From rigids to rags - HvA Kennisbank

From rigids to rags
The best way to make a new pair of jeans look old
ELVERT ARNOLD
INTERNATIONAL FASHION AND MANAGEMENT
AMSTERDAM FASHION INSTITUTE
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From Rigids to Rags
The best way to make a new pair of jeans look old
Elvert Arnold
Student number: 500532839
Bachelor International Fashion & Management
Amsterdam Fashion Institute, Hogeschool van Amsterdam
Supervisors: Joop Smit
Peter Buts
Marco Mossinkoff
Jacqueline Ritchie
Amsterdam, June 2013
I, Elvert Arnold, declare that the work presented in this research report is original and that no sources other than those mentioned in the text and its
references have been used in writing this bachelor’s thesis.
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chemical use, and most prominently the increasing use of and research
into more sustainable and health conscious options when distressing
denim. However, the fact that exact figures on the amounts of water,
energy, different chemicals necessary to make and especially distress
generic denim garments are not available to the public, suggests that the
denim industry may not be quite ready to change.
Executive Summary
In this research report, I take a look at the processes involved in creating
a denim garment, from seed to finish. I talk about the ecological impact
the various stages of manufacture have; cotton production, dyeing,
weaving, cutting and sewing, and then the finishing processes. For each
stage of production I also discuss more sustainable alternatives that have
come to the fore in recent years. Drawing on eight semi-structured
interviews with experts in the industry, I ultimately evaluate which
processes for production and especially garment treatments yield the
most authentic looking results while at the same time keeping an eye on
the use of water, chemicals, energy, workers’ health, and to a lesser extent
costs.
The biggest advances in this regard can be made in the production of
denim garments that are not or no longer meant to look like they have
been worn, washed, and faded naturally. These looks are not restricted by
the requirements of recreation and can therefore employ any treatment,
any distressing technique, to create results that the designer and the
consumer may deem beautiful. This makes every technique suitable, and
thus encouraging the use of sustainable distressing treatments in this
area of the industry would make the biggest impact. During the next
decades, I hope and trust that the trend to reduce the denim industry’s
ecological footprint will continue and that perhaps we can start to
gradually phase out unsustainable distressing techniques all together.
This report starts with an exploration of the nature of denim as a fabric;
the distinctive weaving pattern of the white weft and the blue warp yarns
and the indigo dyeing process which gives denim one of its most
important characteristics, namely that it fades. I expound on the way
denim garments mold themselves to the wearer’s body and how every
movement, every action, every adventure leaves a mark upon the
garment.
However, for brands that aim to create artificial fades that look as much
like vintage worn and washed denim as possible, i.e. denim heritage
brands, there are sustainable options as well. From the interviews
conducted with experts at Levi’s XX, Rising Sun & Co., Kings of Indigo and
Benzak Denim Developers, and independent expert Harry Mercer, we can
conclude that good old-fashioned elbow grease is the most popular way
to go. Molding whiskers using a resin and creating crease lines and
honeycombs is best done by hand, by someone who knows exactly what
they are doing. This technique requires little water and chemicals and is
therefore quite sustainable. It can be combined with an enzyme
stonewash, ozone bleaching, ice blasting and mineral tinting which
generate good results while having a limited impact on the environment.
However, the most sustainable option and the best way to make your new
jeans look old is still to wear them yourself, from rigids to rags.
The next chapter expounds upon the denim industry’s ecological
footprint. The production of cotton for the denim industry alone requires
enormous amounts of water and pesticides, indigo dyeing is responsible
for more water, more waste water, and that is not to mention the
chemicals often added to the dye stuff and the other resources used
during fabric production. Then there are the distressing treatments which
are applied to the large majority of denim pieces and which are explored
in more detail. Luckily, more attention is being paid to reducing the denim
industry’s ecological footprint with alternatives to generic cotton being
produced, new dye techniques being developed to reduce water and
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Acknowledgements
Writing this research has taken me through ups and downs, through
times of excitement and of disappointment, but finally I am proud to
say that I finished it. Without the guidance, encouragement, and the
necessary distractions from the following people, this process would
have been much more difficult.
I would like to thank my interview respondents for opening up to me
and sharing their knowledge and their love for denim.
Thank you to my supervisors for guiding me and offering constructive
criticism and words of encouragement when I needed it.
Thank you to my teachers for providing me with the tools to do this
research, and to my friends and colleagues at Levi’s XX for showing an
interest and fueling my indigo love.
Gratitude and love goes out to my father, Ed Arnold, who always called
at the right time. Thank you for sharing your thoughts, offering a
listening ear, and keeping me calm and clear-headed.
Finally, without the support and patience from my girlfriend Lizzie I
would not have been able to finish this report. Thank you for being by
my side.
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Contents
Results and analysis
Conclusion
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Foreword
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Chapter 5: Conclusions
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Chapter 1: What is this thesis all about?
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Epilogue: The future
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Bibliography
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Statement of the problem
Purpose of the study
An overview of the literature
Methods
Limitations and delimitations
Significance of the study
Chapter 2: The nature of denim
Introduction
The fabric
Indigo
Indigo dyeing
The real deal - Naturally aged denim garments
Conclusion
Chapter 3: From seed to finish
Introduction
Cotton and indigo
Distressing distress
Conclusion
Appendix I: Examples from Levi’s Vintage Clothing
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Chapter 4: Brand-new vintage
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Introduction
The ‘not so vintage’ look
Methods
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Foreword
of Mister Freedom (Loiron), I have more than just a visual dislike for
pre-distressed garments. Any cotton garment weighs heavy on the
environment, because of the vast amount of water and the often
harmful chemicals used for the growing of cotton, but even more
Ever since the Jeans Semester at AMFI I have become increasingly
water and chemicals go into artificially distressing garments. These
interested in denim and its unique properties. During said semester I
garments are weakened by such treatments and they have
designed and produced several pairs of jeans, one of which got
contemporary looks, these are both reasons why they will not be worn
produced and sold by WE. We, my group and I, distressed the jeans by
for a long time and soon will end up in a landfill. Christophe Loiron
using sandpaper, bleach, dragging them through the city behind our
advocates that we should stop buying such garments and that we
bikes and we even rubbing them against trees. This was when my
should only wear unwashed (rigid) denim. I agree with him, and
interest for the unique aging properties of denim were first sparked.
personally do exactly that. However, I do not believe the consumer
I fueled my interest by doing an internship with the design
will stop buying pre-distressed garments, and neither will the
department at Levi’s XX, the premium division of LS&Co. which is
industry stop producing them. What I think can improve though is the
responsible for the brands Levi’s Vintage Clothing and Levi’s Made &
methods of pre-distressing garments. I think by making them look
Crafted. As Levi’s Vintage Clothing (LVC) is dedicated to “capturing
more authentically worn, therefore timeless and not influenced by
the spirit and heritage of American work wear” by reproducing “the
temporary fashion, and by using treatments that compromise the
fits, fabrics and details of bygone eras” (‘About’), this provided me
fabrics’ quality as well as the environment as little as possible we can
with ample opportunity to study both true vintage and new,
achieve that people will wear the product longer and diminish its
reproduced, products. In the beginning I had a hard time telling the
ecological footprint. In this research, therefore, I have tried to
two apart- LVC is very good at what they do- but I developed my eyes
establish which denim distressing techniques generate results that
more and more and now I cannot believe how blind I was. Anyway, I
look most like authentically worn denim garments, while keeping in
never really liked pre-distressed garments. A lot of the time I would
mind the environmental and human rights toll these techniques may
find them a bit tacky and fake looking, even though I did not know
have.
much about it. After reading an editorial by Christophe Loiron, Owner
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Chapter 1:
crunch, leading consumers to focus more on durability (Agarwal 2010
‘Heritage’). Brands like Levi’s Vintage Clothing, Lee 101, RRl, and the
What is this thesis all about?
Stronghold Jean Company draw on their own heritage to reproduce
their brands’ vintage and antique denim garments. Brands like
Wrangler and Warehouse are reissuing vintage designs, and Mr.
Statement of the problem
Freedom, Rising Sun & Co., Kings of Indigo, Sugar Cane and Co. and
Distressing denim is harmful to the environment and to factory
Earnest Sewn produce their own hardwearing denim designs drawing
workers. Yet, it is an integral part of the industry and not likely to
on vintage garments from all over. Even in the Netherlands, new
decrease in popularity any time soon (Sharma). To denim brands, like
denim brands dedicated to capturing the spirit and garment-making
any other fashion brands, visual results are very important as is
techniques of the olden days have cropped up during the last five
keeping costs low. Denim laundries on the other hand know a lot
years such as Kings of Indigo, Butcher of Blue, Benzak Denim
about the chemicals and treatments they can use and what is the
Developers, Olaf Hussein and Denham Moreover, there is an
cheapest way to do it, but the people processing the garment do not
increasing number of websites and blogs dedicated to the subject of
always know much about authentic wear patterns. Denim brands do
heritage denim, although the majority of those focus on rigid denim
not always know exactly what happens at the laundries they hire to
and the wearing-in process, rather than the pre-distressed heritage
treat their products. As the laundries too are profit driven companies
denim that is the focus of this research.
and often located in countries where environmental and health
The collection of vintage denim, and thereby their increase in value,
regulations are lax and funds are scarce, keeping costs low and
began back in the mid-80s when a few Japanese dealers started buying
revenues high is on top of their priority list.
up old denim, new old stock in particular, and selling them as special
To denim heritage brands, which focus on recreating denim of days
items. This created a market for vintage denim that grew steadily and
gone by, the emphasis is on making their products look as much like
spread throughout Asia, Europe and the U.S. ultimately leading certain
real, worn and faded vintage denim as possible. Heritage denim has
pieces to be valued and sold for thousands, tens of thousands or even
gained in popularity in recent years, some say in response to the credit
hundreds of thousands of dollars (Little 16). Denim heritage brands
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answer to this demand for vintage denim by recreating it, allowing the
consumer to purchase garments that look like those made way back
when, made using the same materials and standards, which capture
the spirit of the cowboys, miners, and farmers who used to wear them.
Because so many brands currently use terms like ‘vintage’ and
‘heritage’ to describe and market their products, it is difficult to
quantify how large a market segment heritage denim actually
occupies, but in my experience it does remain a niche market that
caters primarily to those willing and able to spend on clothes and with
an interest in looking fashionable.
In this research, I investigate the various techniques used to artificially
distress denim to recreate a vintage look, and hope to find out which
techniques generate the most authentic looking results while taking
less of a toll on both the environment and the health of factory
workers. By creating an overview of various denim treatments and
distressing techniques and their environmental and human rights
impact, I hope that people involved in the denim industry will be able
to choose treatments that generate the desired visual and qualitative
outcome, that are more sustainable, and that may perhaps even save
money.
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Purpose of the study
Audience: Anyone interested in the denim industry and specifically
people involved with artificial distressing of denim garments.
Area of research: The artificial recreation of vintage denim garments.
Main question: Which denim distressing techniques generate the most
authentic looking results, while being minimally harmful to the
An overview of the literature
environment and factory workers?
There are previous studies conducted on the subject of denim
Subquestions: What is the nature of denim as a fabric? How and why
distressing. Most only scratch the surface and give an introduction to
does it age the way it does? (Discussed in chapter 2)
the subject. Other studies, usually done by scientists, are really specific
and target only one method or even one chemical. No in-depth studies
What impact do the various stages of producing of
are done on the authenticity of the visual aspects when distressing
denim garments have on the environment and the
garments. When distressing methods are compared at all it is usually
health of workers? What more sustainable alternatives
about benefits in terms of cost efficiency or specific technical
are available? (Discussed in chapter 3)
improvements, it is never about improving the authenticity of the
Which artificial finishing treatments generate the most
looks of the end product. Sustainability and working conditions are
authentic-looking results? Are there more sustainable
subjects that are inextricably linked to artificially distressing denim
alternatives? (Discussed in chapter 4)
garments, but often when discussed the obviously bad aspects of the
industry are pointed out in a manner that lacks nuance and no
How can we reduce the ecological footprint of the
suggestions are made for possible improvements. Scientists, quality
denim industry? (Discussed in the epilogue)
controllers and government officials are looking at current situations
Significance: The purpose of this study is to help people in the denim
as well as newly developed possibilities with great nuance, but are
industry and others with an interest in denim find more sustainable
less concerned with the visual aspects of those treatments. In this
techniques to artificially recreate worn and washed denim garments
work I hoped to fill in this gap, by taking into account how artificially
that are safe for industry workers.
distressed garments compare to authentic vintage pieces.
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Methods
we can improve the denim industry’s ecological footprint as a whole.
Unfortunately, as brands like to keep their methods under wraps and
To determine what looks authentic I started my research just by
people in the industry prefer not to highlight the downsides of the
looking closely at old and worn denim garments. As a person who
industry, I was unfortunately unable to provide an insight into the
likes to wear his denim from rigids to rags, I did not have to go far as I
exact methods and combinations of techniques used by certain
already own several genuine vintage denim pieces and garments that I
brands, nor was I able to establish exactly what the economic impact
have myself worn from their rigid stage. From these observations I
is of conventional and modern distressing techniques and how they
was able to deduce how denim garments age, and why. Throughout
compare.
my research report I have provided images to back-up the visual
differences of my findings.
Then, through desk research I investigated distressing methods used
Limitations and delimitations
by denim laundries in regard to their visual results, sustainability of
Limitations
techniques used and their working conditions. I then conducted eight
personal interviews, both face-to-face and through e-mail, with
During my research I was dependent on the willingness and openness
experts from within the denim industry -designers, developers and
of the people I approached for a personal interview and of the
independent researchers- to determine which techniques are being
companies I asked for help. As expected, denim laundries especially
used, which are considered most effective for recreating the look of
proved to be very secretive about their methods and I was unable to
true vintage denim garments, and which of the new, more sustainable
find any willing to answer my questions. As stated, I also found that
options we can expect to become the standard for the future. From my
my respondents were generally unwilling and/or unable to give me
research I was able to draw some conclusions about which methods of
very exact answers to my questions, both regarding techniques used
distressing denim garments produce the best visual results, how they
and the costs and amounts of water, chemicals, and energy used
impact the environment and workers health, and how we may stand
during the processes of denim production and various distressing
to improve that. Moreover, I was able to offer some insight into how
techniques. This made it extremely difficult to provide specific
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quantifications. Throughout this report I have provided all the
specific numbers I had access too but regarding some subject I was
unfortunately unable to provide more than comparative
approximations.
While researching authentic wear patterns on denim garments I was
limited to the worn or vintage pieces that people were willing and able
to show me, and the information that was available about them.
Delimitations
Many ways and combinations of treatments are possible for the
distressing of denim, but I focused on those creating authentic looking
products. Cotton consumption is a big issue when talking about
sustainability and many new materials and combinations are used to
create denim fabrics. However, when it comes to authentic looking
denim products, using cotton is hard to avoid. To keep my research
doable, I stuck mainly to 3/1 right handed warp-faced twill denim
with an indigo warp and an ecru weft made out of 100% cotton, which
is the standard fabric used for denim garments. By using a standard
widely used denim fabric as my focus I was able to compare different
treatments. However, color variations and differences in weight were
unavoidable.
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Denim distressing is done in laundries all over the world, from rich
understanding of the pros and cons for using different treatments
countries where the rules and regulations regarding treatments are
people in the industry should be able to choose the best option to get
strictly upheld to those where regulations are lax and funds low and
the desired visual and qualitative outcome, but should also be able to
where people might even apply them in their own homes. In this study
choose for more sustainable options.
I assumed that the treatments and methods used were put into
practice following the latest laws and regulations on health and safety,
because I simply cannot check whether or not the rules are followed.
Significance of the study
Relevance for industry
The denim industry is huge; in 2011 the value of the global denim
market stood at US$54bn (Writing Solutions) and a really big part of
the denim industry is the artificially distressing of garments. What
kind of treatments are used and how they work is relatively unknown
outside of the laundries, where they are put into practice.
During my internship at Levi’s XX I noticed a communicational
problem between the denim developer and the people at the denim
laundry. Denim heritage brands, like Levi’s Vintage Clothing, which
care a lot about the quality and authenticity of their products know
how actually old and worn garments look, and need to know about the
treatments that best recreate these looks. By getting a better
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Chapter 2:
The nature of denim
Introduction
There are few garments as widely worn and loved as jeans. Everyone
wears them, from cowboys to supermodels, from presidents to
garbage men, and from good girls to bad boys. If you ask people why
they wear them, you will get a range of different answers from
comfort and durability to plain looking cool, or pretty, or sexy. Jeans
are worn everywhere, and their appeal has as much to do with
cultural appeal as with their construction.
In the mid-19th century, jeans were first designed as work wear for
gold miners and gold laborers in the rugged American West. So-called
waist overalls, which were meant to be worn over your other clothes,
were made out of a highly durable fabric known as ‘serge de Nîmes’,
later shortened to ‘denim’ and nicknamed ‘blue jeans’. Then, in the
early 1870s Jacob Davis, a tailor in Nevada, was asked to make a
durable pair of pants for a local lumberjack. On a whim he decided to
reinforce the seams with metal rivets, which would make them near
indestructible. The riveted waist overalls were soon in high demand,
and although Davis realized the potential of his product, he could not
afford to buy a patent on it. He therefore wrote to his fabric supplier,
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Levi Strauss, who was quick to invest. On May 20th, 1873, the two
“There has never been a uniform for individuality; but if there
received U.S.Patent No.139,121. This date is now considered the
had been, it would have been […] blue denim jeans” (Little 11)
birthday of blue jeans (Downey).
Every generation, every social group can find meaning in denim, and
Jeans’ explosion onto the mainstream market of casualwear happened
that is why it still endures as a clothing staple in everyone’s closet.
gradually, and had much to do with what the jeans symbolized. Before
In this chapter, I explore the nature of denim as a fabric and what
the Second World War, jeans were worn primarily as work wear, and
makes it so special. How is it made? Why does it shape to the body?
stood for the romanticized life of the all-American cowboy. In the early
And what happens to the fabric as it ages? These questions will be
50s, with the release of movies like ‘The Wild One’ and ‘Rebel Without
answered here.
a Cause’, in which Marlon Brando and James Dean wore jeans to
complement the rebellious spirit of the movies, jeans were embraced
by teenagers and young adults wishing to rebel against the strait-
The fabric
lacedness of older generations. In Europe and Asia too, prompted by
American soldiers stationed there wearing blue jeans on their days off,
To be able to fully understand what makes denim so special, you have
jeans started to become more popular and more widespread. Slowly
to understand how it ages. It is vital to first look at the properties of
they integrated into all levels of society, putting different social groups
the fabric. Denim is a woven fabric with an un-even twill construction.
and classes on a level playing field as they were affordable, durable,
Woven fabrics are created by two sets of yarns interlacing each other
and looked good new as well as worn. Denim democratized (Hegarty).
at a certain interval. In the lengthwise direction run the warp yarns
And that is where the strength of denim lies: it has the ability to be so
which are crossed at right angles by the filling yarns called weft yarns.
many things to so many people: it can be work wear, casual wear, a
In a twill fabric the sequence of the weaving pattern moves 1 step
sexy outfit. It can stand for protest and solidarity, for standing out or
every new warp yarn, which creates the diagonal lines typical for a
fitting in. As David Little puts it;
twill weave. In an un-even twill fabric the weft and warp yarns
interlace in such a way that either the weft or the warp side is more
visible on the front and less on the back. In denim the warp yarns are
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more present on the front which are dyed with indigo while the weft
yarns are left un-dyed creating the typical blue front-side and the ecru
or natural backside. Denim traditionally has a right handed warpfaced 3/1 or a 2/1 twill construction. Right handed 3/1 twill has a
weaving pattern in which the warp yarn (blue) goes over three weft
(white) yarns before going under 1 weft yarn with a progression of 1
(one step to the right) (Josh 2011).
Because regular twill is woven in one direction, it has a natural torque
meaning that it has a tendency to pull in the direction of the weave.
This will result in a skewing of the fabric in the finished garment, most
noticeable in the outer seams of pant legs otherwise known as a leg
twist. However, in the mid-1960s Wrangler introduced broken twill,
where the direction of the weave is reversed every other step and thus
alternates between left and right. When you look at it closely, the
fabric has a zigzag pattern instead of diagonal lines and this causes the
torque to balance out, thus leaving your seams straight (‘Broken
Twill’). These days, denim manufacturers can also skew regular twill
before garment construction to prevent the leg twist effect.
The structure of denim fabric, 3/1 twill and broken twill.
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Indigo
“Everything has an effect on indigo. That's also the beauty of it.”
(RingRing, ‘natural versus synthetic indigo’)
One of denim’s most important properties - the way it can come to
display a wear pattern- is the result of the dyestuff used to get its
distinctive shades of blue. The warp yarns in the fabric are dyed with
indigo. Indigo as a dyestuff cannot dissolve in water, and therefore
does not fully penetrate the yarns but sticks to the fibers on the
outside, leaving the core un-dyed. This type of dyeing is called ring
dyeing. The fact that indigo “sits” on top of the yarns gives denim its
unique aging properties as it gradually chips and rubs off over time
(Pal), as will be discussed later in this chapter.
Indigo in its natural form can be extracted from several plant species
around the world. Historically the plants used most often were
members of the Indigofera family, most commonly found in Asia and
Africa (Adnan 2010), although in the Netherlands woad or ‘Isatis
Tinctora’ was heavily cultivated for the dyestuff as well (Van der
Heijden). These plants contain a chemical called ‘Indican’, which can
be extricated and converted to indigo through a process of
fermentation (‘Indigo’).
Indigo dyed fabric and yarn.
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As these plants only contain a small amount of the compound needed
2010). These differences can be the result of many variables, such as
to create the indigo pigment, making and dyeing with natural indigo is
the kinds of fibers being dyed, the number of dips, pH values and
a costly and arduous process which made the dye a precious
temperature, oxidation time and impurities (RingRing, ‘natural versus
commodity throughout history (Adnan 2010). During the nineteenth
synthetic indigo’). Moreover, other substances are often added to the
century, in part due to the popularity of Levi Strauss’ newly patented
dye to alter the color or for instance to make the dye darker, thereby
blue jeans, demand for indigo increased significantly. This led
reducing the number of dips necessary and thus costs.
scientists to start looking for alternative methods to produce the
Indigo dyeing is an extremely technical process and difficult to control.
pigment. In 1897 they succeeded in artificially recreating indigo’s
As stated, indigo is insoluble in water and therefore a process of
molecular structure resulting in so-called ‘synthetic indigo’ (Adnan
reduction –the process of removing oxygen from the indigo- has to
2010). Since then, synthetic indigo has been the main source of the
make it soluble so that the dye can enter the fibers. At this stage the
pigment for the denim industry, yet there are some brands that still
dye and the dyed fibers do not look blue, as indigo only gains its
use natural indigo for their top of the line products. Other than the
famous color when it is exposed to oxygen again. Sodium hydrosulfite
historical value there is no quality difference when it comes to the
is the most common reducing agent used in indigo dyeing. However,
dyestuff, synthetic and natural being chemically identical. However, in
because of the instability of sodium hydrosulfite it is very hard to
recent years the processes of producing synthetic indigo has come
control the dyeing process and shade differences are common even
under examination as a number of harsh chemicals are involved.
amongst yarn dyed in the same dye bath (Adnan 2010).
Manufacturers are looking into developing more environmentally
responsible means of producing the dyestuff (‘Indigo’).
To create indigo dyed denim on an industrial scale, the warp yarns are
dyed before they are woven into a fabric. This is done in two ways;
either by rope-dyeing or by sheet- or slasher dyeing. When rope dyeing,
Indigo dyeing
the yarns are twisted into a rope which is then dipped repeatedly in
the indigo dye bath and exposed to oxygen. The more often the yarn is
Indigo dyeing can produce a great variety of blues, ranging from light
dipped, the darker it will become. A variation of this dyeing process is
to almost black with hints of green and purple in between (Adnan
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loop-dyeing, where the ropes of yarn are pulled through the dye and
yarn can pass straight from the dye bath on to be sized: meaning that a
exposed to the air in a large, continuous loop (Adnan 2009). Rope
protective layer is be applied to strengthen the yarn in preparation for
dyeing is believed to be the more effective dyeing technique, as color
the weaving process (‘Sizing’).
variation in the dye can be controlled better and a wider variation in
dyeing techniques can be applied. Also, the fact that the yarn still has
These processes of dyeing cotton yarns and weaving them into a
to be woven into a fabric allows any yarn that deviates in color to
fabric will result in what is known as raw denim, dry denim or rigid
blend into the fabric as a whole (Mercer 2011). Moreover, some say
denim:
that the short dyeing time during the process of rope dyeing does not
“Denim that has been unwashed, untreated, and virtually
allow the indigo to penetrate far into the fibers, thus creating a yarn
untouched to the extent that it remains in its pure form.” (Coe).
that fades and rubs off faster and more easily (‘Rope Dyeing’). This can
speed up the artificial distressing process of the final garment and/or
Here the term selvedge, also sometimes spelled ‘self-edge’ or ‘selvage’ ,
the way that the denim fades as it is worn and washed by its owner.
which is often heard when speaking about rigid denim should be
mentioned. Selvedge refers to the closed edge of a piece of fabric that
Sheet- or slasher dyeing is a technique where the warp yarn is
prevents unraveling. On denim, this edge often looks like a white band,
arranged in its final fabric position and then dipped in the dye bath
into which Levi’s traditionally wove a red line, Wrangler a yellow line,
and oxidized several times before the weft yarn is woven into it. The
and Lee a blue or green line on one side (‘Selvedge Denim’).
basic dyeing technique is the same, however because the yarn is
Traditionally, denim was woven on narrow looms, producing fabric
already in its final position, color variation in the end product is more
just wide enough to pattern for instance one pair of pants. When
likely to occur due to the color instability of the dye (Mercer 2011).
patterning pants, the out seams are usually straight and positioned
The strength and durability of the end product is also likely to be less
along the selvedge which would become part of the garment. On
than rope-dyed denim; because the yarn is stretched into its final
jackets and shirts, selvedge could often be found on the inside of the
position there can be a lot of tension on them resulting in a higher
front closure and cuffs. These days most denim is woven on much
amount of yarn breaking during the weaving process. On the other
wider looms, so the selvedge no longer necessarily becomes part of
hand, this technique does appear to be faster and cheaper as the dyed
19
the garment. These days selvedge is valued for its character; it is a
throwback from the olden days when denim was really just work
wear. It also tends to indicate that the denim is of higher quality,
although there are of course many factors to consider regarding
denim quality (‘Selvedge Denim’).
This fabric is then cut and sewn to become someone’s favorite pair of
pants, shirt, jacket, denim accessory, or whatever other denim product
you can think of. The experts at RawrDenim argue that less than 10
per cent of denim garments these days are sold in their dry or rigid
form (Coe); the overlarge majority is treated to change the way they
fit, look, and feel. This can range from a simple wash to remove starch
and reduce or eliminate shrinkage, to an enzyme or chemical wash,
laser treatment, or strenuous handwork to make them look and feel
like dry denim that has been worn and washed over a prolonged
period of time. The various ways in which dry denim garments are
treated will be discussed in the next chapter; first we will look at the
ways in which untreated dry denim garments fade as they are worn.
Selvedge
20
The real deal - Naturally aged denim garments
“Indigo's characteristic, for better or worse, is that it rubs
off.” (RingRing, ‘natural versus synthetic indigo’)
Wearing and washing denim will have an effect on its appearance. As
stated, because indigo dye is not soluble in water it cannot fully
penetrate the cotton fibers. As denim is used, worn, and washed the
indigo slowly chips off the fibers, exposing their un-dyed cores. This
changes the color of the fabric, both as a whole and in particular in
those places where the fibers are subject to the most distress factors.
This is why denim garments change over time as they mold
themselves to their wearer’s body and life, thus becoming a unique
record of everything their owner has done. And that is where the lure
of dry denim lies: it allows its wearer to shape their clothes into
something irreplaceable and entirely their own.
Unless dry denim has been Sanforized, meaning that the fibers have
been treated so they will barely shrink, during a garment’s first wash
or soak it will shrink by approximately seven to ten percent (Coe).
When buying a non-sanforized dry denim product therefore it is
recommended to buy it in a size larger than your body actually is. This
is also known as shrink to fit, as the customer is expected to shrink
their new jeans, jacket or shirt to make it fit properly. This can be done
21
in different ways, but one that seems to be recommended most is
soaking the garment in water, letting it drip dry until it is slightly
damp, and then putting it on to mold it to your body. Some people will
do this right after buying the garment, others will wear it for a while
before shrinking it as is recommended in the Levi’s Red Tab shrink-tofit guide on the previous page. Either way, the garment will shape
itself to fit your body uniquely and perfectly.
During the life of a denim garment, indigo loss is unavoidable and will
be greater in certain areas than others depending on several factors.
First off, the number of times and the ways in which the garment is
washed will have a huge impact on its overall color. A garment that is
washed often will become lighter with each wash and is likely to
display little contrast between areas that are subject to little stress
and areas subject to a lot of stress. A garment that is washed rarely or
only after a prolonged period of initial wear will have more contrast.
Type of detergent, choice of program when machine washing, the load
in the machine and whether or not the garment is washed inside-out
all make a difference on how it fades. Washing can be done by hand or
by machine or simply be left to soak in the bathtub. No matter how
you do it, the first time a denim garment is washed has the most
impact on how the garment will age. An unwashed, rigid garment is
full of starch. This starch will make creases sharp and lasting. The
longer you wait with the first wash the thinner the fabric gets where it
Naturally worn-in jeans
22
folds. When the wearing process continues the fabric will fold in
referred to as honeycombs because of their resembling shapes. Similar
exactly the same places again, making it possible for the garment to
to these honeycombs are fading folds called stacks at the cuffs of
obtain a high contrast fade. In general, a lot of wearing combined with
jackets or the hem of trousers where superfluous fabric bunches up,
very few washes will result in the most contrasting faded garments.
for instance when the inseam on a pair of jeans is too long for the
This is why many denim enthusiasts these days will wear a pair of
wearer. The so-called wallet-fade is also common, and occurs when
rigid jeans or a raw denim jacket for up to a year, maybe longer before
the same object is always kept in the same pocket allowing for indigo
washing or even just rinsing them. Some even choose to not wash
to rub off along its outlines. Often these objects will be wallets,
them at all. When a denim garment is worn, the parts of the fabric with
although fades caused by cellphones, tobacco- or cigarette packets or
the most stress will lose indigo the fastest. In the crotch area and at
lighters can also be found regularly. Similarly, train tracks can occur
the top of the thighs for instance, tension on the fabric is high. Folds
along the outer seams of denim pants: as they are worn the outlines of
will occur around the fly and on the whole top block every time the
the seams will become more apparent, forming a set of lines that
wearer sits down. Leg movements increase and release the stress on
resembles train tracks. In between those lines you might see
these creases. Because creases are three dimensional, the parts most
irregularities in color, which may be caused by the fabric puckering a
exposed are subject to the most abrasion. This combination of
little along the seam resulting from it shrinking and thus parts of the
repeated movement, tension on the creases, and abrasion will make
fabric being exposed to more attrition than others. These are the most
the indigo chip off on the fold lines. This results in contrasting lines,
commonly occurring folds that give denim garment their unique worn
known as whiskers. The knees and elbows are next to show loss of
and alive appearance or fade. However creases can and will occur in
indigo. The knees and the elbows create tension lines radiating
other places too depending on how a garment fits its wearer. In
outwards and rubbing from sitting on the knees and leaning on the
general, a tighter fit will result in more creases and less space between
elbows will gradually make these areas lighter and thinner. On the
creases, although in places where a garment is skin-tight the fabric
back of the knee and the crook of the elbow creases similar to
will not have room to fold and no contrasting lines will occur. All
whiskers will occur as moving the arms and legs puts tension on the
creases form either because of stress on the fabric because of a
fabric and subjects the folds to abrasion. These fade lines are often
combination of movement and a tight fit in certain areas or an excess
23
in fabric in others. In between creases the fabric stays darker, because
these areas are, by being folded inward, subject to only minimal levels
of abrasion. Areas that are subject to a lot of attrition, like the earlier
mentioned elbows and knees but also the thighs as we wipe our hands
on them or the shoulders because of the strap of a bag, will become
lighter through loss of indigo. Other element such as sunlight, which
fades the fabric, stains made by dirt or spilled substances, and holes or
tears obviously have an effect on the evolution of denim garments as
well.
Conclusion
Thus, because of the nature of denim as a fabric and especially the
indigo it was dyed with, when wearing a dry denim piece of clothing it
becomes a portrayal of your body, your experiences, and your life and
that is where the strength of denim lies. However, breaking in an
untreated pair of jeans, jacket or shirt can be a little uncomfortable
and wearing them until they look and feel just right may take some
time. To avoid this, numerous treatments have been introduced over
the past five decades to alter dry denim products to feel softer, to
change the color, to add embellishments, and –of most interest to meto artificially recreate fades and wear patterns before being sold to the
customer. These treatments will be discussed in the following chapter,
Naturally worn-in denim garments
24
as will the impact each of these treatments has on the environment
and the toll some of them take on laborers.
A pair of rigid jeans and a similar pair already worn-in
25
Chapter 3:
large environmental price tag as well. In this chapter I will look at the
From seed to finish
impact the production of a pair of jeans, or any other denim garment
for that matter, has on the environment in terms of water- and energy
use, chemicals employed and pollution to water and air, and the health
risks posed to workers. I will also take a close look at the various
Introduction
treatments that are used to change the look of a denim garment after
In whichever style, shape, cut and color you buy them, denim jackets,
it has been cut and sewn, and particularly those techniques that are
shirts and especially jeans constitute the biggest article segment in the
used to artificially imitate the wear patterns that would naturally
fashion industry (Schrott). According to “World Denim Production
occur when wearing rigid jeans, jackets and shirts. I also expound
And Consumption Report :2012” released by the experts at
upon the various materials and techniques that have been and are
denimsandjeans.com, global production of denim is estimated at 7.3
being developed as alternatives to reduce the denim industry’s
billion meters per year with denim mills in over 30 countries and
ecological footprint.
across five continents. While during the 1970s the majority of denim
still came from the United States, 70 percent now comes from Asia.
Not only has Western denim production decreased dramatically in
Cotton and indigo
recent decades, but these days Europe and the U.S. are also
responsible for a mere 27% of denim consumption demand, although
While we have known that the denim industry is resource intensive
on average we do still purchase close to two pairs of jeans a year. The
for a long time, how resource intensive it is exactly only became
strongest demand we currently find in China, India and South
publicly known when Levi Strauss & Co shared the results of their
America, even though denim consumption per person in India and
Product Lifecycle Assessment for a pair of their jeans in 2006.
China is only 0.5 pairs of jeans a year (Guyot).
Following criteria prescribed by the International Standards
Organization (ISO), they studied the lifecycle of a Medium Stone Wash
Unfortunately, denim’s vast popularity does not only come at a
501 model jeans manufactured in 2006 and worn by an average
monetary price; the production and treatment of denim comes with a
American citizen. They found that from seed to scrapheap, that one
26
pair of jeans used up 32.3 kg of carbon dioxide, 400.1 MJ of energy,
Considering that around 450 million pairs of blue jeans are sold each
and 3480.5 liters of water. According to Levi’s this is equal to driving
year in the US alone (Glausiusz), and up to four billion pairs of jeans
126 kilometers in an average American car, showering for 371
are produced worldwide per annum (Loiron), the denim industry
minutes, and watching 318 hours of TV on a plasma screen. Now this
obviously has a large impact on the environment. But the data above
includes the resources the consumer uses to take care of the product,
do not even begin to cover it: there is also a wide range of chemicals
which was found to account for 58% of the CO2, 58% of the energy,
involved in the process of making a pair of jeans, shirt, or jacket. Non-
and 45% of the water used (‘A Product Lifecycle Approach’). Even so,
organic cotton growers are said to be responsible for using
that means that cotton production, fabric production, garment
approximately 25% of all pesticides used in agriculture, and use
manufacturing, transportation and distribution, and then the disposal
additional chemicals to protect the plants against diseases and weeds.
or possible recycling of just one pair of jeans still accounts for large
(Hong). While these chemicals help to produce more cotton, they do
amounts of resources, as can be seen in the table below.
affect the surrounding environment by eradicating not only unwanted
insects and plants but also affecting other plants and animals in the
Resources used throughout the lifecycle of 1 pair of Levi’s 501
Medium Stonewash jeans
Carbon
dioxide
Energy
Water
Cotton production
1.7 kg
17.7 MJ
1704 liter
Fabric production
6.6 kg
84.9 MJ
72.1 liter
Garment
manufacturing
3.0 kg
40.8 MJ
110.8 liter
Transportation and
distribution
0.5 kg
29.8 MJ
18.1 liter
Disposal/Recycling
2.1 kg
0.4 MJ
0.4 liter
Total (not including
consumer use)
13.9 kg
173.6 MJ
1905.4 liter
area, by escaping into the atmosphere, and leaking into the soil.
Alternatives to cotton for the making of denim that use less water and
require less pesticide are being sought. During the past decade there
has been a push for an increase in the use of organic cotton, grown
without the use of artificial products. Unfortunately however, because
this is grown under all natural conditions, the yield is up to 50 percent
lower than non-organic cotton meaning that more land is required to
grow the amount necessary to sustain the denim industry. This not
only makes it costlier, but would also mean that more water is
27
required (Schrott). Another option that has become increasingly
available is denim made partially or completely from hemp, bamboo,
researcher Dawn Ellams at the School of Textiles and Design in
Scotland has shown that a cotton-like material can be made from flax ,
or sugar cane (Netocny). Similarly, recent research by PH.D wood,
which could reduce the denim industry’s environmental footprint.
Using yarn that was spun from eucalyptus-tree pulp known as
‘Tencel’, Ellam developed a pair of jeans that, according to her,
required only 20 percent of the water, energy, and chemicals
necessary to make cotton jeans (Malik Chua). Lenzing Fibers, the
company that produces Tencel, posit that by using a blend of 75%
cotton and 25% Tencel the amount of land and water needed to grow
the required material can be reduced by 25% (McKinnon). Levi
Strauss and Company recently developed a denim range of jeans and
trucker jackets that contain at least 20% recycled plastic, known as
their Waste<Less line. Using discarded plastic bottles and food trays,
the plastic is cleaned, sorted, reduced to flakes and then spun into
polyester fibre, which is blended with the cotton fibers. Each pair of
jeans is said to contain eight plastic bottles, which is meant to inspire
consumes to recycle more plastic (Webb). Unfortunately, once cotton
is blended with polyester, it is no longer possible to reuse it to create
new fabric, as the fibers cannot be separated. This greatly reduces the
possibilities for recycling (‘Cotton Polyester’). Moreover, although
Raw cotton and indigo dye bath
28
such initiatives all bode well for the future, whether hemp, bamboo,
being released directly into rivers and streams, water samples taken
flax, Tencel and Waste<Less denim can really be considered denim
near the denim factories have been shown to contain lead, cadmium,
remains up for debate.
mercury and selenium (Hong). To combat pollution from indigo dye,
some brands have come to advocate the use of natural or plant-based
The process of fabric production can also have additional detrimental
indigo as opposed to synthetic indigo. Unfortunately, as denim
effects on the environment. Starch is used to make the cotton fibers
consultant Prof. Wolffgang Schrott points out in ‘Sustainable Denim –
easier to handle as they are being twisted into yarn and then woven
Eco-Labeling and Environmentally Friendly Denim Production’,
into fabric, and is washed out during later stages of manufacturing or
natural indigo is not only not available to the market’s demand, but its
by the consumer at home. While starch is a natural product, it can
production process also has a larger environmental footprint than
harm aquatic life when it is released into water. An excess of starch in
optimized production of synthetic indigo. As indigo yield from plants
rivers and lakes can cause an increase in microbe- and algae
is low, a lot of it would have to be grown to meet demand, costing
populations, leading to a reduction in oxygen levels in the water which
water, labor and probably requiring pesticides. Also, because of
the other flora and fauna need to survive. This can cause the
indigo’s insolubility in water, its extraction from plants necessitates
ecosystem in the body of water to collapse (Hong).
the use of alkali derived from metals, including lead and mercury.
As explained in the previous chapter, to achieve denim’s characteristic
Small amounts of these metals can thus end up in the air and in waste
blue color the yarn is dipped numerous times in indigo dye. Indigo
water (Schrott).
dye, especially cheaper dyes, can contain impurities, and to enhance or
We must also not forget about the hardware on your jeans, shirt or
alter the color of the dye chemicals are sometimes added. In
jacket. Brass, made from copper and zinc, is often used to make
developing countries where environmental regulations are lax and
zippers, buttons and rivets used to complete denim garments.
funds are low, used dye is often released into nearby waterways. In
Sourcing and processing these metals is paired with numerous
Tehuacan in Mexico for instance, which is an area where a lot of denim
negative effects on the environment, ranging from an outflow of acidic
is produced, soil is turning sterile and crops that the local population
water from mines to pollutants such as lead and cadmium entering the
relies on for sustenance are being damaged. As a result of indigo dye
atmosphere (Glausiusz).
29
These data indicate that even to create simple, untreated rigid denim
garments requires a lot of resources and is likely to contribute to
pollution in the air and water. Unfortunately, it looks like there are no
environmentally friendly alternatives available that will truly meet the
demands of the denim industry, or the consumers. The easiest way we
can make effective changes to the industry’s environmental impact is
by improving or even eliminating the treatments that are applied to
the garments after they have already been cut and sewn.
Distressing distress
These days a treatment or finish is applied to most jeans, jackets and
shirts. According to Harry Mercer, who is widely considered to be a
leading expert on denim dyeing, finishing and denim development and
has over 30 years of experience in the industry, denim only started to
be treated during the 1970s. At the time, denim companies were
trying to reduce the amount of indigo needed to dye the yarn. By
reducing the pH level of the dye bath much less dyestuff was required
to achieve a dark shade of blue, but this came at a price as this new
technique created a ring dyeing effect as the cores of the yarn
remained undyed. This meant that this denim faded much faster than
denim dyed using older techniques, which most consumers found to
be unacceptable. Mercer says that this almost led to the demise of the
Naturally worn-in denim
30
denim industry as no-one was willing to pay an adequate price for. But
fashion item for over two decades by then, but have been even more
then, the iconic U.S. movie Easy Rider was released and with one of the
so since the introduction of garment finishing, which made more
characters dancing in a faded pair of jeans, faded denim was embraced
variety possible and thus new reasons for people to buy more and
by the masses (Mercer, e-mail interview).
more often. Consumerism and fast changing fashions resulted in
numerous new types of finishing methods for denim garments like
Then on top of that, the process of stonewashing was introduced
acid wash, over-dyeing and the recent vintage worn look (‘Denim
which enabled the consumer to buy new jeans that were as soft and
Garment Processing’). Garment finishing is making fashion brands a
comfortable as their old pair, without having to go through the
lot of money in sales as the possibilities in different looks that can be
sometimes uncomfortable process of breaking in rigid denim. As
created are endless. However, the environment and often garment
stated by Harry Mercer in response to one of my interview questions,
workers are paying the price. On top of the amount of water, energy,
the stonewash came about after an incident occurred in New York’s
and chemicals already involved in the basic production of the denim
fashion district. A fashion designer was walking by a construction site
fabric, many treatments involve chemicals and require numerous
and noticed that the denim worn by the construction workers were
rinses, resulting in further water and energy expenditure, and
faded and light in color. He found that the workers could not wash
pollution. Moreover, some of these treatments can be harmful to the
their work clothes at home, because the sand and cement that was
workers applying them. Health and safety regulations as well as
caked on them would destroy their washing machines. To wash their
environment laws are pushing for the invention of better ways of
jeans they instead put them in a cement mixer with water, detergent,
garment finishing. What is more, because some of the treatments
and rocks. This did the job of cleaning the sand and cement off, but
diminish the strength and durability of the garments they do not last
also removed a lot of indigo from the fabric, essentially stonewashing
as long, both obliging the customer to buy new products more often
it. That is where stonewashing is believed to have begun (Mercer, e-
and causing more waste.
mail interview).
Regrettably, exact data on the impact various treatments have on the
Stonewashed jeans proved to be incredibly successful with a
environment are very limited and comparisons between techniques
tremendous increase in sales revenues (Loiron). Jeans had been a
that aim to produce the same effects are not publicly available or cost
31
hundreds, sometimes thousands of Euros to view. As one can imagine,
such data not only differ per manufacturer as they all have slightly
different techniques, but they are also the kind of thing that
manufacturers like to keep under wraps, or at least not make them
readily available to the public.
To give an approximation of the environmental impact of various
garment finishing processes, the Spanish company Jeanologia has
devised a software program that enables denim developers and
manufacturers to gain insight into the water and energy consumption,
chemical products used, and the impact on workers’ health of various
finishes. This Environmental Impact Measuring (EIM) software aims
to give the user an insight into the most prominent environmental
hazards as he or she enters the details of the treatment process into
the program and helps determine which processes to select (‘What is
EIM Software’). Unfortunately I was unable to access this tool myself,
so in the appraisal of a number of finishing treatments below, I can
only indicate which techniques can be considered more or less
environmentally friendly than others.
Pre-treatment
Before any treatment is applied to a denim garment, a pre-wash called
desizing is necessary. This is done to remove the starch so as to
prevent creases and unwanted wash streaks during the finishing
Britney Spears and Justin Timberlake in artificially aged denim
32
treatments that follow. Pressing the garment and/or turning it inside
Jeanologia , the company that also developed the Environmental
out before the pre-wash are steps sometimes taken to further avoid
Impact Software and which is dedicated to developing sustainable
wash streaks (Pottelberghe). Desizing used to be done using acidic or
denim, has recently brought to the market a new eco-friendly machine
oxidative agents, but these had a damaging effect on the garment as
which allows laundries to desize and soften garments using less water,
they had an impact on its strength and decreased its life span,
fewer chemicals, less energy and even costs. Their ‘E-Soft’ employs
required a lot of water, were not always safe to handle and polluted
“The technology of nanobubbels [which] allows you to save up to 80%
the waste water (‘Denim Garment Processing’). These days desizing is
of softening product and up to 98% of process water” (‘E-Soft).
mostly done using naturally occurring enzymes, such as amylase and
According to the president and founder of the company Enrique Silla,
alpha-amylase which remove the starch from the denim and convert it
conventional softening techniques require approximately 10 liters of
into water soluble substances (‘Denim Garment Processing’). This
water, 20 grams of chemicals, and 0.38 kWh per garment. With E-soft
method not only allows the garment to retain its strength better, but
those numbers can be reduced to 0.1 liter of water, 2 grams of
also saves water as residual chemicals do not need to be washed out, it
chemicals and only 0.08 kWh per garment (Martens).
takes less time, and requires less energy as the desizing process can
Stone-washing
occur at a lower temperature (‘Denim Garment Processing’).
To create abrasion on the garment, the before-mentioned stone-wash
To avoid back-staining -loosened indigo particles sticking back on the
can be done. This traditionally entails placing the garment in a large
garment in unwanted areas like the inside or pocket bags-, a disperse
washing machine with pieces of abrasive material such as pumice
agent is used which can be either chemical or enzymatic (‘Denim
stones, ceramic stones, rubber balls, or sand to abrade the fibers to
Garment Processing’). An anti-crease agent is added to avoid wash
make them feel softer and change the garment’s overall color. The
streaks and a number of different fabric softeners can be added to
degree of attrition and thus the color change achieved depends on the
make the garment feel soft, crisp, dry, floppy, waxy, or greasy
type, size, and amount of abrasive material used and the washing time.
(Pottelberghe).
These days various enzymes are available to achieve the stonewashed look as well, which can either be used exclusively or in
33
combination with abrasive materials. These enzymes remove indigo
from the surface of the fabric’s fibers without damaging the fibers,
thus not compromising the fabric’s strength. Enzyme stone washing is
said to be more environmentally friendly than traditional stone
washing as it requires less water and energy because the abrasive
material does not need to be removed. This also saves time and labor
efforts. Moreover, there is less damage to machinery and to the fabric,
which also means that an anti-pilling chemical treatment to remove
the hairiness that results from fiber damage is less necessary (‘Denim
Garment Processing’).
Bleaching
To lighten or alter the overall color of a denim garment or create a
bleach pattern – such as with acid wash - it can be treated with a
bleaching agent. Bleaching agents come in many forms, ranging from
chemical bleach to oxidative or reductive bleaches, bio bleach,
enzymatic bleach, and ozone bleach. Garments can be washed using
bleach or it can be applied using a spray. Chemical bleaches such as
Wastewater after stonewashing
hypo-chlorine and hydrogen peroxide are oxidative substances which
release oxygen that breaks up the indigo’s bindings to the fibers. To
stop the bleach from removing all the indigo though the bleach needs
to be neutralized after the desired color has been achieved which
requires other chemicals and some rinses with water (Pottelberghe).
34
Moreover, these chemicals can be corrosive to machinery and harmful
strength. It is also environmentally friendly, as ozone is a naturally
to human health (‘Denim Garment Processing’).
occurring substance that can easily be removed from waste water
using UV radiation (‘Denim Garment Processing’). Jeanologia’s G2
Glucose bleach, also known as bio bleach, is a reductive substance
Waterless Washing Machine uses ozone bleaching to change the color
which uses the reverse process of indigo dyeing using glucose. It is
and cast of garments. Based on a case study the company conducted in
less popular because it is more expensive than chemical bleaching and
the US, Jeanologia claims that using their G2 machine can reduce
is more difficult to control, but it does take less toll on workers and
water and energy expenditure by 67%, use of chemicals by 85% and
machinery. The bleach itself is also less harmful to the environment,
can take up to 55% less time than regular washing, bleaching or
but the amount of water needed remains about the same as the
tinting, and abrading. They also say that this technology can thus save
garments still need to be rinsed (Pottelberghe).
laundries $0.44 per garment, on top of the environmental advantages
(Agarwal 2010).
A recent advancement in bleaching techniques is the development of
enzymatic bleach. Here the enzyme laccase is used to remove indigo
Tinting and over-dye
from the fibers in an oxidative process while not affecting other dyes.
Although this bleach is environmentally friendly and it does not
To change the overall cast or color of the garment, it can either be
damage the fabric, it too is less popular than chemical bleaches as it is
tinted or over-dyed. Over-dyeing happens in an over-dye extractor, a
more expensive and it is more difficult to achieve lighter colors. It also
type of wash extractor that comes equipped with a dosing system and
does need some rinses to remove the enzymes from the fabric at the
heating system which allow the manufacturer to control the
end of the bleaching process (Pottelberghe, ‘Denim Garment
temperature and amount of dye-stuff used. Either a direct dye, where
Processing’).
the fibers simply absorb the dye, or a reactive dye where the dye is
Another recent technique is ozone fading, where ozone is added to the
bound to the fabric through a chemical reaction can be used. Direct
water in a washing extractor or the garment is exposed to ozone gas.
dyes are the cheaper and easier option, although salt does need to be
The ozone reacts with the indigo and causes it to fade (Shalini). Using
added to ensure that the dye is fully absorbed and they require a
this method allows garments to be bleached without losing fabric
chemical fixation treatment to avoid the dye washing out. Reactive
35
dyes attach themselves to the fibers through the adjustment of the pH
Pigment applications
level in the extractor. Here too salt is added to ensure that the dye
binds well and rinses with soap and acids are necessary to make sure
To make garments look as if they are a little dirty or make mock
the dye does not come out during subsequent washes.
stains or paint splatter on them a solution of a color pigment and a
Additionally, garments can be over-dyed using reductive vat-dyes.
binder can be sprayed, brushed or painted on. The binder is necessary
These dyes, such as indigo, are insoluble in water and need to be
to ensure that the desired look becomes permanent, as is the oven
dissolved in water and then fixed to the fibers through oxidation.
curing process. Afterwards a rinse is required to remove any excess
Tinting is similar to over-dyeing, but the color change is more subtle.
pigment (Pottelberghe).
It is simpler and faster than a complete over-dye as it happens at
lower temperatures, only a small amount of dyestuff is used, the pH
Coating
level does not need to be adjusted and salt does not need to be added.
Moreover, both the dyeing- and fixation process take less time
A coating is a polymer layer that is sprayed on top of a garment to
(Pottelberghe). Nonetheless, these processes of over-dyeing and
alter its appearance and sometimes its handle. It can be transparent or
tinting require a lot of water and the use of chemicals that may be
colored, can contain things such as glitters and inks, and can cause the
harmful to the environment and to those people working with them
fabric to become glossy or matt, stiff or floppy. The coating solution is
(Shalini). Work is being done however towards developing enzymatic
sprayed on manually using a spray-gun. After spraying, the garments
dyes which would allow for a color shift in the garment. These dyes
will have to be cured in an oven to ensure that the coating will
require less water and are a natural alternative to chemical dyes.
permanently stick to the fabric. Depending on the desired result,
Moreover, they can be used in combination with an enzyme
garments may also be pressed under a high pressure flat press and in
stonewash, again saving water as well as time and energy (‘Denim
some cases rinsed to remove excess coating solution (Pottelberghe).
Garment Processing’).
36
Repellent finishing
can be dipped in them, or they can be added into a wash extractor
Water repellent finishes can either be applied as a coating or in a wash
(‘Resin Finishing’). After that they are molded into the desired shape.
extractor. Like a coating, the finish needs to be cured in an oven and
Depending on the desired result, each resin has to be combined with
may require a rinse afterwards. To make the garment feel softer, other
other chemicals and to make the resin stick permanently to the fabric.
chemicals may need to be added to the finish. Water repellent finishes
Moreover, as resins tend to make fabrics stiff and brittle, softeners
tend to be expensive, highly chemical and therefore bad for the
have to be added to improve their strength and feel. Like coatings and
environment and workers s they get into the air and waste water.
repellent finishes, resins have to be cured at a high temperature.
Resin finishing
Local abrasions
Resin finishing is one of the most difficult and sensitive treatments
Various techniques are used to cause abrasions in certain areas of the
that can be applied to a denim garment. Resins are used primarily to
garment, usually to make them look more like jeans, jackets and shirts
make permanent folds and creases and three dimensional shapes, but
that have been worn in naturally. They vary widely depending on the
they can also be used to give the garment a grey cast, an unwashed
desired results and price range.
appearance (‘Resin Finishing’), or to prevent a garment from
shrinking (Pottelberghe). They are used, for instance, to artificially
Sandblasting
create 3D whiskers and honeycombs that can look and feel like
A technique highly preferred in the past that has fallen out of favor is
whiskers and honeycombs that have naturally been worn into the
sand-blasting. Here a granular abrasive material such as sand, glass,
fabric.
aluminum oxide or nut-shells is blasted onto specific areas of the
garment at high speed. It is a waterless process that can give a wide
A number of resins is available, each with a slightly different effect and
range of distressed or used looks depending on the abrasive material
feel on the fabric. They can be sprayed onto the garment, the garment
37
used, air pressure, and speed (Pottelberghe). Its results are well-liked,
but it has recently come under scrutiny because it is very harmful to
the workers operating the sand-blaster. As the abrasive material is
blasted onto the garment, tiny particles of silica dust spread through
the air and become embedded in workers’ lungs. This leads to the
incurable disease Silicosis, which causes coughing and shortness of
breath, weakness and weight loss, and in its acute form death. It can
be prevented by using proper protective gear and blasting within an
enclosed cabin, but as the majority of the denim manufacturers
operate in poorer countries where regulation is limited, one cannot be
sure such measures are taken. Although companies such as Levi
Strauss & Co and H&M have publicly announced that they will not
allow their denim garments to be sandblasted anymore, the denim
distressing sector is poorly regulated and it is difficult to control all
the steps in the supply chain. Sand blasting is still believed to happen
on a daily basis in countries like Bangladesh, China, Egypt and
Pakistan (Hebblethwaite).
Ice blasting
A very recent alternative to sand blasting that is now being offered by
a few laundries is the method of ice blasting. Here rather than using
sand, garments are blasted with carbon dioxide ice, also known as dry
ice (Agarwal 2013). The idea is that the carbon dioxide will evaporate
Sandblasting
38
after it abrades the product, thus causing a lot less waste and dust
thereby making it environmentally friendlier and more economical
which would make it much safer for workers and better for the
(‘Denim Garment Processing’, Shabbir).
environment. Some laundries remain skeptical however. As Managing
Director of Martelli Europe Mr. Mauro Angelini stated in an interview
Brushing
with Sandeep Agarwal – a denim specialist who has been in the
Local abrasions similar to those made when sandblasting can be
industry for over 17 years- “our thinking is that every process under
achieved through brushing. This is a fully automatized technique
high pressure produces dust” which will become airborne and can end
where a robot brushes certain areas of the garment using a brush
up in someone’s lungs. Moreover, Mauro Angelini said that “using type
made of nylon wires. This too is a waterless process where the degree
solutions of carbon dioxide ice certainly do not help the environment
of abrasion differs based on the pressure, speed and quality of the
and [entails] costs that [I] do not believe customers want to endure”
brush (Pottelberghe).
(Agarwal 2011).
Another method is the completely manual technique of scraping. Here
Waterjet fading
a laborer determines the placement of things such as whiskers and
Waterjet fading, also known as hydrojet treatment, is a technique
honeycombs and then scrapes their shapes into the fabric using
where strong jets of water gradually remove color from the fabric’s
sandpaper. The intensity and look depends on the pressure applied by
surface. It can be used to lighten fabrics or garments as a whole and to
the operator and the type of sandpaper used. Because it is all
change their texture, but also to create designs or artificial wear
handwork it is expensive and requires a certain level of skill from the
patterns. The achieved color change, contrast, and feel depend on the
operators (‘Denim Garment Processing’).
water pressure and how long the garment was exposed to the water
jets. This treatment causes little damage to the fabric and as it is a
Laser
non-chemical process it does not pollute the air or waste water.
This is some of the most recent and advanced technological
Moreover, a water-recycling system can easily be implemented
development in the area of denim finishing. It is a fully computercontrolled process where indigo is burned off the fibers using one or
39
more lasers. The possibilities are infinite as any image can be
transferred onto the denim garment ranging from text and pictures to
whiskers, honeycombs and fades on the thigh and knee. Its results can
be exactly reproduced on all garments and the chances for human
error are slim although in order to create for instance a realisticlooking faded denim look a very good programmer is needed to create
and program the machine. Moreover, it is a water and chemical free
process, so it is an environmentally friendly denim treatment (‘Denim
Garment Processing’). However, according to some the final look is
less natural than scraping or brushing (Pottelberghe).
Jeanologia, the company that also produced the E-Soft and the G2
Waterless Washing Machine, is also a forerunner when it comes to
using laser technology to transfer artificial wear patterns onto denim.
As far as replicating a vintage look, their machines are said to be able
to scan a true vintage garment and create an exact copy using an
untreated piece, down to each hole and abrasion, in less than a minute.
The system thus also eliminates time and hand labor from the
treatment process, saving even more money (McKinnon). However,
for denim laundries to switch from conventional methods to laser
technology is a big step, requiring retraining of personal, adapting
Indigo burned off denim using laser technology
Scraping
40
workspaces, and a large financial investment to acquire the necessary
known to industry players only, either because the information is not
machinery.
made public at all, or because it is contained in reports that cost large
sums of money. This makes me think that, despite many good
initiatives, the industry itself is not quite ready to accept responsibility
Conclusion
and take action to reduce its environmental impact.
In sum, denim’s vast popularity unfortunately comes with a large
In the following chapter I present the results of my interviews and find
environmental price tag. The mere production of cotton already
out which treatments are used most, how the new, environmentally
requires enormous amounts of water and pesticides, indigo dyeing is
and health conscious techniques compare to the tried and true
responsible for more water, more waste water, and that is not
conventional processes, and finally which techniques actually produce
mention the chemical soften added to the dye stuff. Then there are the
the most authentic looking results.
distressing treatments which remain hugely popular. Luckily, more
attention is being paid to reducing the denim industry’s ecological
footprint with alternatives to generic cotton being produced, new dye
techniques being developed to reduce water and chemical use, and
most prominently the increasing use of and research into more
sustainable and health conscious options when distressing denim.
However, the fact that I was unable to find much exact data on the
amount of water, chemicals and energy used, waste produced, and
costs of conventional distressing techniques and new ways of
artificially aging denim, suggests that the denim industry continues to
try to hide this information from the public. The exact data remain
41
Chapter 4:
heavy 80s inspired acid wash or the very popular vintage look, almost
Brand-new vintage
everyone has at least one pair of treated jeans, denim shirt or jacket in
their closet. Some pieces may be done a little more tastefully than
others, some may even look quite a bit like a real worn in denim
Introduction
garment, but if they were not stiff and very dark when you bought
As we saw in the previous chapter, treated and distressed denim has
them they were washed, treated, altered, and embellished before you
been around since the 70s, but buying brand-new vintage look denim
got them. Although the vintage look would suggest by its name and
has never been more popular than it is now (Sharma). In the previous
nature that it aims to replicate the way authentically worn and
chapter I took a look at the production of denim garments and the
washed denim pieces look, the majority of distressed denim does not
environmental and human rights implications the various stages of
look one bit realistic. As explained in chapter two, denim naturally
production have, from seed to finish. In this chapter I will expound
fades faster in areas where the most abrasion occurs, such as along
upon the techniques favored by denim heritage brands and other
crease lines in the crotch area (whiskers) and the back of the knees
experts in the industry to create the most authentic looking artificial
and insides of elbows (honeycombs), on the thighs and butt, and
fades. First I will look at the popular ‘vintage look’ and the prominence
possibly in areas where an excess of fabric has bunched up to create
of its often very unrealistic reproductions. Then, drawing on eight
stacks. In these areas the indigo chips and rubs off, creating a wear
interviews I conducted with industry experts and a ninth that I came
pattern in lighter and darker shades of blue that matches the wearer’s
across online, I look at which techniques generate the best looking
body. In the majority of artificially distressed denim garments
results, and which ones may be used as more sustainable alternatives.
however, the wear patterns created look fake, do not match the
wearer’s body, and overall could never occur naturally when wearing
and washing a pair of jeans, a denim jacket or –shirt. Take for instance
The ‘not so vintage’ look
this pair of jeans:
Streets around the world are filled with people wearing artificially
distressed denim. Whether they are sporting a simple stonewash, a
42
fabric do not only result in lighter lines, but also in a darker line next
to it because there the fabric was actually shielded from abrasions by
the lighter piece. This pair of jeans only seems to have lighter lines. We
can also see that in this picture, the pants are a little long on the model
and they rest on his sneakers. If a pair of jeans was worn like this
naturally, this would result in stacks which this pant does not have. It
does however have lighter, faded areas on the backs of the thighs
below the butt and around the knees in the front. The front does not
look too bad, but how those faded bits could have occurred naturally
on the back I do not know, unless the wearer were to always wipe
It has a high contrast fade; some parts are extremely light. The
their hand on those areas or rub them against chairs and other things.
whiskers, if you can call them that, are abundant and set closely
A fade like this may be appealing to some, but it does cause the
together –already highly unlikely in a loose-fitting pair of jeans like
garments to have a more contemporary and therefore temporary
this - and look more like honeycombs, which could not happen if this
appeal. Moreover, every treatment applied to the garment does to
pair of pants faded naturally. But more importantly, the whiskers do
some extent compromise the strength and durability of the fabric.
not actually emanate from the crotch area where the most stress is
Both of these factors will cause a garment like this to end up in a
placed on the fabric but rather they are placed on the upper thigh,
landfill much faster than genuine faded denim or artificially distressed
where the fabric does not even really fold when the wearer moves, sits
denim that looks authentic.
down, bicycles, etc. Similarly, there are also a lot of lighter lines set
closely together on the back of the knees, which could happen
Looking at these ‘not-so-vintage’ fades makes one wonder whether
naturally in a tighter pair of jeans, but again they are positioned below
not only consumers but also designers, developers, and denim
where the actual back of the knees are, in an area where the fabric
technicians even know why distressing techniques were applied in the
barely folds. Moreover, when denim fades naturally, creases in the
first place. But if these artificial fades do not actually look like
43
authentic worn and faded denim, why were they applied? Christophe
Loiron, owner of LA-based Mister Freedom, suggests that these
artificial fades are “a trick to camouflage uninspired designs” (Loiron).
Or perhaps these fades were not really designed to look like the real
deal, because the consumers’ distressed denim desires have evolved
to encompass a distressed look that could not occur naturally. But if
recreating an authentic vintage look is no longer the objective, then
really the distressing techniques and treatments that are applied are
interchangeable. If you are not striving to recreate, but only to create a
denim look, then in principle you can make it look any way you like,
using any technique you like. This would mean that in this area of the
denim industry the most changes can be made to reduce the
environmental impact of denim treatments, because designers,
developers and treatment specialists are not restricted by the
requirements of a realistic fade.
Methods
However, for those brands which do strive to recreate authentic wear
patterns, distressing techniques are limited to those that yield the
most authentic-looking results. Denim heritage brands such as Levi’s
Vintage Clothing, Lee 101, RRL, Rising Sun & Company and many
Workers artificially distressing denim
44
others aim to reproduce vintage and vintage-looking pieces to the
Coordinator denim at J.C.Rags who currently works both as King of
point where you can no longer see the difference between the original
Sourcing at heritage brand Kings of Indigo (K.O.I.) and is the founder
piece and the reproduction. To determine which distressing methods
and owner of Benzak Denim Developers, was one of the first to talk to
these brands use, and which methods experts recommend, I set out to
me. Using a semi-structured interviewing technique, which allows for
interview denim designers, developers, laundry executives, quality
two-way communication and is more flexible than a fully structured
controllers and independent researchers. This way I hoped to gain
interview, I was able to steer our conversation, to change the line of
information from people involved in different areas of production who
inquiry as I saw fit and to pick up on verbal and non-verbal cues. I
may offer different perspectives on the distressing processes and their
then conducted similar interviews with Miles Johnson, Creative
results. Starting out with extensive desk research I contacted the
Director of Levi’s Vintage Clothing and Levi’s Made and Crafted, Paul
authors of relevant articles, denim heritage brands, experts I met
O’Neill, Designer at Levi’s Vintage Clothing; Michiel Koudijs, Product
through my work with Levi’s XX and even Jeanologia, the
Developer with LVC; Michelle Don, Developer of Levi’s Made & Crafted
aforementioned leading expert on denim treatments using Laser and
bottoms; and Ilse van Pottelberghe, former Finish Engineer and now
Ozone bleaching. Unfortunately the majority of potential respondents
Product Developer at Levi Strauss & Co.
did not reply or indicated that they were unwilling or unable to
I also received positive responses from Harry Mercer, who as stated
answer my questions. As I expected, which distressing techniques are
before is a leading authority on denim development, and from
used is something that people in the industry generally like to keep
Brendon Healy at Rising Sun & Company, which makes “Tailor-made
under wraps. Some, like the people at Jeanologia and Prof. Wolffgang
indigo goods & work wear capturing the optimistic spirit of America’s
Schrott, responded to my first e-mail asking if they would be willing to
golden age of craftsmanship”. Because these respondents were located
answer my questions, but unfortunately did not manage to find the
outside the Netherlands and had very busy schedules, I opted to send
time to actually answer my questions.
my interview questions via e-mail rather than conduct the interviews
over the phone or through other instant media. This meant that the
Fortunately I did find a few people who had time to talk to me.
interviews were asynchronous in time and place, which on the one
Lennaert Nijgh, former Product Developer and Production
hand allowed respondents to respond at their convenience and to take
45
time to formulate their answers. It also allowed me to take time to
washed and distressed products. As Brendon Healy at Rising Sun & Co.
ponder my own interview questions and any follow-up questions I
stated;
might have. On the other hand, this meant that I was unable to pick up
on social cues. However, as this interview was concerned with factual
“From day one our focus has been Raw, un-washed goods …our
occurrences rather than personal experiences this did not matter
customers have long preferred unwashed, raw, selvedge denim.
much.
There is an inherent beauty to breaking in a garment oneself, it
will reflect your everyday lifestyle and age in a way that will
Finally, for additional information I also searched for relevant
represent your personality. As we expanded our collection we
interviews with experts in the industry conducted by others. Thus I
realized that not all customers are fond of rigid, unwashed
came across two interviews with Francois Girbaud, founder of famous
denim and duck. To accommodate these customers we kept our
clothing company Marithé Francois Girbaud and a zealous advocate of
focus on providing a premium product that would still reflect
sustainable denim distressing techniques. ("The Future of Laser:
timelessness and versatility. To do this you have to create washes
Exclusive Interview With François Girbaud." and "Interview With
that look authentic to a point of not being able to differentiate
François Girbaud.").
between a worn product and an artificially washed garment.”
(Brendon Healy, e-mail interview)
Results and analysis
Moreover, as Miles Johnson and Michiel Koudijs pointed out, because
LVC aims to capture the spirit and heritage of American work wear,
As stated before, denim heritage brands aim to create and recreate
some designs must look used and abused to accurately translate that
vintage denim garment and vintage inspired pieces. Raw denim plays
spirit. They not only create more subtle and therefore more
a vital role, but not every consumer is willing to wear in their own
commercial finishes, but they also create replicas of extremely worn-
denim. This is why brands like LVC, Rising Sun & Company, Kings of
in vintage pieces that have a story behind them. Take for instance the
Indigo and Benzak Denim Developers have also developed pre-
limited edition reproduction of the 1890s 501 known as the ‘Spurbite’,
46
which is based on a real pair of jeans bought by the Levi’s company
back in 1997 for $25,000. It is not only the exact same design as the
pair of 501s from 1890, it has also been made to look like it was worn
by a cowboy complete with wear pattern, repairs and patches, and
damage to the cuffs caused by the spurs attached to the owner’s boots.
This is a fade that, unless someone tried very very hard, would not
happen in real life these days (Interview w. Miles Johnson).
To achieve the most authentic looking results, Michelle Don, Michiel
Koudijs and Ilse van Pottelberghe explained that they usually start out
with a vintage worn-in garment, also known as a target, which is sent
to the laundry where they attempt to replicate that piece as closely as
possible. Depending on how good the laundry is and the relationship
that the company has with it, pictures of the target or even just a
description may suffice (Interview w. Michelle Don) At Rising Sun &
Company they often use targets that have actually been worn from
their rigid stage by friends of the brand; painters, bikers, horse riders,
etc. (Brendon Healy, e-mail interview). As Healy says “this way even
our washes reflect our mentality of wearing it in yourself.”
To get the garments just right, some reworking and tweaking may be
required throughout the development process, with multiple washes
and distressing techniques necessary. The whiskers, honeycombs and
possible stacks should be put in exactly the right place, faded parts
Levi’s Vintage Clothing reproduction of the 1890s 501 known as ‘Spurbite’
47
have to be logical as do possible holes and repairs. And that is not all,
enzymatic pre-wash may be enough, but if it is a fade you are after
to get a good fade you not only have to get the garment to look right,
several techniques will have to be applied. To create the best looking
but also to get it to feel right; a pair of jeans that is meant to look like it
whiskers, honeycombs and other crease lines, both at Levi’s Vintage
has been worn for a year for instance should not feel like it has been
Clothing and at Rising Sun & Co. there is a preference for hand sanding
worn for only three months. Ilse van Pottelberghe explained that until
and –scraping, possibly with a resin treatment beforehand to create
a few years ago, Levi Strauss and Co. had a laboratory in the Brussels
sharper lines and a higher contrast (Michelle Don, Michiel Koudijs,
offices where finish engineers like herself could explore and develop
Miles Johnson, Ilse van Pottelberghe, Healy, e-mail interview). This can
the best way to artificially age garments. This way they could submit
be done using sandpaper, or with a rough sponge which allows for
something close to a recipe to the laundry. Now they are more
more color depth (Paul O’Neill). Brendon Healy also stated that he
dependent on the laundries’ finish experts to generate the best results
thought molding the whiskers by hand generated some of the best
(Interview w. Ilse van Pottelberghe). The cost of production is of
looking results. Other areas that naturally fade fast like the thighs,
somewhat lesser importance here; brands like LVC and Rising Sun &
knees and butt may be done by hand as well, or a bleach spray may be
Co. commit to making a product that looks and feels as true to a
used (Paul O’Neill). Possible damage or repairs can also be done by
genuine aged garment as possible, and spend what is necessary to
hand at this stage. Although these techniques are labor intensive, they
achieve that. The target consumer for these brands knows that, and is
do not require too much from the environment so they can be
willing to pay the price at retail level, ranging anywhere from €120 to
considered quite sustainable. It is of course paramount that the person
€1000 depending on brand, model and intricacy of the finish applied.
doing the handwork knows what he is doing; “you cannot recreate a
(Interviews with Michiel Koudijs, Ilse van Pottelberghe and Brendon
fade if you are not familiar with the nature of denim” (Interview w.
Healy, e-mail interview).
Lennaert Nijgh). At LVC this is often followed by a traditional
stonewash (Paul O’Neill), although Ilse van Pottenberghe said that the
All my interviewees conceded that which finishing treatments are
same results could be achieved with the more eco-friendly enzymatic
used on each garment is dependent on the results you are trying to
stonewash. That treatment does however require more time than
achieve. If all you want is to soften the fabric, a simple rinse or
traditional stonewashing. Michiel Koudijs, Ilse van Pottelberghe and
48
Paul O’Neill also said that they liked Ozone to alter the overall shade of
the garments, and that they used some tinting techniques, mostly with
minerals, as well as pigment application to more closely emulate used
and abused denim.
Moreover, they further indicated that, if we were to take health
concerns out of the equation that sandblasting did produce some
beautiful results (See appendix I, example 5) but since the ban on this
technique they have resorted to ice-blasting, which is the closest they
can get to using the prohibited technique. Miles Johnson said that he
thought that in the future, if we could ensure that the rules and
regulations were observed and cabins and protective gear were used,
perhaps it would be possible to sandblast again.
However, when asked if my respondents at LVC, Rising Sun & Co., and
Kings of Indigo could provide me with tangible examples or pictures of
pre-distressed denim garments and the targets they were based on
with an explanation of the exact distressing techniques applied, noone seemed to be willing or able to help me. Brendon Healy indicated
that at Rising Sun & Co. they usually leave decisions on techniques to
the experts at the laundry and that he therefore did not know how
certain results were achieved. The same could hold for my other
respondents, or perhaps they just did not want to share their recipes
Hand sanding and -scraping
49
for success with me. It was however clear that to achieve an authentic
Kings of Indigo is currently seriously looking into using laser and
looking pre-distressed denim garment, usually various techniques and
ozone bleaching techniques in an attempt to reduce water
treatments are combined. They were also unable to tell me much
consumption during the finishing process (Interview w. Lennaert
about the environmental impact their preferred techniques had or on
Nijgh). Moreover, many of K.O.I.’s designs are also made using at least
the amount of water, energy, and chemicals used and even their exact
a percentage of organic cotton and/or recycled cotton (Interview w.
costs; this information remained with the laundry.
Lennaert Nijgh). Nijgh stated that he thought these techniques were
the future for distressing denim. This sentiment is echoed by Francois
Now at LVC and Rising Sun & Co. they are not currently looking to
Girbaud, who back in the 1970s and 80s played an important role in
change their techniques –“no need to fix it if it is not broken” (Healy, e-
developing distressing techniques such as the stonewash and acid
mail interview) - but my respondents did indicate that if more
wash, which he now considers ‘a mistake’. In recent years he has
sustainable techniques became readily available to create the same
become a major advocate for laser treatments and the face of
results, they would be interested. Rising Sun & Co. also tries to use
Jeanologia’s laser and ozone technology, and encourages machine
organic cotton when possible, Levi’s Vintage Clothing’s sister brand
manufacturers, fabric dyers, laundries, weavers, spinners, denim
Levi’s Made & Crafted also uses organic and recycled cotton in some of
suppliers, sourcing manufacturers, and especially designers to explore
their designs. However, for them the real focus is on creating good
and further develop the possibilities of laser technology. As he says;
quality, timeless pieces than you can, and will want wear for years and
years. As Miles Johnson says,
“The revolution of new technologies in textiles is a gateway to
the future for the younger generations. They will be able to
“It is more sustainable to create beautiful, good-quality, time-
invent their own creations and have endless design possibilities
less designs than it is to create contemporary, and therefore
using laser to transform the appearance of the fabric and
temporary and disposable, garments even if they are made using
weave.” (Girbaud 2013)
sustainable materials and techniques.”
50
Moreover, laser technology allows the same exact fade to be replicated
“Because of indigo’s unique fading capabilities it is possible to
for each garment, which Francois Girbaud, Harry Mercer and Ilse van
create an endless number of shades, wear patterns and looks
Pottelberghe see as an advantage. Michiel Koudijs however indicated
through different treatments, instead of the dark, even color of a
that at Levi’s Vintage Clothing laser was not used much because they
rigid jean.” (Interview w. Lennaert Nijgh).
actually want each garment to be unique and slightly different, just
like they would be if they had faded naturally. They might use laser as
Although many of my interviewees are themselves partial to rigid
a starting treatment, but that would be followed by meticulous
denim and natural fades, they did concede that they felt that
handscraping to get the results they need. Michelle Don said that at
distressed denim is here to stay. As Harry Mercer pointed out
Levi’s Made & Crafted they do use laser techniques as well. For
“…these treatments make the garment softer and more comfortable.
examples of vintage denim garments that have been recreated by
The brighter color after stoning etc. is also appealing.” “Artificially
Levi’s Vintage Clothing, please see Appendix I.
faded denim sells”, said Michelle Don, and Brendon Healy said “I think
it’s safe to say washed products will always have a place in the denim
In an attempt to reduce the ecological footprint left by denim
market.”
distressing techniques, Harry Mercer further recommended air drying
garments after washing as opposed to using gas operated industrial
However, for the consumer who wishes to make environmentally- and
dryers. He also said that discoloration treatments could be
human rights conscious decisions when buying denim they did feel
significantly reduced if indigo dyers were better trained to produce
that rigid denim is the way to go, or as Michiel Koudijs put it “Buy rigid
target shades or colors during fabric production. This would diminish
and start the adventure!” “The less is done to the rigid product, the
or even eliminate the need to remove indigo from the final garment
better it is for the environment” said Miles Johnson, “rigids will last
using stonewashing and bleaching techniques. He further stated that
longer and you will love them more because the fades you create are
mechanical abrasion required very little water and no chemicals, and
all your own”, and Michelle Don recommended just not washing your
was thus quite sustainable.
denim garments. Nonetheless, as we saw in the previous chapter and
as Ilse van Pottelberghe pointed out, even the production of rigid
51
denim involves the use of copious amounts of water and substances
that are harmful to the environment. Therefore the longer you can
make your denim last, the better it is.
Conclusion
From this we can conclude that when it comes to creating artificial
fades that look the most like real worn and washed vintage denim,
good old-fashioned elbow grease is the way to go. Although my
respondents were unwilling or unable to disclose the exact
combinations of techniques used to recreate vintage denim pieces,
they agreed that molding whiskers using a resin and creating crease
lines and honeycombs is best done by hand, by someone who knows
exactly what they are doing. This technique requires little water and
no chemicals, but does take time, is labor intensive and therefore
expensive. Moreover, it is paramount that the final look is realistic and
therefore timeless so the owner will not grow bored with it and
discard it. It can be combined with an enzyme stonewash, ozone
bleaching and mineral tinting which, according to my interviewees,
generate good results while having a limited impact on the
environment.
Real worn-in target and Levi’s Vintage Clothing reproduction
52
The recent advancements in laser technology and ozone bleaching,
which promise a reduction in the use of water and chemicals of up to
70 percent, also look very favorable although its results might not be
suitable for every brand. However, especially when it comes to the
production of ‘not so vintage’-look denim, which is less restricted by
the requirements of creating authentic looking jeans, denim jackets
and shirts, if we encourage the use of more sustainable distressing
techniques we can really make an impact and reduce the amount of
water, chemicals and energy used to distress denim. Nonetheless,
buying rigid and wearing in your own jeans still looks to be the most
sustainable way to go.
Levi’s Vintage Clothing reproduction of the 1920s Balloons
53
Chapter 5:
has become increasingly popular. From a simple stonewash to
extensive resin treatments, overdyes, embellishments and coatings,
Conclusions
denim treatments and distressing techniques have become more
Denim and jeans mean many things to many people. They are a
widespread, each increasing the possibilities of denim looks we can
symbol of individuality, of protest, of democracy, of solidarity and of
create and recreate. Most noticeably, we now artificially recreate the
youth. They are worn the world over by people of every age, of every
way denim naturally wears in, so customers no longer have to make
part of society. Even though denim shirts, jackets and jeans are still
their own fades. And increasing the possibilities has increased
basically the same as they were over 140 years ago, we have been able
diversity and therefore the industry.
to reinvent them over and over again to fit our bodies and our
However, the vast denim industry unfortunately comes not only with a
lifestyles.
large financial stipend, but comes with an environmental and human
I started this research report by exploring the nature of denim as a
rights price tag as well. The production of cotton for the denim
fabric; the distinctive weaving pattern of the white weft and the blue
industry alone requires enormous amounts of water and pesticides,
warp yarns and the indigo dyeing process which gives denim one of its
indigo dyeing is responsible for more water, more waste water, and
most important characteristics, namely that it fades. I looked at the
that is not mention the chemicals often added to the dye stuff, the
way denim garments mold themselves to the wearer’s body and how
resources used for transportation of raw materials and the vast
every movement, every action, every adventure leaves a mark upon
amounts of energy and man power involved in the production of the
the garment. When wearing a denim garment, you earn each whisker,
rigid garments. Then there are the distressing treatments which are
each honeycomb, your stacks, fades, stains and tears, and you will
applied to the large majority of denim pieces. Luckily, more attention
come to love each and every one of them. However, breaking in a rigid
is being paid to reducing the denim industry’s ecological footprint
pair of jeans, a jacket or a denim shirt- a blank canvas on which you
with alternatives to generic cotton being produced, new dye
can start writing the story of your life- can be uncomfortable and may
techniques being developed to reduce water and chemical use, and
take some time. That is why, from the 1970s onward, treated denim
most prominently the increasing use of and research into more
sustainable and health conscious options when distressing denim.
54
Moreover, with consumers becoming more informed about the impact
techniques, at the moment at least, do not always yield the most
distressing techniques have on the environment and workers’ health
authentic-looking results. But these looks, like what I termed the ‘not-
(Interview w. Lennaert Nijgh), the industry has come under closer
so-vintage’ look but also any other jeans, shirt or jacket that does not
scrutiny and there is a bigger demand for sustainable and worker-
aim to recreate a real fade pattern, are not restricted by the
friendly finishing treatments. Techniques that employ Laser, Ozone,
requirements of recreation and can therefore employ any treatment,
and enzymes seem to slowly become more widespread as are ice
any distressing technique, to create results that the designer and the
blasting and water jet fading, promising reductions in the use of water
consumer may deem beautiful. This makes every technique suitable,
and chemicals and waste water creation.
and thus encouraging the use of sustainable distressing treatments in
this area of the industry would make the biggest impact.
However, the fact that I was unable to find much exact data on the
Unfortunately, encouraging the use of techniques that may not yield
amount of water, chemicals and energy used, waste produced, and
the most timeless results, will also result in the production and sale of
costs of conventional and new more sustainable distressing
more contemporary and therefore temporary denim garments, which
techniques, suggests that the denim industry continues to try to
are likely to end up in a landfill sooner rather than later.
conceal these facts from the public. The exact figures remain known to
industry players only, either because the information is not made
However, for brands that aim to create artificial fades that look as
publicly available at all, or because it can only be found in reports that
much like vintage worn and washed denim as possible, i.e. denim
cost large sums of money. This makes me think that, despite good
heritage brands, there are sustainable options as well. From the
initiatives to reduce its ecological footprint, the industry itself is not
interviews I conducted with experts at Levi’s XX, Rising Sun & Co.,
quite ready to accept responsibility and take action.
Kings of Indigo and Benzak Denim Developers, and independent
expert Harry Mercer, we can conclude that good old-fashioned elbow
The biggest advances in this regard can be made in the production of
grease is the most popular way to go. Molding whiskers using a resin
denim garments that are not or no longer meant to look like they have
and creating crease lines and honeycombs is best done by hand, by
been worn, washed, and faded naturally. The more sustainable
someone who knows exactly what they are doing. This technique
55
requires little water and chemicals and is therefore quite sustainable.
It does however take time, is labor intensive and therefore expensive.
It can be combined with an enzyme stonewash, ozone bleaching, ice
blasting and mineral tinting which, according to my interviewees,
generate good results while having a limited impact on the
environment. Levi’s Made & Crafted and K.O.I. moreover also use laser
technology. But, as my respondents indicated, raw or rigid denim does
remain the most sustainable option when buying a new pair of jeans, a
new denim shirt or –jacket. And if you ask me, the best way to make
your new jeans look old is still to wear them yourself, from rigids to
rags.
56
Epilogue: The future
time and money into emphasizing the importance of making and
buying sustainable denim in addition to actually marketing it, which
could also make consumers more aware. My hope is that consumers
During the next decades, I hope and trust that the trend to reduce the
will thus become more critical and take more responsibility for the
denim industry’s ecological footprint will continue. I believe that one
denim choices that they make. With that, I believe that their call for
of the main reasons why many consumers still buy denim garments
quality and timeless style which, as can be seen from the increasing
that have been produced using unsustainable and harmful materials
popularity of denim heritage brands (Agarwal 2010 ‘Heritage’), has
and techniques is not because they do not care, it is because they do
been growing stronger in recent years, will surge. This should in turn
not know. I do not even think most people realize that the denim
entice denim brands to use more sustainable materials and
clothes that they buy have been washed or treated at all, and they
techniques, to improve the durability of their products, and also to
certainly do not realize how resource intensive such treatments are,
produce more timeless designs which will not go out of style too fast.
and that is not even to mention the basic cotton production and
This way garments can and will be worn for longer, reducing the
dyeing processes. Consumers must become more aware of the impact
temporary nature of contemporary looking denim. Moreover, I hope
their jeans, denim shirts, and -jackets have on the environment. There
that consumers will become less interested in pre-distressed denim
needs to be more openness and clarity when it comes to the amount of
once they learn of its environmental impact and the treatments’
water, energy, and chemicals used during the processes of production
detrimental effects on the garments, leading to an increase in the
and the amount of waste material that remains. In order for us as
popularity of rigid denim.
consumers to be able to hold industry players accountable for the
materials and methods they use, we must gain insight in what they do,
But we cannot place all responsibility with the consumers or with the
and thus the existing secretiveness must cease. The visibility of
brands. At a legislative level there needs to be a change as well. If, as I
sustainable denim advocates like Francois Girbaud, Harry Mercer and
do, we denim denim as an all-cotton, indigo-dyed twill there is little
Wolffgang Schrott must increase, and with that the amount and
that can be done about the amount of water required to grow these
prominence of research into alternative means of both making and
plants. However, the production of organic cotton and use of recycled
distressing denim. Brands on the other hand could also invest more
57
cotton can be increased, and I believe governments can stimulate this
denim garments which will stay in style for longer, and on the other
using a financial incentive. To further aid this, a ban could be instated
hand we should encourage such brands to switch to artificial aging
on so-called ‘green labeling’ of cotton products, thus preventing
techniques which require fewer resources. Therefore I believe that,
brands from labeling their products as organic if they are not 100%
just like you can get government subsidies for driving a more
organic.
ecofriendly car or for using green energy, denim brands and laundries
should be subsidized for employing more sustainable denim
A closer eye should also be kept on the quality of indigo dyestuff used
distressing techniques. Denim laundries could for instance receive
during the production processes, allowing is to reduce the use of
sponsorship when first purchasing new laser or ozone technology,
dangerous chemicals and waste water. Moreover, as Harry Mercer
lowering the threshold to start using these methods. Then, as these
suggested in his interview, if indigo dyers were better trained to
technologies become more widely used and are developed further to
produce target shades or colors during fabric production,
create more diverse results, we could slowly start to phase out
discoloration treatments could be significantly reduced.
conventional distressing techniques such as stonewashing and
bleaching by banning them one by one, just like sandblasting is slowly
As I stated before, I think that the biggest advances towards reducing
being banned the world over.
the current denim industry’s ecological footprint is through the use of
more sustainable distressing techniques on jeans that, unlike the
Finally, I think that lovers of rigid denim should continue to wear
artificially worn jeans created by denim heritage brands, are not
rigids, share their love of the material, and inspire others to do the
limited by the restrictions of creating denim garments that must look
same. Perhaps, at some point in the future, we can then start phasing
like they have been worn in naturally. Brands which do not strictly
out pre-distressed denim all together. Rigid denim was the past, and I
aim to recreate real fades can employ more and different distressing
hope that it will also be the future.
techniques to reach their goals of creating clothes that they deem
beautiful, which includes sustainable methods. So on the one hand we
should encourage these brands to create more time-less looking
58
59
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Interviewees
Don, Michelle
Mercer, Harry. E-mail interview.
Healy, Brendon. E-mail interview.
Nijgh, Lennaert
Johnson, Miles
O’Neill, Paul
Koudijs, Michiel
Pottelberghe, Ilse van
63
Example 1 – To recreate this look, this pair of jeans was
first hand scraped to create the whisker and honeycomb
patterns. Then the lighter areas on the thighs, butt and
caves were created using a bleach spray. This was followed
by an enzymatic stonewash and an Ozone treatment.
Appendix I – Targets vs.
Reproductions
Examples from Levi’s Vintage Clothing
i
ii
Example 2- This pair of jeans was first molded with resin
and then hand-scraped to create a well-defined wear
pattern. Then it was treated with Ozone, which also gave it
the slightly greenish hue.
iii
iv
Example 3- This garment was ice blasted to create the whisker
and honeycomb patterns, then treated using a traditional pumice
stone stonewash. The damage on the left knee was created by
hand.
v
vi
Example 4 – To recreate this look, the garment was hand
scraped to create the wear pattern and then subjected to a
traditional stonewash.
vii
viii
Example 5 – This garment, although it looks like a real used and
abused pair of jeans, was actually created artificially using sand
blasting techniques.
ix
x