18 and was revised by him again in 1987. The number of
questions was increased to 462 and the number of scales to 20 (Marnat, 1990; trans. Sharifi & Nikkhou,
1374). The present questionnaire has been prepared specifically to test normal subjects of 12 years of
age and above. The subjects answer the questions on a true and false basis. Finally, 20 important,
stable, and meaningful personality traits are measured. Rezaei (1377) has estimated the reliability
coefficient of the questionnaire by three methods of splitting questions into odd and even, Cronbach's
alpha, and Guttmann which are respectively 0.69, 0.70, and 0.69, which is a favorite reliability.
Also, in a research by Saadati (1383) the reliability of the questionnaire using retest was obtained
0.81 which was significant at a level of 1%, indicating that the scale has a high reliability level.
Differentiation of Self Inventory-Revised (DSI-R): The original form of the questionnaire was
made by Skowron and Friedlander. The ultimate test of 46 items was made by Jackson based on Bowen
Theory. It is a self report questionnaire used to assess the differentiation of self with a main focus on
important life relationships and the relationships with the family of origin (Skowron, 2000, quoted by
Eskian, 1384). The Inventory is composed of 4 subscales: Emotional Reactivity (11 questions = ER),
Emotional Control (11 items = EC), the I-Position (11 items = IP), Fusion with Others (11 items = FO)
(Skowron & Friedlander, 1988, quoted by Papko, 2002). Also, the reliability coefficient of the inventory
was estimated 0.88 by Eskian (1384).
General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28): Since Goldberg (1972) first introduced the General
Health Questionnaire (GHQ) it has been translated into 38 different languages, testament to the validity
and reliability of the questionnaire. While the original form was designed to only test non-clinical
populations, the questionnaire was developed as a screening tool to detect those likely to have or to be at
risk of developing psychiatric disorders. Today, due to the ease of implementation, brevity and
acceptability among users, is one of the most widely used instruments in the field. The GHQ-28 is a 28item measure of emotional distress in medical settings designed for all members of society. Through
factor analysis, the GHQ-28 has been divided into four subscales: 1. Somatic symptoms, including
materials measuring the subjects’ feelings towards their health and fatigue and covers physical symptoms
(A: items 1-7); 2. Anxiety/sleep disorders, including insomnia, anxiety (B: items 8-14). 3. Social
dysfunction, measuring the scope of individual's ability to cope with professional demands and daily life
issues. Therefore, reveals their feelings how to cope with common life situations (C: items 15-21); 4.
Depression, including cases that are associated with severe depression and suicidal identified tendencies
(D: items 22-28). There are different methods to score the GHQ-28. It can be scored from 0-3 for each
response with a total possible score on the ranging from 0-84 and lower scores indicate a better mental
health (Palhang & Yaghoubi, 1374). Using this method a total score of 23/24 is the threshold for the
presence of distress. Alternatively the GHQ-28 can be scored with a binary method where Not at all, and
No more than usual score 0, and Rather more than usual, and Much more than usual score 1. Using this
method any score above 4 indicates the presence of distress or 'caseness' (Stora, trans. Dadsetan,
896
1386). In a study, Cheung and Spears (1994) conducted the questionnaire on 223 adult subjects, retest
reliability coefficient has been reported to be 0.55, and Cronbach’s for the total scale was obtained 0.88.
Mary Goldberg and Williams (1988) had a meta-analysis of the questionnaire and the results have shown
that the average validity of the questionnaire was 0.840. The questionnaire was also conducted by Molavi
(2002) on the Iranian college students and the Cronbach's α was 0.91. As mentioned above, the
questionnaire is translated into 38 languages and has been tested in numerous populations with various
cultures. By 2000, there have been about 700 published papers on the questionnaire. It also has become
the subject of many research and clinical studies and surveys in Iran (Noorbala, et al. 2004).
Results:
In this section the results of the research would be analyzed both descriptively and inferentially.
Table 1. Descriptive analysis for variables of differentiation of self and its components by gender
Variable
Gender
N
Maximum
Minimum
SD
M
Male
84
88.00
58.00
5.07
74.70
Female
86
119.00
55.00
8.34
69.76
Male
84
96.00
28.00
9.03
39.07
Female
86
55.00
18.00
6.44
37.67
Male
84
43.00
22.00
4.52
31.77
Female
86
46.00
13.00
5.72
30.76
Male
84
51.00
21.00
5.25
38.17
Female
86
46.00
14.00
7.22
32.80
Male
84
247.00
140.00
14.27
183.72
Female
86
212.00
137.00
17.31
171.23
Cronbach's
α
Emotional reactivity
I-Position
Emotional control
0.66
Fusion with Others
Total differentiation of
self
According to Table 1 there is a difference in all the four components of Emotional Reactivity,
Emotional Control, I-Position, and Fusion with Others and also between the mean scores of differentiation
of self and among male and female subjects. Men scored higher in all of the indicators. The total
Cronbach’s α coefficient for the variable 'differentiation of self' was, 0.66.
Table 2. Descriptive analysis for variables of responsibility and mental health in general by gender
Variable
Gender
N
Maximum
Minimum
SD
M
Male
84
36.00
12.00
5.02
22.14
Female
86
74.00
27.00
3.50
26.41
Male
84
82.00
28.00
9.46
53.07
Responsibility
Mental health
897
Cronbach's
α
0.54
0.77
Female
86
42.00
18.00
3.50
26.41
As shown in Table 2, there is a difference between the mean for males and females
responsibility. Also, there is an increase in the responsibility mean for females over males. Also in terms
of mental health, there is a difference between males and females means. Females mean shows an
increase as opposed to the males. Cronbach’s α for responsibility and mental health was respectively
0.54, and 0.77. It should also be noted that in this study the sample included 170 subjects: 84 males and
86 females. The average age group was between 19 to 28 years, subjects were undergraduate, master
and doctoral students. All subjects were dormitory students.
Inferential statistics: testing research hypotheses
Table 3. Variables correlation matrix
Variable
N
P
R
Differentiation
of self and
Responsibility
171
0.42
-0.06
Differentiation
of self and
Mental health
171
0.001
Responsibility
and Mental
health
171
Sig
0.05
0.17**
0.001
0.26**
The findings in Table 3 indicate that the correlation value for the differentiation of self and
responsibility is -0.60, and given that the obtained significance (42/0), is greater than the significance
level of 05/0 (P ≥ 0.05), this relationship is not significant, and the first hypothesis suggesting that there is
a significant positive relationship between differentiation of self and responsibility is rejected. According to
this table, the correlation between differentiation and 0/17 is significant of self and mental health is 0.17,
and given that the obtained significance is (0.001) is smaller than the significance level of 05/0 (P ≤ 0.05),
this relationship is significant. This means that a high level of differentiation will cause a better mental
health, and vice versa. Thus, the second hypothesis of this study stating that there is a positive and
significant relationship between mental health and differentiation of self is confirmed. The last finding in
Table 3 shows a significant positive correlation between responsibility and mental health (26/0). The
obtained significance for this relationship is (001/0) which is lower than the significant level of 05/0 (P ≤
0.05), this relationship is significant. This means that being highly responsible as an individual can bring
about better mental health and mental health is also a direct help to being responsible. Accordingly, the
last hypothesis suggesting that there is a significant positive relationship between differentiation of self
and mental health among dormitory students would be confirmed.
898
Table 4. Multi-variable regression analysis for the prediction of mental health based on differentiation of
self and responsibility
Variable
Differentiation
of self
R2
R
df
F
0.10
0.32
2
9.99
Responsibility
B
Beta
Sig.
0.10
0.18
0.01
0.55
0.27
0.001
As indicated in Table 4, two variables out of three, namely 'differentiation of self' and
'responsibility' are predictor variables entered into the regression equation to predict mental health.
According to this table, both predicator variables can predict up to 10% of mental health variance. Also,
Beta coefficient is taking a larger share of this prediction (0.27).
Discussion and conclusion:
This study intended to examine the relationship between differentiation of self, responsibility and
mental health among dormitory students of Allameh Tabataba’i University, Tehran, Iran.
Glasser (2010) defines responsible individual as someone who accept responsibility for his life
and behavior, act responsibly, thus complete acceptance of responsibility is a perfect sign of mental
health. One of the findings was that there is a direct significant relationship between mental health and
responsibility. To illustrate this hypothesis, it can be stated that youth, especially college students,
gradually prepare to become independent from their families. As a result of this independence, it is
inevitable to take responsibility for their actions and lives. This responsibility can be a sign of healthy
mind, or in other words psychological well-being. On the other hand, having mental health can bring a
better responsibility. The present findings are in line with with other researches in this field, including a
research by Younesi, Moeen, & Shamshirinia (1388) in which the results indicated that there is a positive
relationship between responsibility and mental health, and the increase of responsibility among youth
would cause a better mental health.
Another finding in this study shows a significant positive relationship between differentiation of
self and mental health among dormitory students. Accordingly, it can be inferred that if these young
people, especially dormitory students being away from their families, develop their differentiation of self,
they would obviously enjoy a better mental health.
On the other hand, a good mental health makes individuals distinguish between their emotion
and reason, and better learn the pattern of differentiated family. This is in line with the findings of a
number of studies in this field, including: Bowen (1976), Kerr & Bowen (1988), Titelman (1998), Skowron,
Stanley, et al, (2009), Peleg-Popko (2004), Murdock & Gore (2004), and Skowron, Wester, et al. (2004).
Thus, it can be concluded that differentiation of self among young students who are away from
their families as a positive family role model can provide a background for mental health. On the other
hand, the increase of responsibility causes the improvement of mental health. Accordingly, students who
enjoy a better mental health would have a better function, especially in the field of education.
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900
Studying the unwillingness of young individuals for marriage
Narges Arbabi
M A. Department of Humanities ,College of Jurisprudence and the Fundaments of
Laws, Yazd Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Yazd, Iran
Abstract
Marriage is one of the most important events in anyone's life which can play an important role in
the evolution of individual in his/her new era of life. The results of the various studies on marriage
have emphasized on its important effects on psychological and physical health. In recent
decades, many scholars of jurisprudence, clinicians and families have devoted their attention to
marital quality, couple satisfaction and its impact on family health. Generally in the issues of
marriage, factors affecting successful marriage and factors of stable couples’ satisfactions are of
crucial importance, such as the role of material factors, cultural, psychological and personality.
Therefore, this study aimed to explore young people's unwillingness for marriage through a
literature library study. This paper examines important factors for couples’ dissatisfaction in
unsuccessful marriages. Finally, based on the teachings of Islam, some solutions have been
proposed to improve the situation of young individuals’ successful marriage.
Keywords: Marriage, dissatisfaction, divorce, youth, Islamic law.
Introduction
Man is a social being that is created with social physical and spiritual needs and his needs
change in the process of physical growth. One of the institutions that can be effective in human social and
emotional needs refers to marriage (Ghasemi Tudshkachouyi et al. 2005). There are many traditions and
sayings concerning marriage, in addition to the new behavioral scientific topics. With this regard, the holy
prophet said: "Marriage is my tradition, those who neglect it, are not from my nation". According to Islamic
view, marriage is introduced as something desirable and underlined and one of the traditions of the
prophets, and its necessity for self-purification and preservation of public morals has been emphasized
(Amini, 2008).
Having a healthy society depends on the health of individuals and families; Spouse selection
plays a crucial role in creating a proper family environment and in the quality of children's training.
Therefore, to maintain the health of the family, everyone should ask himself/herself before marriage;
according to what criteria will s/he select his/her future spouse? To what extent these criteria are basic or
fundamental, stable or unstable, are genuine or artificial? Criteria for determining the marriage, to what
extent are they independent and dependent and how they are imposed by others? What are their goals in
life and what are their aspirations to have a family? In this respect, researchers have emphasized on a
number of criteria, including couples’ mental health (Farjad, 2010: 98), cultural similarities like couples’
same social class (Mazaheri, 1994: 64), geographical distance, appearance, age (Ghaemi, 2006),
emotional development, social development, moral virtues (Saroukhani, 2001), thought agreement,
common interests (Tabatabaei Ardakani, 2004: 42; Meshkini, 2009: 35), similar socioeconomic status
and educational level (Rashid Pour, 2007: 12)
Marriage is a very complex issue as one of the most important events in the transition to
adulthood. Scientific and accurate study on this issue dates back to 1930, in which profound changes
took place in 1950. The first published study on the psychology of marriage refers to the work of Terman
et al (1959), they tried to answer the question, what difference can there be between a successful and
unsuccessful marriage. The study will also examine the major cause of marital dissatisfaction in
marriages’ deficiency and also the solutions from the perspective of Islam and the Quran.
This survey is a descriptive – analytic kind, and is done through a library study. Library studies or
research papers, is a study derived from the study of documents, such as archives or official statistics. In
the first study, a comprehensive assessment of documents, library resources such as books, student
theses, reports, projects, and scientific and research journals was done, while strengthening the
theoretical foundations, the results of the studies are also in relation to the subject. This method involves
achieving results and findings thr scientific studies, scientific articles, exchanging information and
resources through the Internet. This research is done because of being an innovative research and lack
of research findings in the country and urgent need to be aware of the findings of the studies. This
research was very effective in other countries, especially in the process of evaluating the sources and the
theoretical framework.
Marriage brings peace and moderation to the community and the couples’ favorable feelings
towards life and will benefit their welfare, safety and health and increase their expectation from their own
capability. Encouraging the responsibility and parental role and insurance of children against poverty
(Doherty, Lester and the League, 1986) are among the other functions of marriage. The couples start
their lives with the goal of a marital life and having the support and comfort, but the family evolves like a
living organism. From the beginning to the end of the shared life, the existence of this thriving and
evolving system is transformed through various stages.
Hence, adaptation and re-adaptation with the process that is constantly changed, for example, by
the birth of children, separation from their families or couples’ retirements is essential. What will happen if
902
couples are not equipped with the ways to resolve their conflicts while passing through the stages of
development ? The family that is supposed to bring peace for the couples would bring struggle to which
there is no end. Involved partners suffer from a lack of mental energy, and have problem in performing
their duty as a wife or husband or as a parent in facing with the conflict.
There is some evidence that says distress in relationships will lead couples to the feelings of
depression; a feeling that its direct consequence refers to the reduced level of self-esteem and selfefficacy of couples. Children will not be immune from the instability in family relationships. Children of
such families will suffer from the failures which beset them up to the end of their lives. (, 1998; , 1999; ,
2000).
In such circumstances, reviewing the relationships and attempt to resolve the problems of
interpersonal relationships is essential. But in many cases the wives are not conscious of the factors
which could be problematic or could cause problems while passing through various stages of the family’s
evolution. No one think about family disruptions while marrying, and no one desires a life full of tension,
frustration and conflict. Most couples who were forced to leave each other because of the conflicts in their
life suggest that by knowing the factors affecting the stability of marriage could live a better life (Fawerz
and Allsen, 2008).
Therefore, the present part of the study examines the causes of couples’ dissatisfaction of failed
marriages and then, investigates the reasons for the youth’s reluctance to marriage.
Dissatisfaction with marriage: Achieving sustainability and success in the young marriages
requires examining the factors that increase individuals’ satisfaction with marriage and provides a stable
life for individuals. Thus, the present study attempts to examine the various factors that affect the
evolutionary process of the marital life and find the factors that increase sense of satisfaction with the
marriage.
Studies have shown that the increased level of individuals’ satisfaction
dependent to numerous variables that can be divided into two major categories:
with married life is
1) Factors that have been shaped prior to marriage and affect the individuals’ levels of
satisfaction from the beginning of the marital life.
2) Factors that arise during the marital life and require further adaptation to new conditions.
In the first category there are factors such as personality traits, race, religious beliefs, how to
spend free time, previous marriages with step children and dating before marriage.
Studies have shown that people tend to marry with individuals who are identical in terms of
physical characteristics, cognitive abilities and personality traits. A marriage that starts when couples
have similar characteristics, is considered sustainable and healthy (Caspi and Herbner, 1990). Some of
903
these features such as self-disclosure and secrecy by affecting interpersonal relationships can be
significant predictors to determine the level of marital satisfaction (, 1996; ,1997; , 2000). However,
evaluation of couples with each others’ characteristic traits and reflect the impact of these traits on their
satisfaction with the shared life. (, 2004).
Findings about race also show that greater stability of marriages is seen between the same
races. In addition, studies have shown that, among the various ethnic groups, constituent variables in
determining the overall satisfaction of marriage are different (Garcia, 1999; , 2000).). Among other factors
that are formed before marriage, are religious beliefs. Studies have shown an increase in religious
activities, although do not improve the marriage and affect the amount of happiness in married lives. Such
activities also do not improve the interaction between the couples, and do not reduce daily conflicts and
problems. However, it can increase the ethical commitment, and reduce considering the divorce (, 1995;
Fox and Kelly, 1995; Brennen, 2004). A Similar leisure interests is effective in the amount of compatibility
(Baniasadi Shahr Babak, 1996).
Studying the effect of gender on marital satisfaction also confirms significant effect of this factor
on life satisfaction. (Soleimanian, 1994; Antilles and Cotton, 1988; Levy and Alsn, 1993; , 1996). The
results of this study show that men than are satisfied with their marriage than women (Soleimanian, 1994,
, 1993). It seems that this can be derived from the lack of male participation in the internal affairs of life. In
other words, if in marriage, both spouses have equal rights, and both burden problems, and consider
marriage as a partnership, both sexes will experience the same satisfaction (Antil and Cotton, 1988).
Investigations have shown the quality of pre-marriage familiarity enhance the marital satisfaction
(, 1983; Fawerz and Alsen, 2008; Sayyad Pour, 2002). The second issue is devoted to factors that within
the family change, change conditions, and affect the degree of satisfaction of marriage based on the
mentioned issues. Among these factors interpersonal relationships, children, having social support, job
type, age, years of marital life and economic situation can be noted. The studies of interpersonal
relationships have shown that mood changes and improper justification of spouses’ behaviors fuel conflict
and disruption in interpersonal relationships, and reduce life satisfaction of couples. (, 1978; , 1999; ,
2004).
The role of children in marrital satisfaction presents the results that show that, children play an
important role in the stability of marriage (, 1996) and increase the desire to avoid disrupting the marital
relationship. However, children’s characteristics such as gender and age have no significant effect on the
continuation of married lives (, 1995); while proper numbers of children play a significant role in the
satisfaction of marriages (Khodapanahi, 1994; Fawerz and Allsen , 2008)
Receiving social support from family and friends are other resources that can lead to increased
satisfaction with the marriages. Studies have shown that relatives can act as a barrier to stressors
(Pradhan and Misra, 1995; , 1996; , 1996). Type of business also has a significant effect on marital
satisfaction. Workers whose hours of work are rotational are less satisfied with their marriage as
compared to the ones who have fixed working hour (Fishal Fahd, 1996). Checking the working condition
of men and women and its impact on marital satisfaction has confirmed that having both full-time and
part-time jobs simultaneously reduces men’s satisfaction with marriage. While women’s working condition
does not affect their marital satisfaction (Fawerz and Allsen, 2008). In other words, stress affects men
more than women and reduces their satisfaction from their wives (Pradhan Misra, 1995; , 2004).
904
Age is another factor that can affect individuals’ level of life satisfaction. Fawerz and Allsen
(2008) on studying the factors influencing satisfaction of married couples found that,, the average age of
consent couples is more than unhappy couples. According to the researchers, individuals in older ages,
enjoy their marital life more by matching their expectations with the reality through acquiring self-control
skills and losing their unrealistic view. Studying number of years of marital life also shows high marital
satisfaction before birth of children and after the children live home (Carr, 1999). These findings indicate
the pressure that is imposed by children on parents and pressure which leads to a decrease in marital
satisfaction. Fawerz and Allsen’s findings (2008) also agree with greater satisfaction of couples who are
married for longer years. Although the researchers, justify the results based on the transitions of
individuals from the critical stages of early life, adaptation to new conditions of life, accepting participation
in the life and achieving greater stability in relation. They have not mentioned any results on the age and
educational status of children, the relationship between their findings and marital satisfaction over the life
cycle is evident.
Young individuals’ reluctance for getting married.
Each person has an innate and natural desire to get married but for several reasons reluctance
for getting married may become prevalent in the society and we give a few examples of reasons:
Financial harsh conditions in society and discrimination between the social classes. In a society
where most people are poor and the middle class and there are a small number of wealthy individuals. If
inflation and the costs in a society be high, a young single person who wants to marry would face difficulty
and as a result would delay marriage to solve this problem (Rashid Pour, 2007).
There are high expectations in families. Due to these expectations, young person who cannot
make it stays single up to the time he could manage them. (Meshkini, 2009). disbelief and acting in
accordance to the passion. Many people illegally gratify their instincts before marriage because of the
lack of faith and commitment to moral values. And they no longer are willing when conditions allow them
to be married (Rashid Pour, 2007; Amini, 2008).
Divorce: another reason is that many single people marry without having sufficient knowledge,
and because of their ignorance of the relationships between spouses behave in a way which leads to
divorce. Divorce creates a sort of fear in the hearts of the individuals that they avoid marriage or make
marriage conditions more difficutl, and divorcees are afraid and hardly remarry because of experiencing
the divorce once (Farjad, 2010).
Economic welfare create the conditions that will increase individuals’ satisfaction of life by
reducing stress and by creating a sense of safety in couples. Wealthy individuals because of the
potentiality to provide a better educational environment and conditions for themselves and their children
have more mental relaxation, and also have more confidence, more social support and face less stress
because of having high ability for social connectionand wider social relations (, 1995; Anjlis, 2004). It
should be noted that, discussing the reasons for not getting married and its impacts and consequences is
905
much broader than what can be expressed in a page, although this subject needs extensive studies and
needs to be written as a book, but mentioning some factors are enough, considering the article’s need,.
The strategies of the religion of Islam
In the following discussion, we will examine the ways that Islam has expressed to which refer and
study verses 32 and 33 of Surah Noor. Surah Noor says: Help your nations’ single males and females to
marry, also help your righteous slaves and handmaids. If they be poor, Allah with His grace makes them
needless and God is aware. Those who do not have the opportunity to marry should keep their
purification and know that Allah would make them needless for His bounty.
According to the first part of the verse, Allah addresses members of the society and asked them
to help single individuals to get marry. In this section, God commanded that help the single girls and the
boys to marry soon. However, due to the reasons mentioned in the last section for not getting married,
the following points can be noted: If there is a hard financial situation, individuals need to help their boys
and girls in marriage. In a way that hard financial situation gets easer for them until they stand on their
own feet and do not need the help of others. This assistance can be in the form of grants.
This verse does not say ask help from the strangers, but says the people from yourselves,
namely the family, relatives and friends, individuals that you have a close relationship with and individuals
you can more easily trust and ask for financial help.
People should lower their expectations because these expectations cause the marriage to be
harder. In this verse it been said that, let individuals get married, it means providing the marriage
condition and making the marriage easy for singles. For example, girl’s family can organize their
expectation with respect to the financial condition of the boy's family, and make marriage easy for boys’
and girls’ family can also shape their expectation based on the girls’ financial conditions.
The order for getting married refers to every individual, regardless of their purity or impurity,
because maybe under specific circumstances, the guilty individual has committed sins and may stop
committing guilt and repent by marriage. The guilty man will spread corruption if leave freely. And this is a
form of invitation to righteousness and avoidance from forbidden acts; however, in this context it should
be noted that the point is what God says in the Surah of Noor.
Virtuous and faithful girls and boys are for each other and also infected and guilty ones are for
each other. This verse says that if people want to help their relatives to marry, they should consider
individuals’ purity and impurity and do not let pure girls marry impure boys or impure girls marry pure
boys. If this be done by the relatives of each person and be widespread in society, cause impure people
be identified in the community and the individuals would not change their impurity to purity, because
individuals’ close family and relatives are aware of their purity and impurity. When relatives do not let the
impure one marry the pure one; naturally, anyone thinks about the issue of similarity. Because one of the
factors of similarities refers to the matter of individuals’ purity or impurity, and as a result leads to the
906
impure purification. Because each person based on their conscience likes to marry someone pure. When
the individuals would not be able to marry someone pure, a tendency for being pure would be made in
them and even if not being pure, they would hardly commit guilt.
Love and mutual interest, flexibility, proper dealing with life issues, appropriate behavior within
the family, healthy social relationships, personal adjustment, a real understanding of each other and the
agreement on artistic activities, as psychological factors had a significant role in the process of decision
making to choose a partner. Marriage has always been a kind of social and emotional bond based on the
agreement between two opposite sex for psychological, physical and social needs, and is considered as
prevention of intellectual and social distortions and abnormalities. The origin of the intimate relationship
between man and woman refers to mutual love.
They may be different with each other from the aspects of ideological, feeling and thinking, but
with understanding and in light of the emotional relationships and individuals’ flexibility, the possibility of a
peaceful life will be provided. Needless to say that, to achieve this ideal situation, people need to have
plenty of emotional and intellectual development to be able to control their emotions. Intimate
relationships with a partner, will be an important contribution to mental and physical health. Expression of
intimacy and love in the shadow of marital relations brings cooperation, solidarity, compassion, unity, and
mutual acceptance. Of course, such features secure individuals against social deviations. And preserve
the family against the disintegration. The ethical and moral virtues in men and women along with honesty,
forgiveness, integrity and dedication, result in the family's health and comfort. In the religious teachings of
Islam, good mood and good morals of couples have been emphasized for having successful marriages.
By considering the points which were expressed, it could be realized that one of the
characteristics of the ideal devine society is that both the government and individuals have responsibility
over the single individuals. They provide the situation of marriage, even for impure ones, in a way that if
someone reaches the age of marriage in all circumstances, it is available. Anyone who can marry quickly,
stays away from the condition of sin and as the Prophet says, half of his faith would be complete and can
more easily act in the rest of his/her religious duties. When marriage is a pervasive custom in the society
and as mentioned in the text it turns each family to the typical model, it can bring up children who are
helpful for the society, and all are competent and by the proper functioning of the government and people,
disbelief will disappear from society.
References
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Bani Asadi Shahr-e Babak H, 1996. Investigation and comparison of social-individual influencing factors
in well-adjusted and mal-adjusted couples in Kerman City. MA thesis. Tarbiat Moallem
University.
Khodapanahi M K, 1995. The role of sensation seeking in strengthening the marital satisfaction. Phd
thesis. Tarbiat Moallem University.
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Rashid Pour M, 2007. Psychology of marriage in Islam. Tehran: PTA publications. 5th edition.
Saroukhani B, 2001. An introduction to the sociology of family. Tehran: Soroush Press.
Soleimanian A A, 1994. An investigation into the illogical thoughts (based on cognitive approach) and its
impact on marital dissatisfaction. MA thesis. Tarbiat Moallem University.
Sayyad Pour Z, 2002. An investigation into the effect of the level of premarital knowledge on the level of
marital satisfaction to introduce effective strategies in decreasing the rate of divorce among the
students studying in Islamic Azad University. The deputy of the research and planning of the
psychological and educational studies and research. Islamic Tehran University. South Tehran
branch.
Tabatabayi Ardakani A, 2004. Marital problem solving methods. Tehran: Sharif Press.
Farjad M H, 2010. Social Pathology and the problems of family and divorce. Mansouri Publication.
Ghaemi A, 2006. The system of family life in Islam. PTA publications. Fourth edition. 27-28.
Ghasemi Toudeshkachouyi G, Motamedi M, Asadollahi G, Malek Sh, 2005. A comparative study of the
criteria of selecting a spouse prior to and one year after marriage. Journal of Studies in
Behavioral Sciences. 2005: 67- 74.
Meshkini A, 2009. Marriage in Islam. Alhadi Press. 22(35).
Mazaheri A A, 1994. The young individuals and spouse selection. Office of Islamic Advertisement Press.
62-67.
Mousavi R, 1995. Investigation and comparison of the effective factors in marital satisfaction in three
groups of medicines, blue collar and white collar workers of Tehran city. MA thesis. Tarbiat
Moallem University.
Fawerz A, Allsen W, 2008. Matching by weight in married couples. The Journal of Social Psychology.
130(5): 657-69.
Anjlis A, 2004. Gender differences in effects of physical attractivess on Romantic attraction. Journal of
personality and social psychology. 89(5): 87-96.
Caspi A, Herbner E, 1990. Continuity and change: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 59(5):
93-94.
Carr A, 1999. The handbook of child and adolescent. Routledge: clinical psychology: A contextual
approach. New York.
Brennen B H, 2004. Handling marital conflict. Seminar Handout. Sounds of Encouragement.
Antil J K, Cotton S, 1988. Factor affecting the division of labor in households. Journal of Sex Role.
908
Relationship between extroversion and introversion personality
traits and marital satisfaction of housewives in the 14th borough
of Tehran City
Marzieh Poursalehy Navideh*1, Mahnaz Ghiasi1
1-PhD student of psychology, Al-Zahra University, Tehran, Iran
Personality is a comprehensive subject that dates back to the creation of human being.
Different personality types lead to the variation of different realms including satisfaction
with marital life. Extroversion and introversion stand amongst two important aspects of
human personality. The present research aims to investigate the relationship between
extroversion and introversion personality traits and marital satisfaction of housewives in
the 14th borough of Tehran City. The statistical population included all the housewives of
the 14th borough of Tehran City in the age range of 20 to 40 in the year 2011. A sample of
200 individuals was drawn from among this population through random cluster
sampling. 36 individuals were excluded due to lack of cooperation and filling out the
questionnaire incompletely. The research tools included Eysenck extroversionintroversion questionnaire and Enrich marital satisfaction questionnaire. Data were
analyzed using descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) and inferential
statistics (correlation coefficient and t-test). Results indicated that there is significant
and positive correlation between extroversion and introversion. Moreover, no significant
correlation was observed between introversion and marital satisfaction. In addition, the
marital satisfaction of introverted housewives and extroverted housewives differ from
one another. Overall, it can be concluded that individuals’ marital satisfaction is
influenced by the external factors such as personality traits.
Keywords: extroversion, introversion, marital satisfaction
Introduction
Personality has always been in the lime light of research and scientific psychological debates.
This term is a high way to which all the theories, hypothesis, schools and methods of thinking end. The
subject of personality finds its roots in the onset of the creation of human being and since then, the
societies have considered the necessity of knowing self and therefore, a wave of hypothesis were put
forward in this realm. From Aristotle, Plato, Hippocrates, Galen, Avicenna and Freud to contemporary
theorist such as Alport, Maslow, Skinner and etc, have all emphasized the importance and necessity of
hypothesizing in the realm of personality (Hanjari, 1997). It can be concluded that the goal of all the
findings of psychology is reaching to the personality.
On the other hand, personality is a subject which broached newer subjects and debates on
personality characteristics (Kardan, 1991). According to Eysenck, personality is an integrated whole of
manner, temperament, intelligence and physics (Eysenck, 1985, cited in Abdoli, 1994). Alport asserts that
personality is dynamic organization of mental and physiological systems that determine the individuals
distinguished thoughts and behavior (Alport, 1993, cited in Shultz and Shultz, 1994). Pervin proposed a
scientific definition of personality and asserted that personality is indicative of individual’s characteristics
that demonstrate fixed behavioral patterns (Pervin, 1996, cited in Abdoli, 1994). Young introduced two
terms of extroversion and introversion and believed that individuals are characterized into one of these
two dimensions (Young, 1920, cited in Shultz and Shultz, 1994).
Different personality types result in difference in different realms of life such as satisfaction with
life. Extroversion and introversion stand amongst two important aspects of human personality.
Extroversion is when the individuals devotes great attention to external objects and issues and voluntarily
acts and other principal actions of human are not the result of subjective assessment but the effect of
external issues and factors. Conversely, introverts have higher speed in brain activity which is higher than
normal and causes the individuals to need less motivating forces which is below average. These
individuals have internal and subjective viewpoints and are more prepared to show inhibition and mastery
over self. They allocate a considerable amount of time for studying and being alone and are less inclined
to communicate with others (Farahani, 1999).
Marital satisfaction is amongst the important variables which will be studied in this research.
Marital satisfaction is positive and enjoyable attitude that husband and wife have about different aspects
of marital relationship (Soleimanian, 1997). Olson (1989) introduced some stages for family life cycle.
According to him, the marital satisfaction differs in each of these stages. Schlesinger (1983, cited in
Sarmadi) carried out a study on stable marriages and marital satisfaction and presented three curves of
family cycle. The linear decline after the honeymoon phase, the curvilinear process during which there is
no child and the most important phenomenon is the increase of independence and a U-shaped curve with
upward point in first years, downward with the birth of children and upward again when children leave the
nest.
Couples are the central and innermost cores of family and are regarded as individuals who
guarantee the health and dynamic of the family which is the principal constructive factors of society.
Therefore, they can be regarded as the motivating and guiding forces of family. The only way for reaching
stability, peace and self-actualization in mutual spouse relationship is resolving the conflict that is
obtained through cognition, perception of difference, not being defensive, mastery of self and emphasis
on goals with regard to the importance of maintaining the regulation of the family (Bernstein, 1987, cited
in Pour Ebadi, 2006).
Personality types as one of the most effective factors in couples’ relationship can limit and ruin
the marital relationships and result in the decline in marital agreement. Therefore, shedding light on this
important factor has been the responsibility of the researchers through which they can prevent the family
pathologies and provide favorable family environment.
Sknwid et al (2006) in a study entitled the relationship between personality, conflict resolution and
marital adjustment in the 5 primary years of life, concluded that personality variables have close
relationship with conflict resolution strategies and influence the marital satisfaction. Botwin et al (2006) in
a study assessed five factors in spouse selection and marital satisfaction and concluded that personality
traits of a spouse can significantly predict sexual and marital satisfaction.
Spots et al (2005) in a study on 752 twin Swedish women concluded that women’s personality
traits exert effect on the level of marital satisfaction of spouses, inter-spouse agreement and marital
quality. In another study by Ergil and Heatin (2005) women’s social position and their marital adjustment
was investigated on 865 mothers with children below 1 year old in Bolivia and showed that the level of
respect received by a wife and her ability in expressing her beliefs is significantly correlate higher levels of
marital satisfaction.
With regard to the aforementioned literature and the importance of marital satisfaction in the
maintenance of couples’ and family relationship, the purpose of the present research is to investigate the
910
relationship between extroversion and introversion personality traits and marital satisfaction of
housewives in the 14th borough of Tehran City.
The statistical population included all the housewives of the 14th borough of Tehran City in the
th
age range of 20 to 40 in the year 2011. Firstly, 5 avenues of the 14 borough were randomly selected
and then 4 streets were randomly selected from among those 5 avenues. The researcher made home
delivery of the questionnaires. The minimum sample for this study which was a correlational study is 50
individuals (Delavar, 2000). However, with regard to subject drop and more assurance a sample of 200
individuals was selected. 36 individuals were excluded due to lack of cooperation and filling out the
questionnaire incompletely and therefore, the number of the sample decreased to 164 individuals.
Subsequent to the collection of the questionnaires, a comparison was drawn between 87 extroverted
housewives and 77 introverted housewives. The research tools included Eysenck extroversionintroversion questionnaire and Enrich marital satisfaction questionnaire. It’s worth mentioning that all the
individuals were debriefed about Enrich marital satisfaction questionnaire and personal information form
(including length of marriage, education level, number of children and economic status) and also the
ethics of confidentiality.
Enrich marital satisfaction questionnaire was used to assess the couples’ marital satisfaction.
This questionnaire was designed and developed by Olson (1989) to evaluate the potential problematic
areas and recognition of the pros and cons and enrichment of marriage. This questionnaire has two 115and 125-item questionnaires that encompass 12 subscales. The main form caused fatigue in the
subjects. Soleimanian (1997) designed a short form of this questionnaire which has 47 items. The
reliability coefficient of the questionnaire has been reported to be 90% in the main form of Enrich marital
satisfaction questionnaire (Fatehi Zadeh, 2005). The short form was employed in the present study and
the reliability coefficient using test-retest was reported to be between 56% and 94%. The validity of this
questionnaire has been confirmed in various studies on samples of happy, stable, divorced and suing for
divorce couples. This questionnaire is scored on a five-point Likert scale from 1 to 5. The estimated
scores are analyzed based on the norm table in which the mean is equal to 5 and standard deviation is
equal to 10. Based on the norm table, Scores lower than 30 indicate the deep dissatisfaction of spouses
with marital relationship. Scores between 30 and 40 indicate the lack of the satisfaction of spouses with
marital relationship. Scores between 40 and 50 indicate the relative satisfaction of spouses with marital
relationship. Scores between 40 and 60 indicate the high satisfaction of spouses with marital relationship
and scores higher than 70 indicate the deep satisfaction of spouses with marital relationship.
Eysenck extroversion-introversion personality traits questionnaire is applicable for individuals
above 16 years old. Gender differences exist with regard to the results of the test. Age-related norms are
applicable to two types of gender and a multitude of vocational groups and abnormal groups. Moreover,
age-related norms have been presented in association with 5000 subjects. This questionnaire is widely
applied in personality studies and great efforts have been made to precisely normalize it. The Eysenck
extroversion-introversion questionnaire has been studied in 24 countries including Iran. The results of
these studies indicate that most of the countries are similar to each other in personality traits of
extroversion, introversion, neuroticism and psychosis. Extroverts are those who obtain scores above 12
or individuals whose score is one standard deviation above average. Introverts are individuals who obtain
scores above 12 or scores with one standard deviation above the mean.
The results of tables 1 and 2 indicate the mean and standard deviation of introverted and
extroverted individuals and also the mean and standard deviation of their marital satisfaction.
Table 1- mean and standard deviation of introversion and marital satisfaction of housewives
911
Variable
Mean
Standard Deviation
Number
Introversion
11.30
.919
77
149.87
9.454
77
Table 2- mean and standard deviation of extroversion and marital satisfaction of housewives
Variable
Mean
Standard Deviation
Number
Extroversion
11.47
1.325
87
193.85
17.387
87
Table 3- Correlation coefficient of extroversion and marital satisfaction of house wives
extroversion
Marital satisfaction
Correlation coefficient
.236
Level of significance
.028
number
87
As observed in table 3, there is significant and positive correlation between extroversion and
marital satisfaction of housewives. Put it differently, increase in one variables leads to the increase in the
other variable. Increase of extroversion in house wives leads to the increase of their martial satisfaction.
Table 4- Correlation coefficient of introversion and marital satisfaction of house wives
Introversion
Correlation Coefficient
.011
Level of Significance
.921
Number
77
As observed in table 4, no significant relationship is observed between introversion and marital
satisfaction of house wives.
Table 5- T-test for independent groups (extrovert and introvert)
Variable
Score T
Df
Mean
Difference
Mean Standard Error
Level of Sig.
Marital
Satisfaction
-2.216
162
-43.980
19.847
.028
As observed in table 5, there is between-group difference in terms of marital satisfaction. That is
to say that, extroverted and introverted individuals are not similar with regard to marital satisfaction.
912
The research purpose was to explore the relationship between extroversion-introversion
personality traits and marital satisfaction of housewives in the 14th borough of Tehran City. Results
indicated that there exists significant and positive relationship between extroversion and marital
satisfaction. This finding is consistent with the results of the research by Sknwid et al (2006), Botwin et al
(2006), Spots et al (2005) and Ergil and Heatin (2005). This indicates that, higher extroversion will result
in higher marital satisfaction of house wives. This might be owing to the increase of social
communication, receiving more social support, enhancement of the awareness about the variety of issues
and problems of different individuals that rate higher among extroverted individuals. Extroverts seek for
others’ consultation and do not see themselves lonely. Moreover, they compare their issues with other
individuals’ problems and issues which might be similar to them and use their experience. This prevents
the emergence of problems that might be due to the lack of experience in behaving toward the spouse
and does not let the marital satisfaction decrease. These people receive social empathy that increases
their ability in dealing with problems and accordingly, their marital satisfaction increases.
The research hypothesis that proposed the relationship between introversion and marital
satisfaction was not confirmed. This finding is not consistent with the research results carried out by
Sknwid et al (2006), Botwin et al (2006), Spots et al (2005) and Ergil and Heatin (2005). It means that
extroversion exerts no effect on the decrease or increase of marital satisfaction. Introversion is
characterized with characteristics such as being quite, preferring to be alone to participate in social
gatherings and control of feelings. The mental content of individuals influences the relationship with
spouse and problem solving through coping strategies with different issues of life. Lack of interest to
confide in other individuals makes the individual alone in shouldering different responsibilities. Here,
different qualities of solutions are employed to handle life issues which might exert effect on individuals’
marital satisfaction. The individual’s introversion can’t solely be the influencing factor of one’s marital
satisfaction but a combination of introversion-related factors in mind result in marital satisfaction or
dissatisfaction.
Results indicated that, there exists significant difference between introverted and extroverted
individuals in terms of marital satisfaction. This finding is in line with the results of the research carried out
by French , Popovici , Robins and Homer (2014) and Donnellan , Conger and Bryant (2004) . Assignment
of individuals in two personality types of extroversion and introversion requires individuals to have specific
personality traits that exist following the establishment of different cognitive contents. Individuals’
cognitive content influences their psychological traits in different realms including personal decisionmaking, ways of expressing emotions, coping strategies and etc. Therefore, a wide range of factors can
influence the level of satisfaction with marital life.
Furthermore, no significant relationship was observed between the level of education and marital
satisfaction. This finding is not congruent with the research results by Attari (2006), Rahimi (2006) and
Banaeeyan (2006). In addition, no significant relationship was observed between length of marriage and
marital satisfaction. This finding is also not congruent with the results of studies carried out by Fatehi
Zadeh (2005), Rahimi (2006), Baghbani Sijani (2007) . Furthermore, no significant relationship was
observed between the number of children and marital satisfaction. This finding is not consistent with the
studies carried out by Rahimi (2006) and Baghbani Sijani (2007). Moreover, there exists no significant
relationship between socioeconomic status and marital satisfaction. This finding is not in line with the
findings of the research by Attari (2006) and Baghbani Sijani (2007).
Undoubtedly, the most difficult studies are those done in the realm of the humanities due to the
fact that human beings are the subject of research. Even the most flexible individuals demonstrate
resistance to others’ assessment. On the other hand, one of the most common research tools in the
humanities is the questionnaire which triggers feelings of self-disclosure and vulnerability. Therefore, it’s
natural that some individuals disclose non-real information. One of the problems of this research and
913
other studies that employ questionnaire as their research tools is lack of assurance about the information
provided by the subjects.
References
Abdoli B, 1994. Personality traits of elite and athletic college students. Master’s thesis. Tarbiat Modarres
University.
Attari Y, Aman Allahi Fard A, Mehrabi Zadeh Honarmand M, 2006. Relationship between personality
characteristics, individual and familial factors and marital satisfaction among the staff of
governmental offices in Ahvaz City. Journal of Psychology and Educational Sciences. 6.
Baghbani Sichani I, Ahmadi Alvan Abadi S A, Gholamian F, 2007. An overview of quality relationship
perspectives and its contributory factors. Proceedings of research week.
Banaeeyan, Sh, Parvin N, Kazemiyan A, 2006. Relationship between mental health and martial
satisfaction of married women in Borujen City. Journal of Gynecology and Nursing of Hamedan
University. 14(2).
Bernstein P, H, Bernstein M T, 2001. Martial therapy from relational-behavioral perspective. Translated by
Naeeni H, Monshi Gh. Tehran: Roshd Publication.
Botwin M, 2006. Five factors in husband select and marriage satisfaction. 9(2):66-77.
Delavar A, 2000. Research methodology in psychology and educational sciences. Tehran: Virayesh.
Donnellan M B , Conger R D , Bryant C M , 2004 . The big five and enduring marriages . Journal of
research in personality . Volume 38 , issue 5 , pages 481-504 .
Ergil M, Heatin K, 2005. Female social condition and marriage satisfaction. 5(2):56-68.
Eysenck H J, Eysenck S B G, 1975. Manual of the personality Questionnaire. (Junior and Adult). London:
Huddler and Stoughton.
Fatehi Zadeh M, Ahmadi S S, 2005. Relationship between communication models and marital satisfaction
of married employees of Isfahan University. Journal of Research in Family. 1(2).
French M T 2014 . Personal traits , cohabitation and marriage . social science research . Volume 45 ,
pages 184-199.
Hanjari M, 1997. Investigation and comparison of personality traits and value structure of students in the
universities of Tehran, Allameh Tabatabaei and Imam Hossein. Master’s thesis. Allameh
Tabatabaei University.
Kardan A M, 1991. Social psychology. Tehran: Tehran University Press.
Libert R, Spiger M, 1996. Personality from behavioral perspective. Translated by Sabouri Moghadam.
Tehran: Astan-e Ghods Razavi Publicaiton.
Olson M, Wilson M, 1989. Families. California: Sage Publication.
Pervin L A, 1996. The science of personality (1st ed). New York: John Willy & sons.
Pouya Manesh J, Ahadi H, Mazaheri M A, Delavar A, 2008. Comparison of the effectiveness internetbased and face-to-face group counseling based on the Elise theory. Journal of Research in
Behavioral Science. 6(2).
Rahimi M, Shams Khorram Abadi Gh, 2006. Important factors in the improvement of spouses’ sexual
relationship. Proceedings of the Third Congress on Family and Sexual Health. Tehran: Center of
Cultural and Artistic Creations.
Schultz D P, Schultz S E, 1994.Theories of personality. (5th ed)pacific Grove: Brook scope.
Sknwid M, 2006. Relationship between personality, conflict solving and marriage satisfaction in five
primary years in life. 7(1):75-85.
Soleimanian A, 1998. The impact of illogical thinking on marital dissatisfaction. MA thesis of Tarbiat
Moallem University.
Spots N, 2005. Relative between female personality features and marriage satisfaction.7 (1):54-65.
914
Effectiveness of social skills training in women’s social health and
pro-sociality
Majid Saffari Nia1, Marziyeh Poursalehy Navideh*2 , Sousan Alizadehfard 3, Maryam Khajouyi Nia4
1- Associate professor of psychology, Payam-e Nour University, Tehran South branch, Tehran, Iran
2- Ph.D. student of general psychology, Alzahra University, Tehran, Iran
3- Assistant professor, Payam-e Nour University, Pardis, Iran
4- Ph.D. of clinical psychology, Bombay University, Bombay, India
Abstract
Human confront stressful situations in life and should acquire the required skills for
confronting with them. Social skills are one the affecting factors of healthy interpersonal
relationship and general health that has attracted the attention of many researchers. The
research purpose is to assess the effectiveness of social skills in the social health and
pro-sociality of women. The statistical population included all the women referring to the
governmental counseling centers located in Tehran in 2011, out of which a sample of 30
individuals was selected and assigned to the experimental and control groups. Both
groups filled out the research tools including social health and pro-sociality
questionnaires prior to and subsequent to the training. The experimental group
underwent eight 90-minute sessions of social skills while the control group was in the
waiting list and received no education. Data that were analyzed using covariance
analysis indicated that, the social health of experimental group increased as compared
to the control group; however, no significant difference was observed in terms of prosociality. Overall, social skills training can solve the interpersonal problems, social
interactions and lead to a desirable social life.
Keywords: social skills, social health, pro-sociality
Introduction
All of us confront stressful conditions in life and in social relationships. These situations are never
eliminated from our lives and we are bound to learn how to confront with them. Coping is effort that is
both action-based and intrapersonal and manages the internal and environmental conflicts and wants;
that is to say that, it finds mastery over them, decreases or minimizes those (Matson et al, 2005).
For coping, we need skills and capabilities that we have more or less. However, being skillful
means mastery over the skills. Social skills help us become successful in interpersonal relationships.
Becoming successful in these relationships bring about positive feelings and satisfaction with self.
Individuals lack in the required abilities in coping with life problems and social interaction and are
therefore vulnerable. Many of the psychological and emotional problems have deep roots in social issues.
Social skills training and life coping skills and psychosocial abilities improve our lives. Psychosocial
abilities include a range of abilities that help the individual in effective coping with difficult life situations.
These skills enable the individuals to act adaptably with other individuals, culture and environment and
guarantee their psychophysical health (Kllinkeh), 1994; cited in Mohammad Khani, 2007).
The human of the current era, has faced rapid and fast-paced changes and evolutions due to the
complexity of life and these challenges will manifest themselves with even more severity in the next
century. Each of these challenges imposes some problems on the life style and social behavior of
individuals. Therefore, confronting the above problems and educating committed people require the
wants, values and wishes of the society and specific predictions and planning. Since 2000, that the
indices of social health were introduced, we do not refer to mental illnesses for social problems and
investigate it as a social disease. An individual who is addicted has problems in social health (Khanifar
and Pour Hosseini, 200007). Social norms are the formed rules based on the must and mustn’t that
should determine our behavior and relationships and make a boundary for our action and reaction. Social
norms determine what to say and what not to say, what to avoid talking about, how to behave and how to
think. The acceptability of these norms in the society causes us to adhere to the norms for membership in
the society and adapt our behavior and speech to that (Kllinkeh), cited in Bala Zadeh, 2009).
Social skills are one of the affecting factors of personal and social health that has attracted the
attention of many researchers. Experience has proved that some of the individuals lack in the social skills
and this does not necessarily mean that these individuals can’t benefit from the skills in their interactions.
(Hargi)(1986) asserted that social skills are a range of purposeful actions that are related to one another
and are appropriate with the condition of the learner, under his control and goal-oriented. According to
Segrin and Dilard (1993), social skills mean the ability to reach the goals in an appropriate and correct
way. Another characteristic of social behavior is its relatedness, appropriateness with the condition of the
learner and its learnability. It can be said that, learning the time of using social behavior is as important as
its nature and the method of doing it (Hargi) 2005; cited in Firouz Bakht and Beigi, 2005).
All the individuals confront with stressful conditions and shoulder such pressures in their
interactions. If they can cope with such pressure and problems, they are both more successful in their
relationships and psychologically and physically health. A significant part of individual’s health that
emerges in social realm is social health. When the individual is socially healthy, s/he can demonstrate
his/her social roles and activities in an appropriate level and can be closely related to the society and
existing norms. Undoubtedly, social health will be more difficult to acquire as compared to mental health.
Lack of disease is not considered here, but the ability to adapt to the environmental conditions and to
have the adequate reaction against the life problems and events is an aspect of social life. The social
health in individual guarantees their benefit from other sources of life.
Indeed, social health encompasses different elements that show how and to what degree, the
individual act well in their social lives as citizens, colleagues, neighbors etc, (Mahmoud ALilou, 2006).
The basic elements of the human’s personality like thinking, belief, understanding, love, skills, roles,
tendencies and motivations are actualized in the process of pro-sociality. On the other hand, the needs of
individuals like the need to cooperate with others, need for kindness, need for distancing, need for
independency, need to disagree with others and need for power are satisfied in the process of
socialization. All these issues are valuable products of pro-sociality (Ferom, 2007; cited in Tabrizi, 2006).
With regard to the importance of social health and pro-sociality in effective coping with life issues, the
effectiveness of social skills training in the increase of social health and pro-sociality was investigated.
The main question of the research is that, whether or not the individuals who have received social skills
have higher social health and pro-sociality as compared to individuals who have not received such
trainings?
The statistical population included all the women referring to the governmental counseling
centers located in Tehran in 2011, out of which a sample of 30 individuals in the age range of 20 to 40
years old was selected and assigned to the experimental and control groups (each of which: 15
916
individuals). Both groups filled out the research tools including social health and pro-sociality
questionnaires prior to and subsequent to the training. The experimental group underwent eight 90minute sessions of social skills while the control group was in the waiting list and received no education.
Keyes social health is a standard questionnaire which was designed and developed based on the
theoretical model of social health by Keyes (2004). This questionnaire has 33 items, out of which the
items of social cohesion, social acceptance, social cooperation, social actualization and social adaptation
constitute 7, 7, 6, 7, and 6 items, respectively. The scoring was on Likert scale with the maximum score of
112. Obtaining higher score is indicative of higher social health. Farsi Nezahd (2004) used method of
main components for the factor analysis of this questionnaire and 5 components of the questionnaire
were decreased by 3 components and the final questionnaire with 28 items was extracted. The reliability
of the scale was equal to 96% in Iranian population that confirmed the high internal consistency of the
items (Keyes, 2004; cited in Ajam Nezhad, 2009).
The sociable personality questionnaire: was designed by Penner (2002) that is used as a general
scale in social psychology to assess the pro-sociality tendencies from the perspective of personality
characteristics (Penner et al, 1995). This questionnaire has 7 subscales of social responsibility, empathic
relationship, others’ viewpoint, personal distress, mutual behavioral inference, oriented behavioral
inference and philanthropy that assess two factors of helping others and controlled understanding.
Individual who obtain high scores in the controlled understanding have the potential for cognitive and
emotional understanding, sense of responsibility and welfare, as compared with others. Individuals who
score high on the factor of helping others report their philanthropy. This questionnaire is scored on Likert
scale and the range of scores is between 30 and 150. This questionnaire has proved to have acceptable
reliability and validity and the Cronbach alpha coefficient was equal to 98% and test-retest equaled 98%.
The reliability coefficients for each of the subscales of social responsibility, empathic relationship, others’
viewpoint, personal distress, mutual behavioral inference, oriented behavioral inference and philanthropy
have been reported to be 36%, 62%, 51%, 17%, 54%, 74% and 71%, respectively.
The data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was
used to test out the normality of the distribution of the scores. Levene’s test was used to test the
homogeneity of the variances and regression and the required assumptions for using parametric tests
were confirmed and the data were analyzed using covariance analysis. Firstly, the demographic variables
were extracted from two groups of experimental and control and the results are presented in table 1. As
observed in table 1, there are 10 married and 5 single individuals in the control group. Moreover, there
are 9 married and 6 single individuals in the experimental group. There exists 5 individuals with diploma
and below, 6 individuals with AS and BA, and 4 individuals with post graduate degree in the control
group. In the experimental group, there were 4 individuals with diploma and below, 7 individuals with AS
and BA, 4 individuals with post graduate education. The mean of age was 36.47 in the control group with
standard deviation of 7.763 and 38.13 in the experimental group with standard deviation of 7.643.
Table 1- frequency distribution of the groups based on level of education, marital status, mean and
standard deviation of the experimental and control groups
917
variable
Marital status
group
married
education
single
Diploma
and below
age
AS and BA
Post
graduate
percentage
frequency
percentage
frequency
percentage
frequency
percentage
frequency
percentage
frequency
mean
sd
Control group
10
66.7
5
33.3
5
33.3
6
.40
4
26.7
36.47
7.763
Experimental
group
9
.60
6
.40
4
26.7
7
46.6
4
26.7
38.13
7.643
The results of pre-test and post-test of experimental and control groups were investigated and the
descriptive indices of the variables of social health were extracted that have been presented in table 2. As
observed in table 2, mean and standard deviation of the pre-test scores in the experimental group and in
the questionnaire of social health were equal to 81.33 and 16.43. The mean and standard deviation of the
pre-test in the control group equaled 99.33 and 16.29. Moreover, the mean and standard deviation of the
post test in the experimental group and control groups equaled 94, 10.16, 92.27 and 7.035, respectively.
Table 2- mean and standard deviation of the scores of pre-test and post-test in the questionnaire of social
health
Pre-test
Post-test
indices
mean
sd
mean
sd
Experimental group 81.33
16.43
94.00
10.16
Control group
99.33
16.29
92.27
7.035
Table 3- results of covariance analysis of the group membership’s effect on the scores of social health in
post-test
The
Source
of
ss
df
F value
Level of sig Effect size power of
change
test
Pre-test
38.100
1
.377
.026
.549
.088
Level
of
95.471
2
.315
.814
.063
.096
education
age
51.405
2
.255
.779
.035
.082
Marital status
7.101
1
.70
.795
.05
.057
Group
1615.147
14
.051
.020
.751
.501
membership
Then, the results of pre-test and post-test of the variable of pro-sociality were extracted for the
experimental and control groups and the descriptive results are presented in table 4.
Table 4- mean and standard deviation of the scores of pre-test and post-test scores in the questionnaire
of pro-social personality
Pre-test
Post-test
indices
mean
sd
mean
sd
Experimental
103.13
10.999
101.07
6.319
control
101.33
12.459
99.80
5.480
As observed in table 4, the mean and standard deviation of the scores of pretest in the
experimental group and in the questionnaire of pro-sociality in the questionnaire of pro-sociality are equal
to 103.13 and 10.99, respectively. Moreover, the mean and standard deviation of the pre-test in the
control group are equal to 101.33 and 12.453, respectively. Furthermore, mean and standard deviation of
the post test and in the experimental and control groups equal 101.7, 6.319, 99.80 and 5.480,
respectively.
918
Table 5- results of covariance analysis for the effect of group membership on the scores of pro-sociality in
post-test
.847
.446
.734
.783
Effect
size
.039
.168
.043
.006
Power of
the test
.054
.206
.091
.058
.087
.892
.611
Source of change
ss
df
F value
Level of sig.
Pre-test
Level of education
age
Marital status
Group
membership
3.48
265.878
59.254
7.416
1
3
2
1
.39
.944
.315
.079
1887.088
14
.0752
In the variance analysis, the variance of the pro-social personality, group membership was
regarded as an independent variable, the score of pro-sociality was considered as a dependent variable
and the scores of post-test, age, education and marital status were considered as covariate variables. As
observed in table 5, none of the demographic variables of pre-test, age, education and marital status was
significantly correlated to dependent variable. This finding indicates that social skills training could not
significantly increase the scores of pro-sociality.
The research purpose was to assess the effectiveness of social skills training in the increase of
social health and pro-sociality among women. Results indicated that, women who had received social
skills training had higher social health as compared to women who did not receive this training. This
finding is in line with the results of the research by Matson (2005), Bulkelerly and Cramer (2002), Jones
(2005) and Ginter (1992). It can be concluded that social skills help the individuals to know do the right
behaviors in different social conditions. Each social setting has its own behavioral systems. For example
individuals are able to honestly defend their right without violating others right by assertiveness skills. If
someone is not able to express his/her emotions and needs, lets others misuse him/her and impose their
feelings and emotions on him/her and this will lead to dissatisfaction in the long-run. In fact, the individual
learns how to communicate with others and benefit in the long run. Another skill which can be effective in
the increase of social health is interpersonal relationship. Desirable interpersonal relationship leads to
receiving the right reaction. Generally, it can be concluded that all the mentioned skills in this research
helps the individuals improve his/her interpersonal relationship that can exert significant effect on one’s
social health.
Moreover, women who receive social skills training do not score significantly higher on prosociality as compared to women who didn’t receive social skills training. it can be explained that the rate
of using social skills for the increase of pro-sociality largely depend on life-style, behavioral patterns, the
beliefs from childhood, individual’s attitudes toward social values and the subjects’ characteristics that are
all formed in the process of growth and in the long run. Short-term trainings can exert insignificant effect
in changing the deep rooted beliefs and long-term trainings are required for changing them.
Human learn how, where and when to do the appropriate activity that is in accordance with the
condition to reduce from the mental pressure of the daily life and guarantee its positive effects on social
health. Moreover, we can establish healthy interpersonal relationships using the social skills that can
enhance the social health and social pro-sociality in the long run.
Undoubtedly, having the required social skills and interpersonal relationships are of crucial
importance. Skills are assignments that are related to independent and successful performance of the
individual in adulthood. Nowadays, many individuals lack in the required abilities to confront with life’s
issues despite the cultural and life styles’ changes and this has made them vulnerable to confronting the
issues and problems of life. Therefore, acquiring the social skills is regarded to have crucial importance
as the techniques for confronting with constructive social challenges and interactions. Such skills enable
919
the individual to accept his/her social roles and confront effectively with his/her daily wants, needs,
expectations and problems in interpersonal relationships. Social skills have a wide range and their
definitions and nature change in accordance with conditions, cultures and societies. These skills require
having knowledge because the individual should know to demonstrate which skills in a specific situation
and make the proper decision (Collins and Collins, 1992).
Social unity is the prerequisite for the survival of each society and therefore, the society should
familiarize its members with social norms and values through pro-sociality and teach them the related
contents so that, they are able to live in accordance with the norms of the society in which they live. If the
process of socialization is unsuccessful and can’t instill the norms of the society in individuals, individual
do not regret breaking the laws and committing crimes. Social identification or adjustment is a basic
principle in the investigation of human’s social behaviors. In this identification, the human acquires the
social criteria and norms and internalize them to adjust and adapt more fully and therefore, the social
deviations are less. Therefore, if the mechanism is ruined, the society will be beset with different sorts of
pathology. Overall, the importance of social health is clear by knowing that individuals who are socially
healthy can cope with the challenges of social roles more successfully and probably can have more
participation in collective acts. Such conditions have principal role in the prevention of deviations that are
vaster than the realms of personal behaviors. The healthy society is only built by healthy individuals and
therefore, teaching social skills can help humans overcome their problems through such skills and
guarantee the health of the society by establishing harmonious social interactions
With regard to the findings of the current research, it’s proposed that all the counselors, teachers
and researchers devote special attention to implementing educational programs. It’s proposed that, this
research be carried out by different tools in other provinces for the comparison of the results. Maintaining
the individuals in the waiting list and the existing problems in gathering the subjects in specific time and
place for educational sessions were among the limitations of the present research.
References
Bajelan F, 2011. Normalization of the questionnaire of pro-social personality. MA thesis. Payam-e Nour
University.
Balazadeh R, 2009. The effectiveness of social skills training in general health and aggression of women.
MA thesis. Payam-e Nour University.
Khanifar H, Pour Hosseini M, 2007. Life skills. Tehran: Hajar Press.
Ajam Nezhad R, 2009. Investigation of the effective factors in the social health of teachers in Maragheh
city. MA thesis. Islamic Azad University. Tehran South Branch.
Farsi Nezhad M, 2004. Investigation of the identity styles, social health and academic self-efficacy of
students studying in the second grade of high schools located in Tehran. MA thesis. Tehran
University.
Ferom E, 207. Healthy society. Translated by A. Tabrizi. Tehran: Behjat Press.
(Kllinkeh) L 1994. Life skills. Translated by Sh. Mohammad Khani. Tehran: Espand Honar Press.
Mahmoud Alilou M, 2006. A guide into the life skills. Tehran: Monadi Tarbiat cultural institute.
Hargi O , Sanders C (2005). Social skills in interpersonal relationships. Translated by M. Firouz Bakht and
Kh. Beigi. Tehran: Roshd.
Bulkelerly R, Cramer D, 2002. Social skills Training with young adolescents: Group and individual
approaches in school setting.
Collins J, Collins M, 1992. Social skills training and mental health counseling. Journal of mental health
counseling.
Ginter E J, David K. 1999. Contribution to develop mentally based life skills approach. Journal of Mental
Health Counseling. 21(3):12-191.
Beverly H, crowly E, Guetzole E, 2005. The central role of teaching social skills with focus on exceptional
children.
920
Matson J L, Terlange C, Gunzalez M L, Rivet T, 2005. An evaluation of social and adaptive skills in adults
with bipolar disorder and sever profound intellectual disability.
Penner L A, 2002. Measuring the pro-social personality: Four construct validity studies. Paper presented
at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association. Toronto, Canada.
921
Relationship between parenting schemas and psychological security
of adolescents
Marziyeh Poursalehy Navideh*1, Maryam Khajouyi Niya 2, Zohreh Feiz Abadi 3
1-Ph.d student of general psychology, Al-Zahra University, Tehran, Iran
2-ph.d of clinical psychology, Bombay University, Bombay, India
3-MA of general psychology,Tehran University , Tehran , Iran
Abstract
Family is the first social unit in which the children and adolescents experience their
cognitive, social, emotional and mental developmental process and parenting styles
exert significant effect on the growth and development of personality of children and
adolescents. The research purpose is to investigate the relationship between parenting
schemas and psychological security of adolescents in Tehran city. The statistical
population included all the high school students of Tehran city, out of which a sample of
150 individuals (85 female students and 65 male students) was selected. Two scales of
Young parenting schemas and Mahabad-Maslow psychological security were used to
analyze the data and the results were analyzed using descriptive test and multivariate
regression analysis. Results indicated that pessimistic parenting schemas of parents in
the female group was negatively correlated to the psychological security of female
students. However, parenting schemas of attention seeking related to mothers was
significantly positively correlated to girls’ psychological security. Moreover, in the male
group, the parenting schemas of vulnerability to disease, self-sacrifice and emotional
inhibition related to mothers was significantly and positively related to boys’
psychological security. However, parenting schemas of attention seeking, deficiency,
pessimism, and punishment related to mothers were negatively related to boys’
psychological security. Moreover, the parenting schema of emotional inhibition related
to fathers was significantly and positively correlated to boys’ psychological security.
However, the parenting styles of attention seeking and deficiency about the father was
negatively correlated to boys’ psychological security. Overall, parenting styles schemas
exerted significant effect on the psychological security of adolescents and parents can
provide their children with mental health through adopting more adaptable strategies.
Keywords: schemas, parenting schemas, psychological security.
Introduction
Family is the first social unit in which the children and adolescents experience their cognitive,
social, emotional and mental developmental process and parenting styles exert significant effect on the
growth and development of personality of children and adolescents (Hazrati Leilan, 2010).Social and
cultural personality of children is formed by family, school, media and social environments. Basically,
content and form of mental and social personality and also the cultural identity of the youth is relatively
similar to the content and form of each of these sources. Such sources do not act similar to one another
and do not exert the same effects on the individuals of the society. In some of the individuals, family and
in other individuals, school and some others, the media might be of the greatest effect. However, as
research shows, mental and cultural personality is established before the age 6 and most people spend
this time in the family (Dadson, 1972). The psychologists have long stated that parent’s performance
produces significant effect on the formation of thoughts, behavior and emotions of children. Piaget (1954)
and Bolby (1969; cited in Gunty, 2008) argue that parent’s performance establishes and expands models
inside the cognitive structure of the individual that is called the schema.
Following the theories of mental vulnerability and with regard to the cognitive, gestalt,
structuralism and object relations’ perspective, Jeffrey Young put forward his theory of early maladaptive
schemas. He asserted that these schemas that are also called as reference framework or structure are
stable and constant structures that act as lenses and influence the individual’s perception from self and
others. These schemas are formed during childhood and acted as internal responses that control the
individual’s response to environmental phenomena (Young, 1998). Young (1990, 1999) hypothesize that
early maladaptive schemas are comprehensive and deep patterns and models that encompass the
memories, emotions, cognitions and physical feelings, have formed during childhood, continue throughout
life, are related to self and others and are self-destructive emotional and cognitive patterns that are
seriously deficient (Young, Klosko and Weishaar, 1998). According to Kardiner , the method of bringing
up the child lays the foundation for his/her personality (Klainberg, 1993).
Parenting refers to the dominating method in upbringing the children by parents and has
significant effect on the development and evolution of the children’s personality. From Islamic
perspective, the main responsibility of parenting is shouldered by father and mother. They should employ
the best methods for upbringing their children (Shokouhi Yekta Parand and Faghihi, 2006). The first
condition providing the mental health for children and adolescents is feelings of psychological security.
The first condition for providing the mental health of children or adolescents is providing their
psychological security. Education of children and adolescents should occur in a secure environment and
all the educational efforts and implications will be fruitless without feelings of peace and security.
Therefore, all the efforts of responsible parents should be based on this principle that the house is replete
with feelings of peace and security (Beh Pazhouh, 2008). Moreover, family is the principal setting in the
transference of behavioral norms (Winter, 2000). For example, if children experience harmonious
relationship with the society through their family, this issue may increase their tendency for turning into
active and committed citizens (Mark, 2006). Harllock Seeks for the roots of abnormality in the family
environment and familial structures and knows it as the product of bringing up, mechanism of
socialization in the family the quality of the personality growth in the child and in the family. Therefore,
with regard to what was mentioned, the present research aims to investigate the relationship between
parenting schemas and psychological security of adolescents.
The statistical population included all the high school students of Tehran city, out of which a
sample of 150 individuals (85 female students and 65 male students) was selected. Two scales of Young
parenting schemas and Mahabad-Maslow psychological security were used to analyze the data and the
results were analyzed using descriptive test and multivariate regression analysis.
Mahabad-Maslow psychological security questionnaire was used to assess feelings of mental
and psychological security and was inspired by the security-insecurity test of Amin Pour. The reliability
coefficient of this questionnaire using Cronbach alpha was reported to be .923. This questionnaire is used
to evaluate the characteristics of individuals who provokes feelings of security or insecurity and can be
used to identify individuals who have emotional and psychological insecurity.
923
Young Parenting Inventory (YPI: Young, 2003). The YPI is a 72-item measure of parenting styles.
This measure asks participants to look at statements and rate how well each statement describes their
mothers and fathers (separately) on a scale from 1 ‘completely untrue’ to 6 ‘describes him/her perfectly.’
Items are then summed and divided by the number of items to yield a scaled score. High scores (typically
scores of 6) suggest that parenting behaviors likely influenced the development of the corresponding
EMS. There are a total of 18 parenting styles that correspond with each of the 18 EMS (as measured in
the YSQ-SF). In accordance with the hypotheses of this study, only the Defectiveness and Insufficient
Self Control parenting scores were examined. Furthermore, only the data for the individual identified as a
primary caregiver data were used in calculating parenting styles. The YPI has demonstrated adequate
test-retest reliability (ranging from .53 to .86) and adequate internal consistency with Cronbach alphas
ranging from .53 to .89 (Sheffield, et al., 2006). Ahi (2005) has normalized this questionnaire in Iran. The
internal consistency using Cronbach’s alpha was equal to .97 for women and .98 for men.
The age range of the subjects was between 16 and 18 years old with mean of 16.4 and standard
deviation of 1.8. According to what is observed in table 1, the schemas of pessimism and seeking for
attention in mother can be a good predictor of girls’ psychological security. Each of these schemas
predicts the psychological security by 29% and 32%, respectively.
Table 1- regression analysis for the prediction of psychological security based on the parenting schemas
(related to mothers) in the female group
Source of change
B
SE
β
T
Level of sig.
pessimism
.629-
.284
.294-
2.218-
.30
Seeking for attention
.603-
.231
.322
2.611
.011
SE= standard error of regression coefficient
Β=standard regression coefficient of predictor variables
According to table 2, parenting schemas of vulnerability to harm and pathology, deficiency, selfsacrifice, pessimism, emotional inhibition, punishment and attention seeking in mother can be good
predictors of psychological security in male students. Each of the mentioned schemas predict the variable
of psychological security by 29%, 31%, 11%, 39%, 38% and 39%, respectively.
Table 2-regression analysis for the prediction of mental health based on parenting schemas (related to
mothers) in the male group
Source of change
Vulnerability to harm
SE
β
T
Level of sig.
.894
.411
.295
2.173
.0305
-1.045
.399
-.487
-2.616
.012
Self-sacrifice
.757
.322
.311
2.277
.028
pessimism
-.216
.295
-.112
-.730
.469
.690
.338
.398
2.041
.047
deficiency
924
B
punishment
-.736
.310
-.383
-2.375
.022
-.640
.253
-.386
-2.531
.015
As observed in table 3, the parenting schema of pessimism in fathers can predict the
psychological security in female individuals. This schema predicts 28% of the variance of psychological
security.
Table 3- regression analysis for the prediction of psychological security based on parenting schemas
(related to fathers) in the female group
Source of change
B
SE
β
T
Level of sig.
pessimism
.588-
.286
.285-
-2.060
.043
Based on the results of table 4, the parenting schemas of deficiency, emotional inhibition and
seeking the attention in fathers can be good predictor of psychological security among boys. Each of
these schemas predicts 51%, 39% and 38% of the variance of psychological security.
Table 4- regression analysis for the prediction of psychological security based on parenting schemas
(related to fathers) in the male group
Source of change
B
SE
β
T
Level of sig.
deficiency
1.078
.425
-.516
2.538-
.015
.716
.338
.398
2.115
.040
-.627
.286
.382-
-2.188
.034
The present research aimed to investigate the relationship between parenting styles and
psychological security of adolescents in Tehran.
The results of many studies indicate that there exists significant relationship between specific
parenting styles and behavioral problems of adolescents (Argys et al, 2005). As mentioned earlier,
individual’s mental health largely depends on the formation and evolution of psychological security. In this
research, we investigate the parenting schemas in the prediction of psychological security. Results
indicated that parenting schema of pessimism about mother and father is negatively correlated to girls’
psychological security. This finding indicates that in families that mother or father is pessimistic; the
psychological security is not adequately formed in girls. Pessimism also decreases the boys’
psychological security; however, it seems that this feature in mother has more effect on the decrease of
psychological security among the girls. No significant relationship was observed between father’s
pessimism and boy’s psychological security. But this finding requires further investigation.
Another finding of the research indicated that, the parenting schema of seeking for attention in
mothers was positively related to the girls’ psychological security; however, this aspect was negatively
correlated to boys’ psychological security. The existence of this schema in fathers was negatively
correlated to boy’s psychological security and showed to have no effect on girls’ psychological security.
For wants of a better word, it can be concluded that the schema of seeking for attention in mother was
predictor of higher psychological security in girls and lower psychological security in boys. However, this
schema related to fathers can decrease the psychological security of boys and exerts no effect on the
925
psychological security of girls. This finding indicates that the existence of same characteristics produces
different effects in girls and boys.
Other findings of the research indicated that, two of the parenting schemas (pessimism and
seeking for attention) were significantly correlated to the psychological security of girls; however, more
schemas were related to the psychological security of boys. Parenting schemas of seeking for attention,
deficiency, pessimism and punishment in mothers and parenting schemas of seeking for attention, and
deficiency in fathers showed to have negative relationship with the psychological security of boys. These
findings indicated that the existence of the referred feature in parents can be a predictor of decrease in
the psychological security of boys.
Furthermore, parenting schemas of vulnerability to harm, self-sacrifice and emotional inhibition in
mothers and parenting schemas of emotional inhibition in fathers were positively correlated to boys’
psychological security. In the explanation of the positive relationship between emotional inhibition, selfsacrifice and psychological security of boys, it can be said that, some of the cultural beliefs in our society
value the inhibition and control of the emotions. On the other hand, better environment is provided for
children in families that parent avoid the expression of negative emotions (such as aggression and
grudge) and play the role of scapegoat. Parents should employ more adaptive methods for the
expression of their emotions for providing the mental health of themselves and their children.
Other studies have been carried out on the influence of the family on some of the psychological
components of adolescents such as aggression, depression, delinquency, shyness, drug abused,
educational problems, relational problems and psychological security. For example, Parker and Benson
(2004) observed that parents’ support causes more attachment between them and their children and
prevents delinquent behavior, inappropriate performance at school and drug abuse. Moreover, there
exists positive relationship between parents’ expectation and girls’ shyness and negative relationship
between kind parenting styles of parents, independence in personal matter and girls’ shyness (Azadi,
2003).
Write et al (2009) indicated that parenting style has influence on the formation of schemas and
these schemas are contributory factors of later psychopathology in individuals. In an investigation of the
parenting styles and externalized symptoms, it got clear that aggressive behaviors and delinquency are
significantly and positively correlated to permissive parenting style and negatively correlated to
authoritative parenting style (Seyyed Mousavi, Nadali and Ghanbari, 2008). In another research,
authoritative parenting style predicted positive perfectionism and authoritarian parenting style predicted
negative perfectionism (Hossein Ghaffari and Ghanbari Hashem Abadi, 2008).
Gunty (2008) in an investigation of the effect of parents’ performance in three components of
kindness, authority and control and the formation of maladaptive schemas assert that parents’
performance is significant predictor of some of the realms of schemas (cutting the relationship/ rejection
and performance/ maladaptive self-regulation. Tianbaranf (2007) in their research concluded that parent’s
maladaptive interactions are strong predictors of early maladaptive schemas and children’s less
interactions in future interpersonal relationship. Harris and Curtin (2002), investigated the relationship
between the perceptions of parental styles, early maladaptive schemas and symptoms of depression in
young adults and concluded that Young’s schemas have mediating role in the relationship between
parental styles (components of kindness, control and authority) and symptoms of depression. The
schemas of deficiency, shyness, inadequate self-control, vulnerability, dependence and inadequacy had
the highest variance among the schemas.
In an investigation of the relationship between adolescents’ perception from the family’s
performance and psychological security, significant relationship was found between the adolescents’’
perception (general perception, problem solving in the family, roles’ relationship, emotional
companionship, emotional attachment and behavior control) and psychological security (Rajayi, Teimouri
and Saghi, 2008). The results of the present research are in line with the role of family in the prediction of
some of the behavioral and psychological components.
926
It seems that, more investigation is needed on the schemas that showed significant relationship
with children’s psychological security. Such characteristics are not adaptive features and their existence
in fathers and mothers show the lack of efficient relationship skills in them and this issue that how these
adaptive schemas have resulted in the increase of children’s psychological security needs further
investigation.
References
Argys L M, et al. 2005. Birth order and risky adolescent behavior. Economic Inquiry. 44: 215-233.
Azadi Sh, 2003. The relationship between parents’ parenting styles and girls’ shyness. MA thesis. AlZahra University.
Beh Pazhouh A, 2008. The principle of psychological security. The Journal of Shir-e Madar. 24
Dodson F, 1972. Tout se joue avant six ans. Paris: Robert Lafon.
Gunty B, 2008. Parental practices and the development of maladaptive schemas online submission,
Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association (Chicago,
IL, May 2008). 33 pp.
Harris and Curtin, 2002. Parental perception, early maladaptive schemas and depressive symptoms in
young adult. Cognitive Therapy and Research. 26(3): 405-416
Hazrati Leilan A, 2010. The relationship between parenting styles and students’ exam anxiety. First
national congress on the effective social factors of health.
Hosseini Ghaffari F, Ali Ghanbari Hashem Abadi B, 2008. Relationship between parenting styles
perfectionism (positive and negative) among the students of Ferdowsi University. third national
congress on family pathology. Shahid Beheshti University.
Mark N P, 2002. Cultural transmission, disproportionate prior exposure, and the elution of cooperation.
American Sociological Review. 67: 323-344.
Parker J, Benson M, 2004. Parent Adolescent relations and adolescent functioning. Rosly Heights, Fall.
39: 519-531.
Rajayi A, Teimouri S, Safhi M H, 2008. Relationship between adolescents’ perception form the family’s
performance and psychological security. Congress of psychology and its application in the
society. Marvdasht Islamic Azad University.
Seyyed Mousavi P A, Nadali H, Ghanbari S, 2008. Research in Family. 13
Shahamat F, Sabeti A, Rezvani S, 2010. Investigation of the relationship between parenting styles and
early maladaptive schemas. Journal of Studies Education and Psychology. 11
Shokouhi Yekta M, Parand A, Faghihi A N, 2006. Journal of Islamic Upbringing. 3
Kainberg , O , Social psychology. Second volume. Translated by A. M. Kardan. Tehran: Andisheh.
Winter I, 2000. Social capital and public policy in Australia. Australian Institute of Family Studies.
Melbourne.
Wright et al. 2009) Childhood emotional maltreatment and later psychological distress among college
student: The mediating role of maladaptive schemas. Child Abuse & Neglect: The International
Journal. 33(1): 59-68.
Young J E, Klosko J S, Weishaar M E, 2003. Schema Therapy: A practitioner`s guide. A division of
Guilford publication, Inc.
927
The relationship between locus of control, self-esteem and sexual
satisfaction
Askari Asghari Ganji*1, Shokouh Navabinezhad2, Kamo Vardanyan3
1- Ph.D. Of Psychology, Faculty Member of Farhangian University, Babol, Iran
2- Professor, Department of Psychology, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran
3- Professor, Department of Psychology, Faculty Member, Education University, Yerevan
Armenia
The research purpose is to examine the relationship between self-esteem, locus of
control and sexual satisfaction. The method of this research is descriptive-correlational
and the tatistical population includes the married students of education university of
Babol, out of which a sample of 100 couples who was selected by multi-step clustered
sampling method. Research tools included Rosenberg Self Esteem Questionnaire,
Sexual Satisfaction Golombok-Rust (GRISS) Questionnaire and Rotter’s Locus of Control
Inventory. For data analysis, correlation and independent hierarchical multiple
regression analyses were used to determine the relationships between the predictor
variables and criterion variable. Results of this study indicated that, there is a significant
relationship between locus of control, self-esteem and sexual satisfaction. Another
finding of the current study indicated the significant relationship between sexual
satisfaction and self-esteem. The research of the research also indicated that, subjects
who have internal locus of control report higher self–esteem.
Keywords: Self-esteem, locus of control, sexual satisfaction
Introduction
Human beings are special with their tendency to have sex without aiming reproduction and
regard sex as a tool to communicate and express both positive and negative emotions such as love,
intimacy, anger and aggression (Barash & Lipton, 2002). Additionally, sexuality is a basic need for
closeness in human relationships that comes through a process that involves physical, psychological,
social and environmental aspects and involves the choices that one makes regarding relationships with
self and with others (Johnson, 2001, p.20). From this point of view, it is clear that sexuality in human has
different meanings and aims apart from reproduction.
All humans have sexual expressions in their development and lives. Moreover, sex has existed
in all cultures and also in all the eras throughout the history. However, experience of sexuality is private
and personal and all the individuals have unique thoughts and feelings about sexuality (Masters,
Johnson, & Kolodny, 1995). Individuals differ from each other in their experiences of sexuality. Every
person experiences sexuality in a personal and private way in which they have unique beliefs, feelings,
thoughts and attitudes (Masters, et al., 1995). On the other hand, sexuality is an individual matter in
essence that concerns both of the sexual partners who engage in the sexual activity together. Since
marriage is regarded as a sexual union (Lantz & Snyder, 1969) sexuality is regarded as one of the most
important elements in a marital relationship (Masters et al., 1995).
Despite personal and relational importance of sexuality, very few people are totally satisfied with
their sexuality (Barash & Lipton, 2002) which indicates that there is a strong need to understand sexual
satisfaction. Sexual satisfaction is defined as an effective response arising from one’s subjective
evaluation of the positive and negative dimensions associated with one’s sexual relationship (Lawrence &
Byers, 1995; cited in Timm, 1999, p.17).
Ackerman (1995) states that, sexuality is a very complex phenomenon and researchers have
recently paid attention to the cognitive-related and socio-cultural determinants of sexual problems.
However, sexuality research has not provided an integral and complete information which can help a
better understanding of sexual satisfaction and sexual dissatisfaction. On the other hand, there are many
questions that remain to be answered which points to the role of psychology in resolving sexual problems.
It is stated that, sexual relationships are affected by both individual and relationship factors (Berg-Cross,
2001). Since sexuality has a multidimensional nature (Masters, et al., 1995) and sexual problems are
generally multifactor (Crowe, 1995) it is useful to examine the entire individual, relationship orientations
and bio-socio- cultural factors that affect the sexual satisfaction.
According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) normal sexual
function includes desire, arousal, orgasm and resolution phases (American Psychiatric Association,
1994). Sexual dysfunction is manifested by the absence or dissatisfaction of one or more of these phases
(Kohn & Kaplan, 2000). On the other hand, some researchers (Samelson & Hannon, 1999) suggest
“satisfaction” as an additional phase of normal sexual functioning and claim that satisfaction does not
depend on orgasm but also an overall evaluation of how satisfying the sexual experience is.
Current literature indicates that sexual satisfaction can be affected by several factors, one of
which is gender. It is stated that, women and men 4 experience sexuality differently and they have
different sexual needs, expectations, and feelings (Barash & Lipton, 2002). However, the difference
between the sexual satisfaction of men and women are not consistently found. Some studies indicate that
women have greater sexual satisfaction (Renaud & Byers, 1997) however some report the opposite
(Kabakçı & Daş, 2002). Moreover, some researchers (Timm, 1999) found no gender difference in sexual
satisfaction. Studies also indicated that, sexual satisfaction is negatively related to age (Çetin, 1995),
lower education level (Meadow, 1982), and length of marriage (Colebrook Seymour, III, 1998), and
positively related to sexual intercourse frequency and orgasm frequency (Meadow, 1982). Examining the
association between these variables and sexual satisfaction might contribute to the existing literature.
The effects of age and different life periods on sexual satisfaction are also investigated in the
sexuality research. Masters, et al. (1995) states that, psychological need for intimacy; excitement and
pleasure do not have to diminish as the person gets older. In contrast, most people, especially women,
discover their sexuality in mid-adulthood. Means (2000) states that, women between the ages of 35 and
45 are the most sexually responsive group. Researcher points out the decrease in the intensity and
duration of the sexual response as a result of aging, especially by the effects of menopause. She also
states that, menopause is regarded by many women as the loss of femininity; however, some women
regard it as an opportunity to make sex without the fear of being pregnant. On the other hand, Çetin
(1995) points a negative association between the age and sexual satisfaction in men. Timm (1999)
emphasizes that, the focus on sexual performance of younger couples diminishes by leaving its place to
more sensual activities when the couple become older.
Literature also indicates a significant relationship between physical and psychological health and
sexuality. Psychological factors such as depression, stress and anxiety (Crowe, 1995; Hawton, 1985) and
physical factors such as, hormonal abnormalities, Parkinson’s disease, spinal cord injury, multiple
sclerosis, and thyroid disease (Crowe, 1995; Kohn & Kaplan, 2000) are reported as having negative
effects on sexuality.
In addition to the effects of health on sexuality, higher level of education is found to be correlated
with orgasm frequency and sexual satisfaction (Çetin, 1995; Meadow, 1982). Additionally, in another
study (Kimes, 2001), participants reported that, being sexually experienced, sexually driven and sexually
active are positively related to emotional and physical sexual satisfaction.
The level of sexual satisfaction or the sexual problems of the individuals don’t affect negatively
the individual. Moreover, sexual dissatisfaction or sexual problems may be originated from both individual
929
and relational resources. The sexual relationship of the couple can be seen as a kind of microcosm of the
general relationship (Crowe, 1995).
According to Dziegielewski & Resnick (1998), relationship nature and relational problems may
affect the sexual satisfaction of the couples. Similarly, emphasizing the effects of relationship factors on
sexual satisfaction, Hawton (1985) claimed that, general relationship discord, dislike, loss of affection, or
resentment between partners may negatively affect the sexual relationship. Additionally, hostility, anger,
distrust, distress, difficulty in talking about sex and few months after childbirth are regarded as the
negative contributors of sexual life (Crowe, 1995). In addition, Colebrook Seymour, III (1998) found that,
length of marriage and the number of children negatively related with sexual satisfaction.
In the study of Kimes (2001), many participants emphasized the closeness in the relationship as
the most rewarding and exciting element of their sex lives. However, women tended to mention closeness
and men tended to mention physical pleasure more, when compared to each other. Women needed a
21orgasm to get emotional satisfaction; however, men needed it to experience physical satisfaction in
addition to emotional satisfaction. Most of the respondents in the study emphasized the relationship with
the partner as the reason for sexual satisfaction.
Agreement between partner’s sexual preferences and understanding the other’s sexuality were
also found to be significantly related to sexual adjustment; since it makes sexual interactions mutually
acceptable and desirable. It is concluded that understanding allows one to know how to satisfy the
partner (Purnine& Carey, 1997). Additionally, frequency of sex and frequency of self/spouse orgasm are
found to be related with sexual satisfaction, especially for women (Meadow, 1982).
Sexual communication is also reported as an important element in a couples’ sexual relationship
(Berg-Cross, 2001) more importantly in long-term relationships (Means, 2000) and especially for women
(Means, 2000).Masters, et al. (1995) states that communication between partners on sex enhance sexual
pleasure and protect them from being physically or psychological uncomfortable. Communication also
provides the opportunity of understanding other partner without “mind-reading”. Trying to guess the
partner’s needs, thoughts and feelings may cause misconceptions. Additionally, sexual communication
problems are the reason of unexpressed sexual problems (Hawton, 1985).
Beside the role of communication, the role of intimacy and commitment are investigated in terms
of sexual satisfaction. In the study of Means (2000) married women without children has the highest level
of intimacy, commitment and passion in their relationships and they reported the highest level of sexual
satisfaction when compared to their counterparts. Married women with children reported the lowest
frequency and the lowest preferred frequency of sexual intercourse in their relationship. Researchers
interpreted this result by indicating the focus on the mother role than the spouse role, their unmet
expectations of their partners as fathers, or their increased housework. Single women without children
and single women with children groups in the study also reported dissatisfaction with their sexual life.
They reported significantly lower levels of intimacy and commitment in their relationships when compared
to the married groups. As a general result of the study, commitment and especially emotional intimacy
were strongest predictors of sexual satisfaction. Society and social values have profound effects on
individual’s sexuality (Baumeister & Twenge, 2002). Although sex is a natural human function, it is also a
learned behavior which is shaped by cultural expectations (Bird & Melville, 1994).
Feminist theorists claim that, although the population of women and men are near, women are
regarded as if they are a minority group and their sexuality has been used as a tool of oppression against
them. They claim that, social values have not permitted the women to express their sexuality freely
(Socher, 1999). They also claim that, women have always been confused since they have not decided
whether they are “good girls” or “bad girls” (Rosenthal, 1998).
It is suggested that, both women and men suffere from the social constructions of sexuality.
Women have felt that their expression of sexual feelings and even their enjoyment in sex is forbidden. On
the other hand, men have always suffered from having sex with partners who don’t seem to be enjoying
sex (Baumeister&Twenge, 2002). In addition, Masters, et al. (1995) concluded that, socio-cultural
opinions such as “Men are more interested in sex”, and “Men can more easily get aroused” lead men to
have greater performance anxiety and it also leads women to sacrifice their satisfaction to please their
930
partners. As a general view, social values seem to be suppressing female sexuality while they are
inflating the males’. Johnson (2001) claims that, society gives the opportunity to men to engage in premarital and extra-marital sex, while it simultaneously discourages women from such activity. The
inconsistent messages given to the females by the society are also criticized. It is claimed that, the
society demands women to provide sex, while it disapprove their sexual activity, in other words, “Women
are supposed to be a lady in the living room and a slut in bed” (Socher, 1999, p.9).
In addition to the sex and marriage, people have always been interested in the causality. History
reflects stories and myths on events which are controlled by gods, fate, and people’s own behaviors
(Rotter, 1990). Similarly, psychology is also interested in the causality. There is a growing interest in
people’s causal explanations and expectations on future events in recent decades (Madden & JanoffBulman, 1981; Shapiro, Schwartz, & Astin, 1996).
Literature indicates that locus of control is relevant with gender (Lachman & Weaver, 1998) and
education level (Nurmi, Pulliainen, & Salmela-Aro, 1992). That is, being a male and having higher levels
of education were found to be positively related to internal locus of control. Additionally, internal locus of
control is found to be related to more satisfactory interpersonal relationships (Crandall & Crandall, 1983;
cited in Carton &Nowicki Jr., 1994). However, the role of locus of control construct in interpersonal
relationships, especially sexual and marital relationships have not been very popular. Whereas, holding a
belief that personal efforts would be effective for one’s own satisfaction might be important when
considering one’s marital and sexual satisfaction (Lefcourt, 1976). In fact, even few studies conducted on
the association between the interpersonal relationships and locus of control clearly demonstrates the
importance of considering such an association between these variables.
According to Ross (1991) although marriage has a powerful effect on the sense of control, the
relationship between marriage and sense of control is widely ignored. However, marriage may increase
the sense of control by providing greater social and economic resources as well as social support and
decrease it by limiting autonomy, freedom and independence.
In addition, in view of Glasser & Glasser (1998), the secret of decrease in sexual relationship is
due to the application of external locus of control by one couple or both couples against his/ her spouse.
No factor destroys sexual relationship faster and more crucial than seven destructive factors of external
control (Criticism, blame, complaint, grumbling, threat, punishment and bribe). In their view, couples who
have decrease of sexual relationship and sexual satisfaction have external control.
Madden & Janoff-Bulman (1981) claimed that, blaming the spouse for marital problems is
associated with low perceived control which may result in poor coping and indirectly, marital
dissatisfaction. On the other hand, if a spouse blames him/herself for a negative event, s/he may believe
that he can control such similar situations next time. After their study on married women, Madden &
Janoff-Bulman (1981) reported that the most satisfied wives were those who don’t blame their husbands
and who feel they have control over the negative marital events. However, wives who are blaming their
husbands regard the marital problems as relatively irresolvable and the marriage as unsatisfying.
Moreover, it is claimed that, not assuming responsibility for one’s own problems and discomforts, and
blaming the other spouse for the tensions and unhappiness in marriage generally result in marital conflict
and prevents a meaningful marital relationship (Berg-Cross, 2001; Lantz & Snyder, 1969). Berg-Cross
(2001) claims that instead of seeing oneself as a victim of the environment or others, one must see
him/herself as the one who is capable of making the situations better It is also reported that, the most
satisfactory and less conflict marriages occur among spouses who feel they have control over marital
events (Myers, 1999). Moreover, it is concluded that, internal locus of control is generally found to
facilitate better interpersonal relationships (Crandall & Crandall, 1983; cited in Carton & Nowicki Jr.,
1994). On the contrary, external locus of control was found to be related to higher frequency of negative
tactics to resolve conflict, being less committed to the relationship, lower levels of marital satisfaction and
higher levels of verbal aggression, physical violence, and angry response style (Scanzoni & Amett, 1987;
Winkler & Doherthy, 1983) (cited in Myers, 1999). Furthermore, it is concluded that, for spouses with
greater sense of control, it is less likely to expect their marriage would end in separation (Lachman &
Weaver, 1998).
931
Literature also shows a positive relationship between high self-esteem and internal locus of
control (Fish & Karabenick, 1971; Sathyavati & Anthony, 1984) (cited in Bednar & Peterson, 1995). Selfesteem was also found to be related with gender Josephs, Markus, & Tafarodi (1992) claim that, selfesteem is open to cultural constructions and gender-appropriate norms. Thus, women and men may
develop different types of self-concepts. They suggest that, for women, being interconnected with other
people (especially valued and important others) and relations with them are crucial elements of the self;
whereas, men are more likely to value individuation, independence or autonomy. On the other hand,
gender differences in self-esteem are not consistently found (Maccoby & Jacklin, 1974; cited in Voss,
Markiewicz, & Doyle, 1999) and data which is indicating that one gender has greater self-esteem or there
is no gender difference on self-esteem exists (Voss, et al., 1999).
Based on the literature, it can be said that, the causal attributions or control senses of the
individuals may affect the sexual or marital satisfaction. If one’s sense of control is high, in other words, if
s/he has an internal locus of control, it can be expected that s/he can shoulder the responsibility of his/her
life and try to change the conditions to make him/herself more satisfied with his/her marital and sexual
relationship.
The method of study is descriptive-correlational. Statistical population includes the married
students of education university of Babol. Research sample includes 100 couples who were selected by
multi-stage cluster sampling method. Sample volume was selected based on Cochran formula and 200
participants were selected using multi-stage cluster sampling method.
For the assessment of locus of control, Rotter’s locus of control scale was used. Different studies
have reported the validity of this scale between percent70 to %81. Also, for assessment of the level of
perceived sexual satisfaction was measured by Golombok-Rust Sexual Satisfaction Inventory (GRISS).
GRISS is a 28 item Likert-type self-report scale which is developed by Rust & Golombok (Tuğrul1993;
Wolsky, 1998) in order to assess the quality of sexual relationship and sexual functioning of both
individuals and couples.
Reliability and validity studies of the scale were carried out by Tuğrul et al. (1993) on 243
subjects. The sample consisted of both clinical subjects (73 women and 66 men) who were diagnosed
with a sexual dysfunction and non-clinical subjects (53 women and 51 men) were randomly selected.
Also, the level of self-esteem is measured by Rosenberg’s Scale of Self-Esteem (see Appendix
D). Verbal permission was received for using all the scales. The original scale was reported as a reliable
measure with high test-retest reliability (.82) (Fleming & Courtney, 1984) and the Cronbach’s alpha of .82
was reported for the scale (Waux, 1988). Additionally, validity of the scale was reported to be .75 (Kahle,
1976). Reliability and validity of the scale were also proved in different studies (Fincham & Bradbury,
1993).
In the current study, a sample of 200 married persons was studied. Statistical analysis of data by
testing two hypotheses of the research at confidence level of 95 percent led to the following results.
Table 1- Correlation matrix for the variables in the first regression analysis
932
Variables
Sexual satisfaction
Locus of control
Sexual satisfaction
1.00
Locus of control
.22
1.00
Self-esteem
.19
.28**
Self-esteem
1.00
**p< .01
As can be seen in Table 1, significant correlations were obtained between marital satisfaction
and self-esteem (r = -.19, p< .01) which means that sexual satisfaction increased when self-esteem
increased (note that higher scores on the Rosenberg’s Scale of Self-Esteem indicate lower self-esteem).
In addition, subjects reported more sexual satisfaction when they reported internal locus of control (r = .22, p< .01). Moreover, locus of control and self-esteem were significantly correlated to each other (r =
.28, p< .01) meaning that subjects with external control orientation reported lower levels of self-esteem.
2. Predictors of Sexual Satisfaction
Prediction of sexual satisfaction: Locus of control and self-esteems predictor variables
Table 2- Hierarchical multiple regression results: predicting sexual satisfaction from self-esteem and locus
of control
Step
Variable
R2
R2 change
F change
1
Locus of
control
.063
.035
7.39**
2
Self-esteem
.028
.028
5.63
*p< .05 ** p< .01 *** p< .001
At the first step of the hierarchical multiple regression analysis, locus of control entered to
examine whether locus of control predicts sexual satisfaction. It is found that, beyond the contribution of
self-esteem, locus of control significantly predicted the sexual satisfaction with R² change= .04, F change
(1,197) = 7.39, p< .01. Furthermore, locus of control accounted for 4% of the variance in sexual
satisfaction, meaning that variance in sexual satisfaction was accounted for, partly, subject’s locus of
control orientation.
At step two, the hierarchical multiple regression analysis, self-esteem entered the equation. At
this step, self-esteem significantly predicted the criterion variable (sexual satisfaction) with R² = .03, F
change (1,198) = 5.63, p< .05. Additionally, self-esteem accounted for 3% of the variance in sexual
satisfaction, suggesting that scores on sexual satisfaction were accounted for, in part, subject’s level of
self-esteem.
In this research, the relationship between locus of control and self-esteem with sexual
satisfaction of couples was examined. Results of this study indicated that, there is a significant
relationship between locus of control, self-esteem and sexual satisfaction. It means that higher levels of
internal locus of control is significantly related to sexual satisfaction and contributes to the prediction of
this variable. Subjects reported higher sexual satisfaction when they report internal locus of control
orientation. Lachman & Weaver (1998) concluded that, spouses with greater sense of control are more
likely to engage in more sexual relations and on the relevant literature, it is not surprising. This finding is
reported by several researchers that, the greater the internal locus of control, the higher the relationship
and sexual satisfaction (Bugaighis, Schumm, Bollman & Jurich, 1983; Doherty, 1981; Lachman &
Weaver, 1998; Myers, 1999; Ross, 1991) and this finding is in line with the results of the current study.
According to Ross (1991), marriage has a powerful effect on the sense of control and may
increase the sense of control by increasing social support, as well as social and economic resources. On
the other hand, marriage may decrease the sense of control by decreasing autonomy, freedom and
independence. Madden & Janoff-Bulman (1981) reported that, wives who feel that, they have control over
the negative marital events experience greater marital satisfaction. Similarly, Doherthy (1981) argues
that, they may try more to achieve success in their marriages because they experience more personal
933
control on marital events. They are also more likely to behave in a positive and active way to make their
marriage happier. In contrast, externals exhibit a passive stance toward their marriage which may be the
result of their belief in personal ineffectiveness. Studying the effects of marital locus of control on marital
quality, Myers (1999) found that, more satisfactory and less conflicting marriages occur among the
spouses who feel they have control over marital events.
Spouses with lower levels of marital locus of control reported more marital strains and poorer
marital quality. Similarly, Crandall and Crandall (1983; cited in Carton & Nowicki Jr., 1994) concluded
that, internal locus of control is generally found to facilitate better interpersonal relationships and higher
self-esteem. On the contrary, in terms of marital quality, external locus of control was found to be related
to higher frequency of negative tactics to resolve conflict, being less committed to the relationship, lower
levels of marital satisfaction and higher levels of verbal aggression, physical violence, and angry
response style (Scanzoni & Amett, 1987; Winkler & Doherthy, 1983) (cited in Myers, 1999). It is also
reported by some studies (Hünler & Gençöz, 2003) that, when a spouse regards the marital problems as
“unsolvable” his/her level of marital satisfaction is likely to decrease. Similarly, it is also stated that
blaming other spouse and not taking the responsibility for marital problems is harmful for the marriage,
since marital problems are interactional (Berg-Cross, 2001).
The association of locus of control with both sexual and marital satisfaction may be best
understood from the Marks’ (1998) point of view. Marks (1998) defines the locus of control construct as a
learning process and claims that people with internal locus of control can easily change their behaviors
since they believe that they can control the reinforcements. From this perspective, it is reasonable that
internals experience more satisfactory relationships. They are likely to change their behaviors to reach
the desired outcomes since they believe that personal efforts can be effective for their sexual and marital
satisfaction.
The current study also indicates a relationship between sexual satisfaction and self-esteem. In
other words, subjects who exhibit higher levels of self-esteem also exhibit greater sexual satisfaction.
Subjects in this study reported greater sexual satisfaction and higher self-esteem. Self-esteem also
significantly predicted the sexual satisfaction. This finding was consistent with previous research which
has suggested that self-esteem is positively correlated with sexual satisfaction (Munnariz, Berman,
Goldstein & Jefferson, 2000; Rosenthal, 1998). Similarly, in the past studies it is reported that
dissatisfaction with self–image negatively effects the sexual satisfaction (Hawton, 1985; Warren, 2000).
Furthermore, it is reported that self-esteem of men is more vulnerable to be affected negatively because
of their inadequate sexual performance (Stimson, et al., 1980). According to Kayır, Yüksel, &Tükel (1987)
in the sex therapy process, men show the tendency to be negatively affected by the sexual problems for
which they are responsible such as erectile dysfunction. As a result, their self-esteem is more vulnerable
to decrease in a case of experiencing sexual problems. Thus, it can be said that men’s self-esteem is
more closely related to their sexual performance, when compared to women’s.
The present research also found that, subjects report higher self–esteem when they report
internal locus of control. The reason for this finding may be that, when a person believes that s/he can
control the outcomes, s/he is more likely to feel her/himself to be more valuable. Similar findings exist in
the current literature. For instance, it is reported that locus of control and self-esteem are relevant to each
other and holding internal control beliefs might positively affect self-esteem (Lefcourt, 1976). It is also
suggested that, self-esteem and locus of control are strongly related and these constructs may be the
markers of the same higher order concept (Judge, et al., 2002). Similarly, Crandall and Crandall (1983;
cited in Carton & Nowicki, 1994) concluded that, internal locus of control is generally found to facilitate
higher self-esteem.
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935
The relationship between locus of control, marital satisfaction and
sexual satisfaction
Askari Asghari Ganji*1, Shokouh Navabi Nezhad2, Kamo Vardanyan3
1- PhD of Psychology, faculty member of Farhangian University, Babol, Iran
2- Professor, Department of Psychology, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran
3- Professor, Department of Psychology, Faculty Member, Education University, Yerevan, Armenia
Abstract
The goal of the present research is to examine the relationship between locus of control,
marital satisfaction and sexual satisfaction. The method of this research is descriptive –
correlational. Statistical population includes the married students of Islamic Azad
University of Sari, out of which a sample of 62 couples was selected by multi-step cluster
sampling method. Research tools include locus of control (Rotter) marital satisfaction
(Enrich) and sexual satisfaction (Golombok-Rust GRISS). Data were analyzed using the
methods of descriptive statistics and deductive statistics. Findings showed that there is
a significant relationship between internal locus of control, marital satisfaction and
sexual satisfaction. Moreover, results showed that there is no significant difference
between the gender and the type of locus of control, gender, level of marital satisfaction
and sexual satisfaction.
Keywords: Locus of control, marital satisfaction, sexual satisfaction.
Introduction
Today, most couples agree that, two main goals in the marriage are having satisfactory sexual
relationship and mental agreement with the spouse. Although most individuals emphasize more on
having sexual relationship, satisfactory sexual relationship and mental agreement are considered as two
inseparable components in a successful marriage (Ellis and Harper, 1995, page 45).
By starting the marriage and creating marital relationship, sexual satisfaction and marital
satisfaction change into important variables in association with the marriage quality. Sexual satisfaction
and marital satisfaction are regarded as two of the most important factors in affectionate stability of
couples (Fisher & Nulty, 2008). Sexual relationship plays a fundamental role in intimate relationships that
resulted from the marriage and shared life (Crowe & Read Lee, 2000). Glasser and Glasser (2007)
believe that sexual relationship is a way by which the couples can really develop feelings of intimacy,
sincerity and connection. Although all couples experience some kind of sexuality, very few seem totally
satisfied with their sexuality (Barash& Lipton, 2002). Many sexual problems have multiple origins which
can be organic (such as spinal injuries, strokes and menopause) psychological (such as stress,
depression and anxiety) or relationship related (such as distrust and lack of communication) (Crowe,
1995).
Sexual satisfaction is defined as “an effective response arising from one’s subjective evaluation
of the positive and negative dimensions associated with one’s sexual relationship” (Lawrence & Byers,
1995; cited in Timm, 1999, p.17). Sexual satisfaction might be classified on a continuum with two ends
which are being ‘totally satisfied’ and ‘totally unsatisfied’ with sexuality. From this point of view, sexual
problems and sexual dysfunctions take place near the ‘totally dissatisfied’ end. According to Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) normal sexual function includes desire, arousal,
orgasm and resolution phases (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). Sexual dysfunction is
manifested by the absence or dissatisfaction of one or more of these phases (Kohn & Kaplan, 2000).
The reason why people get married may be better understood in the concept of the need to
belong. Baumeister & Leary (1995) suggests that need to belong is a very powerful motive which leads
people to have social attachments and to form and maintain enduring interpersonal relationships. Having
a long-term intimate relationship generally produces positive emotions. However, losing attachments
generally results in pain and disappointment even if there is no plausible reason to maintain them.
Furthermore, even if maintaining the relationship is too costly, people resist losing that attachment. On
the other hand, the need of belongingness can just be meeting in pleasant or satisfactory relationships.
Baumeister & Leary (1995) also claim that, belongingness positively affects the health and well-being.
Physical and psychological problems are commonly seen in the case of unsatisfied need of
belongingness.
Literature indicates several variables related to marital satisfaction. Dökmen & Tokgöz (2002)
found that there is a positive relationship between marital satisfaction and education level. That is,
subjects with university degree reported higher marital satisfaction when they compared to their
counterparts with high-school degree. Additionally, in terms of the relationship between marital
satisfaction and gender, inconsistent results were reported. Although some studies reported that
husbands have greater marital satisfaction than wives (Gökmen, 2001) some reported no gender
difference in marital satisfaction (Dökmen & Tokgöz, 2002). In the light of these findings, it may be
concluded that predicting the factors which affects the marital satisfaction is necessary. However, current
research on this subject is not satisfactory to predict which married couples stay together and which
separate or divorce (Gottman, 1993). Questions such as “What differentiates a happy marriage from an
unhappy one?” and “What qualities that martially satisfied couples have but others do not?” are still
remains unanswered.
The association between marriage and sexuality also takes place in the current literature.
Sexuality is regarded as one of the most important elements in a marital relationship (Masters, et al.,
1995). Crowe (1995) suggests that, sexual relationship of the couple can be seen as a kind of microcosm
of the general relationship. If general relationship is not satisfactory, sexual relations between partners
are affected negatively. In the same way, Southern (1999) claims that, current technological
improvements give different opportunities, such as lexicalizations, for everyone to have a satisfying
sexual life. However, these opportunities do not assure a satisfying interpersonal relationship.
Some researchers claim that, sexual problems must be treated in the relationship in which the
problems are experienced (Crowe, 1995) since sexual problems usually occur in discordant relationships
(Hawton, 1985). Some regard marital satisfaction as the result of general satisfaction with the shared life,
satisfaction with marital relationships and affectionate and exciting satisfaction (Shackel Ford, 2001,
page27). Satisfactory marital relationship is the mandatory component of long- term marital life. The
frequency or the length of this relationship is not important, but it is important that the parties have
satisfactory courtship. In an unsuccessful and unhappy marriage, it is possible marital relationship still
exists but it is not satisfactory for both of them or the other partner (Glasser & Glasser, 2007, page111).
Hunt (1974) believes there is a relationship between general marital happiness and sexual satisfaction.
Happy couples are more satisfied with their sexual life compared to unhappy wives and husbands and
they have more sexual relationship. Also, other studies in respect of sexual relationship show that sexual
satisfaction is highly related to marital satisfaction (Baron, 2006).
Also, the results of Morokoff and Gillillands investigations (1993) showed that there is a
relationship between marital satisfaction and several aspects of sexual function. More importantly, sexual
satisfaction of husband and frequency of marital relationship has a positive relationship with marital
satisfaction. Generally, the more negative exciting reaction and disasters faction with frequency of sexual
937
intercourse will lead to less marital satisfaction. In view of Carlson and Dink Mayer (2002), sexual
relationship of wife and husband is a barometer and shows ups and downs of marital relationship. Sexual
relationship of wife and husband is the manifestation of their lives. However, marital relationship includes
a part of shared life with lots of misunderstandings. But the important problem is that how does a
satisfactory marital relationship change into an unhappy and dissatisfied relationship which is often
determined by bilateral disgust? For most couples, the reason for decrease in sexual relationship after
several years is lieu of a closed secret. Public opinion of shows that sexual interactions get lower and the
most rapid decrease occurs during the first four years after marriage. This decrease in frequency of
sexual interaction over time is also true about couples who cohabit. Surprisingly, the investigations show
that full- time working and part-time working has no negative effect on sexual life of couples (Baron, 2006
p. 450). It is possible marital relationship has an undesired effect on their sexual satisfaction in different
ways. Some of these effects are so delicate that there is an association between poor marital relationship
and poor sexual relationship (Crowe and Reed lee, 2000, p. 35).
In addition to the sex and marriage, people have always been interested in the causality. Current
literature indicates that sexual satisfaction can be affected by several factors, one of which is the locus of
control. History reflects stories and myths on events which are controlled by gods, fate, and people’s own
behaviors (Rotter, 1990). Similarly, psychology is also interested in the causality.
Specifically, as it is defined as a “generalized expectancy of internal or external control of
reinforcement” (Lefcourt, 1976, p.29) in social learning theory, locus of control construct has become a
very popular and widely examined personality concept in psychology (Rotter, 1990). Literature indicates
that locus of control is relevant to gender (Lachman & Weaver, 1998) and education level (Nurmi,
Pulliainen, & Salmela-Aro, 1992). That is, being a male and having higher levels of education were found
to be positively related to internal locus of control. Additionally, internal locus of control is found to be
related to more satisfactory interpersonal relationships (Crandall & Crandall, 1983; cited in Carton &
Nowicki Jr., 1994). However, despite its popularity, the role of locus of control construct in interpersonal
relationships, especially sexual and marital relationships have not been very popular. Whereas, holding a
belief that personal efforts would be effective for one’s own satisfaction might be important when
considering one’s marital and sexual satisfaction (Lefcourt, 1976). In fact, even few studies conducted on
the association between the interpersonal relationships and locus of control clearly demonstrates the
importance of considering such an association between these variables.
Method and materials, the method of study is descriptive-correlational. Statistical population of
this research includes all married students studying in Islamic Azad University, Sari branch, with at least
three years marital life up to 2011. Sample volume was selected based on Cochran formula and 124
participants were selected by multi-stage cluster sampling method.
For the assessment of locus of control, Rotter’s locus of control scale was used. Different
research has reported the validity of this scale to be between percent 70 and %81. Also, for the
measurement of marital satisfaction, 47-item, short form of Rich’s marital satisfaction questionnaire was
used. Olson et al have reported the validity of this questionnaire to be 0.22 by alpha coefficient.
Also, the level of perceived sexual satisfaction was measured by Golombok-Rust Sexual
Satisfaction Inventory (GRISS) and a Demographic Information Form. GRISS is a 28 item Likert-type selfreport scale which is developed by Rust & Golombok (1983; cited in Tuğrul, Öztan, & Kabakçı, 1993;
Wolsky, 1998) in order to assess the quality of sexual relationship and sexual functioning of both
individuals and couples.
Reliability and validity studies of the scale were assessed by Tuğrul, et al. (1993) on 243
subjects. The sample consisted of both clinical subjects (73 women and 66 men) who were diagnosed
with a sexual dysfunction as well as randomly selected non-clinical subjects (53 women and 51 men). In
terms of internal consistency, Cronbach’s alpha was reported to be .91 for women and .92 for men. Split-
938
half reliability was reported to be .90 for men and .91 for women. These findings point the high reliability
of the scale. Additionally, high validity of the GRISS in Turkish population is also reported. Both total
scores and subscale scores differentiated the clinical and non-clinical women (t = -14.52, SD = 123.33, p
< .001) and men (t = -13.93, SD = 108.80, p < .001). However, only communication subscale did not
differentiate the clinical and non-clinical women. Moreover, discriminate analyses indicated that, items
truly discriminate 98% of women and 98% of men; and subscales truly discriminates 94% of men and
95% of women (Tuğrul, et al., 1993).
For data analysis, descriptive statistical method (frequency, percentage, mean, standard
deviation) and deductive statistical (the agreed correlation coefficient, X2 khi–square and T–test) were
used for the comparison of independent means. For testing research hypotheses, significance level of at
least %5 was selected.
Results and finding
Statistical analysis of data by testing three hypotheses of research at confidence level of 0.95 led
not was led the following results.
First hypothesis: There is a significant relationship between level of marital satisfaction and
sexual satisfaction of couples with internal locus of control and external locus of control.
Table1. Results obtained from the correlation between locus of control with marital satisfaction and
sexual satisfaction
Locus
of control
Internal
External control
Total
control
The observed frequency less then marital satisfaction
and sexual satisfaction
40
12
52
46.2
5.8
52.0
The observed frequency
70
2
72
The expected frequency
63.8
8.2
72.0
The observed frequency
110
14
124
110.0
14.0
124.0
The value of the obtained agreed correlation coefficient (x2= 6.37, df=1, p<0.05) is more than the
corresponding value in the table (3.84); therefore, zero hypothesis (Ho) is rejected.
Furthermore, there is a significant relationship between couples’ internal locus of control and their
marital satisfaction and sexual satisfaction.
Second Hypothesis: There is a significant difference between gender and locus of control.
Table 2- Results obtained from the comparison of locus of control of couples by gender separation.
939
Locus of
control
Internal
External
Total
control
control
The observed frequency gender = Female
60
6
66
58.6
7.4
66.0
The observed frequency = Male
50
8
58
51.4
6.6
58.0
The observed frequency = Total
110
14
124
The expected frequency = Total
110.0
14.0
124.0
As it is observed, the value of the observed X2 square from the above mentioned table (p<0.05,
df = 1, X2 = 0.37) is less than the corresponding value in the table (3.84). Therefore, zero hypotheses
(Ho) are not rejected. That is, there is no significant difference between male and female groups in terms
of the locus of control.
Third hypothesis: There is a significant difference between gender and level of sexual satisfaction
of couples.
Table 3- T-test results for comparison of means of the respondent’s scores in marital satisfaction and
sexual satisfaction test
Significance level of
two ranges
0.106
T
Df
Standard
Mean
Number
Gender
34.89
171.15
64
Female
24.4
183.83
60
Male
Deviation
1.64
60
Regarding to the calculated T-value in the above mentioned table (T = 1.64, df= 60, p<%5), the
obtained significance level of 0.106 is more than %5. Therefore, zero hypotheses (Ho) are not rejected.
On the other hand, there is no significant difference between gender and marital satisfaction of couples.
In this research, the relationship between locus of control with marital satisfaction and sexual
satisfaction of couples was examined. Research findings show that there is a significant relationship
between internal locus of control, marital satisfaction and sexual satisfaction of couples. In expressing this
finding, it can be said that couples with internal locus of control enjoy satisfactory marital relationship and
subsequently, they are satisfied with their marital life, while couples with external locus of control suffer
from decrease in marital relationship and marital dissatisfaction. And there are abundant signs of
criticism, blame, insult and humiliation, threat, punishment and in their marital relationship.
This finding is consistent and concordant with the studies of Glasser & Glasser (1998, 2007), Ellis
& Harper (1995), Hunt (1974), Fisher & Nulty (2008), as well as in domestic studies and investigations,
with the studies of Honar–parvaran (2006) and Oliya et al (2011). The association of locus of control with
both sexual and marital satisfaction may be best understood from the Marks’ (1998) point of view. Marks
(1998) defines the locus of control construct as a learning process and claim that people with internal
940
locus of control can change their behaviors easily since they believe that they can control the
reinforcements. From this perspective, it is reasonable that internals experience more satisfactory
relationships. They are likely to change their behaviors to reach the desired outcomes since they believe
that personal efforts can be effective for their sexual and marital satisfaction.
The current research found that locus of control orientation was significantly related to sexual
satisfactions and contributed to the prediction of this variable. Subjects reported higher sexual satisfaction
when they report internal locus of control orientation. Lachman & Weaver (1998) concluded that, spouses
with greater sense of control are more likely to engage in more sexual relations. It was also found in this
study that, locus of control and marital satisfaction are significantly related to each other, meaning that,
more internal locus of control leads to greater marital satisfaction. In addition, locus of control significantly
contributed to the variance in the marital satisfactions and based on the relevant literature, it is not
surprising. It is reported by several researchers that, the greater the internal locus of control, the higher
the relationship and marital satisfaction (Bugaighis, Schumm, Bollman, & Jurich, 1983; Doherty, 1981;
Lachman &Weaver, 1998; Myers, 1999; Ross, 1991) which is similar to the current findings of the study.
According to Ross (1991), marriage has a powerful effect on the sense of control.
Generally, the results related to each of the two kinds of internal control and external control in
this research represents this fact that, except for marriage of two internal controls, other marriages are
not followed by appropriate and desired marital satisfaction and sexual satisfaction. While in marriage of
two external control, it can be said that because of seven factors of internal control affection (support,
appreciation, listening, acceptance, confidence, respect and negotiation) which the couples have in
marital relationship, their sexual satisfaction and marital satisfaction will increase and stabilize and this is
the best association and confirms the similarity in internal locus of control.
The second finding of this research showed that there is no significant difference between gender
and level of marital satisfaction and sexual satisfaction of couples. The previous studies on marital
satisfaction generally show that the status of individual’s gender doesn’t predict marital satisfaction of
couples (Garry, 1994, cited in Oliya et al 2011).
But this feeling has a physical root in men. It should be considered that despite of what they want,
women are emerged through physical manifestations and despite of what they claim, men stop at the
level of physical relationship. In description of this finding, it can be said that women love sexual
relationship as much as men. But the root and feeling of need in sexual relationship is not physical in
them but it focuses on affectionate relationships. Also, one of the other findings of this research is that
there is no meaningful difference between locus of control and gender. Therefore, findings showed that
there is a significant relationship between internal locus of control with marital satisfaction and sexual
satisfaction. Also, results showed that there is no significant difference between the gender and the kind
of locus of control, gender and level of marital satisfaction and sexual satisfaction. Regarding the finding
of the research, couples who suffer from marital dissatisfaction and sexual dissatisfaction, have external
locus of control, therefore, it is suggested to replace internal control instead of external for the
improvement of marital satisfaction and sexual satisfaction problems and having a coordinated, attractive
and satisfactory sexual satisfaction.
References
Baumeister R F, Leary M R, 1995. The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a
fundamental human motivation. Psychology Bulletin. 117(3): 497-529.
Barash, D P, Lipton J F, 2002. Gender gap: The biology of male-female differences. London: Transaction
Publishers.
Carlson J, Denik Mayer D, 2002. It is time for wives and husbands to live better.
Carton J S, Nowicki J S, 1994. Antecedents of individual differences in locus of control of reinforcement:
A critical review. Genetic, Social and General Psychology Monographs.120(1): 13-21.
Crow M, 1995. Couple therapy and sexual dysfunction, International Review of Psychiatry. 7: 195-205.
941
Crowe M, Reedly J, 2000.The applied couple therapy with systemic- behavioral procedure. Translation by
Ashraf al-Sadat Mousavi. Mehr Kaviyan publications.
Ellis A, Harper R, 1995. Ways of successful marriage. Translation by Elham Shafiee. RASA cultural
services institution.
Fisher T D, McNulty J K, 2008. Neuroticism and marital satisfaction.
Glasser W, Glasser C, 2007. Eight lessons for happier marital life. Translation by Mehrdad Firouzbakht,
Tehran. Virayesh Publications. 111-115.
Hawton K, 1985. Sex therapy: A practical guide. New York: Oxford University Press.
Lachman M E, Weaver S L, 1998. Socio-demographic variations in the sense of control by domain:
Findings from the MacArthur Studies of midlife. Psychology and Aging.13(4): 33-37.
Lefcourt H M, 1976. Locus of Control: Current Trends in Theory and Research New Jersey: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0- 470- 154044-0.
Nurmi J F, Pulliainen H, Salmela-Aro K, 1992. Age differences in adults’ control beliefs related to life
goals and concerns. Psychology and Aging. 7: 194-196.
Oliya N, Fatehizadeh M, Bahrami F, 2011. Teaching of marital life enrichment. Tehran; Danzheh
publications. 18-29
Rotter J B, 1990. Internal versus external control of reinforcement: A case history of a variable. Amercian
Psychologist. 45(4): 489-493.
Southern S, 1999. Facilitating sexual health: Intimacy enhancement techniques for sexual dysfunction.
Journal of Mental Health Counselling. 21: 15-33
Shackelford T K, 2001. Cohabitation, Marriage and murder, woman–killing by male romantic partners,
Aggressive behavior. 27: 284- 291.
TimmT M, 1999. The effects of differentiation of self, adult attachment, and sexual communication on
sexual and marital satisfaction: A path analysis. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. Purdue
University.
Tuğrul C, Öztan N, Kabakçı E, 1993. Golombok-Rust Cinsel Doyum Ölçeği nin standardizasyon
çalışması. Türk Psikiyatri Dergisi. 4(2): 83-88.
Wolsky J A, 1998. Intimacy, marital satisfaction, and sexuality in mature couples. Unpublished master’s
thesis, Concordia University.
942
Exercise and quality of life in female athletes
Hanieh Kamkar*1, Fereshte Bagherizade moghaddam2, Bahare Kamranpur3
1. MS in Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Kharazmi, Tehran, Iran
2. MS in Counseling, Department of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Payamenoor
University, Shiraz, Iran
3. MS student of Counseling, Department of Psychology and Educational Sciences,
Payamenoor University, Shiraz, Iran
Abstract
Physical, mental and social aspects are seen in various definitions on the quality of life;
therefore, physical problems, mental problems, sport and outdoor activities, mental
health, social functioning and general health are considered in the evaluation of life
satisfaction. This study examined the effect of exercise on the quality of life in female
athletes and non-athletes. The research sample comprised 140 female individuals (70
athlete and 70 non-athletes) who were randomly selected and assessed with short form36 Health Survey Questionnaire. Data were analyzed using T-test. Findings indicated
that, there is significant relationship between exercise and quality of life. Moreover,
athlete girls scored higher on life satisfaction as compared to non-athletes. Finally, we
can conclude that, culturing the culture of sport for young people in order to improve
their quality of life is of crucial importance.
Keywords: athlete, non-athlete, quality of life
Introduction
In recent years, considerable attention has been paid to the assessment of health and these
assessments have been directed to a holistic approach to health. In this regard, a new approach called
quality of life has been developed in medical and social studies (Fayers, 2000). Quality of life is
individuals’ perception of their health status and satisfaction with their situation (King, 2006).
The demographic variables that affect the quality of life include sex, age, and education. Younger
people can have a better quality of life due to having good physical condition. Researchers consider three
basic characteristics for quality of life, including being multidimensional, subjective and dynamic.
Generally, three basic dimensions of the quality of life are related to physical, mental, and social fields.
The physical aspect is the full performance potential of the body that refers to the individual’s acquired
skills. Mental aspect is the psychological balance and harmony with self and others. The social dimension
refers to a person's ability to communicate with the family members, neighbors and other community
groups. Quality of life is a subjective and dynamic issue that can differ at any time (Giovanni, 1999).
Physical, mental and social aspects are seen in various definitions on the quality of life; therefore,
physical problems, mental problems, sport and outdoor activities, mental health, social functioning and
general health are considered in the evaluation of life satisfaction.
Review studies have indicated that, exercise has been effective in the quality of life. Recent
studies strongly support the usefulness of hydrotherapy for the prevention and treatment of depression
and anxiety in patients with hemophilia (Kargarfard, Dehghani and Heydari, 2011). Sachs et al (2011) in
their study noted the impact of exercise on decreasing depression.
This study examined the effect of exercise on the quality of life in female athletes and nonathletes.
The research employed post-test with experimental-control group design. The statistical
population included all the athlete girls who did formal and usual exercise in the clubs or gyms located in
Shiraz. In the present study, 140 girls aged 13 to 20 were selected using cluster sampling and were
assigned to two groups of athletes (n = 70) and non-athletes (n = 70). Experimental group was selected
from a public club (Hejab) and a private club (Suren). The control group was selected from a high school
(Dr. Hesaby) and a junior high school (Fadak) through cluster sampling.
Participants were assessed using of Health Survey Questionnaire. The questionnaire contains 36
items that evaluate eight different health domains: 1 - general health, 2 - physical function, 3 - role
limitation due to physical, 4 - role limitation due to emotional, 5 - physical pain, 6 - social performance, 7fatigue or vitality and 8 – mental health. The lowest score on this scale is zero and the highest score is
100.
A study to determine the reliability and validity of Health Survey Questionnaire (36-SF) done in
Iran. The reliability test using the Statistical Analysis "internal consistency" and the validity of using
"known-groups" were evaluated. Analysis of "internal consistency" showed that except for the vitality
scale (65/0 = α) other measures have of a standard of reliability coefficients ranging from 77/0 to 9/0
position.
Table 1- Levene’s test for the comparison of the quality of life in young athletes and non-athletes
athlete
non-athlete
n
70
70
T
7.17
SD
11.50
15.25
df
138
Mean
76.63
60.24
F
2.76
Sig.
0.000
The results of t-test showed that, there is significant difference between quality of life in athletes
and non-athletes. Due to the mean scores of the quality of life in both groups, athletes (76.63) and nonathletes (60.24), it can be concluded that, athletes have significantly higher quality of life than nonathletes. Levene's test confirmed the equality of the variances.
Table 2- Comparison of the sub-scales of quality of life in young athletes and non-athletes
Group
physical Function
athlete
f
141.05
non-athlete
role limitation due to physical
athlete
athlete
non-athlete
944
9.7
df
1
22.4
10.64
non-athlete
fatigue or vitality
SD
29
18.5
19.2
92.7
R
sig
.50
.001
.07
.001
.03
.03
58
1
30.4
4.56
mean
71
54.6
1
64.1
57.3
mental health
athlete
5.12
non-athlete
physical Pain
athlete
athlete
18.39
6.77
athlete
non-athlete
role limitation due to emotional athlete
non-athlete
18.5
1
14.5
1
20.2
33.8
35.7
.02
82.5
.100
.11
71.6
.04
.01
.04
.01
63.9
1
23.5
4.40
.03
66.7
20.2
6.02
67.8
60.4
24.5
non-athlete
social Performance
1
20.6
non-athlete
general health
17.8
74.1
65
1
66.1
.02
.06
55
The results showed that, there are significant differences in all the subscales of the quality of life
between athletes and non-athletes, except for the subscale of “role limitation due to emotional reasons".
According to the mean scores of the two groups in all the cases, the difference was in favor of athletes.
Quality of life is a complex and multidimensional concept including physical, mental and social
aspects. Several studies have shown the effects of exercise and physical activity on physical, mental,
emotional and social human aspects. The present study focuses on the quality of life in young female
athletes and non-athletes. The results show that, the quality of life of athletes is higher than normal
people.
This finding is in line with many studies that have focused on the effect of exercise and physical
activity, especially aerobic exercise on the quality of life such as the research Sachs et al (2011) and
Moafi (2010). Fostering the culture of sport for young people in order to improve their quality of life is the
most predictable factor for the quality of life.
References
Broocks A, 2005. Physical training in the treatment of psychological disorders. Bundesgesundheitsblatt
Gesundheitsforschung Gesundheitsschutz. 48(8): 914-21.
Fayers P M, Machin D, 2000. Quality of life assessment, analysis and interpretation. John Willy, New
York.
Giovanni A, Paola M, 1999. Review of the concept of quality of life assessment and discussion of the
present trend in clinical revised. Journal pf Neph, Dial, Transplant. 14: 65-69.
King G, Tucker M, Baldwin P, Laporta J, 2006. Bringing the Life Needs Model to life: Implementing a
service delivery model for pediatric rehabilitation. Physical and Occupational Therapy in
Pediatrics. 26(1): 41 – 68.
Karapolat H, Demir E, Bozkaya T, et al, 2009. Comparison of hospital-based versus home-based
exercise training in patients with heart failure: Effects on functional capacity, quality of life,
psychological symptoms, and hemodynamic parameters. Clin Res Cardiol. 98(10): 635-642.
Kargarfard M, Dehghani M, Heider M, 2011. The effect of exercise therapy in water on the increase of the
quality of life and decrease of anxiety and depression in patients with hemophilia. Koomesh. 12:
4(40).
945
Moafi Sh, Zolaktaf V, Rabie K, Hashemi M, Termah H, 2010. Effects of exercise on the quality of life of
patients discharged from the hospital after coronary bypass and angioplasty. Journal of
Radiation Research. 13(6).
Peluso M A, Silveira L H, 2005. Physical activity and mental health: the association between exercise and
mood. Clinics. 60(1): 61-70.
Scuch F B, Vasconcelos M P, Fleck M P, 2011. The impact of exercise on the quality of life within
exercise and depression trials: A systematic review. Mental Health and Physical Activity. 4(2):
43–48.
Von MacKensen S, 2007. Quality of life and sports activities in patients with hemophilia. 13: 38-43.
946
Mental health in postmenopausal and premenopausal women
Hanieh Kamkar*1, Fereshte Bagherizade Moghaddam2, Mahnaz Modabberi3
4. MS in Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Kharazmi, Tehran, Iran
5. MS in Counseling, Department of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Payamenoor
University, Shiraz, Iran
6. MS student of Counseling, Department of Psychology and Educational Sciences,
Payamenoor University, Shiraz, Iran
Abstract
Mental illness has existed since the creation of human being, and no one has immunity
against it. Due to aging and the approach of menopause, its causes are referred to
internal factors rather than external factors. This study examined the mental health in
postmenopausal and premenopausal women. Hence, our sample comprised 100
subjects (50 postmenopausal and 50 premenopausal women) who randomly selected.
For data collection, Sc190-R test was used and Data were analyzed using T-test.
Findings show that, there is significant relationship between menopause and mental
health. Moreover, the rates of emotional states (somatization, depression, anxiety,
aggression, phobia, obsession, sensitivity to the reciprocity and psychosis) rate higher
in postmenopausal women as compared premenopausal women. Finally, we can
conclude that, having a history of depression is the most important predictor of
depression during menopause. Generally, the likelihood of mental illness in
postmenopausal women is higher than premenopausal women.
Keywords: mental health, postmenopausal, premenopausal
Introduction
One of the most common diseases in women aged over 50 years is mental disorder caused by
hormonal changes. These disorders are associated with physical, mental and emotional conditions of
these women. Menopause is one of the changes that occur during women’s middle age (Sadeghian,
1996).
Menopausal hormonal and physical changes occurred during middle age, 3 to 5 years before the
last menstrual period. In this time, the ovarian hormones diminish; menstruation becomes irregular and
eventually will be terminated. The age of menopause is between 52-48 years of age, but may it begin
earlier or later.
Due to aging, menopause’s causes shift to internal factors rather than external factors and
depression is inevitable in this critical period of life (Ravandust, 2000). Mental disorders are thought to be
syndrome or pattern of behaviors that occur in an individual and bring about distress (a painful symptom)
or disability (destroyed in one or more important areas of functioning) or a significant increase of death,
pain, disability or an important loss of autonomy (Purafkari, 2010).
Therefore, the present study examined the mental health in postmenopausal and premenopausal
women.
It seems to be necessary, to carry out research on the prevalence and incidence of mental
disorders during menopause, because these studies inform the community of the problems which may
occur. Mental hygiene movement in the last half century showed that, by early diagnosis and treatment of
mental illness, like any other disease, we will be able to decrease the chronicity and complications of this
disease (Milanifar, 1991).
Fallahzadeh et al studied the quality of life and psychological status in postmenopausal women in
Yazd. Based on the results, there is significant relationship between psychological-social, physical, sexual
education, employment, health and economic status. Menopause can also lead to reduced level of quality
of life and effective educational interventions improve the quality of life in postmenopausal women after
the menopause. Mahmoudi et al studied physical and mental health of postmenopausal women in Ilam.
Results indicate that, the prevalence and severity of mental health problems in these women are
substantially more than what was expected.
This study employs a comparative-descriptive design. The statistical population included all the
postmenopausal women who lived in Shiraz city, out of which, 100 women were randomly selected and
assigned into two groups, postmenopausal (n = 50) and premenopausal (n = 50) groups.
The subjects were assessed with SCL90-R test. The questionnaire contains 90 items that
evaluate nine domains of behavior in patients. These areas are: 1- physical discomfort, 2- compulsions,
3- interactions between individual, 4- depression, 5- anxiety, 6- aggression, 7- phobias, 8- paranoia, 9psychosis.
Table 1- somatization in menopausal and non-menopausal women
SD
N
Postmenopausal
50
2.05
.66
Premenopausal
50
1.06
.59
df
49
t
2.81
Maximum mean value belongs to the postmenopausal women with SD (.66). According to
percentage of T, the difference is meaningful at the significance level of P<%1.
Table 2- Obsessive-compulsive in menopausal and non-menopausal women
N
SD
Postmenopausal
50
1.85
.68
Premenopausal
50
.85
.57
df
49
t
3.16
Maximum mean value belongs to postmenopausal women with SD (.68). According to
Table 3- Interpersonal sensitivity in menopausal and non-menopausal women
N
SD
Postmenopausal
50
1.76
.60
Premenopausal
50
.80
.51
df
49
t
3.51
948
Table 4- Depression in menopausal and non-menopausal women
N
SD
Postmenopausal
50
1.99
.65
Premenopausal
50
1.04
.51
df
49
t
2.78
Table 5- Anxiety in menopausal and non-menopausal women
N
SD
Postmenopausal
50
1.89
.89
Premenopausal
50
.93
.58
df
49
t
2.49
Table 6- Aggression in menopausal and non-menopausal women
N
SD
Postmenopausal
50
1.61
.69
Premenopausal
50
.8
.59
df
49
t
2.84
percentage of T, t the difference is meaningful at the significance level of P<%1.
Table 7- Phobia in menopausal and non-menopausal women
N
SD
Postmenopausal
50
1.76
.82
Premenopausal
50
.43
.46
df
49
t
4.58
Table 8- Paranoia in menopausal and non-menopausal women
N
SD
Postmenopausal
50
1.79
.57
Premenopausal
50
1.35
.70
df
49
t
1.29
Table 9- Psychosis in menopausal and non-menopausal women
N
949
SD
df
t
Postmenopausal
50
1.49
.76
Premenopausal
50
.45
.41
49
4.09
Mental illness has existed since the creation of human being, and no one has had immunity
against it. Due to aging and approach of menopause, its causes shift to internal factors rather than
external factors. The menopause is a period of time in a woman's life when the biological and social
changes can impact upon mental wellbeing. Based on the current research, postmenopausal women are
more likely to develop depression as compared to premenopausal women. In support of this, a study
conducted by Blach showed that, 35.3% of postmenopausal women are depressed.
The findings showed that, levels of anxiety are higher in postmenopausal women as compared
with premenopausal women. In support of this, Panyahorta et al’s research showed that, there is
significant relationship between high levels of FSH and anxiety in postmenopausal women. The results of
this study showed that, menopausal women are more prone to psychosis. This finding is in line with many
studies that have investigated the effect of menopause on mental health, such as the study by Rasouli’s
(2004).
According to the findings of this study we can conclude that, the incidence of mental illness in
postmenopausal women is higher than premenopausal women. Devoting considerable attention to this
issue seems to be necessary given that women spend a third of their life in postmenopausal period and
the fact that women and their role in the health of the community is essential. It is suggested to develop
training programs for postmenopausal women in the health care system.
References
Bloch A, 2002. Self-awareness during the menopause. 41: 61-68.
Fallahzade H, 2000. Factors associated with quality of life in postmenopausal women Yazd, Journal of
Journal of Medical Sciences, Yazd Shahid Sadughi University. 6: 552-558.
Mahmoodi M, 2006. Physical and mental health of postmenopausal women referred to health centers of
Ilam, Journal of Nursing Research. 4: 57-65.
Milanifar B, 2009. Mental Health. Tehran: Ghomes.
Poorafkari N, 1987. Symptoms of mental illness. Tehran: Zoghi.
Punyahotra S, Dennerstein L, Lehret P, 1997. Menopausal experiences of Thai women. symptoms and
their correlates. Maturitas. 26: 1-7.
Ras M, 1988. Depression. Mashhad: Cultural Department of Astan Qods Razavi.
Sadeghian M, Hatami R, 1997. Menopause symbolizes prosperity. Tehran: Roshangaran.
950
Pilot study of Reading Comprehension and Reading Vocabulary
Zeinab Mihandoost
Department of Psychology, Ilam Branch, Islamic Azad University, ILAM, IRAN
Abstract
Introduction: This study attempt to develop reading comprehension and reading vocabulary
scales. Comprehension and vocabulary have relied on concurrent evaluations of reading abilities.
Students need to develop reading skills to become successful and independent readers.
Objective: The purpose of the study is to determine reliability of Persian version of reading
comprehension and reading vocabulary. Method: This study, 30 students in Ilam, Iran, was
randomly assigned equally to two groups. They consisted of 15 males and 15 female students.
The pilot study started on February 8th, 2014 and ended on February 15th. The Persian version of
oral comprehension and oral vocabulary were administered for these students. The reliability test
was conducted on research instruments with Cronbach’s alpha to determine the inter-item
reliability. Results: This study, reliability coefficient for each instrument was obtained. Cronbach’s
alpha reliabilities of the reading comprehension and reading vocabulary subscales (synonyms,
antonyms and verbal analogies), were found to be, .92 and .87 (.90, .80 and .92), respectively.
Conclusion: These results indicated that, high reliability for all instruments. The researcher
suggested that, employed these instruments in the main study.
Keyword: pilot study, oral comprehensions, synonyms, antonyms, verbal analogies
Introduction
Reading is currently viewed as a highly interactive process involving inferences based on prior
knowledge as well as encoding and organization of the text being read. Several researchers in the 1970s
found oral reading to produce comprehension and vocabulary. For example, Swalm (1972) and Elgart
(1978) found that second and third graders readers comprehended better after reading orally. Also,
Fletcher and Pumfrey (1988) found that oral reading led to greater comprehension for second and third
graders readers. The influence of oral reading skills on reading comprehension is widely documented.
Reading skill such as vocabulary have been shown to influence reading comprehension
performance (e.g., Cutting & Scarborough, 2006; Mihandoost, 2014; Share & Leikin, 2004), although
somewhat differently depending on the reading comprehension measure (Cutting & Scarborough, 2006;
Keenan, Betjemann, & Olson, 2008). Also supporting the role of these broader reading abilities as
related to reading comprehension are findings suggesting that reading has a greater influence on reading
comprehension, with the latter having a greater influence on word reading (Catts, Fey, Zhang, & Tomblin,
1999; Share & Leikin, 2004).
Method
This study, 30 students in Ilam public schools, was selected for pilot study. They consisted of 15
males and 15 female students. These students were first to twelve graders. The pilot study started on
February 8th, 2014 and ended on February 15th. The Persian Version of Reading Comprehension and
Reading Vocabulary were administered for these students. The reliability test was conducted on research
instruments with Cronbach’s alpha to determine the inter-item reliability.
Instruments
1. Reading comprehension: This instrument developed by researcher based on passage comprehension
(Woodcock, Mather, Schrank, 2004). This instrument includes 47 Items. For students, administer the sample items
and then select a starting point based on an estimate of the student’s ability. The other items are presented in a
multiple-choice format in which students are supposed to point to the picture. Finally, the students read a short text
and try to find the missing key word (Woodcock, Mather, Schrank, 2004).
2. Reading vocabulary: This instrument developed by researcher based on reading vocabulary
(Woodcock, Mather, Schrank, 2004). This instrument includes three subscales (reading vocabulary synonyms by 26
items, reading vocabulary antonyms by 26 items, reading vocabulary analogies by 21 items). All three subscales of
reading vocabulary must be administered to obtain derived scores for this scale. For each subscale, administer the
sample items to all students and then select a starting point based on an estimate of the student’s verbal ability.
Results
Table 1 show that high reliability for reading comprehension, reading vocabulary and subscales of
reading vocabulary (synonyms, antonyms, analogies), suggesting that these instruments were considered
as appropriate to be employed in the main.
Table1. Reliability coefficient for reading comprehension and reading vocabulary
Scales
Cronbach’s Alpha
Comprehension
Reading Vocabulary
Reading Vocabulary Synonyms
.92
.87
.90
Reading Vocabulary Antonyms
Reading Vocabulary Analogies
.80
.92
Table above show that reading comprehension, reading vocabulary and subscales of reading vocabulary
(synonyms, antonyms and analogies).
Discussion
This study employed Persian Version of Reading Comprehension and Reading Vocabulary for 30
normal students in Ilam public school. Based on table 1, reliability coefficient for comprehension and
vocabulary subscales were high. The researcher suggested that employed these instruments in the main
of study. Cronbach’s alpha reliabilities of the oral comprehension and oral vocabulary subscales
(synonyms, antonyms and verbal analogies), were found to be, .92 and .87 (.90, .80 and .92),
respectively. These results showed high reliability for the instruments, suggesting that these instruments
were considered as appropriate to be employed in the main.
Conclusion
The researcher suggested that employ these instruments in the main of study. This pilot study,
found that Persian version of reading comprehension, reading vocabulary and reading vocabulary
subscales were high.
Acknowledgment
Support of Department of Psychology, Ilam Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ilam, Iran. This study
was extracted from research program that will be do in Ilam.
References
Catts, H. W., Fey, M. E., Zhang, X., & Tomblin, J. B. (1999). Language basis of reading and reading
disabilities: Evidence from a longitudinal investigation. Scientific Studies of Reading, 3, 331-361.
doi: 10.1207/s1532799xssr0304_2
Cutting, L. E., & Scarborough, H. S. (2006). Prediction of reading comprehension: Relative contributions
of word recognition, language proficiency, and other cognitive skills can depend on how
comprehension is measured. Scientific Studies of Reading, 10(3), 277-299. doi:
10.1207/s1532799xssr1003_5
Elgart, D. B. (1978). Oral reading, silent reading, and listening comprehension: A comparative study.
Journal of Reading Behavior, 10, 203-207.
Fletcher, J., & Pumfrey, P. D. (1988). Differences in text comprehension amongst 7–8-year-old children.
School Psychology International, 9, 133-145.
Keenan, J. M., Betjemann, R. S., & Olson, R. K. (2008). Reading comprehension tests vary in the skills
they assess: Differential dependence on decoding and oral comprehension. Scientific Studies of
Reading, 12, 281-300.
Mihandoost, Z. (2014). Association among self-awareness, feeling and reading skills in elementary school
students. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 112, 625-655.
952
Share, D. L., & Leikin, M. (2004). Language impairment at school entry and later reading
disability:Connections at lexical versus supralexical levels of reading. Scientific Studies of
Reading, 8(1), 87-110. doi: 10.1207/s1532799xssr0801_5
Swalm, J. E. (1972). A comparison of oral reading, silent reading and listening comprehension.
EDucation, 92, 111-115.
Woodcock, R.W., Mather, N., Schrank, F.A. (2004). Diagnostic Reading Battery. USA: Riverside
Publishing.
953
Examining the Relationship Between Organizational Trust and
Organizational Development in High School Teachers in Shahrekord
Saadat Zafarizadeh1, Aliakbar Zafarizadeh 2, Dr.Sayed Ali Siadat3, Gholamreza Shams4
1. Masters in Educational Management of Islamic Azad University of Shahrekord.
2- Phd Student of Family Counseling, Young Researchers and Elite Club, Khorasgan (Isfahan) Branch,
Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran, Correspondent author
3- Associate Professor of Isfahan University. Department of Psychology and Educational
Sciences
4- Associate Professor of Shahid Beheshti University. Department of Psychology and Educational
Sciences
Abstract
The purpose of the present study was determining the relationship between organizational trust
and organizational development in high school teachers in Shahrekord. Research method was
descriptive – correlative .Statistical population consisted of all high school teachers of Shahrekord(1123
individuals) in academic year of 2010-2011.Statistical sample size was 285 individuals based on Kerjis
and Morgan table and were selected using stratified random sampling method proportional to statistical
population .Questionnaire of Organizational Development (EFQM) which has 50 items and Questionnaire
of Organizational Trust ,which is researcher- made and has 30 items were research tools.The reliability
of the questionnaires was calculated .90 and .89 ,receptively. Data were analyzed using correlation
coefficient and regression coefficient. Findings indicated that observed "r" at P < .05 showed a positive
significant correlation between organizational trust and organizational development in high schools of
Shahrekord .There is also a positive significant relationship between organizational trust and leadership,
staff, partnership and resources, customer result , stuff result and society result criteria.
Keywords: Trust, Organizational development, Teachers of high school.
Introduction
Trust is the basis of social relationships. The role of trust in social relationships of small groups is
different from large groups. Trust makes the individuals set aside any suspicion in their social relationships with
others and develop an intimate relationship , without trust such relationships are not formed. On the contrary,
lack of trust leads to suspicion and poor self-confidence in individuals . If there is no trust in an organization, the
exchange of information among individuals is reduced , staff are connected with little information, supervisors
say their opinions about the organization and the efficacy of staff unwillingnessly and avoid investigation and
having discussion .But when a high level of trust in an organ is formed ,it leads to free discussions about existing
issues and in these discussions the ideas and thoughts are encouraged to improve and exchange. When the
level of trust in an organization is high , staff feel confident about leadership of that organization and show it in
their performance(Kazemi Jaghnab, 2002). Therefore , all members of an organization should care about the
effective role of trust in developing regular and logical relationships . Increasing trust in organizations causes
increase in career development and welfare of staff. .
If managers be able to recognize the more confident staff and appreciate them , it causes increased
morale and job satisfaction, and other staff may set them as a pattern, thus organizational trust will increase.
Organizational trust is an important element in determining the performance of staff and their commitment to the
organization. Members of organizations attempt to increase organizational trust because it has a large positive
effect on staff and increases effectiveness and efficiency of the organization ( Laschinger , 2000). It is clear that
existing trust among staff causes them to try more to achieve organizational development. Organizational
development means organizational commitment to the permanent development of the company in order to
achieve customer's satisfaction and continuous increase in profitability of the organization in a pervasive and
supportive national environment(Amiran,2003.(
Each organization apart from its kind of activity ,size ,structure or the amount of success in developing
their organizational goals needs a model to assess and evaluate the amount of its successes in reaching the
goals and business strategies .Among organizational development models, researcher emphasizes on EFQM
model because it is the basis of use in National Quality Award of Iran .EFQM model due to the presence of its
continuous improvement comprehensive cycle acts as a useful framework for improving the structure of quality in
organization .This cycle begins with doing a self-assessment to understand the existing condition and obtained
results. Based on this results ,the organization can decide that the most possible activities for strengthening the
enablers in gaining better results in future evaluation must be done in which field. After performing the necessary
corrective action, the organization does another self-assessment to assess the results of these actions
.According to this self -assessment ,the new results can be selected for improvement and the cycle begins again(
Kakooy et al. , 2000 ). Considering the relationship that can exist between organizational trust and organizational
development, this study examines this issue in high schools of Shahrekord.
Method
Research method was descriptive – correlative .Statistical population consisted of all high school
teachers of Shahrekord(1123 individuals) in academic year of 2010-2011.Statistical sample size was 285
individuals based on Kerjis and Morgan table and were selected using stratified random sampling method
proportional to statistical population .Questionnaire of Organizational Development (EFQM) which has 50 items
and Questionnaire of Organizational Trust ,which is researcher- made and has 30 items were research tools.
The reliability of the questionnaires was calculated .90 and .89 ,receptively.
In this study two questionnaires will be used as follows.
Methods of data analysis : To inferential analysis of obtained data of research tools, correlation
coefficient and regression coefficient were used.
Results
This study showed that there is a positive significant relationship between organizational trust and
organizational development among high school teachers in Shahrekord . Considering Table 1,the results of the
present study show that there is a positive significant relationship between organizational trust and organizational
development among teachers .
Table 1: Results of the Pearson correlation coefficient of the relationship between organizational trust
and organizational development in high schools of Shahrekord
resource
Frequency r
organizational
trust
and
266
organizational development
significance level
0.19
0.001
According to the results ,the observed 'r' at the level of 0/01, shows a positive significant correlation
between organizational trust and organizational development in high schools of Shahrekord. In other words, the
more organizational trust exist among Shahrekord high school teachers ,the more it is possible to promote
organizational development .
Conclusions
Results showed that there is a positive significant correlation between organizational trust and
organizational development .In other words , if there is trust between school managers and staff and they can work
in a friendly and intimate atmosphere , organizational development model can be implemented better. In fact
organizational trust and organizational development interact with each other. It means that to develop and
implementation of each of these variables, the existence of the other is needed. It is reported in several studies like
955
the studies by Hosseinpour(1997) , Tavakoli ( 2000) , Jaffari (2007 ) , Afshani (2001 ) , Kazemi Jaghnab (2002 ) ,
Asad (2002 ) , Safari and Azar (2003) , Hatami (2008 ) , Akbari ( 2008) , Black and Kromly (1997 ) , line (1998 ) ,
Chyladoray ( 2001 ) , Grotez (2001 ) , Bamber and sarre (2003 ) , Metrovld et al. (2003 ) , Paul (2004 ) , Carlos
(2005 ) , Maslow ( 2006), Edalat Khan (2007.(
Maslow(2006)believes that implementation of EFQM makes the organization to be in the path of growth
and development and all aspects of organization progress uniformly and equally and protect each other. So, the
success of the organization is more probable . Existing organizational trust among managers and staff can facilitate
achieving development .So ,the managers should develop organizational trust level so that in addition to preparing
the implementation of EFQM, also, according to the study by Saraf Fard (2008 ) , spread the level of organizational
health . Chyladoray et al. ( 2000) also showed in their study that the implementation of organizational development
model is an appropriate strategy to create organizational trust between managers and staff.
References
Azar ,Adel;Safari,Saeed(2002).Modeling the organizational development with data envelopment analysis
approach .Journal of Center of Higher Education of Qom. The fourth year. Issue 13 .
Anaam,Raheleh(2002).Examining social trust among top villagers of Shahriar. Masters dissertation of
Sociology . Alzahra University.
Afshani , Mohammad Rahim(2001).Identifying the implementing barriers of total quality management of
high school managers in Yasooj. Masters dissertation .Public Management Training Center.
Akbari, Hossein(2008).Examining organizational development in superior
Physical Education
Departments (based on organizational development model).Masters dissertation. Tehran University.
Amiran , Heidar(2003).Step by step guide to organizational development based on INQA and EFQM
models of quality maker consultants. Tehran .Industrial Education and Researches Centers of Iran.
Hosseinpoor , Shohreh(2002).Examining the attitudes of experts and managers of Department of
Education toward the implementation of total quality management. Masters dissertation of Educational
Management.Alzahra University.
Zanganeh,Ismaeel(2008).Examining the developmental organization of football clubs of Tehran in football
league of Iran according to the managers and staff 's point of view (based on EFQM model).Masters dissertation
.Tarbiat Modares University.
Abbaszadeh,Mohammad(2003).Examining the factors affecting the forming of social trust among M.S.
and Ph.D. students of Tabriz University. Masters dissertation of Social Science Research. Tabriz University.
Saraafzadeh , Elham(2008). Examining the relationship between organizational health and organizational
trust among teachers of female high schools of Isfahan. Masters dissertation of Educational Management . Isfahan
Uniersity.
Ali Taghipoor , Fatemeh(2003). Examining the relationship between the trust existing in high schools of
Kashan with the cooperation of teachers, parents and students. Masters dissertation of Educational Management of
Isfahan University.
Kazemi Jaghnab,Hojat(2002).The role of trust in scientific organizations and some effective factors on it
.Masters dissertation of Social Science Research. Tabriz University.
Kakooei,Hossein(2000).Total quality management training. Welfare Organization. Tehran.
Mokhtar Karchagani , Mehran(2002007).Examining the relationship between the trust among high school
teachers of Lanjan and the effectiveness of teachers' performance .Masters dissertation of Educational
Management .Isfahan University.
956
Effectiveness assertive training by role-playing method on mental health
among girl students in high school in the city AZNA
Mohammad hajivand1, Mohammad Reza vajdian2, Ali Akbar Zafarizadeh3,Arezoo lashani4 , and
Shayesteh gharaee ardakani5
1. MA student of Psychology, , Islamic Azad University, arak, Iran
2- Professors; University of Mir shaki, Aligoodarz, Iran
3- Phd Student of Family Counseling, Young Researchers and Elite Club, Khorasgan
(Isfahan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran
4- Department of family counseling University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran
5- Department of counseling and guidance,science and research branch,Islamic Azad university
Tehran,Iran
Abstract
The approach taken in communicating with others is an important factor in social interactions.
One of the most important factors to keep interpersonal relationships healthy is having the ability of
self- assertiveness . The aim of the present study was examining the effectiveness of self-assertiveness
training with role-playing approach on mental health in female first grade high school students in
Azna. The study was quasi-experimental with pre-test, post-test and control group. All female high
school students of Azna consisted the statistical population of this study . 30 female students were
selected randomly and were assigned into experimental and control groups. The research instrument
was General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28). Sampling method of this study was random single-stage
cluster. Among female high schools of Azna , four high schools were chosen and General Health
Questionnaire(GHQ-28) was implemented on students.30 students who got low scores were selected
randomly and were assigned into experimental and control groups with 15 individuals in each group.
Participants of experimental group received self-assertiveness training with role-playing approach for 8
sessions. Participants of control group received no training. Data were analyzed using SPSS-16
software and multivariate covariance analysis. Data analysis showed that there is a significant
relationship between experimental and control groups in the case of mental health (p <0.05 .(Results
showed that self-assertiveness training with role-playing approach
increased mental health in
participants of experimental group.
Keywords: Self-assertiveness , Role-playing ,Mental health.
Introduction
Approach taken in communicating with others is an important factor in social interactions. Poor
communication can lead to unhealthy relationships and increases mental stress. One of the important factors in
keeping interpersonal relationships healthy is having the ability of self-assertiveness. People with poor selfassertiveness skills can cause various problems both for themselves and for the others. More sustained
improvement in behavior and peer acceptance with the help of interventions based on social skills training and
the ability for self-assertiveness increased the use of these methods in treatment of aggressive children and
adolescents. The mentioned interventions are based on this assumption that some negative behaviors such as
aggression arises from the lack of skills which are necessary for having proper and effective communications
with peers. (Ostrov, Pilat, Crick , 2006).Self- assertiveness is a behavior that enables individuals to act in their
favor; Stand on their own feet without any anxiety; express their true feelings honestly; and take their right with
respect to the right of others (Alberti and Emmons, 2001). Also, Reese and Graham (1991, translated by Shehni ,
Yeilagh and Rezaei,2000) believe that self-assertiveness means the ability to express oneself frankly, directly
and properly;appreciating oneself 's feelings and thoughts; and understanding oneself 's strengths and
weaknesses. Lange and Jakubowski (1976) consider self- assertiveness skill as taking the right and
expressing the thoughts , feelings and beliefs properly, directly and honestly in a way that does not violate others'
rights .Now experts are aware of the fact that on time intervention is needed in the mental health of students for
primary prevention and treatment and developing mental health (Charron, Parns, 2004). It should be noted that,
in the case of medical interventions, studies have focused on the effect of interventions providing mental health
on reducing absence from school, teachers and parents training and enhancing social behaviors acceptance in
individuals (Nabors ,Lehmakuhl , 2004).Training developing social relationships and self-assertiveness are of
the interventions that are applied in schools and are considered as parts of social skills. Several studies
emphasize on the role of early childhood behaviors in success and compliance with school. Children who enter
school with poor social behavior face problems such as peer rejection, behavioral problems and low academic
achievement. A study has shown that about 5 percent of children who enter school do not have the minimum
requirements for better performance (such as the ability to develop social relationships, independent performance
and sufficient academic skills) (Morrison, 2003).Self- assertiveness training is suitable for individuals who behave
passively and aggressively in life situations. In fact, this training leads to increased positive experiences and
decreased negative experiences in social interactions (World Health Organization, 2003). Sharghi (2004) found
that self-assertiveness training leads to decrease in social anxiety, aggression and depression. So, the aim of the
present study is examining the effectiveness of self-assertiveness training with role- playing approach on
mental health of female high school students in Azna.
Method
The study was quasi-experimental with pre-test, post-test and control group. All female high school
students of Azna in 2011-2012 consisted the population of this study . 30 female students were selected randomly
and were assigned into experimental and control groups. The research instrument was Mental Health
Questionnaire (GHQ-28). Sampling method of this study was random single-stage cluster. Among female high
schools of Azna , four high schools were chosen and Mental Health Questionnaire(GHQ-28) was implemented on
students.30 students who got low scores were selected randomly and were assigned into experimental and control
groups with 15 individuals in each group. Participants of experimental group received self-assertiveness training with
role-playing approach for 8 sessions. Participants of control group received no training. Participants of control
group were put in waiting list .After completing the intervention sessions in participants of experimental group both
groups were evaluated. Data were analyzed using SPSS-16 software and multivariate covariance analysis.
General Health Questionnaire was used for data collection in this study.
General Health Questionnaire (GHQ): This questionnaire was made by Goldberg (1979) for separating
individuals with mental disorders of the patients that referred to medical centers. Today it is translated into 36
languages. Several researchers (Chioong and Spease, 1994 ) state that this questionnaire can be applied for both
clinical use and for society (Yaghoobi,1995). Dolken, Joes and Handerson (1987) reported the correlation of 76%
for PSE and GHQ questionnaires in Australia(Yaghoobi,1994).Markhashti(1996) in a study entitled examining the
relationship between marital satisfaction and mental health, with equal male and female research sample number,
reported Chronbach's alpha of 92% for this questionnaire and it shows a very strong internal consistency reliability
of this questionnaire.
Procedure
After implementation of General Health Questionnaire, selection and assignment of individuals in the
experimental and control groups, participants of experimental group were exposed to the independent variable for
eight 90-minute sessions for eight weeks. Each session consisted of several parts. In the first part ,the homework
and tasks of the previous session were examined and in the next part training related to the session were
presented and the participants were introduced and trained weekly with one of the core concepts and relevant
tasks of self-assertiveness training with role-playing approach. The aim of the sessions was to encourage the
members to be active in class and express their comments and questions .The presented materials were
objective and practical in order to the members learn the concepts very well and apply them practically. At the end
of each session, homework was given for the next session. The aim of giving homework was to strengthen the
presented content more, and familiarity of the members with the application of the materials in daily life. During this
period the participants of control group received no training. At the end of the eighth session, the participants of
both groups were tested again . A brief explanation of self-assertiveness training with role-playing approach
sessions is presented.
958
The first session: Introduction; presenting definition of self-assertiveness and its benefits; giving homework
in relation to conflicts in the past and remembering the behaviors in previous situations .
The second session: Presenting report of the previous session homework and giving feedback; discussion
about rights of individuals and familiarizing the students with their rights ;giving homework in relation to dealing with
new situations; and preparing a list of ten favorite characteristics such as abilities .
The third session: Discussion about aggressive behaviors and ways to control anger; giving homework
about keeping calmness and control of anger according to the taught methods.
The fourth session: Presenting reports of previous session homework and giving feedback; discussion
about concerns of the rejection of requests and possible answers of the others; giving task about the importance
of others ' judgments in rejecting our requests and proper decision-making before any requests.
The fifth session: Presenting reports of previous session homework and giving feedback; discussion about
the way of coping with criticism and thinking about a wrong behavior that have done recently; giving task about
thinking about our behaviors when did not treated fairly in dealing with the criticism of others.
The sixth session: Presenting reports of previous session homework and giving feedback; discussion
about the importance of saying "No" and "Yes" when it is needed and the cause of inability in saying "Yes" and
"No" ; giving task about importance of saying "No" in preventing problems like addiction to drugs.
The seventh session: Presenting reports of previous session homework and giving feedback ;discussion
about the differences in behaviors of individuals in different situations and self-assertiveness , aggressive and
passive styles ;giving task about analyzing one' s behavior and classifying the behaviors.
The eighth session: Presenting reports of previous session homework and giving feedback ;reviewing the
presented materials of previous sessions, emphasis on expressing ideas, ' Yes 'and ' No' saying, controlling anger
and showing appropriate behavior toward criticism. Participants were appreciated at the end of this session.
Results
Table 1 shows the mean and standard deviation of mental health in participants of experimental and
control groups.
Table 1.mean and standard deviation mental health and sexual satisfaction
Variable
Group
mean
standard
deviation
mental
health
pre-test
Experime
21
7.8
ntal
30
Control
Post-test
Experime
1.8
24
5.4
27
1.05
ntal
Control
As it can be seen in Table 1, the mean and standard deviation of mental health score in the experimental
group increased in post-test compared to the pre-test. The results of Levine Test about the assumption of equality
of variances showed that null hypothesis is confirmed for equality of scores variances in both groups. Therefore, the
analysis continued.
959
Table 2. One-way ANCOVA in the text MANCOVA
Source of change
DF
mental health
Group
SS
179
DF
F
SIG
effect size
9
4.3
0.04
0.14
Table 2 shows that ,with controlling pre-test, there is a significant difference between participants of experimental
and control groups in case of mental health (F =4 .3 , P<0 .04). In other words, self- assertiveness training with
role-playing approach increased mental health in participants of experimental group, considering the mean of
mental health in participants of experimental group than the mean of participants of control group.
Conclusions
The aim of the present study was to examine the effectiveness of self-assertiveness training with role-playing
approach on mental health of female high school students. Results showed that this training is effective on mental
health of the students .Mental health scores of participants of experimental group increased after applying the
independent variable (self-assertiveness training) compared to pre-test .Therefore , it can be said that selfassertiveness training with role-playing approach increased mental health in participants of experimental group
compared to control group. Humans always try to gain some skills to facilitate their communications with others
and foster their personal evolution. Self-assertiveness is one of these skills that has a wide role in interpersonal
relationships and strengthens behaviors such as independency, self-confidence and self-awareness in individual
(Killkus, 1990). Self- assertiveness does not mean aggression. It means that individuals communicate with others
in an organized framework based on specific goals .A relationship that is based on trust, creativity, responsibility,
and maintaining professional characteristics (Astenhob and Lankaster, 1998).The results of the present study are
consistent with the results of studies by Haghighi(2006) , Tavakoli et al. (2009) ,Temple and Robson (1991),
Morgan & Leung (1980), Brown and Karmykayl (1992). Considering the results of the present study teachers and
school counselors are recommended to have enough attention to this component and by helping to gain the selfassertiveness skill ,ensure a better life for individuals throughout their lives in future. Also ,school counselors and
other counselors are recommended to apply this educational method for increasing mental health in students.
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961
The relationship between emotional creativity and identity styles with
internet addiction among male adolescents of Mahalat city
Somayeh Firouzi3, Islamic Azad University, Saveh Branch.
Mansour Abdi, Associate Professor, Arak University
Abstract
The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between emotional creativity and
identity styles with internet addiction among male adolescents of Mahalat City. Statistical
society of the study is included of all male adolescents studying in Mahalat schools.
From among a total of 7000 people (n=7000) of Mahalat adolescents, 381 people were
selected through random sampling method. The selected method is correlation and the
identity revised test questionnaire of Bennion and Adams, Yung internet addiction
disorder test and emotional creativity questionnaire were used for collecting data. For
data analyzing of this study, Pearson correlation coefficient and multi variable regression
were used. The results of Pearson correlation coefficient showed that late identity (r=0.29), successful identity (r=-0.59), early identity (r=-0.54), confused identity (r=-0.50) and
emotional creativity(r=-0.56) have a significant relationship with internet addiction
(P<0.01). The results of multi variable regression showed that 64 % of internet addiction
variance are predicting by emotional creativity and identity style variables.
Keywords: emotional creativity, identity styles, internet addiction and adolescents
Introduction
The number of internet users is significantly increasing. The number of internet users was reported
665 people until December, 2002. Today, internet is considered as a vital tool for many countries, and
thereby it obtains valuable information. Despite this, and despite many advantages and features, the
Internet has created many serious problems such as clumping and data explosion, giving image and
abnormal content and not confiding of information. It is interesting that Internet addiction has close
similarities with other addictions (Beard, 2002). Since the term ‘addiction’ is more associated with
traditional addictions such as alcoholism, nicotine, drugs and gambling, but internet addiction has
confronted with a new face. Increasing personal computers and Internet connections at home and work
has led to the emergence of online addiction. Internet addiction includes addiction to chat rooms,
pornography, online gambling and online purchases. Like other addictions, Internet addiction makes the
addict isolate from his family and his friends. Behavioral addictions, such as addiction to the internet can
cause damage to health, relationships, emotions and ultimately mental health of the person. Therefore,
as the personal computers like television devices find their place in our homes and connecting to the
internet is increasing, so we should take steps to counter with the disadvantages of this new technology (
Yung, 1998) .
"Internet addiction", "disorder caused by excessive use of the Internet" or "irrational and
pathological Internet use" are all terms which are used to describe one of the modern diseases resulting
3
Department of psychology, College of humanities, Saveh science & research branch, Islamic Azad University,
Saveh, Iran.
Tel:+98- 9390678023
E-mail: [email protected]
from the Internet. Regardless of the name of this disease, it must be said that it can be hard to find a
doctor or psychiatrist that had not encountered with the modern digital effects. Family rights lawyers
report from the high rate of divorces due to virtual love, cybersex and other current affairs on the internet
(Bread, 2002). How many workers who have lost their jobs due to excessive use of e-mail, downloading
pornography or unlimited surfing the Web at work. There is no doubt that the internet is the vanguard of
the digital industrial revolution, but this phenomenon, when have its own strong psychological impact on
some people’s lives, shows that it has potential risks in the bag. Internet is not the way we think, but also
it has strong addictive potential effects. Creativity in psychologists' view, is categorized as supreme
processes of reflection, while emotions mostly are considered animal’s heritage before humans as noncognitive processes. Emotional creativity is the result of spiritualizing the emotions. There are two ways of
looking at spirituality: one way of looking at spirituality is as a model that takes place during a mystical
experience (an experience that is associated with the sacred) (Amabil, 2005). Another way of looking at
spirituality is as special features in the emotional states and these features are also seen in mystical
experiences. At last look, spirituality necessarily has not the ontological meaning in connection with the
sacred but simply refers to the common features of mystical experiences that if it doesn’t flows on
emotional experiences, the experiences will be transformed into innovative products that are innovative,
original, and extremely effective ( Amabil, 2005).
Avril (1999) believed that emotional creativity is: voicing their honesty in a new way (innovation or
novelty) that based on it, the individual lines of thought are developed and his interpersonal relations
increase (effectiveness). According to this definition, novelty, effectiveness and honesty are considered
as three main elements of emotional creativity. Novelty is the ability to change the usual emotions and
creating new emotional state that is contrary to the norms and standards or a new combination of
common emotions of individual. Effectiveness refers to the coordination of creative response to the social
and cultural context so that it makes possible the favorable relationship with others in a way that it would
cause to provide a better way of thinking. Honesty in the expression of emotions means that emotions
must be derived from one’s beliefs. According to this criterion, when the individual expresses his sense of
excitement in appropriate conditions and location and contrary to the belief of his feelings he has not
adhered the criterion of truth and so it will not be considered emotional creative (Quoted from Sarajeh
1390). However, each stage of human development has special growth assignments and tasks and in
various developmental theories, different developmental tasks are attributed to the period of youth.
According to the theory of psychological-social development of Erikson, the most important task of
adolescence is overcoming the identity crisis and acquisition of a strong and consistent identity (Akhundi,
1998). Identity is the self-concept and through it, individual will achieve an integrated sense of self and
accordingly deals with value judgment in his life.
Marcia's identity is defined in terms of construction of an inner self, including their constructions,
belief systems, desires, beliefs, skills and personal history that in fact is the result of a crisis (Akhundi,
1998). From the perspective of professionals, stormy and critical understanding of this period is
dependent on the relationships in the family and it has significant influence and impact on adolescent
development (Greenspan, 2005) and is considered as the most important institution in shaping the child's
identity.
Scherer (1997) in a study showed that teens with identity confusion are more likely to take refuge on
the Internet and cyberspace to find their identity. Holden (2001) in a study showed that more young
people who are looking to the Internet and to spend long hours in it, have a confused identity. Leung
(2004) in a study showed that the dependence on the Internet have created severe fragmentation and
discontinuity in academic, social, financial, and business life of participants so that 58% of pupils and
students have a significant reduction in study habits, declining grades, absenteeism in classes, probation,
loss, emotional creativity, and so on.
Ghazanfari (2007) in a study with the title of the investigation of the relationship of family patterns
and religious beliefs with identity status among adolescents of Isfahan showed that there is a significant
relationship between early identification during adolescence and behavioral patterns of strict parents. Also
there was a significant relationship between the successful identity in adolescence and permissively
behavior of the parents. There was a significant relationship between permissive parenting style and
identity confusion.
Mazalin and Moore (2004) in a study showed that men who are addicted to the Internet have higher
levels of social anxiety and lack of identity. In Moayed far et AL’s study (2007) on Internet users aged 15
to 25 conducted in Tehran, the results showed that 6.26% of users had emotional addiction, 9.34% had
addictive behavior and 6.22% had cognitive addiction to the Internet and totally, 8.26% of users were
internet addicts.
963
In Sheck, Tang and Lu’s study (2008), in a research conducted on Chinese adolescents, reached
the conclusion that 1.19% of Chinese teenagers are addicted to the Internet and this issue can affect their
physical and psychological health and their family life and result in a depression in them.
Karlinz and Holrij (2008) have designed and implemented extensive studies in the field of Internet
addiction and social impacts of it. Their findings showed that the most effective impact of internet
addiction is the reduction of the social communications and the level of the user's identity.
Also, the Internet addicts have a lower level of identity than regular users. Mohseni (2002) in a
study showed that the Internet users are more creative and self-efficacy in attribution to those who do not
use the Internet. Ghannadi (2003) in a study showed that there is a negative relationship between the
successful identity style and Internet addiction or the number of hours of Internet use. Conversely,
adolescents who are suffering from a suspended identity, further refuge to the Internet to access their
identity.
Sadock, & Sadock (2007) in a study showed that people who are prone to Internet addiction simply
become bored and depressed. They are Lonely, timid and shy and suffer from depression or other forms
of addiction and are less creative than other people who use the Internet less. Shell (2009) argued that
the roots of internet addiction is linked to the early years of life. In other words, the main reasons of the
Internet's addictive tendencies, mental shocks, or emotional deficiencies in childhood have a relationship
with other certain personality traits or other disorders and inheritance psychological tendencies or traits.
According to this view, based on individual incidents that happened in childhood or individual characters
which is formed during puberty, he will be prone to strengthen an addictive behavior or any other manner.
In this case, what is important is not the topic or activity, but is an individual and conditions when he will
become addicted by influencing of it.
Howland et al (2009) in a study conducted to identify the impact of Internet use on identity, found
that by increasing the time of using the Internet for conducting activities such as web surfing and chatting,
the possibility of having the weaker identity is more.
Hagh shenas (2010) in a study showed that students who have more identity confusion move
more toward the Internet.
Thomas (2011) in a study showed that adolescents who have high emotional creativity are more
likely to be drawn toward Internet addiction. Bagby (2012) in a study showed that the high emotional
creativity is the base of tendencies toward addictive behaviors.
Gombor (2013) in another study showed that teens who have not achieved a successful identity
are more inclined toward internet addiction and other addictions.
"Therefore, this study seeks to answer this question: Do the creative emotional and identity styles
associate with Internet addiction?
The correlational method is used in this study. This type of research seeks to discover and explore the
relationships between variables. The study sample consisted of all male students studying in normal high
schools in Mahalat City and the number of students in 1392 assessed 7000 students (N =7000). Due to
the size of the population and Morgan table (1975), the sample size of the study was 381 peoples who
were selected by simple random sampling method from among all high school students of Mahalat.
The data collection method
The performing method in this study was attending the Department of Education by providing a letter
of introduction from the Azad University of Saveh, and the subjects were interviewed and examined. In
gathering the required information, the questionnaire was used. After preparing the list of teenagers and
selecting them, at first the aim of the study was explained to them. This test was then given to them and
they were asked to express their opinion carefully. Information was collected on an individual basis and
on their location, then obtained data were analyzed using SPSS software.
Tools
The following tools were used for data collection.
1 - Identity Style Questionnaire (ISI-6G): Identity Style questionnaire (Broneskeiy, 1992)is a 40-item
scale that 11 items related to the informational scale, 9 items related to normative scales and 10 items
964
related to the avoidant confusion scale and other 10 items related to the commitment scale used for
secondary analysis and they are not considered as an identity style. Participants responded to the
questions in a Likert scale of 5 points including a strongly disagree = 1 to fully agree = 5.
Broneskeiy (1992) has reported that the internal reliability (alpha coefficient) of informational scale was
0.62, normative scale was 0.66, and the avoidant confusion scale was 0.73.
In White et AL’s study (1998), it has been reported that the alpha coefficients for the avoidant
confusion scale (alpha ISI-6G=0.78 and form of main ISI, alpha = 0.77) was more than normative scale
(Form of alpha ISI-6G =64.0 and Form of main ISI, alpha= 67.0) and informational scale (form of Alpha
ISI-6G=0.59 and form of main ISI, alpha =0.64). These coefficients are similar to the reported coefficients
by Broneskeiy (1992) and White and Jones (1996). Broneskeiy and Sullivan (1992) found that the
informational scale is divided into two factors which indicated the upper and lower commitment and
shows that the informational style score is a complex variable. Therefore, the lower reliability of
informational scale is not surprising. Changing the commitment can be used to separate individuals with
high and low commitment in informational scale (Broneskeiy, 1994). Totally, the scale of ISI-6G is parallel
with the scale of main ISI and is related to the sizes of the various criteria in a predicted method.
Broneskeiy and Sullivan (1992) proposed the converting of raw scores to Z scores for classifying
individuals. Classifying the individuals according to the highest raw score in scale, appears to be a simple
method but the investigation of the mean of responses to questions of 3 identity styles (with raw scores)
in different samples shows that the most subscribers are in normative or informational style category
(Broneskeiy, 1993, Broneskeiy & Sullivan 1992, White and Jones, 1996) which shows the strong social
acceptance factor. Recommended classification in terms of the highest scores of Z is a way of reducing
this orientation and makes more individuals to be in the avoidant confusion category. This method of
scoring creates a classified identical variable and is essential for researchers who are interested in
examining other variables that differ in terms of identity style (Such as using ANOVA to compare
differences between identity style groups with a continuous dependent variable or through analyzing the
difference with the continuous variables that predict the identity styles).
Another method of analyzing identity style scores is the mean of responses of all sample (based on
raw score) for each style and each individual and is correlational as the continuous dependent variable.
This method allows researchers to predict which groups have the higher raw scores for each identity
style. People who agree to select one of these options will have greater happiness and greater orientation
in life than those who will not be successful in investigation and unlikely commitment. The people with the
normative identity style also are very similar to those who have informational identity styles in sense of
optimism, interdependence and being religious.
ISI-6G test validity
White et al (1998) studied the convergent validity by agreement between the original form of ISI and
the form of ISI-6G and observed that the raw scores of both scales are very similar. The correlation
coefficient of the two forms was high and was significant in the level of >P0.001 (informational = 0.81
normative = 0.85 and avoidant confusion= 0.85).
White et al (1998) also classified people to three identity styles using Z scores, and made
continuous raw scores of personality scales such as optimism, mutual interdependence and being
religious for each group. Variance analysis results showed that there are significant differences between
groups. Post hoc test showed that there is a significant difference between the subjects of avoidant
confusion group and the other two groups, in all three scales. People with informational identity style,
have higher optimism scores and less interdependence. They show a behavior pattern and attitude that
led the future-oriented volition for exploration to become a useful option in different situations. Individuals
with higher raw scores of avoidant identity confusion were earlier started drinking alcohol and vice versa,
individuals that had higher scores of informational and normative identity style began drinking later
(criterion validity).
Identity style questionnaire ISI-6G reliability
In a study in Isfahan on students of girl and boy high schools, aged 14 to 20 years old, Cronbach’s
alpha coefficient was calculated on the events of the original sample (1832 = N) to evaluate the internal
consistency of identity style questionnaire. The results show that the obtained coefficients and calculated
values by Broneskeiy (1992) and White et al (1998) are very close. In recent study, the Goldberg Health
scale is used for identity style questionnaire’s validity (GHQ-28). The correlation coefficients between the
scores of the subjects in the three identity styles and public health scale and its subscales for all subjects
965
(informational style with mental health, r= 0.73, normative style with mental health, r= 0.227, avoidant
confusion style with mental health, r =- 0.041, and commitment style, r=0.31) indicates the validity of the
identity style questionnaire.
In addition, Cronbach’s Alpha was reported as 0.62 for informational identity style and 0.66 for the
normative style and 0.73 for confusion avoidance identity style. Abdolmaleki et al (2007) have reported
the questionnaire’s reliability as follows. Informational style scale as 0.87, normative style as 0.87,
avoidant confusion style as 0.83 and commitment as 0.89, which indicates the high reliability of the
questionnaire.
2 - Yang’s Internet Addiction Test
Given the lack of consensus on diagnostic criteria for Internet addiction, researchers on their
studies have developed and applied various questionnaires to measure these phenomena. Among these
measures, the 8-item questionnaire of Yang has been used in most studies. Following the 8-item
questionnaire of Young, perhaps it can be said that the 20-item test of him has been used most
commonly. In internet addiction test, the reader should respond to each of the 20 items on a five-grade
Likert scale including never, rarely, sometimes, often or always. The test score ranges from 0 to 100,
which a higher score indicates a greater reliance on the Internet and Intensive nature of the problems that
are made in result of excessive usage of it for the person. The Young's instructions are used to evaluate
the resulting scores. This means that the score of 20 to 49 indicates the normal user, the user's score of
50 to 79 indicates that the user is in risk and score of 80 to 100 indicates that the user is an addict.
Cronbach's alpha for the implementation of the IAT in Sweden is obtained as 0.95 and in Korea it is
obtained as 0.90. Also in Iran, the 20-item Internet Addiction test of Yang, Ghasemzade (2007),
Cronbach’s alpha is obtained as 0.88 and Nastizayi, in a study obtained Cronbach’s alpha as 0.81.
3 - Emotional creativity questionnaire
The CREE questionnaire production basis was a study which was conducted in 1954 under the
guidance of Thorston and MILIN JER In the Psychometric Laboratory of the University of North Carolina
covered by the General Motors corporation. The CREE questionnaire is a half-hidden test of creativity
and can be used to identify the creative potential of individuals. There are 30 items in this test and
Cronbach’s alpha coefficients and the retest of this scale is reported as 0.92 and 0.79 respectively. The
results showed that there was a significant negative correlation between these two scales(r=0.54). In a
preliminary investigation conducted on 40 students, validity coefficient was obtained as 0.77 and
Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was calculated as 0.95 (Abedi, 2010).
Statistical analysis method
For data analyzing of this study, the descriptive statistic tools such as Frequency tables, mean and
standard deviation were used to describe the data and also Pearson correlation coefficient and multivariables regression were used to examine the hypothesis with entry and step by step method.
Table 1: Mean and standard deviation of component of identity styles among adolescents of Mahalat City
components
variable
SD
M
3 .78
19 .93
Informational
Identity
8 .68
22 .73
Commitment
styles
5 .16
43 .66
Avoidant
2 .29
13 .69
11 .26
67 .52
confusion
Normative
Total
As seen in the table 1, the mean (and SD) of total score of identity styles among adolescents of Mahalat
is 67.52 (and 13.69).
Table 2: Mean and standard deviation of Internet addiction and emotional creativity among adolescents of
Mahalat
SD
M
Variable
Internet addiction
4 .38
24 .94
Emotional creativity
5 .5
31 .41
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As seen in the table 2, Mean (and SD) of Internet addiction score is 24.94 (and 4.38) and emotional
creativity score is 31.41 (and 5.5) among adolescents of Mahalat.
The main hypothesis:
There is a relationship between the emotional creativity and identity styles with Internet addiction among
adolescents of Mahalat City.
Sub hypotheses:
There is a relationship between the emotional creativity and Internet addiction among adolescents
of Mahalat.
There is a relationship between the Identity styles and internet addiction among adolescents of
Mahalat.
Based on the emotional creativity and identity style’s variables we can predict the Internet addiction
among adolescents of Mahalat.
Table 3: The correlation coefficient between emotional creativity and identity styles with Internet addiction
among adolescents of Mahalat.
Internet addiction
Variable
**-0 .29
Informational
***-0 .59
Commitment
***-0 .54
Avoidant
confusion
Normative
***-0 .50
Emotional
creativity
P**<0 .01
***-0 .56
Results of Table 3 shows that there is a significant relationship between emotional creativity and identity
styles with Internet addiction.
The results of Pearson correlation coefficient showed that the informational identity (r= -0.29),
commitment (r=- 0.59), avoidant confusion (r=-0.54), the normative identity (r= -0.50 ), and emotional
creativity (r=-0.56) have a significant relationship with Internet addiction (>P0.01). Therefore our main
hypothesis is confirmed, and the first and second hypothesis of sub-hypotheses are confirmed also.
Table 4: Results of multiple regression analysis for prediction of the Internet addiction among adolescents
of Mahalat
T(p)
P
F
MS
Df
SS
model
0 .0001
134 .70
2213 .17
16 .43
ARS
3
195
198
RS
6639 .51
3203 .85
9843 .36
R
regression
The remaining
total
Predictor
variables
0 .526
0 .528
0 .727
0 .641
0 .644
0 .803
**P<0.01
***3 .78
***-14 .85
Standard
coefficient
Beta
-0 .727
Non-standard
coefficients
B
SE
12.63
3 .34
-0.344
0 .023
***7 .99
0 .424
0 .500
0 .062
***P<0.001
Fixed value
Emotional
creativity
Identity styles
To determine the effect of each of the variables, emotional creativity and identity styles as predictor
variables and the Internet addiction as criterion variable in the regression equation were analyzed by
967
entry method. In the Table, the observed amount of F is significant and 64% of the variance of Internet
addiction is predicted by emotional creativity and identity styles variables. According to the beta values,
emotional creativity (B=-0.727) and identity styles (B=0.424) can predict the changes related to the
internet addiction in adolescents of Mahalat significantly. The third Hypothesis from sub-hypothesis is
confirmed.
The aim of current study was to investigate the relationship between emotional creativity and identity
styles with Internet addiction among adolescents of Mahalat City. Pearson correlation coefficient’s results
showed that there is a negative relationship between emotional creativity with Internet addiction, thus, our
first sub-hypothesis is confirmed. This result is consistent with the findings of Akhundi(1377), Bread(2002)
and Amil (2005) which showed that there is a relationship between emotional creativity and Internet
addiction among adolescents of Mahalat City. Internet users have less creativity and self-efficacy than
those who do not use the internet and addiction to the Internet has created ruptures and severe
curtailments in academic, social, financial, and business lives of the participants. Internet addiction roots
are linked to the early years of the person’s life. In other words, the main reasons of the addictive
tendencies of the person to the Internet is the mental shock or emotional deficiencies in childhood,
relationship with certain personality traits or other disorders and characteristics or inherited psychological
tendencies. According to this view, depending on incidents that happened in childhood or personality
characteristics which is formed during puberty, the individual will be prone for reinforcing an addictive
behavior or any other behavior. In this case, what is important is not topic or activity, but is the individual
and conditions that he will be an addict by influencing of them.
The findings are inconsistent also; on the other hand, some scientists believe that this new
phenomenon of human knowledge that has found its way to almost all aspects of human life, like the
other human's builds has two sides. One side is the correct use in works and help in growth and human
prosperity. The other side is the wrong use that often is used in everything except in cases of job and
education (Mohammadi, 1382). Using computers facilitates learning and increases attention of children
(same source.). Also, Using computer and its games increases the problem-solving skills of users and
this process will lead to improvement in their academic performance. Unprincipled and too much
computer working can also create mental trauma. According to researchers, working too much and being
away from workers in the workplace can lead to stress and mental health problems. It must be said that
using computer does not cause stress but heavy work causes psychological stress and discomfort.
According to the research results, as well as the experts say, it must be said that the harmful
consequences of continuing to work with the computer, if it is not with rest and safety, can be broad,
diverse and comprehensive like the positive effects of using this magic device.
The results of Pearson correlation coefficient showed that there is a relationship between identity
styles and internet addiction among adolescents of Mahalat City; thus, our main hypothesis is confirmed.
This result can be related to the findings of Ghannadi (1382), Scherre (1997), Sadock, & Sadock (2007)
and Shell (2009), which showed that there is a relationship between identity styles and Internet addiction
among adolescents of Mahalat City. There is a negative relationship between the successful identity style
and internet addiction or number of hours of Internet use. Conversely, adolescents who are suffering a
suspended identity, turn more to the Internet to access their identity. It was also seen that teens with
identity confusion are more likely to take refuge on the Internet and cyberspace to find their identity.
Mostly, teenagers who have identity confusion are looking for Internet and spending long hours on it.
Identity formation means the process of personal changes integrity, social demands and
expectations for the future including creating a sense of oneness and unity of character which is felt by
the person and is known by others as being the same from time to time (Erikson, 1981). Creating the
identity means that the teenager knows who he is, what is considered as value for him and what ways he
has chosen to pursue in life. Those who cannot make an integrated picture of themselves as a distinct
person and reach identity have identity confusion; " These are teenagers who cannot find themselves,
teenagers who keep themselves regardless of their transplantation and are kept in a state of celibacy and
968
remain before identity formation period "(Duan and Adelson, 1966). They have Vague and confused
characters like the alien in his native land without root, undated, confused between past and future, or in
other words, they are a self-alienation human and drawn to the Internet and addictive behaviors to find
their identity.
Ego identity is a feeling that is experienced consciously; a feeling that will arise by exchanging of the
person with his social reality. One's identity is constantly changing and turning in response to changes in
the social environment. Despite this transformation, Erikson emphasized on two aspects, continuity and
consistency of individuals over time, and a sense of unity and this sameness of the person despite the
passage of time. Ericsson believes that creating and maintaining a strong sense of Ego identity is very
important and it is from individual tasks during life. Lack of making such sense is a predisposing factor of
emotional trauma.
When the conflict between the identity and perplexity in social role for teenagers is resolved, the
commitment forms. Committed in adolescents is "continuing freely loyalty talent to a social system, with
its contrasting values of the society". Erickson notes that if the sense of loyalty does not develop, the
individual in early adulthood will encounter with a disregard and lack of commitment (self-confident loss
and the inability to look after the others) or with following a kind of worldview which is completely nondemocratic and inconsistent with the world ethics and this will bring teens into addictive behavior. In fact,
the relationship between identity and addictive behavior is a two-way relationship (Shahr Aray, 1384).
To determine the effect of each of the emotional creativity and identity style variables as predictor
variables and Internet addiction as criterion variables in the regression equation were analyzed by entry
method. In the Table, the amount of F is significant and 64% of the Internet addiction variance are
predicted by the emotional creativity and identity style variable. According to the beta values, emotional
creativity (B=- 0/727), identity styles (B= 0/424) can predict the changes related to the Internet addiction
significantly among adolescents of Mahalat City.
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Sports tourism, job creation and green economy
Mohammad Hossein Mirsoleymani1, MohammadReza Mirsoleymani2
1 - MA of sport management, Young Researchers Club Azad University Eghlid, Eghlid, Iran
2 – Executive Officer Environment, Environmental Protection Agency, Fars Province
Abstract:
The tourism industry in Iran has very high potential for growth and development.According to the
World Tourism Organization, Iran has the tenth rank in the ancient and historical attractions and the fifth
rank in natural attractions in the world, and is one of the safest countries in the region and the world in
terms of security for foreign tourists. The research method in this review is descriptive in terms of
strategy,content analysis in terms ofthe implementation path,application in terms of purpose,
documentative in terms of data collection,and cross-sectional in terms of time of study. Using this
method,the research deals withdirect study of texts, books, papers, documents, and policies related to
sports tourism, job creation and green economy. Due to international concerns regarding employment
with green economy thinking to achieve sustainable development, it is essential that consistent with
learning principles and effective components green economy, by the development of interdisciplinary jobs,
make the dream of green economy to become a reality.Sports tourism is a global phenomenon that can
contribute to economic development, particularly in the green economy field.The boom in sports tourism
can contribute to poverty alleviation, development ofthe globalization culture,and reinforcement of human
values. It also helps to reduce social harms such as unemployment, cultural invasion and increaseof
physical and mental health in the society.
Keyword : tourism, sport, green economy
Introduction
Rapid growth of technology,has made the vast and elusive world of yesterday toa global village today, which is
associated with some of the world challenges and blessings such as phenomena like globalization, sustainable
development,international industry and trade of goods and services. This gave rise to the challenges such as
poverty, unemployment, cultural exchange,and the indiscriminate use of natural resources. Human societies to
control and reduce these challenges have thought of achieving global economic by proper use of resources and
have develop a green economy that is linked to other industries.One of these industries is sport with the component
of sport tourism that tries to reduce the challenges. For understanding the importance of and how to eliminate
unemployment and job creation of tourism and establishing global culture, it is important to answer the following
questions:
1 –What are the features of sports activities, goods and services?
2 –What is the importance of sports tourism employment by communicating with the Green economy?
3 - What is the relationship between sports tourism and job creation?
Main Text
What are the features of sports activities, goods and services?
Nowadays, with the advancement of technology, job creation and wealth creation in the country has been
created in various ways, and then we saw the rise of emerging industries that until recently were not considered
imaginable in commercial and industrial terms. But due to the change in motivations, needs and goals of people,are
suddenly looked as a new industry.Sports activities with the process of globalization have become a universal
needhave developed in societies regardless of time, gender, age and economic classdimensions.Activities and
sporting goods have certain features that are affected by how services are offered to sports fans, and familiarity with
the standards, rules and sport charters will make them more effective (Kouzehchian,khatibzadeh,Honarvar,1390).
One of emerging sporting goods that has considerable impact oncultural communication is sports tourism. Sport
tourism industry today is more than a social economic phenomenon in global level (Zeitounli,Honary,Farahani,
1390).Sports tourism is a subset of the tourism industry which is known as the second largest source of income in
the world which helps to poverty alleviation and job creation.(Shojaei,et al.).According to the World Tourism
Organization, someone whogoesto a territory other than their usual residence andresidethere for leisure or business
more than 24 hours and less than twelve months, is called tourists.Tourism refers to travel for recreation and leisure
or for business purpose.Tourists can set their trip destination for a variety of reasons, weather, cultural, historic and
scenic areas,economic conditions and... are all determinants (Mojtabavi,Bahmanpoor, 1387).The society and sports
industry of a country can attract sport tourists with its various products,sporting goods are divided into two types of
tangible goods (equipment) and nontangible goods (Sport Experience).Sports tourism, in addition to having the
proper equipment types and environments, requires equipment such as backpacks, shoes, clothing and other
equipment which are given to tourists by the sports industry as physical and tangible goods. But other types of nontangible goods and services can be expected from the sport industry and society which are inspired by the culture,
politics and society relationship.Perhaps poor management and lack of proper culture causes bitter things occur for
tourists that make them not tothink on returning back to that area again, althoughthe region makes best resources
available for them.
What is the importance of sports tourism employment by communicating with the Green
economy?
One of the main concerns of contemporary societies is thoughtful engagement with natural resource in such a
way that future generations of mankind get no damage for the poor productivity. A green economy is one way of
proper resource management in today's society, that by underlying the use of the principles of nature, tries to
reconcile man with nature. So many different subjects that are relatedto nature, by their practical knowledge of
nature can symbolizes the future approach of humans to deal with poverty. Such poverty finds expression within
different economic, cultural and political arenas.According to various phenomena associated with multiple strains,
achieving sustainable development in the shadow of the green economy is possible only by creating interdisciplinary
jobs, measure the advantages and disadvantages of various programs in multidimensional way by studying and
planning for every phenomenon.One critical component to achieve sustainable development is
usinginterdisciplinary science to study various phenomena in multidimensional ways. Given the close relationship of
sporting activities and goods including sports tourismwith nature, the power of propaganda and culture of sport can
be used to institutionalize a culture of sustainable development of the green economy.Sports tourists of different
nations as representatives of their nations can establish multiple interactions to deliver cultural messages on the
nature friendship and convey benefits to human nature practically. In this regard, sports tourism by connecting green
economy and the nature is seeking for job creation and transmission of culture in the wake of globalization
whichmust be analyzed and critiqued based on the global view of the economy and culture.
What is the relationship between sports tourism and job creation?
Today, sports are not just recreational activities, but also by interacting with components such as politics,
culture and economy have become a global phenomenon.Universal and similar needs of humans to physical and
mental healthhave ledthe physical phenomenato be converted to one of the most effective means to meet that
need. In fact, when we state about sporting goods or services,we should have a certain context of sport that identify
sport activities and services, since the sport goods and services find meaning by this context. For example, jumping
over a hurdle in front of thousands of people in a field covered by specific rules is a sport activity, while jumping from
a fountain when walking in the countryside is just trying not to wet one's feet. Although this practice by enjoying sport
contexts within the fielder sprints has meant sport (virtual library of electronic publishing in Iran, 1390).Globalization
has led sporting goods and services to become a kind of income increasingindustry. Many people by enjoying the
commercial space in sport view sport as a profession that can generate employment and lead to more dynamic
economy and provideeducational role to be effective in humans.Sports tourism is one of the developing areas of
tourism. Games and sporting events like the World Cup and the Olympics will attract many foreign and domestic
974
tourists, and this gathering of tourists is the starting point for many cultural and economic interactions
(Honarvar,Ghafouri,Farzan et al.).Nowadays, sports tourism is an important source of profit and income. This has
led different countries to look at the phenomenon of sports tourism as an opportunity and offerlong-term plans to
raise their sports tourism potential to local and foreign enthusiasts (ghiami Rad,Moharramzadeh, Bagherpour,
1387).With the development of technology which has affected people's lives today, a universal need known as
leisure has caused tourism to be considered as an important factor for spending leisure time in human societies
(Kadivar,Saghaei, 1385).Given framework that was presented for sport activities, it can be concluded that sports
tourists in different fields require different hardware and software resources to be presented to them by the people of
temporary or permanent position, whichhelps permanent and part-time jobs to be created. Imagine climbing team
activities that require different equipment that should be present in the location. Also, for the safety of the climbers,
there is need to a variety of supports such as local guides and guards that makes some people todeal with this in
organized and professional way, which creates permanent and part-time jobs.Sports tourists, by establishing links
with competitions such as hiking, desert hiking, skiing and other events related to Nature, in practice, can cause
sports lovers to be familiar with the nature, and let them to think about protecting the environment and create jobs
and generate income with a focus on healthy interaction with the nature, which leads to satisfaction of tourists and
members of the community, that repeatsand strengthens this experience, which in turn gives rise to a injection of
material and non-material capitals to society to achieve a green economy.
Conclusions:
Today, tourism is one of the contexts for active economy used bydifferent countries for job creation and
exchange of technology because of the political, communications,and cultural benefits and international influences
(Asadi,Pournaqi,Esfahani et al., 1389).In this regard, Iranian villages, despite having a natural resource that can be
used as a stimulus for sports tourism,are encountered by economic difficulties.This raises the necessary to consider
supplement economical solutions such as rural tourism development and promotion of sports tourism.Rural tourism
can include a wide range of sports tourism activities, including recreation - sportsmounting (Sajadian, 1390). The
existence of such potentialsincreases the need for plansto be formulated. However, when tourism planning,
sufficient attention should be paid to the needs and requirements of different segments of the society, since the
decisions that are contrary to the needs and interests of audience segments, cause dissatisfaction and lack of
welcome (Varwesi, Taghveai,Soltani, 1390). Planning can practically meets the needs of sports tourists in which the
interdisciplinary scientific teams, including disciplines in physical education, sociology, geography, psychology and
athletes representatives can have an active role.
Resources:
Asadi, H., Pournaqhi, A., Esfahani, n., and Zeitounli, H. (2010) studying several dimensions in Iranian sport tourism,
Tourism Quarterly, no. 13, pp. 47-63.
Zeitoonli, A. H., Honari, H, Farahani, A. (2011) Identification of sport tourism capabilities in Golestan province, Sport
management and dynamic sciences research, no. 1, pp. 71-83.
Sajjadian N., Sajjadian, M (2011) Feasibility study of recreational-sport climbing in tourism for Mazandaran province
using GIS, Housing and rural environment quarterly, no. 139, pp. 85-100.
Shojaei, V., Tejari, F., Soleimani, B., and Dousti M (2012) Sport tourism planning for Mazandaran province,
geographical space quarterly, no. 39, pp. 173-194.
Ghiami Rad, A., Moharramzadeh, M., and Bagherpour, H. (2008)Examining the relationship between athletic
directors and managers perspectives of tourism and sports tourism in Iran, Olympics Quarterly
Kadivar, A. A., Saghaei, M. (2006) organizing tourism in suburban parks (1) case study of Akhlamad valley,
Geographic studies quarterly, no. 83, pp. 111-134.
Kouzehchian, H., Khatibzadeh, M., Honarvar, A. (2011)the role ofDimensionsofservice qualityin thetourismand
sportstourismsatisfaction, management and dynamic sciences research, no. 2, pp. 19-32.
Varesi, H. R., Taghvaei, M., Soltani, L. (2011) Analysis of the tourism space ofSoffehHighland Park based on the
environmental behavior and perceptions of Esfahanicitizens, Journal of Physical Society of Iranian
Geography association, no. 29, pp. 109-128.
Honarvar, A., Ghafouri, F., Farzan, F., Sharifian, E. (2007) important factors in tourism marketing in Iran, Olympics
quarterly, no. 40, pp. 31-44.
Mojtabavi, Kourosh, Bahmanpour, H. (2008) Sport tourism, Iranian national committee for olympics publication.
975
The investigation and comparison of individuals’ risking under
the treatment of MMT and normal individuals
Mohammad Shahkarami*1, Sirous Moradizadeh2, Leila Mirzaie3, Atefeh Veiskaramian4
1-M.A student in family counseling, Tehran Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran
2-M.A ofEducational Psychology and Counselor of counseling center in Education, Lorestan,
Iran
3-M.A student in General Psychology, Arak Science and Research University, Arak, Iran
4-M.A student in General Psychology, Borujerd Science and Researchbranch, Iran
Abstract
The main aim of the current study is to draw a comparison of individuals’ risk taking
under treatment of MMT and normal individuals in Khoramabad city. The present study
employed a descriptive study and the sample was selected by random sampling from
among the individuals under the treatment individuals and referring to Khoramabad
addiction treatment centers which included 40 individuals under the treatment and 40
normal individuals residing adjacent to the centers matched in terms of the age and
educational level. They were evaluated using a 21-item questionnaireand the data were
analyzed by T-test. The results of the data revealed that, there was significant difference
between the risk of MMT individuals under the treatment and the normal individuals in
Khoramabad city which was significant at p<.005.
Keywords:risk taking, the addicted individuals under the treatment, normal individuals
Introduction
Today, the phenomenon of being addicted to theopium and heroinis one of the intricate difficulties
in the world which has been in the limelight of the scientists as the fourth problem in the world after
nuclear crisis, population explosion,and environment pollution. Till before 1964, this phenomenon was
called addiction, but as the WHO recommended, the words of addiction was replaced by the words of
substance abuse and substance dependence (Sadock 2007).Controlling the dependence on addiction is
very important to our country. Iran shares the same borderline with Pakistan and Afghanistan as the main
producers of poppy and opium in the world and is in the transit rout of these addictive and hazardous
substances to Europe and as a result is acutely vulnerable(Shusudefeski, translated by Pouya, 2003).In
addition, it is considered as one of the painful realities of the society and as a dire threat for social,
economic and hygienic dimensions in the society (Momtaz, 2002). High-risk personal factors, the
conditions during the adolescence,inherited traits, personality factors and the positive attitude to addiction
are among these factors, out of which inherited traits and personality factors are of paramount importance
in the diagnosis of individuals at risk. These factors should be seriously taken into account. It has been
emphasized that the acceptance from friends results in addiction increase (Gorgin, 2006). Dependence
and abusing the addiction result in adverse and deleterious biological, cultural,metal, social and
behavioral consequences (Walace, 2003 cited in Haji Alizadeh Naziri and Modares Qoruri, 2008). From
among the effective ways of positive treatment of the addicted person is the mental recognition of the
addicted person and treating him/her (Marmani et al, 2007). The efficiency of Methadone in heroin
addicted persons has been repeatedly verified in various experiments (Jiajomozi et al, 2002). Using
Methadone as a pharmaceutical therapy assists individuals in controlling their dependence (Ardeliank,
2001). This international approach treatment has been known as an effective method for the treatment of
individuals (WHO, 2004). It is believed that,Methadone not only helps in treating the addicted but also
affects mental and physical aspects of individuals (Mosteshari, 2011). Kar, Gorg and Goror (2003) define
risk taking as the behaviors that increase the likelihood of negative and destructive psychological and
social effects. Actions like aggression self-harm, tattooing, shared injecting and unprotected sexual
behaviors are among the risk-taking behaviors. Naturally, practical and accurateprevention and treatment
result in reducing these behaviors. Human has higher potential for taking risk as compared to any other
creature (Lorner &Kerner, 2001). Despite theattempts which have been made in the last two decades to
increase the general awarenesstoward the dangerous behaviors, we still observe that, such behaviors
are on the rise specifically among the youth and adolescents (Soleimaninia, 2005).Studies done in the
field of addiction have presented numerous high-risk factors for this disorder including family tension,
educational problems, depression, personality disorders, peer addiction and early addiction to cigarette
(Sadock and Sadock; translated by Rafiee & Rezaiee, 2005). The studies done by Loliz et al (2000)
showed that, there is significant difference among the threegroups that tooksimultaneous Methadone and
drug, the under-treatment individuals taking Methadone and the normal individuals(Gossop, 2002).Dolan
et al (1998) in a study showed that, the under treatment individualstaking Methadone were in less risk in
comparison to the addicted persons and use less common syringe. Furthermore, in a study done by
Broyer et al, it was shown that, Methadone can be effective in the prevention of diseases like AIDS and
hepatitis (Broyers, 1998).
This descriptive research was conducted using random sampling from among 40 individuals
under the treatment and 40 normal individuals adjacent to the treatment centers matched in terms of age
and educational level in Khoramabad city.
To measure the risky behaviors, the YRBSS questionnaire was used (Bakhshani et al, 2007).
This 21-item form which was designed in American disease control centers measured the intensity of
high-risk behaviors related to the aggression, high-risk sexual intercourse, nourishment and physical
movement, and not having good friends. Berner et al carried out this questionnaire in a two-week time
interval and Kappa correlation for all the items ranged between 236 and 90.5 percent. In Iran, Bakhshaiee
et al (2007) estimated the reliability of the questionnaire to be 85 percentusing Kappa correlation.Kajbaf
et al (2008) in their study estimated the reliability of this questionnaire on 377 subjects as to be 79
percent.
Research hypothesis: there will be significant difference between the under treatment individuals
and the normal persons.
Table 1-A summary of t-test results and the difference between normal and under treatment
individuals with MMT.
977
Groups
mean
SE
T
df
P
Normal group
15.43
5.29
3.08
78
.000
Under the
treatment group
24.17
7.31
As seen in the above table, the t-test showed that, there is significant difference between the
under treatment individuals and normal individuals in terms of risk taking with df =78 at p<.000. Viewing
the mean of the two groups shows that, the under treatment group has a higher mean of risk-taking,
therefore, the research hypothesis is confirmed.
The aim of conducting the present research is to draw a comparison of the risk between the two
groups, .i.e., the normal and under treatment with MMT groups. Results showed that, there is significant
difference between the normal and underthe treatment group and that is to say that;there is significant
difference between under the treatment individualstaking Methadone and normal individuals. Moreover,
under the treatment individualstaking Methadone were at higher risk as compared to the counterpart
group. As mentioned before, the health threatening behaviors are one of the challenges related to the
mental-social and hygienic dimensions of the society in most of the societies of the world that have
caused numerous problems in the world. Despite attempts made in the last two decades for awakening
the general knowledge of the society with regard to the threatening factors in the society, we witness the
increase in such behaviors in the society. This can also increase the risk of addiction. However, the
current research was donefor more clarification though in a limited area and in a specified time; therefore,
it has its own limitations. It is recommended that, similar studies be done in other citiesfor more reliability
and validity so that a remedy can be found to prevent the addiction due to its threatening consequences
in the society for all people particularly the youths.
References
Bakhshani N, Lashkaripour K, Hosseinber M,2007. The prevalence of relevant behaviors in line
withintentional and unintentional students’ harms in Sistan Baluchestan. Tasbib-e Shargh. 9(3):
199-208.
Saduk B,Sadok V, 2003. A summary of mental behaviors-clinical psychiatry. Translated by Pourafkari -- Nosratolah.Tasbriz: Shahrab.
Soleimaninia L, Jazayeri A, Mohamadkhani P, 2005. The role of mental health in youth’srisky behaviors.
Social Welfare. 5(19): 75-90.
Dolan KA, Wodak AD, Hall W K, 1998. Methadone Maintenance treatment reduces heroin injection in
New South Wales prisons. Drug Alcohol Rev. 17(2):153-8
Sadock BJ, Sadock VA, 2007. Synopsis of psychiatry. Behavioral science/clinical psychiatry. NewYork:
Williams & wilkins 2007:10(2).
Shusudefeski M, 2003. The prevalence rate of taking heroin and opium: the mass production of the most
mortal substance in Afganistan. Translated by J’afar Pouya. Tehran:Drug Secretariat
Staffpublication.
Brener ND, Kann L, McManus T, 2002. Reliability of the Youth Risk Behavior SurveyQuestionnaire.
Journal of Adolescent Health. 8(31): 336-342.
Brener ND, Conins J, Kannl L,& et al, (1995). Reliability of the youth Risk Behavior survey ,
questionnaire.
Broers B, Junet C, Bourguin J Y, Perrin L. Hirschel B, 1998.Prevalence and Incidence rate of HIV,
hepatitis B and C among drug users on methadone maintenance treatment in Geaeva between
1988 and 1995. Aids. 22 (15): 2059-66
978
Conrad KM, Flay BR, Hill D,1992. Why children start smoking cigarettes: predictors of onset. British
Journal of Addiction. 87(12): 1711-24.
Grekin ER, Sher K J, 2006. Alcohol dependence symptoms among college freshmen: prevalence,
stability, and person–environment interactions experimental and clinical psychopharmacology.
Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology. 14(3): 329-38.
Lerner J S, Keltner D, 2001. Fear, anger andrisk. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 81: 146159.
st
Momtaze S, 2002. Family and addiction. 1 ed. Zanjan: Mahdis Publication. p. 19-23.
Vazerian M, 2003. Opium, the drug that becomes poison. 1st ed. Tehran: Jam-e Jem Publication; 2003.
p. 1-12.
979
The effect of cognitive-behavioral couple therapy on marital conflict
and marital intimacy
1- Hamid RezaSaeidi AbuEshaghi2- Fariborz JabbariFard3- yaser madani4- dawood nazarpoor
1- M.A. in Family Counseling, Tehran University, Tehran, Iran
2- MS degree in psychology from Medical college of Shahr-e-Kord, Iran
3- PhD. Assistant professorTehran University, Tehran, Iran
4- M.A. in Family Counseling,allamehtabatabaeiUniversity, Tehran, Iran
Abstract
The present research was conducted to analyze the effectiveness of the education of
cognitive-behavioral elements in marital conflicts as wellas marital intimacy among the
couples working in educational settings.The adopted method was semi-experimental,
with test and-retestand control group design. The statistical population included
20applicants who werethe married, employed individuals working at educational and
school settings in the city ofLordeghan, Iran. The research tools included marital
conflicts questionnaire and scale of marital intimacy. The experimental group received10
sessions of cognitive-behavioral couple therapy.The findings showed that cognitivebehavioral training was effective in the reduction of marital conflictsand their
dimensions. Moreover, it also increased the marital intimacy. Such findings revealed that
a rise in positive interactions and common perception of life events led to an increase in
the amount of intimate relationships among the couples and reduction of marital
conflicts among them.
Keywords:Cognitive-behavioral couple therapy, marital conflict, marital intimacy
Introduction
Humans are social creatures who form groups to meet their needs. One of the most natural
groups that isable to meet their needs is family which is considered as a social-affective unit, the center of
development, growth, soothing and healing, change and modification and harms or troubles.
Familycontextcan either cause flourishmentormental breakdown of its members. Moreover, family is
regarded as the fundamental foundation in the structure of the nations and its strength or weakness
results in the stability or instability of the society (Goldenberg & Goldenberg,2000). Marriage or family
formation is a human, complicated, delicate and dynamic relationship that possesses particular
characteristics. The reasons for getting married are mainly love, affection, having a partner in life, meeting
psychological-affective needs and increasing happiness and pleasure. In all human societies, marriage is
considered as one of the factors of the individuals’ development. Increasing flexibility against life tensions
and gaining calmness are some benefits of the consistency among the couples as well as satisfactory
relationships between them (Cordova &Warron, 2005).
Usually, family is regarded as a safe and warm place, often bringing pleasant and delightful
feelingsand providing a comforting environment for its members, even in the worst situations and in
existence of various external problems. However, this has nowadays turned into a dream for most
families. Nowadays, an increase in the rate of divorce exists among different societies, including a sharp
increase in divorce rates inIran. Unfortunately, no exact statisticsis available, and the harmful effects of
divorce on the whole society and family members, particularly on children has caused many of the
professionals in the field of family studies to become worried about it.In fact, why is it that the couples
who commence their married life with a lot of love and pleasure eventually end up with opposite feelings
ofhatred anger, disgust and pessimismto one another. How can one return love and affection to their life?
This question was the main foundation of the present research.
Regarding that marriage is mainly on the basis of relationship, the clinical studies and
experiences have shown this fact that the sources of several problems among couples were lack of
intimacy and problems in their relationships. Kirby, Baucom&Petermen(2005) have shown that the need
for unachieved intimacy in marital relationships negatively influences the overall satisfaction from the
intimacy and relationship. Moreover, evidence indicated that many of the couples, referring to the
counselors and couple therapist due to some problems in intimacy of their relationships often presented a
weakness in relationship as the initial cause of their problems (Winberger, Hufstin&Witbourn,2008,
citedinPoursardar,2011). Mirgain& Cordova (2007) have shown that possessing skills in affective
relationships influences the degree of marital satisfaction and intimacy among the couples.
As an important behavioral model, intimacy has strong affective, emotional and social aspects,
formulating on the basis of acceptance (positive experience of equality and congruence), satisfaction
(positive experience of cooperation) and love (Ten-Houten,2007). Levine (1991, cited in Poursardar,2010)
described emotional intimacy, or what has been termed as psychological intimacy, as the cornerstone of
all relationships, a shared experience in intimate relationships and healthy human connections.
Psychologists define intimacy as an ability to establish relationship (without control) with other individuals
and to express affections (without prohibition) (Blume,2006). Individuals who experience a high degree of
intimacy in their relationships are able to express themselves in a more suitable way and to express their
needs for their partners more effectively (Patrick et al, 2007).
Couples often participatein thetreatment process during their particular emotional disturbances
and report low levels of confidence, intimacy, marital satisfaction and a sense of feeling negative towards
their spouses. Many of them feel emotional failure and their attempts to give a new life to intimacy have
failed. Such couples establish relationships with each other in such restricted ways as prevention and
isolation, criticism, being defensive, reactionability, rage, harsh and inattentive attack and defensive
circles. Research has shown that disturbed couples reported low levels of intimacy and confidence and
high levels of being defensive (Collins & Reed,1994, cited in Fallahzadeh, Sanaie&Farzad,2013).
With a rise in the amount of marital conflicts and divorce rates during recent years,an
increasehas also been witnessed in demands by the couplesfor resolving their marital and relationship
problems, leading to formulation of different treatment models. The overall goals of such treatments are
providing the couples with psychological services, recognizing inter-personal problems and obstacles
among couples, and teaching them suitable ways of problem-solving and appropriate behavioral models,
concerning the differences between men and women, resulting in forming constructive relationships and
increasing satisfaction with married life (Jonson,D.M. et al. 2005). One of the evidence-based treatment
models in most areas of mental pathology, particularly couple therapy, is cognitive-behavioral approach
(Beck,2011; Dattilio,2010; Gurman,2010). This approach considers the existence of marital problems,
including conflicts and reduction in the couples’ mutual intimacy as a result of the spouses’ ineffective
skills in establishing relationships, their inability in effectively resolving problems and conflicts, illogical
expectations and beliefs and negative behavioral interactions (Baucom et al,2010; Dattilio,2010).The goal
of cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating the couples is changing the inaccurate thoughts about the
spouses and incorrect beliefs about marital relationships (Patterson,2005).
Several studies have analyzed the efficacy of cognitive-behavioral couple therapy with regard to
different domains relating to couples. For instance, Dattilio (2010) has presented different evidence in his
book, indicating the efficacy of cognitive-behavioral couple therapy. Also, Baucomet al(2010) have
presented some evidence on the efficacy of this treatment approach by indicating the pathology of marital
relationships from cognitive-behavioral perspective.In a study, Abramowitzet al(2013)analyzed the
981
efficacy of couple-based cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating the obsession of one of the spouses and
found that this approach not only cured his or her obsession symptoms, but alsoexerted a positive effect
on marital relationships. In a review study, Perissutti&Barraca (2013) compared behavioral couple
therapy, combined with traditional behavioral therapy and reported that combined behavioral couple
therapy was more effective.
In their meta-analysis, Snyder &Balderrama(2012) concluded that the combined approaches of
couple therapy such as enriched cognitive behavior therapy have a high degree of efficacy. In a research
on the topic of the efficacy of cognitive-behavioral couple therapy on marital consistency among the
disabled with a diagnosis of PTSD, Ahmadi et al (2009) concluded that, this treatment method could
significantly enhance both marital consistencybrtween the disabled and their spouses. Zoghi,
Sohrabi&Ya’ghoubi(2013) found that cognitive-behavioral couple therapy was effective in reducing the
severity
of
symptoms
of
post-traumatic
stress
disorder
and
depression.
Nazari,
MuhammadKhani&Dolatshahi(2012) examined the efficacy of the two couple therapy styles (combined
behavioral couple therapy & enriched cognitive-behavioral couple therapy) and concluded that both of
these methods were effective in reducing disturbance among couples and in increasing marital
satisfaction. Hasani(2010) made a comparison between efficacy of cognitive-behavioral couple therapy
and that of excitement-oriented couple therapy on marital satisfaction and concluded that cognitivebehavioral couple therapy was more effective than the other one. In their study, E’temadi, Navvabinejad,
Ahmadi&Farzad(2006) showed that cognitive-behavioral couple therapy enhanced the degree of marital
intimacy among couples.
With emphasis on this issue that learning how to establish an effective intimate relationship is the
first step in process of creating or increasing satisfaction in any relationship. In the present research, we
have tried to take this issue into account that whether or not cognitive-behavioral couple therapy can be
effective in increasing marital intimacy and reducing marital conflicts, and the relationship between
couples is viewed as a highly influential factor.
From goal perspective, the present research was applied, and from style perspective, it was a
semi-experimental. The design used in this research was per-test & post-test design with control group.
The statistical population of this research included all the couples working at educational settings
in academic year of (2012-2013) in Lordeghan. The research sample comprised 20 couples from the
mentioned population who were randomly selected. They were then divided into experimental and control
groups using simple random sampling. It should be mentioned that the participants in the experimental
and control groups were controlled in terms of gender, age, educational level and years of marriage.
1. Marital intimacy scale (MIS): this scale was designed and developed by Thompson &Wacker
(1983, cited in Sanaie,2001) and included 17 items. Thompson &Wacker (1983, cited in Sanaie,2001)
reported an alpha coefficient of.91-.97 for this scale. In Iran, this scale has been translated by Sanaie
(2001). To determine the face validity and content validity of the questionnaire, it was first examined by 15
counseling professors as well as 15 couples living in Isfahan, randomly selected, and its face validity as
well as content validity were confirmed. The total reliability index of the scale was obtained to be .96 using
Cronbach Alpha coefficient method. In the present research, an alpha coefficient of.96 was obtained for
+this scale.
Table 1- Structure of cognitive-behavioral couple therapy sessions
982
The 1stsession
Agenda: familiarity with & establishing relationship with the members,
expressing rules & goals of the group, introducing educational courses for
implementing pre-test
The 2nd session
Agenda: recognition of unrealistic beliefs & expectations, regarding marital
intimacy & conflicts
Method: analyzing imaginary beliefs & expectations, regarding intimacy in
marital relationships, showing the effect of destructive beliefs on emotions
The 3rd session
Agenda: correcting the couples’ cognitive errors
Method: performing cognitive tasks (ABC model)
The 4th session
Agenda: creating transmission skill & obvious, accurate & effective perception of
thoughts & emotions
Method: practical evaluation & experiment of message transmission style &
practicing mutual interaction of message
The 5th session
Agenda: creating sympathetic skills & listening skills among couples
Method: recognition of ineffective interactional models & training effective
interactional skills
The 6th session
Agenda: learning the problem-solving skill
Method: examining common problem-solving models in marital relationships &
training accurate problem-solving models
th
The 7 session
Agenda: reducing marital conflicts
Method: examining marital conflicts
The 8th session
Agenda: reducingmarital conflicts
Method: examining conflict –solving models & their outcomes, training &
practicing conflict –solving methods
The 9h session
Agenda: increasing marital intimacy
Method: examining the couples’ common dimensions & implications regarding
the concept of intimacy
983
The 10th session
Agenda: reaching results & summing up
Method: evaluation of effects of educational meetings & following changes,
implementing post-test
Questionnaire of Marital Conflicts: This test was designed by Barati (1997) under the supervision
of SanaieZakerand measured 7 dimensions of marital conflicts, including small scales of reduction of the
couples’ cooperation, reduction of sexual intercourse, increase in emotional reactions, gaining the
children’s support, increasing personal relationship with their own relatives, decrease in familial
relationship with the spouse’s relatives and friends, and finally separating each other’s financial affairs.
On the basis of a study done by Barati(1997),Cronbach alpha coefficient for the whole test was.53 and
this alpha coefficient was obtained for each of the small scales as follows:
Reduction of the couples’ cooperation:.30; reduction of sexual intercourse: .60; decrease in
familial relationship with the spouse’s relatives:.64; increasing personal relationship with their own
relatives:.64;and separating each other’s financial affairs:.51.In the present research, the alpha total score
for this test and the alpha coefficient for sub scales were obtained to be .97 and.77-.94, respectively.
In this research, the families of the employees, working at educational settings were first invited
to participate in a workshop with this topic by an announcement made at schools and academic
Organizations in Lordeghan, Iran. Then, the participants responded to the questionnaires of marital
conflicts and marital intimacy. From among the participating couples, a number of 24 couples, who had
lower scores in terms of marital intimacy and possessed more conflict as compared to others, were
selected and randomly divided into two groups of experimental and control. Afterwards, training cognitivebehavioral elements was applied to the experimental group during 10 weekly90-minute session. During
this period, control group received no type of intervention. At the end of the educational sessions, both
groups were measured using post-test.
Findings and results
Having done introductory actions on data description (mean & standard deviation) to compare the
changes occurred between pre-test and post-test of the two groups regarding scores in marital intimacy
and conflicts, the multi-variate covariance analysis was used for data analysis.
Table 1- mean & standard deviation of variables under research in pre-test & post-test, based on each
group
variable
Intimacy
Total score of
marital conflict
984
Test-type
Experimental group
Control group
mean
SD
mean
SD
Pre-test
59.45
8.33
75.30
8.68
Post-test
104.25
10.43
73.10
6.50
Pre-test
160.10
16.45
187.95
12.50
Post-test
110.95
11.23
177.85
8.58
Reduction
cooperation
Pre-test
14.40
1.48
16.75
0.825
Post-test
9.25
1.67
16.10
1.7
Pre-test
13.40
1.86
16.95
1.93
Post-test
10.40
1.77
16.85
1.70
Pre-test
23.05
3.02
27.30
2.33
Post-test
16.90
2.42
26.95
2.44
Attracting
children’s
support
Pre-test
16.25
1.73
19.25
2.07
Post-test
11.90
2.20
18.40
1.04
Increasing
relationship with
their
own
relatives
Pre-test
16.50
2.13
20.90
2.20
Post-test
10.30
3.17
20.60
1.85
Decreasing
relationship with
spouse’s
relatives
Pre-test
17.40
2.95
20.90
2.75
Post-test
10.80
2.03
20.15
1.47
Separating
financial affairs
Pre-test
19.50
1.26
23.95
1.21
Post-test
14.35
3.06
22.55
1.40
Pre-test
34.70
3.39
40.30
2.40
Post-test
28.15
2.36
39.00
1.63
Reduction
sexual
intercourse
of
of
Emotional
reactions
Reduction
effective
relationship
of
In analyzing the significance of differences between groups(experiment & control group) in posttest of scores of marital intimacy and sub-scales of marital conflicts, covariance analysis was used in
order to control the pre-test effect. Regarding such factors as the normality of data distribution,
homogeneity of covariance matrices & homogeneity of groups’ variance are among the main assumptions
of multi-variate covariance analysis, before presenting the results of covariance analysis, KolmogorovSmirnov test was used for analyzing the normality of data distribution, M Box test of equality of
covariance matrices was used for analyzing nonexistence of differences between covariance matrices
and Levene’s test of equality of error variance was adopted to analyze the assumption of equality of error
variance of dependent variables. The results confirmed the accuracy of assumptions of covariance
985
analysis statistics. Accordingly, using covariance analysis test was allowed and its report has been
provided below:
Table 2- Results of multi-variate covariance analysis (MANCOVA) on score mean of post-test of marital
intimacy & conflicts among couple
Test type
Extent
Hypothesis
df
Error df
F
significance(p)
Eta square
Pilai’s effect
test
0.952
2
15
148.92
0.001
0.95
LambdaiVilkz
test
0.048
2
15
148.92
0.001
0.95
Hetling’s
effect test
19.85
2
15
148.92
0.001
0.95
largest
19.85
2
15
148.92
0.001
0.95
As presented in table 2 above, by controlling pre-test, the significance levels of all the tests
indicated that a significant difference is observed inat least one of the dependent variables (marital
intimacy and conflicts) among couples with educational professions in experimental and control groups
(F=148.92, P<0.0001). To observe the difference, results of one-way covariance analysis in Mankova test
has been presented in table 3.
Table 3- results of one-way covariance analysis (Mankova test) on score means of post-test of marital
intimacy & conflicts
Variable
Sum
squares
Intimacy
Conflicts
of
Freedom
rate
Mean
squares
2837.64
1
8261.83
1
of
F
significance
Eta
2837.64
176.42
0.0001
0.91
8261.83
77.53
0.0001
0.83
With regard to the information in table 3, by controlling pre-test, there was a significant difference
between the couples in the experimental and control group in terms of marital intimacy and conflicts. In
other words, cognitive-behavioral couple therapy seemed to decrease marital conflicts and to increase
marital intimacy in the experimental group.
Table 4- results of multi-variate variance analysis (Mankova) on post-test score means on marital conflicts
among the couples, working at educational settings
986
Test type
Extent
Hypothesis df
Error df
F
significance(p)
Squares
Pillai's trace
0.961
8
3
9.32
0.046
0.96
Wilks'
lambda
0.039
8
3
9.32
0.046
0.96
LawleyHotelling
trace
24.87
8
3
9.32
0.046
0.96
Roy's largest
root
24.87
8
3
9.32
0.046
0.96
As observed in table 4, by controlling pre-test, the significance levels of all the tests indicated that
a significant differencein at least one of the dependent variables (marital conflict elements) among the
couples with educational professions in the experimental and control groups (F=9.32, P<0.046). To
observe the difference, results of one-way covariance analysis in Mankova test has been presented in
table 5.
Table 5- results of one-way covariance analysis in Mankova test on post-test score means on marital
conflict elements
987
Dependent
variables
Sum
squares
Reduction of
cooperation
of
Freedom
rate
Mean
squares
25.36
1
Reduction of
sexual
intercourse
22.69
Emotional
reactions
of
F
significance
Eta
25.36
10.17
0.010
0.50
1
22.69
2604
0.0001
0.723
86.81
1
86.81
83.01
0.0001
0.89
Attracting
children’s
support
32.53
1
32.53
24.97
0.001
0.71
Reduction of
relationship
with relatives
91.09
1
91.09
10.18
0.010
0.50
Increase in
personal
relationship
93.60
1
93.60
50.92
0.0001
0.83
Separating
financial
affairs
63.34
1
63.34
11.91
0.006
0.54
Reduction of
effective
relationship
153.17
1
153.17
55.22
0.0001
0.84
As observed in table 5, by controlling pre-test, a significant difference was observed between the
couples in the experimental and control groups in terms of all the sub-scales of marital conflicts. In other
words, cognitive-behavioral couple therapy has led to reduce marital conflicts of the couples in the
experimental group, with regard to the mean of marital conflicts among the couples in the experimental
group in post-test, compared to that of marital conflicts among the couples in control group.
The present research was conducted with the goal of analyzing the effectiveness of cognitivebehavioral couple therapy on marital intimacy and marital conflicts. The results generally showed that this
treatment was effective in reducing marital conflicts and increasing marital intimacy. In this section, a
discussion of findings is presented.
The results from covariance analysis showed that there was a significant difference between the
scores of marital intimacy among the couples in the experimental and control groups after removing the
pre-test effect. This meant that cognitive-behavioral training significantly influenced the marital intimacy of
the sample group and increased the degree of intimate experience. This finding was congruent with the
results of the research done by E’temadi, Navvabinejad, AhmadiandFarzad(2006) and also seemed to
supportresearch done by Baucom et al(2010); Abramowitz et al (2013) andAhmadi et al (2009).
Concerning the results obtained from this research and other similar studies, the effects of learning
relationship skills and arrangement of thoughts and expectations of couples on the amount of marital
intimacy confirms this issue that training cognitive-behavioral elements can serve as a suitable way of
increasing the extent of intimate relationships among the spouses and enrich the private and intimate
interactions.
Regarding marital conflicts, the results obtained from covariance analysis showed that there was
a significant difference between the scores of marital conflicts of the couples in the experimental & control
groups after removing the pre-test effect. It meant that cognitive-behavioral training significantly
influenced the marital conflicts of the couples in the sample group and decreased their extents. This
finding was congruent with the findings of the research carried out byNazari,
MuhammadKhani&DolatShahi(2012), Baccum et al.(2010), Abramowitz et al(2013) and Ahmadi et al
(2009).
In cognitive-behavioral model, the effective etiological causes in creating and developing the
couples’ problems often include cognitive, emotional and behavioral responses by the family members
(Baucom&Epchtine, 1999). Emerging conflicts in the human relationships is an incredible matter. Conflict
is a phenomenon which is created parallel with love in marital relationships and it is oftenan unavoidable
fact. Conflicts are created when an individual’s actions come to interfere with those of the other
988
individuals, in such a way that as they come closer to each other, the conflict power increases. During
years of interaction with their family members, couples often form common beliefs which play a role in
their schema of the family (Dattilio,2010). Inaccurate interactions will be formed in the family to the same
extent as the cognitive manipulations exist and are created by the family schema. In addition to automatic
thoughts and schemata, Beck et al (1979, cited in Beck, 2011) have recognized some cognitive
manipulations or information processing errors which play a role in turning cognitions into sources of
conflict in the individuals’ lives. From the perspective of Baucom et al.(2010), such information processing
errors lead to inappropriate or manipulated perceptions, thoughts, attributions, expectations, assumptions
and criteria, and such illogical and destructive beliefs, expectations, implications and attributions will
influence marital relationships, increase conflicts, cause the initial intimacy between the couples to
disappear, turning to negative feelings.
Cognitive-behavioral methods attempt to analyze and modify these beliefs. The process of
cognitive treatment includes an obvious analysis and evaluation of the family functions. As a specialist,
the therapists teach the families how to evaluate their relationships and apply the cognitive or behavioral
strategies in order to bring some changes in the attitudes or behaviors. Modification of inaccurate
interpretations and beliefs result in removing misunderstanding, reducing disturbance and sadness,
paying attention to the positive aspects of each other’s behaviors, and finally decreasing conflicts and
increasing intimacy (Baucom et al.,2010).
Therefore, regarding the results of this research and others studies with congruent results, it can
be inferred that teaching cognitive-behavioral elements can be an appropriate way of reducing marital
conflicts and cause the intimate relationships to improve. Since intimacy is the lost issue among the
unsatisfied couples or those, nearly to get divorce, and regarding the effect of cognitive-behavioral
training on increasing marital intimacy, it is suggested that some courses or workshops on this topic be
held for individuals with problems in establishing and maintaining intimate relationships in the centers
where the couples and families usually receive counseling.
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The role of internal and external religious beliefs in mental health and
depression of elderly resident and non-resident in nursing home
Hamid Reza Saeidi Aboeshaghi1, Fariborz Jabbari Fard2, Shiva Kad Khoda Zadeh3sayed
Elyas Hosseini Baraftabi4
1- MA in Family Counseling, Tehran University, Tehran, Iran
2-MA in psychology, University of Medical Sciences of Shahr-e-Kord, Iran
3-MA in psychology, Isfahan University, Isfahan, Iran
4- MA in Family Counseling, Tehran University, Tehran, Iran
Abstract
Considering the growing number of elderly people and prevalence of mental disorders,
particularly depression among them and scarcity of psychiatrist expert in elderly people’
special services, it is necessary to consider internal and external resources for the
elderly to cope with the aging conditions. Among the coping strategies for the elderly,
religion can play an important and central role, because the religion can have positive
value in filling the gap and emptiness of life, supporting the elderly, dealing with stress,
administrating the situation, and giving meaning to the life and death. The study
employed ex post facto and correlational method. Hence, using random cluster sampling
method, 350 male and female elderly people were selected from nursing homes and
other places where the non-resident elderly gather, and they were asked to respond to
General Health Questionnaire (GHQ), Beck Depression Inquiry (BDI), EIR Allport, and
filled out the personal information. Then, the relevant data were gathered and scored
using statistical tests of Pearson Correlation test, t test, analysis of variance. The
analyzed results showed that, there is a significant correlation between religious
orientation and mental health in the elderly. Moreover, there is a significant correlation
between religious orientation and depression in the elderly. It means that, the increase in
the scores of external religious orientation results in the increase in the depression
scores and the decrease in the mental health scores. Furthermore, he decrease in the
internal religious orientation leads to the decrease in the depression scores and the
increase in the mental health scores. The results showed that, the mental health among
the non-resident group is significantly better than that of the resident group. The result
showed that, the depression among the resident group is significantly higher than that of
the non-resident group. Female seniors had significantly more external religion
orientation. No significant difference was found between the mental health of the male
elderly and that of the female one. Considering the religious belief and the relevant
orientation, the residential place and their relation to the mental health and depression,
the religious beliefs can be used as effective method for the elderly in three parts of
primary, secondary and tertiary prevention of mental disorders. Considering the effects
of internal and even external religious attitude to the mental health and depression of the
elderly, it is necessary to design and conduct intervention research.
Introduction
Senescence is a critical period of human life during which the elderly are exposed to potential
threats such as chronic disease, loneliness, isolation and lack of social support and in many cases their
personal independency is threaten due to the mental and physical disabilities. Meanwhile, with the
increase in the elderly population, the prevalence of mental disabilities increased, and it has caused the
care, health, and social systems which are already under financial pressures to be worried (Ministry of
Health, treatment & Medical Education, 2006).
Since this phenomenon has considerably changed all the aspects of life in human societies,
including extensive traditional structures, values, norms, and social organizations, so it is of high
importance to deal with the created challenges and to apply appropriate measures in order to promote
physical, mental and social conditions of the elderly and has been top on the agenda of the international
community (Sadeghi, 2000). Since life expectancy is the age of 72 in Iran, the aging has not been
considered as an urgent phenomenon in the country. But the fact is that, the elderly population is
increasing with higher growth rate than the total population. Indeed, along with the population growth and
the increased life expectancy the aging is one the rise (Khoshbin et al, 2007).
The elderly population will exceed by 26 million people and its ratio to total population will
increase by about 23% in Iran in 2050 (Khoshbin et al, 2007). The elderly suffer from certain problems,
many of which result in tenseness in old years. One of the major problems that threatens the elderly and
their families is mental and health disorders (Zanjani, 2000).
According to the World Health Organization, mental health is a vital part of wellbeing and health,
which necessitates the planning to be enhanced. This organization defines the mental health as: A state
of well-being in which every individual realizes his or her own potential, can cope with the normal stresses
of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make decision and contribution to her or his
community. Aaccordingly, mental health is the basis of well-being and health for the general population
(Malekshihi Chekini, 2000).
Mental disorders in old age can be frequently observed, and greatly influences the mental,
emotional, behavioral conditions of the elderly. About 15 to 25 percent of elderly people suffer from an
important psychological problem (Ebrahimi and Nasiri, 1997). An old person is forced to cope with various
losses (death of a spouse, friend, family, colleague, etc.), change in job status and decline in physical
ability and fitness. Great deal of energy is consumed for mourning the death of the beloved individuals,
coping with the feeling of resulted loneliness and the changes in the elderly age. Living alone is the main
stress by which about 10% of the elderly population will be affected and changed. According to the
findings from various studies, about 15% of the elderly suffer from mental disorder of depression (Navabi
Nejad, 2000). Some studies have showed that, the risk of mental disorders and their impact on the elderly
are greater than the youths.
Although, many of these disorders are diagnosed and treated, however, in the United States,
15% to 25% of the elderly population has shown major symptoms of mental disorder. Moreover, the
highest suicide rate in the United States occurs among individuals with 65 years old or elder and of
100000 elderly people, 236 individuals suffer from mental disorders across the world, compared to 93 out
of 100000 people between 45 to 64 years old. Unfortunately, many of elderly people are not interested in
the psychiatric treatment which can cure disease or relieve the symptoms and restore the level of their
activities to the previous state.
We conclude that, although nearly 25% of elderly individuals have symptoms of mental illness,
but only 4% of them are admitted to a mental health centers, and only 2% of psychiatric patients who
visited the private offices and hospitals are the elderly (Bolhari et al, 1999). One of the prerequisites to
992
gain mental health among families is to enjoy a coherent value system. Investigations also revealed that,
the cause of most conflicts and mental abnormalities is value conflicts and the lack of an organized value
system in person (Hadi Bahrami et al, 2005).
Considering the growing number of elderly people and the prevalence of mental disorders,
particularly depression, among them and scarcity of psychiatrist expert in elderly people’ special services,
it is necessary to consider internal and external resources for the elderly to cope with the aging
conditions. Among these coping strategies for the elderly, religion can play likely an important and central
role, because the religion can have positive value in filling the emptiness of life, supporting the elderly,
dealing with stress, administrating the situation, and giving meaning to the life and death (Arian, 1999).
From a long time ago, one of the issues proposed in the field of psychology studies was the impact of
religion and spirituality on dealing with negative emotions and providing mental health. Currently, there is
a body of considerable literature on how religion and spirituality influence the physical and mental health
(Noghini et al, 2005).
Allport proposed a discussion on introverted and extroverted religious orientation. He believes
that, in extroverted religious orientation, religion is used for non-religious purposes (such as social
support and feeling of security), so according to the extroverted religious orientation, religion is
considered as a tool to achieve the goals and values superior to religion, such as coping with life’s or
developments’ problems. Extroverted religion prefers secular dimensions of life to spiritual ones, but in
introverted religious orientation, religion serves as dominating motivation in social life. According to
Allport, introverted orientation gives motivation and meaning to the whole of life and inspires worshipping.
For individuals with an introverted or internal religious orientation, non-religious needs are important;
however, they have less ultimate significance. In other words, the extroverted or external religion
suggests such kind of religion which is completely profitable. This kind of religion brings along comfort,
welfare, social status, relief, and support for individuals.
On the contrary, the internal religion is related to the belief and is of high value. This kind of
religious belief gives the life of an individual the meaning and motivation and doesn’t pay any attention to
the individuals’ profit and interest (Abbasi and Jan Bozorgi). Dealing with the relevant variables affecting
physical and mental health of the elderly is of great importance, and studies have shown that religion and
religious orientation are of such variables (Azarbaijani and Mousavi Asl; Jan Bozorgi, 2002; Molavi,
2004). Investigations on training and teaching of religious rites (prayer, fasting etc.) and its effect on
relieving depression concluded that 55% of those who participated in this study have experienced better
sense of relief after worshipping (Seraji, 2002).
Other findings showed a significant relationship between religion and mental health (Gharaie,
2008). However, there are other studies which have accentuated the lack of any relationship between
religion and physical and mental health or the negative relationship between the religion and above
variables (Ghaderi, 2010).
In many studies, the positive effects of religious attitude on physical and mental health has been
approved and in other cases, such effects have not been found, and even negative consequences have
also been emphasized, there is a theory on the inconsistency of these findings indicating that different
factors are contributing to the religiosity and mental well-being. Thus, disparate findings don’t necessarily
negate the relationship between religiosity and well-being, but reveal situations where the relationship is
stronger, including the one in which it should be distinguished between the religious orientation assisting
the mental health and the one having less or no relationship to the well-being (Seif, 2001). It evoked other
researchers to examine the effect of various type of religion and to distinguish the internal and external
religion (Bahrami and Ramazani Farani, 2005). Battson & et al., for example, reviewed the findings of 115
studies on the correlation between religiosity and mental health and found out that, the correlation
between the religiosity and the mental health was positive in 37 cases, negative in 47 cases, and no
correlation was seen in 31 cases. They separately analyzed the results of studies on internal and external
religiosity. The results of reviewing 115 studies by Battson & et al on internal and external religiosity
showed that, internal religious orientation have positive correlation with mental health but external
993
religious orientation is often negatively correlated with health mental (Tahmasebi Pur and Kamangari,
1996).
So, it should be examined that, such conclusion determine whether or not the religion as an
internal or external resources have any role in the mental health and depression of the elderly, and in the
case of positive result, it should be considered as an important component in programs supporting the
elderly. Considering the type of religion (internal or external), can a more positive role be defined for the
relationship between the religion and the mental health? That is, as Allport stated, if the one who wants
the religion for comfort, social status, relief and social support and considers it as external religion, has
less role in mental health, compared to the internal religion which is sought internally by the individual and
he lives with it and it gives his life meaning and motivation (Abbasi and Jan Bozorgi, 2010).
So, the present study was conducted to examine the role of religious beliefs (internal and
external) on the mental health and depression among the elderly living as resident and non-resident in
the welfare centers.
Method and material
This study is of Ex post facto and correlational one. Using random cluster sampling method, male
and female 350 elderly people were selected from the nursing homes and other places (mosque, park)
where the non-resident elderly gather, and they were asked to respond to the General Health
Questionnaire (GHQ), Beck Depression Inquiry (BDI), Allport External Internal Religion Attitude Test
(EIR), and Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), and they filled out personal information. Then,
relevant data were gathered and scored using statistical tests of Pearson correlation test, t test, analysis
of common variance, finally the results were analyzed.
The statistical population comprised all the elderly resident and non-resident in the welfare
centers in the province of Chahar Mahal –va–Bakhtiari who didn’t suffer from dementia disorders,
Alzheimer's disease and mental retardation (MR). The sampling method was random cluster sampling.
The subjects were divided into two groups of the elderly resident in nursing home and the non-resident
elderly. The elderly residents from the governmental and non-governmental centers under the supervision
of welfare organization, and the non-resident subjects from mosques and parks were selected by clusters
random sampling method.
According to the previous studies and statistical tests used, the sample size was determined to
be 350 patients. In order to evaluate the relationship between religious beliefs and mental health and
depression, the EIR Allport's scale, General Health Questionnaire (GHQ), Beck Depression Inventory
(BID) and External Internal Religious Allport’s scale were used.
One of well-known scales in this field is EIR Allport scale. Based on his theoretical efforts, Allport
developed a scale to measure religious orientation. To this purpose, he made a 20-item scale of which
11 items referred to the external orientation and 9 items addressed to internal orientation. Allport & Ross
developed this scale in 1950 to measure the internal and external religious orientation. In early studies
conducted on this basis, orientations a correlation of .21 was observed between the external and internal
(Ghoda, 1980). The test was normalized and translated in 1999. Janbozorgy calculated its internal
consistency using Cronbach alpha coefficient as .71, and its reliability was obtained as .74 (Sharifi, 2002).
In this 21-item scale, the items of 1-12 measure the external religious orientation and the items 13-21 the
internal ones. The test is scored on 5-point Likert scale, and its range is from completely agree to
completely disagree. Thus, choices A, B, C, and D are scored as 1, 2, 4, and 5, respectively, and items
with no answer are scored as 3.
28-item General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28) is well-recognized screening tool in psychiatry,
applied to screen mental disorders. GHQ identifies ailments with less than two-week length and is
sensitive to transient illnesses that may be diagnosed as untreated. Its version that was presented in this
paper has 28 questions. In this study, a high score identifies a general health, and lower scores indicate
disease. The questionnaire consists of four subscales: somatic symptoms, anxiety, social disfunction and
994
depression. The scoring system for the questionnaire was based on 4-point Likert scale. Cheung &
Spears reported the reliability coefficient of GHQ as .47 by using test-retest method which was significant
at P<.05. In addition, the alpha coefficient for the whole scale was reported as .88 and for the subscales
of somatic symptoms (the first seven questions), anxiety (the second seven questions), social disfunction
(the third seven questions) and depression (the last seven questions) as .66, .72, .79, and .85 (Sohrabi,
2008). Molavi reported the validity and reliability of the test as .86 (Molavi, 2004). After selecting the
sample, some testers referred to the selected centers with identification cards and questionnaires. The
questionnaires were completed under their supervision by individual subjects, and in the case of illiterate
subjects by the testers. Then, data was gathered and the relevant statistics was calculated by Pierson
correlation test and t test, then the relations were analyzed by correlation test and compared by t test. It
was used common analysis of variance to prevent the interrupting variables.
Results and Findings
As shown in Table 1, total subjects were 156 and 194 subjects in the resident (44.5%) and nonresident (55.5%) groups, respectively. Also, the subjects in the groups were 150 female (42.8%) and 200
male (57.2%).
Table1- resident and non-resident sample groups
Sample group
Female
Male
Frequency
Percentage
Governmental
56
70
126
36
Non-governmental
14
16
30
8.5
Park
32
87
119
34
Mosque
48
27
75
21.5
120
200
350
100
Residential centers
Non-residential
centers
Total
Table 2- Education status
Education level
Frequency
Percentage
Illiterate
54
15.4
Less than diploma
230
65.1
Graduated
10
3.5
unknown
56
16
Total
350
100
As table (2) shows, most of subjects have a degree less than diploma.
Table 3- marital status
Marital status
995
Frequency
Percentage
Without spouse
108
3.5
With spouse
224
64
Unknown
18
5.2
Total
350
100
In this section, the research hypotheses are evaluated by inferential statistical indices.
The findings showed that, there is a significant correlation between religious orientation and
mental health among the elderly (P=.01, r=.282, r2=.080). It means that, when the scores of religious
orientation toward external religion increase, the scores of mental disorders increases as well and the
more they orient toward internal religion, the lower the scores of mental disorders. So, there is a
significant relation between external religion and mental disorders, and between internal religion and
mental health.
The findings also showed that, there is a significant correlation between religious orientation and
depression for the elderly (P=.01, r=.280, r2=.082). It means that, the scores of depression increase by
the increase in the scores of religious orientation toward external religion and they decrease by the
reduction in the scores of religious orientation toward the internal religion. Using t test, the existence of
the normal distribution was at first assessed in the resident and non-resident groups as one of the
presumptions for t test. Since the resident and non-resident groups didn’t show normal distribution in
terms of religious variables, depression and mental health, so the nonparametric Mann-Whitney U test
was used.
Results showed that, the mean scores for mental health in resident group and non-resident group
were 153.18 and 86.12, respectively. The mean scores of the two groups were then compared, using
nonparametric Mann-Whitney U test, and it was significant at P=.01 (Table 4). It means that, the mental
health is significantly better in the non-resident group than that of the resident one.
The results showed that, the mean depression rating score is 138.85 and 82.25 for the resident
and non-resident groups, respectively. Then, two groups’ means scores for depression were compared,
using nonparametric Mann-Whitney U test, and it was significant at P=.0001. It means that, depression is
significantly higher in the resident group as compared to the non-resident group.
The result showed that, the mean scores for religious orientation are 126.02 and 105.32 in the
resident and non-resident groups, respectively. These mean scores were compared for two groups, using
nonparametric Mann-Whitney U test, and it was significant at P=.006. It means that, the resident group
was significantly more oriented toward external religion than the non-group.
Table 4- Statistics from Mann-Whitney U test for resident and non-resident groups
996
Religious orientation
Depression
Mental health
U test
5436.000
318.500
3432.500
Wilcoxon
13739.000
11693.500
11867.500
Z
-2.700
-6.735
-6.441
Significant level
.006
.000
.000
The results showed that, the mean scores of religion are 128.74 and 105.32 for female and male
people, respectively. Then, the mean scores for the religion in two groups were compared using
nonparametric Mann-Whitney U test, and the test showed that, the mean as 5176 and the difference was
significant at P=.008. It means that, females have significantly higher external religious orientation.
Considering the religious beliefs and relevant orientations, exploring their relation to mental health and
depression can pave the way to use the religious beliefs more constructive and effective as internal
resources in three primary, secondary and tertiary parts of prevention in mental health.
The results showed that, there is a relationship between the religious orientation and mental
health among the elderly people. “The higher the scores of external religious orientation, the higher the
scores of mental and the higher the scores of internal religious orientation, the less the scores of mental
disorders are. So, there is a positive correlation between the external religious orientation and mental
disorders and a negative correlation between the internal religious orientation and mental disorders.
These findings are consistent with the results from other home and foreign studies.
Gharraei & et al. concluded in his study on the relation between mental health and external &
internal religion that there is a significant correlation between internal religion and mental health, but it
was not found such correlation for external religion. Also, no significant difference was observed between
two genders in terms of religion (Gharraei, 2008). For Allport, people with internal religion live with their
religion and enjoys better mental health.
In this study, there is a significant relationship between religious orientation and depression
among the elderly people. Evaluation of this hypothesis along with the first one consists of the most
prominent hypotheses of the present study and showed that, the higher the scores of external religious
orientation, the more the scores of depression increase, and the higher the scores of internal religious
orientation, the more the scores of depression decrease. Thus, there is a positive significant correlation
between external religious orientation and depression, and there is a negative significant correlation
between internal religious orientation and depression. This finding is consistent with that of Seif’s study
which shows that depression among elderly people who worship is half of that of others (Seif, 2001).
Bahrami & Ramezani Farani concluded in a study on the effect of (external and internal) religious
orientation on the mental health and depression in the elderly people and concluded that, there is a
significant correlation between religious orientation and mental health and depression, so that the more
the religion oriented externally, the higher the scores of mental disorders and depression, and the more
the scores of internal religious orientation, the more the scores of mental disorders and depression
decrease (Bahrami and Ramezani Farani, 1999).
The results from the first two hypotheses are consistent with the studies on the relation between
the mental health and religious attitude. Distinguishing between internal and external religions helps us to
distinguish between people whose goal is religion and the ones for who the religion serves as a tool. The
first considers the goodness of the religion and the second observes the goodness of the tool. The
present study showed that, people who live with the religion and it serves as goal for them enjoy better
mental health and lower depression as compared to the ones who observe the religion as a tool for life
and support. It seems that, whoever uses the religion as tool, can gain little benefits from it for mental
health because s/he ignores the main function of religion. In general, religious orientation relies on the
religious beliefs and activities, and thereby helps people to control stresses and emotional irresponsibility.
Having meaning and goals in life, sense of belonging to sublime power, hope to God’s help in difficult
situations in life, enjoying social and spiritual support, all are of the resources through which the religious
people endure less mental damages facing the problematic situations. Religion can play an effective role
in removing stress and anxiety, assessing the situations, evaluating personal cognition, copying activities,
997
supportive resources, and etc., resulting in less mental illnesses. Accordingly, it has long been assumed
that there is a positive relationship between religion and mental health.
Hypotheses 3, 4 and 5 will be discussed together because of their related results. The findings
indicated that, the mental health is different between the residents and non-residents elderly in nursing
home. Comparison of the two groups in terms of mental health showed that the non-resident group has
significantly better mental health than the resident group. The results also showed that, there is a
difference between the resident group and the non-resident group in terms of depression. Comparison of
two groups in terms of depression showed that, the non-resident group has significantly lower depression
than the resident group. Being in spiritually warmer environments, living with sons, friends, and beloved
individuals can be very effective in controlling and managing the mental health problems, particularly
depression. Other findings showed that there is a difference between the resident and non-resident
groups in terms of religious orientation, so that the resident group showed significantly higher external
religious orientation as compared to the non-resident one. It means that, the non-resident group is
oriented more internally as compared to the resident group.
It seems that, the performance and function of nursing homes in Iranian culture is different from
that in Western culture. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate further this subject and its effect on
mental health in ageing trend. The present study showed that, the elderly in nursing home has less
mental health and more depression, and it may be resulted from this fact that, the nursing homes in Iran
are considered as a resort for the elderly without family, experiencing various life difficulties.
The findings regarding the differences in religious orientation in groups residing in nursing homes
and non-resident in nursing home highlights this issue that, probably religious beliefs and respecting the
families due to religious recommendations among families with the internal religious orientation are
considered as the preventive factors and it prevents them from bringing the elderly to the nursing home.
However, It needs further research. In other finding, it was found that, there is a difference between the
female and male religious orientation, so that the female group has higher external religious orientation
compared to the male group. In the research, Levine & et al. found out that, religious attitudes are higher
in women than men in four national surveys. But it was not clear that, the internal religion is higher in
women or men. The present study showed that, female elderly group has more external religion than the
male ones. What is inferred from the present study is the necessity of further investigation with higher
focusing on this subject.
Considering the results from the present and previous study, it appears that, religious beliefs are
of affecting factors on happiness and mental health. According to Robert Hume, the religion gives human
something which is not receivable from other resources. As mental health and being elderly is a
multidimensional issue, other researchers should investigate economic, social, sociological aspects of
physical health. Also, it is necessary to design and to conduct intervention studies, considering the effects
of internal, even external, religious attitude on mental health and depression of the elderly people.
Acknowledgment
Heartfelt thanks go to all the personnel of welfare offices and other individuals who helped us in this
study.
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Compare the psychological profile of women and men with HIV in
Kermanshah
Behrooz Khosravi zad1*;masoud paydar2
1-
MA in counseling, Department of Rehabilitation Counseling, Social Welfare and Rehabilitation
Sciences University, Tehran.
2MA in Clinical Psychology, expert on Kermanshah Province Welfare Prevention
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to compare the psychological profile of men and women
who are infected with HIV referred to Afray sabz club. This study was Comparative
descriptive analytic. The research population included members of Afraye sabz club in
Kermanshah. 150(81 women, 70 men) people were Simple selected unrandomly
completed demographic checklist, and SCL-90 questionnaire. To analyze data,
kolomogorove- Smirnov, Pearson and Spearman and, U-Mann-Wittni, Chi-Square
statistical tests were utilized. Average scores for men and women with HIV in
somatization, hostility, paranoid ideation, and additional questions not significantly
different(p>0/05). However, obsessive-compulsive, interpersonal sensitivity, depression,
anxiety, phobia, psychosis ¬ Parish and the overall coefficient of symptoms, the mean
score was significantly higher in women than men (p<0/05). In this research, along with
some of the research, due to the impact factors of gender, mode of infection and cultural
attitudes, psychological profiles of women and men with HIV is different. So that the
mental health of HIV-infected women are weaker than men.
Keyword: HIV affected People, psychological profile, personality disorder
Introduction
HIV infection (AIDS) in the last century was a major threat to global public health. (Atkinson Jh, et
al,1998).After viewing the first case of HIV in 1981 in Los Angeles discuss identification of mechanisms,
Speed control and treatment in the medical community, the United States and then spread to other parts
of the world. But spread of HIV was further their efforts, So that to this day, according to the World Health
Organization (WHO) currently 6 people in the world every minute of his life will lose from this infection.
(Hatami, H., et al,2003)
There is no cure or effective vaccine for this disease, health professionals hand side led to the only way
we can fight this disease by changing unsafe behaviors (Jenkins, C and Rvbalynv, D,2001). Despite a
great deal of time and money to treat AIDS, professionals in this field, the results are not significant So
that after 2000 the World Health Organization and other organizations involved in this matter to prevent
and reduce the damage caused by this disease than did previous emphases (Ravaei F ,2006).
According to World Health Organization statistics of HIV patients in the world in 1013, over 34 million
people have been that In most African countries, especially sub-Saharan Africa are living. Statistics on
HIV patients in Iran until the end of 1391, over 25 thousand people have been. However, it is estimated
that unknown HIV statistics in Iran, is more than this. Every day several new cases will be added to the
statistics of known and unknown HIV people. In Iran major way affection to HIV in the age group 25 to 34
years the prevalence of injecting drug use in grade 9 .41 percent. Then sexual relationship with frequency
31 .1, blood and blood products and mother-to-child 2 .1 percent and 34 percent of the way is uncertain
(Ministry of Health and Medical Education,2013).
Effective measures for prevention and control of AIDS and cope with psychological problems in HIV
potions, primarily requires an accurate measurement. Until there is not a proper understanding of
personality disorders in patients with AIDS, The effectiveness of psychotherapy and psychiatric
rehabilitation programs may be limited (Lyketosos CG, TreismanGJ, 2001). Because it's not realistic and
not based on real needs. People with HIV when diagnosed with HIV are faced with a heavy psychological
pressure. First, this pressure is the stress and anxiety that then leads to depression. Some people with
this virus receipt of such diagnostic, to commit suicide. Some people also make dangerous behavior In
effect; it will transmit the virus to other people. Their goal is to take revenge on society because Sacrifice
themselves to bring ((Ravaei F, 2006).
Although knowledge of HIV infection is a source of stress in a person, But its impact on individuals,
such as other types of stress, largely is depending on cognitive appraisal of the problem and resources
that are available to Coping (Berg KM, Cooperman NA, Newville H, Arnsten JH, 2009). Patients with early
AIDS crisis due to anxiety have difficulty in the maintenance the information and what they are told about
the disease, another way to understand. They deny it or justify, and indeed cannot cope with the fact that
they are infected. These patients should be faster than psychological and legal support services to enjoy
(Leserman J,Petitto JM, Golden RN, Gayens BN,Gu H,Perkins DO, Silva SG, Folds JD, Evans DL2000).
Disturbance responses to infection with the virus are seen in all patients, But even beyond Incurable
diseases and cancer patient waiting for death. AIDS also has a social depravation that these factors will
put pressure on those around him and lives (Berg KM, Cooperman NA, Newville H, Arnsten JH,2009).
Are the biological consequences of AIDS and its effect on brain function is impaired. Research
indicates that these individuals have the notoriety of being followed by an engaging social isolation,
dismissal from work, loss of income, and occupation, and the disintegration of the family will focus (Plach
SK, Sterns PE, 2006). However, results indicate that the mental state of women and men with HIV are
significant differences. In Marceline study, men who have transmitted the virus to his wife, According to
the experience of feeling guilty is far more fragile than her husband's mental state has been reported.
While women do not have such a situation (Marcellin F. Preau M. Ravaux I, Dellamonica P, Spire B,
Carrieri MP, 2007)
In this research People through blood and blood products are divine and also people who have the
virus infection is unknown, Have reported better mental state than those who bay sex with persons of the
same sex or extra-marital relationship were infected. These studies have not clarified whether the risk of
AIDS and its related disorders like depression and anxiety related to whether or not. In addition, other
conflicting studies have been published that indicate that although all patients with HIV neurotic symptoms
such as anxiety and depression at the beginning of the show, But not necessarily "These signs will not
always stable and not increasing.
In this regard, the findings Lsrmn and colleagues (2000) indicates that despite being aware of the risk
of disorders that people suffer from the virus have shown, After receiving antidepressants and anxiety and
psychological support In the subsequent measurement, the disorders has decreased considerably. It also
is not clear whether the relationship between gender and mental disorders in AIDS patients. More
research in this area has been conducted in the Western countries that are different from Iran (from
cultural aspect). In addition
Method
This is a comparative study.Statistics community in current study are all women and men members of
following: Affray Sabz club in Kermanshah, during spring and summer of2009 .Their age were more than
15 and they not yet entered to AIDS stage, That Using Cochran's formula (Rafie pour F,2003), a sample
size of 151 was calculated. Due to Impossibility of random sampling (Due to security problems) available
sampling. Is used. This study data has gathered by:
1- population characteristics questionnaire. Information about age, gender, education, revenue, marriage
situation, the way affected by disease and etc. This questionnaire is designed by WHO (Nojoomi and
Anbari, 2008).
1002
2- SCL-90-R questionnaire
SCL-90-R questionnaire has 90 questions assessing psychological symptoms and is reported by the
subjects. The basic form of this questionnaire by Lyman and Kerry in 1973 to show the psychological
aspects of physical and mental patients is designed. This questionnaire was revised in 1984 by Dagvtys
And the final form of the name ((SCL-90-R was prepared (). Using this test it can be detected in healthy
individuals from patients. SCL-90-R has a close relationship with Hopkins Symptoms Checklist. This
means is sensitive to the psychological distress caused by sexual dysfunction, sleep disorders and
chronic pain. the Questionnaire in a lot of research has been used inside and outside Iran and has high
validity Including Draygvs, Ryklz and Rock (1976), Karlvzy and Long (2008). Valyjv (2007) and Hassle
(2007) (Anisi J,Akbari F, Majidian M,Atashkar M,Ghorbani Z,2011). In the main issue in normative
questions, the highest alpha related to of depression (90 .0) and the lowest related to psychosis (77 .0).
Well-retest reliability coefficients 78 .0 to 90 .0 has been shown (Drogatis LR, Rickels K, Rok A,1976).
Ismailis in Iran, comprehensive assessment of the factorial structure of the questionnaire and confirmed it
has demonstrated acceptable reliability (Chalabianloo Gh, Garoosi Farshi M.T, 2010).
The test measures 9 different symptoms and clinical syndromes consists of somatization, obsessive
compulsive, interpersonal sensitivity, Depression, anxiety, aggression, phobia, paranoid ideation and
psychotic. There are also seven questions that are not categorized under any of these 9 dimensions. The
clinical significance of these questions will help to determine the overall test And the tendency is that the
cumulative are used. There are three general indicators of distress in this test that each of those shows
profound psychological status of pathology. 1- Global Severity Index (GSI). 2- Positive Symptom Distress
Index. 3- Positive Symptom Total(PST).
Findings
151 subjects participated in this study , that70 (4 .46%) were women and 81 (6 .53%) were men. The
mean age of women was 25 .34 with SD 29 .7, and the mean age of men was 03 .36 SD 46 .8. In female
participants, the lowest education frequency related to academic education, 8 patients (9 .9%), and the
highest frequency related to primary school education, 23 patients (4 .28%). In male participants, the
lowest education frequency related to the academic education, 5 (2 .7%) And the highest education
frequency related to secondary school education23 patients (3 .33%).25 percent of men and 42 percent
of women were living with their spouse. 62% of men and 19% of women have used drugs. 33% of men
and 9% of women have consumed alcohol. In addition, 38% of men and 11% of women are infected
through contaminated needles While 22 percent of men and 75% of women are infected through sex.
43% of men and 16% of the women In addition to HIV, have been other diseases.
Table 1. Comparative psychological profiles of women and men with HIV
Variable
1003
man
woman
T test
average
sd
average
sd
DF
t
Sig.
Somatization
1 .73
0 .604
1 .95
0 .758
149
-1 .93
0 .054
Obsessive-compulsive
1 .74
0 .655
1 .97
0 .680
149
-2 .10
. .037
Interpersonal sensitivity
1 .79
0 .640
2 .08
0 .605
149
-2 .86
0 .005
Depression
1 .85
0 .707
2 .11
0 .676
149
-2 .25
0 .026
anxiety
1 .54
0 .666
1 .93
0 .643
149
3 .70
0 .001
aggression
1 .62
0 .886
1 .74
0272
149
- .885
0 .378
phobia
1 .45
0 .754
1 .77
0 .727
149
2 .58
0 .011
paranoid ideation
1 .86
0 .618
2 .00
0 .701
149
1 .27
0 .204
psychotic
1 .48
0 .604
1 .78
0 .590
149
2 .98
0 .003
Additional Questions
1 .64
0/652
1 .80
0 .695
149
1 .44
0 .150
Global Severity Index
1 .55
0 .572
1 .79
0 .552
149
2 .78
0 .006
The results in Table 1 indicate that the mean scores of men and women with HIV in somatization,
hostility, paranoid ideation, and additional questions not significantly different (p> 0 .05). But, obsessivecompulsive, interpersonal sensitivity, depression, anxiety, phobia, psychosis ¬ Parish and the overall
coefficient of symptoms, women had significantly higher scores than men (p<0 .05).
Discussion
The aim of this study was to compare the psychological profiles of men and women were affected to HIV.
The results indicated that some scales , such as somatization, hostility, paranoid ideation, and additional
questions, regarding the gender is different that is these consistent with the findings of Bartlet, et al
(1996) and Herzl (2009) and is counter with Lsrmn findings (2000). This conflict could be due to cultural
differences. Similar studies have been conducted in Western societies, participants have reported that
when faced with a diagnosis of HIV, health and social support systems have received a lot of, while in
Iran is not provided such supports for HIV patients. Another factor that could explain such conflict is
related to the different tools that have been used in these studies. In other words, it is an instrument used
in this study differs from instrument used in that similar research has been conducted outside of Iran.
The Obsessive Compulsive Scale, interpersonal sensitivity, depression, anxiety, phobia, psychosis Parish
and overall index of symptom scores were significantly higher in women than men. The results in
depression With the findings of previous research related to HIV patients is inconsistent (Blomberg
SJDeckey WC,2003) However, the Previous research reported that more men are infected through
injecting drug use, then through sex transferred Virus to his wife. In This condition causes men to be
guilty of his wife's illness, blame themselves and become more involved in depression. In the present
study, although 38% of men by sharing needles during drug use have been infected. But the average
females depression is more than the average males depression.
Some professionals believe that because of the social conditions, Women, regardless of their level of
responsibility in susceptibility to the virus may be to blame. In the study, Bartlett et al (1996) and Bartllet
PA, Wallack JJ, Prenzlauer SI, et al (2009), who had caused the transfer of the virus to their partners
engaged in self-criticism And gradually became depressed. If the consultation after diagnosis this
situation not be examined or treated, or at least not under control Gradually Leads to chronic depression
and suicidal plan design and implementation.
In contrast of depression, the prevalence of mania maybe increases in patients who have been in
terminal stages of AIDS and who have dementia. This condition leads to high-risk behavior that can
transmit the virus to others or to their patients has led to an increase in self-defeating behaviors or
suicidal. Women with HIV, who are experiencing mania of attempting to have sex with multiple people,
are an important factor in the transmission of the virus to healthy subjects (Linda A, Kathrine S, Elington
BA, Gary M, et al,2005). If we accept the previous Statements, Men in this study reported lower
depression scores can be a factor for the further spread of HIV.
Results of phobias subscale is contrary to some previous results including Lsrmean and colleagues
(2000). In Lsrmn and collaboration research, there was no significant difference between phobia score in
women and men. On the other hand, The results of this study is consistent with many research results,
including Bartlett and others (1996) and Linda A, Kathrine S, Elington BA, Gary M, et al (2005). In the
Bartlett and others study, the mean subscale score phobias women more than men and this is consistent
with this results. Vatankhah findings (2005) indicate that women acquired HIV compared to men with HIV
are more likely to suffer from phobias. Also, HIV-infected women compared to healthy women have much
higher in the subscale scores phobias.
Perhaps the reason is that women are more victimized through sex with infected partners and therefore
followed by that, create a sense of insecurity and danger lurking in there. In addition, social phobia, t is
common in patients with HIV Is characterized by episodes of intense anxiety and is associated with the
actual social situation that is likely to be judged by others. the reason is that they fear their performance
1004
or Their symptoms, Cause being humiliated or embarrassed by them. humiliation or embarrassment
caused them to be so. (Donenberg GR, Pao M,2005).
in the anxiety subscale, The results obtained in this study compared to some of the research done in
other parts of the world. In the study of Silla and Robert (2001) and Mayer et al (2008) in the anxiety
scores of women is more than men. The mean anxiety scores of single women is more than married
women's anxiety scores. In addition, women with social support (family and friends) Compared with
women who did not have social support They experienced less anxiety.in the Marcelien et al (2007) and
Brown et al (1997) study,gay men reported more anxiety than women who where homosexual. In the
Mentioned study affected men averagely Two years more women have been infected. I this study also
affected men averagely more than women are involved in infection but women who reported more anxiety
(unlike the result of Marcelien).
In paranoid ideation subscale results obtained in this study differs from most studies. In the study by
Brown et al (26), Rvvt and colleagues (27) Average scores are higher in men than women. According to
Rote N,Angele GA,Plonchane C, Wisit P, et al( 2009)environment where people living with HIV before
and after infection, have more Impact on making and continue paranoid thoughts. What would disown
any environment and have negative attitudes towards people infected, individuals tend to develop more
paranoid.
Conclusion
Generally Quality of life consider had not difference in total grade for affected HIV women and men .
There wasn’t difference in scale of family support and social relations. in scale of negative feelings toward
own and ethic and religion average grade of men was meaningfully more than women . And in scale of
forgiveness and sexual function women grade was meaningfully more than men.There were Limitations in
this study such as Not allowed for sample choosing randomly, Not allowed for direct sample (due to
security and social issues) and also Not allowed for providing interview with objects. Suggest that perform
a similar study with more sample capacity in country Level.
Acknowledgement
Authors intend to thank clubs members and manager that provide possibility of this research and thank to
welfare organization prevention assistant and all people who participate in this study as objects.
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1006
Effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral family therapy in parent-child
conflicts
Seyed Elyas Hosseini Baraftabi*1, Farshad Zareei2, Farzaneh Saadati Behbahani3, Vahid Sarmadi
Soltan4
1- MA of Family counseling, Tehran University, Tehran, Iran
2- Ma student of rehabilitation counseling, university of social welfare and rehabilitation sciences, Tehran,
Iran
3-BA of Educational Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Izeh, Iran
4-MA of Family Counseling, Tehran University, Tehran, Iran
Abstract
Parents establish the foundation of healthy personality in the adolescents. Moreover,
parents’ failed and troubled relationship with adolescents regarding kindness, affection
and excessive strictness are the reasons of delinquency in adolescents. Therefore, the
present research aimed to investigate the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral family
therapy in parent-child conflicts. The research employed a pre-test, post-test and control
group design. The data gathering tools included Parent-Child conflict questionnaire. the
statistical population included all the male students studying in the third grade of junior
high schools located in Izeh Province in the school year of 2011-2012, out of which a
sample of 30 individuals who had the highest rate of conflict with their parents was
selected through multi-stage cluster sampling and were assigned to the experimental
and control groups (each of which, 15). The experimental group received eight sessions
of cognitive-behavioral therapy. Descriptive statistics, multivariate variance analysis
(MANOVA) and multivariate variance of MANCOVA were used to analyze the data. The
data analysis indicates that, cognitive-behavioral family therapy decreases the conflict,
verbal and physical aggression of the students. Moreover, this method increases their
ability to use logical reasoning strategy.
Keywords: cognitive-behavioral family therapy, parent-child conflicts, conflict
Introduction
Family is the most basic social institution that occupies great role in the education and growth of
children. Mutual actions between parents and their children develop the basis of individual’s mental and
emotional growth. If a family doesn’t lay the foundation for the emotional and psychological growth of the
individual, behavioral and psychological disorders will emerge in the individual. One of the most prevalent
behavioral disorders and problems that trigger feelings of individuals’ and families’ disturbance is the
existence of conflict between parents and children (Eivazi, 1999).
Parents establish the foundations of healthy personality in the adolescents. Parents usually
consider their adolescents as children and this lack of understanding will lead to their conflict. Therefore,
adolescents resist their parents’ firmness and demands. Most parents observe that, their once obedient
child turns into an individual who disobeys resists and disagree. This occurs when the highest amount of
pressure is on the adolescent to adapt to parents’ rules (Ahmadi, 2002).
Parents have plenty of worries for the future of their children. One of the prevalent worries
amongst the parents is that, psychosocial pathologies such as addiction, delinquency and suicide do not
affect their children. Such worries are important and fundamental; however, a responsible family regards
such issues and knows that worry is not enough. Sometimes, such worries lead to the extreme reactions
of parents to children that bring about an inadequate realm for psychosocial pathologies. Intimate and
harmonious relationship between parents and children is one of the most preventive factors of
psychosocial pathologies and vice versa, poor and uneasy relationship between parents and children give
rise to different kinds of psychosocial pathologies (Nouri, 2006).
The most common factors that trigger psychosocial pathologies are as following: relationship
problems between parents and children, dysfunctional family, weakness in coping skills against stresses
and inability in clear and logical thinking and evaluation of the strategies (Nouri, 2006). One of the issues
that may lead to the emergence of some problems between parents and children is the existence of
conflict. Conflict is unavoidable, but the consequences of parent-child conflicts are more positive rather
than negative. For instance, the conflicts and disagreements between parents (usually mothers) and
adolescents who are entering the early ages of youth usually decrease over time but not based on
emotion. Conflicts can test out parent’s and children’s patience but can’t seriously affect parent-child
relationship (Alexander, 2002).
Occurred conflicts among the family members if adequately and effectively dealt can help in
cementing the relationship; however, if both sides don’t know how to deal with the conflict, the existing
conflict is not solved and ruins the relationship (Gesten et al, 1988). According to Moradi (2006), the
reasons of conflict between the individuals include needs: needs are necessary for welfare and health.
When we ignore the needs of self and others, conflicts are created. Values: values are ethical principles
that are of crucial importance for our lives. Intense conflicts arise when the individuals choose conflicting
or not very clear values. Power: this refers to how the individuals define and apply the power and it exerts
significant effect on the rate and intensity of conflict. Moreover, power also influences the conflict
management. The type of communication: if there exists any kinds of deficiency or disorder in the
communication channels, or the consequences are not perceivable, the conflict and disagreement may
arise.
Among the many social factors that exert influence on shaping the personality of the adolescents,
family is of the most crucial importance. Parent-child relationship can be known as a system or network
that are mutually related to one another and are undoubtedly of paramount importance in determining the
children’s behavior, their perception and attitudes. Family environment is composed of parents’
relationship with one another, children’s relationship with one another and parent-child relationship that
can either facilitate the adjustment or prevent it (Ahmadi et al, 2004). Studies in this realm indicate that
there exists relationship between parent-child relationship and behavioral problems of children. The
results of the research by Kalham and Bress (1999; cited in Kavyan, 2003) indicate that, there exists
significant relationship between the family environment and children’s behavioral problems. They assert
that, both overdoing and underdoing in realms such as acceptance, freedom, expectation,
encouragement and lack of understanding the characteristics of adolescent can have great role in the
disagreement between adolescents and their parents.
Vaghn and Barber (2010) carried out a study in the university of Kentucky and Tennessee on a
sample of 641 adolescents in the school age of 12 to 18 years old and concluded that, there exists
significant relationship between parent-child conflict and behavioral problems of adolescents such as
depression. Hafman (2010) carried out a study in Chicago University to perceive the relationship between
maturity and parent-child conflict and compare it between healthy children and children with spinal cord
deficiency. They concluded that, maturity is correlated to higher levels of conflict and decreased level of
unity in the families with healthy children. Moreover, the maturity had lower impact on the families with
children who suffered from spinal cord deficiency. In another research carried out by Fitzgerald and
1008
Brown (2008), it was indicated that, many detrimental factors exacerbate the conflict between parent and
child and have a wide negative range that influence the overall performance of the family. Research by
Bjornstad and Montgomery (2005) indicates that, family therapy needless of pharmaceutical therapy can
help behavior management in the families.
Sigueland, Rynn and Diamond (2006) investigated the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral
family therapy in the decrease of separation anxiety, social phobia and generalized anxiety disorder on
adolescents aging 12 to 18 years old. Results of the research indicated that, cognitive-behavioral family
therapy can solely contribute to the decrease of problems of adolescents aging 12 to 18 years old. Wood
et al (2006) investigated the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral family therapy in the decrease of
anxiety disorder in children aging 6 to 13 years old with two methods of cognitive-behavioral family
therapy and cognitive-behavioral training. Results indicated that, both methods improved the symptoms.
However, children showed more improvement subsequent to cognitive-behavioral therapy and the
symptoms decreased significantly. In another research by Gorji (2004; cited in Mirzaeiyan, 2006) the
effectiveness of behavior modification in parents, teachers and a combination of parents and teachers in
the decrease of the symptoms of ADHD was investigated. Results of the research indicated that, behavior
modification training to parents and teachers can simultaneously and significantly decrease the symptoms
of ADHD in students.
Lock et al (2006) investigated the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral family therapy in the
anorexia nervosa of children and adolescents. Results indicated that cognitive-behavioral family therapy
improved children with anorexia nervosa. Fallon (1991; cited in Minuchin, 1994) asserted that, cognitivebehavioral family therapy improves the mood disorder of childhood and adolescence. This approach with
combination of cognitive processes is effective in the management of many psychological problems of
adults such as depression. Malouff (2007), in the research on a sample of 551 American families with
one child aging 5 to 11 years old, investigated the relationship between parents conflict, parent-child
relationship and adolescent’ maladjustment. They concluded that, parent’s conflict is directly correlated to
parent-child conflicts.
One of the most important preventive factors of psychosocial pathologies and conflicts is
problem-solving skills training. The key to the diagnosis and finding the problem is curiosity and
dissatisfaction. You must ask and doubt why a rule, method or output is the way it is or why you feel
disturbed when something doesn’t work the way that it should (Nouri, 2006). Behavioral family therapy is
a relatively new approach that stems from the research and investigation of children’s behavior
modification by the parents. The importance of thoughts has been emphasized throughout the history of
this approach. Since 1970, coordinated attempts have been made to employ cognitive-behavioral
methods on couples and families. In cognitive-behavioral family therapy, great attention is devoted to the
position of family members and ways of acting and one of the most common forms of cognitive-behavioral
family therapy is behavioral education to parents (Samoell, 2003).
Humans are always seeking to solve their problems and attempt to find solutions for unsolvable
subjects; therefore, it should be noted that, an issue doesn’t mean problem and conflict and cannot be
regarded as something that poses problems but an action to reach the goal of that issue. One of the
differences of humans as creatures with power of reasoning and creativity is to find the solution through
thinking. Therefore, finding the depth of the matter and seeking the truth is a kind of problem solving. The
increase in power of decision making and desirable solutions satisfies the daily needs and they become
more successful (Saeediyan, 2003). The existence of conflict between parents and children during
adolescence gives rise to problems in adolescents, families and their relationship. On the other hand,
cognitive-behavioral therapy decreases the psychosocial problems including parents-children conflicts.
The research aims to investigate the effectiveness of family therapy training to the students studying in
the third grade of junior high school in Izeh Province and decrease of their conflicts with their parents.
1009
The research employed a semi-experimental method with pre-test, post-test and control group
design. The experimental and control group were randomly balanced and pre-test was administered prior
to the experimental interventions on the experimental and control groups. The post-test was administered
subsequent to the intervention. The difference between the pre-test and post-test was investigated with
regard to the statistical significance. Therefore, the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral family therapy
was employed as independent variable to determine its effectiveness in the decrease of parent-child
conflicts of students studying in the third grade of junior high schools of Izeh Province as the dependent
variable. The statistical population included all the male students studying in the third grade of junior high
schools located in Izeh province in the school year of 2011-2012 aging 14 to 17. Six schools was
randomly selected from among 16 schools and 240 students filled out the questionnaire of conflict tactics,
out of which a sample of 30 with the highest score on conflict were randomly selected and assigned into
the experimental and control groups (each of which 15). The group sessions were administered for eight
90-minute sessions while the control group received no intervention.
Parent-child questionnaire: this questionnaire has 15 items that assess 3 problem-solving
strategies including reasoning, verbal and physical aggression and was designed by Straus (1990)
(Sanayi, 2000). The first five items of this questionnaire evaluates the reasoning, the second five items
assess the verbal aggression and the third five items assess the physical aggression. The items of this
questionnaire are scored on 5-point Likert scale that shows the rate of behavior in each of the item. The
high scores of each scale indicate the conflict in that scale. The first five questions (1 to 50 are scored
reversely from 1 (very much) to 5 (very little). The high score indicates the conflict and lower usage of
reasoning strategies. The items of verbal and physical aggression (questions 6 to 15) are directly scored,
from 1(very little) to 5(very much). High score in this scale is indicative of the conflict and higher usage of
strategies. The score range for each scale is between 5 and 25. The score of 5 indicates the lack of
conflict in the relationship and the score of 25 indicates the highest rate of conflict. The score range for
the total scale is between 15 and 75. The score of 15 indicates the lack of conflict and the score of 75
indicates the difficulty of the relationship. This questionnaire was carried out by Moradi (2006) on 100
individuals. The reliability of the total scale is as .78 and the reliability of the subscales of reasoning,
verbal aggression and physical aggression are equal to 70%, 74% and 81%, respectively. Moreover, this
questionnaire was administered on 46 subjects by Zaboli (2004). The reliability of the total scale is as .74
and the reliability of the subscales of reasoning, verbal aggression and physical aggression are equal to
58%, 65% and 82%, respectively. In the present research, Cronbach alpha was used to determine the
reliability of parent-child conflicts. The reliability of the scale is acceptable.
The cognitive-behavioral family therapy program is as following: the first session: introduction and
interaction between the members, explaining about the process, number of session, asking for feedback,
setting goals and talking about the concept of parent-child conflict. Second session: problem-solving skills
training, asking for feedback and giving assignment. Fourth session: asking for feedback of the previous
session, talking about the assignment of the previous session, strengthening the relationship through
acceptance and support and giving assignment. Fifth session: describing the personality differences that
enrich the relationships and makes the home environment more attractive, asking for feedback and giving
assignments. Sixth session: asking for feedback from the previous session, talking about the assignment
of the previous session, discussing on different interests and respecting different tastes and interests.
Seventh session: asking for feedback from the previous session, talking about the assignments of the
previous session, commitment to strengthen the relationship through identification and respecting each
other’s opinion and giving assignments. Eighth session: asking for feedback from the previous session,
establishing positive and supporting environment at home for parent-child relationship.
1010
Table 1- mean and standard deviation of the scores of parent-child conflict in the experimental and
control group and in the pre-test and post-test
Variable
Stage
Statistical Indices
Mean
Standard
Deviation
No
group
Parent-child
conflict
Parent-child
conflict
in
reasoning
Pre-test
experimental
control
48.78
48.27
6.33
6.71
15
15
Post-test
experimental
control
experimental
25.87
49.27
16.47
6.88
4.52
2.47
15
15
15
control
17.87
2.80
15
experimental
7.93
2.68
15
control
18.33
3.65
15
experimental
17.53
3.60
15
control
15.87
4.10
15
experimental
9.00
2.87
15
control
16.87
2.97
15
experimental
14.87
3.85
15
control
14.53
3.29
15
experimental
8.93
2.52
15
control
14.07
2.49
15
Pre-test
Post-test
Parent-child
conflict
in
verbal
aggression
Parent-child
conflict
in
physical
aggression
Pre-test
Post-test
Pre-test
Post-test
Table 2- results of one-way variance analysis on the mean scores of posttest and parent-child conflicts of
experimental and control groups with controlling the pre-test
Source
Change
Of
pre-test
group
error
SS
Df
MS
F
Level Of Sig
P
292.52
4202.14
658.14
1
1
27
292.52
4202.14
24.37
12.00
172.39
.002
.0001
Eta
Squar
e
.30
.86
Statisti
cal
Power
.916
1.00
As observed in table 2, there exists significant relationship between the experimental and control group in terms of parent-child
conflict after controlling the pre-test among the students in the experimental and control groups. Therefore, cognitive-behavioral
family therapy training has decreased the mean of parent-child conflict of students in the experimental group as compared to the
control group. The effect size is equal to 86%.
variabl
e
Table 3- results of one-way variance analysis (MANCOVA) on the mean scores of posttest and
components of parent-child conflicts of students in the experimental and control groups with controlling
the pre-test
1011
Source
change
of
ss
d ms
f
F
level of sig p
Eta
square
statistical
power
physical
aggression
verbal aggression reasoning
pre-test
150.18
1 150.18
40.47
.0001
.61
1.00
group
558.24
1 558.24
150.46
.0001
.85
1.00
error
92.75
2 3.71
5
pre-test
62.80
1 62.80
15.56
.001
.38
.966
group
506.79
1 506.79
125.61
.0001
.82
1.00
error
100.86
2 4.03
5
pre-test
5.96
1 5.96
1.12
.298
.04
.176
group
171.23
1 171.23
32.43
.0001
.56
1.00
error
131.98
2 5.27
5
As observed in table 3, there exists significant difference between the students in the experimental and control group in terms of
parent-child conflict in reasoning (F=150.46, P<.0001). Therefore, family therapy training decreases the mean of the students’
parent-child conflicts in reasoning in the experimental group and in the post-test as compared to the students’ mean of scores in
the control group and the effect size is equal to 85%. Put differently, 85% of personal differences in reasoning and in the scores
of post-test and parent-child conflicts can be related to the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral family therapy and the effect
size is equal to 1.00.
Furthermore, as observed in table 3, there exists significant difference between the students in the experimental and control
group in terms of parent-child conflict in verbal aggression (F=125.61, P<.0001). Therefore, family therapy training decreases
the mean of the students’ parent-child conflicts in verbal aggression in the experimental group and in the post-test as compared
to the students’ mean of scores in the control group and the effect size is equal to 83%. Put differently, 83% of personal
differences in verbal aggression and in the scores of post-test and parent-child conflicts can be related to the effectiveness of
cognitive-behavioral family therapy and the effect size is equal to 1.00.
Moreover, as observed in table 3, there exists significant difference between the students in the experimental and control group
in terms of parent-child conflict in physical aggression (F=23.43, P<.0001). Therefore, family therapy training decreases the
mean of the students’ parent-child conflicts in physical aggression in the experimental group and in the post-test as compared to
the students’ mean of scores in the control group and the effect size is equal to 85%. Put differently, 56% of personal
differences in physical aggression and in the scores of post-test and parent-child conflicts can be related to the effectiveness of
cognitive-behavioral family therapy and the effect size is equal to 1.00.
Conflict and fighting is an issue that may influence the intimacy of the relationship among the
family members and bring about negative consequences for the members of the family especially
children. Family members have plenty of interaction with one another and conflict may arise among them.
The emerged conflict damages the feelings of unity and cohesion and it can help in the growth of the
relationship if dealt properly (Saeediyan, 2003). Cognitive-behavioral therapy occupies great role in the
prevention and decrease of conflict between parents and children. The present research was carried out
to assess the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral family therapy training in the decrease of parent-child
relationship among the students studying in the third grade of junior high schools in Izeh Province.
Results indicated that, there exists significant relationship between the experimental and control group in
terms of parent-child conflict after controlling the pre-test among the students in the experimental and
control groups. Therefore, cognitive-behavioral family therapy training has decreased the mean of parentchild conflict of students in the experimental group as compared to the control group.
This finding is in line with the results of the research by Wood et al (2006), Bjornstand and Montgomery (2005) and Fitzgerald
and Brown (2008). These authors concluded that detrimental effects that exacerbate the disagreement between parents and
children have a wide and negative range on the total performance of the families. With regard to the findings of table 3, there
1012
exists significant difference between the students in the experimental and control group in terms of parent-child conflict in
reasoning (F=150.46, P<.0001). Therefore, family therapy training decreases the mean of the students’ parent-child conflicts in
reasoning in the experimental group and in the post-test as compared to the students’ mean of scores in the control group.
Moreover, the scoring was reversed on the subscales of reasoning in the scale of parent-child relationship.
This finding is in line with the results of the research by Kifer et al (1974), Lock et al (2006) and
Kajbaf (2011), who concluded that, dialogue skills training exerts positive effect on the decrease of family
conflicts. Overall, not having any dialogue would not solve the problem and it remains unsolved. Training
individuals who do not want or can’t solve the problems through having a dialogue will be of great help by
which they can use their reasoning to tackle the conflict. Both sides should have the ability for reasoning.
If not, the problem cannot be solved soon.
There exists significant difference between the students in the experimental and control group in
terms of parent-child conflict in verbal aggression (F=125.61, P<.0001). Therefore, family therapy training
decreases the mean of the students’ parent-child conflicts in verbal aggression in the experimental group
and in the post-test as compared to the students’ mean of scores in the control group. This finding is in
line with the results of the research by Vaghn and Barber (2010), Barkley et al (1992), Edmond (2003)
and Ameri (2004). They found out in their study that, there exists significant and direct relationship
between parent-child relationship and adolescents’ behavioral problems such as depression.
With regard to the obtained results it can be concluded that, adolescents who are disobedient
usually belong to families who have abusive parents and do not have adequate coping strategies with
their children. Therefore, the aggressive and disobedient behavioral interaction cycles starts and
increases the physical conflict, the possibility of aggressive behavior and disobedience in the child and
this itself gives rise to more conflicts. Cognitive-behavioral family therapy skills training can increase selfcontrol skills and communicational skills and decreases the aggression problems (Hoffman, 2010). We
can usually say that, when parents employ punishing strategies at home and do not allow expressing the
opinions, the children tend to show aggressive behaviors and rebel to parent’s authority and the problems
remain unsolved due to not having the adequate skills. This skill training can somewhat solve the
problems and existing conflict and make parents know the parenting strategies and communicational
skills.
There exists significant difference between the students in the experimental and control group in
terms of parent-child conflict in physical aggression (F=23.43, P<.0001). Therefore, family therapy
training decreases the mean of the students’ parent-child conflicts in physical aggression in the
experimental group and in the post-test as compared to the students’ mean of scores in the control group.
This finding is consistent with the results of the research carried out by Zarb (1998, cited in Khoda Yari
Fard, 2004). He concludes that, cognitive-behavioral therapy is effective in the decrease of adolescents’
aggressive behaviors. Richard and Dodge (1982) found out that, there exists significant relationship
between personal problem solving ability and decrease of aggression in children. Gesten et al (1998) also
found out that, individuals who have aggressive behaviors usually show a kind of deficiency and lack in
self and at home and haven’t learned proper communicational strategies. Therefore, family therapy
training can help them to somewhat solve the problems and existing conflict (Nazer, 1993).
Many influencing factors give rise to parent-child conflict but lack of skills in solving the
interpersonal problems as one of the important factors can have a significant role in the creation of
conflict. Cognitive-behavioral family therapy training as a therapeutic method teaches the individual to use
a wide range of effective cognitive skills in coping effectively with problematic interpersonal conditions.
Given the effectiveness of family therapy training in the decrease of parent-child conflict, it’s proposed
that, all the individuals acquire this skill to be able to have efficient and healthy life and not to be disables
and frustrated while tackling problems. The limitation of the research was lack of participation and access
to parents in counseling sessions. It seems that delivering such training to parents can exert more impact
on the decrease of their conflicts with their children.
1013
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