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changes and emerging trends in Australian school
The School Library Rocks: Living it, Learning it, Loving it June 28 – July 2, 2015, Maastricht, Netherlands Accepted papers 44th International Association of School Librarianship International Conference, Incorporating the 19th International Forum on Research in School Librarianship Maastricht 2015. IASL. Heerlen, Open Universiteit. Volume II: Research Papers 2nd updated edition Editors: Lourense Das, Saskia Brand-Gruwel, Kees Kok, Jaap Walhout International Association of School Librarianship, 2015. Colofon © Copyright 2015, International Association of School Librarianship Citation: Das, L.H., Brand-Gruwel, S., Walhout, J. & Kok, K. (Eds) (2015). The School Library Rocks: Proceedings of the 44th International Association of School Librarianship (IASL) conference 2015 , Volume II: Research Papers (2nd ed.). Heerlen, Open Universiteit. 2 Disclaimer Notice – IASL 2015 Conference Proceedings Where the papers in these proceedings have been authored by presenters of the IASL 2015 Annual Conference, neither the International Association of School Librarianship nor the IASL 2015 Conference Committee Members, nor the Open University Netherlands employees, make any warranty, expressed or implied, or assume any legal liability or responsibility for any third party's use, or the results of such use, of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed in these proceedings, or represent that its use by such third party would not infringe privately owned rights. The views expressed in these proceedings are not necessarily those of the International Association of School Librarianship nor the IASL 2015 Conference Committee Members, nor the Open University Netherlands employees. 3 Table of Contents Table of Contents ....................................................................................................... 4 Preface ....................................................................................................................... 6 Indexes ....................................................................................................................... 7 Research Papers Review Committee ........................................................................10 School Library Research Rocks: an examination of five years of school library research.....................................................................................................................22 New Teacher-Librarians Rock: Checking in and Looking back on the first years of being a Teacher-Librarian..........................................................................................42 Representations of Reading in Brazilian Contemporary Children’s Literature ...........57 Improving English Comprehension in Primary School by Picture-books Story-telling and Reading ..............................................................................................................68 Teenagers in school libraries! What about the imaginaries and expectations of digital natives? ...................................................................................................................103 Ethical dilemmas for researchers working in international contexts.........................112 Inquiry learning: educating librarians for their educational role ................................123 School Librarians’ Roles: preliminary results of a national survey of priorities, performance, and evaluation in the context of professional guidelines ....................136 Award-Winning Literacy Awards: Lessons Learned ................................................162 Information Architecture and the Comic Arts: ..........................................................172 Knowledge Structure and Access ............................................................................172 Does Guided Inquiry enhance learning and metacognition? ...................................194 Self-Regulated Learning in Practice: a comparison of national board certified teacher librarians and non-national board certified teacher librarians in the United States ..216 Awards with rewards: implications and perceptions for collection development for youth ........................................................................................................................232 A study of the Bookery’s Library Assistants programme in Cape Town: a way forward for the staffing of school libraries in South Africa and other developing countries? .244 Enabling Teacher Librarian Leadership for Technology Integration ........................258 Growing from Nothing: the performance of teacher librarians in Taiwan .................277 Mind the gap: school librarians’ anticipated and preferred professional development methods for integration of digital textbooks .............................................................292 4 Information literacy: Hong Kong primary teachers’ perceptions of the role of the teacher librarian .......................................................................................................299 Transfer, transformation, transition: what the school librarian can do in transliteracy, the French context ...................................................................................................312 Educational activities of the School Library of the School Teaching Centre of Basic Education of UFMG .................................................................................................324 A Glimpse into the Brighton College Abu Dhabi Library’s Virtual Learning Environment: how can this help school libraries? ....................................................335 Literature in digital environments: changes and emerging trends in Australian school libraries ....................................................................................................................356 How the image drawing method can act as an alternative barometer of librarian instruction ................................................................................................................370 Understanding teacher-librarian collaboration: the contribution of Patricia MontielOverall’s studies and of TLC model .........................................................................378 The School Library as a Bridge to Literacy: A Garden of Words .............................394 The School Library as a Sexual Health Learning Environment................................409 Using Your Outside Voice: action research speaks for the school librarian .............420 School Librarian Leadership: Research and Practice ..............................................434 Towards Consensus on the School Library Learning Environment: A Systematic Search and Review .................................................................................................454 Motivation to transfer learning to multiple contexts ..................................................473 Free Voluntary Surfing: An Extensive Reading Curriculum Supported by Technology ................................................................................................................................488 Accepting the 'Other': immigrants in Israeli children's literature - a case study .......504 List of Exhibitors and Sponsors ...............................................................................511 5 Preface The 44th Annual International Conference of the International Association of School Librarianship and the 19th International Forum on Research in School Librarianship was held on 28 June – 2 July 2015 in Maastricht, The Netherlands. The Proceedings of IASL 2015 reflect the input of the conference’ speakers to the conference theme and subthemes: The school library rocks: living it, learning it, loving it! The school library as a space and place: meeting, sharing, discussing. Collaborative learning and growing. The school library as learning environment: 24/7 access to materials, resources, teachers, electronic learning environment and more. The school library as laboratory: experience and discovery in science, arts and media‐ education The school library as a window to the world: reading, writing and communication At IASL 2015, 275 registered participants from 41 countries attended the conference. 5 Keynotes, 96 oral talks, 9 workshops and 12 posters were presented. In this volume of the Proceedings you will find the submitted Research Papers of the conference. Research in school librarianship is a vital element in the development of school libraries and its implementation in education. The proceedings reflect the many appearances of ‘the school library’. The main goal, however is always that the library in the educational environment meets the requirements of the school community, the curriculum, stakeholders and society and supports learning. Research shows that professionals who develop, maintain and manage such a library, play a significant role in student achievement. These proceedings will therefore contribute to further development of the profession and lay the foundation for new research. I would like to express my deep appreciation to the conference research paper review committee for their valuable work and contribution to the IASL 2015 conference. I would also like to express my deep appreciation to the conference committee, the staff of the Open University of The Netherlands and our volunteers. The IASL 2015 conference could not have been possible without the ongoing dedication, tremendous efforts, hard work and professional input. At the end of this preface, I would like to look ahead to the IASL conference. IASL 2016 will be held August 22 – 26, 2016, at the Meiji University, Tokyo, Japan. We look forward to another professional and exiting conference on School Librarianship. IASL 2015 Conference Committee Director, Lourense H. Das 6 Indexes Keyword Index Acceptance ........................................................................................................................504 Action research ..................................................................................................................420 Adolescent sexual health....................................................................................................409 Awards ...............................................................................................................................162 Bookery, The ......................................................................................................................244 Boys ...................................................................................................................................394 Brazil ............................................................................................................ 57, 123, 324, 378 Brazilian children’s literature .................................................................................................57 Case study .........................................................................................................................244 Children’s literature ...................................................................................................... 57, 504 Children’s literature awards ................................................................................................232 Collection development .............................................................................................. 232, 357 Comic arts ..........................................................................................................................172 Constructivism ....................................................................................................................454 Curriculum ..........................................................................................................................488 Digital library ......................................................................................................................335 Digital textbooks .................................................................................................................292 Documentary space ...........................................................................................................103 eBooks ...............................................................................................................................357 Education ...........................................................................................................................172 EFL (English as a foreign language)...................................................................................488 eLearning ...........................................................................................................................335 English comprehension ........................................................................................................68 eReading ............................................................................................................................357 Ethics .................................................................................................................................112 Ethnicity .............................................................................................................................232 Evaluation ..........................................................................................................................454 Flexible library timetable .....................................................................................................299 Free voluntary reading........................................................................................................488 Guided inquiry ....................................................................................................................194 Guided inquiry design process ...........................................................................................194 Health information literacy ..................................................................................................409 Higher education ................................................................................................................488 Hong Kong .........................................................................................................................299 Image drawing method .......................................................................................................370 Immigrants .........................................................................................................................504 Information architecture ......................................................................................................172 Information literacy ..................................................................................................... 299, 473 Information practices ..........................................................................................................103 Information search process ................................................................................................194 Information skills.................................................................................................................299 Information technology .......................................................................................................299 Inquiry learning ...................................................................................................................123 International .......................................................................................................................162 International contexts .........................................................................................................112 Israel ..................................................................................................................................504 Knowledge format ..............................................................................................................312 7 Leadership ................................................................................................................. 259, 434 Learning commons .............................................................................................................454 Learning ecology ................................................................................................................357 Learning environment .........................................................................................................454 Librarian training.................................................................................................................370 Librarian’s education ..........................................................................................................123 Librarians' activities ............................................................................................................324 Libraries .............................................................................................................................162 Library management ..........................................................................................................335 Library of Congress ............................................................................................................162 Library staffing ....................................................................................................................244 Literacy ...................................................................................................................... 162, 394 Mediation.................................................................................................................... 103, 312 Metacognition ............................................................................................................. 194, 217 Motivation to transfer ..........................................................................................................473 Multicultural children’s literature .........................................................................................232 National Board certification .................................................................................................217 National Board certified teachers........................................................................................217 Parents’ involvement ..........................................................................................................394 Perception .................................................................................................................. 299, 370 Picture books .......................................................................................................................68 Primary school .....................................................................................................................68 Primary school teachers .....................................................................................................299 Profession ............................................................................................................................42 Professional development .................................................................................. 277, 292, 299 Professional efficacy ..........................................................................................................420 Professional guidelines.......................................................................................................137 Reading ................................................................................................................ 68, 394, 488 Research ..............................................................................................................................22 Researchers .......................................................................................................................112 Roles .......................................................................................................................... 137, 299 School librarians ................................................................................................. 137, 292, 324 School librarianship ...................................................................................................... 22, 378 School libraries .............................................................. 57, 312, 324, 357, 370, 394, 409, 454 School library programs......................................................................................................420 School library research .......................................................................................................378 Self-regulated learning .......................................................................................................217 Sexual health information ...................................................................................................409 Social representations ..........................................................................................................57 South Africa........................................................................................................................244 Story-telling ..........................................................................................................................68 Taiwan ....................................................................................................................... 277, 488 Teacher librarian preparation programs ..............................................................................434 Teacher librarians......................................................................... 42, 172, 217, 277, 299, 312 Teacher librarianship ............................................................................................ 42, 259, 434 Teacher training .................................................................................................................370 Teacher-librarian collaboration ...........................................................................................378 Technology integration ............................................................................................... 259, 434 Teenagers ..........................................................................................................................103 Transfer of learning ............................................................................................................473 Transfer of training .............................................................................................................473 Transliteracy.......................................................................................................................312 Virtual learning environment ...............................................................................................335 Visual literacy .....................................................................................................................172 8 Authors index Asselin, Marlene .................................................................................................................112 Bales, Jenni........................................................................................................................356 Beesoon, Gooneshwaree .....................................................................................................22 Bogliolo Sirihal Duarte, Adriana ..........................................................................................123 Branch-Mueller, Jennifer L. ............................................................................................ 22, 42 Brand-Gruwel, Saskia ........................................................................................................473 Campello, Bernadete .................................................................................................. 123, 378 Chen, Chao-chen Joyce .....................................................................................................277 Cordier, Anne .....................................................................................................................103 Da Conceição Carvalho, Maria .............................................................................................57 De Groot, Joanne .................................................................................................................42 Doiron, Ray ........................................................................................................................112 Elkins, Aaron J. ..................................................................................................................136 Everhart, Nancy..................................................................................................................434 Farabough, Michelle ...........................................................................................................454 Farmer, Lesley S.J. .................................................................................................... 162, 172 FitzGerald, Lee ...................................................................................................................194 Garrison, Kasey L....................................................................................................... 216, 232 Gegenfurtner, Andreas .......................................................................................................473 Hart, Genevieve .................................................................................................................244 Hoyt, Rachel.......................................................................................................................454 Johnston, Melissa P. .................................................................................................. 259, 434 Kang, Ji Hei ........................................................................................................................292 Lee, Sy-ying .......................................................................................................................488 Lehmans, Anne ..................................................................................................................312 Leung Yuet Ha, Angel ........................................................................................................299 Luetkemeyer Wood, Jennifer ..............................................................................................136 Mardis, Marcia A. ...............................................................................................................136 Mazurier, Valentine ............................................................................................................312 Medina, Virgilio G. ..............................................................................................................335 Meire Campos, Tatiane ........................................................................................................57 Mitchel, Pru ........................................................................................................................356 O’Connell, Judy ..................................................................................................................356 Okada, Daisuke ..................................................................................................................370 Pereira, Gleice ...................................................................................................................378 Perriel, Yvonne ...................................................................................................................394 Richey, Jennifer..................................................................................................................409 Robins, Jennifer .................................................................................................................420 Rodrigues da Mata, Flávia Filomena ..................................................................................324 Rongyi, Chen .......................................................................................................................68 Santana da Silva, Alessandra...............................................................................................57 Schultz-Jones, Barbara ......................................................................................................454 Spruce, Robin S. ................................................................................................................216 Testers, Laurent .................................................................................................................473 Tseng, Li-jen ......................................................................................................................277 Vilela Paiva, Raquel Miranda..............................................................................................324 Wang, Fei-yu ......................................................................................................................488 Yitzhaki, Moshe ..................................................................................................................504 9 Research Papers Review Committee Saskia Brand-Gruwel, Chair Albert Boekhorst Amber Walraven Dianne Oberg Eric Sieverts Frank Huysmans Jeroen Clemens Jos van Helvoort Judy O'Connell Laurent Testers Melissa Johnston Nathalie Mertes Vincent Liquête Open University Netherlands University of Amsterdam, University Pretoria University of Nijmegen Alberta University - Canada Hogeschool van Amsterdam / University of Amsterdam / University of Utrecht SIOB / University of Amsterdam Helen Parkhurst College Hogeschool Den Haag Courses Director, School of Information Studies, Faculty of Education, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, Australia NHTV, Breda, Netherlands University of Alabama Humboldt Universität, Berlin Université Bordeaux - France 10 11 Celebrating 10 years organising overseas author visits 700 + International Schools and 65 + countries visited so far! T: +44 (0) 1535 656015 M: + 44 (0) 7885 279519 www.authorsabroad.com 12 13 14 15 16 Meles Meles School Library Service http://onderwijsbibliotheek.nl 17 18 19 20 De VOGIN cursus “Professioneel Informatie Zoeken” Wordt twee keer per jaar gegeven in mei en november. Deze vijfdaagse cursus richt zich op professionals: voor wie het zoeken van informatie een belangrijk deel van het werk vormt die zicht willen krijgen op ons steeds complexere informatielandschap die grondig én snel willen leren zoeken die anderen bij het zoeken (willen) instrueren, adviseren en begeleiden die hun kennis over zoeken up-to-date willen houden Zie: http://knvi.net/vogin-cursussen/ Plaats: Prijs: Aanmelden: Bibliotheek Wageningen UR KNVI-leden: € 1100; Overigen: € 1300 Dat kan bij Jos Smelik ([email protected]) 21 School Library Research Rocks: an examination of five years of school library research Gooneshwaree Beesoon School of Library and Information Studies University of Alberta Edmonton, Canada [email protected] Jennifer L. Branch-Mueller School of Library and Information Studies University of Alberta Edmonton, Canada [email protected] Abstract This research examined the state-of-the-art of research in school librarianship. Similar trends from previous research were confirmed: research in school librarianship is published in two major journals -- School Library (Media) Research and School Libraries Worldwide. Almost 80% of the research was carried out in the United States. There is a small core group of researchers working in the area of school librarianship. About half of all research is by a single author. The main themes from the research included collaboration between teachers and school librarian, technology integration, the instructional role of school librarians, professional development, analysis of materials, information literacy instruction, practices and assessment, hiring, professional development and retention of school librarians, use of multimedia resources, role of school librarians in the provision of health information, motivation of students, and research in other parts of the world. Frameworks (Aharony, 2011; Koufogiannakis, Slater & Crumley, 2005; Mardis, 2011) were incomplete and the authors present a new framework for categorizing school library research, in particular, but also LIS research, in general. Keywords: School librarianship, Research Introduction The last update on the state–of–art research in school librarianship was carried out as a project for the International Association for School Librarianship (IASL) conference in 2005, and included a review of the literature in this area from the period extending from 2000-2005. 22 Review and analysis of research in school librarianship was close to the heart of the late L. Anne Clyde, who played a pioneering role in providing regular updates on this topic. Her program of research included examining the experiences of researchers in school librarianship as well as the trends in school library research. After her untimely passing in the Fall of 2005, no complete review of school library research published in scholarly journals in English has been carried out (although Mardis (2011) did examine the research presented at IASL conferences between 1998-2009 and Asselin (2011) examined IASL research publications between 2002-2008). This paper continues the work of Clyde in order to identify patterns and trends as well as quantity and quality of recent research in the area of school librarianship. According to Haycock (1995), “research in school librarianship provides the foundation and direction for effective school library practice, and there is ample evidence of the impact of school library media specialists and school library media centers on students’ learning, given certain conditions and criteria” (para. 1). Research Questions This research is guided by one large research question: What is the current state-of-the-art of research in school librarianship? The specific questions investigated in this study are: ● How many research journal articles in school librarianship were published between 2009-2013? ● What was the percentage of research articles published in the two key journals School Libraries Worldwide and School Library Research? ● What were the most frequent methods of data gathering used for these research papers? ● What geographical locations were most frequently used as settings for these research papers/articles? ● Who were the key researchers in the area of school librarianship? ● What were the authorship patterns in these research papers/articles? ● What themes were explored in these research papers/articles? Review of the Literature As a profession interested in information and research, it is not surprising that there has been a long tradition of examining research in the field of library and information studies (LIS). Early work in this area included a study by Stroud (1982) who examined higher degree theses in LIS, Järvelin and Vakkari (1993) who examined articles in LIS research journals and Snelson and Talar (1991) who examined papers presented at LIS research-oriented conferences (Clyde, 2001, p. 70). Studies have also been carried out to examine what makes a quality journal article, what journals produce the highest percentage of research articles, what is the content of articles based on key-word content analysis, what methods are used in current LIS research, and the percentage of research articles found in all LIS-related publications. Researchers interested in quality research journal articles tend to look to the quality of the journal itself. Clyde (2004) lists the following strategies for assessing the quality of the journal: ● citation analysis ● journal impact factor 23 ● ● ● ● ● number and percentage of collaborative articles peer-review status manuscript acceptance rate indexing of the journal number of external links to the journal website. (p. 1120) Manzari (2013) examined LIS journal prestige by surveying full-time faculty in American Library Association (ALA)- accredited programs. Clyde’s (2006, 2004, 2003, 2002, 2001, 1996a, 1996b) previous work clearly demonstrates that most of the research in school librarianship has been published in two major publications (1) School Libraries Worldwide and (2) School Library Media Research now School Library Research. Clyde and Oberg (2004) in their study of research in School Libraries Worldwide between 1995-2003 found that about 30% of research articles were from the USA. Canada, Australia and the UK made up another 18%. There were 12 other countries represented as well as 10 articles that were international in scope. Clyde (2005) stated that “the field of school librarianship internationally has only a small core group of active researchers” (p. 6). Clyde (2005) found that there were a total 297 articles published between 1999-2003 and 43 authors published 3 or more articles. Koufogiannakis, Slater and Crumley (2004) presented six domains of librarianship to help classify areas of research. These include: Domain Definition Collections Building a high-quality collection of print and electronic materials that is useful, cost-effective and meets users’ needs Education - LIS Education as a subset Incorporating teaching methods and strategies to educate users about library resources and how to improve research skills - Specifically pertaining to the professional education of librarians Information Access and Retrieval Creating better systems and methods for information retrieval and access. Management Managing people and resources within an organization. This includes marketing and promotion as well as human resources. Professional Issues Explore issues that affect librarianship as a profession Reference/ Enquiries Providing service and information access that meets the needs of library users Table 1: Librarianship domains from Koufogiannakis, Slater & Crumley (2004) Aharony (2011) builds on the work of Zins (2007) to present ten categories with examples of keywords to help classify research articles using content analysis. Category Examples 24 Category Examples Foundations Historical note Methodology Chi square method, bibliometric analysis, qualitative study, scientometric analysis, webometrics Information/Learning Society The virtual scholar, web usage studies, information literacy, information theory, scientific community Information Technology Meta search engines, search logs, information retrieval systems, intelligent ranking algorithm, mobile information system Data Organization and Retrieval Information seeking, searching, browsing, search strategies, search terms Information Industry Economics and Management Cost-benefit ratio, knowledge management, tacit knowledge, explicit knowledge, digital libraries Information Ethics and Law Ethics, legal information, open access publications, open source, copyright User Studies Information needs, information need analysis, user behavior, information behavior, user studies Diffusion Studies Information resources, public libraries, library users, information dissemination, print publications Social Information Studies Disabled people, adolescent well-being, cultural aspects, health information ties, cancer information overload Table 2: Keywords used to help classify research analysis using content analysis from Aharony (2011), p. 31. Mardis (2011), in her examination of Research Forum Papers at International Association of School Librarianship (see Table 3) conferences between 1998-2009, found that information skills and literacy, information technology, reading and reading promotion, and education in LIS made up over 50% of the research topics. Paper Topic Frequency Percent Information skills and literacy 56 28.1 Information technology 21 10.6 Reading and reading promotion 19 9.0 Education in LIS 16 8.0 The profession 14 7.0 Analysis of LIS 12 6.0 25 Paper Topic Frequency Percent Other aspects of LIS 11 5.5 Information seeking 10 5.0 LIS activities 9 4.5 Methodology 9 4.5 Publishing 7 3.5 National survey 6 3.0 Censorship 4 2.0 Library history 2 1.0 Principal support 2 1.0 Total 199 100.0 Table 3: Research Forum Paper Topics, 1998-2009 (N=199) from Mardis (2011). Asselin (2011) examined the extent and nature of internationalism in IASL publications from 2002-2008 that were published in School Libraries Worldwide and in the Research Forum of IASL Conference Proceedings. She found that the United States contributed about 33% of the research. Also “all studies of the international co-authored articles were conducted in developed countries” (Asselin, 2011, Quantitative Results, para. 4). The research methods included interviews, questionnaires, surveys, case studies and observations. Research by Koufogiannakis, Slater and Crumley (2004) examined journal articles published in 2001 and found that “of the 2664 articles reviewed, 30.3% were identified as research articles” (p. 236). Turcios, Agarwal and Watkins (2014) examined Simmons College Library journal collection and found that 57% (101 titles) are journals with academic/scholarly content but only 16% of articles were identified as research (p. 475). Examining the 307 research articles, Turcios et al. found that the most frequent research methods were survey (21%), other (20%), case study (13%), content analysis (13%), interviews (9%), experimental research (8%), and bibliometrics (5%) (p. 477). Other methods included action research, classroom research, observation, focus groups, and usability (Turcios et al., 2014, p. 477). Using the framework initially proposed by Clyde (2001), this study gathered and examined research journal articles in school librarianship published in English and within the time frame of 2009-2013. This paper intends to provide an overview of the current research in school librarianship and will also identify key researchers in the area of school librarianship between 2009-2013. 26 Method Along with research articles published in School Libraries Worldwide and School Library Research, the authors completed a detailed search of all databases that index school library research. Clyde’s checklist (2001) was used to identify articles that are included in this study. Articles were published in English, were more than two pages long and included of some kind of statement that the work is based on research with the problem or phenomenon to be investigated well defined. Moreover, these articles have a clear statement of purpose, hypotheses to be tested or a well-defined focus of inquiry, with research methods thoroughly described. A literature review or a background to the research, as well as a reference list or bibliography accompanied the publications. Finally, we examined results and conclusions that are drawn from these publications. Each identified article was printed out and key information was gathered including author(s), date of publication, journal, participants, method(s), location of the study (if available), themes, and findings. A breakdown of the number of articles from each publication was carried out, as well as a search to identify active researchers. We also examined patterns of authorship, and research methods used. The papers were read and themes and findings summarized. Using content analysis, the authors also categorized the themes found in the research articles. Findings This research seeks to understand the current state-of-the-art of research in school librarianship by examining research journal articles in school librarianship published in English and within the time frame of 2009-2013. The findings are organized by specific questions investigated in this study. How many research journal articles in school librarianship were published between 2009-2013? In all, 98 papers that had a clear literature review, a research methodology, clear research questions as well as findings and a discussion section were examined from the two major journals and a number of other publications. A total of 45 articles were identified in School Libraries Worldwide, 48 were found in School Library (Media) Research and five articles were obtained from other journals published over the same time period. What was the percentage of research articles published in the two key journals School Libraries Worldwide and School Library Research? School Libraries Worldwide Issue Themes Covered by the specific issue # of Research Articles # of other Article s Total Jan 2009 15(1) Research into Practice 3 1 4 July 2009 Relationships 5 1 6 27 Issue Themes Covered by the specific issue # of Research Articles # of other Article s Total Jan 2010 16(1) Inquiry based learning for 21st century 2 4 6 July 2010 16(2) Issues for the next Decade 5 1 6 Jan 2011 17(1) School library as Space School library as Place 3 1 4 July 2011 17(2) School librarian Leadership Around the world 5 6 11 Jan 2012 18(1) Connections: school librarians linking learning, leadership, technology and society 5 5 10 July 2012 18(2) International perspectives on school library education: From face to face to distance 5 6 11 Jan 2013 19(1) Outliers : School Librarianship Enables Success in All Environments 8 2 10 July 2012 19(2) Story: International common ground in school librarianship (Story as Methodology) 4 6 10 45 (57.7%) 33 (42.3%) 78 (100%) 15(2) Total Table 4: Breakdown and percentage of research articles published in School Libraries Worldwide School Library (Media) Research Volume Year # of Research Articles # of Other Articles Total 12 2009 8 0 8 13 2010 7 0 7 14 2011 11 1 12 15 2012 13 0 13 28 16 2013 Total 8 0 8 48 (97.9%) 1 (2.1%) 49(100%) Table 5: Breakdown and percentage of research articles published in School Library (Media) Research As it can be seen in tables 4 and 5, the percentage of research articles was very high (97.9 %) in School Library (Media) Research journal. On the other hand, research papers represented only 57.7 % of all the papers published in School Libraries Worldwide. What are the most frequent methods of data gathering used for research? The most popular choice for data gathering in the research articles was the questionnaire/survey method. A number of researchers used survey monkey and other online methods while many created their own instruments. Interviews and content analysis were very popular choices as well, followed by participant observation and focus groups. The following table provides a breakdown of the diverse methods used for doing research. It should be noted that in many cases researchers adopted more than one method to gather data, thus combining several methods to triangulate their data. Type of Data Gathering Method Frequency Questionnaire/survey 41 Interviews 35 Content Analysis 22 Participant Observation 17 Focus Group 12 Case study 9 Statistical analysis 6 Ethnographic study 4 Special instruments (metrics to measure) 3 Study of Artefacts 2 Social network Analysis 1 Discourse Analysis 1 Action Research 1 Table 5: Most frequent methods of data gathering for research What geographical locations were most frequently used as settings for these research papers/articles? 29 Country Frequency USA 77 Canada 5 Australia 4 UK 2 Hong Kong 2 Brazil 2 Nepal, Honduras, Ireland, Israel, Jamaica, Kuwait, Philippines, Nigeria, Slovenia, Lebanon (one each) 8 Table 6: Geographical locations of research ( Note that the USA was also involved in a paper with several other countries) Research in school librarianship during the period of 2009-2013 was predominantly carried out in the United States of America (77.8%). Canada and Australia were also represented. Who are the key researchers in the area of school librarianship? This review identified only 8 authors who had 3 or more articles published between 20092013. The most prolific researchers as revealed by this review were Sue Kimmel, Ruth Small, Renée Hill, Marilyn Arnone, Rebecca Reynolds, Jami Jones, Melissa Johnston and Ann Ewbank-Dutton. Number of published Articles/Papers Frequency 4 articles/ papers 2 3 articles/ papers 6 2 articles/papers 15 Table 7: Patterns of Authorship, 2009-2013 30 What were the authorship patterns in these research papers/articles? # of authors per article /Paper Frequency Percentage Articles/papers with one author 45 45.9 Articles/papers with two authors 30 30.6 Articles/papers with three authors 21 21.4 Articles/papers with more than three authors 2 2.1 Total 98 100% Table 8: Authorship patterns, 2009-2013 Almost 46% of the research papers published had a single author while 54% indicated some amount of collaboration with two or more authors working on a particular research project What were the main themes in the research papers/articles? Collaboration The most recurring theme in the reviewed papers was collaboration between teachers and school librarians. There was one case study documenting the collaboration process in the design of professional workshops for a group of elementary school teachers and librarians, authors also examined perceived barriers to collaboration as well as the promotion of collaboration at an international level. Leadership skills in librarians were found to be predictors of advanced teacher and school librarian collaboration. Papers revealed that teachers (mostly science teachers) often had no clear understanding of the instructional role of the school librarian. Some positive aspects of collaboration occurred serendipitously, for example while helping students understand the importance of avoiding plagiarism. Technology integration The technological aspect of school librarianship was approached from two perspectives. First of all, papers covered librarian’s perception of their own competence at technology integration and leadership especially with regards to emerging technologies. Concerns were expressed about the inclusion of classes in technology for preservice school librarians in MLIS or MEd coursework. There was a general perception that school librarians were not keeping up with advances being made in technology. Issues in the integration of Web 2.0 technologies were addressed, as well as disparities in the availability of advanced technological tools and services in schools. The second perspective was to examine how librarians were able to help students to use information technologies (for example, databases) that were available in school libraries. One paper also covered the use of assistive technologies to help children with autism. Instructional role of librarians Five papers focused on the importance of, as well as the influence of, a school librarian's work on student achievement. Six more papers examined aspects of the instructional role of the school librarian. School librarians seemed to be involved in teaching not only information and digital literacy, but also scientific literature review. Some were involved in teaching concept mapping skills along with evaluation of online materials. The assessment of school 31 children’s level of information literacy seems to be one of the responsibilities of school librarians. Moreover, they are also involved in developing instruments to measure perceived competence of students. One study examined the role of the school librarian in influencing students’ use of technology while another surveyed school librarians’ impact on achievement and motivation of their students. Professional development Papers explored the professional dispositions of school librarians along with the impact of web 2.0 technologies on the professional lives of teachers. Findings also indicated that professional development opportunities did not match with needs in the area and that there was a need for advocacy for the profession. The role of professional libraries in providing culturally relevant professional development to school librarians was also discussed. Analysis of materials One of the surveyed research articles examined the portrayal of people of color and people with disabilities in books and graphic novels. Another article explored the issues LGBTthemed books in school libraries. One paper carried out an analysis of eBooks being offered by the library to check if these held sufficient numbers of e-books in Spanish, to cater for the increasing number of learners in the United States of America who speak this language. Finally, an analysis of the poetry collection in the school library was carried out by another of the research papers. Information literacy of students Research papers focused on students’ perception of their own literacy skills and how often they were ethical users of information. One paper examined the ethical use of information. Findings revealed that high school students were more ethical users of information than elementary school students. Librarian’s perception of best practices to improve and assess learning and information literacy Five research papers focused on the influence of librarians on student learning and achievement. There were a number of papers documenting the kind of support that school librarians provided to children with disabilities as well as the guided enquiry activities designed for gifted students or for children with disabilities. Librarians were also involved in a number of activities that would raise the test scores of students through reading exposure. They developed instruments to measure perceived competence of students, documented the availability and use of databases by students and carried out a comparison of school achievement between libraries with similar funding. The school culture and its effect on the establishment of an effective school library program was also examined by researchers. Hiring and Retention of School Librarians A number of research papers raised concerns about sensitive issues such as the retention of librarians, staffing levels and the effect of library staff reduction on student achievement. Other papers focused on the criteria used for the selection of school librarians and competencies that principals looked for when hiring. One paper specifically dealt with the ways in which school superintendents use the research and information experience of school librarians to solve problems while another one documented problem of schools without 32 libraries and librarians in rural areas of the United States of America. Lastly, researchers examined the school culture’s effect on the establishment of the school library program. LIS programs and factors that influence educators to become librarians Papers documented how taking Web 2.0 influenced LIS students in becoming technology leaders as they reported that it changed them personally and professionally. One paper specifically examined the extent to which LIS course prepared students to become culturally competent to serve the needs of culturally diverse youth in library settings while an investigation into the use of ePortfolios indicated that they demonstrated high quality presentations from students and confidence in the ability to master new tools. Pre-service librarians also demonstrated eagerness to implement American Association of School Libraries (AASL) standards for the 21st century learner as well as using Evidence Based Library and Information Practice (EBLIP) to improve their practice. Use of multimedia resources A number of research papers focused on the use of audio-visual materials in teachingas well as using video games as learning resources. Research even involved digital image tagging by students and one paper examined a school librarian’s perception of limits imposed on social media in school context. Role of librarians in the provision of health information There was a focus on the important role that librarians can play in disseminating health information, however research indication that school librarians did not want to become gatekeepers of health information. On another note, school librarians had issues with providing sexual health information and research indicated that Principals and district superintendents had conflicting expectations about the role of the school librarian in this area. Motivation of students Research papers delved into the intrinsic motivation for information seeking and learning in students and factors that foster it. It was found that students’ Intrinsic motivation was influenced by their perceived competence of their school librarian’s abilities in technology. One study revealed that libraries’ impact on student achievement and motivation is high while staff regard the school library to have a positive impact on students’ motivation Research in other parts of the world A few papers addressed issues related to school librarianship in geographical areas that were not typically North American. One paper documented problems in the delivery of LIS program in Jamaica and recommended an overhaul to allow flexibility to take it over summer and/or online and include more of the teaching aspect in the course. Other studies focused on the evaluation of information literacy programs in Lebanon, the use of the library for reading purposes in Nigeria,. and an appraisal of community-based learning in the Philippines. One paper highlighted enrichment programs for gifted students in Slovenia, another examined the cultivation of leadership skills in school librarians in Israel and a third was a comparison of school library services in private and public schools in Kuwait. The researchers also located and examined a case study exploring the impact of the school library on pupils’ personal development in Ireland. Finally, one paper highlighted case studies 33 from Honduras, Brazil and Nepal along with the USA to document the roles of professional organizations in school library education. Discussion This research examined the current state-of-the-art of research in school librarianship by examining research journal articles in school librarianship published in English and within the time frame of 2009-2013. In all, 98 papers were examined -- 45 articles from School Libraries Worldwide, 48 articles from School Library (Media) Research and five articles were obtained from other journals. 97.9 % of the articles in School Library (Media) Research and 57.7 % of the articles in School Libraries Worldwide. The most popular choice for data gathering in the research articles was the questionnaire/survey method. Interviews and content analysis were very popular choices as well, followed by participant observation and focus groups. Asselin (2011) found only two of 153 research articles using focus groups as a method but in our work the method seems more popular with 12 out of 98. Almost 46% of the research papers published had a single author while 54% indicated some amount of collaboration with two or more authors working on a particular research project. Research in school librarianship during the period of 20092013 was predominantly carried out in the United States of America (77.8%). Asselin (2011) found that about 33% of research was carried out in the US while Clyde and Oberg (2004) noted 30%. This may be the result of the fact that many of the articles in School Library (Media) Research are by US researchers. There is a more diverse population attending and presenting at the IASL conferences and publishing in IASL publications like School Libraries Worldwide. The most prolific researchers as revealed by this review were Sue Kimmel, Ruth Small, Renée Hill, Marilyn Arnone, Rebecca Reynolds, Jami Jones, Melissa Johnston and Ann Ewbank-Dutton. This review identified only 8 authors who had 3 or more articles published -- a far cry from the 57 documented for the 1995-1999 review (Clyde, 2001, p. 71) and 43 authors for the 1999-2003 (Clyde, 2005, p. 6). The trend may indicate that researchers are publishing fewer research papers in the area of school librarianship or that they are also presenting their research at conferences and publishing in peer-reviewed conference proceedings. This may also be an indication that there are fewer school library researchers working now as compared to 20 years ago. Further research will be required to examine researchers in school librarianship and to compare findings to the work of Clyde (2005). Further research to examine articles/papers in published conference proceeding will also be required. The main themes from the research included collaboration between teachers and school librarian, technology integration, the instructional role of school librarians, professional development, analysis of materials, information literacy instruction, practices and assessment, hiring, professional development and retention of school librarians, use of multimedia resources, role of school librarians in the provision of health information, motivation of students and research in other parts of the world. While Mardis (2011) found that information skills and literacy, information technology, reading and reading promotion, and education in LIS made up over 50% of the research 34 topics between 1998-2009, in the present review, these combined categories made up only 36.7% of the total number of research papers published. Paper Topic Frequency Percent Information skills and literacy 17 17.3 Information technology 4 4.08 Reading and reading promotion 1 1.02 Education in LIS 14 14.3 The profession 39 39.7 Analysis of LIS - - Other aspects of LIS - - Information seeking 4 4.08 LIS activities 3 3.06 Methodology 8 8.16 Publishing 2 2.04 National survey 2 2.04 Censorship 2 2.04 Library history 1 1.02 Principal support 1 1.02 Total 98 100% Table 9: Breakdown of themes based on Mardis’ (2011) Framework There was a large group of articles focused on the role of the school librarian, issues related to school library programs and issues related to standards and student achievement. The researchers believe that Mardis’ (2011) framework provided a useful starting point but needs to be further refined to include these categories. Category Examples Foundations Historical note - Methodology Chi square method, bibliometric analysis, qualitative study, scientometric analysis, webometrics 5 5.1 Information/Learning Society The virtual scholar, web usage studies, information literacy, information theory, 17 17.34 35 Category Examples scientific community Information Technology Meta search engines, search logs, information retrieval systems, intelligent ranking algorithm, mobile information system 1 1.02 Data Organization and Retrieval Information seeking, searching, browsing, search strategies, search terms 2 2.04 Information Industry Economics and Management Cost-benefit ratio, knowledge management, tacit knowledge, explicit knowledge, digital libraries - Information Ethics and Law Ethics, legal information, open access publications, open source, copyright - - User Studies Information needs, information need analysis, user behaviour, information behaviour, user studies 10 10.2 Diffusion Studies Information resources, public libraries, library users, information dissemination, print publications 11 11.2 Social Information Studies Disabled people, adolescent well-being, cultural aspects, health information ties, cancer information overload 2 2.04 Role of the School Librarian, Advocacy, Hiring, Retention and Professional Development, Dispositions, Principal Support, Leadership 50 51.02 Suggested New Category Professional Issues Table 10: Breakdown of themes based on Aharony’s ’ framework When comparing the findings from this study with Aharony’s (2011) (see Table 10), we noticed a complete lack of research articles in the areas of Information Industry, Economics and Management, Foundations, and Information Ethics and Law. This is, perhaps, not surprising given the work of school librarians in K-12 settings. What was missing for the authors was a category for professional issues. This seems not to just be a need for school library research but for all LIS research. This category is very useful in the Koufogiannakis, Slater and Crumley (2004) framework (see Table 11). What is missing for the authors in Koufogiannakis, Slater and Crumley (2004) are categories for methodology and user studies found in Aharony (2011). 36 Domain Definition Collections Building a high-quality collection of print and 12 electronic materials that is useful, cost-effective and meets users’ needs 12.24 Education - LIS Education as a subset Incorporating teaching methods and strategies to educate users about library resources and how to improve research skills - Specifically pertaining to the professional education of librarians 31 31.63 Information Access and Retrieval Creating better systems and methods for information retrieval and access. 2 2.04 Management Managing people and resources within an organization. This includes marketing and promotion as well as human resources. - - Professional Issues Explore issues that affect librarianship as a profession 39 39.8 Reference/ Enquiries Providing service and information access that meets the needs of library users 4 4.1 User studies See Table 10 5 5.1 Methodology See Table 10 5 5.1 Suggested new categories Table 11: Breakdown of themes based on Koufogiannakis,Slater & Crumley’s’ framework The frameworks by Aharony (2011), Koufogiannakis, Slater & Crumley (2005) and Mardis (2011) were insufficient to organize the research into clear categories. The researchers present a modified framework to be tested with future research reviews. Implications and Conclusions This research examined the current state-of-the-art of research in school librarianship. Similar trends from previous research were confirmed: research in school librarianship is published in two major journals -- School Library (Media) Research and School Libraries Worldwide. Almost 80% of the research was carried out in the United States. There are a small core group of researchers working in the area of school librarianship. About half of all research is by a single author. The main themes from the research included collaboration between teachers and school librarian, technology integration, the instructional role of school librarians, professional development, analysis of materials, information literacy instruction, practices and assessment, hiring, professional development and retention of school librarians, use of multimedia resources, role of school librarians in the provision of health information, motivation of students, and research in other parts of the world. 37 Using frameworks (Aharony, 2011; Koufogiannakis, Slater & Crumley, 2005; Mardis, 2011) identified in the literature to categorize the themes of the research articles examined was problematic for the researchers. Each of the frameworks was incomplete and so the authors present the following framework as a tool for categorizing school library research, in particular, but also LIS research, in general. Framework for LIS Research Classification (based on the work of Mardis (2011), Aharony (2011), and Koufogiannakis, Slater and Crumley (2004) Category Examples Foundations Historical issues in librarianship, core values Methodology Surveys, questionnaires, Focus groups, Participant Observation, Case Studies, Ethnographic Studies, Social network Analysis, Discourse Analysis, Action research, Chi square method, bibliometric analysis, scientometric analysis, webometrics Information Information Skills, Information Literacy, best practices in IL, Literacy Instruction assessment of IL instruction and Assessment Information Technology Applications and Issues Gaming, Technology Integration, Social Media, Database Use, Assistive Technologies, Meta search engines, search logs, information retrieval systems, Mobile Devices, BYOD (Bring Your Own Device) Issues Data Organization and Retrieval Information seeking, searching, browsing, search strategies, search terms, systems, better methods for information retrieval. Collection Management and Publishing Issues Collection evaluation, Selection of resources, evaluation of resources, inclusive collections (for example, LGBTQ), address diversity of community (multicultural, representations of families, people with disabilities), ebooks, weeding, cataloguing, social tagging, censorship and Internet filtering Reading and Reading Promotion Summer reading programs, book talks, books clubs, reading programs, assessing reading abilities, librarian or library’s role in developing love of reading Information Policy, Ethics and Law Cost-benefit ratio, knowledge management, tacit knowledge, explicit knowledge, digital libraries, ethics, legal information, open access publications, open source, copyright Management Issues Leadership, management, budgeting, advocating for the library, staff development and training, issues with administrators, library boards, principals User Studies Information needs, information need analysis, user behaviour, information behaviour, user studies Scientific and Dissemination of research, impact of research, librarian publishing 38 Category Examples Professional Communication patterns, LIS research trends Social Information Studies Services to: People with disabilities, adolescents, children, researchers, scholars, parents,cultural aspects, health information, information overload Programs and Services for specialized groups Professional Issues Role of the Librarian, Advocacy, Hiring, Retention and Professional Development, Dispositions, Support, Leadership Education in LIS MLIS Education, Professional Development, educational program evaluation, delivery models (online/blended, full/part-time), competencies, practicum experiences, accreditation, Table 12: Beesoon and Branch-Mueller Framework for LIS Research Classification With the untimely passing of L. Anne Clyde in 2005, the database of research and researchers that she so carefully maintained was lost. The authors strongly believe that this work should continue and are committed to building a new database with this information. Mardis (2011) has already pledged her support and provided the authors with data from her study. This database will be available for other researchers and will be passed on to future school library researchers. A copy will be maintained with the IASL Executive Director. Further research is needed to understand the experiences of school library researchers from 2005 and the second author plans to carry out that work next year. References Aharony, N. (2011). Library and information science research areas: A content analysis of articles from the top 10 journals 2007-8. Journal of Librarianship and Information, 44(1), 27-35. Asselin, M. (2011). Internationalism as leadership in IASL research: Accomplishments and directions.School libraries Worldwide, 17(2), 13-24. Clyde, L. A. (2006). The basis for evidence-based practice: Evaluating the research evidence. New Library World, 107(5/6), 180-192. doi: 10.1108/03074800610665194 Clyde, L. A. (2005). Supporting information leadership in a culture of change: Researchers in school librarianship. In S. Lee, P. Warning, D. Singh, E. Howe, L. Farmer & S. Hughes (Eds.). Information Leadership in a Culture of Change: Selected papers from the 34th Annual Conference of the International Association of School Librarianship and the 9th International Forum on Research in School Librarianship. July 8-12, Hong Kong, China. Erie, PA: IASL. 39 Clyde, L. A. (2004). Evaluating the quality of research publications: A pilot study of school librarianship. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 55(13), 1119-1130. doi: 10.1002/asi.20066 Clyde, L. A. (2003). Research in school librarianship 1991-2000: Australia in an international setting. The Australian Library Journal, 53(2). Retrieved from http://alia.org.au/publishing/alj/53.2/full.text/clyde.html Clyde, L. A. (2002). Developing the knowledge base of the profession: Research in school librarianship. In D. Singh, A. Abdullah, S. Fonseka & B. de Rozarion (Eds.), School libraries for a knowledge society: Proceedings of the 31st Annual Conference of the International Association of School Librarianship and the Sixth International Forum on Research in School Librarianship, Petaling, Jaya, Malaysia, 5-9 August (pp. 59-75). Seattle, WA: International Association of School Librarianship. Clyde, L.A. (2001). Behind the inspiring connections: Research and researchers in school librarianship. A progress report. In Hughes, P. and Selby, L. (Eds). Inspiring Connections: Learning, libraries and literacy, Proceedings of the fifth International Forum on Research in School Librarianship... Auckland, New Zealand, 9-12 July 2001 (pp.65-77). Seattle, WA: International Association of School Librarianship. Clyde, L.A. (1996a). Research articles related to school librarianship, 1990-1995. http://www.iasl-slo.org/resbook.html Clyde, L.A. (Ed.) (1996b). Sustaining the vision: A collection of articles and papers on research in school librarianship. Castle Rock, CO: Hi Willow for the International Association of School Librarianship. Clyde, L. A., & Oberg, D. (2004). LIS journals as a source of evidence for evidence-based practice: The case of School Libraries Worldwide. Paper presented at the World Library and Information Congress: 70th IFLA General Conference and Council, 2227 August, Buenos Aires, Argentina. http://archive.ifla.org/IV/ifla70/papers/051eClyde_Oberg.pdf Haycock, K. (1995). Research in teacher-librarianship and the institutionalization of change. School Library Media Quarterly, 23(4), 1-14. Koufogiannakis, D., Slater, L., & Crumley, E. (2004). A content analysis of librarianship research. Journal of Information Science, 30(3), 227-239. Manzari, L. (2013). Library and information science journal prestige as assessed by library and information science faculty. Library Quarterly: Information, Community, Policy, 83(1), 42-60. Mardis, M. A. (2011). Evidence or evidence based practice? An analysis of IASL Research Forum papers 1998-2009. Evidence Based Library and Information Practice, 6(1), 1-23. 40 Turcios, M. E., Agarwal, N. K., & Watkins, L. (2014). How much of library and information science literature qualifies as research? The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 40, 473-479. Zins, C. (2007). Conceptions of information science. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 58(3), 335-350. 41 New Teacher-Librarians Rock: Checking in and Looking back on the first years of being a Teacher-Librarian Jennifer L. Branch-Mueller School of Library and Information Studies University of Alberta Edmonton, Canada [email protected] Joanne de Groot, PhD Department of Elementary Education 551 Education Centre South Faculty of Education University of Alberta 11210 - 87 Ave Edmonton, AB T6G 2G5 [email protected] Abstract This study contributes to our understanding of the early experiences of teacherlibrarians and brings in the framework of possible and provisional selves as a lens to examine teacher-librarian identity. Several themes emerged to help us better understand how new teacher-librarians experience the first three years as teacherlibrarians. Participants told us their strongest memories included professional development, advocacy, professional change, making the library a safe space focused on learning, supporting staff and students in taking risks, and collection development. Barriers and challenges included technology, library time and budget cuts, making changes in the library, and sharing the TL position with another teacher. We saw these teacher-librarians modeling, presenting, providing evidence, creating safe learning spaces, helping staff take risks, becoming more confident in their abilities, and meeting the needs of their school community. They consider the importance of balance, letting things go, focusing on those teachers who want to learn with them, and working with administrators to make things happen. Valuable previous experiences included classroom teaching experience, dispositions, understanding the school context and connecting with administrators. Participants offered several key pieces of advice: promote, advocate, connect, organize, read, build relationships, and know your administration. Keywords: Teacher-librarians, Teacher-librarianship, Profession 42 Introduction What do we know about how teachers move from feeling like a novice to acting like an expert? When do teachers begin to say “ I am ready to quiet the inner dialogue that convinces me others are the professionals who know more than I do in order to embrace the professional I have become” (Toppel, 2010, p. 65)? What are the dispositions that define an exemplary teacher-librarian (Jones & Bush, 2009; Kimmel, Dickinson & Doll, 2012)? What is the professional life cycle of a teacher who becomes a teacher-librarian (Al-Ahdal, 2014)? While this paper does not attempt to answer all of these questions, these questions do guide and challenge the researchers in their thinking about pre-service and in-service teacherlibrarianship education. In hopes of better understanding the transition from teacher to teacher-librarian, from novice to expert, this study presents findings from the final year of a three-year study following five teachers as they transition to the role of teacher-librarian. As instructors in the TeacherLibrarianship by Distance Learning program at the University of Alberta in Edmonton, Canada, we are interested in how current students and recent graduates experience the early years of becoming a teacher-librarian. We also believe that other new teacherlibrarians, teacher-librarianship educational programs and researchers will be interested in this study. Research Questions There are four overarching research questions for this longitudinal study are: 1. How do classroom teachers experience the transition into the role of a teacherlibrarian? 2. What are the experiences, successes, opportunities, barriers and challenges in the first years of becoming a teacher-librarian? 3. What training or other preparatory experiences do new teacher-librarians need as they transition in their new roles? Which previous experiences (formal and informal) were the most important, least important, missing altogether? 4. What role, if any, does their personal learning network (PLN) play in new teacherlibrarians’ professional experiences? More specifically, the following questions inform this paper: 1. What are the strongest memories from your three years as a teacher-librarian? What have been your greatest successes, opportunities, challenges and barriers? 2. What previous experiences (formal and informal) have been most valuable in your first three years as a teacher-librarian? 3. What advice would you give new teacher-librarians based on your experiences as new TLs? 4. If you could wave a magic wand, what would you change about your first year as a teacher-librarian? 5. What do you know now about being a teacher-librarian? 6. Where do you go from here in your work as a teacher-librarian? 43 Conceptual Framework This paper explores the concept of possible selves in the transition from teacher to teacherlibrarian (Markus & Nurius, 1986). “Possible selves derive from representations of the self in the past and they include representations of the self in the future” (Markus & Nurius, p. 954). These selves are individual and personal while also being social. This concept is interesting as we look at the crafting of the professional identity of teacher-librarians. Ibarra (1999) introduced the idea of “provisional selves” and suggested that a person transitioning into a new role follows an iterative process of observing role models, experimenting with provisional selves and evaluating provisional selves (p. 787). Ibarra’s research examined a business culture, the transition of people within the organization to a new role within that same organization, in much the same way that teachers transition to the role of a teacher-librarian. Literature Review When examining the first year of becoming a teacher-librarian in the Canadian context, Branch-Mueller and de Groot (2014) found that new teacher-librarians attempted to make themselves indispensable by building on their own personal strengths. These strengths includes technology, curriculum, inquiry and literacy leadership. The participants became champions of their collections - fiction, popular non-fiction, online databases and web resources. It was clear that for these new teacher-librarians developing relationships with school administration, teachers and teacher-librarian colleagues was essential. To prepare teachers to become teacher-librarians we have Canadian -- Leading Learning (Canadian Library Association (CLA), 2014) and Achieving Information Literacy (Asselin, Branch & Oberg, 2003) -- and American -- Standards for Initial Preparation of School Librarians (American Association of School Librarians (AASL), 2010) standards, as well as the work of other library organizations around the world. In Canada as a whole, a very small number of teacher--librarians will have an MLIS degree or a Master of Education degree in Teacher--Librarianship. In a recent survey of teacher--librarians in Canada (Branch & de Groot, 2011), only 10 of 178 respondents had an MLIS degree and only 10 more had a Master of Education degree. In western Canada, many more teacher--librarians have a postgraduate diploma. We also have “teachers in the library” - those who are assigned to the school library for a part of the school day but with little or no further education in teacherlibrarianship. As a result, in Canada, we have a very diverse group of teachers in the role of teacher-librarian. AASL’s (n.d.) Standards for the 21st Century Learner includes dispositions as learning outcomes along with skills, responsibilities and self-assessment strategies for students in Kindergarten through Grade 12. The work of Jones & Bush (2009) begins a discussion of the most necessary professional dispositions of school librarians (teacher-librarians) and uses the definition of Katz (1993) to define a disposition as “a tendency to exhibit frequently, consciously, and voluntarily a pattern of behavior that is directed to a broad goal” (para. 3). Jones and Bush (2009) suggest that the foundational dispositions for teachers-librarians would include “caring equally about each student, believing that each student can learn, and understanding the equitable access to resources that translates to fairness for all students (p. 12). Kimmel, Dickinson and Doll (2012) continued this examination of dispositions by conducting research with three focus groups of seventy-one practicing school librarians. They found through their analysis a Dispositional Continua as seen below: 44 From Expertise to Advocacy From Library-based to Community-based From Affable to Open From Cooperative to Collaborative From Ethical to Modeling Ethics From Love of Learning to Professional Growth From Facilitative to Flexible. (Kimmel, Dickinson, & Doll, 2012, Findings, para. 1) The authors believe, “in the context of school library education, we see the need for faculty to model dispositions and also for faculty to create experiences that challenge and scaffold students as they practice behaviors that are evidence of dispositions and to reflect on those behaviors” (Kimmel, Dickinson, & Doll, 2012, Conclusions, para. 2). As teachers are becoming teacher-librarians, they in the process of moving along each of the continuum. “This offers a way for students [and for new teacher-librarians] to think about themselves in a process of change and these professional dispositions as emerging and incomplete” (Kimmel, Dickinson, & Doll, 2012, Conclusions, para. 2). These continua provide for a professional growth framework where it is “not a matter of having or not having a particular disposition but of degree and process” (Kimmel, Dickinson, & Doll, 2012, Conclusions, para. 4). Lynn (2002) presents the notion of a career cycle for teachers. This career cycle moves from Preservice, Induction, Competency Building, Enthusiasm and Growth, Career Frustration, Career Stability, Career Wind-down and Career Exit (Lynn, 2002, p. 180). Lynn (2002) describes the Enthusiasm and Growth phase when “teachers have reached a high level of competence in their jobs but continue to progress as professionals” (p. 181). Lynn (2002) describes a teacher in this phase: Hollie, a secondary physical education teacher, can be identifies as being in an enthusiastic and growing phase of her career cycle. She is a master teacher who is competent and self-confident; she is also active in her state physical education organization, attends the yearly conference, and serves on numerous committees. Her students describe her as enthusiastic and as someone who appears to love her job. Within the school district Hollie lends a helping hand to other teachers and organizes workshops for the districts’ secondary physical education teachers. Enthusiastic and growing teachers like Hollie not only experience high levels of job satisfaction, but also tend to have a positive impact on the climate of the school community. (p. 181) For her, the variables that “affect the career cycle are family support structures, positive critical incidents, life crises, individual dispositions, and avocational outlets” (Lynn, 2002, p. 179). There is much research about teacher identity and pre-service preparation to help inform the experiences of new teacher-librarians (for example, Battey & Franke, 2008; Florio-Ruane & Williams, 2008; Horn, Nolan, Ward & Campbell; Olsen, 2008; Thomas & Beauchamp, 2007). Thomas and Beauchamp highlight that the success and well-being in a new profession is dependent on a strong sense of professional identity. Horn et al. tell us that “teaching identities are an ongoing project and this identity construction is a productive place to connect to novice teachers’ own learning goals” (p. 70). Battey and Frank remind us that “we do not develop our identities in isolation” (p. 128) and that “local communities limit the variety 45 of practices that teachers have access to” (p. 129). Forio-Ruane and Williams (2008) encourage us to examine “the stories of our own paths and the stories of the paths taken by others...as a significant part of the development of one’s identity not only as a teacher - but as a member of the larger teaching profession” (p. 8). Enyedy, Goldberg and Welsh (2005) remind us that teachers may struggle with “multiple conflicting beliefs, goals and knowledge” (p. 91). Olsen encourages the inclusion of learning and teaching autobiographies, conversations about contradictions and paying formal attention to personal and emotional effects of identity transitions (p. 38). Dotson and Jones (2011) reported three major trends about leadership development in their survey research of 149 recent school librarian graduates (“graduates of a southeastern US university over a five year period)” (Method, para. 2). The first trend reported by the researchers was that although school librarians reported a wide variety of activities in their school community, the school librarians continued “to be very traditional in their approach to teaching and learning” (Dotson & Jones, 2011, Findings, para. 1). A second trend found that “less than 30% of participants indicated that they served on Media and Technology Advisory Boards or committees” and findings showed school librarians “to be somewhat static in their approach to the role of technology leader, a role for which ideally they should be prepared to fill” (Dotson & Jones, 2011, Findings, para. 2-3). The third trend reported by Dotson and Jones indicated: Approximately 70% reported serving on a Leadership Team or School Improvement Team. These encouraging figures, looking specifically at librarians serving on teams or in groups, purposely directing the programs and administration of their schools, highlight the presence of the librarian in leadership of the school community and further indicate the significance of preparation of school librarians for leadership upon graduation and entrance into the field. (Findings, para. 5) Research on the unique professional learning needs of teacher-librarians indicates that “interaction with other school library professionals is not a regular occurrence” (Mardis & Hoffman, 2007, Online focus groups as a motivator for decreasing educator isolation section, para. 2). Providing opportunities for teacher-librarians to reflect and connect resulted in both “a sense of shared circumstances (I am not the only one like this) and the opportunity to learn of successful strategies for school librar[ies] that had immediate relevance (I want to try that out here)” (Mardis & Hoffman, 2007, Online focus groups as a motivator for decreasing educator isolation section, para. 2). This study allows new teacher-librarians to reflect on their experiences, make connections between previous formal and information learning and their new role, and think about their new identities. Methodology This research project followed five new teacher-librarians for three years. The five teacherlibrarians included in this research are working in a variety of school settings, including elementary, junior high school, and high school libraries. They have all been classroom teachers in the past and at the time that this research project began, were all currently enrolled in, or recently graduated from, a graduate level teacher-librarianship education program. This research paper presents the findings from year one of the study. An online focus group was held in March 2015 with three of the five teacher-librarians while the other two teacher-librarians contributed individual responses to the questions. The focus group 46 meeting was transcribed with the additional individual responses added at the end of the transcript. The transcript was then analyzed, by looking for common themes and trends that emerged across questions and throughout the comments (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992; Miles & Huberman, 1998). Findings This study followed five new teacher-librarians through the first three years of their transition from classroom teachers to teacher-librarians. The purpose of the study was to better understand how new teacher-librarians experience the transition from the role of classroom teacher into the role of teacher-librarian. This paper focuses on year three with the teacherlibrarians reflecting on their early years as teacher-librarians and also looking forward to new challenges and opportunities. This section presents findings using six overarching interview questions to organize the findings and uses representative quotes to support the key ideas and themes from each question. The first series of questions asked the participants to tell us about the strongest memories from three years as a teacher-librarian? The teacher-librarians were also asked about the greatest successes, opportunities, challenges and barriers. Two participants who work in the same school division agreed that one of their strongest memories was doing Professional Development sessions together for teachers. These two participants also spoke of the memory of their presentation to the Board of Trustees “to advocate for the use of the teacher-librarian in the division.” This presentation took the form of a Prezi (www.prezi.com) and four teacher-librarians spoke to a different role of the teacher-librarian. These two participants did not know of “any other group that has made a presentation to the board.” One participant noted that, “what science teachers do is well understood and their courses are required. What teacher-librarians do is seen as optional and it more incumbent on us to prove our worth, especially when it is not understood.” One participant noted that it has been great “connecting with other TLs in the district and learning how the “seasoned” ones run their libraries.” One participant noted that her strongest memories was of the “incredible professional change - a new way of interacting with people.” She stated she has “made the library her own and is seen as the information leader in the school.” Another participant explained, “ I feel like I am still ‘making my path.’ The first year I came in and changed a lot of how the library was perceived - this year has been a time of ensuring that the library can be a casual place that is still focused on learning. Watching students take ownership over the space has been a true success and joy.” A third participant also commented that a strong memory was “continued connections with a significant number of students who see their space as a ‘safe’ area.” One high school teacher-librarian looked back on the importance of “helping staff learn to take risks in trying new technologies and working with me.” She realized, in retrospect, “how much guidance we have to do a teacher-librarians, how we have to help students and teachers know that it is okay to make mistakes, play with new technologies, and play with ideas.” Another TL participant stated “I am more confident in my abilities as a research coordinator… I actually did not realize that many educators do not encourage proper research techniques, documentation of sources, etc.” 47 Several participants spoke about their collections when reminiscing about their first years as teacher-librarians. One participant is “super excited about our move to using LibGuides for the virtual learning commons - we are supporting a full course (Planning 10) as well as numerous lessons across the curricular areas. I am excited about our new games (we have class sets of Settlers of Catan and Carcassone) and we have hosted a variety of MakerEd activities. I’m excited that students choose to be in the library!” Another participant remembered when she started in the library and found out that only 16 books were circulating per month. “I spent my first six months on collection development. I knew I could make a difference.” Another participant is excited about lunch clubs - specifically “Minecraft/gaming club and girls gaming club.” She has also created a “professional resources collection, after consultation with teachers.” In terms of challenges and barriers, many participants spoke about technology, library time and budget cuts, making changes in the library, and sharing the TL position with another teacher. One participant stated that the “technology department” was a big challenge. The teacher-librarian has to “work around them because they make everything complicated.” Another teacher-librarian shared these concerns and noted that “poor Wifi” and the current set-up of chrome books means she rarely has “the tools that I want where I want them.” A third teacher-librarian felt that her school had “19th century technology for 21st century learning.” Another teacher-librarian commented that her library assistant “struggles with using any technology.” Four of the teacher-librarians only work part-time in the school library and have teaching responsibilities for the other part of their time. One participant spoke of trying to do “1.0 on a 0.5 position.” Similarly, another participant noted in her school library there is “less funding and more teaching time each year (almost 50% decrease in budget in the past three years and 40% teaching time increase (three classes added).” One participant wanted new shelving in her library and the “woodwork teacher and his classes created fabulous shelves, but this being grieved by the union. If the union was to have created the shelves it would have cost $10,000 and/or would have never happened.” One participant shares responsibility for the library with another teacher who is “not trained as a TL.” The “teacher in the library” takes a clerical approach, is “not collaborative” and makes the space “uncomfortable for students.” The second set of research questions asked participants what previous experiences (formal and informal) have been most valuable in your first three years as a teacher-librarian? One participant clearly indicated that her “twenty years of teaching experience with people from five years to sixty-five years in a variety of settings and countries” has been most valuable. She also added that she “has strong speaking and classroom management skills and has worked with a variety of people.” She is able “to get the bigger picture of the needs of her school community.” Another participant indicated that “being able to connect with administration is so important - they have to see you as someone who understands what is going on in the building.” In the focus group, the participants had quite a long conversation about the number of years of classroom teaching experience that would be best before becoming a teacher-librarian. One participant felt that TLs needed a minimum of ten years of classroom teaching experience. Another felt that five years was a minimum. She stated that, “without that time, I wouldn’t have had the sense of who I was as a person.” One participant felt that experience along with “a willingness to try new things and your mindset was also important.” Another 48 participant spoke about the importance of “soft skills and dispositions” for being an effective teacher-librarian. Question three asked participants what advice would you give new teacher-librarians based on your experiences as new TLs? One participant listed five key pieces of advice: promote, advocate, connect, organize and read. She told us that she it was essential to “promote my own skills and resources in my library to students and parents in any which I possibly can.” Several other participants spoke about promoting the role of the teacher-librarian and “fighting for more TL time.” In terms of advocating, one participant noted it was essential for new teacher-librarians to “publish their credentials and dispel the myth.” Another piece of advice was to connect with “colleagues who have completed this program. We have quite a ‘sisterhood and brotherhood’.” Another suggestion for new teacher-librarian is to “meet regularly and ask questions.” One participant states that, “in my first year I was growing my PLN - adding Twitter contacts, seeking out mentors and basically trying to expand my circle. While I am, of course, open to new contacts, I basically know who my PLN is and how to access help and support when I need it. I find I am more able to offer support than in my first year and that people are ‘adding me to their circles’.” Another participant also highlighted the importance of connecting with other TLs “in your district and on Twitter.” One participant has been assigned more classroom teaching time and, as a result, she states “I am not relying on other TLs as much this year. I feel really overwhelmed this year with the amount of teaching (and the needs of the group I have), that I honestly felt like stepping out of the library position. It is difficult to be a part-time teacher and a full-time TL so I have really focused on the teaching aspect. Staying organized was another suggestion to help new teacher-librarians. One participant remarked that “you can’t do everything” and “you invariably have to cut back on your list.” She cautioned new TLs to “not get frustrated and find balance.” Another participant noted that, “due to increased teaching load, I really have to manage my time and several of the clubs/events I sponsored in the past, I have had to let go of.” Another participant recommended setting up a good “filing system and creating a clear budget.” She also suggested that TLs “be prepared to report out to your administration at the end of the year because you have to justify your job.” The final piece of advice from one participant was to read. Several participants indicate that “knowing your collection” is key to being a successful TL. One participant stated that, “the best thing I do in the library is that if a student comes in looking for a book, I can find one for them pretty quickly that will suit them or peak their interest.” Another participant suggested that it is essential to “keep reading - students and staff should know what you are reading - advertise it, put up a sign.” One participant is celebrating that she “finally has an administrator who reads - a new vice-principal who was a high school English teacher and who supports the need for a TL.” In addition to promote, advocate, connect, organize and read, other study participants added essential pieces of advice. One participant highlighted the importance of building relationships. She suggested that it is critical to “identify the people on staff who are going to be receptive to you and then you have to hone in on those who will bear a lot of fruit.” Another suggestion is to “get to know your administration so you know what you can do for them and what they can do for you.” The researchers asked participants, if you could wave a magic wand, what would you 49 change about your first year as a teacher-librarian? One theme that emerged from this question was about library circulation. One participant wished she knew more about “everything clerical - that was the biggest hurdle in the first year learning curve. I appreciated all of the TLDL courses on research and online presentation tools, but I feel that the cataloguing course was outdated to how we actually catalogue new materials. Plus, even something as simple as ‘put all the labels in the same spot on each book’ would have been a good thing to know. In our district, if a library has a TL, there is usually no clerical staff, so we have to do that all ourselves.” Another participant felt she was “well prepared for the big picture but I could have used a crash course in Follett Destiny.” This same participant would have liked to know more about using a spreadsheet program like Excel for budget management. Another participant stated, “I had no idea how to use the library circulation program. I needed a great deal of learning and felt like the library clerk had power over me.” Another participant noted that because she had a reliable and competent library technician, she didn’t “know nearly as much as she should.” Another theme that emerged from this question was interactions with teachers. One participant stated, “I was so gung ho that first year that I scared away teachers.” She elaborated, “I tried really hard to connect with people and I learned over time that I needed to find a few people and start with those.” Another participant realized she would, “pay less attention to the crabs in the bucket and focus on those who are willing to collaborate and the people who are enjoying their job and pay less attention to those who are unhappy in their job, pessimistic and not willing to move forward, and cynical.” She continued that, “it is easy to feel discouraged so find five or six who are willing to try new things and focus on those people.” To continue this same line of questioning, we asked participants to tell us what do you know now about being a teacher-librarian? One participant stated, “You are the program - forget the computers, collection, the furniture - the library is you. You have the ability to make,or not, a vibrant library program.” Another participant concurred stating, “the Program is the TL - the TL is the program.” One participant indicated that she is “more confident and willing to say no if I feel that something is not pedagogically sound. I will challenge less than stellar practice when necessary. I know my collection and my staff much better, so I feel I am better able to meet students’ and teachers’ needs.” Another participant stated, “no matter how hard you work, there are people who think that the teacher-librarian has the cushiest job in the school. I thought I had to prove my worth by long days - I realized that there will always be those who think that TLs are kindly ladies who do nothing more than sign out books to keener readers. Letting go of trying to make everyone respect the work we do has freed me up to focus on my work on what matters and makes the most sense for my students and space.” The final question for the participants was where do you go from here in your work as a teacher-librarian? Participants had many plans for the future including: continuing to build relationships, collection development and programming, continuing advocating for more library time, more technology leadership, and supporting the social/emotional health of students. One participants highlighted that in their work in the school library in the future they will “keep building relationships and focus on those that want to learn, take risks and bring their kids to the library.” Another participant highlights the importance of “working with teachers” and being a part of the leadership team while a third will continue to focus on 50 “whole staff learning that is thoughtful and well-planned.” One teacher-librarian has been involved in a collaborative time initiative for her school and she is looking forward to continuing to “tweaking, determining what is working and what isn’t, determining what needs more or less structure - especially because ⅓ of the teachers are hesitant.” Several teacher-librarians plan to continue to work on collection development - even if this is a “summer project.” One participant uses the summer “to learn more about my collection and where I want to take my collection in the future.” Another teacher-librarian is looking forward to “weeding the non-fiction section...starting in June. I hope to finish it before we return in September. Yes, I may put in some time over the summer.” That same teacherlibrarian is planning to “get rid of one entire shelving unit in the non-fiction area, continue updating the library’s web page, and plan another author visit.” Because of declining enrolment in several of the school districts where these teacher-librarians work, one participant must “continue advocating for more library time and continue to justify what I do in the library and why it is worthwhile.” Several participants are looking forward to Google Apps being implemented in their school districts. One participant is going to get Google Certified Educator training this summer. She is “kind of fatigued about the next tech tool”, but sees the introduction of Google Apps to be a great leadership opportunity for her. Another teacher-librarian “will be creating more online courses. I am working to create full courses on LibGuides that will be supported by our Learning Center teachers. These courses will keep funding in our schools. I am wrapping up Planning 10, and will do Family Studies 12, Earth Science 11, Science and Technology 11 and AW Math 10 next year.” One participant expressed concerns about how to support the social/emotional health of students in her school. She is seeing “abuse, anxiety, depression, parental alcohol abuse” and want to offer a social/emotional support program such as Mental Health First Aid for teachers and staff. Discussion This study endeavours to document the experiences of five new teacher-librarians as they transition into their new roles and to understand their experiences as new teacher-librarians. The first research question asked about teacher-librarians strongest memories from their first three years as teacher-librarians. Participants indicated that professional development, advocacy, professional change, making the library a safe space focused on learning, supporting staff and students in taking risks, and collection development were strong memories and successes. The researchers also asked teacher-librarians about barriers and challenges to the work they do. These included technology, library time and budget cuts, making changes in the library, and sharing the TL position with another teacher. The findings from question one mirror the work of Kimmel, Dickinson & Doll (2012) where we see teacherlibrarians’ strongest memories and successes in the areas of advocacy and professional growth. We see these teacher-librarians modeling, presenting, providing evidence, creating safe learning spaces, helping staff take risks, becoming more confident in their abilities, and meeting the needs of their school community. In the first year of this study, “teacher-librarians had a clear sense of the work they should be doing in their school libraries and struggled when they were unable to do that work” (BranchMueller & de Groot, 2014, Discussion, para. 2). Now when these same teacher-librarians speak of challenges and barriers, they see and imagine “working around them.” They 51 consider the importance of balance, letting things go, focusing on those teachers who want to learn with them, and working with administrators to make things happen. These teacherlibrarians appear to be in the enthusiastic and growing phase of their career life cycle (Lynn, 2002). The second research questions asked participants what previous experiences (formal and informal) have been most valuable in your first three years as a teacher-librarian? The responses to this question included classroom teaching experience, dispositions, understanding the school context and connecting with administrators. As Olsen (2008) noted, it is essential to pay formal attention to personal and emotional effects of identity transitions. Celebrating successes and understanding barriers and challenges were a part of the ongoing identity construction for these new teacher-librarians (Horn et al., 2008). When participants were asked what advice they would give new teacher-librarians based on your experiences, one participant listed five key pieces of advice: promote, advocate, connect, organize and read. The other participants in the focus group heartily agreed with this list and added build relationships and know your administration. These pieces of advice are really suggestions for dispositions which Katz (1993) defines as “a tendency to exhibit frequently, consciously, and voluntarily a pattern of behavior that is directed to a broad goal” (para. 3). The broad goal in this case is to build a strong library program that is properly staffed, well-funded and allows for the teacher-librarian to collaborate with teachers and provide professional development for teachers. When asked to wave a magic wand and change things in the first year as a teacherlibrarians, participants indicated they wish they knew more about the clerical responsibilities including budgeting software and library management systems. Participants also wished they could have had different interactions with teachers. Several mentioned the importance of focusing on those teachers who were willing to collaborate rather than trying to entice all teachers to work with them. To continue this same line of questioning, we asked participants to tell us what do you know now about being a teacher-librarian? Participants in the focus group were clear that the work teacher-librarians do is the school library program. Participants responses indicated a new level of confidence and comfort in the role and understanding that they each have to focus on things that can make a difference in terms of teaching and learning in the school. These responses demonstrate a movement along the continua presented by Kimmel, Dickinson and Doll (2012). Participants had many plans for the future including: continuing to build relationships, collection development and programming, continuing advocating for more library time, more technology leadership, and supporting the social/emotional health of students. what I do in the library and why it is worthwhile.” Participants had clear goals for the future and had plans in place to reach those goals. The plans for the future built on the findings from year one interviews (Branch-Mueller & de Groot, 2014). The researchers found that: New teacher-librarian built on their own personal strengths - whether it was inquiry, literacy or relationships with teachers. They were trying to make themselves indispensable. The participants all mentioned that they were becoming curriculum experts and were demonstrating that they could be technology leaders in their schools. The participants were championing their collections - whether it was readers’ advisory for fiction and popular non-fiction or sharing resources from databases and the web. In the interviews, the new teacher-librarians highlighted the importance of developing 52 relationships and building a support system (mentors). It was also noted that these new teacher-librarians were taking advantage of opportunities and championing the role of the teacher-librarian in their schools and school districts. (Branch-Mueller & de Groot, 2014, Discussion, para. 2). The teacher-librarians in year three of this study were moving from “provisional selves” (Ibarra, 1999) into their “possible selves” (Markus & Nurius, 1986). They were confident, competent advocates for themselves and their programs. They were trying to balance the realities of the school context and their desire for positive change and growth in terms of teaching and learning possibilities. These teacher-librarians “are the program” in their school libraries. While this is a very small group of teacher-librarians, it is a hopeful sign that graduates of the Teacher-Librarianship by Distance Learning program at the University of Alberta seem to be bucking some of the trends identified by Dotson and Jones (2011). They are involved in technology and other professional development, school-wide collaborative learning time, and technology leadership. They are also clearly focused on the leadership role in the school and recognize that relationships with administrators are key. Perhaps it is because in TLDL “coursework in all areas should incorporate components of leadership development and use of emerging technologies (Dotson & Jones, 2011, Discussion: Charting the Change, para. 7). Implications and Conclusions As instructors in a program that educates teacher-librarians, we feel it is essential for us to understand the early years experiences of teacher-librarians as they transition from being classroom teachers. We also believe that new teacher-librarians, other teacher-librarianship educators, and researchers in the area of school libraries will also be interested in the findings of this study. This paper contributes to our understanding of new teacher-librarians and builds on the work of Branch-Mueller & de Groot (2014) by providing an understanding of teacherlibrarians in their third year in the role. There is very little research about the first few years of becoming a teacher-librarian and nothing looking at teacher-librarians in the Canadian context. This study contributes to our understanding of the early experiences of teacher-librarians and brings in the framework of possible and provisional selves as a lens to examine teacher-librarian identity. Several themes emerged to help us better understand how new teacher-librarians experience the first three years as teacher-librarians. Participants told us their strongest memories included professional development, advocacy, professional change, making the library a safe space focused on learning, supporting staff and students in taking risks, and collection development. Barriers and challenges included technology, library time and budget cuts, making changes in the library, and sharing the TL position with another teacher. We saw these teacher-librarians modeling, presenting, providing evidence, creating safe learning spaces, helping staff take risks, becoming more confident in their abilities, and meeting the needs of their school community. They consider the importance of balance, letting things go, focusing on those teachers who want to learn with them, and working with administrators to make things happen. Valuable previous experiences included classroom teaching experience, dispositions, understanding the school context and connecting with administrators. Participants offered several key pieces of advice: promote, advocate, connect, organize, 53 read, build relationships, and know your administration. These suggestions provide more evidence to “meet the challenge for the school library profession to identify experiences that will foster dispositions, to encourage school librarians to exhibit and reflect on these behaviours, and to create assessment measures that will form a basis for conversation and professional growth” (Kimmel, Dickinson & Doll, 2012, Conclusions, para. 5). As teacherlibrarian educators, it is helpful to know that some of the participants needed to know more about clerical responsibilities including budgeting software and library management systems. This will allow us to put into our Master of Education program experiences (Follet Destiny training, support groups, transition policies, job-shadowing opportunities) that will better prepare teacher-librarians for the early weeks and months as a new teacher-librarian. In researching with the participants, the researchers were heartened by the confidence of the new teacher-librarians. Providing opportunities for mentorship between more experienced graduates of our program and new teacher-librarians can support new teacher-librarians “to become a professional committed to both personal growth and contributing to the growth of the profession” (Kimmel, Dickinson & Doll, 2012, Conclusions, para. 4). Participants had many plans for the future including: continuing to build relationships, collection development and programming, continuing advocating for more library time, more technology leadership, and supporting the social/emotional health of students. Understanding the progress of the next steps in their development of “possible selves” (Markus & Nurius, 1986) tells the researchers that we must come back together with these teacher-librarians after five years and ten years in the profession. This study will inform classroom experiences, assignments and projects in pre-service teacher-librarian courses, the professional development experiences required for new teacher-librarians, and the way we model the role of the teacher-librarian in pre-service teacher-librarianship programs. More broadly, this research may also help school districts and professional associations develop formal and informal learning experiences and mentorship opportunities for new teacher-librarians. Most importantly, this study will help new teacher-librarians understand the experiences of those that went before them as they navigate the shift from teacher to teacher-librarian. As noted by Dotson & Jones (2011), The change we seek is to create [teacher-]librarians who are educational leaders, change agents in the curriculum and instructional process, and partners at both the local school and wider global communities. Library schools have begun a new era charged to inaugurate a new generation of school librarian ready to serve as leaders in their schools. (Discussion, para. 8). References American Library Association & American Association for School Librarians. (2010). Standards for initial preparation for school librarians. Chicago, IL: Authors. Asselin, M., Branch, J., & Oberg, D. (Eds.) (2003). Achieving information literacy: Standards for school library programs in Canada. Ottawa, ON: Canadian School Library Association and the Association for Teacher-Librarianship in Canada. Battey, D., & Franke, M. L. (2008, Summer). Transforming identities: Understanding teachers across professional development and classroom practice. 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Becoming a professional: Experimenting with possible selves in professional preparation. Teacher Education Quarterly, 41-60. Rust, F. O. (1994) The first year of teaching: It’s not what they expected. Teaching and Teacher Education, 10(2), 205-217. Thomas, L., & Beauchamp, C. (2007). Learning to live well as teachers in a changing world: Insights into developing a professional identity in teacher education. Journal of Educational Thought, 41, 3, 229-243. Wilson, S. M., Floden, R. E., & Ferrini-Mundy, J. (2001). Teacher preparation research: Current knowledge, gaps, and recommendations. A research report prepared for the U. S. Department of Education and the Office for Educational Research and Improvement. 56 Representations of Reading in Brazilian Contemporary Children’s Literature Maria da Conceição Carvalho Alessandra Santana da Silva Tatiane Meire Campos School of Information Science /UFMG Av. Antônio Carlos, 6627 – CEP:31270 -901 Belo Horizonte - MG Brazil Phone: +55 31 34096124 +55 31 25313324 [email protected] Abstract This article is part of a broader study that aims at comparing the role assigned to reading in terms of fictional creation for children and youngsters in Brazil and Argentina from 1991 to 2012. The results here presented are exclusively referring to Brazil. A sample of 10 books taken from publishers catalogues who print child/youth literature was analyzed. Based on Serge Moscovici’s concept of social representation it was possible to demonstrate that less than half of the narratives represent the daily reading still linked to a pedagogizing concept of the child genre, with openly utilitarian purposes. However, a significant number of narratives show good aesthetic level, presenting reading and the formation of readers in a thought-provoking and problematizing way. Keywords: Children’s literature; Social representations; School libraries; Brazilian Children’s literature, Brasil Background and objectives UNESCO proposes three factors that are necessary for readers to exist in a country: 1. The book should be in a privileged place in the national imagination 2. There must be for readers families 3. Schools must know how to form readers We thought of developing research to verify to what extent the first-mentioned factor is true in Brazilian culture since the two other have been much explored by studies related to the History and Sociology of education in Brazil, not always with positive results. 57 Then, we decided that this research aims at identifying the fictional narratives addressed to contemporary Brazilian children and how reading, the book, the library and the librarian as mediator of reading are represented. In the second stage the same analysis with a similar sample of books written, edited and published in Argentina will be developed. The purpose is to have a comparative study because Brazil and Argentina, which are neighboring countries in South America, have different historic background since the 19th century, concerning the formulation of public policies of education, reading practices and formation of reader. Firstly, it is necessary to draw a brief picture of the social and cultural environment in Brazil to understand the specific object of our interest. Despite Brazil being a country of continental dimensions and it being among the ten largest economies in the world it shows huge social inequality. On the other hand, Brazilian publishing market moves U$ 2.2 billion yearly, with 35% of this total representing purchases by the federal government, for the provision of public and school libraries. In addition to that, in general, Brazilian bookstores are concentrated in the most developed regions of the country and recent data report that Brazilians remain reading little, on average less than two titles per year. In big cities, there are good elementary schools whose libraries are well planned and develop cultural activities in accordance with the guidelines of IFLA / UNESCO School Library Association. However, 9% of the population of the country remain illiterate and never went to school. Besides, it is important to consider that children entering school regularly, at the age of six, still find it difficult to fit within the literate world and to become readers in adulthood because they come from low-income families with low level of schooling. These families are considered as non-reader families. Given this paradoxical portrait of Brazil in the beginning of the 21th century, our assumption when the research was started was that the representation of books and reading in children's literature would have a utilitarian function, supplementing an instructional role that the Brazilian families and schools fail to offer satisfactorily. That result, as will be shown in the end of this study, was only partially proved. The criterion for sample selection was intentional or by judgment sampling, that is when the researcher assesses which Individuals (in this case, books) have more information about the topic being studied and chooses the elements the researcher thinks are the most relevant of the whole set to be investigated. The selected corpus built from queries to catalogs of publishers was composed of 10 Brazilian children's literature titles published from 1990 to 2013. A content analysis of the texts and images of the selected corpus was carried out based on the concept of social representations argued by Serge Moscovici and from the way Brazilian researchers Regina Zilberman and Marisa Lajolo analyze the historical dimension of children's literature and of reading as a cultural and social practice. To analyze the representation of school library as it appears in some of the samples, we rely on the theoretical foundations of American researcher Carol Kuhlthau. 58 Analysis and results Numerous research papers in the field of social representation have shown that representation is never objectively neutral. In fact, in the set of 10 books reviewed the representation of reading is presented as a desirable social practice and is politically desired in all of them. The intention, explicit or not, of the writer and publisher of these books and government programs, which include them in its programs to promote reading, and of the school that has the students is none other than to influence in the formation processes of behavior of Brazilian children and youth, guiding their perceptions and expectations and causing them to build expected attitudes in relation to books and reading. However, it cannot be said that this wave of books that show reading as a central or adjuvant theme constitute a homogeneous production. Indeed, the way of representing reading and the process of acquisition of reading habits varies to some extent. We found works that could be classified as legitimately literary, and that add maybe a little more than half of the sample reviewed; and we also found texts - 40% of the sample - which are to be literary but cannot disguise their pedagogical goals to lead children and adolescents to the practice of reading. As an example of these two trends, there is this beautiful book of images and short text entitled Asas de Papel (Paper wings) which wanders about the limitless universe that reading opens up. On the other end the book Quem não lê não vê (Whoever does not read does not see) uses the theme of reading in a teenagers story, with the stated purpose of postulating rules - eleven steps, writes the author - for children and young people to learn how to enjoy reading . In this second group of books, this pedagogy tradition of children's and youth literature genre continues rooted and, as it is known, since the 18th century it cultivates close ties of dependence between literature and school. In fact, the school and the school library recurrently appear in these books as the place of first contact with reading. Contrarily, in the texts we with some risk call legitimately literary, reading happens in the private space, sometimes solitarily, sometimes shared with family members who are also readers. Anyhow, a central question underlies all the 10 works that choose reading as fictional theme and that represent reading positively. This issue can be summarized in the sentence: how to make a reader? We identified at least three situations, which are sometimes more, sometimes less explicit, and that structure the narrative of the texts studied. They are: Transformation A person who does not like to read, or that reads uncritically, usually represented as an adult or teenager, becomes an aficionado reader after a privileged encounter with a stranger, especially a teacher, a librarian (Fome de ler, Quem não lê não vê). What is clear from these narratives and how reading is presented is the value of redemptive reading or reading as salvation. Inheritance The French side of sociology of reading, with Pierre Bourdieu, François de Singly and JeanClaude Pompugnac, among others, has made a substantial contribution to what they called 59 cultural heritage. According to the authors, cultural heirs are those who receive in a literate family environment, an established cultural heritage, as well as the practices associated with it, and internalize them naturally reproducing the model of reader these heirs know since they were kids. A book that fits in this group is Chorar é preciso? (Is it necessary to cry?)_by Tatiana Belinky, a Russian immigrant who came to Brazil at the age of eleven. Autobiographical type of work, the protagonist narrator is a girl who very early became a reader of fairy tales. She tells Brazilian children what it is like to "talk " with the books she have been told by her father, an inveterate reader, that every night used to tell her the most beautiful tales of Andersen. Two other books discuss the inherited habit of reading by bringing situations that represent the nuance of Brazilian socio-cultural inequality. Morreu Tio Eurico, Rubião ficou rico (Uncle Eurico died, Rubião got rich) the protagonist, a simple worker in a small town receives as inheritance from a rich uncle - "hundreds, thousands of books." At first disappointed because he expected to receive a big sum of money, Rubião recovers and meets a new passion: the passion of reading. Another book entitled Lá no alto (Up there) takes the inheritance of a symbolic estate, the reading practice transmitted by the school, not explicitly but only poetically suggested: it is the story of a poor little girl who becomes fascinated with books that are up there on the bookcase in her rich teacher’s home. Those books will never be hers but they roused her desire to read. The text ends just saying that the books would never leave that child's mind, just suggesting in one last illustration that she will become a reader. In the three stories in which the main theme of the narrative is love for reading that passes from one generation to another, what leads the representation can be defined as reading as inherited and / or shared value. The institutional mediation The school librarian appears in three different stories as an important character in the fictional plot. In all of them, the librarian is seen by children and adolescents, at first, with strangeness and curiosity. In the book entitled Quem era ela? (Who was she?) three students try to understand what makes this strange person at school and then they struggle to pronounce that hard word: li·brar·i·an. Along with this path of lack of knowledge of the function of the school and public library by some students, there is also Uma aventura biblioteconômica (A library adventure) and Guerra na Biblioteca (War in the library). In these two books, librarians are compared to witches because of the strange things they apparently do with the books in that environment which is so different from the classroom. However, predictably, in the end of the story the librarians always reveal themselves as surprising people whose most extraordinary magic will be to turn people who do not like books into passionate readers. In this group of stories, the clear intention is to introduce cultural institutions such as the School Library and Public Library and their educational functions to a large number of Brazilian children and adolescents. The Librarian appears as the main mediator of a student / 60 library desired relationship. In this representation, the idea of reading as enabler for academic success and social prestige is implicit. A finding that seems undeniable after analysis of this sample of books is that the apology to reading and the act of reading are present in all narratives cited, with arguments of philosophical-educational basis or only as a utilitarian issue. On the one hand, we know that is not the function of literature as an art, to convince the reader of something, even if it is towards the consumption of literature for literary sake, as in these books addressed to children and adolescents. Thus, narratives that are led by a more aesthetic aspect than by a pedagogical one makes an apology of reading. This argument is not free but instead it gives "a legitimate need for the fictional universe", paraphrasing another Brazilian researcher (Ceccantini, 2004), who reviewed a sample of Brazilian literary books for adolescents awarded by different institutions. On the other hand, if the main function of social representation is to influence the processes of social communications and formation of new practices (Moscovici, 2003), it is no wonder that the child /youth literature genre, which has historically been linked to the function of education and socialization, takes advantage of its easy integration into school to represent an idealized image of reading and of the library role in the life of Brazilian children and teenagers. Brazilian child /youth literature, as shown in this study, is seen as a privileged vehicle to take part of the great Brazilian challenge of changing a rarefied setting of readers and library regulars. For that reason, children books invest to impact in the representation transformative reading can cause in the neo-readers. In other words, these child /youth books purport to build their own readers by presenting them to literary reading and suggesting possibilities of reading in school life and in the life in general. In that sense, it is worth recalling that according to Moscovici representative activity is a mental process that takes an object or an idea that was far distant or absent and makes it familiar and present in the inner universe of the subject, or their social group. Fair it is to say that in the last decades the Brazilian government has been facing the challenge of increasing the access to education and reading. A major step was the creation of a new public policy of reading, that is the National Plan of Books and Reading (PNLL), which is seeking to involve public institutions and civil society to achieve that big goal. However, this is not a simple task considering Brazilian historical paradoxes. The Minister of Culture in the government of former President Lula, in 2006, to announce the National Plan of Books and Reading (PNLL) said: "Needless to say that only 1.8 books read per capita / year is too little, nor that number come from a recent and problematic relationship with the book, as shown by several researchers, due to a number of important historical factors, such as the reality of many social inequalities." 61 We proceed, then, exposing how the texts reviewed represent two aspects of the relationship of children and young people with reading. Those aspects are spaces for reading and subjects of reading. The first important finding regarding places for reading is that reading rarely appears being performed in the institutional place of the school library or public library but almost always in the private place of home. It is also significant to highlight how school library appears in two of the books studied. In addition to that, in a third book Quem não vê não Lê (Whoever does not read does not see), it is significant that this library is not mentioned in a story that is especially focused on the reading of books requested by teacher to teen students. A similar narrative device in the four texts is that the story begins by showing a negative image of reading or of the school library through the speech of young students. In Quem era ela?” (Who was she?) in the first scene there are three students trying to guess who that kind of weird woman is, wearing round glasses, who looks like an owl, headed to the “room with bookshelves"! After all, a boy says, "that room had been closed so long. What was inside it was a mystery. We only know that it was used to store books." In the book titled Guerra na biblioteca (War in the library) the complaint of adolescent students is that the school library looks like a playroom or children's party place and only appeals to small children at very young age. It is for that reason that the history teacher takes them to search on the public library. In the previously mentioned book Quem não lê não vê ( Whoever does not read does not see) the first page starts with adolescent anguish because the teacher had asked students to read a 120 pages novel in the summer holidays. Only in a book, Uma aventura biblioteconômica (A library adventure) the school library works from the beginning of the story as it should, following the standards suggested by contemporary studies that suggest that space as a place of research, interaction, reflection and encouragement for reading, integrated to the political-pedagogical project of the school. In this book, a boy who is fascinated by the mysterious figure of the librarian lives an adventure between the digital information technology and his fascination for books. However, it subtlety depicts the little familiarity that school students have with the school library. Similarly to novels or soap operas that begin with the girl and the boy hating each other up to the end when they fall in love, in the vast majority of these stories, the initial ignorance of what a library is for is developed with scenes of adventure and at the end the discovery of a place that has thousands of possibilities of information, fun and the possibility of social mobility. In other words, the most common representation of the school library in Brazilian youth literature is of an area that has to be discovered by the students so that it meets their cultural formation, as promised by librarianship academics. Apparently, this representation of the school library in the literature is intended to be a supposed reflection of the reality of a country that is modernizing and that created a federal law a few years ago to enable all Brazilian schools with a school library. Yet, the nationwide 62 study Portraits of Reading in Brazil, 2012, which aims at evaluating the behavior of the Brazilian reader, reveals that the library, both the school and the public is still little sought by Brazilians as a way to access the book. Other important evidence found in this study is that the library, any library, is just a place to compulsory study and compulsory research for 71% of Brazilians who responded to the survey in all Brazilian regions. Other possibilities of access to literary and informational reading or other cultural activities are not mentioned while the public library is mentioned in only one book, Guerra na biblioteca (Albergaria, 1993, p.24). Based on what the librarian said, the specificity of the place is known: "Here is a public place. Everyone has the right to attend a library. Most like to read. But there are lonely people [...] who simply adopted the place." Maybe she wanted to remember the UNESCO proposition to the universality of public that the public library should meet, but with a bit of humor, the author includes among goers of a public library in a large Brazilian city, Belo Horizonte, an old woman who is just knitting, a lunatic, an old and eccentric researcher. We are already referring to the subjects of reading. In this sense it should be noted, in most of the books reviewed, a dialectical movement between the non-reader, which is the one who opens more than half of the stories and the reader idealized by public policies of reading, composing the happy ending of all those fictional stories and reading readers. Contemporary studies on sociology and history of reading present a typology of readers ranging from weak reader to strong reader, from disoriented reader to the competent reader, or even the ideal reader or model to the real reader of every culture and historical context. As shown in this study, child /youth literature uses this taxonomy to represent an evolution that is urgent and necessary for the Brazilian citizen in the 21st century. Thus, the competent reader who appears in the stories reviewed is usually the teacher, the librarian, the father, the grandfather or other family member. Rare are the cases in which children and adolescents are depicted as already being readers and book lovers but, as was presented earlier, they will undergo a transformation throughout story. The figure of the school librarian, who is always female, is important character in three of the stories although in one of these plots the librarian of the public library is highlighted by her professional competence, beauty and charisma in opposition to the impaired performance of the librarian school. A curiosity is that these three stories the school librarian is compared to a witch, either by their physical appearance, reinforcing an already outdated stereotype about the profession, either by its mysterious activities which are unknown to children and young people who know little about the institution. See some examples: Quem era ela? (Who was she?) [...] Since day one at school, the door [in that room] was closed. Just now, the young woman wearing glasses came out. [...] For a moment, I imagined [...] that woman hiding deep down into the room, stirring a black cauldron, eager to get a child to her charm or even to throw into the cauldron. (Albergaria, 1993, p.6) 63 And in Guerra na biblioteca (War in the library) Etelvina was the school librarian. She was loved by kids and hated by adolescents. [...] Small children loved the stories she used to tell. She had delusions of horror stories and used to wear costumes for presentations. She would put black clothes on, a pointy hat and was the witch itself. (Albergaria, 1995, p.2) And also, in Uma aventura biblioteconômica (A library adventure): Juninho, a student from the school, believes Magali, the librarian, is a witch because besides having a strange and mysterious magical look and gestures she was unbelievably able to persuade people. Magali wanted to be a modern version of Don Quixote’s Dulcinea, riding a motorcycle, with helmet and armor, flying at traffic lights. (Rios, 1993, p. 8) It is interesting to note the recurrence use of an intertextuality form, which is, when a book refers to other literary texts on the figure of the competent reader and of the reader mediator of reading that appear in different situations in the books studied. Those readers, who love reading literature and want to transfer that value to others, try by heart, to remember the most significant titles explicitly citing them in contact with the intended readers, or by using metaphors that signal to the classic works of world literature. In the books reviewed in which the aesthetic intention is predominant, the quotation of the classics is justified because it suggests a link between the beginner reader and the great community of readers of the cultural tradition. In other books, in which we note the pedagogy representation of reading, a tendency to make the canonical literature sacred is observed and it consisted of literature that is often cited but little read, in fact, even by teachers and librarians. It is not by chance, then, that Cervantes’ Don Quixote, a work that has appeared in the top rankings of the most important literary works of world literature, is mentioned with reverence by librarians of two different stories. Regarding the representation of social classes, only two books appear in secondary level as lower classes representatives. They are described as individuals who have some relationship with books but not exactly through reading. In all the books studied readers are middle class elements with sparse references to wealthy individuals who had collections of books who let them as inheritance or as a gift to family. Such representation dialogues with other data of the above-mentioned study Portraits of Reading in Brazil. In fact, 56% of respondents of the survey, equivalent to 99.3 million Brazilians never bought books in life, either because books are expensive, or due to a lack of interest in the practice of reading. Conclusion To conclude let us take UNESCO propositions on the fundamental conditions for a country to be considered a reader society: the book should be in a privileged place in the national imagination; there should be reader families; school should know how to form readers. Well, it can be said that being in the second decade of this century we are halfway towards the society of information and reading. Yes, we have a good quality education system, with 64 good schools and well equipped libraries, where high-level professionals working. We also have an editorial production of children's literature books of excellent quality and huge bookstores that satisfy the most discerning readers. Nevertheless, we are still a paradoxical country, rich and poor at the same time, modern and archaic, urban and rural. Paralleling to a developed Brazil there is a deep and obscure Brazil as a great national writer once wrote, with high illiteracy rate and lack of libraries. In this scenario, even children who start school regularly at the age of six find it difficult to fit within the literate world and to become readers in adulthood because they come from low-income families with no or low level of education (or cultural capital). In that underdeveloped social environment there is a clear contradiction between considering reading as a condition of social and cultural rise, and at the same time do not having minimum requirements - both family and school - to promote independent reading which gives the reader-subject conditions to critically interact with the world. In the context of this unequal map of the country, it is easier to understand the results of this research. In fact, 40% of the books reviewed are still tied to a utilitarian speech to serve the creation of a national imaginary about the individual and social value of reading and the development of a professional almost unknown by many – the librarian who is the mediator of reading. But even among those texts that carry a strong educational bias, it is possible to find - in the positive representation they make of reading - support for a formative itinerary that so many Brazilian children perform with effort. The good news is that the other 60% seem to be very good works at an aesthetic level, as for the text and or for the illustration the point of view. In general, these books successfully escape from the trap of didacticism and present to Brazilian children and youngsters the world of books and reading in a thought-provoking and problematizing way. We end with a quote from a Brazilian writer Ana Maria Machado who in 2000 was given the IBBY Hans Christian Andersen Award as the best author of children and youth literature: "I do not think anyone can teach someone else to read literature. Rather, I am convinced that what a person transmits the other is the revelation of a secret: the love for literature. It's more a contagion than teaching." (Machado, 2003 p.14). References Assunção, J. (2003). Retrieved April 4 , 2014, from http://www.revista.agulha.nom.br/ag34assuncao.htm CBL/BRACELPA/ABRELIVROS. ( 2012). Retratos da leitura no Brasil. São Paulo. Ceccantini, João Luís C. T. (2004). In Paulino, G. (Org.) Democratizando a leitura: pesquisas e práticas. Belo Horizonte: Autêntica, p. 81-96. Fraisse, E.; Pompugnac, J.-C.; Poulain, M. (1997). Representações e imagens da leitura. São Paulo: Ática, p.57-96. 65 Kuhlthau, C. C. (1999). O papel da biblioteca escolar no processo de aprendizagem. In Vianna, M.; Campello, B.; Moura, V. H. V. Biblioteca escolar: espaço de ação pedagógica. Belo Horizonte: EB/UFMG, p. 9-14. Lajolo, M. & Zilberman, R. (1996). A formação da leitura no Brasil. São Paulo, Ática. Machado, A. M.& Montes, G. (2003). Literatura infantil; creación, censura y resistência. Buenos Aires: Sudamericana. Moscovici, Serge. (2003). Representações sociais: investigações em psicologia social. 4. ed. Petrópolis, RJ: Ed. Vozes. Valente, P. Gurgel. (2013). Os dois Brasis. Retrieved April 10, from http://opiniaoenoticia.com.br Sample Reviewed Albergaria, Lino de. (1991) Quem era ela? Il. Rosa Schettino. Belo Horizonte: Ed. Lê. Albergaria, Lino de. (1993). Il. Fábio Moraes. Guerra na biblioteca. São Paulo: Atual. Belinky, Tatiana. (2001) Il. Graça Lima. Chorar é preciso. São Paulo: Paulus. Betancur, P. (2006). Il. Mário T. G. Amaral. 2. ed. Quem não lê não vê. São Paulo: DCL. Bocheco, E. (2012) Il. Walther M. Santos. Casa de consertos. São Paulo: Melhoramentos. Castanha, Marilda. (1999). 2 ed. O rei da fome. Rio de Janeiro: Ediouro. Parreiras, N. ( 2011). Il. Luiz Maia. Lá no alto. Curitiba: Positivo. Sypriano, Lilian. (1993). Il. Claudio Martins. Morreu Tio Eurico, Rubião ficou rico. Belo Horizonte: Formato Editorial. Rios, Maria da Graça. (1993). Il. Ângela Leite de Souza. Uma aventura biblioteconômica Belo Horizonte: Ed. Lê. Xavier, Marcelo.(1993). Asa de papel. Belo Horizonte: Formato. Biographical notes Maria da Conceição CARVALHO holds a degree in Library Science as well as a Masters on Information Science and a PhD in Literary Studies from the Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais . She is a professor at the School of Information Science, UFMG. Her current interests as a researcher are focused on Reading and training of the reader, School Library and Publishing of Youth and Children's books . 66 Alexandra Santana DA SILVA is a librarian since january 2014 and has worked at Santo Antônio School as school librarian from jan. 2013 to jan. 2014. Her interest as a researcher is focused on School Library studies. Tatiane Meire CAMPOS is a School Librarian at a Municipal Public School (Elementary Education) in Belo Horizonte, MG. 67 Improving English Comprehension in Primary School by Picture-books Story-telling and Reading Chen Rongyi Hefei Qingnian Road Primary School 488 Huizhou Boulevard, Hefei, Anhui, China. [email protected] Abstract So many Chinese students graduated from university after having learned English for 12 years, but they can’t use English well, especially in English listening and speaking. However, all these college students passed Band 4 test of CET (College English Test). There are many reasons for this strange phenomenon but the most important one is Chinese teaching system which is badly influenced by testing system. This year (2013), Chinese education department are under discuss whether the English test will be taken out of National Examinations of College Entrance or the total score should cut down from 150 to 100. It has reflected that our country is in a dilemma whether we should take English into NCEE (National College Entrance Examinations) or not. However, the problem is not exams but how to test and how to teach English in schools. As a primary school teacher for 16 years, the writer has found out that all teachers have to use a textbook to teach and have to finish the textbook and take exams according to the book. If students do better in exams, teachers’ value will improve. Otherwise, they will not be welcomed by school headmaster. These really hold back our English teaching. All our teachers are thinking about how to help students achieve high score not language function, that, understanding and communication. After many years teaching, the writer has found out that English learning goes well with exams. In order to prove this, the writer began an experiment which lasted for 10 weeks during which the writer read picture-books to students at every class for ten minutes. The students really enjoyed the stories. This method really enhances students’ interests and abilities in listening, speaking and understanding. This article focuses on the picture-books reading to improve the comprehension of English reading in primary school. Reading picture-books improve students’ comprehension and teachers’ teaching approaches. It will benefit all the students if this teaching method applies to all students who are learning English. As no one in China has done this research before, the writer thinks this article can apply to many primary schools in China. Keywords: English comprehension, primary school, picture books, story-telling, reading 68 Introduction So many university students graduated from university after having learned English for 12 years, but they can’t use English well. The problem is caused by our testing system. Students learn English only for tests not for real use. If they pass a test, they will not touch English any longer. Our language learning is targeted for exams not for the real use of English. Students are only interested in tests and teachers are only interested in how to help students get high scores. This leads to a strange phenomenon that students get high marks in tests but can’t understand people who speak English and foreigners can’t understand our students’ English either. This article focuses on the picture-books reading to improve the comprehension of English listening，speaking and reading in primary school. As no one in Hefei has done this research before, the writer thinks this article can apply to many primary schools in Hefei. Problem Identification and Analysis Problem Identification The writer found many students even college students, after 14 years of learning (from Grade 3 to university), still can’t understand English well. There are many reasons for this weird phenomenon. One of them is that our teachers teach English only for tests or high scores not the use of English. That is also because of teaching system which is making all our teachers teach English in that way. Having taught English for more than 16 years, the researcher found that the problem starts from primary schools to university. Different learning stages have different problems. This essay pays attention to the problem in primary schools or elementary schools, for the author have been teaching English in primary schools for more than 16 years. The writer found out that most our teachers in primary schools have been using the bottomup methods. The "bottom up" approach stipulates that the meaning of any text must be "decoded" by the reader and that students are "reading" when they can "sound out" words on a page. (Phonics). It emphasizes the ability to de-code or put into sound what is seen in a text. It ignores helping emerging readers to recognize what they, as readers, bring to the information on the page. This model starts with the printed stimuli and works its way up to the higher level stages. The sequence of processing proceeds from the incoming data to higher level encodings( http://www.nadasisland.com/reading/) Teachers teach students words first, then phrases, sentences, and last passages. According to their understanding, they think that if students can’t understand the words, how come they can understand the phrases not mentioning the passages? Thus, our students begin learning English from the alphabets which they have to remember how to sound and how to write. Then they have to remember every single word including meaning, spelling and pronunciation. And then they have to remember the phrases, like “let sb. do sth, make sb do sth, to see sb. do/doing sth.” etc. Students lose their interests in English gradually until they reach junior high school, they only learn English for tests not for fun and for real use. 69 Analyze the project problem In order to find out the problem in primary school, the writer used different methods. Two methods of problem analysis are exactly used to analyze the problem. They are Socratic Dialogue and Cause Analysis. Socratic Dialogue At this stage, the researcher asked a series of questions and then answered them. Questions a) What do students like to do in an English reading class in a primary school? b) What are students expected to do with the books? c) What can students do with the books? d) How did the teacher deal with the books? e) What did the teacher do to develop the students’ ability of reading comprehension? Answers They like to read interesting picture-books, eg, Chika chika boom boom, There is a bird on my head, the foot book,etc. They should understand what they read with or without English words. They can tell the story with the help of books. They should tell stories to students or parents with the books as a good model for students and as a good teaching material Just asked to buy or borrow the books and then asked students to read silently by themselves. Nothing. Table 1: Socratic Dialogue for Problem Analysis Cause analysis This analysis starts with some factors that may contribute to the cause: the teacher’s side, the students’ side as well as the techniques for picture-books reading. a) Teacher’s side In primary schools, teachers focus on text books. They wonder when they will finish the books-teaching so teachers usually give some picture books and ask students to read them. They don’t have too much to spare for students to read picture-books not mentioning the teachers reading picture-books. What’s worse, some teachers even just give the names of picture books and ask them to get the books and then read them. Teachers (both Chinese teachers and English teachers) in primary school always think reading books are kind of after-class activities, and there is nothing related to the class activities. Both Chinese and English teachers just think reading books are for fun and widening students’ view of the world. They’ve just missed the most important part of the reading books—learning and supplying for what students can’t get in class or in text books. 70 b) Students’ side Students like English picture books but only pictures, not the words because our students are Chinese. They couldn’t understand all the words, phrases or sentences in the books. They just want to find the easiest way to read the books. If they couldn’t, they will give up reading picture books. As a result, though there are a lot of English picture books in the library, few of them are borrowed to read by students. They need the help of teachers who can give students advice, suggestions and methods of reading English picture books or in the future English fictions or nonfictions. Techniques for teaching vocabulary Our teachers in primary schools teach students words in a bottom up method. They show students word cards, relics or PPTs for students, and then ask students to remember them, that is the object , the spelling and the sound. Teachers use just one word for one picture. There are no connections between words. For example, they teach apple just apple, red just red. They never think of a red apple or a juicy apple etc. because they think red is not in the page of text book. In middle school, teachers only care about exams, not the skill of listening, speaking, reading and writing. Of course, this is what we talk about in our essay today. Results of Problem Analysis According to the above problem analysis, we can see that student’s comprehension has not been improved since primary schools. We must improve students English comprehension skill from primary school. Project Objective and Hypothesis Project Objective The project objective is to develop the students’ English listening, speaking and reading comprehension so that they can get more information from English picture-books. Project Hypothesis It is hypothesized that students’ ability to get the information when reading picture-books can be improved more effectively using story-telling by teachers and then reading by students themselves. This hypothesis can be proved by their figuring out more of the main ideas in the story on their own. Project Rationale Research about Top-down processing The current view of English reading distinguishes between two key processes. One way is known as the “bottom up processing” as we discussed above in 2.1 Problem Identification and Analysis. The other process is known as the “top down processing” The "top down" approach emphasizes readers bringing meaning to text based on their experiential background and interpreting text based on their prior knowledge (whole language)（www.nadasisland.com/reading). Reading is essentially a process of predicting and confirming language. This idea can be easily understood if we consider our experience of reading in our first language. Clearly 71 when we read in our mother tongue, we do not read to every word, but we can guess a lot of what is going to be read since language is full of patterns and certain situations, which will be very familiar to us. We can often predict what is going to be read next. Even we can ignore some mistakes in reading and correct them automatically, for example, “ 研表究明，汉字序顺并不定一影阅响读。”, well, the correct order is “研究明表，汉字顺序并不 一定影响阅读” Our brain and eyes rearrange the words automatically. And this is the same in English language, for example: According to a research project at Cambridge University, it doesn’t mttaer waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoatnt tihng is taht the frist and lsat ltt eer be in the rghit pclae. The correct order should be according to a research project at Cambridge University, it doesn’t matter what order the letters in a word are, the only important thing is that the first and last letter be in the right place. This is because the human mind does not read every letter. “The top-down reading model theory encourages students to focus more on understanding the main ideas of a passage than understanding every word. Even if students do not understand each word, they are likely to grasp the meaning of a text as a whole. Babies learn to speak much the same way. Instead of teaching words one at a time, parents use conversation to teach language to their children.” (Amy Pearson, http://everydaylife.globalpost.com/topdown-reading-model-Theory13028.html)This is because the human mind does not read every letter. Research about comprehensible input Reading plays an essential role in the daily lives of most people. It is functional when people read road signs, maps, recipes, labels, fill forms, or apply for jobs that are unique to our daily lives. It is fundamental to school achievement, and hence, learning to read at the appropriate time is crucial to one’s academic success. All school subjects require reading various written materials like graphs, charts, maps and tables. In Kaplan’s(1986) opinion, failure to learn to read by the end of Primary one (i.e., first grade) is associated with later academic failure. Samuel Kewaza,2013）Kavcar, Oğuzkan, and Sever (1997, p. 41) evaluates reading as “the process of seeing, perceiving and comprehending the words, sentences, punctuation marks and the other elements of a writing”. Sever (1997) defines reading as regards to mental processes. In other words, reading is not only voicing the letters. It is very important to explain the meanings and interpret the voiced letters (Gürses, 1996). A connection is established between the writer and the reader through reading and the reader is expected to understand the message that the writer aimed to convey. As it can be understood from this, reading has three dimensions (Demirel, 2000, p. 77). There are many sources to contribute to language input in the classroom, such as the teacher, the students themselves and of course, the stories, which are in the broadest sense (Ur, 2000a). Nevertheless, in the reading process, “…the learner is an active participant. In order to comprehend, readers need to reconstruct the original intention of the writers by making use of both bottom-up and top-down processing strategies, and by drawing on what they already know to make use of new knowledge” (Nunan, 2001: 211). 72 Research about interactive approach For those reading theorists who recognized the importance of both the text and the reader in the reading process, an amalgamation of the two emerged the interactive approach. Reading here is the process of combining textual information with the information the reader brings to a text. (http://www.nadasisland.com/reading) The interactive model (Rumelhart 1977; Stanovich 1980) stresses both what is on the written page and what a reader brings to it using both top-down and bottom-up skills. It views reading is the interaction between reader and text. The overreliance on either mode of processing to the neglect of the other mode has been found to cause reading difficulties for SL learners (Carrell 1988, p. 239) The interactive models of reading assume that skills at all levels are interactively available to process and interpret the text (Grabe 1988). In this model, good readers are both good decoders and good interpreters of text, their decoding skills becoming more automatic but no less important as their reading skill develops (Eskey 1988). Advantages of picture-books storytelling and reading All children love stories. Reading stories to children can be a central part of classroom life which is very unusual in China. There are many advantages of picture books storytelling and reading, such as: 1) Pictures tell stories. The writer or the illustrator of a picture book draws very unusual pictures. Teachers can find many things we want according to their teaching objects. 2) Stories are motivating so that students will always be willing to listen or read by themselves. 3) Stories are rich in language experience. Students want to find meaning in stories, so they listen or read with a purpose. 4) Stories can enhance students’ listening, speaking and reading skills. When they listen and read the stories, there is a positive attitude to not understanding everything. So their skills of searching for meaning, predicting and guessing are trained as well. 5) Stories help students become aware of the general ‘feel’ and form of the foreign language. The language point, which including vocabulary and the sentence structures, are introduced and made familiar through stories. 6) Picture-books in preschool level or level one reading standard are full of language patterns which is easy to listen and follow and easy to remember as well so student can read by themselves after teachers stories telling. 7) Picture-books storytelling need students’ involvement. Students look at the pictures and listen to teachers telling and then answer the questions about the pictures or what heard and saw a while ago. Drawing on the above theories, we decide that story-reading can be a good top-down device to solve the problem identified in this project, as stories are interesting and can actively involve the students as more “motivated participants”; and in most cases, the stories are slightly more advanced than the students’ current language level, but given the context of the story, those otherwise incomprehensible contents may turn out to be “comprehensible input” (Harmer, 2000). 73 Project Design Drawing on the discovery of the problem analysis and rationale quoted above, a project is designed to improve the students’ reading ability by integrating storyreading in their classroom learning. Research tools Five data collection instruments will be used in the research: pre-test (see Appendix IV), post-test (see Appendix V), reflection notes (see Appendix III), pre-questionnaire (see Appendix VI), and interview notes (see Appendix VII) Target group and Control group Two groups of students will be needed for comparison, the Target group, who will use the innovative picture-books story-telling and reading method, and the Control group, who will be taught in the same traditional way. The sample groups consisted of two classes of Grade 3 students, who were about the same English level at the beginning of the project. They were taught by the same teacher, but in different ways. Students of Class 4, Grade 3 comprised the Target class and used for picture-books story-telling and reading practice. There are 3 English teaching periods in a week. Every period has 40 minutes. They were asked to spend 10 minutes to listen to a picture-book story in each 40-minute period. Then they borrow the same book from school library and take it home to read or read in library. Students of Class 5, Grade 3 served as the Control Group and continued to use traditional method, namely, the bottom-up method, to practice English reading. Teaching materials 5 picture books will be needed in the project. They should be suitable for the students’ present English level and the content should be related to the students’ curriculum so as not to interrupt their normal learning plan. 5 picture books (See Appendix I) were selected by the researcher and the teacher (here it is the same person) from the school library. The content of the 5 picture books were relevant to students’ normal English lesson topics, such as colors, fruit, animals, body parts and school rules. Story-telling and reading design A ten-week story-telling and reading lesson plan was designed by the researcher, based on the project objective, and especially pertinent to the students’ problems as analyzed in 2.2 Problem Analysis. The project will last for ten weeks and have 5 periods, which include 5 picture books and 13 tasks. The table below is an overview of the project design: 74 Period Week Date Story Sept. 16 1 I&II Lemons are not red? Sep.29 2 III&IV V&VI Colors 3 VII&VIII Oct..21 4 Foot book IX&X Tasks -To make students enjoy the story. -To become aware of the general “feel” of the foreign language. -To guide students read for response by showing the pictures. -To help students read for the purpose and get the main ideas 1. Brainstorm what they have seen and heard 2. Listen and guess the colors 3. Question and 10*6 answer 4. Prepare a short play. Oct.14 Go away, big green monster Nov. 4 5 No, David Time (Min) Objectives -To guide students to read the -use TPR to help students understand the language -To help the students understand some of the vocabulary and the grammar, and then try to tell stories to the others. 5. use TPR to understand the language. 6. Have a competition with students to see who understand first 7. Answer the questions step by step. 8. Complete the table to focus on some specific information. 10. Predict what will happen next. 11. Try to tell the story to the class. 12. Talk about the rules at school so they can build up the background knowledge. 13. make some rules for class. 10*6 10*6 10*6 10*6 Table 2: Timetable of Project Project Implementation Here is the lesson plan for the first two weeks for illustration, and all the lesson plans can be found in Appendix II. Week I & II-- book 1: Lemons are not red. 75 Time: 6*10 minutes Content: fruit and colors Materials: a picture book, Lemons are not red. Objective: The purpose of this story is to make students enjoy the story and become aware of the general “feel” of the foreign language Procedures: 1. Brainstorm. Get the students to look at the story book to figure out what fruit they can see. 2. Read and say. Get the students look at the big book and read it then tell us what words they see. 3. look and guess. Lemons are not red. They are.....(yellow). ........(apples) are red.. 4. Listen and answer the questions. Get the students listen to the story again, then answer the questions: a) What color are lemons? b) What are red? c) What color are flamingos? d) What are gray? 5. Assign homework. The students are supposed to borrow the book from the library and read the picture book to their parents at home. All the picture books are chosen for students to enjoy English and different thinking form Chinese people. They are all connected with students life. For example, colors, fruits, animals, body parts and school rules. The picture books are all drawn in colors and few words, so they are easy for students to understand. The activities for each story are relevant to students’ reading enhancement, such as brainstorming what they have heard, predicting and guessing the next picture of the story, answering the questions to get the general idea, filling charts to know the specific information about the story, doing True or False exercises to obtain the detailed knowledge. In addition, these activities will allow students to focus on the top-down method to practice listening. Data collection Pre and Post-test Both classes will be pre-tested and post-tested at the beginning and end of the project. The post-test should be similar to the pre-test so that the results of the two tests will be comparable. Reflection Notes The teacher is supposed to keep teaching diaries after each lesson to help record the students’ response and the teacher’s own observation. The researcher himself takes the reflection notes after each lesson. Questionnaire After the post-test, the Target Group will be asked to fill out the post-questionnaire (See Appendix VI) to investigate their attitudes and opinions about the storyreading, and showing the result of the project as well. Interview 76 During the process of the project, the researcher interviewed all students from the Target Group to find out their perceptions of this new way of teaching. The interview questions are included in the Appendix (The researcher has designed a flow chart (See Appendix VIII) to monitor the progression of the project) Students’ perception of the new method Students’ opinion of the new teaching method is obtained through the post-questionnaire and the post-interview. Their answers are presented and analyzed to reflect how well the picturebook story-telling method has been accepted by the students. Students’ answers to the post-questionnaire To Question 1 of the questionnaire (see Appendix VI) after the whole teaching, “Which one do you prefer, the storytelling or the normal way of teaching”, 37 out of 48 students chose the storytelling method, which means that 77% of them feel positively towards picture-books storytelling and reading. To Question 2, “How much do you think your listening, speaking and reading interest increased through listening stories”, more than half of the students (29) think their listening, speaking and reading interest has been increased significantly (see Graph 1) and 17 other students admit that they have been slightly more interested. Only 2 students feel that there is no change. To sum up, the results for the two questions proved that the picture books storytelling in this project met the needs and interests of the majority of the students. number of Students: 48 2 increased a lot 17 29 increased a little not increased Graph 1: Students’ evaluation on listening, speaking and reading interest 77 Students’ answers in the interview In the interview, all of the students said they have become more interested in listening to and reading the English picture books and the main reason is that stories have beautiful pictures and plots and are not boring and mechanical as the drills they had before. This revealed, in general, storytelling is well accepted by the students and helped enhance their motivation in English listening. Students’ self-evaluation in the questionnaire Only the post-questionnaire answers will be considered to determine the students’ selfevaluation of their performance in the new pedagogical arrangement. To Question 3 in the questionnaire, “How much do you feel you can understand the stories told in your English lessons”, no students reply that he/she cannot understand the story while more than 2/3 (38 students) feel they can understand most of the story. Graph 2 shows the students’ evaluation on listening comprehension. Number of students: 48 nothing, 0 whole story, 14 small part, 10 nothing small part most part whole story most part, 24 Graph 2: Students’ evaluation on listening comprehension To Question 5, “How much do you feel your listening ability has improved during the ten weeks?”, although two students felt no changes during the project implementation, all the other 46 students felt that they made more or less improvement (see Graph 3). 78 Number of students: 48 great improvement, 10 no change, 2 no change little improvement great improvement little improvement, 26 Graph 3: Students’ evaluation on listening, speaking and reading ability From the above analysis implies that picture-books storytelling is a natural and effective way of fostering children’s comprehension through listening, answering and reading. Comparison of the pre-test and post-test Table 3 presents the results of the pre-test of the Target Group and the Control Group. As can be seen from Table 3, the students in the two groups were about the same level before the project, with the mean score of the Target Group (93.7) slightly higher than the Control Group (90.8). Group Target Group Control Group No. of students 48 38 Total score 100 Mean 93.7 91.8 Table 3: Pre-test Scores Table 4 presents the results of the post-test of the two groups. It shows that students of the Target Group perform better than the Control Group after the project, although the difference is still not significant (only 2.7 as compared with the 1.9 disparity in the pre-test). Group Target Group Control Group No. of students 48 38 Total score 100 Table 4: Post-test Scores 79 Mean 93.1 89.4 Comparing the means of the Target Group and the Control Group (see Graph 4), we can conclude that the students from the Target Group were making steady progress in the posttest, though the progress was not obvious. However, we should also note that the mean score of the post-test were lower than that of the pre-test (see Graph 4). The strange phenomenon might be due to various reasons, such as not appropriate difficulty level designed for the post-test paper, lacking of the time, and so on, but it can still contribute to the conclusion that the picture-books story-telling method is superior to the traditional one. 95 94 93 92 系列1 91 系列2 90 89 88 87 pre-test post-test Graph 4: Comparison of the Control Group and the Target Groups Findings from the interview In the interview, all the students gave positive comments such as “it improves my listening, speaking and reading ability” “helps me to memorize more words” “helps me to pronounce the word correctly” and moreover, “It has broaden my horizons.” (Translated by the author, see Appendix VII). Findings from Teaching Notes Author’s reflection notes (see Appendix III) show the students are becoming more active than before; they showed great interest in picture-books and the new reading, listening and answering methods, and they are willing to read the story after class. The students made much more progress in reading and listening ability, for instance, they can understand the meaning of the story, they can predict the plot of the story though they can tell in English, and they know how to build up background knowledge, etc. From the above data, it obviously indicates that the students benefit from the storytelling and reading after class and the methods used is helpful for the listening, speaking and reading ability enhancement. 80 Unsolved problems Despite the prevailing positive statistics result, there exist a number of unsolved problems. The following is a brief description of them. Firstly, the research also reveals that 11 students preferred the normal teaching way, as shown to Question 1 in the questionnaire. It might be because of the reasons as follows: 1) These students relied too much on the bottom-up method for listening, speaking and reading. They were not used to the top-down method of listening, speaking and reading.. 2) The picture-books provided didn’t motivate them. 3) The activities the teacher did in class couldn’t arouse their interests. Therefore, for the next research, the teacher should balance the use of different methods, or in another word, make use of both bottom-up and top-down processing strategies, especially at the beginning of the change. Secondly, according to the answers to Question 2 and 5 in the questionnaire, there were still a couple of students who did not think their listening, speaking and reading interest have been increased. And there were two students who did not think their English listening, speaking and reading ability has been improved. That might be because of the picture-books the research chose were not of the right level of these students’. Besides, the lack of time might be the other reason. Because the project took place was almost at the beginning of the semester and the beginning of English learning. We should not expect a ten-week project to reduce every problem. Thirdly, as can be seen in Graph 4 (in 7.3), the post-test means were lower than the pre-test one. The following reasons might influence the test score: 1) The difficulty level designed for the post-test paper was much higher than the students’ level. 2) The ten-week project was not long enough to make the significant achievements. 3) Some of the students might not be used to the new way of teaching. 4) Students just began to learn English, so they are not so good at English and some of them even don’t know how to the test. Therefore, the more thorough long-term plan by using picture-books storytelling and reading should be designed in the future study. Conclusion It has been widely recognized that listening, speaking and reading skill is among the most important skills in the language learning of primary school students, so teachers have become more concerned with developing students’ listening, speaking and reading ability. However, how to better improve the students’ listening, speaking and reading ability is a question unanswered. Will larger amount of bottom-up listening drills do the magic? Will some more interesting and practical listening tasks do a better job? A project was designed to help students to listen and read with a clear purpose so as to get the main ideas and specific information more effectively though enjoying carefully adapted stories. The project was based on the rationale of top-down processing, comprehensible input, the role of the learner in the listening and participating process and the many advantages of storytelling. The project hypothesis is that using picture-books storytelling and reading will 81 enhance students’ listening, speaking and reading comprehension. During the implementation, the five-period picture-books storytelling and reading plan was used to meet the needs and to improve the interest of the young learners. The project lasted ten weeks and four types of data were collected: the pre-test and post-test for both the Control Group and the Target Group, the teaching diaries by the teacher, the questionnaire for all the Target Group students and the interview of five students from the Target Group. The analysis of pre-test and post-test scores demonstrates that the mean scores of the Target Group is higher than the Control Group after the ten-week experiment, although the difference is not significant. However, all the other types of data clearly show that the Target Group perform much better than the Control Group. The teacher’s reflection notes record that the Target Group become more active in class; the answers to the questionnaire reveal that the Target Group students are more interested in English listening, and the interview notes uncover that the reason of the increased interest is mainly the new element of story-telling in class. In summary, it can be concluded that the students’ listening ability and interest have been enhanced by storytelling. Therefore the original project hypothesis has been proved to be correct. In a word, this project was generally successful. Therefore, for primary teachers who want to enhance students listening and reading effectively, and then develop a good habit of listening and reading, picture-books storytelling is a better choice than the normal way of teaching listening and reading which is known as bottom-up method. Despite the positive findings and implications gained from this study, there exist a number of limitations. Firstly, more flexible method should have been used and more specific listening and reading skills should have been trained in the project so that students of different levels and learning styles can be accommodated. Secondly, due to time constraints, the ten-week project might be too short for the students to make measurable achievements in listening and reading practice, which is explains why the difference of the mean test scores between the two groups is not significant enough. Finally, the experimental lesson plan should allow some unexpected interruptions, such as the public holiday or the examination time. Therefore, continual studies should be done in the future, where a more flexible lesson plan should be adopted and a longer experiment time can be sustained. The researcher is confident that a more scientific and significant experiment result can be expected then. References Kewaza, Samuel; Welch, Myrtle I. Big Class Size Challenges: Teaching Reading in Primary Classes in Kampala, Uganda's Central Municipality. Online Submission, US-China Education Review A v3 n5 p283-296 May 2013 Kusdemir Kayiran, Bilge; Karabay, Aysegul. A Study on Reading Comprehension Skills of Primary School 5th Grade Students--Learning Basic Reading and Writing Skills through Phonics-Based Sentence Method or Decoding Method. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, v12 n4 p2854-2860 Aut 2012 N'Namdi, Kemba A. Guide to Teaching Reading at the Primary School Level. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Duke, Nell K.; Block, Meghan K。 Improving Reading in the Primary Grades. Future of Children, v22 n2 p55-72 Fall 2012 82 Ciampa, Katia。 Reading in the Digital Age: Using Electronic Books as a Teaching Tool for Beginning Readers. Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology, v38 n2 Sum 2012 Sidek, Harison Mohd. EFL Reading Instruction: Communicative Task-Based Approach Online Submission, International Journal of Instruction v5 n2 p109-128 Jul 2012 Loh, Jason Kok Khiang. Reflecting, Shaking and Being Shook: Resistance in a Primary Classroom. English Teaching: Practice and Critique, v9 n3 p160-168 Dec 2010 Appendix I. All the picture books, one sentence , one picture. And also some picture books have some moving parts. Lemons are not red. Laura Vaccaro Seeger Roaring Brook Press (Aug. 22nd , 2006) Lemons are not red. Lemons are yellow. Apples are red. Carrots are not purple. Carrots are orange. Eggplants are purple. flamingos are not gray. Flamingos are pink. Elephants are gray. Reindeer are not white. Reindeer are brown. Snowmen are white. Grass is not blue. Grass is green. The sky is blue. The moon is not black. The moon is silver. The night is black. Good night! Colors Eric Carlel Puffin books (April 20th, 2009) Green caterpillar, leaf. Red apple, strawberry. Orange orange, yellow cheese. Blue plum, brown cocoon. Many colors butterfly. Go away, big green monster Ed Emberley LB Kids (April 1st, 1993) Big green monster has two big yellow eyes, A long bluish-greenish nose, A big red mouth with sharp white teeth, Two little squiggly ears, Scraggly purple hair, And a big scary green face! But... ...YOU DON’T SCARE ME! SO GO AWAY, scraggly purple hair! Go away, two little squiggly ears! Go away, long bluish-greenish nose! Go away, big green face! Go away, sharp white teeth! Go away, two big yellow eyes! Go away, big Green Monster! And DON’T COME BACK Until I say so. 83 The Foot Book. Dr. Seuss Random House Books for Young Readers (Oct. 12th,1968) Left foot, left foot, right foot, right. Feet in the morning, feet at night. Left foot, left foot, left foot, right Wet foot, Dry, high, low foot. Front feet, back feet, red feet, black feet. Left foot, right foot, feet, feet, feet. How many, many feet you meet. Slow feet, quick feet, trick feet, sick feet. Up feet, down feet, here come clown feet. Small feet, big feet, here come pig feet. His feet, her feet, fuzzy fur feet. In the house and on the street, how many, many feet you meet. Up in the air feet, over a chair feet. More and more feet, twenty-four feet. Here come more and more..... and more feet Left foot. Right foot. Feet. Feet. Feet. Oh, how many feet you meet! No, David. David Shannon Blue Sky Press (Sept. 1st, 1998) David’s mon always said... No, David! No, David! No! No! No! Come back here, David! David! Be quiet! Don’t play with your food! That’s enough, David! Go to your room! Settle down! Stop that this instant! Put your toys away! Not in the house, David! I said no, david! Davey, come here. Yes, david...I love you! Appendix II. Week I&II -- book 1: Lemons are not red. Time: 6*10 minutes Content: fruit and colors Materials: a picture book Objective: The purpose of this story is to make students enjoy the story and become aware of the general “feel” of the foreign language Procedures: 1. Brainstorm. Get the students to look at the story book to figure out what fruit they can see. 2. read and say. Get the students look at the big book and read it then tell us what words they see. 84 3. look and guess. Lemons are not red. They are.....(yellow). ........(apples) are red.... 4. Listen and answer the questions. Get the students listen to the story again, then answer the questions: Q1: What color are lemons? Q2: What are red? Q3: What color are flamingos? Q4: What are gray? 5. Assign homework. The students are supposed to read the picture books at home or borrow the book from the library and read to their parents at home. Week III&IV -- book 2: colors. Time: 6*10 minutes Content: colors Materials: a picture book Objective: The purpose of this story is to make students enjoy the story and become aware of the general “feel” of the foreign language Procedures: 1. Brainstorm. Get the students to look at the story book to figure out what colors they can see. 2. read and say. Get the students look at the big book and read it then tell us what words they see. 3. look and guess. T: What color is the caterpillar? Ss: Green. T: what color is the leaf? Ss: Green. T: yes, it’s green too. Where is the green caterpillar? Ss: on the leaf.( some of them could answer 4. Listen and answer the questions. Get the students read the story again, then answer the questions: Q1: What color is the caterpillar? Q2: What color is the leaf? Q3: What color is the apple? Q4: What color is the strawberry? 5. Assign homework. The students are supposed to read the picture books at home or borrow the book from the library and read to their parents at home. Week V&VI – book 3: Go away, big green monster Time: 6*10 minutes Content: body parts Materials: a picture book Objective: The purpose of this story is to make students enjoy the story and become aware 85 of the general “feel” of the foreign language Procedures: 1. Brainstorm. Get the students to look at the story book to figure out what body parts they can see. 2. read and say. Get the students look at the big book and read it then tell us what words they see. 3. look and guess. What color are the eyes?. They are.....(yellow). .what is greenish and bluish? (nose).... 4. listen and answer the questions. Get the students listen to the story again, then answer the questions: Q1: What color are monster’s eyes? Q2: What is greenish-bluish ? Q3: What color is mouth? Q4: What is white and sharp? .... 5. Assign homework. The students are supposed to read the picture books at home or borrow the book from the library and read to their parents at home. Week VII&VIII -- book 4: the foot book Time: 6*10 minutes Content: all kinds of feet and rhyme Materials: a picture book Objective: The purpose of this story is to make students enjoy the story and become aware of the general “feel” of the foreign language Procedures: 1. Brainstorm. Get the students to look at the story book to figure out what body parts they can see. 2. read and say. Get the students look at the big book and read it then tell us what words they see. 3. look and guess. This is the left foot. This is the....(right) foot. This is morning. This is night.... 4. Listen to story read by the teacher and answer the questions. Get the students listen to the story again, then answer the questions: Q1: which foot? Left or right? Good , right. Q2: what feett? Good, right. Feet in the morning. Feet at night. Q3: what foot? Wet foot, right. Dry foot, right. Q4: What foot? Front foot, right. Back foot, right. ....... 5. Assign homework. The students are supposed to read the picture books at home or borrow the book from the library and read to their parents at home. Week IX&X -- book 5: No, David. Time: 6*10 minutes Content: rules in school and home 86 Materials: a picture book Objective: The purpose of this story is to make students enjoy the story and become aware of the general “feel” of the foreign language Procedures: 1. Brainstorm. Get the students to look at the story book to figure out what they can see. 2. read and say. Get the students look at the big book and read it then tell us what words they see. 3. look and guess. This is a boy. His name is David. He likes to play. See... His mother said, No, David. He wants to play food. His mother said, No, david.(help ss say it) ... 4. Listen and answer the questions. Get the students listen to the story again, then answer the questions: Q1: who is this boy?? Q2: what’s he doing now?? Q3: What is his mother saying? Q4: What does he want to do now? 5. Assign homework. The students are supposed to read the picture books at home or borrow the book from the library and read to their parents at home. Appendix III Reflection notes Reflection I When I was reading lemons are not red to students, it was the first time for them to look at English picture books. All students opened their eyes wider to find out what was in the book because it was different from their text books. When I showed the cover to them, some students shouted out “lemon” at once. Then I asked students to look at the cover again and asked “what color is the lemon?” “Red.” When I asked Are lemons red? Some of them answered?” No”, others looked confused. I continued asking the students who answered “No.” “What color are lemons? They said “yellow.” I confirmed them,” Yes, you are right. Lemons are not red. Lemons are yellow.” Then I turned over the page showing the real color of the lemon. Because this book is carved in shape of fruit and animals, one side of page is real color and the other is the color of another object. This attracted all the students because they were curious to find out what came next. This motivated them a lot and they also wanted to see whether their predictions were right or wrong. 87 I finished reading lemons are not red in 6 teaching periods and all the students were anxious to know what was in the book, but left several pages for students to find out in the school library. This book was a successful beginning of my picture-books storytelling method which I believe will lead to fruitful ending. Reflection II My second picture book is colors by Eric Carle from his book my very first library. There are 4 books in this serial and chose the colors because it is connected with the book I read the first time and it is connected with our teaching topic colors as well. First, as usual, I read the first several pages to them and showed the pictures, and then I stopped because I was going to ask questions about what I read and what they saw. While I asked students to guess the color of a leaf, most of students shouted green, and this impressed me a lot because I never taught them the word “leaf” but I just read it once for them just now. Students’ learning abilities are really good enough to read or listen something higher than their present learning materials. What moved me more was the word caterpillar which has 4 syllables, but my students just started learning English for not more than 2 months. Also, students themselves got excited because they could get the correct answers about what I asked them. Most of students got involved in my class and in my picture book. Of course, when they got the right answer, they would get a star for their team. The funniest thing was that when I asked to guess what color was the last picture, they gave me different colors but I said they were all right and they were very confused and wondered why. Before I showed them the last picture, I asked to think it over and tell me why. One of them raised her hand and said” the caterpillar became a butterfly now.” It really impressed me. 88 Reflection III When I showed the book ”Go away, big green monster!” , all my students were letting out a cry. They were all attracted by the cover because its there was a monster on the cover. I asked them colors and body parts then moved to describe the color of the body parts and they all did very well because they learned the colors in unit 2 of their text books and body parts in Unit 3. When I stopped at the one sixth of the book, they all felt a little disappointed. They seemed interested in this book but I had to pause there because picture-books are only part of my lessons and I do not use pictures books to teach them but to improve their interests, listening, speaking and reading skills. And also this is a little trick for teachers to teach students. We don’t finish good things at one time. We let students expect you to come to classroom with a good story book. When I finished five sixth of this book, I asked them to borrow this book from school library and read it to dad and mum. Luckily, after class, my students all rushed to library to borrow this book and this made me feel very successful and proud. Reflection IV the foot book (Body part and numbers) When I showed the book to the students, they were all attracted by the cover. They all thought it to be a monster book. The funniest thing was that when I asked “how many feet do I have?” all the students answered “two”, but I said I had “”four”, they were all surprised. They soon said “arms are not feet”. When I said” I have 2 arms and 4 feet”, they were completely 89 lost. Then I asked:” Do you know why?” but they all shook their heads. I asked a boy stand behind me and hold me tight and said “I have 4 feet, see?”. All the students laughed happily. When I said,” I have 6 feet”, another boy ran fast to me voluntarily and stood behind the boy who was behind me. Then the “snake” became longer and longer. When I finished the whole book, I found there were too many adjectives for them to remember, but some of the students could the most of the adjectives. Of course, my object was that they could say left and right, foot and feet, how many feet and numbers 1-48. Their abilities to learn really impressed me a lot. Reflection V No, David (Rules) When I showed this book, all the students laughed. When I asked them why they were laughing, they said this boy was funny and this boy was ugly. When I asked them what the boy was doing, one of them said he was to eat the fish and another one said he was to catch the fish. Every time I explained a picture and my students could understand and then they would say,” No, David.” They are quick learners and they can do say something above their English level. Since then, my students can say” no …”, while I am pointing to someone who is not listening to my class. It impresses me a lot. Students learning abilities are really impressive and more than you can think of. While I finished this five books, I thought I should read more English picture books to them and they should read more at home and at library. Appendix IV pre-test I. Listen and circle the words you hear 1. A. pen B. pencil 2. A. ruler B. Crayon 3. A. eraser B. Pencil box 4. A. pencil B. Ruler 5. A. book B. Bag 6. A. hello B. Hi 7. A. welcome B. OK 8. goodbye B. Bye 90 II.Llisten and number 91 III．Listen and“√”. 92 IV. listen and choose what you hear 1. A. Hello! I’m Wu Yifan. B. Hi! I’m Sarah. 2. A. Show me your eraser. B. Show me your crayon. 3. A. Open your pencil box. B. Close your pencil box. 4. A. I have a book. B. I have a ruler. 5. A. Close your book. B. Carry your bag. V. Read and circle 1. A. bag B. book 2. A. pencil B. pencil box 3. A. pen B. ruler 4. A. school B. book 5. A. crayon B. eraser VI. look and choose 1. A. Show me your eraser. B. Close your book. 2. A. Open your pencil box. B. Close your book. 3. A. Show me your crayon. B. how me your pen. 4. A. I have a pencil. B. I have a ruler. 93 VII. read and put“√” or “×” in the circles VIII. match A. q D. n E. d N. a Q. e F. f 94 IX. match ( ) 1. Hi! A. Me, too. ( ) 2. Goodbye! B. I’m Sarah. ( ) 3. What’s your name? C. Yes, i am. ( ) 4. Are you John? D. Hello! ( ) 5. I have a bag. E. Bye! Appendix V Post-test I. listen, draw and color 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 95 II．Listen and “√” III．Listen and choose what you hear ( ( ( ( ( ) 1. A. red ) 2. A. ruler ) 3. A. purple ) 4. A. Sarah ) 5. A. white B. pen B. blue B. orange B.Mike B. Miss White C. bag C. green C. Ruler C. Mom C. Mr White IV. listen and choose the response sentence ( ( ( ( ( ). 1. A. good morning! ) 2. A. OK! ) 3. A. Oh, no! ) 4. A. Goodbye! ) 5. A. Bye! B. Good afternoon! B. Bye! B. Nice to meet you, too! B. Fine, thank you. B. Ok! 96 V. listen and choose the correct sentence on the blanks A: , Mike. B: Good morning, Sarah. A: ? B: I’m fine, thanks. A: This is my friend, John. B: . C: Nice to meet you, too. A: ! B,C: Great! Nice to meet you B. Good morning. C. Let’s paint D. How are you VI．Read and put the words below in category Red pencil book white blue ruler Crayon orange brown pencil-box Colors:……………………………….. Stationary:…………………………… VII．Read and fill the letters 97 VIII. Read and choose ( ) 1. You want to invite friends to paint, you say? A. Let’s play. B. Let’s paint! ( ) 2. You introduce mike to others, you say? A. I’m Mike. B. This is Mike. ( ) 3. Which one can’t answer how are you? A. Fine, thank you. B. Thank you. ( ) 4. How do you say goodbye to mum? A. Bye, mom! B. Hello, mom! ( ) 5. You want your desk mate to color the bear nose brown you say? A. Color it red. B. Color it brown. ( ) 6. When you see blue, you say? A. I see blue. B. I see yellow. IX. Read and match。 98 A. Show me your pen. B. Sit down. C. Stand up. D. Turn around. E. Touch the ground. X. rearrange the sentences in correct order ( ( ( ( ( ) Hi, Mike. How are you? ) I’m fine. Thank you. ) Let’s paint. ) Hello, John. ) Ok. Appendix VI. Questionnaire (Picture books teaching questionnaire) age： gender： Dear students, We hope that we can get some ideas about picture books teaching through this questionnaire. There is no right or wrong about your answer and your answer will not affect your test scores. Just tell us what you think. Thank 99 you! Choose what you think and tick (just one answer). 1. Which one do you prefer, the original class or picture books? a. The original class b. Picture books 2. Has your interest been improved in English listening, speaking and reading? a. nothing improved b. Improved a little c. Improved a lot 3. How much do you understand of the picture book teacher told? a. Nothing b. A little c. Most of them d. All of them 4. Do you predict what will happen in the story? a. Never b. Sometimes c. Usually 5. Do you think you English listening, speaking and reading has been improved during the past 2 and a half months? a. Nothing improved b. Improved a little c. Improved a lot Appendix VII. Students Interview Notes Number of students: 48 ，here appeared 5. 1. do you like listening to and reading picture books？ Jasmine: yes. Daphne：Yes Lily：Yes Felix：Yes Qin：Yes 2. what progress have you made through listening to and reading picture books? Jasmine: English reading and listening. Daphne: I can read picture books myself. Lily：My English score is higher. Felix：My vocabulary is bigger. Qin：English speaking is improved. 3. what you think of picture books? Jasmine: I enjoyed Mr. EZ telling stories.(the teacher’s name is EZ) Daphne：I found picture books interesting. Lily：I feel that school should buy more picture books. 100 Felix：I enjoyed Mr. EZ reading picture books and I enjoyed reading them too. Qin：I enjoyed Mr. EZ reading picture books. 4. can you give any suggestions about picture books reading class? Jasmine: I hope Mr. EZ can read a book every class. Daphne：I hope Mr. EZ can read an interesting book every class. Lily：I hope my teacher can tell us a story each class. Felix：I hope my teacher can read us a story book every day. Qin: I hope my teacher can read more books to us. 101 Appendix VII The project flow chart 102 Teenagers in school libraries! What about the imaginaries and expectations of digital natives? Anne Cordier Rouen University France, [email protected] Abstract On an international scale, a new form of documentary mediation has merged, which is embodied in the structural and physical evolution of documentary spaces. In France, the school library (le "Centre de Documentation et d'Information": CDI) is under the responsibility of a teacher-librarian. He is in charge of teaching students information literacy along with managing the library. Students are welcome to the CDI when they do not attend classes and want to read or need to search information, but also in educational sessions led by the teacher-librarian. At a time when teenagers are referred to as "digital natives", what are their expectations in the school library? How to conceive school libraries so that to help youngsters achieve autonomy in the Information and Communication society? Keywords: Young people,information practices, documentary space, mediation Introduction On an international scale, a new form of document mediation has merged, which is embodied in the structural and physical evolution of document spaces. The quest for autonomy of users-learners appears as a goal for the educational / epistemic institutions that school and the libraries are. Autonomy when searching for information seems to have become a kind of proof of personal accomplishment in our societies. In France, the school library (le "Centre de Documentation et d'Information": CDI) is under the responsibility of a teacher-librarian (professeur documentaliste) who is in charge of teaching students information literacy on the one hand and managing the library on the other hand. Students are welcome to the CDI when they do not attend classes and want to read or need to search information, but also in educational sessions led by the teacher-librarian. At a time when teenagers are referred to as "digital natives"(Barlow, 1996 ; Prensky, 2001), what are their expectations in the school library? How to conceive school libraries so that to help youngsters achieve autonomy in the Information and Communication society ? 103 This questioning will get some answers through the results of the ground research we have been carrying out for years on teenagers and school librarians. Our research method mixes practice and imaginary and is based on a contextual approach of the informational activity that considers the practices observed as socially situated and determined by the symbolic dimension of the location as well as of the people using the considered location. We adopt a qualitative approach of data collection in order to seize in a better way the imaginaries of young people and the “social thickness of the practice in construction”. (Jeanneret, Souchier, Le Marec, 2003). We combine three survey methods : observations, semi-directive interviews, and clarification interviews ; either individual or group interviews. We have observed the behavior in the CDI of French students in high schools (“collèges”, 11 to 14 years old) and colleges (“lycées”, 15 to 18). Our intention was to question their relationships with such a specific location within the educational institution and to check the validity of this widespread claim : “digital natives” have a deeply different relationship with “places of knowledge” (Jacob, 2007), and they reject traditional institutions such as libraries. Our presentation is intended to pull apart such a scientifically flawed assertion and to give voice to teenagers1. It is divided into three parts. In the first part, we will show how the school library can be a real “laboratory for information practices” (Cordier, 2009), which combines formal and non-formal practices. In the second part, we will analyze the students' imaginaries and expectations in the school library and question their relationships with paper or online search tools in the CDI. In the third part, we will show how the school library can be a lever to train school students. Information professionals are indeed truly expected by “digital natives” to provide to them a backup to autonomy in the information society. The school library, a location questioned by the practices of the “digital natives” It is a fact that since the Internet has become important in public or private premises such as public libraries, leisure centers, cafés and of course homes, it has fostered the development of non-formal practices. As they are developed outside the school world, these practices nourish and spoil at the same time the practices prescribed by the school institution (Cordier, 2011). Moreover, these non-formal practices which are very often unseen by school are utterly rightful to the individuals for whom they are efficient and appropriate to their needs and everyday activities. A crossroad for formal and non-formal practices That is why we argue in favor of the vision of the CDI as a crossroad designed to stimulate both formal and non-formal practices. Indeed, during educational sessions, the “Centre de Documentation et d'Information” becomes a place for institutional training where the formality of learning is undeniable. It is different when the place welcomes students with various purposes : searching information, reading, relaxing... In this case, the CDI appears to be a place designed to welcome a diversity of individual and/or group activities. The “professeurs documentalistes” refer to these moments as “document coaching” instead of “document training”. In a teaching-learning situation, a student's documentation practice is necessarily supervised 1 In order to make them understandable, we have translated into English the words of the teenagers we have interviewed. It is obvious however that a translation will not report the nuances and subtleties of the French language. We apologize for any inconvenience 104 and compelled. Contrariwise, everything gets possible for the student when in a situation of informal research in the CDI. As no objective or pedagogical method are prescribed by a teacher, the student can manage his “ways and means” (Certeau, 2004) ie he/she is allowed wide latitude to manage his/her activity as he/she wishes. Therefore, each student in a situation of informal research customizes his/her path and activity according to his/her experience and representations, but also according to the uncertainties of the situation and according to his/her mood. Much can be learnt by academic researchers but also and above all by teachers themselves from observing teenagers' unprompted information practices. An ecological approach of the learner This is indeed our proposal : what if the teacher-librarian takes the chance of the CDI being an observatory of informal practices to develop training practices which would be much fitted to the needs and usual practices of the students ? As a matter of fact, when working, the students do not appear to us as abstract epistemic subjects with disembodied cleverness ; they are social beings with secret behaviors, as they are confronted with the torments they are trying to understand, to explain and to elucidate, looking for a meaning to their endeavors. It is indeed inconceivable to set aside informal information practices as they shape the expectations and the behaviors as far as teaching information is concerned. Moreover, as pointed out by Annette Béguin, a French researcher in Information and Communication Sciences, these practices may be “resources” as well as “epistemological and/or didactic obstacles for teachers” (Béguin, 2006). Eventually, taking into account the students' informal research practices and using them as a support to develop our own professional practices, either teaching or management ones, is a way for us to give social sense to the teaching of information literacy. That is why we take into account in our research the dimensions of imaginary and emotion as they play an important part in the relationship people have with information and in the way they develop information practices. “Digital natives” and school libraries : a couple with a promising future Joëlle Le Marec defines libraries as “cultural and training places” and says : “They are much more symbolical and social places than mere technical objects ; they give an explicit structure to practices” (Le Marec, 2006, p. 16). Inspired by this conviction, we focus on the imaginary developed about libraries by the users and the connection between this imaginary -which is partly influenced by the practices of the professionals- and the practices the users develop. A place rooted in the teenager's emotional and school backgrounds The documentation space is what Michel de Certeau refers to as a “deposit of sense”, in other words, the user reads it and interpret it, giving it a meaning and a function in his informational and more widely biographical itinerary. The school library plays an important part in the life of these school students ; they realized it when they once visited a nearby university library, as shown by this conversion with Caroline and Coraline, 16 : AC : What do you think of this university library ? 105 Caroline : It is quiet, too quiet. I don't like it at all Coraline : I don't like it either. There's no life here. Caroline : Yes, that's it, no life ! We can't talk aloud, we are almost afraid to breathe. No comparison with the CDI AC : Why ? Coraline : Well, in the CDI, we are free to do as we want, we feel there is life there, we can talk, we feel at ease ! The CDI is full of life ! This says it all “we feel at ease! The CDI is fool of life”. The teenagers we met have often told us of their feeling free to talk and at ease in the school library. Aurore, 16, draws a comparison between the school library and the public library and once more, it sounds the death knell : “I feel much at ease in the CDI, honestly, because we can talk as we want, work the way we like, the way we're used to. The CDI is a place much suited to us, to our way of working, while at the public library, it looks like we have to be different from what we are in real life”. The teenagers we have interviewed need the CDI to study, but it is also seen as a living place where they can “mix study and pleasure” as said by Sabrina, 12. Flavien, 17, will not compare the CDI to what he refers to as a “traditional library” : For me, the CDI is not a traditional library because of course we can work in there, but it is also a place where we can gather and where the teacher-librarian can give us pieces of advice and even discuss with us, sometimes about non-school topics. The CDI is more lively. The library is only to work, it is more serious”. The way these teenagers read the spatial organization and the signage nourishes this vision of the CDI. Coline, 11, pointed out that the school library is decorated with posters of movies youngsters are interested in. Baptiste, 14, enjoys being allowed to move the tables inside the CDI for a group work ; this is often not allowed in public libraries. Eventually, if teenagers willingly plebiscite the school library, it I because there is there an information professional responsive to their needs. In the imaginary of the students we have met, there is no CDI without a teacher-librarian and vice versa. Attending the CDI is the best way for a student to be helped by a teacher qualified in the field of information. “If I have a problem, I know that [the teacher-librarian] is there to help me”, Marion, 11, who often goes to the CDI for her researches, explained. College students enjoys the school library when granted a margin of liberty by the teacher-librarian : “He trusts us”, Justine, 15, pointed out, referring to the way the teacher-librarian manages the place. Flavien, 17, agreed : “it's like home : if you're sensible, then you can do as you please. I do like that, it is the best way of improving”. Eventually, Kelly, 16, summed it up : “We're really at ease in our CDI, for sure ! With [teacher-librarian] who is there just in case we need help, and we have our working habits here !” A documentation space with its own informational singularity The school library is thus meaningful to teenagers as a living and studying place. But how important is it to them when searching information is concerned ? The question is worth being asked at a time when public discourses refer to “mutant teenagers” who need no help from anyone to live in the information world. 106 Mark Prensky, an American consultant is indeed unequivocal : ” It is now clear that as a result of this ubiquitous environment and the sheer volume of their interaction with it, today’s students think and process information fundamentally differently from their predecessors” (Prensky, 2001). Prensky's thesis is however denounced with no hesitation by quite a lot of academic researchers, such as Sue Bennet who does not beat about the bush : “ He relies on anecdotes, conjecture and speculation. Nonetheless his ideas have often been uncritically repeated and cited as if fact” (Bennet, 2012). We back such a disagreement. Considering “youngsters” as “digital natives” is a mere smoke-screen that leads to cast an homogeneous glance to teenagers when they use the Internet or digital technologies in general ; it also leads to hastily conclude that the digital environment is a mere substitution of the printed information world. Many students we have met, either in high schools or colleges, declare themselves non expert as far as searching information on the Internet is concerned and even confess being apprehensive when a project they are working on must end up with a digital production. We met for instance Armelle, 17, who claims a need for training to the Internet : “I've got an I-Phone but I'm not an expert though !” But we have also been able to see that these students, even though exposed to a digital atmosphere, have an almost traditional imaginary when libraries are concerned. As part of a college university project, some college students had the opportunity of a working session in a university library ; they beat the odds as they were very disappointed by the place being modern. An informal conversation we had outside the university library with Anaïs and Aurore, 16, deserves our attention : Julie : I was disappointed actually ! I expected a dark place, you see, with large wooden tables, dim lights, and actually, it was different ! Anaïs : Not at all, there were computers, modern furniture like in the CDI; it was very modern all in all […] AC : Do you consider working in a library with no computer ? Anaïs : To be honest, yes... For me, computers don't make a library interesting to me. Julie : [she interrupts Anaïs] We have computers at home, we don't need to find computers everywhere. The younger teenagers that we have met reveal the same imaginary through their practices of the “Centre de Documentation et d'Information”. Once they are in the place, they are “diverted” from digital tools. Many of them point out what makes it deeply different between the CDI and other living places : a printed collection they don't have elsewhere. Melissa, 11, for instance, has an Internet connection at home and is used to resorting outside school to digital tools to search information. It is all different when she is in the CDI : “When at school, I seize the opportunity to benefit from all these books ; they are beautiful, you can't imagine how I like them. There are no books at home, they're so expensive”. Even for Émilie, 11, from an upper-class family, the interest for the printed collection is much higher than it is for digital tools ; this has an influence on her information search methodology when she is in the CDI : AC : My, is it a documentary book you are using ? Émilie : yes, it is the CDI here, so I seize the opportunity AC : What opportunity ? Émilie : Books. Seeing all these books, I feel like touching them, looking at them ! AC : So are you doing your information search in books at the moment ? 107 Émilie : yes, I often do that when I'm in the CDI. There are loads of books waiting for me [laughters] so, I use them ! AC : You told me however that you'd rather use the Internet usually. Émilie : Yes, that's right ! When at home or at one of my friend's, I use the Internet, that's my trick. But it's different here, even if I have books at home, not that much and not about so many topics. So when I'm in the CDI, it's books first ! However, even in the school library, the information activity is undoubtedly influenced by digital and mobile tools. In the CDI, there is no information search activity without resorting to communication tools, whatever their kinds. That is what happened in this college where the teacher-librarian lets the students use their mobile phones when working in groups, particularly when students belonging to the same group are located in different rooms : some in the CDI, some in the computer room and some others in the classroom). We have been able to observe that self-regulation, especially validating resources, was performed through text messages. Another mobile tool take an important part, when it is allowed, in teenagers' information activities : the MP3 player. Many teenagers, especially boys, turn it on when they need isolation within their own groups. They enjoy being able to transpose their usual working habits from their bedrooms to the school library, as Mathieu, 17, pointed out : “At home, I always works like that, so when in the CDI, I'm glad I can do it too. It helps me concentrate on my work. I feel like home !” The school library is thus a place where information and communication practices are utterly multimedia. The school library provides assistance to the « digital natives » Is it time then, as Vincent Liquète, Cécile Gardiès and Isabelle Fabre said, to “reconsider document mediation” (Liquète et al., 2010) ? This implies for us another questioning, and a fertile one : how can the teacher-librarian back on the information space to teach information and documentation in a contextualized and efficient way ? Mediation through the space : a lever to teach information literacy Isabelle Fabre, a researcher in Information and Communication Sciences asserted that “a documentation system contains the ability of providing support” (Fabre, 2009). The space is an integral part of a documentation system. Hence the special attention to be paid to the CDI as a documentation space, as a place for information but also for developing information practices. To our mind, it is a mediation of sense that can be fostered in the CDI by the teacherlibrarian. The aim is to enable students to realize the various potentialities of action which are offered by the space, in other words the information context they are evolving in. This construction of affordances (we mean being aware of the action potentialities a context offers) relies on the way a professional will educate a student's capacity of paying attention. Such a capacity can only develop if a student is encouraged to investigate tools and methods, to be thoughtful of his/her procedures and productions, in other words, to be undertaking. Implementing adapted learning methods 108 A documentation space is considered as a tool for the professionals as it helps them foster their students' autonomy (Fabre, 2009). Autonomy is the ability of learning by oneself from the context (Liquète, Maury, 2007). Thanks to his/her expertise, the teacher-librarian can take advantage of a context he/she contributes to create to develop information teaching situations that aim the quest for autonomy. Then, planning the space and utilizing it pedagogically and didactically, the teacher-librarian can convert it into an “area of encouraged actions”. This area includes “all the activities, objects and places gathered in a space of action with the aim of helping a student enhance his/her potentiality of action, and therefore his/her capacity of action' (Bril, 2002, p. 258). When evaluating the information potentiality of the context he/she is evolving in, the student is really able to formalize the documentation methodology he/she is setting up. Indeed, the context where practices are developing can be considered as the cognitive extension of the human beings who are part of it. This context is then equivalent to a set of cognitive resources an actor can draw on to perform an action (Proulx, 2000). The collaborative activities allowed in the school library, as they commit students into a collective issue resolution process, encourage them to think upon their own cognitive processes and help them to acquire culture of participation, an necessary skill in the information world. However, it seems essential to us to also think of the space in a virtual dimension (Lamizet, 1998). We do not regard the virtual space as complementary to the real space, but we consider both as a continuum, a complex and boundless information world. That is why information professionals bear a great responsibility nowadays, as they they are provided with a particularly mighty mediation tool, the school library, to foster their users' emancipation. It is up to them, it is up to all of us collectively to work upon the development of information potential for everyone, that is to say the ability for an individual to enhance his skills, either quantity wise or quality wise (Yoon, 2008). Such a skill is all the more essential for constructing information culture that it stands in a proactive vision of learning and is a key factor in the ability of the individual to adapt to future environments. Conclusion As attested by our research, the future looks bright for the school library, and the teenagers we have met agree on that ! The school library is a living place and a meeting place but also an outstanding educational tool to develop a multifaceted, collaborative and emancipatory information culture. We must not however be mistaken : it is not only a matter of space ! Care must be taken not to restrict mediation to the student's information context. Thinking on spaces to develop information autonomy does not restrict to interior layout, equipment nor usage. Some complex issues are at stake, such as the question of taking into account usual information practices and of course, last but not least, the professional's position in a space where mediation is important. We are persuaded that the school library -CDI- is a significant factor of “being-in-theinformation-world”, which is for us a set of attitudes, values, imaginaries and practices associated with attendance to information environments. References Barlow, John (1996). Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace. July 30, 2011. Retrieved form : https://projects.eff.org/~barlow/Declaration-Final.html 109 Béguin-Verbrugge, Annette (2006). Pourquoi faut-il étudier les pratiques informelles des apprenants en matière d’information et de documentation ?. Communication au colloque CIVIIC « Histoire et savoirs », Rouen, mai 2006. Bennett, Sue (2012). Digital natives. In YAN, Z. (Eds). Encyclopedia of Cyber Behavior. United States : IGI Global, vol.1, 212-219. Retrieved from : http://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2364&context=edupapers Bril, Blandine (2002). Apprentissage et contexte. Intellectica, 35, 251-268. Certeau, Michel de (2004). L’invention du quotidien. 1 : Arts de faire. Paris : Gallimard. Cordier, Anne (2009). Le CDI : un laboratoire à la croisée des mondes. Médiadoc, 3, 6-10. Cordier, Anne (2011). Imaginaires, représentations, pratiques formelles et non formelles de la recherche d’information sur Internet : Le cas d’élèves de 6ème et de professeurs documentalistes. Thèse de Doctorat en Sciences de l’Information et de la Communication, sous la direction de Éric Delamotte et Vincent Liquète, Lille 3. Retrieved from : http://tel.archivesouvertes.fr/docs/00/73/76/37/PDF/THESE_Volume_1.pdf Fabre, Isabelle (2009). Capacité du dispositif documentaire à révéler son rôle d’accompagnement. Esquisse, 52, 127-139. Retrieved from : http://oatao.univtoulouse.fr/1941/ Jacob, Christian (dir.) (2007). Lieux de savoir : espaces et communautés. Paris : Albin Michel. Jeanneret, Yves, Souchier, Emmanuel, Le Marec, Joëlle (2003). Lire, écrire, récrire : objets, signes et pratiques des médias informatisés. Paris : BPI. Le Marec, Joëlle (2006). Les musées et bibliothèques comme espaces culturels de formation. Savoirs, 2006/2, 11, 09-38. Liquete, Vincent, Fabre, Isabelle, Gardies, Cécile. Faut-il repenser la médiation documentaire ?. Les Enjeux de l’Information et de la Communication, 43-57. Liquete, Vincent, Maury, Yolande (2007). Le travail autonome : comment aider les élèves à l’acquisition de l’autonomie. Paris : Armand Colin. Prensky, Marc (2001). Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants. On the Horizon, 9 (5), 01-06. Proulx, Serge (2000). La construction sociale des objets informationnels : matériaux pour une ethnographie des usages. Réseaux, Savoirs et Territoires. Retrieved from: http://barthes.ens.fr/atelier/articles/proulx2000.html 110 Yoon, C.G. (2008). A structural model of end-user computing competency and user performance. Knowledge-Based Systems, 21. Biographical note Anne Cordier is a former teacher-librarian. She has a PhD in Information and Communication Science. She is now an Associate professor (maître de conférences) at Rouen University. She is very involved in the training of teacher-librarians. She is also involved into several research projects among which is “Translit”. Her personal research focuses on imaginaries of information and informational practices, and a reflection about places of information. Her most recent contributions was in the European Conference on Information Literacy 2014 in Dubrovnik (Croatia) with Anne Lehmans about “Transliteracy and knowledge formats”. She’s one of the authors of Culture of Information a book recently published by Vincent Liquète (CNRS, Essentiels Hermès, 2014). 111 Ethical dilemmas for researchers working in international contexts Ray Doiron, PhD University of Prince Edward Island, Canada Marlene Asselin, PhD University of British Columbia, Canada Keywords: Ethics, Researchers, International contexts Introduction The International Association for School Librarianship (IASL) has a reputation for supporting and disseminating research informing school librarianship around the world. Since the organization serves a multi-national and multi-cultural library community, it has the responsibility to promote sound ethical procedures for all research. This can raise serious dilemmas for researchers planning to work in Global South countries with few or different ethical standards for conducting research when, as members of the Global North academic community, we are bound by strict guidelines covering ethical procedures. These dilemmas can include: 1) differing views on what counts as research: 2) differing values and policies on gender, religion, inclusive practices and other social and cultural areas; 3) the insider/outsider phenomenon (white privileged researchers working in non-white communities; and 4) developing research instruments that are culturally sensitive. These dilemmas present serious challenges as we set out to conduct research in school and community libraries in remote/rural areas and large urban centers where frontline staff have little or no experience with, nor knowledge of, educational research. Researchers are charged then to pay serious attention to issues of positionality, paradigms of what is “truth”, iterative methods and analyses, as well as an overarching awareness of their reflexivity throughout the research process. Research in this context becomes a continuous process of examining our relationship with fellow researchers and research participants, the dynamics of that relationship, and its relationship to the research that is undertaken. Without a self-critical lens through which we engage in the research process we run the risk of placing ourselves in the position where “ethical research guidelines {as imposed by Universities} could be yet another western construct that create a global discourse of ‘our way’ is the ‘right way’ to do things” (Skelton, 2008, p. 29). Over the past two decades, the ethics of research involving children and youth has become a prominent topic in the literature (Powell, Fitzgerald, Taylor, & Graham, 2012), sparking a proliferation of resources for researchers (Alderson & Morrow, 2011; Childwatch International Research Network, n.d.; Graham, Powell, Taylor, Anderson & Fitzgerald, 2013; Young Lives, n.d.; UNICEF Office of Research, n.d). Spurred by the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) and the emergence of the sociology of childhood (Mayall, 2002), accordant rights-protecting procedures were instituted and methods of research designed to enable 112 voices of children and youth to be heard to various degrees throughout the research process. However, from an international perspective, this paradigm of research with children and the knowledge generated by it are unbalanced since . . . ‘only a little more than 10% of the world’s children live in the developed countries of Europe, North America and other European outposts... yet the research is heavily concentrated on children from these places” (Pence & Nsamenang, 2008, p.14). How then should researchers working with children in school and community libraries develop research that assures fair and respectful ethical procedures? What role do children play in the research process – subject, informant or participant? How can Western researchers approach research in developing countries where expectations for ethical research may or may not exist? This paper takes a critical perspective on these issues by: 1) reflecting on the various stances that researchers take in approaching new research; 2) comparing expectations for ethics in developed and developing countries; and 3) identifying the position children are placed in before, during and after research projects. We begin our discussion by examining some of the current political, economic and ethical challenges facing researchers wishing to work in international contexts. Research Challenges All research is influenced by the political climate in which it is generated and then conducted. In Canada, we see several examples of what could be called ‘political interference’ when we see major research organizations issue calls for proposals usually framed within specified themes, such as gender issues, aboriginal culture or adult/workplace literacy. Often these themes come with expectations that partnerships and collaborations will be developed; outcomes and deliverables will be achieved; and some economic impact will accrue from the research. This becomes a pressure for ‘real’ results and ‘real world’ applications that can stifle some forms of research and leave researchers chasing projects that meet the criteria of the themes outlined by the governing research bodies. Similarly university research offices frame their research directions within the same thematic frameworks and review proposals with key national criteria in place. In international contexts, political and economic pressures are also exerted on researchers, non-governmental agencies, as well as government departments of education and health. Many African countries for example are currently being supported by large international aid organizations e.g., (US AID, British Council, Australia AID) who bring new energy, reform and money to help emerging economy countries meet Millennial Development Goals (MDG) and achieve “literacy for all’. These initiatives are also closely monitored through large-scale assessments and mostly quantitative program evaluations. Since with in-country researchers have limited research experiences, these major ‘outside’ initiatives dominate the research landscape. In similar ways, local governments set their educational priorities with many countries emphasizing secondary and post-secondary initiatives that see new universities and colleagues being established and priority being given to science and technology programs. 113 Funding Challenges Tied closely to the political agendas of governments, foundations, donor and international aid agencies are issues related to research funding. It takes financial resources to be able to develop research projects and in the Canadian context, funding sources are closely tied to the political and long-range goals outlined by these organizations. A ‘corporate’ model has emerged with funders expecting results that will further their agendas. Most universities and colleges in Canada have clear statements outlining the research foci that will be supported – collaborative, interdisciplinary, marginalized groups with increasing expectations for researchers to be finding international partners for their projects. It would be fair to say that without attention to these criteria, a researcher would likely not get funded. Most universities in Canada have also developed large research offices with a growing staff for managing and leading research in each faculty, searching for new funding sources, supporting grant writing, and leading efforts at research dissemination. Strategic vision statements have been written in most institutions and these documents guide the types of funding grants that will be supported. In the international context, the links between political agendas and research funding are just as obvious. With most of the funding for major literacy initiatives coming from outside the country (such as from international aid, donor and faith-based organizations), researchers in many African countries are attracted to these funding sources. With little or no internal research funding and many university-based researchers largely self-funded, their research remains isolated from their continental and global colleagues and lacking in a cohesive strategy over the long term. Adding to the difficulties facing these researchers, there are even less funds available for research dissemination or travel for conferences in most developing countries. The rise of open access journals has started to have some impact on getting the research in these countries more accessible to the world. Ethical Challenges Most universities in the Global North are advocating for researchers to develop international research projects by forming university-to-university academic agreements that include program sharing, faculty and student exchanges and research collaborations which also increases the challenges for matching ethical standards between the two (or more) institutions. In Canada the United Nations Charter of Rights for the Child and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedom dominate the contexts in which all research must be done. The Canadian government through its Tri-Council agencies sets policies, guidelines and procedures for conducting research internally within the country (with additional guidelines for marginalized individuals and communities) and gives special attention to international research (See Tri-Council Policy Statement of Research with Humans). Local universities and colleges take the Tri-Council directives and guide their implementation through their own in-house research policies/procedures led by Research Ethics Boards (REBs) established at each post-secondary institution. All of these regulations affect the research context in Canada and must be addressed faithfully in order to receive and maintain research funding. These regulations cover such issues as the privacy and safety of research participants, gaining access to populations, the use of tape recorders, cameras and video, Internet access, and informed consent/assent to name a few. Researchers are advised to follow regulations for involving community members in the research, make plans for on-going communication with participants, as well as plans for reporting back to participants as part of 114 their dissemination plans. All of these regulations are even more stringent when researchers are working with vulnerable populations in the country. In the international context, few countries of the Global South have instituted comprehensive processes for conducting educational research. In many cases with educational research, no formal ethical approval is needed. Researchers (often a male authority figure) enter a school assuming children and teachers will participate in whatever projects they are undertaking. Parents are rarely asked for permission to involve their children and children are not asked to give assent to take part. In addition, there is little reporting back to participants once results have been analyzed. Dilemmas Arising With this brief look at the political, economic and ethical challenges facing researchers in Canada and some developing countries, we turn now to examine some of the dilemmas arising out of these challenges. The dilemmas can be briefly stated in this way: ● Differing views of what counts as research. Within our country and beyond its borders, researchers are faced with meeting the needs of those who expect research to be quantitative in design yielding results that “prove” what works and those who expect research to be more qualitative giving a richer and more robust sense of a phenomenon and those affected by it. ● The qualitative/quantitative dilemma is particularly prevalent as the Global North view of research meets the emerging research culture in countries like Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and other developing countries in Africa. In these countries the quantitative research culture is deeply entrenched while increasing numbers of ‘outside’ researchers view research from a socio-cultural, more qualitative perspective thus immediately running into competing ‘worldviews”. ● Role of the child in the research. As we work internationally we also see variance in the position of the child in the research process. There is a range of views of the child from simply being a passive subject acted upon through to being a competent participant in the research with important perceptions on matters that affect their lives (Asselin & Doiron, submitted). Do we provide children with the opportunity to give informed consent or at least assent? ● Insiders and outsiders. The majority of Western researchers are white, privileged academics who are attempting to move into very different cultural situations than their own. These are not only cultural differences such as food, dress, religion and language but differences in previous research experiences, access to a wealth of resources unknown to many emerging researchers in developing countries, and often with expectations that English will be the dominant language used for any partnership and collaborations. ● Differing inclusive policies and practices. In Canada we are governed by strict policies and common beliefs/values about diversity, equity and inclusion. These values extend into all vulnerable communities, differences in gender roles, religions, sexual orientation, and the myriad of developmental and physical limitations common in any society. However, such policies and practices around inclusion are just emerging in many developing countries and there are underlying differences in how people perceive gender roles, diverse religions and equal rights for all. ● Western requirements for ethical procedures. How do we proceed and what are we to do with data collected outside of the standards established by our national agencies 115 ● and our local university REBs? Can we analyze and then disseminate findings if the data was not collected following our national procedures? Are participants in research truly giving informed consent or merely going along with authority figures? The data collection process may seem appropriate and ‘legal’ in the local context but would likely be disqualified without following the ethical standards established by our parent institutions. Developing/adapting culturally sensitive instruments culturally sensitive. Coupled with issues of the ethical collection of data are ones related to the construction of data tools that are culturally sensitive, reflective of how ‘locals’ would address the issues and written in a language that is accessible to all participants. We are often in the situation where we are developing instruments in our first language (usually English) when this may be the second or even third language of local users of such an instrument. How we say things in English may not be easily translated into Amharic, Tswahili or Luganda for example. Research ‘Headwork’ Faced with these challenges and ethical dilemmas, researchers wishing to work with colleagues in developing countries need to approach their research with a new set of lenses through which they initiate, conduct, analyze and report research in these international contexts. Sultana (2006) emphasizes that “fieldwork is always contextual, relational, embodied, and political (p.374)”. What emerges then is a complex iterative research process that folds back into itself repeatedly relying on deep listening, ongoing communication, reflection, re-visioning and attention to ethics in both the originating context and the local situation where the work will be done. Thus, library researchers need to become less reliant on traditional data collection and analysis methods to develop a more generative, iterative, conceptual process more focused on building research capacity and new understandings of educational research. All of this should be developing with the ever-present trepidation about imposing values and shades of post-colonialism on the people and contexts in which we hope to work. On the other hand, if we stop and think about it, these dilemmas could provide us with a rich space in which to build our collaborations around exploring mutual issues, finding common ground and focusing on what Chiseri-Strater and Sunstein (2006) call the “headwork” in doing research. This headwork involves critical “habits of mind”, such as: a) The ‘nature of truth’; b) reflexivity; c) positionality; 4) emergent methods, analysis and findings; and 5) dissemination. We will take a brief look at each one. The ‘nature of truth’ Competing paradigms for research as exemplified by the qualitative/quantitative debate really represent differing epistemologies and a concern with the nature and scope of knowledge. One spectrum of research approach is based on the notion that ‘truth’ is simply ‘out there’ and we just have to discover it, while the other assumes that all meanings are interactively and socially constructed. Most researchers see benefits in both approaches but tend philosophically to lean to one or the other. How we see the world and how we understand the purposes and processes for doing research, and how we understand how we form new knowledge are all factors in determining what we see as the ‘truth’. When attempting to develop research with new colleagues, researchers need to be cognizant that 116 they may be coming from a different paradigm and that a negotiation needs to take place to ensure each worldview is recognized, respected and employed to achieve a balance in the relationship. In our past experiences with school library research, we have learned that non-pragmatic research (such as ethnography, hermeneutics, narrative and other socio-cultural approaches) holds little resonance with politicians and decision-makers. This has forced us to more clearly articulate the goals, the value and the impact of our research. This is understandable given the need for impact in countries faced with extreme challenges in health and education brought on by poverty and slow economic growth. Reflexivity Reflexivity involves making the research process itself a focus of inquiry where researchers lay open pre-conceptions to become aware of situational dynamics and to recognize that all participants are jointly involved in knowledge production. Research then becomes a continuous process of examining our “personal baggage” (Kirby & McKenna, 1989) and personal assumptions, our preconceptions and how they affect all research decisions. When we work with other colleagues we enter into a continuous process examining our relationship, the dynamics of that relationship and its impact on the research. As we move into research in school and community libraries in global communities, we must be very aware that our vision for how a school library operates may be vastly different than our colleagues in small, under-developed libraries. Our experiences working in such libraries has taught us that while the quantity and quality of resources is wanting, and the training and sophistication of library program is still emerging, the very essence of what a library is and how it contributes to learning and the culture for reading in a community is very strong in all of these libraries. Positionality All researchers are positioned by factors of age, gender, race, class, nationality, religion, institutional affiliation, historical and personal circumstances and intellectual disposition. The extent to which such influences are revealed or concealed is circumscribed by the paradigms and disciplines under which we train, work, and publish. Recognizing our position and using it as a lens through which we do our research will shed light on: 1) the power relations that would affect the kinds of relations we have with the people we work with, and therefore the kinds of information we observe; and 2) the effect of our own subjectivity might have on how we interpret "results” (Chiseri-Strater, n.d.; Kapoor, 2004; Ganga & Scott, 2006). As we began our work with libraries in Ethiopia we felt very much like O’Leary (n.d.) who expresses her reflections about the position she experienced. At the outset of a research or consulting project, my social identification by others as an outsider and an ‘expert’ has generally meant that I have been invested with power by others in the group. Yet the philosophy that underpins my worldview and the ways in which I engage in research is a collaborative and participative one which is based on sharing power (p.2). 117 This means that as researchers we need to take the time to listen, to engage respectfully with our counterparts and take small steps towards a mutual position regarding what questions we will explore, how we will explore them and what we ultimately will do with any results we may attain. Emergent methods, analyses and findings Jones (2006) warns researchers that “the processes of coding, analysis, interpretation and reporting of data can be colored by the researcher’s conceptual framework to the exclusion of the informants, placing the researcher in a supreme position of control over the research process (p.171)”. This forces us to re-examine the traditional research model where questions are generated, data is collected, analysis is completed away from the informants and findings are reported in isolation. The entire process must become an iterative one where the research team develops the research focus that becomes a starting point for the study. Research tools are adapted, revised, and responsive to the context and the feedback from participants. Findings emerge throughout the process and not simply at the end. Participants verify and add input to the analysis helping to keep the richness of the situation. In other words, context and socio-cultural factors influence the development of research methods and analysis. Our experiences with a family literacy program led by community library staff brought home many of these issues as we set out to adapt a literacy assessment instrument to the languages, cultural contexts and informed consent procedures most of which were nonexistent. Our partners in the work were unfamiliar with such instruments and worked along with us to translate the questions not only into local languages but also in recognizable situations familiar to those who would do the assessment. Dissemination In a traditional research model, researchers wait until their data has been collected, analyzed and a set of findings is developed. Too often, Western researchers share their work in journals and conference venues where global perspectives and participants may be limited. In a reflexive model, dissemination is seen as part of the on-going collaborative, participatory process where one cycle of collaborative work leads into the next, where established relationships can grow and deepen as respect is building and collaborators trust each other more easily. It is not seen as a ‘take the data and run’ process. This has led to Western researchers looking for ‘new venues’ to share research results, ones that are closer to the global community where the work took place. In addition, it has led to opportunities to facilitate local researchers getting their work shared at in-country and international conferences (See CIES at http://www.cies.us for example) and having articles published in peer-reviewed journals (See the IFLA Journal and School Libraries Worldwide for examples). Research ‘Alerts’ We are familiar with the concept of ‘alerts’, those messages (sometimes annoying) we receive alerting us to some new ideas, resources or innovations. An alert is also seen as a warning, a ‘heads-up’ about potential problems or issues you need to be aware of before venturing out on a new project in the hopes of avoiding them or preventing them from happening. We need to be on the alert for situations, ideologies and new understandings that will challenge what we have been doing traditionally in our research while leading us to new research landscapes where true collaboration and meaningful new insights into school and 118 community library effectiveness can be identified and disseminated in a global and democratic exchange of ideas. Taking a more critical approach to research will be challenging and will increase the time it takes to get a research agenda established, one based on mutual respect, true collaboration and mutual benefit. With this vision in place, we offer several research ‘alerts’ that colleagues need to be aware of and prepared to accept. 1) As more Western academics move into research partnerships with nongovernmental organizations, university collaborators and frontline library leaders, they need to embrace a more critical research paradigm where research is understood as “the co-production of new understandings and solutions that tap the expertise of non-academic partners.” (Sharrock, 2007, p. 10). 2) Skelton (2008) warns us that “ethical research guidelines {as imposed by Universities} could be yet another Western construct that creates a global discourse of ‘our way’ is the ‘right way’ to do things” (p. 29). 3) The lack of regulatory mechanisms in some Majority world contexts, places the onus on researchers and the institutions to which they belong (Leach, 2006). Part of our role is to help local researchers develop the ethical principles that will enhance their research and ensure participants of fair and respectful treatment. 4) Ethical codes that are restrictive and binding need to become more iterative and responsive, which does not fit the standard format of knowing in advance what will happen and how it will be managed, as is generally required by ethics boards in Western universities and colleges. 5) Be knowledgeable of local policies concerning education and research. For example, although the UN Convention of the Rights of the Child may be supposed universal, Africa has its own Charter of the Rights and Welfare of the Child (http://www.au.int/en/sites/default/files/Charter_En_African_Charter_on_the_Rights_ and_Wlefare_of_the_Child_AddisAbaba_July1990.pdf). A Challenge for IASL in Moving Forward Many professional associations including the International Association of School Librarianship (IASL) originated in Western countries. The IASL has worked diligently to build international membership and encourage school library development globally. This has included disseminating current research at its annual conference, research grants and publications in School Libraries Worldwide. However, as research and collaborations are encouraged by government, funders and the Academy to become more global, the persistent dominance of Western perspectives is uncomfortable for present and future members. In IASL, by far the majority of research remains carried out and published by colleagues in Western countries (Asselin, 2011). Are we doing enough to support and disseminate school library research being conducted by the global school library community? Is some of that research being done but not reaching an international audience? How can IASL show leadership in gathering and disseminating that research? As we move into more global partnerships around research, could IASL offer guidelines for conducting that research in ethical and respectful ways? In Canada as in all Western countries, institutions and organizations are composing visions, guidelines and principles for the current reality of being a researcher in an international arena (Association of Canadian Deans of Education, 2014; Canadian Bureau for International Education; 2013; Ethics of International Engagement and Service-Learning Project, 2011). The potential of principled, collaborative, international research includes “increased 119 intercultural understanding and dialogue through a realization of interdependence” . . . and “building partnerships based on reciprocity, social accountability, and sustainability” (Association of Canadian Deans of Education, 2014, p. 5). From such potential, enormous opportunities for supporting economic and social justice are afforded. Internationalization offers an opportunity to establish collaborative, ethical partnerships that foster the ideals of economic and social justice and that take us beyond the ethnocentric, hegemonic, depoliticized, and paternalistic historical patterns of engagement. In turn, increased understanding may result in a reciprocal improvement of educational research and practices. (Association of Canadian Deans of Education, 2014, p. 5). As an international association representing libraries supporting teaching and learning for children and youth throughout the world, IASL needs to seriously take renewed responsibility to ensure ethical research for their global membership and for the larger library community. In this paper, we have identified key issues and challenges, have provided concepts that can undergird formation of ethical international research, and pointed to exemplary documents by relevant institutions and associations. It is time for IASL to step forward for the global school library community. References Alderson P., & Morrow V. (2011). The ethics of research with children and young people: A practical handbook. London: Sage Publications. Asselin, M. (2011). Internationalism as leadership in IASL research: Accomplishments and directions. School Libraries Worldwide, 17(2), 13 – 24. Asselin, M., & Doiron, R. (submitted). Toward an ethical research praxis in literacy research with young children in the Majority World. Canadian and International Education Journal. Association of Canadian Deans of Education (2014). Accord on the Internationalization of Education. Available at: http://www.csse-scee.ca/docs/acde/Accord_Internationalization_EN.pdf Canadian Bureau for International Education. (2013). Code of Ethical Practice of the Canadian Bureau for International Education (CIBE). Available at: http://www.cbie.ca/members/code-of-ethical-practice/ Childwatch Research Network. (n.d.). Available at: http://www.childwatch.uio.no/ Chiseri-Strater, E., & Sunstein, B. S. (2006). What works?: A practical guide for teacher research. Portsmouth, NH : Heinemann. Chsieri-Strater, E. (n.d.). Turning in upon ourselves: Positionality, subjectivity and 120 reflexivity in case studies and ethnographic research. Available at: http://joemoxley.org/sites/Joe_Moxley/research/AssignedReadings/Jennie%20Dau terman,%20Social%20and%20Institutional%20Power%20Relationships.pdf Ethics of International Engagement and Service-Learning Project. (2011).Global praxis: Exploring the ethics of engagement abroad. Vancouver, BC. Available at: http://ethicsofisl.ubc.ca Ganga, D., & Scott, S. (2006). Cultural "Insiders" and the issue of positionality in qualitative migration research: Moving “across" and moving “along” researcherparticipant divides. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 7(3), Art. 7. Available at: http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0114-fqs060379 Graham, A., Powell, M., Taylor, N., Anderson, D., & Fitzgerald, R. (2013). Ethical research involving children. Florence: UNICEF Office of Research - Innocenti. Available at: http://childethics.com/ Jones, M. (2006). The guest from England: Exploring issues of positionality in a foreign and yet familiar setting. European Societies, 8(1), 169-187. Kapooor, I. (2004). Hyper-self-reflexive development: Spivak on representing the Third World ‘other’. Third World Quarterly, 25(4), 627-647. Kirby, S., & McKenna, K. (1989). Methods from the margins: Experience, Research, Social Change. Toronto, ON: Garamond Press. Leach, F. (2006). Researching gender violence in schools: Methodological and ethical considerations. World Development, 34, 1129-1147. Mayall, B. (2002). Towards a Sociology for Childhood: Thinking from Children's Lives. London: Open University Press. O’Leary, D. (n.d.). Outsider positioning in action research: Struggling with being on the outside looking in. Available at: http://www.arcolloquium.weebly.com/uploads/6/9/2/5/.../doleary_abstract.pdf Pence, A., & Nsamenang, B. (2008) A case for early childhood development in sub-Saharan Africa. Working Paper No. 51. The Hague, The Netherlands: Bernard van Leer Foundation. Available at: http://www.web.uvic.ca/~eyrd/pubs/Pence_Nsamenang_BvL_WP_51_2008.pdf Powell, M.A., Fitzgerald, R.M., Taylor, N., & Graham, A (2012). International literature review: Ethical issues in undertaking research with children and young people, for the Childwatch International Research Network, Southern Cross University, Centre for Children and Young People, Lismore NSW and University of Otago, Centre for Research on Children and Families, Dunedin, NZ. 121 Sharrock, G. (2007) After Copernicus: Beyond the crisis in Australian universities. Australian Universities Review, 49 (1&2), 2-4. Available at: http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ802269.pdf Skelton, T. (2008). Research with children and young people: Exploring the tensions between ethics, competence and participation. Children’s Geographies, 6 (1), 21– 36. Sultana, F. (2006). Reflexivity, positionality and participatory ethics: Negotiating fieldwork dilemmas in international research. ACME: An International E-Journal for Critical Geographies, 6(3) 374-378). Tri-Council document: Tri-Council Policy Statement of Research with Humans – Chapter 9 on aboriginal and international ethical guidelines, p. 105-135. http://www.pre.ethics.gc.ca/pdf/eng/tcps2/TCPS_2_FINAL_Web.pdf UNICEF Office of Research. (n.d.). Available at: http://www.unicef-irc.org/office/ Young Lives Project (n.d.) Available at: http://www.younglives.org.uk/ 122 Inquiry learning: educating librarians for their educational role Adriana Bogliolo Sirihal Duarte School of Information Science, Federal University of Minas Gerais UFMG, Belo Horizonte, Brazil Av. Presidente Antônio Carlos, 6627 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, Brazil [email protected] Bernadete Campello School of Information Science, Federal University of Minas Gerais UFMG, Belo Horizonte, Brazil Av. Presidente Antônio Carlos, 6627 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, Brazil [email protected] Abstract Inquiry learning is a concept familiar to Brazilian librarians, who have been expressing concern about their contribution in innovating the learning process. It is therefore necessary that future librarians experience this learning strategy during their education. This study aimed to investigate: 1) how library students exposed repeatedly to strategies of inquiry learning react; 2) the difficulties they encounter in the process; 3) and what types of learning they acquire. Data were collected through in depth interviews with undergraduate library students taking an Information Literacy Course. Data analysis was based on Kuhlthau’s ISP model (2004) and in the five types of learning (Kuhlthau; Maniotes & Caspari, 2012) Results, that cannot be generalized, show that students reacted positively to the strategy, although they reported several difficulties. In conclusion the repetition of the inquiry learning process became important for students to feel more secure and confident and for their difficulties to be minimized. On the whole the acquisition of the five types of learning was observed. Keywords: Inquiry learning, Librarian’s education, Brazil Introduction The concept of inquiry learning originates from the movement of educational renewal that advocates the use of active learning methods and considers the student responsible for the construction of his/her knowledge (Detlor, B. et al., 2012; McKinney, 2013). It is based on ideas of educators and researchers such as John Dewey, George Kelly, Jerome Bruner, 123 David Ausubel, Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky and Howard Gardner (Kuhlthau, Maniotes & Caspari, 2007). In Brazil, inquiry learning roots are found in the movement called New School or Active School, that occurred in the 1930s and whose guiding belief is the student as a free, active and socially motivated person, demonstrating curiosity to learn. The focus of instruction is in the learning process, so students are at the center of the pedagogical action (Vidal & Faria Filho, 2003). The concept of inquiry learning is familiar to librarians, since the library is allegedly the place to search for information, an activity that supports – or should support – such a process (Campello, 2009). Inquiry learning gives librarians opportunity to exercise more clearly their pedagogical action, guiding students in acquiring information literacy skills while working with teachers in the teaching of curricular content (Maniotes & Kuhlthau, 2014; Oberg, 2004). Problem statement In Brazil, since the 1960s, school librarians have been expressing concern about their role in the research process (Campello, 2003), feeling responsible for the development of a range of cognitive skills, showing wish to contribute in innovating the learning process (Carvalho, 1967). Currently, this function is clearly integrated in librarians’ desired profile and therefore it is understood they should be prepared to perform it. The perception that librarians in Brazil are not properly prepared to carry out this function (Campello and Abreu, 2005) has led some library schools to include in their curricula information literacy courses (Mata, 2014). In the School of Information Science of Federal University of Minas Gerais, an Information Literacy Course (OTI088) is offered since 2009 to undergraduate library students as a compulsory subject. OTI088 aims to raise awareness of future librarians to their responsibility in developing users’ information literacy skills using inquiry learning as main instructional strategy, in order to make them repeatedly experience the research process. Over the time the course is being offered, some questions emerge, relating to how students react to this strategy. Thus, the present study sought to investigate: 1) how students repeatedly exposed to strategies of inquiry learning react; 2) the difficulties they encounter during the process; 3) and what types of learning they acquire. Literature review Inquiry learning is a teaching strategy that seeks to stimulate students to be fully involved in the learning process. It is an instructional approach where students are encouraged to use higher-order thinking skills – for instance, analysis, synthesis, reflection, evaluation – in a critical way, and reflect on their learning (Detlor et al., 2012). The process starts with issues or problems – not just themes or topics – proposed by the teacher who motivates students to seek answers, raise other issues and create knowledge. An enormous amount of research has been conducted on the subject of inquiry learning (Hmelo-Silver, Duncan & Chinn, 2007). In this context the contribution of library science is significant, being Carol Kuhlthau’s work worth mentioning. Kuhlthau’s model Information Search Process (ISP) incorporates three realms: affective (feelings), cognitive (thoughts) and 124 physical (actions) and is composed of six stages. In the initiation stage the common feelings are uncertainty and apprehension; optimism and readiness to seek are characteristic in the selection stage; confusion, doubt and frustration are common in the exploration stage, feelings that are replaced by a sense of clarity in the formulation stage; the collection stage is marked by the sense of direction and confidence and the final stage of presentation is marked by relief that can come either accompanied by the feeling of satisfaction or disappointment (Kuhlthau, 2004). Kuhlthau’s theoretical work served as foundation for the development of the idea of guided inquiry (Kuhlthau, 2007) that seems to reinforce the notion of mediation – or guidance – significantly present in the studies that support ISP model (Kuhlthau, 2004, p. 69). According to Kuhlthau, Maniotes & Caspari (2012, p. 8) “an important advantage of Guided Inquiry is the variety of different competences and knowledge that students develop while engaged in the inquiry process”. Curriculum content, information literacy, learning how to learn, literacy competence and social skills are the five kinds of learning that can be accomplished by means of guided inquiry (Kuhlthau, Maniotes & Caspari, 2012). Recent research shows that active learning strategies yield more positive effects than passive instruction. Results in the study of Detlor et al. (2012), who investigated the use of active methods in teaching information literacy skills, suggest that active strategies have a direct effect on producing positive student learning outcomes, while passive strategies do not. The kinds of outcomes observed were: psychological (decreased anxiety/increased selfefficacy using online library resources, improved perceptions of online library resources, and improved perceptions of librarians in terms of helpfulness and value), behavioral (improved use of librarians) and the benefit outcomes of time savings and effort reduction in finding information (Detlor et al., 2012, p. 156). Methodology Data collection consisted firstly of an interview (conducted by the first author) with the instructor responsible for the course (the second author). Next, in-depth interviews with four students who volunteered were performed. These interviews (also carried out by the first author) were performed from one to 10 days after the end of the information literacy course and after the grades were assigned (December 2014). They lasted 25 minutes to one hour and were recorded and transcribed in their entirety. The Information Literacy Course (OTI088) is a required subject, with a workload of 30 hours, offered on the 5th period of the Undergraduate Library Program. This means that when attending it the students are about halfway through the course, which has eight periods to be completed in four years. Most courses in the Undergraduate Library Program run 60 hours, so this is one of the few that have half the workload of the standard courses. It is offered in eight weekly meetings, each with four hours over two months (October and November/2014 in the case of the investigated class). The purpose of this course is to provide students with an understanding of the concept of information literacy as a basis for the librarian educational action. At the same time it gives them opportunity to exercise informational skills and reflect on them. The interview with the instructor sought to clarify the teaching strategy used. As she said, inquiry learning is used over the 30 hours so that students go through four tasks on the 125 course topics. They are encouraged to search for information, reading, analyzing, evaluating and developing critical outcomes, whether in the form of written assignments, discussions and oral presentations which allowed the construction and sharing of new knowledge. Research question 1st assignment How the notion of information literacy presented by Brazilian authors converge? 2nd assignment Are there Brazilian librarians who are playing an educational role in school? 3th assignment What factors can facilitate the development of information literacy programs in school? Are these factors present in the Brazilian educational context? 4th assignment Who contributed to the development of librarianship in Brazil? What contributions were the most important? Task Individual assignment (homework), carried out in the first week of the course, with individual assistance during the following week to students who needed support. 20 points. Individual assignment (homework), carried out in the second week of the course, with individual assistance during the following week to students who needed support. 25 points. Outcome Written text and classroom discussion Collective task, carried out in the 5th week during class, based in texts provided by the instructor. 15 points. Classroom discussion Group project (homework), which began in the 2nd week and held for six weeks, with oral presentation in the last class. The purpose was to provide students an opportunity to perform a longer assignment, which would allow the mobilization of a number of diverse skills. 35 points. Oral presentation using Power Point Written text and classroom discussion Table 1. The four assignments of the Information Literacy Course (OTI088) The interview with the students started with questions about their expectations for the discipline, that is, if they knew something about the course or the instructor in advance. Then questions were asked about each of the four assignments carried out. For each one the 126 feelings of the respondent at the beginning (when the assignment was proposed), during its implementation and after its completion were investigated. The next question sought to know if the student used the second chance to improve his/her grade, since there were times when the instructor allowed the assignment to be redone or that the student took a test to replace a bad grade. Following, questions about the students’ perception on what they had learned in each assignment, the difficulties faced and the strategies used to develop it were made. In the last part of the interview questions were raised concerning the participants’ impressions about inquiry learning strategy and suggestions for the course improvement. Data analysis was based on the ISP model (Kuhlthau, 2004) and in the five types of learning suggested by Kuhlthau; Maniotes & Caspari (2012, p. 8), that are: curriculum content, information literacy, learning how to learn, literacy competence and social skills. Data analysis Expectations for the course Data indicated that the previous reference that students possessed of the course was related more to the teacher – mainly because of her publications (articles and books on school library) and her visibility not only at the University but in the Brazilian context – than actually to the course subject (information literacy). None of them had attended another course with that Professor, and if some participants knew her was only in sporadic contacts. Most respondents had a first contact with the subject – information literacy – one or two months before the beginning of the course, because in other compulsory course they have attended they had the opportunity to study various types of literacy, including information literacy. Some showed curiosity about what would be covered in the course, but only one of the interviewees had a specific strategy to prepare to take the course. She said she searched – on her own initiative – for texts written by the course instructor that focused on information literacy. She located and read two of them a week before the course started. She explained: "Since everyone else said the course was very difficult, and we had a week off between courses, so what did I? I found two texts by her (the course instructor) on Information Literacy, and gave it a quick skim". As the interviewee indicated, it is a common students’ strategy to ask colleagues who already took a course on its difficulty. For this the main informants were former students, colleagues of later periods. Kinds of learning According to Khulthau, Maniotes and Caspari (2007, p. 8) “an important advantage of Guided Inquiry is the variety of different competencies and knowledge that students develop while engaged in the inquiry process. When inquiry is guided in this way, students accomplish five interwoven, integrated kinds of learning”. During the interviews it was possible to detect indications that the students developed all these types of learning to a greater or lesser degree. Table 2 summarizes how respondents described what they learned from the course: Kinds of Learning Competencies developed 127 What the respondents learned Kinds of Learning Information Literacy Competencies developed Concepts for locating, evaluating, and using information Learning how to learn Self-directed learning and personal interaction within the inquiry process Literacy Competence Reading, writing, speaking, listening, viewing, and presenting Social skills Interacting, cooperating, collaborating, habits of mind, dispositions in action Curriculum content Constructing new knowledge, interpreting, synthesizing, and applying facts and ideas What the respondents learned "... Select information, collect, develop [use]. Unfortunately our high school is deficient in this matter; at least in government schools. In private schools I do not know how it is" (E1). "... you have to really understand and know how to use the databases, to know what the sources are and what you cannot use, what is reliable and what is not. Then I realized that it is not easy, is not simple, but I liked the research process" (E3). "I learned to build, to make the search path, what we need to do in a research task, so you find a subject that you want to search, that you want to talk about. This was the best learning I had in the entire course, not only in this assignment, but in the whole course" (E3). "I learned to better organize the information in a text, to write and present my work. The text should include a purpose statement, the methodology; yah ... I think the analysis methodology and the conclusion" (E2). "And then each one searched a topic and shared it. Then later we met in the library and assembled the text (...) we were all enthusiastic. We even discussed about the author, right? We talked about him; so there was a lot of material" (E2). "I learned that Librarianship has a history here in Brazil. Where did these persons live? Are they still alive? ... And that these persons had a very strong role in Library Science and even [contributed] to the recognition of the profession" (E2). Table 2. Five kinds of learning through Guided Inquiry – Adapted from Kuhlthau, Maniotes and Caspari (2012, p. 9) with data collected during interviews (December, 2014). Information Literacy Participants mentioned that the experience of learning through research, rather than lectures, to which they are more accustomed, enabled them to exercise and enhance skills to locate, evaluate and use information. 128 Some respondents mentioned their inability to use specialized electronic databases to locate information sources and provided positive feedback on the practical lessons in the course, when they were guided by the instructor in this process. Although Kuhlthau, Maniotes and Caspari (2012, p. 10) mention that finding information is an easier task than to evaluate it, there were few comments from the respondents on the issue of text interpretation. This probably was due to the fact that they were unaware of the degree of difficulty with this task. Among the respondents, there were those who did well in the whole process, but most showed a high level of difficulty, especially in the first assignment, which explains the repeatedly use of the inquiry learning strategy by the instructor in order to enable students to mobilize new information skills. The performance of students in the first assignment showed that many do not even come to understand what was required of them. The instructor gave to those who had not fared well in the first task the opportunity to redo it after it was discussed in class, when they shared their results to build a body of common knowledge. Only one respondent said she did not have to go through this process because she had achieved a good result at the first attempt. When asked about the discussion in class, where each student had the chance to evaluate her/his own work, this respondent described her colleagues as naive, because they had not completed the task as required: "I do not know if I can talk about the class as a whole, but I found that the folks were a little naive. They did something that was not what the instructor was expecting. They were naive, both in the text construction, in the search and in the text production. So what the instructor was expecting was not what the class presented. Most of the class did not share what they had done." On one hand, this can be regarded as a difficulty in evaluating and interpreting the text and, therefore, in the use of the information. On the other hand there is a perceived lack of involvement of a large part of the students in the learning process. This is reinforced when, given the opportunity to redo the work, many of them had not yet improved their performance. Learning how to learn Students compared the proposed assignments in the Information Literacy Course with those they were doing in other courses, and emphasized the autonomy that is distinctive in the former. According to them, previous assignments they did were so " stiff”, meaning that they were already defined a priori: the title, content, structure, etc. Now they had the freedom to create, to give the title, select sources and trace the paths. For many of them this was the first opportunity to do that, as rarely in the basic education level or even at the undergraduate level they were given the opportunity of learning through guided inquiry. When asked about the feelings experienced when the first assignment was proposed, respondents who mentioned tranquility were the ones who said they had already studied the subject (information literacy) in an earlier course. Kuhlthau (2004) considers that one of the first actions in the initial stage of the search process is to try to relate the problem with past experiences. The author also emphasizes, as a corollary of the uncertainty principle, the fact that feelings and emotions experienced vary between positive and negative throughout the process. In this study, the feeling of apprehension was mentioned when the respondent referred to the fact of not knowing what to write. The answer of one respondent illustrates the variation of emotions peculiar to the research process (Kuhlthau, 2004), showing how she learned how 129 to learn and to deal with her emotions: "I was apprehensive because I did not know what I would write. But after I read the text, I made my notes, and then I went to prepare the text to be delivered, and then I was already relieved." Literacy Competency The best way to learn every aspect of literacy competency – namely reading, writing, speaking, listening, viewing, and presenting – is to practice. Therefore in the Information Literacy Course the development of several assignments using the strategy of inquiry learning were repeatedly proposed. It was clear to the respondents that the course should be longer. All said they would like to have had the opportunity to do an intermediary assignment between the first and the second one – even though they had a chance to remake the first. One student said: "My suggestion is that the course should be 60 hours long for us to have a little more time to develop the tasks. Maybe between the two first assignments we could have a third, so students do not feel that leap, perhaps more assignments with opportunity to write because I miss writing, I feel a lot of difficulty." About the second assignment it was evidenced also a sense of security gained from the first: "I did it [the second assignment] with more will. I read more, the ideas, the proposals, right? I had more courage". One of the stages that deserve to be detailed is presentation. Different strategies of presentation were adopted for the proposed assignments. In the first, students should submit a written report which, after examination by the teacher, would be led to discussion with the class. Each student should present to the colleagues the concept of information literacy of one particular author, and in the debate points of convergence and divergence would be raised. In the second assignment the presentation of a written text also was expected of each student, followed by a debate in the class. In this case the text was based on the question "are there in Brazil librarians who play an educational role?” A third assignment was conducted collectively with the whole class and not individually by each student. In relation to this case, it was perceived in the interviews that none of the respondents referred to it as part of the inquiry learning process. One cannot say that it was because an information search or a written assignment were not required – the task was done in one class period, after they read a text chosen by the instructor, or whether the subject did not interest the students. The fact is that none of the respondents referred to the third assignment as a process of inquiry learning. In every interview, when asked about this class or this assignment, students showed up scattered or confused. Finally, there was a fourth assignment providing opportunity for a formal oral presentation of a group project, which was developed during six weeks. It was perceived that in the presentation stage of the tasks the participants reacted in different ways to different forms of task presentation. One said: "I'd rather write than present verbally. Everyone knows that I'm not very good at presenting, but anyway ...". On the other hand, a student who did poorly in written assignments described his oral presentation as follows: "I said to the instructor, 'if I could stay here two hours talking about the topic I searched, I could go without repeating anything', because I was prepared, I was excited about this thing". For many respondents the individual and written presentations were more profitable than the discussions in class. Individual talking with the instructor about the tasks seems to have been an important factor in learning because some respondents (regardless if their performance 130 was good or not) cited this strategy as positive for their learning. One respondent said: "... I felt safer after her evaluation ... not because of the grade, but because of the comments she made”. Other stated: "Well, I felt I needed to improve. She said 'this is wrong, you have to clarify this part [in the text] ... Then the next text was better”. The success of an oral presentation depends not only on the student's commitment to learning, but also of the participation of the classmates, which does not always occur. In the case of this class in particular, the presentation of some groups coincided with a national university library conference that occurred in the city. For this reason, many classmates were absent attending the conference. The presentation also generates emotions and feelings in the presenter, because it is the stage of completion of the research process. There is an anticipated tension to present to an audience of people interested in the subject. One of the respondents reveled his disappointment: "... I was very upset when I was to present my work; there were only about eight persons in the room. The people came late. I was really upset about it". At this point all the commitment and dedication of the instructor is useless. For the student this is not an individual commitment as the presentation of a written text. It is a stage that requires interaction. If this does not occur, a part of the process is not complete. When a person prepares a presentation, he/she presupposes an audience. Here the focus is speaking and listening skills. While a group of students is mobilizing speaking skills, it is expected that the audience exercises listening skills, which seems not to have occurred. Social Skills Social skills were encouraged and necessary in practically every step of the process. Even when the assignment required a written text, there was a further step in that the knowledge produced was shared with classmates. In addition, each student should individually engage in interaction with the instructor, the librarian, with colleagues, that required mutual cooperation and collaboration. Participants mentioned visits to the library and interaction with the librarian, which was named by her first name, in a friendly way, as someone who helped and shared the difficulties of the research. One respondent said: "... and then I realized that the research process, when you have to use information sources, it is really more complex; you have to know how to search, you must know where to search, what to do, seek help from the library people, to [the librarian]; I asked for help". Ask for help to colleagues who previously took the same course was also a common strategy, which revealed the existence of an informal learning community. There were many references to this kind of advice, especially in the beginning of the course, when the "rules of the game" were still unclear: "So I also asked some folks for help, who had already took the course, so I asked for any tips, like what were the methods of the instructor; if she liked long texts, only one sheet, or if she wanted two, what she liked in a text, the structure of the text ... ". Finally, cooperation between classmates was evidenced by the aid they offered each other in clarifying and implementing individual projects, but especially when the final assignment was proposed, which was a group project. One respondent mentioned that “Together it’s easier 131 because everyone is already used to do group projects, then we take advantage of more information from each one in the group, each one can contribute better." Curriculum Content When asked about what they learned from each assignment, most respondents answered about having learned to write, to structure a text, to make a presentation, to develop the steps of a thorough research, to investigate. In addition, they learned curriculum contents. One participant said: "I realized that Brazilian librarians are already using the concept of information literacy" (2nd assignment) and "I learned that the library has a history in Brazil" (4th assignment). It could be observed that when there was little learning in other categories, this also reflected in the learning of curriculum content. It seems the topics could have been better assimilated if, for example, the social skills of collaboration and cooperation were better used, if the listening skills were more practiced, if the commitment of students with learning was greater. Probably by the suggestion of respondents, for the Information Literacy Course to be longer than 30 hours, it could be possible to get greater involvement of students, thereby improving social skills and competences thereof. Matching methodology and curriculum content The study investigated what understanding the students had at the end of the course about information literacy, after having experienced the strategy of inquiry learning and after having worked with the concept. In the interview the question was asked as follows: At the end of our conversation, briefly define what you mean by information literacy. Definitions presented by the respondents were: E1: Teaching and learning. E2: To know how to use information well. E3: To know what you are doing and what skills you have. E4: To search information anywhere and to be able to use the information to turn it into knowledge. Then they were asked: How do you relate the strategy that was used throughout this course with the concept of information literacy? The relationship was readily established. The strategy of the course was inquiry. Inquiry is to find and use information to learn. It was clear that the essence of the process was seized. It was noticed, throughout the investigation, much immaturity and a lack of student's commitment to the learning process, but it can be assured that the strategy should continue to be applied, and should be improved, as the students are having a positive result from the experience. Those most affected are getting – and this is quite clear by analyzing their interviews – plentiful experience in all the five kinds of learning. Some are still having incipient experiences, but even those are at least assimilating the major point: the essence of the concept of information literacy and of inquiry learning strategy, and they are also establishing the relationship between theory and practice. Limitations It is recognized that the study’s results are constrained by certain limitations and that they cannot be generalized. First, results must be viewed in the light of a small sample (although seven students have accepted to participate and have scheduled the interview, only four 132 attended) and as a means of providing the basis for further investigation. Participation of the course instructor may have influenced the students’ statements. Although her participation was minimal, the students interviewed were aware that she would know the results. On the other hand, this fact did not appear to inhibit participants. Conclusions In response to the objectives proposed by the survey, it’s noticed that the library students, when first exposed to learning inquiry strategies, reacted with bewilderment and apprehension, using different strategies such as seeking help from colleagues who have already taken the course. As the process was being repeated, however, they felt more comfortable and safer. Repetition is seen as important for getting confidence and learning to learn. The main difficulties encountered in the process relates to the understanding of what was required, with finding information in electronic databases and with the lack of autonomy that students felt to develop alone all the steps of a search. Finally, it was evident that they had all five types of learning provided in guided inquiry (Kuhlthau, Maniotes & Caspari, 2012). Future research should investigate the subject using an expanded sample that enables comparison between students in relation to different variables as their seniority level, age, engagement or level of interest. Since the present study relied mostly on subjective perceptions, further studies could use more objective measures of learning comprising a bigger sample. References Campello, B. & Abreu, V. L. (2005). Information Literacy and the Education of School Librarians. School Libraries Worldwide, v. 11, n. 1, p. 37-52. Retrieved November 20, 2014 from http://www.iasl-online.org/files/jan05-campello.pdf Campello, B. (2009). Developing Students’ Information Skills in Brazilian School Libraries: The Librarian’s Role. School Libraries Worldwide, v. 15, n. 1, p. 14-27. Campello, B. (2003). A função educativa da biblioteca escolar no Brasil: perspectivas para o seu aperfeiçoamento. In: Anais do 5º Encontro Nacional de Pesquisa em Ciência da Informação. Belo Horizonte: ANCIB. Retrieved November 20, 2014 from http://gebe.eci.ufmg.br/downloads/ENAN054.pdf Carvalho, F. L. M. (1967). Panorama das bibliotecas escolares brasileiras nos vários níveis. In: Trabalhos apresentados no 5º Congresso Brasileiro de Biblioteconomia e Documentação. São Paulo: INL. Detlor, B. et al. (2012). Student perceptions of information literacy instruction:The importance of active learning. Education for Information, v. 29, p. 147–161. Hmelo-Silver, C. E., Duncan, R. G. & Chinn, C. A. (2007). Scaffolding and achievement in problem-based and inquiry learning: a response to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark. Educational Psychologist, v. 42, p. 99−107. 133 Kuhlthau, C. C. (2004). Seeking Meaning: A Process Approach to Library and Information Services. 2nd ed. Westport, Conn./London: Libraries Unlimited. Kuhlthau, C. C.; Maniotes, L. K. & Caspari, A. (2007). Guided Inquiry: Learning in the 21st Century. Westport, Conn./London: Libraries Unlimited. Kuhlthau, C. C.; Maniotes, L. K. & Caspari, A. (2012). Guided Inquiry Design: A Framework for Inquiry in Your School. Santa Barbara, Cal.: Libraries Unlimited. Maniotes, L. K. & Kuhlthau, C. C. (2014). Making the shift. Knowledge Quest, v. 43, n. 2, p. 8-17. Mata, M. L. (2014). A inserção da Competência Informacional nos currículos dos cursos de Biblioteconomia no Brasil e nos cursos de Informação e Documentação na Espanha. Marília, SP: UNESP. Unpublished dissertation. Retrieved November 20, 2014 from http://www.marilia.unesp.br/Home/PosGraduacao/CienciadaInformacao/Dissertacoes/mata_ml_do_mar.pdf McKinney, P. (2014). Information literacy and inquiry-based learning: Evaluation of a fiveyear programme of curriculum development. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, v. 46, n. 2, p. 148 -166. Oberg, D. (2004). Promoting Information Literacies: A Focus on Inquiry. In: Proceedings of the 70th IFLA General Conference and Council. Buenos Aires: IFLA. Retrieved November 29, 2014 from http://archive.ifla.org/IV/ifla70/papers/088e-Oberg.pdf Vidal, D. G. & Faria Filho, L. M. (2003). História da Educação no Brasil: a constituição histórica do campo (1880-1970). Rev. Bras. Hist., v. 23, n. 45. Retrieved November 20, 2014 from http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0102-01882003000100003 Title in Portuguese: Aprendizagem pela pesquisa: educando os bibliotecários para sua função educativa Abstract in Portuguese A aprendizagem pela pesquisa é um conceito familiar para bibliotecários brasileiros, que têm manifestado preocupação sobre sua contribuição em inovar o processo de aprendizagem. A percepção de que os bibliotecários no Brasil não estão devidamente preparados para desempenhar essa função tem levado alguns cursos de Biblioteconomia a incluir em seus currículos disciplinas de competência informacional. Na Escola de Ciência da Informação da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, desde 2009, essa disciplina é oferecida aos alunos do Curso de Graduação em Biblioteconomia, com o objetivo de conscientizar os futuros bibliotecários sobre sua responsabilidade no desenvolvimento das habilidades informacionais dos usuários. Neste curso, a principal estratégia didática é a aprendizagem pela pesquisa. O presente estudo tem como objetivos investigar: 1) as reações de alunos expostos repetidamente a estratégias de aprendizagem pela pesquisa; 2) as dificuldades com que se deparam durante a disciplina; 3) e quais os tipos de aprendizagem adquirem. Os dados foram coletados por meio de entrevistas em profundidade com alunos que 134 cursavam a disciplina Competência Informacional no primeiro semestre de 2014 e que se voluntariaram. A análise foi baseada no modelo Information Search Process de SP (Kuhlthau, 2004) e nos cinco tipos de aprendizagem sugerido por Kuhlthau; Maniotes & Caspari (2012, p. 8): conteúdos curriculares, competência informacional, aprender a aprender, habilidades de leitura e escrita e habilidades sociais. Os resultados, que não podem ser generalizados, revelaram que os estudantes reagiram de maneira positiva à estratégia, embora tenham relatado diversas dificuldades. Concluiu-se que a repetição do processo de pesquisa fez-se importante para que os alunos se sentissem mais seguros e confiantes e que suas dificuldades fossem minimizadas. No conjunto dos entrevistados foi observada a aquisição dos cinco tipos de aprendizagem. Biographical notes Adriana Bogliolo SIRIHAL DUARTE has worked since 2006 as an associate professor at the School of Information Science at Federal University of Minas Gerais - UFMG, in Belo Horizonte, Brazil. She is a member of the Research Group on School Libraries and her main research topic is school library/information literacy. Bernadete Santos CAMPELLO is a full professor at the School of Information Science at Federal University of Minas Gerais - UFMG, in Belo Horizonte, Brazil, where she coordinates the Research Group on School Libraries since 1998. Her main research topic is school library and learning. She coordinated the Portuguese translation and adaptation of Carol Kuhlthau’s books School Librarian’s Grade by Grade Activities Program: A Complete Sequential Skills Plan for Grades K-8 and Teaching the Library Research Process. Acknowledgment The presentation of this work in the IASL 44th Annual Conference & 19th International Forum on Research in School Librarianship (2015) was made possible by a grant from FAPEMIG-Foundation for Research Support of Minas Gerais, Brazil. 135 School Librarians’ Roles: preliminary results of a national survey of priorities, performance, and evaluation in the context of professional guidelines Aaron J. Elkins, Ph.D. School of Library and Information Studies Texas Woman’s University PO BOX 425438 Denton, TX 76204 940-898-2181 [email protected] Jennifer Luetkemeyer Wood School of Information Florida State University 142 Collegiate Loop Tallahassee, FL 32306 850-644-5775 [email protected] Marcia A. Mardis School of Information Florida State University 142 Collegiate Loop Tallahassee, FL 32306 (850) 644-3392 [email protected] IMLS grant number RE-04-09-0055-09 Abstract School librarians’ role definition has become increasingly important in light of national trends regarding performance evaluation. This exploratory research included a national survey of school librarians’ perceptions of their roles, influences on their role performance, and the perceived fairness of their performance evaluations. Preliminary survey results suggested that school librarians were performing different types of extra136 role behaviors, many of them more than once a month. Of the roles described in the professional standards, the school librarians surveyed indicated that they felt the information specialist role was the most important, and was the role they most frequently engaged in, which is in contrast to the instructional partnering role emphasized by national professional guidelines. The majority of survey participants felt that their performance evaluations were either to a small extent or not at all accurate assessments of their performance. The results suggest that a closer coordination between role performance and evaluation is warranted, as well as further examination of the survey data. Keywords: School librarians, Roles, Professional guidelines School librarians’ roles constantly change to keep pace with the evolving ways in which society interacts with, and education is affected by, information (Neuman 2003). These changes are clearly reflected in the professional standards that guide school librarians, the most recent of which are the American Association of School Librarians’ (AASL) Empowering Learners: Guidelines for School Library Programs (AASL 2009). Empowering Learners represents the Association’s most current vision of school librarians’ roles. According to their vision, school librarians are expected to be teachers, instructional partners, information specialists, and program administrators. The new professional standards reflect a shift in the relative importance of these roles from the previous set, where the importance of the instructional partner role has risen in the new standards. School librarians are also charged with the additional role of leader; although previous sets of AASL’s standards discussed school librarians’ leadership, this is the first time it has been presented as a discrete role to be enacted. While these new standards may represent AASL’s vision of school librarians’ roles, little is known about their relevance to school librarians’ own visions of their roles, or even how school librarians craft those visions. The purpose of this study is to explore school librarians’ roles relative to their professional standards, school librarians’ self-perceptions of the work they value, and the ways in which school librarians are professionally evaluated. While there is recent research about how preservice school librarians form their perceptions of school librarians’ roles in the context of AASL’s current professional vision (Mardis, 2007, 2013; Mardis & Dickinson, 2009), less appears to be known about what influences current practitioners’ role perceptions. Because a lack of understanding regarding professional identity has serious implications for the continued survival of AASL and the practice of school librarianship, research to discover whether and to what extent current school library practitioners are using the professional standards to inform their role perceptions is warranted. Although the most recent professional standards (AASL 2009) indicate that school librarians anticipated their instructional partner role would rise to prominence over their other roles, five years of changes in education policy, information, and technology justify a fresh inquiry into whether this is the case, and whether instructional partnering is still most effectively enacted as AASL defined it in 2009. Even if school librarians have thought that the instructional partner role was the most important, it is also important to explore the barriers and enablers to school librarians’ enactment of their roles due to the growing national movement toward high stakes teacher evaluation (Ravitch 2010; Matula 2011). Teacher performance 137 evaluation is a contentious topic around the nation, and it is not clear whether school librarians feel that their performance is being fairly and accurately evaluated. The role of the school librarian is becoming increasingly important as technology and educational standards continue to evolve, forcing schools to look beyond the classroom for resources and support. It is important to assess the efficacy of the school librarian as she or he takes on each aspect of the role as envisioned by the AASL. The purpose of this study is to explore how school librarians view that role, and the evaluation of their performance in that role. This study is guided by the following research questions: 1. What influences school librarians’ perceptions of their roles? 2. Who influences the types of work that school librarians engage in most frequently? 3. What do school librarians consider to be their most important role? 4. Do school librarians feel that they are able to frequently engage in work related to the role they perceive to be the most important? 5. Do school librarians feel that their performance evaluation is an accurate assessment of the typical work of school librarians? Literature Review In this section, we present the foundational research that defines school librarians’ conceptions of their professional roles, the ambiguity of these roles, and school librarians’ autonomy to enact these roles as organizational citizens, especially in the context of performance evaluation. Role Perceptions A role can be defined as the set of behaviors expected of employees in a specific job position within an organization. Job descriptions encompass the work performance expectations of both the employee and the organization (Dierdorff and Rubin 2007; Graen 1976; Schuler, Aldag, and Brief 1977). While employees may base their role perceptions on formal written documents like job descriptions, performance expectations, and assigned responsibilities, role definitions also reflect elements of organizational culture which require employees to reconcile their beliefs about how to fulfill their roles with how their employing organizations believe they should be performed (Graen 1976). Roles also may evolve over time, based on employees’ interactions with other employees and supervisors (Yun, Takeuchi, and Liu 2007). School Librarians’ Roles For almost a century (National Education Association et al. 1920), school librarians have had a succession of sets of professional standards to guide their role performance. Each iteration of the professional standards contained unique opportunities and challenges for school librarians to address in their work (O’Neal 2004), but it is not apparent whether and to what extent school librarians have used these professional standards to craft their visions of their roles. O’Neal (2004) noted that some school library practitioners may attempt to follow new standards, only to return to how they have always done things once they experience a challenge or setback. McCarthy (1997) found that nine years after the publication of Information Power: Guidelines for School Library Media Programs (AASL & Association for Educational Communications and Technology, 1988), only 42% of the school librarians surveyed believed they could achieve those standards at their schools, which raises the 138 question of how much influence those standards had on the school librarians who thought they were not achievable. Employees who are fulfilling the same job function will perform their roles differently (Dierdorff and Rubin 2007; Morgeson, Delaney-Klinger, and Hemingway 2005) because employees are individuals with their own sociocultural norms and beliefs, backgrounds, and values (Graen 1976); accordingly, school librarians may perceive and fulfill their roles in their own way, based on their own interpretations of what those roles should be. McCracken (2001) found that some school librarians preferred the information specialist role, and were not expanding into the teaching and collaboration roles called for in Information Power: Building Partnerships for Learning (AASL & Association for Educational Communications and Technology, 1998). This stasis may, in part, be related to school librarians’ desire to engage in work in which they have a high sense of self-efficacy (McAllister et al. 2007; Sandberg 2000). According to a recent AASL-sponsored survey, school librarians thought that the role of instructional partner was the most important to the future success of school library programs (AASL 2009). Yet, without administrative support, school librarians have been limited in what they are able to achieve with their programs in the schools (Oberg 2009), and there has been some disagreement about what school librarians’ role in the educational program of the school should be (O’Neal 2004). Some school administrators think that engaging in activities more closely associated with the information specialist role, i.e., providing instructional materials, learning resources, and reference assistance, were more important for their school librarians than collaborating with teachers and developing curriculum (Shannon 2009). Other research has shown that some school administrators facilitated school librarians’ instructional partnering by encouraging school librarian/teacher collaboration, supporting school librarians in leadership roles, and encouraging school librarians to serve on important committees in the school (Church 2010). While it is encouraging to see some research has found that some administrators support the roles as described in previous sets of professional standards, little recent research has indicated that school administrators are supporting the newest set of professional standards (AASL 2009) or even universally supporting school librarians’ fulfilling the roles from the previous set of standards (Shannon 2009). School librarians and administrators lack a unified vision about the roles of school librarians in schools (Shannon 2009; O’Neal 2004; Hartzell 2002; Dorrell and Lawson 1995), which could be contributing to role ambiguity for school librarians. Role Ambiguity Role ambiguity is defined as employees’ uncertainty or lack of clarity about their roles in their organizations and how their roles should be enacted (Koustelios, Theodorakis, and Goulimaris 2004; Schuler, Aldag, and Brief 1977). Role ambiguity influences employees’ role performance and organizational outcomes (Koustelios, Theodorakis, and Goulimaris 2004). Some employees may capitalize on role ambiguity to focus on their own goals and fulfill their roles their roles as they see fit (Yun, Takeuchi, and Liu 2007). While this autonomy may lead to higher levels of job satisfaction (Dierdorff, Rubin, and Bachrach 2012), role ambiguity may also cause some employees to feel a lack of direction, lose a sense of identity, or be unsure of the importance of their work (Schuler, Aldag, and Brief 1977). Role 139 ambiguity can also cause stress, as an employee tries to mediate between conflicting demands and multiple outcomes (Koustelios, Theodorakis, and Goulimaris 2004). Some employees may use role ambiguity as an excuse not to set goals for themselves, and deliver only modest task performance (Yun, Takeuchi, and Liu 2007). Schuler et al (1977) also noted that job performance and reward probabilities were lower when role ambiguity was higher. Role ambiguity has the potential to influence school librarians’ role performance by offering them the discretion to fulfill their roles as they see fit, especially if their school administrators have only vague expectations of what school librarians could and should be contributing to the educational program of the school. While the professional standards can provide a framework in which school librarians can develop and set role performance goals, it is unknown whether and to what extent school librarians base their conceptions of their roles on the professional standards. Role Performance However they form their role perceptions, employees typically engage in in-role behaviors, or behaviors that are part of their stated role expectations. Employees may also engage in extra-role behaviors; these behaviors are still organizationally beneficial, but are not part of stated role performance expectations (Van Dyne, Cummings, and Parks 1995). Extra-role behaviors are considered to be discretionary; since these behaviors are not typically part of an employee’s role performance expectation and are ostensibly unrewarded or punished, they can be performed or not, depending on an employee’s desire to engage in them. Some employees may view their role more broadly, and consider some extra-role behaviors to be in-role behaviors (McAllister et al. 2007; Van Dyne, Graham, and Dienesch 1994; CoyleShapiro, Kessler, and Purcell 2004). Similarly, some employees may feel obligated to perform extra-role behaviors (McAllister et al. 2007). Whether behaviors are considered inrole or extra-role can also be affected by the work context (Flynn 2006; Konovsky and Organ 1996; LePine, Erez, and Johnson 2002; Somech and Ron 2007; Werner 1994); stakeholders within the organization may have different performance expectations of a particular role (Belogolovsky and Somech 2010), so that what is considered in-role behavior at one organization may be extra-role at another, and vice versa. Organizational Citizenship Behavior The theory of Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) (Organ, 1988, 1997; Organ, Podsakoff, & Mackenzie, 2006; Podsakoff, Mackenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000) describes different types of extra-role behaviors and how employee’s willingness to engage in these behaviors is influenced by antecedents like job satisfaction. Employees’ sense of job satisfaction is affected by their sense of autonomy and organizational justice: when employees perceive they have a high level of autonomy (or discretion about how they perform their roles), and feel a high level of organizational justice (perception of fair treatment by the organization), they are more likely to engage in extra-role behaviors (Coyle-Shapiro, Kessler, and Purcell 2004; Dierdorff, Rubin, and Bachrach 2012; Jiang, Sun, and Law 2011; Johnson, Holladay, and Quinones 2009; Konovsky and Pugh 1994; McAllister et al. 2007; Moorman, Niehoff, and Organ 1993; Peng, Hwang, and Wong 2010; Tepper, Lockhart, and Hoobler 2001). OCB theory has been applied to school work contexts, and the research shows that schools are dependent on teachers to engage in extra-role behaviors for the overall success of their organization (Somech and Ron 2007; Belogolovsky and Somech 140 2010; Somech and Drach-Zahavy 2000; Somech and Bogler 2002; DiPaolo and TschannenMoran 2001). As mentioned previously, role ambiguity can influence employees’ sense of autonomy or discretion, either positively or negatively, which affects their role performance. Employee’s role performance is also influenced by organizational justice, or employees’ perception of fair treatment by their organization (Coyle-Shapiro, Kessler, and Purcell 2004; Johnson, Holladay, and Quinones 2009; Folger 1993). Johnson et al. (2009), described the dimensions of organizational justice as “employees’ reactions to outcomes (distributive justice), the process that led to those outcomes (procedural justice), and their treatment during the process (interactional and informational justice)” (p. 410). Employees’ sense of organizational justice may be strongly influenced by how their role performance is evaluated. Performance Evaluation The definition of role behaviors is especially important for performance evaluation. For school librarians, professional performance evaluation has long been a contentious issue. Taylor and Bryant (1996) found that some of the school librarians they surveyed reported not being evaluated at all. When school librarians are evaluated, it may be done using the same instrument that is used to evaluate teachers (Vincelette and Pfister 1984; Pfister and Towle 1983; Bryant 2002; Young, Green, and Gross 1995). Taylor and Bryant (1996) found that almost half of the school librarians they surveyed were evaluated using the same instrument that was developed for teachers. School librarians should be considered as part of the instructional staff (Stronge and Helm 1992), because teaching is an important focus of their roles (AASL, 2009), but this does not mean they should be evaluated using the same instrument as teachers: while a teacher evaluation may be able to assess the instructional role of school librarianship, it will ignore many other tasks critical to fulfilling the other roles of the school librarian (Taylor and Bryant 1996). Even if they have an evaluation instrument specific to school librarians, school administrators may not have the training necessary to use it properly (Wilson and Wood 1996). The job demands placed on school administrators make it difficult for them to spend time observing teachers properly to provide accurate assessment of teacher performance (Blake et al. 1995; Bryant 2002; Matula 2011). Unfortunately, observation, which is all too often brief and unrepresentative, is a favored method of gathering information for most principals (Everhart 2006; Jacob and Lefgren 2008). Method To begin to explore the links between role perception, role performance, and performance evaluation in the context of our research questions, we developed a survey to gather school librarians’ views. Description of the Sample Upon receiving Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval for the research, we developed and distributed the survey via the Qualtrics web-based survey tool. The survey was publicized using major school librarian professional email lists: OZTL_Net, LM_NET, AASL Forum, and IASL Forum. It is unknown how many school librarians subscribe to these email lists. The survey was open for four weeks, and reminders were sent every seven days. The survey was completed by 692 respondents, 546 of whom were from the United States; as the focus of this study is school librarian practice in the U.S., only those 546 survey responses are included in this analysis. 141 The first section of the survey, Section I: About You, captured demographic information (see survey questions in Appendix), including state of residence, school type, school grade level, and level of professional preparation. As Table 1 indicates, the respondents represented 41 states. A quarter of the respondents were from Pennsylvania (n=138). The next approximate quarter comprised respondents from Kentucky (n=57), Florida (n=41), and New York (n=38). The third approximate quarter of respondents represented Ohio (n=35), Indiana (n=34), Connecticut (n=32), Texas (n=17), and New Jersey (n=13). The remaining respondents represented every state except Alaska, Idaho, North Dakota, South Carolina, South Dakota, Oregon, Nebraska, Nevada, and West Virginia. Of the 544 respondents who shared their school type on the survey, the majority (490 or 90%) reported working in public schools and, as Table 2 depicts, of the 542 participants who provided their school level, most worked in high schools (n=197), elementary schools (n=160), and middle schools (n=95). The least number of participants (n=90) worked in combined level schools. The participants were then asked to indicate their level of professional preparation for the role of school librarian. Respondents were permitted to choose more than one response from a list that included Degree in Library and Information Science; Degree in Library and Information Science and State Certification; State Certification Only; Other State-Recognized Certification (e.g., National Board Certification); On-the-Job Experience in a School Library; One-the-Job Experience in Another Type of Library; New to the Library; and Other. Respondents were able to choose more than one response for this question as the number Figure 1 illustrates their responses. Nine hundred seven total responses were recorded from 545 respondents. As Table 3 illustrates, the largest number of respondents (351 or 64%) held both state certification and a degree in LIS. Almost 25% (n=134) reported only holding state certification in school librarianship, and 128 (24%) reported on-the-job training in the school library as an aspect of their preparation. One hundred three (19%) respondents held a degree in Library and Information Studies (without state certification) and 18% (n=97) held another type of state recognized certification. The fewest number of respondents selected on-the-job training in another type of library (n=46 or 8%) or some other type of preparation (n=36 or 4%). Twelve respondents reported being new to the library. Data Collection To enhance validity and reliability of the survey instrument, it was tested at a professional development workshop for librarians (N=43) approximately two months prior to official distribution. Questions were revised based on participants' feedback. Two sections of that survey are reported here. Section I: About You asked respondents to complete four demographic questions that were used to describe the sample. Section III: Your Professional Practice contained nine questions regarding professional role perceptions, role performance, and performance evaluation. The Appendix details the questions reported in the Sample and Results sections of this study. 142 Data Analysis Survey data were analyzed to determine school librarians’ perceptions of their roles, as well as who and what influences those roles. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to establish frequency and descriptive statistics for the responses to each of the survey questions reported in this study. Limitations The method of distribution in this study constitutes a convenience sample, composed of 546 volunteer respondents from the United States. According to the United States Department of Education and National Center for Education Statistics, there were over 48,000 school librarians in the U.S in 2013 (U.S. Department of Education, 2014). However, no detailed public data about school librarians’ qualifications and experience is available, thus the extent to which the survey participants represent school librarians in the United States is unclear. Therefore, conclusions drawn for this sample are not sufficient generalize the results to the population of school librarians. However, Creswell describes a convenience sample as being able to “provide useful information for answering questions” (2008, p. 155), which is our goal in this exploratory research. Results In this section, we report the results of responses to questions in Section III: Your Professional Practice. These questions were designed to determine the influences on school librarians’ perceptions of their roles, as well as to gather information about how school librarians perform their roles. The intent of this section was to have participants indicate who and what influences their perceptions of their roles, and whether or not they feel that they are able to carry out their roles as envisioned. Questions 1 and 2: What Influences School Librarians’ Role Perceptions The first question in this section asked respondents to think about what influences how they perceive their roles as school librarians. Respondents were asked to indicate whether professional standards, job descriptions, professional preparation, professional reading, professional development, collegial relationships, and/or other influences affected their role perceptions, and they were able to choose more than one influence. Of the 541 participants who responded to the question, 441 (82%) noted “Professional standards” were influential and 435 (80%) noted that “Professional articles” influenced their role perceptions. Fewer, but still many, respondents selected “Other librarians” (n=430 or 79%) and “Sessions at professional conferences” (n=427 or 79%). Still fewer respondents chose “Professional development sessions” (n=332, or 61%), “MLIS Instruction” (n=302 or 56%), and/or “Job description” (n=286 or 53%). Finally, 64 respondents chose “Other” and were given the option to explain. Sixty of those who chose “Other” provided an explanation, and some entered more than one item in the text box, while others echoed the available choices. The remainder can be categorized as follows: 18 cited collaboration with, and feedback from, stakeholders such as parents, teachers, and students; 15 cited professional networks such as job related email lists, Twitter, professional learning communities, and colleagues; 8 cited their own personal experience; 6 cited guidelines from state or national agencies; the Common Core State Standards and school administration garnered 4 mentions each; 3 people cited instruction received while completing a professional degree other than their Master’s; and one person cited the book Morals and Dogma, by Albert Pike. 143 The second question in this section asked respondents to reflect on their stated influences and indicate which among them was the most influential to their visions of their roles; respondents were allowed only one choice for this question. Five hundred forty one respondents chose to answer this question. Figure 1 shows the comparison between the answers to the two questions. 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 Influences 100 Most Influential 50 0 Figure 1. Perceptions of What Influences School Librarians’ Roles (N=541) Over one quarter of respondents (n=142 or 26%) chose “Professional standards” as the most influential to their perceptions of their roles. Ninety one (17%) respondents chose “Other librarians.” Fewer respondents chose “Sessions at professional conferences” (n=69 or 13%) and “Job descriptions” (n=68 or 13%). Still fewer chose “MLIS instruction” (n=59 or 11%), “Professional articles” (n=45 or 8%), and “Professional development sessions” (n=27 or 5%). Finally, 37 respondents chose “Other” and were given the option to explain: all 37 did so. Their answers can be categorized as follows: 14 cited collaboration with, and feedback from, stakeholders such as parents, teachers, and students; 6 cited professional networks such as job related email lists, Twitter, professional learning communities, and colleagues; 4 cited their own personal experience, and the same number for school administration; guidelines from state or national agencies and “all of the above” garnered 2 mentions each; and those items mentioned only once included the Common Core State Standards, instruction received while completing a professional degree other than their Master’s, professional development outside the school district, the Danielson model, and a district pacing guide. Questions 3 and 4: Who Influences School Librarians’ Role Perceptions 144 The next two questions required respondents to report who most influenced their role perceptions. Respondents were asked to indicate one or more of the following: “Students,” “Teachers,” “Administrators,” “School District,” “Other librarians,” “Community,” and “Other.” The first question in this section allowed respondents to select more than one person as a role influence and 542 participants answered this question. The second question asked for the most influential person or people, and was answered by 543 participants. The second question included one additional response option that was not available on the first question: “Myself.” Figure 2 illustrates the responses to both questions. 600 500 400 300 Influences 200 Most Influential 100 0 Figure 2. People Who Influence (N=542) and Are Most Influential (N=543) on Role Perceptions To both the questions that asked respondents to select multiple role influences and the question that asked respondents to select the strongest influence on their roles, “Students” (n=519 and n=273, respectively) and “Teachers” (n=503 and n=102, respectively) were the most frequently reported responses. Fewer respondents chose “Administrators” (n=390 and n=57, respectively) and “Other librarians” (n=359 and n=33, respectively). Still fewer chose “School district” (n=218 and n=20, respectively) and “Community” (n=128 and n=0, respectively). With the option of “Myself” added to the question about strongest role influence, 51 people made that choice. Finally, very few respondents (n=22 and n=7, respectively) chose “Other.” For the question about influences, 21 of the 22 who responded “Other” chose to provide an explanation. Of those, 13 responded with a “what” instead of a “who,” leaving 8 valid responses. The breakdown of those responses is as follows: myself and parents received two mentions each; the other four respondents listed the curriculum committee, the IB coordinator, the technology coach, and “leaders in my field and other fields.” For the question about what was most influential, 6 of the 7 who responded “other” chose to provide an explanation. Of those, 4 responded with a “what” instead of a “who,” leaving 2 valid responses: students and teachers; and “this changes on a day to day basis-again, it’s hard to quantify.” 145 Questions 5 and 6: Extra-Role Behaviors The majority of the 542 respondents who answered the first question in this section (n=295 or 54%) chose “I engage in these activities once per month or more.” Fewer people (n=125 or 23%) responded “I engage in these types of activities a few times per semester.” Still fewer (n=51 or 9%) indicated “I engage in these activities once or twice during the school year,” and 25 (5%) said “I never engage in these activities.” Forty-seven people (9%) responded “I don’t know, ” as shown in Figure 3. 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 I never engage I engage in I engage in I engage in I don't know. in these these these these activities. activities once activities a activities once or twice few times per per month or during the semester. more. school year. Figure 3. Out of Role Behaviors The second question in this section was open-ended. Respondents who chose to answer typed duties they consider to be out of role in a text box; 368 respondents chose to do so, and listed a combined total of 837 duties. Figure 4 shows a word cloud created from the duties respondents entered for this question. Figure 4. Extra-Role Duties Performed by School Librarians The word “duty” itself is prominently featured in the word cloud; this refers to a variety of student supervision responsibilities that happen outside of the school library and are 146 unrelated to instructional contact time, such as cafeteria/lunch duty, duties related to supervision of students arriving to or departing from school, supervision of students during transitions between classes, and supervision of students in detention. School librarians also reported having to provide coverage for classes or serving as a substitute teacher. The maintenance or repair of technology was mentioned by many respondents, as was having to serve as a proctor for testing. Fewer respondents mentioned teaching responsibilities that fell outside of the purview of information literacy skills; examples included reading and math remediation, as well as arts and humanities, music, and science. Some respondents also indicated that they were responsible for supervising study halls (sometimes hosted in the school library), clubs, or athletic activities. Questions 7 and 8: School Librarian Role Prioritization and Enactment The next question asked school librarians to reflect on which one of the Empowering Learners’ professional roles (i.e., teacher, instructional partner, information specialist, program administrator, and leader) they deemed most important. Five hundred forty two respondents answered this question. Respondents were also asked to indicate which of the five roles they engaged in most frequently. Figure 5 shows the comparison between what school librarians feel is their most important role, and in which of those they engaged most frequently in practice. 250 200 150 Most Important 100 Most Frequent 50 0 Leader Instructional Information Partner Specialist Teacher Program Administrator Figure 5. Role Most Important Role and Role Most Frequently Performed (N=542) As Figure 4 illustrates, 195 (36%) of respondents chose “Information Specialist.” Respondents also frequently reported “Instructional Partner” (n=140 or 26%) and “Teacher” (n=138 or 25%). The fewest number of respondents chose “Leader” (n=58 or 11%) or “Program Administrator” (n=11 or 2%). When asked to indicate the type of role in which they most frequently engaged, the number of participants who answered the question was again 542. Of those responses, most respondents reported “Information Specialist” (n=221 or 41%), with “Teacher” at 155 (29%) 147 responses, and “Instructional Partner” with 62 (11%) responses. A smaller number of respondents chose “Program Administrator” (n=48 or 9%), and the fewest chose “Leader” (n=30 or 6%). Questions 9: School Librarian Performance Evaluation In the final question, respondents were asked how they felt about the evaluation processes used to assess their performance as a school librarian. Five hundred and forty four respondents completed this question. The majority (n=265 or 49%) felt that the evaluation instrument used to assess their performance was accurate “To a small extent.” In contrast, 116 (21%) felt that their performance evaluation was accurate “To a great extent.” More respondents thought their performance evaluation was accurate “Not to any extent” (n=72 or 13%) than thought it was “Completely” accurate (n=23 or 4%). A few respondents chose “No opinion” (n=39 or 7%) or “I don’t know” (n=29 or 5%). Figure 6 shows all of the responses to this question. 300 250 200 150 100 Evaluation Accuracy 50 0 Figure 6. Perceived Accuracy of Performance Assessment (N=544) Discussion This research was conducted to explore what influences school librarians’ perceptions of their roles, and what those perceptions are. The findings will be discussed in light of the research questions. Research Question 1. What influences school librarians’ perceptions of their roles? and Research Question 2. Who influences the types of work that school librarians engage in most frequently? The first two research questions pertain to school librarians’ role perceptions and role performance. Professional standards, articles from professional or research journals, other librarians (as peers or mentors), and sessions at professional conferences were the most frequently cited by the school librarians surveyed as influencing their perceptions of their roles. This finding reflects the research indicating that employees may base their role perceptions on formal written documents (such as professional standards) and socialization by their organization (Graen 1976). However, while school librarians may be receiving 148 context-specific acculturation from their school organization, they may also feel the need for socialization in the wider culture of school librarians. Since many school librarians may be working as the only school librarian at their school, reading articles written by other school librarians, attending sessions at professional conferences presented by other school librarians, and having mentor or collaborative peer relationships with other school librarians may represent the best way for school librarians to experience enculturation and socialization specific to school librarians. When the school librarians surveyed were asked what most influenced their perceptions of their roles, professional standards received the highest number of responses, but only 26% of respondents chose this answer, which is in contrast to research on pre-service school librarians’ valuation of the importance of the professional standards (Mardis and Dickinson 2009). This divergence may be a result of the difference between the ideal of school librarianship as envisioned by pre-service school librarians and the reality in which current school librarians find themselves. McCarthy (1997) found that the majority of school librarians she surveyed did not think the professional standards from Information Power: Guidelines for School Library Media Programs (AASL and Association for Educational Communications and Technology 1988) could be achieved at their schools nine years after they had been published. It is possible that some current school librarians don’t feel as though the current professional standards are achievable in their schools, either, and therefore don’t see them as the most influential to their perceptions of their roles. The school librarians surveyed overwhelmingly responded that students were the people who most influenced their role perceptions; this is likely a reflection of a learner-centered philosophy. While it is good to know that school librarians consider students to be extremely important to their role perceptions, this answer does not address school librarians’ sense of autonomy, as students are unlikely to wield influence over the types of work in which school librarians are able to engage. Research Question 3. What do school librarians consider to be their most important role? and Research Question 4. Do school librarians feel that they are able to frequently engage in work related to the role they perceive to be the most important? A majority (54%) of school librarians in this study felt that they are engaged in work that lies outside of their perceptions of their roles at least once a month, and they described a myriad of different extra-role behaviors. Many of the extra-role behaviors the school librarians cited seemed to be related to fulfilling duties that could have been filled by other personnel if there was a position for them at that school. Since this question only asked for a description of the types of behaviors school librarians performed that they thought were beyond their roles, it was unclear to what extent school librarians voluntarily engaged in these behaviors or whether they were mandatory for the school librarian to perform in their school context. Work context influences the perception of certain behaviors as either in-role or extra role (Konovsky and Organ 1996; Werner 1994; LePine, Erez, and Johnson 2002; Flynn 2006; Somech and Ron 2007), and school librarians’ performance of behaviors they consider to be extra-role may be a result of performance expectations from other stakeholders (Belogolovsky and Somech 2010). Of the five roles (Leader, Instructional Partner, Information Specialist, Teacher, and Program Administrator) described in Empowering Learners: Guidelines for School Library Programs (AASL, 2009), 36% of school librarians thought that the Information Specialist role was the 149 most important, but 41% of school librarians indicated that this was the role they most often performed; there were similar differences in the number of school librarians who thought a particular role was the most important as compared to the number of school librarians who most frequently engaged in that role, with the greatest difference being between the number of school librarians who thought of the Instructional Partner role as the most important (26%) and the number of school librarians who were able to most frequently engage in that role (11%). According to Empowering Learners: Guidelines for School Library Programs (AASL 2009), the role of Teacher was the most important at the time, and the role of Instructional Partner was supposed to rise to prominence. This is in stark contrast to the findings, where more of the school librarians surveyed thought the Information Specialist role was the most important. These findings about the role school librarians perceive to be the most important compared to the role in which they are most frequently engaged have implications for school librarians’ sense of autonomy, i.e. some school librarians are most frequently engaged in the work that they do not consider to be the most important. If autonomy is defined as discretion about role performance, these school librarians likely have a lower sense of autonomy, since they are not spending most of their time engaged in the work they consider to be most important; if these school librarians had a higher level of autonomy, they would perhaps be spending more time performing the roles they perceived to be the most important. Depending on the conditions that have led to this discrepancy, school librarians’ sense of organizational justice may also have been negatively affected. For example, imagine a scenario in which a school librarian’s administrator decided, without consulting the school librarian, to assign the school librarian to a fixed schedule in order to provide planning time for teachers, and that this administrator ignored the school librarian’s protests about this decision. This administrator’s decision effectively forces the school librarian to engage most frequently in the Teacher role, which will heavily interfere with performance of other roles the school librarian may consider to be more important, such as the Instructional Partner role, which would require access to teachers during their planning times. The school librarian in this scenario would likely disagree with the outcome of the administrator’s decision (a fixed schedule), the process that was used (not consulting the school librarian), and her or his treatment during the process (being ignored), meaning that the school librarian would feel unfairly treated, negatively affecting his or her sense of organizational justice. Research Question 5. Do school librarians feel that their performance evaluation is an accurate assessment of the typical work of school librarians? The majority (62%) of school librarians surveyed felt that their performance evaluations were either not at all or only to a small extent an accurate assessment of their work as school librarians, which may have effect on their sense of organizational justice. These school librarians may feel less inclined to engage in extra-role behaviors, which can be critical to the success of a school (Belogolovsky and Somech 2010; DiPaolo and Tschannen-Moran 2001; Bogler and Somech 2005; Somech and Drach-Zahavy 2000; Somech and Ron 2007). This situation could create a negative feedback loop, as a reluctance to engage in extra-role behaviors may be reflected in lower ratings on school librarians’ performance evaluations (Yun, Takeuchi, and Liu 2007; McAllister et al. 2007), leading to an even lower sense of organizational justice, further discouraging extra-role behavior. 150 Conclusions and Directions for Future Research In this study, we presented the initial results of a national survey that aimed to capture school librarians’ perceptions of their roles, their abilities to enact those roles, and their feelings about their professional evaluation. Prior research has suggested that myriad factors influence each of these aspects of school librarianship, and that determining the interplay between perception, performance, and evaluation is vital to defining a profession that is threatened by competing financial and policy pressures facing K-12 education. While many respondents cited the professional standards as an influence on their perceptions of their roles, considerably fewer of the school librarians surveyed said that the professional standards were the most influential to their perceptions of their roles. This difference should concern professional associations such as AASL, especially as it stands in contrast to research on pre-service school librarians’ perceptions (Mardis 2007, 2013; Mardis and Dickinson 2009). If currently practicing school librarians do not regard their professional standards as being the most influential to their role perceptions, their professional organizations should consider re-evaluating their articulated visions of school librarianship. Further research is needed to determine why more current school librarians do not consider the professional standards to be the most influential factor in their perceptions of their roles, and what school librarians’ perceptions of AASL are. Although students are unlikely to have the power to influence school librarians’ role performance, most study participants considered students to be the people most influential to their perceptions of their roles; this student-centered commitment was not also reflected in school librarians’ perceptions of role importance or role performance. This conflict calls for further research into school librarians’ sense of autonomy, their abilities to perform their roles as they perceive they should be performed, and how other stakeholders influence school librarians’ sense of autonomy and role performance. A majority of school librarians surveyed indicated that they were engaged in extra-role behaviors at least once a month; many of these behaviors were related to non-instructional student supervision outside the library or to fulfilling duties that could be performed by other personnel. It was not clear to what extent these extra-role behaviors are voluntary or mandatory. Further research is needed to develop a more precise idea of what types of extra-role behaviors school librarians engage in, and whether or not they voluntarily do so, as this will give further insights into school librarians’ perceptions of autonomy and organizational justice. The majority of the school librarians surveyed feel that their evaluations do not accurately assessing their role performance. A decreased sense of autonomy accompanied by a decreased sense of organizational justice should negatively affect school librarians’ willingness to engage in the extra-role behaviors that have been deemed necessary for a school to be successful, but many of the respondents indicated that they were engaged in such behaviors. Further research is needed to fully explore what issues are affecting school librarians’ sense of autonomy and how. 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Yun, Seokhwa, Riki Takeuchi, and Wei Liu. 2007. “Employee Self-Enhancement Motives and Job Performance Behaviors: Investigating the Moderating Effects of Employee Role Ambiguity and Managerial Perceptions of Employee Commitment.” The Journal of Applied Psychology 92 (3) (May): 745–756. doi:10.1037/00219010.92.3.745. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17484554 157 Appendix State Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Hawaii Iowa Illinois Indiana Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusett s Michigan Minnesota Total Respondent s 7 3 4 11 5 32 1 41 11 2 7 4 34 6 57 4 3 4 11 State Mississippi Missouri Montana New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina Ohio Oklahoma Pennsylvania Rhode Island Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington Wisconsin Wyoming 5 3 Respondents 1 4 1 6 13 3 38 8 35 2 138 1 3 17 1 1 9 3 5 2 546 Table 1. Respondents by Location (N=546) Grade Level Elementary Middle High School PreK-8 Other: Total Respondents 160 95 197 20 70 542 Table 2. Respondents by Grade Level (N=542) Professional Prep for Role Degree in LIS Degree in LIS/state certification State certification only Other state-recognized preparation Response s 103 351 134 97 158 % Cases % Responses 11.4% 38.7% 18.9% 64.4% 14.8% 10.7% 24.6% 17.8% On-the-job experience in school library On-the-job experience in another type of library I'm new to the library. Other Total 128 14.1% 23.5% 46 5.1% 8.4% 12 36 907 1.3% 4.0% 100.0% 2.2% 6.6% 166.4% Table 3. Respondents' Professional Preparation (N=545) Appendix: Digital Resources Survey Questions Section I: About You 1. In which state do you work? (Please enter your two letter state abbreviation) If you work outside the United States, please indicate your country of residence. 2. Please indicate your level of professional preparation for your role as school librarian. (Please check all that apply.) Degree in LIS Degree in LIS and state certification State certification Other state-recognized preparation (for example, teacher certification in non-LIS area or National Board certification in school media) On-the-job experience in the school library On-the-job experience in another type of library I'm new to the library. Other: ____________________ 3. At which level do you work? Elementary Middle/Junior High High School (P)K-8 Other: ____________________ 4. My school is: Public Private Charter Other: ____________________ 159 Section III: Your Professional Practice 1. Think about how you perceive your role as a school librarian. Which of the following would you say influences your vision of that role? (Please check all that apply.) Professional standards, such as AASL's Empowering Learners or Information Power The job description provided by your school or district The instruction you received while earning your master's degree in Library Science Articles you read in professional or research journals Sessions you attend at professional conferences Professional development sessions Other librarians (as peers or mentors) Other: ____________________ 2. Please indicate which one of these is most influential to your vision of your role as a school librarian. Professional standards, such as AASL's Empowering Learners or Information Power The job description provided by your school or district The instruction you received while earning your master's degree in Library Science Articles you read in professional or research journals Sessions you attend at professional conferences Professional development sessions Other librarians (as peers or mentors) Other: ____________________ 3. Now think about the work you do as a school librarian. Who influences the types of work you engage in? (Please check all that apply.) Students Teachers Administrators School District Officials Other librarians (as peers or mentors) Community Other: ____________________ 4. Please indicate which person or group most influences the types of work you engage in. Students Teachers Administrators School District Officials Other librarians (as peers or mentors) Community Myself Other: ____________________ 5. How frequently are you engaged in activities that you feel are outside the role of school librarians as you perceive it? I never engage in these activities. I engage in these activities once or twice during the school year. I engage in these activities a few times per semester. I engage in these activities once per month or more. I don't know. 160 6. Please list examples of duties you perform that fall outside the role of the school librarian as you perceive it. 7. I think the most important role that school librarians do is as a(n): Leader (working to improve conditions in the learning community) Instructional Partner (collaborating with other teachers) Information Specialist (facilitating access to resources) Teacher (providing instruction in multiple literacies, critical thinking, and ethics) Program Administrator (management of resources and advocacy) 8. The work in which I am able to most frequently engage is related to the role of: Leader (working to improve conditions in the learning community) Instructional Partner (collaborating with other teachers) Information Specialist (facilitating access to resources) Teacher (providing instruction in multiple literacies, critical thinking, and ethics) Program Administrator (management of resources and advocacy) The type of work in which I most frequently engage is not reflective of my perception of the role of school librarian. (Please explain.) ____________________ 9. The job performance evaluation used by my school district is an accurate assessment of the typical work of a school librarian. Not to any extent To a small extent To a great extent Completely I don't know. No opinion. 161 Award-Winning Literacy Awards: Lessons Learned Dr. Lesley S. J. Farmer California State University Long Beach 1250 Bellflower Blvd., Long Beach, CA USA [email protected] Abstract The Library of Congress honors top literacy efforts accomplished by organizations in the U.S. and abroad. Data about the applications and selection process underwent coding and content analysis to provide specific tips and research-based best practices that can improve existing literacy efforts and jumpstart new initiatives. Winners demonstrated sound planning with a clear focus and sustainable support undergirded by volunteer engagement. Winners were resourceful and creative. The most important research-based factors appear to be: home-based early literacy and rich print environment, physical access to a wide variety of reading materials from which the reader can choose, explicit instruction, authentic shared reading experiences. Keywords: Library of Congress, literacy, international, libraries, awards Introduction Thanks to The Carlyle Group co-founder David M. Rubenstein, his generous five-year donation for a total of five billion dollars has enabled the Library of Congress to have the opportunity to honor top literacy efforts accomplished by organizations. The awards also encourage innovative ways to address literacy issues, and disseminate best practices. According to David Rubenstein, who is also a major donor to the Library of Congress, “Literacy spurs innovation and creativity. Literacy is one of the basic tools for making progress in life and can open doors to many joys and wonders. I am pleased to support the work of groups that help people become literate and successfully convince those who can read to read more.“ The $150,000 Rubenstein Award recognizes groundbreaking sustained record to advancing literacy. The $50,000 American Award recognizes a U. S. project developed and implemented within the last ten years that combats illiteracy or aliteracy. The $50,000 International Award recognizes literacy work done outside out the U.S. The first awards were selected and given in 2013, and the second year of literacy awards were chosen and honored in 2014. To optimize the impact of these literacy awards, data about the applications and selection process were analyzed. 162 Administration John Cole, Director for the Library of Congress Center for the Book, chairs the Literacy Awards. Librarian of Congress James H. Billington named a distinguished advisory board, representing several aspects of literacy: government leaders, bestselling authors, non-profit leaders, and professors. David Rubenstein and John Cole Award developed the following selection criteria: innovation, research/best practice basis, replicability, measurable impact, sustainability. Applicants submitted a 750 word project summary and three letters of support; applicants could also list their website to provide more details. Three members of the board served as chairs to select each award, who selected the semifinalists for each award collaboratively. The rest of the board split into the three award groups to recommend the finalists. Dr. Billington made the final choices. At the first two levels of screening, each reviewer completed a score sheet, and noted significant factors. In addition, a one-page summary of each semi-finalist, written by the Library of Congress staff, facilitated scoring. Applications In 2013 100 nominations were received and considered: 36 American Prize applications, 50 International Prize applications, and 67 Rubenstein Prize applications. Applicants reflected programs in 28 U.S. states and 21 countries. Because the directions did not specify that only one award could be pursued, 16 applied for both the Rubenstein and American Prizes, 23 applied for both the Rubenstein and International Prizes, and three applied for all three prizes. In that first year the competition also allowed individuals as well as organizations to be nominated, so sixteen individuals were nominated (one was nominated four times). However, only organizations won the prizes. In reviewing the 2013 selection process, the advisory board limited the 2014 nominations to organizations, and to just one prize per application. The total number of 2014 nominations was 89, with 77 of them being eligible for further review: 34 American, 24 International, and 18 Rubenstein. Applications were received from organizations in 23 states and 30 countries. Several of the 2013 nominations reapplied in 2014: four American, five International, and seven Rubenstein applications. 2013 Winners In 2013 826 National won the American Prize. Headquartered in Washington, DC, this organization helps young people read and write through its community-based in-school and after-school programs. 826 National is the address of its first storefront operation. The front of the store sells items, which helps pay for the rent and other program expenses. In the back, volunteers tutor K-12 students. 826 National also produces and sells anthologies of their young people’s writing. The 2013 semi-finalists in American category included: The Association for Library Services to Children: El Dia de Los Ninos/Libros, Colorado Humanities, Queens Library literacy Zone Welcome Center, ReadAloud.org, Reader to Reader Inc., and Reading is Fundamental. 163 Planet Read won the 2013 International Prize. This innovative Indian program teaches literacy through close-captioned Bollywood songs broadcast on television and on the Internet. Each year over 200 million people access Planet Read to follow these programs, which show content in eight languages. The 2013 semi-finalists in International category included: the Adult Literacy Tutors Association (Trinidad and Tobago), Associacion Civil Banco del Library (Venezuela), Chen Yet-Sen Family Foundation (China), Friends in Village Development Bangladesh, FunDza Literacy Trust (South Africa), Libros Para Pueblos (Mexico), National Literacy Trust Premier League Reading Stars (United Kingdom), Australia National Year of Reading, OSU Children’s Library Fund (Canada), and State Library of Western Australia Better Beginnings. Reach Out and Read, an early literacy program run by the medical community, won the 2013 Rubenstein Prize. During their well-child checkups, physicians talk with parents about the importance of reading, and give the child a book. This service is available free for families with children up to the age of five. The program started in Boston, and has spread to 1500 sites in all 50 states, thanks to the support of the U.S. Department of Education and other government and corporate partnerships. The 2013 semi-finalists in Rubenstein category included three organizations (First Book, Reading Rockets, Room to Read) and four individuals (Ruth Johnson Colvin of ProLiteracy, Sharon Darling of the National Coalition for Family Literacy, Rana Dajani of We Love Reading, and Marty Finsterbusch of VALUEUSA. 2014 Winners In 2014 The American Prize winner was the Oregon Children’s Foundation SMART (Start Making A Reader Today) program. Using public and private funding, the foundation has served over 170,000 students since its start in 1992, and has donated over two million books. Adult volunteers read individually with a child twice a week for seven months. The 2014 semi-finalists in American category included: The Association for Library Services to Children, California Library Literacy Services, Johnson County Library, Literacy Assistance Center, National Center for Family Learning, Power Poetry, and Reading Partners. The Mother Child Education Foundation, which is the largest literacy organization in Turkey, won the International Prize. Projects include literacy training for women, a program to prepare young children for school while teaching mothers skills to support literacy development, and a web-based literacy program that includes a full range of learning materials and a literacy hotline. 800,000 individuals have been served directly. The 2014 semi-finalists in international category included: the Adult Literacy Tutors Association (Trinidad and Tobago), Booktrust (United Kingdom), Dr. A. V. Balinga Memorial Trust (India), FunDza Literacy Trust (South Africa), Libros Para Pueblos (Mexico), Lost Boys Rebuilding South Sudan, and READ Nepal. Room to Read, which won the 2014 Rubenstein Prize, promotes literacy and gender equity in education. Room to Read establishes libraries, publishes and distributes books, and works 164 with local school systems to implement classroom literacy instruction. So far 16,000 libraries have been established, and nine million children have been served. The 2014 semi-finalists in the Rubenstein category included: Dollywood Foundation, First Book, Parent Child Home Program, ProLiteracy, Reading and Writing Foundation (Netherlands), and WETA Reading Rockets. Of the twenty-five 2013 semi-finalists, nine reapplied in 2014. Of those repeaters, six were 2014 semi-finalists, and one won the Rubenstein Prize. Thematic Analysis In 2013 the Library of Congress published a booklet on best practices, culled from the semifinalist and finalist application information. The advisory board provided input, along with the one-page summaries, and Maralita Freeny, an experienced public librarian in the Washington, DC area, drafted the publication. The publication was also a way to publicly recognize the efforts of the semi-finalists. The best practices were clustered to the following themes, with discussion about the projects’ success under each theme. Facilitating access to print. Donating books for children, on the basis that selfchosen book ownership fosters reading; establishing community libraries (including alternative delivery modes such as boats and mules) improves physical access to books centrally to under-served communities. Cultivating diverse partnerships. Government, foundations, corporations, the medical community, other organizations exemplify strategic collaborations that lead to a diverse committed funding base, which provides a sustainable model of service. Leveraging community resources. Examples of community involvement include social workers stationed in libraries, as well as neighborhood volunteer readers, tutors, and trainers. Co-investment in literacy gives local communities a greater stake in literacy project’s success and sustainability. Assuring cultural relevance. Providing culturally relevant resources and services optimizes literacy services as user appreciate the respect and care that enables them to feel connected to the program. While literacy events for one day, or even one year, help draw attention to literacy and celebrate successes, ongoing efforts such as publishing and providing access to culturally relevant resources in home languages reinforce and sustain literacy celebrations. Using technology. One way that literacy programs can be perceived as relevant is to incorporate technology, in terms of both physical and intellectual access. Computers and mobile devices expand access to reading materials, provide opportunities for programs to teach digital literacy, and motivate and facilitate original community writing and its dissemination. Literacy programs have leveraged public television to broadcast reading (such as subtitled songs, read-alouds, and storytelling), interviews with authors and reading experts, and literacy tips. Literacy programs also disseminate reading materials and support documents via the Internet in order to reach the widest audience. Increasingly, these websites include widgets and social media interactivity to foster active literacy-based participation. Developing writing skills. Writing may be considered the other side of the literacy coin, complementing reading. Writing for an authentic audience is a powerful motivator for the emerging literate person; programs have showcased written work in 165 anthologies and mobi networks. Another significant factor is one-to-one mentoring, be it resident authors face-to-face or online college mentors. Reading aloud and storytelling. The core of literacy efforts is reading aloud to children, with storytelling as a corollary activity. One important element in that reading aloud is the “fun factor.” Sharing books aloud can occur anywhere: at home, in schools, in libraries, in religious centers, in community centers, and within other public spaces. Fostering early intervention and family engagement. Literacy readiness starts early, and families are the first chief teachers. Several research-based approaches on family literacy were reflected in applications: medical training of parents in developmentally appropriate literacy strategies, intergenerational joint learning activities, and preschool readiness that motivates struggling adult readers to improve their own skills. In 2014 the Library of Congress staff analyzed the selection committee review notes of best practices, and identified the following themes. Increasing awareness of the problem of illiteracy. To make broad-based inroads in illiteracy first requires awareness. Such awareness is maximized when several literacy organizations coalesce to complement each other’s efforts including leveraging funding, jointly building capacity, and producing and disseminating information and guides. All kinds of people can raise awareness: trained volunteers, language ambassadors, and celebrities. Increasingly, awareness is expanded through the use of the Internet, including social media. Addressing social barriers to literacy. Poverty limits book ownership, which negatively impacts reading in terms of access and motivation; Dollywood Foundation enables communities to buy books at deep discounts so they can donate books to all registered families – without their having to disclose their financial situation (which can be embarrassing). Literacy efforts also need to be culturally relevant and accessible, from providing materials in home languages to teaching English learners by incorporating cultural sensitivity and facilitating access to social services. Increasing motivation to read and write. When learners are engaged, they are more likely to read. Matched one-to-one tutors provide individualized strategies. Likewise, when community needs are acknowledged, literacy efforts better address authentic needs, such as building community libraries with local business support. Engagement can lead to empowerment, such as helping learners to write and share poetry online. Promoting gender equity and maternal literacy. One of the most significant factors in gaining the reading habit is the involvement of mothers, and that is optimized when girls are given the same opportunities to learn how to read as boys. Bringing reading materials and literacy training to social spaces where women congregate is a natural fit. Boys may be reluctant readers or drop out of school to go to work, so teaching literacy skills combined with life skills makes reading more motivating and relevant. Ensuring quality of instruction. Social learning theory undergirds home visits, training, and book donations by literacy coaches. Structured volunteer programs optimize training quality control. Even teacher practitioners can benefit from literacycentric professional development. 166 Detailed Data Analysis and Discussion To optimize the impact of literacy efforts, deeper data analysis was needed. To this end, the researcher reviewed all of the 2013 and 2014 nomination applications for the Library of Congress literacy awards, and coded them for demographic information the selection criteria, mission, literacy need, project target audience, type of effort, community role, funding, assessment, publicity and awards. Data seldom totaled 100 percent since applicants might not mention a specific factor or might list several items related to one factor. While some factors, such as a concern about illiteracy, might seem obvious for most nominees, several applicants’ narratives did not mention that fact, perhaps because it was assumed. Nevertheless, only explicit statements were coded. The programs ranged in length of years established from one to over a hundred years. In some cases, the umbrella entity was long-standing, but the specific program was relatively new, especially if it involved technology. The average age of the programs was slightly higher the second year. The 2013 semi-finalists averaged 20 years old for the American Prize, and 17 years old for the other two prizes. The average age of all 2014 applicants for the American Prize was 13 years, and the semi-finalists averaged 20 years (the same as in 2013). Applicants for the 2014 International Prize averaged 20 years, and 29 years for the semi-finalist. Applicants for the 2014 Rubenstein Prize average 24 years, and 25 years for the semi-finalists. Not-for-profit non-governmental organizations submitted the majority of applications. About one-eighth of the applications were submitted by foundations each year. Between 2013 and 2014 fewer libraries and more government entities were nominated; furthermore, more umbrella organizations, rather than branches or subsets of those organizations, were nominated. Most programs existed for about a generation: long enough to establish a solid record of achievement and stability, but young enough to incorporate recent literacy research and tools. In several cases, long-standing groups submitted applications that featured a specific initiative, such as a Year of Reading or a program that targeted recent immigrants. Almost all applicants mentioned partnerships, which broadened their audience and support base. The number of partners ranged from one to hundreds. No pattern emerged relative to the type of applicant. In general, the larger the applicant, the more partners were involved and the larger those entities. Between 2013 and 2014 the number of governmental, school and library partners grew, and the number of large organizational partners and foundations decreased. Not surprisingly, donations constituted the most common funding source. More government and organizational funders were mentioned in 2014 than in 2013. The nominees’ audiences became more targeted between 2013 and 2014. However, for both years literacy efforts were aimed primarily at children. Teens were the second-most popular audience, and adults were the third most commonly mentioned audience. The majority of applicants mentioned the literacy-related need that drove their efforts. Not surprisingly, illiteracy was the main need identified, although in the second year, reading attitudes were noted more often, with access to books are close second. As mentioned above, applicants may be assumed that illiteracy was an underlying need so focused on 167 more specific issues or reasons for illiteracy, such as physical access, or results such as academic failure. Teaching and training constituted the main effort over the two years, highlighting the need for intellectual access to reading materials. Programs provided both direct instruction to the target audience and train-the-trainer models (for teachers, librarians and parents). Physical access by itself is not sufficient, although publishing and book donations were the second most popular efforts (though less so in 2014); in several instances, publications were comprised of supporting materials to help trainers. Third in overall popularity was access to books, including the building of libraries and other literacy centers as well as providing innovative book delivery modes such as book backpacks delivery by bicycle and book boxes delivery by pack animal. Programs incorporated technology in several ways: mobile-based reading, web-based reading and supporting materials, publicity via blogs, video and virtual training, broadcast reading materials (i.e., sub-titled songs) and instruction, as well as physical and intellectual access to computers. In a few case, online surveys were used to assess the effectiveness of the programs. The vast majority of programs pointed out the rise in reading skills and positive reading habits. Several programs also asserted that their participants improved academically. A few programs mentioned the affective domain in terms of impact: improved attitudes towards reading and greater self-confidence and self-esteem. In terms of literacy skills, the second most mentioned skill (much less frequency than reading) was writing. One of the benefits of writing is that the target audience became producers of ideas, not just consumers of ideas. Indeed, most programs’ intended audiences tended to be recipients of the resources and service rather than co-participants. In that respect, when communities contributed to the program’s efforts, there seemed to be more of a sense of ownership and a better chance for sustained programs. The main community activity was instruction: explicit teaching, specific training, one-to-one tutoring and mentoring. Communities also planned and implemented activities and events such as storytelling, reading aloud, book clubs, book fairs, awards, advocacy campaigns and reading celebrations. Other community members wrote and published reading materials (both print and digital). Communities helped build and staff reading centers. People also donated books, or ordered and processed, or distributed reading materials. Still others did fund-raising or donated money themselves. Impact assertions were usually based on surveys. Self-reporting was also done through interviews and focus groups. Observations, tests, and sample products were more objective methods of measuring impact, though done less frequently than self-reporting. In a few cases, outside evaluators were used to verify impact, although the assessment methods were seldom detailed. Assessment remains relatively unsophisticated in most cases, and training in assessment methods would be a worthy initiative. 168 Differences Between Semi-Finalists and Other Nominees The researcher also compared those nominees who were selected as semi-finalists and those who were not so chosen. As a result, the following trends emerged in terms of the application itself and the selection criteria. General writing qualities: Follow directions. Observe the word count limit. Take advantage of website links. Remember that the letters of recommendation do not have a strict word count limit. Keep on target and provide specifics to support your case. Overarching organizations are more compelling than one subset. Literacy-centric organizations are more compelling than general welfare organizations. Focus on the impact – improving people’s lives. You might distribute a million books, but if people don’t read those books, then the initiative is not very significant. Demonstrate broad and deep impact over time. Demonstrate growth and improvement over time. Demonstrate how the initiative sustains itself through stable funding, staffing, and other support. Best Practice Products: Best Practices booklet Best URLS (for online resources) or more Strategies for winning applications “How to build an effective literacy program” Research/resources list Podcasts Vidcasts Testimonials/soundbytes/quotes (including social media such as Twitter) Substantial website Reliance on Research and Practice: Cite research and how it is specifically integrated (not pro forma) Show how project models theory and research Measure impact using research evaluation tools Use literacy researchers as consultants and external evaluators The most important research-based factors appear to be: home-based early literacy (including a rich print environment, shared reading, and literacy-based interaction between parents and children);l physical access to a wide variety of reading materials from which the reader can choose; explicit instruction; authentic shared reading experiences. Innovation: What is unique, original, creative, forward-thinking? Does it leverage emerging technology? Is it a fresh approach to community building or partnerships? 169 Good examples: closed captioned songs, health care literacy advice to parents, storefront literacy centers for teens, teaching literacy to newlyweds, teaching literacy at community gathering places (e.g., wells) Sustainability: Show how initiative is self-sustaining: track record of stable budget and capacity to have a solid base of operations. Show that initiative is institutionalized (not dependent on 1 person). Have several funding sources can be useful. 1) a baseline fund (such as a national public library) with partner funds for enhancements; 2) several stable funding sources (e.g., foundation, profits from products/services, sponsoring partners) Typically, a one-time campaign is not considered sustainable. An initiative based on “soft” money is usually not sustainable; soft money is fine for starting an initiative, but not for sustaining it. Generally, sustainable initiatives include local “buy-in” and participation because the project meets community needs. Measurable Impact: Anecdotes can be compelling, but impact must be measurable. Literacy outcomes: improved reading (and writing) competence, leading to jobs, academic success, better health, better decisions, improved community status. Sample measures of individual improved literacy: reading and writing scores, increased vocabulary, writing sample work, participation and success in reading and writing competitions, fluency of reading aloud, minutes read, academic courses and grades, less recidivism, reading self-confidence, becoming literacy trainers Sample measures of community improved literacy: literacy-related legislation, improved literacy curriculum, school reform, publications by target audience, new libraries to support increased literacy demands, more literate employees, improved reading culture, book clubs Provide baseline data and data collected after the initiative has been implemented to demonstrate impact. In general, semi-finalists and winners demonstrated sound planning and implementation with a clear focus and sustainable support. The majority of programs had a solid foundation and long-term reputation, which enabled them to garner stable partners and funding. Most had strong local support and volunteer engagement, even for national initiatives. Most of these programs demonstrated creativity or resourcefulness, such as teaching reading in public spaces where women congregated or using social media to motivate young people to write and share poetry. Most of the semi-finalists and winners provided support materials, frequently online, to enable target audiences and other groups to implement the programs independently; this practice also fostered adaptation by other entities, which further broadened the programs’ impact. Conclusions David M. Rubenstein’s donation has served as a powerful catalyst to bring attention to the issues of illiteracy and aliteracy, recognize significant literacy programs, and provide suggestions for other groups to address these literacy needs. 170 A wide range of literacy programs were nominated, in no small thanks to the publicity of the Library of Congress and its advisory panel. While the number of applications was about one hundred, which reflects a small percentage of the thousands of literacy efforts occurring worldwide, the resultant pool showcased a good variety of substantive programs so that the ultimate prizes would honor worthy recipients whose work could be adapted by myriad literacy groups. First years’ nominations reflected a wide range of scope, time frame, maturity, and impact. The first year’s semi-finalist and winner list provided a concrete standards “bar” that helped the second year’s applicants to determine their worthiness and guide their documentation for the prizes. As a result of the data analysis, the Literacy Awards program can provide specific tips and research-based best practices that can improve existing literacy efforts and jumpstart new initiatives. Just as literacy programs need to be strategic, so too does this Literacy Awards program need to be strategic in order to optimize its own worth and impact. They have three more years in this five-year donation plan, and all parties hope that the results will merit future support. Biography Dr. Lesley Farmer, Professor at California State University Long Beach, coordinates the Librarianship program. She earned her M.S. in Library Science at the University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, and received her doctorate in Adult Education from Temple University. Dr. Farmer has worked as a teacher-librarian in K-12 school settings, public, special and academic libraries. She edits the International Federation of Library Associations’ School Libraries and Literacy/Reading Sections blogs. A frequent presenter and writer for the profession, she won IASL’s Research Award, American Library Association’s Phi Beta Mu Award for library education, and Library Instruction Round Table’s Librarian Recognition Award. She is also a Fulbright scholar. Dr. Farmer’s research interests include digital citizenship, information literacy, collaboration, assessment and data analysis. Her recent books are Introduction to Reference and Information Services in Today’s School Libraries (Rowman & Littlefield, 2014) and Library Services for Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ALA, 2013). 171 Information Architecture and the Comic Arts: Knowledge Structure and Access Dr. Lesley S. J. Farmer California State University Long Beach 1250 Bellflower Blvd., Long Beach, CA USA [email protected] Abstract Comic arts provide a compelling media for communicating concepts in an accessible and engaging manner, and its conventions leverage the interdependence of text and image, thus modelling effective information architecture. To that end, education needs to explicitly teach the medium’s communication conventions to help learners comprehend, critique, and generate content using comic arts. In addition, comic arts conventions can be used in several research methods to capture knowledge and its communication, specifically the significance of format in its impact on message. This paper explains information architecture, focusing on comic arts’ features for representing and structuring knowledge, also noting visual literacy. Next, applications of comic arts in education are listed. Content analysis of students’ graphic novels determined how well pre-service teacher librarians demonstrate competency in information architecture. Keywords: Comic arts, visual literacy, information architecture, education, teacher librarians Introduction Information architecture in its broadest sense is defined as “the structual design of shared information environments”(Information Architecture Institute, 2013, p. 1). To that end, it tries to optimize how content information is represented, users’ interaction with that content, and their context . Comic arts may be considered in light of information architecture in that it uses sequential frames, text and their “containers,” and design conventions as information architectural “tools” to represent information and engage the user in interacting with it. This chapter explains information architecture, focusing on comic arts’ features for representing and structuring knowledge. Then it details information behaviors relative to this format, providing a concrete research example. Finally, it recommends strategies for addressing information architecture explicitly for knowledge acquisition and communication. Definitions and Concepts Knowledge Representation 172 While textual information usually comprises a significant aspect of comic arts, in terms of knowledge representation, the main element is visual. Not only are active and inanimate figures represented visually, but their movements over time, and in relationship to each other, are also captured via the series of panels. These additional aspects of concepts enrich understanding. In examining the symbolism of visual messages, Peirce (1883) categorized them into icons that resemble the actual thing (such as a realitic picture of a cat), indexesthat point to another object’s meaning (such as a frown to indicate displeasure), and a conventional symbol that has no visual counterpart, such as the word “cat” to mean that animal. Peirce also differentiated between unsystematic (i.e., novel and unique)and systematic (conventionalized) references; comic arts usually employ systematic references. A representation can be a “close” representation in terms of verisimilitude or indexicality, or very abstract. For instance, a photo might be considered a relatively “close” representation because of its technical capturing of reflected light bouncing off the surface of the original item, but it might be considered a “poor” or inaccurate presentation because it is just a projection of a three-dimensional item and does not represent internal physical aspects, let alone psychological or cognitive aspects (say, the photo of a person). In contrast, a Dali painting represents a notion of time psychologically, or a Kathe Kollwitz charcoal drawing might be a more “accurate” representation of war-based suffering than a photo. Thus, physically itself does not equate with the quality of representation; the audience’s participation (McLuhan’s “hot” medium), be it emotional or psychological, constitutes an essential element in determining/deeming the quality of the representation. In that respect, the medium is NOT equal to the message. Information Architecture The term “information architecture” has a fairly recent history, emerging in the last half of the twentieth century, largely out of the computer industy. Engineers were trying to organize data flow, control, and physical implementation (Amhahl et al., 1964). The Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) was also known for its innovation, and was given a charge to develop technology that would support the architecture of information, emphasizing humancomputer interface (Pake, 1985). However, it was Richard Wurman, an architect turned designer, who popularized ther term “information architecture” in 1976 as he saw a need for systematic design to structure the vast amount of data that was being generated. In its simplest form, information architecture (IA) reflects the intersection of content, people, and context. “IA is the term used to describe the process of designing, implementing and evaluating information spaces that are humanly and socially acceptable to their intended stakeholders” (Dillon, 2002, p. 821). To facilitate access and comprehension, content needs to be represented effectively; the choice and use of format needs to the consciously determined to best represent the information. Marshall McLuhan asserted that “the medium is the message,” in that the “container” for the information shapes the message itself. For instance, movies are an effective medium to record communicate processes that involve motion over time. In contrast, radio captures sound, and its single sense communication channel focuses attention on listening skills. Some classic examples of information 173 architecture include the London Underground map, IKEA stores, Macintosh’s interface, and CNN’s website. Farnum (2002) and Rosenfeld and Morville (2002) identified the following components of IA: • Visual design • Interaction design • User experience design • Usability • Organization, labeling and navigation schemes • Structural design to facilitate access to content • Structural design to facilitate task completion and intuitive access to content • Structuring and classifying documents to help people find and manage information • Knowledge Management (KM) • Planning, capturing, organizing, interconnecting and providing access to organizational knowledge through both intellectual and information technologies Information architecture has to take into consideration unintended audiences and unintended goals if it intends to serve several purposes. Therefore, the resource itself has to be easy to locate as well as information within, although the nature of comic arts is that the entire source is usually experienced as whole rather than accessed at some random (Morville, 2007). Ideally, content should be retrievable and engaging through browsing and other serendipitous activity; the element of play can be compelling, which can play well with comic arts (Weinberger, 2007). The related term “infography” refers to the actual, practical formation and execution of structured combinations of text, pictures, and graphic design (Pettersson, 1993). That is, text must be comprehensible and consistent, images need to be clear, typography and layout need to be clear and aid understanding (Pettersson, 1997). Note that art is valued for is originality, expressiveness, and esthetics, while design is valued for its ability to fit a task and targeted user (Mullet & Sano, 1995). People have information needs, so they seek ways to satisfy those needs. People vary significantly in terms of age, sex, cultures, background, experience, personality, and special needs. Content providers need to think of these factors as they represent and disseminate content, particularly if those content providers want to influence their targeted audience. For example, advertisements during children’s shows differ significantly from ads run during murder mysteries. In order to satisfy the information needs of the intended receivers information design comprises analysis, planning, presentation and understanding of a message – its content, language and form. Regardless of the selected medium, a well designed information material will satisfy aesthetic, economic, ergonomic, as well as subject matter requirements ( Petterson, 2002, p. 26). Often people try to get “good enough” results with the least time and effort. To that end, they may “berry-pick” information, starting with the most convenient relevant source, which then drives the direction for further searching. More generally, context can impact that information seeking behavior in that the motivation can drive the direction: gathering data for 174 a high stakes report for a boss differs significantly from an oral presentation on bees for third graders – or from looking for a job or searching for a poison antidote. Comic Arts In its simplest form, the term “comic arts” may be considered a subset of “sequential art”: a meaningful series of images. Comic art includes the following elements: images in panels, text in boxes or “bubbles,” and “gutters” between panels. Occasionally, a comic might not include words, discernable charactors, or a narrative, but these exceptions prove the rule. Will Eisner (1996) coined the term “graphic novel” to differentiate his work from the graphic pulp comics of the 1950s; he also wanted to emphasize his storytelling characteristic. Generally, graphic novels usually refer to book length story in comic strip format. Nevertheless, graphic novels still fall under the umbrella of comic arts. McLuhan (1994) studied the comic form, its melding of words and pictures, divorced from its content, and asserted that it was a medium of its own. McLuhan (1994) saw comics as extensions of the woodcut and photographic media, “a world of inclusive gesture and dramatic posture.” “[T]he modern comics strip and comic book,” he wrote, “provide very little data about any particular moment in time, or aspect in space, of an object. The viewer, or reader, is compelled to participate in completing and interpreting the few hints provided bythe bounding lines ” (p. 161). These are qualities of what McLuhan termed“cool” media: lowresolution creations that force the reader to fill in the blanks. They contrast with “hot” media like film, which leaves little to the imagination or a necessity to resolve the media gaps. Comic arts employ a kind of “grammar” or conventions, as detailed by McCloud (1993) and Cohn (2013): Abstracted images, although contemporary comics possess a wide range of pictorial styles Predictable sequencing of panels (left to right and top to down, with Japanese manga in the opposite direction) Panels as attention units: macro (multiple active entities), mono (one actice entity), micro (part of one active entity), amorphic inactive entity, as well as filmic shot types (from long establishing shot to extreme close up) Transitions between panels: of time, space, subject, point of view, action sequence Textual “carriers”: speech and thought balloons, narrative captions, sound effects Indexical lines: path lines that show motion or direction, and deictix lines that draw attention to something. This grammar exemplifies the idea of IA in that the comic artist uses these elements to convey mearning effectively and efficiently. Visual Information Behaviors Information Design Theory Creators of comic arts begin with an idea, determine the form to express the idea such as a comic, employ the idioms and signs of comic arts, structure the ideas and story into panels, and craft the comic into its final product (McCloud, 1994). Information architecture is part of that process as the creator tries to optimize the reader’s interaction with the comic to deliver the message effectively. 175 Especially if the comic is created with a specific intent or agenda in mind, the creator will want to employ information design theory, which “encompasses studies of the way a representation should be designed in order to achieve optimum commuiation between the sender and the receiver” (Pettersson, 2006, p. 83). This theory draws from concepts of instruction, graphic design, and and production. The creators analyze the target audience’s information behavior in order to optimize engagement and understanding, though not necessarily learning. The execution perspective deals with the following design elements: test, image, shape, sound, light, space, and time. To that end, comic creators need to follow user-centered interface design: intuitiveness, logical organization and structure, consistency, simplicity, esthetics (Batley, 2007). Toms (2002, p. 859) parsed information interaction design into several supporting theories: Schema theory and memory models reflect how comics are used. Information retrieval models impact the comic system. Information searching models impacts content representation. More generally, Garrett (2010) developed a concept of five elements that constitute the user experience on the web, which aligns with McCloud’s 1994 elements of comic arts development. In both constructs, the creator goes from abstract conception to concrete completion. Garrett starts with strategy, matching the task objective and user needs: the comic’s intent. Next he addresses the scope and functionality of the product: the comic’s form and idiom. Information architecture is the third step, which translates into structuring the comic. The fourth step is information design to facilitate understanding. The last step is visual design, crafting the textual and graphic page elements. Information Behaviors Not only does the comic creator use information architecture to convey meaning, but the reader also has to understand comic arts grammar and architecture in order to derive the meaning. For instance the author who writes in Thai requires a reader who can decode Thai. The reader may engage with comics or graphic novels for variety of reasons; to learn something, to be entertained, to connect with others (e.g., co-viewing, reinforce social inclusion), to reinforce personal identity (e.g., affirm personal values, gain insights about oneself), or even to stave off boredom (Haridakis & Hanson, 2009). These motivations constitute part of the context that impacts information architecture. Continued engagement requires decoding the comic through interpreting its “grammar” conventions, and comprehending the underlying message. At that point, the reader makes sense of the panel sequencing, and links the visual images to one another and to other comics or information meaningfully (Batley, 2007). This processing of information is also contextualized, depending on the reader’s physical and virtual environment, as well his personal situation. As an example, Yahoo wanted to share their company’s vision with their stakeholders, and had to determine which medium would provide the level of detail and context needed to convey theiri message. They developed a series of use cases, represented by comics to tell their story. Comics world because they were accessible and easy to comprehend. Comics 176 conveyed time and motion. They engaged people because their abstraction called for the viewer to “fill in the blanks,” while providing context from the combination of text and image. They were also relatively easy to develop iteratively (Cheng & Jao, 2006). Visual Literacy While comic arts combines image and text, visual elements comprise the central factor. Even before the creation of written language, information was represented and conveyed visually. With technology advances and heightened globalization, visual representations of kinowledge have gained credence. The methods to produced such visualizations has increased – as has the need to understand how those images are made and how to interpret them. While pre-literate society could understand some visual messages, the range of techniques and the cultural connotations of many symbols requires explicit instruction to have an informed background. At the most basic level, visual literacy may be defined as the ability to understand, create, and use visual messages. The International Visual Literacy Association developed the following visual literacy indicators in 1996: • Interpret, understand, appreciate meaning of visual messages • Communicate more effectively by applying visual design principles • Produce visual messages using technology • Use visual thinking to conceptualize solutions to problems. With the impact of mass media, visual literacy has sometimes been confused with mass literacy, the latter focusing on the purposeful means and ends of mass media such as television, film, and commercial electronic “broadcasts.” More recently, the 2003 enGauge report on 21st century skills included visual literacy as a necessary skill, and listed several indicators: Understanding of visual design and technique elements Awareness of cognitive and affective influences in perceiving visuals Comprehension of representations, explanatory, abstract, and symbolic images Critical thinking and consumption of visual information Design, production, and communication of visual information. Processing visual messages differs significantly from processing textual information. The unit of comprehension is an image (often framed) rather than a word, so usually the message unit is more complex. Another basis for complexity is due to the associated meanings of signs and symbols (Clarke, 1991). A sign is an object that presents something else in a straightforward way, such as a road sign; it serves as a one-to-one correlation. Symbols are signs that have an additional, more profound meaning, such as a skull signifying death. Signs and symbols try to capture critical features of the idea so that it can be understood quickly by many people across disciplines or languages. In comic arts, representative symbols include “sound effects” icons, thought bubbles, light bulbs, among others. Maps are a good example of the use of symbols in that they serve as shorthand representations of specific ideas. Even though signs and symbols are often culturally defined, the underlying visual elements are universal (Dondis, 1973). 177 Dot establishes a central focus or location; constitutes the basis for digital images (most commonly associated with a pixel). Line establishes boundaries and movement, and can be used to define shapes or textures. Space is usually discerned in terms of geometry; squares usually connote stability while triangles connote action and circles connote cycles and organisms. Direction shows movement from one element to another (i.e., pointed shapes); diagonal movement is usually associated with energy. Texture is the “feel” of a surface; this element links visual and tactile sensations. Hue is usually associated with the sense of color, which conveys information and values (e.g., royalty, purity, gender). Saturation is the amount of grey in a color; the more saturation the more brilliant the color. Value is the lightness of darkness of an image; usually light value is associated with good and airiness. Scale shows the relative size of objects; when two objects are shown together, the larger one is considered more powerful or important. Dimension is the sense of three dimensions and perspective. Motion links time and space, so in 2D art this element is illusionary although significant. Likewise, the elements are used according to universal visual principles to produce a specific impact. Balance: equal “weight” on both sides of an image, either through formal symmetry, informal symmetry (different but equal), or radial symmetry (as in a sunburst). Proportion: the relative size or shape of an element relative to another; a three-fifths proportion (the Golden Mean) is considered the most pleasing proportion. Contrast: two elements that differ greatly, e.g., thick and thin lines, small and large shapes dark and light colors. Emphasis: a focus point of center of interest. Unity: a sense that every element fits together, typically through comparable elements or subject matter. Variety: different elements or subject matter that provides a variety of interest points. Pattern: a repeated element, such as polka dots, stripes, or plaid. Rhythm: related to pattern, in that it often uses repeated elements; waves and forests are often used to convey rhythm. By explaining these visual elements and principles, learners can consciously realize how this visual “language” impacts their responses to a graphic novel, and determine the creator’s intent. Learners can also knowledgeably use these principles when creating their own graphic novels in order to elicit a desired response. Comic Arts in Education Curricular Applications Comics in the U.S. have a checkered past relative to education. The book format of comics hit its stride in the late thirties and early forties, but was stifled in the McCarthy Era as some pundits were afraid of comics’ corrupting influence. The format phoenixed in the 1970s with 178 the books of Eisner and Lee, among others; the term “graphic novel” was used to distinguish their work by their length, sophisticated storyline, and high-concept art (which actually harkened back to the serious work of Lynn Ward and other visual artists of the 1930s). The acclaimed books A Contract with God Maus, and Watchman, along with appreciation of this format by the French and Japanese, further enhanced the reputation of graphic novels. For years school and public libraries were reluctant to collect “trashy” comics, but the advent of more prestigious graphic novels, along with huge popular demand by youth, turned around librarians’ attitudes. Formal education has tended to undervalue comic arts for several reasons: textual literacy is the default literacy, comic books have been traditionally associated with entertainment rather than learning, and some teachers are not knowledgeable about visual literacy and the comic arts genre of literacy. However, the tide is slowly turning, largely due to high-quality graphic novels such as Persepolis and Barefoot Gen, as well as effective comic arts adaptations of literacy texts such as the Workman series of Shakespeare’s plays. Chanlin (1999) noted that incorporating visual design in learning depends on the students’ prior knowledge, with still images being less distracting than moving images. Mayer et al. (1996) found that visual explanation are more impactful for inexperienced students, and combining image and text facilitates mental links. Likewise, Tarquin and Walker (1997) found that story maps and other visual frameworks helped learers visualize and relate ideas. These studies, although not specifically focused on comic arts, do provide research-based rationales for the incorporation of comic arts in education. The following aspects of graphic novels, as well as other comic arts, demonstrate their benefits as they are incorporated in curricula. Graphic novels address people’s differing learning styles. Students can start with the visual aspect or textual aspect, and then link from their learning strength to incorporate other learning strategies. Comic arts also resonate for field dependent learners, who need to contextual ideas. Graphic novels model good “dual coding” practice where image and text complement each other, and facilitate comprehension and meaning making. Readers can erase or white out the text, and determine how much of the content can still be understood. Alternatively, they can write their own text, and try to alter the image’s meaning. Graphic novels offer a motivating way for English language learners to read. Many images cross cultural lines, and the short captions help to focus on specific vocabulary. Drawn graphic novels can be compared to fotonovelas to examine the impact of realistic and more abstract representations of knowledge. Graphic novels are an effective way to explain information architecture: how different formats have unique “grammars” and shape the expression of ideas. Students can compare graphic novels to picture books or magazines or movies. For instance, some camera or film shots are used in graphic novel images for similar effect. Graphic novels underscore the importance of visual representations of knowledge: visual literacy. Readers can analyze a graphic novel in terms of the art elements and principles used to convey meaning. 179 Social studies curriculum may be mandated to incorporate literature. Graphic novels sometimes address historical events, such as Persepolis. The 9/11 graphic novel anthology is especially rich because it enables readers to compare points of view. It could be interesting to debate which is more true-to-life: a historical fiction story or a graphic novel version. Students can compare graphic novel interpretations of stories with other formats, such as Twilight in text and movie formats. How does the artist interpret an author’s intent visually? Students can study archetypes using graphic novels, such as explorers, villains, rebels, saviors, etc. Students can discern mythologies in graphic novels, such as creation myths, nature, tricksters, heroes, etc. Students can identify tropes and genres in graphic novels such as fantasy, science fiction, horror, detective, romance, etc. Students can study human relationship using graphic novels, such as familial, romantic, workplace, political, societal, public versus private, hierarchical versus lateral. Students can study art techniques using graphic novels. They can determine how the art medium and its use impact the story’s meaning and tonality. Students can copy artistic techniques to create their own stories, or use a different art technique to tell the same story in a different way. Students can explore careers in the comic arts industry. They can trace the production of a graphic novel form idea to the reader. They can also find out the preparation, demand for, and salaries of professionals in the comic arts industry. As noted above, knowing how to fully read and interpret comic art, taking into account its grammar and conventions, requires explicit training. Even though most young people have read comic strips and comic books, they might not have focused consciously on the information architecture. Educators are likely to share reference sheets on ways to read a comic, and may conduct think-alouds while reading a comic that is projected for the class to see. Educators might have students reread a comic section several times, each time focusing on one aspect such as the story line, the visual elements, or the interplay between text and image. Scott McCloud’s 1993 Understanding Comics remains the standard textbook for learning these conventions. Practitioners in the comic arts industry need to understand the various components of creation and production, but most specialize in one aspect, such as scripting or inking. Gosselin (2002) developed a graphic novel curriculum to help students understand this form of knowledge representation as an intellectual and collective endeavor. He proposed teaching the following elements of design: shapes, composition, negative space, visual energy, direction, pattern, rhythm, and hierarchy. In contrast, Mortimore (2009) focused on the elements of culturally-contextualized story to guide students to understanding comic arts. Physician and Professor Michael Green (2013) taught pre-med students how to read and create graphic novels as a way to realize the visual narratives of patients; students experience the iconic representations of feelings and how the sequence of events impacts patients. Even students who did not think they were artistic were able to convey meaning using comic arts conventions effectively. 180 Information Design and Research Methods Information design lends itself to research methods from three major perspectives: existing examples of information design can be used as data for analysis, the prototype of designing information can be analyzed, especially in terms of user experience, which can then be incorporated into the iterative designprocess; and research participants can produce examples of information design, which can then be used as data for analysis and theorizing. Technically, information design can also clarify the resource process and communication. A unique aspect of information design is the intentional representation of ideas using the tools of the available medium in specific situations; effective communication (that is, the intended audience can access and comprehend the message) is an explicit goal (Kress, 2010). Design Probes The research method of design probes seeks to explore user needs, gather data, and test design solutions in situ (Mattelmaki, 2008). This research method is frequently applied in prototyping an information product such as an interactive website, chiefly to ascertain users’ needs. Inspiration probes can provide supplementary data to inform creator’s idea development. Information probes identify user needs and context of user. Participation probes incorporate users’ ideas in the conceptual design process. Testing problems analyze target audience’s experiences in using a product’s prototype within the product’s requirements and contexts of use. Design probes are particularly useful for assing the usability of digital information designs. Data may be gathered in several ways. Self-documentation kits, which enable research participants to record their own experiences (e.g., diaries, online screen capture, cameras). Talk-alouds capture how the research participant experiences the information design; the data may be captured via taping or observation. The researcher might also ask the participant to do several discrete tasks, and provide feedback about alternative design solutions. Internet search histories provide a way for inobtrusive data collection. In the comic arts, this kind of design probe most likely occurs among a company’s design team as part of their creation process. The target audience seldom participates in design probes. However, public agencies sometimes test a social comic to see if the target audience will accept the product, such as a social skills training comic for teens developed by the Federal Austrian Ministry of Science (Lehenbauer et al., 2013). Taking a unique approach of involving teens in developing a graphic novel about AIDS for teens, Gavigan (2011) utilized design probes to test the information design effectiveness as they were creating their comic. Evaluation Research Another common research methodology is evaluation research: assessing the effects and effectiveness of something (Ross, 2004). Success can be measured along a couple of dimensions: The process: how well the comic itself was planned and implemented The effort’s product: what impact the comic has on its participants, both the creator and other stakeholders; what is the outcome. In information design, evaluation research may be approached as follows (Batley, 2007): Goal orientation: did thecomic meet the creator’s goal (e.g., collect taxes)? 181 User orientation: how does the comic attract, engage, and act on the product? Experimental: testing the comic in a controlled environment Responsive: observing the comic’s use in real settings. Once the objectives and indicators for evaluation are determined, the instruments for gathering evaluation data need to be identified. Here is a sampling: Document analysis: to ascertain main ideas and processes unobtrusively Observations: to identify behaviors Surveys: to gather facts and opinions Interviews: to capture perspectives, the reason for behaviours and attitudes Focus groups: to uncover issues, trends, and group dynamics Tests: to measure and compare knowledge, skills and attitudes The choice of instrument also depends on availability, cost, and difficulty of administering and analysis. Ideally, the choice of instrument should occur early on in the planning process, and assessment should occur throughout the effort. Assessment is only as good as the actions resulting from its thoughtful analysis. Findings should be contextualized in terms of the setting or situation. Analysis should then lead to interpretation, conclusions, and recommendations. Furthermore, those recommendations should be shared with stakeholders to optimize their engagement. The groundwork is laid for action that can result in improved comic arts experiences. Evaluation research is most likely to be done as part of a marketing plan or an agency’s campaign such as McPherson College Library’s graphic novel orientation (CILIP, 2011). Ethnographic Analysis Ethnographic research studies how people act in natural settings (Frey et al, 1992). Specificially, ethnographers gather data in the field by observation and interaction to discover patterns that explain the behavior. Theory is built inductively. This research method has an underlying assumption that people act according to their interpretation of their surroundings. Likely places to conduct ethnographic analysis about comic arts would be in bookstores, libraries, recreation centers, and other places where comics are available to brought to the setting. Some of the research questions involving information design and comic arts are include: What patterns exist in the choice of comics (e.g., genre, publisher, currency, etc.)? How do individuals choose a comic? (e.g., visual elements, placement in the setting, display options, other people’s comments, etc.) What patterns of use exist? (e.g., length of engagement, sharing, number of comics examined, etc.) What information design elements seem to be noted? Content Analysis The research method of content analysis consists of systematically categorizing and describing aspects of content (Berger, 2011). The process involves discovering patterns, coding them, and then quantifying them. In terms of information design and comic arts, it analyzes the existence and use of visual and textual elements. For example, Cohn (2013) 182 conducted a content analysis of panels in American comics and Japanese manga to determine what cultural differences existed. Semiotic analysis may be considered a subset of content analysis; it studies how signs and symbols generate meaning (Rose, 2001). Since comic arts signs and symbols are designed within a contextual, researchers can examine both the imageitself (such as a sword or a pose) or the compositional modality (both within a panel and in comparison with other panels). Specific character elements that convey meaning include: age, gender, race, body shape, size, clothing as well as expression, pose, props, and setting. The composition lends meaning in that, for example, a sword on the ground has a different connotation than one in a hero’s hand poised in a thrusting angle; likewise, a person in a far corner has a different meaning than one who covers the entire panel and is shown at a camera-up angle. The relative size and sequence of panels also provides semiotic clues, such as plot development and climax. Part of semiotics involves “coding”: conventionalized sign, which make up much of comic arts information design. The difficult part of semiotics is the interpretation of the comic arts signs and symbols. Researchers realize that they bring their own semiotic schema as they make interpretations. Semiotic analysis of comic arts is more informative if it captures the interpretations of different populations to determine if the semiotics are universal or culturally defined (where culture refers to any stable group of people with congruence norms and practices, such as Goths or biologists as well as Armenians). Another subset of content analysis is rhetorical analysis, which examines how content, such as comic arts, are used to persuade: their effect and impact on society. Berger (2011) suggested five elements of rhetorical analysis: Ethos: the character of the person or narrator who is trying to convince the reader Pathos: emotional appeal Logos: rational, logical appeal Aim: purpose of the discourse or message Mode: comic arts medium’s elements Some of the devices used in rhetoric, which can be analyzed in comic arts, include among others: allegory (e.g., Captain America), comparisons (e.g., Justice League), irony (e.g., Dilbert examples), metaphor (political cartoons). Comic Arts Study In teaching both information literacy and youth literature courses, this author explored how to teach pre-service librarians and education technologists the concepts of information architecture through the use of comic arts. Using constructivist strategies, these graduate students identified the information architectural features of graphic novels, and then interpreted and critiqued a variety of graphic novels. To support their knowledge, courses had readings in visual literacy and comic arts. Therefore, to apply their knowledge, the students then were asked to create a short graphic novel. In the information literacy course, students were also supposed to learn how to use technology applications, so they had to use iComic, ComicLife or other graphic novel generating tool. In the literature course, their graphic novel was supposed to focus on one incident in the life of a young adult author: an exercise in digital storytelling. In the information 183 literacy course, they had to use the comic arts format to visually the library program’s role relative to Common Core State Standards. Students created their graphic novel, and posted it only the courses online discussion board. They were graded according to the following graphic novel rubric. Graphic Novel Rubric Category 4 Story The story is The story is clear, well clear and well organized and organized, but easy to read. there are one Important or two points narrative of confusion. aspects such Important as the climax narrative and resolution aspects such are very clear. as the climax The reader and resolution finishes the are clear. The story feeling it reader is complete finishes the and no major story feeling it details are is complete missing. and no major details are missing. 3 2 1 Strategies The story is sometimes clear, but disorganized. Important narrative aspects such as the climax and resolution are not completely clear. The reader finishes the story feeling it is complete but that major details are missing. The story is confused and unclear. Important narrative aspects such as the climax and resolution are missing. The graphic novel is very hard to read because it is so disjointed. The reader finishes the story feeling it is incomplete. -List the main points of the story. Do they connect clearly to each other? Do you find yourself having to fill in blanks often? If so, your story may not be selfcontained and readers may be confused. Word Choice Strong, descriptive language is used and all captions are concise. Most language is clear and concise and for the most part strong and descriptive. The language is strong at times, but often the language is weak. The language is overly simple and not at all descriptive. -Circle boring adjectives and replace them with more creative ones. -Use powerful adverb/verb combinations (e.g. the garbage was thrown (verb) carelessly (adverb) onto the floor). Theme The reader could state the theme of your story. It The reader can make an educated guess at the theme of The reader is not able to state the theme of the Re-visit your theme statement and find instances The reader could easily state the theme of your 184 Category 4 3 story because is clear in the it is explicit in text but both the visuals and text. 2 1 Strategies the story but it is not clear in the visuals and/or the text. story because it is not clear in visuals or text. throughout your graphic novel that demonstrate the theme. Visual-Layout Frames are designed in a way that greatly enhances the overall visual effect. The design and layout clearly enhances the artwork and text. Frames are designed in a way that for the most part enhance the overall visual effect. The design and layout enhances the artwork and text, but there are one or two instances where the layout detracts from the story. Frames are designed in a way that add to the overall visual effect for about ½ of the graphic novel. The design and layout often enhances the artwork and text, but there are multiple instances where the layout detracts from the story. Frames lack design and do not enhance the overall visual effect. The design and layout do not enhance the artwork and text. VisualImages Most images are striking and powerful and add to the meaning of the text. Most images are high quality, clear, and are not pixelated. Most of the images are original and of your own creation or remixing. There are some striking and powerful images but some are boring. Some images enhance the story, but some images detract from the story because they are confusing, of low quality, unclear and/or pixelated. Some of the images are original and of your own creation or remixing, but there are many Very few images are striking or powerful, and many seem boring and unrelated. Images rarely enhance the story, and most images detract from the story because they are confusing, of low quality, unclear and/or pixelated. Most of the images seem to be lifted or are All Images are striking and powerful. All images enhance the story and work with the text to tell the story. All images are high quality, clear, and are not pixelated. All of the images are original and of your own creation or remixing 185 -Have you thought carefully about the layout of each page? Can you clearly answer why you did what you did with the frames on each page? -Do your images enhance the story you are trying to tell or are they just basic reiterations of your text? -Can your images stand alone without the text and tell a basic version of the story? -Look carefully at each image and ensure it is clear and related. Category 4 3 2 1 Strategies instances where reminiscent of the images something seem to be else. completely lifted or are reminiscent of something else. Attention to There are no Detail distracting (Conventions errors, & Production corrections or Quality) erasures and is the novel is easily read. There are no errors in grammar, spelling or punctuation. There are only one or two distracting errors, corrections or erasures and your novel is easily read. There are 1-3 errors in grammar, spelling or punctuation. Fairly readable but the quality is not very good on some parts. It looks like the student ran out of time. There are 3-5 errors in grammar, spelling or punctuation. Very messy and hard to read. It looks like the student threw it together at the last minute without much care. There are 6 or more errors in spelling, grammar or punctuation. -Take the time to read over your work in hard copy. -Read out loud and out of sequence (from the beginning to the end, etc.) to catch awkward phrases and grammar issues. -Have you asked others to read over your work? Figure 1: Graphic Novel Rubric A separate content analysis focused on identifying the graphic novel elements: Panels: shapes, sizes, layout, sequence, use of negative space between panels Visuals: image genre (e.g., diagram, photo, chart), attention unit, perspective, speech balloons, caption box, other shapes, use of color Text: content, percentage of page, font, use of sound effects words/images, narrative arc Findings in Common Core Visualization In the information literacy course, students also had an option to use a poster generating tool, so only seven students used a comic arts format: one male and six females. It should be noted that the course readings explained visual literacy and infographics, and the rubric detailed criteria, but there was no explicit document on comic arts “grammar.” Only one student took full advantage of the format; his four-page product used traditional panel shapes and size, sequenced in a clear problem-resolution arc. The characters were superheroes extracted from existing graphic novels; they were Standards constituted the 186 only caption-type text. The student commented, “This is a wierdest assignment I’ve ever done,” but he clearly understood and applied comic arts elements. Another student created a three-page product with traditional panels that varied slightly in size, also sequenced in a clear problem-resolution arc. This student designed a librarian superhero ina simple body, overlaid on a photographic and stylized background. Most images showed the librarian in a straightforward position within a setting. The color scheme was largely naturalistic. Speech balloons were usually oval, with variations to emphasize specific text messages; font was Comic Sans. While the overall result was more amateur in look and plot, the student did understand the basic comic arts principles, and created an original look. A third student used a more documentary style with photos, diagrams, and explanatory text. Panel sizes ranged from 1/8 page to a half page. The half page image, which was the first page, featured a photo of the librarian helping a class in the library); the bottom half of the page was an introductory text. Panel sequence was topical: different librarian roles. The other pages had either library photos or charts. Speech balloons were used as headings and captions; Comic Sans was used in balloons, and charts used Ariel. The other four students created one-page products. However, use of comic arts elements varied significantly. Panels were traditional and tilted rectangles filling about 70% of the page space; one layout was traditional style, one overlapped panels, and another placed panels angled on a swirl green background. Sequence varied: in 1-2-3 step, episodic, narrative, and a series of lists. Three students used library photos, and one used a realistic female librarian avatar; one include a frog narrator and images of Socrates, Confucius, and Obama. One person added burst shapes and a Wordle for emphasis. Two used speech balloons and caption blocks, and the other two used separated text boxes; all fonts were Comic Sans. The product that had a plot with frog sidebar thoughts showed humor in its writing and imagery, including the incorporation of sound effects representation of a key word; the other products had a serious tone. These four efforts did not communicate in a comic arts manner, although they used some comic arts elements (sometimes unusually). Findings in Digital Storytelling The youth literature course addressed graphic novels in more depth. A PowerPoint discussed comic arts in general, its format, and its application. Students also read and critiqued graphic novels. Their assignment was then to create their own graphic novel about an incident in the life of a young adult (YA) author. The assignment also encouraged the students to provide basic information about the author. Two classes of students, taught be two different instructors, completed this assignment. Class one (N=8) was comprised of one male and seven females; two students were Asian (Vietnamese and Korean), and three were Latina. Class two ( N=11 wa comprised of four males and seven females; one male was Vietnamese, and one female was Latina. In both courses, there was no significant difference in product by demographics. Class one had much shorter graphic novels. The one well-done product was 10 pages long, but the rest were 1-2 pages long. In contrast, class two’s novels ranged from 4 to 14 pages; the average length was 8 pages long. The difference was accounted by two reasons: class 1 187 was completely online while class 2 was hybrid; only in class two was the instructor adament about the graphic novel including basic information about the author, and about having a narrative arc (largely because class one’s instructor shared her comments about her class’s work, and suggested requiring the added content for class two). On the other hand, in class one, all the novels featured YA novels, but in class two four of the novels dealt with children’s authors, and one covered Charlotte Bronte. In terms of the student products’ use of the comic arts elements, no significant difference existed between classes, but wide variations existed within each class, as detailed below (both classes combined). No student work integrated all the essential comic arts elements such that it would be considered a generic graphic novel. Instead, the works displayed varying degrees of successful element integration. Panels: Shapes: 3 with traditional panels (just class one), 4 with jagged blocks, 3 with varied number of rectangles on white, 8 with varied rectangles on colored or textured background, 1 with varied shapes on blue, 1 with curved rectangles Sizes: 4 with similar size panels, 3 with 1-5 panels/page, 1 with 1-6 panels/page, 5 with 3-6 panels/page, 1 with 2-3 panels/page, 1 with 2-4 panels/page, 1 with 3 panels/page, 2 with 4-6 panels/page, 1 with 4-10 panels/page; panel size differentiation usually reflected relative importance of image Layout: 1 overlapped panels; 1 had left/right/left panel placement on page Front page: 1 had panels on scroll image, 2 had large author photos In oval or circle, 1 had full page author photo, 2 had author photo and summary Sequence: 15 chronological sequence, 2 summary then chronological sequence, 1 episodic, 1 had author as character and then real author chronologically Use of negative space between panels: range of 5-50% negative space (outside panels on a page), average of 30% Visuals: Image genre (e.g., diagram, photo, chart): 17 had photos (all of author, 2 family, 3 scenes), 2 had cartoons, 10 had book art, 54 had clip art. 2 photoshopped photos Attention unit: 17 had head shots, 5 had macros Perspective: 18 had straight on perspectives Speech balloons: 10 had speech balloons, 1 had thought balloon, 2 had author starburst balloons, 2 used wavy balloon as thought, 2 had varied balloon shapes that were not correlated with their use (i.e., thought, speech, caption), 1 had blue balloons, 1 had pink and purple balloons with white text Caption boxes: 15 had rectangles, 1 had curved box, 1 had rhombus, 2 separated box from panel, 1 had blue boxes, 1 had peach boxes Motion lines: 2 had arrows – to text or to show sequence, 1 had motion lines, 1 had horizontal and rays but weren’t always symbolic Other shapes: 1 had stars on page 1 Use of color: 4 used black/white, 1 used yellow/purple scheme, 1 used chartreuse/purple scheme), 1 used pastel palette, 11 used naturalistic colors Text: 188 Content: all used factual narrative, 5 used author quotes, 10 mentioned author’s books Point of view: 17 used 3rd person, 3 used author voice (1st person), 1 addressed novel as the question – is the author a character or a person? Percentage of page: range of 10-20% of page, average 15% Font: 17 used Comic Sans, 1 used Times italic, 1 used “Kid” font, 2 used Berlin for headings, 1 used Ariel for headings Sound effects/strong words: 2 used sound effects, 4 used strong words as sound effect appearance (1 curved, 1 with back starburst) Discussion Several reasons lie behind the visualizations of the students. In class one, the Common Core topic itself did not lend itself to a narrative approach; students had to transform the librarians’ role relative to Common Core into a story, which is a specific information literacy skill. This storytelling task were not helped by the fact that no specific readings detailed comic arts “language.” In that respect, telling one event in an author’s life was easier to translate into visual form, and the literature course included a PowerPoint on comics. Nevertheless, Some students did not read graphic novels regularly (it should be noted that the two youngest students used the graphic elements more effectively than the others in the literacy course). In addition, students’ experiences with the online graphic novel software program impacted their products. The software’s features were sometimes hard to master, and the program itself veered from traditional comic arts layout, varying the panel shape and its placement on the page. As a result, students’ content sometimes had to adjust to the program rather than the program supporting their efforts. In tying the students’ graphic novels to information design theory, the researcher can trace the steps of information design theory. Theinstructor stipulated the comic’s intent as well as the scope and functionality of the product: the comic’s form and idiom. Students’ knowledge of comic arts conventions led to structuring the comic’s information architecture to facilitate understanding. The last step is visual design, crafting the textual and graphic page elements, which then reflects students’ knowledge again. In sum, the graphic novel elements’ content analysis of the class work found that students had mixed understanding of the information architecture of comic arts, both in terms of translating story into comic arts as well as understanding the technical aspects of comic arts. However, the assignment provided useful data to then provide additional instruction to clarify and deepen their understanding. Furthermore, students had a greater appreciation for the complexity of creating a message using the elements of comic arts. As such, the study demonstrated that these students needed explicit training about comic arts; intuitive grasp is insufficient to guarantee success. A PowerPoint on information architecture has been added to the literacy course, and the literature course is considering adding Scott McCloud’s book Understanding Comics, or at least a full class session discussion on comic arts elements. Conclusions Comic arts have gained popularity and credibility in recent years because of its increasing quality and variety. Concurrently, visual messages and the need for visual literacy have 189 increased, particularly in a global society. Comic arts provide a compelling media for communicating concepts in an accessible and engaging manner, and its conventions leverage the interdependence of text and image, thus modelling effective information architecture. Even though comic arts are accessible on a basic level, they scale up in terms of sophisticated messaging. To that end, education needs to explicitly teach the medium’s communication conventions to help learners comprehend and generate content using comic arts. Educators need to explain the conventions, which can be addressed as the medium’s language and grammar. Learners also need to have opportunities to critique comic arts to ascertain how well those conventions are used, and they need to experience representing narrative knowledge using those conventions. These learning activities provide an engaging and concrete way to explain and optimize information architecture. In addition, comic arts conventions can be used in several research methods to capture knowledge and its communication. Comic arts make explicit the significance of format in its impact on message. Educators and researchers can assess each element individually as well as combined gestalt in terms of making meaning. Through content analysis, researchers can determine how well learner demonstrate competency in information architecture. References Amdahl, G. M., Blaauw, G. A., & Brooks, F. P. (1964). Architecture of the IBM System/360. IBM Journal for Research and Development, 8(2), 87-101. Batley, S. (2007). Information architecture for information professionals. Oxford, England: Chandos. Berger, A. (2011). Media and communication research methods (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Dillon, A. (2002). Information architecture inm JASIST: Just where did we come from? Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 53(10), 821–823. Chanlin, L. (1997). The effects of verbal elaboration and visual elaboration on student learning. International Journal of Instructional Media, 24(4), 333-339. Cheng, K., & Jao, J. (2006). Communicating concepts through comics. Information Architecture Summit, Vancouver, BC, March 25. Clarke, I. (1991). Patterns of thinking. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Cohn, N. (2013). The visual language of comics. London: Bloomsbury. Dondis, D. (1973). A primer of visual literacy. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. enGuage. (2003). 21st century skills: Literacy in the digital age. Naperville, IL: NCREL. 190 Farnum. C. (2002). Information architecture: Five things information managers need to know. The Information Management Journal, 35(5), 33-40. Frey, L., Botan, C., Friedman, P., & Kreps, G. (1992). Interpreting communication research. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Garrett, J. (2010). The elements of user experience: User-centered design for the web and beyond (2nd ed.). Berkeley, CA: New Riders. Gavigan, K. (2011). More powerful than a locomotive: Using graphic novels to motivate struggling male adolescent readers. Journal of Research on Libraries and Young Adults (Nov.). http://www.yalsa.ala.org/jrlya/2011/06/more-powerful-than-alocomotive-using-graphic-novels-to-motivate-struggling-male-adolescent-readers/ Gosselin, D. (2002). Graphic user interface design curriculum. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses database. (UMI No. 3068561) Green, M., & Rieck, R. (2013). Missed it. Annals of Internal Medicine, 158(5), 357-361. Haridakis, P., & Hanson, G. (2009). Social interaction and co-viewing with YouTube: Blending mass communication reception and social connection. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 53(2), 317-335. Information Architecture Institute. (2013). What is IA? Beverly, MA: Information Architecture Institute. International Visual Literacy Association. (1996). What is visual literacy? Philadelphia, PA: International Visual Literacy Association. Kress, G. (2010). Multimodality: A social semiotic approach to contemporary communication. London: Routledge. Lehenbauer, M., Kothgassner, O. D., Kryspin-Exner, I., & Stetina, B. U. (2013). An online self-administered social skills training for young adults: Results from a pilot study. Computers & Education, 6,1217-224. Library of the Living Dead. (2011). CILIP Update, 10(5), 50. Mattelmäki, T. (2008). Design probes (2nd ed.). Helsinki, Finland: University of Art and Design. Mayer, R. E., Bove, W., Bryman, A., Mars, R., & Tapangco, L. (1996). When less is more: Meaningful learning from visual and verbal summaries of science textbook lessons. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88(1), 64-73. McCloud, S. (1993). Understanding comics: The invisible art. New York: Harper Perennial. 1993. 191 McLuhan, M. (1994). Understanding media: The extensions of man. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Mortimore, S. (2009). From picture to word to the world: A multimodal, cultural studies approach to teaching graphic novels in the English classroom. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses database. (UMI No. 3376937) Morville, P. (2004). Preface: A brief history of information architecture. In A. Gilchrist & B. Mahon (Eds.), Information architecture: Designing information environments for purpose (pp. xiii ). New York: Neal-Schuman. Mullet, K., & Sano, D. (1995). Designing visual interfaces communication oriented techniques. Mountain View, CA: Prentice-Hall. Pake, G. E. (1985). Research at Xerox PARC: a founder’s assessment. IEEE Spectrum, 22(10), 54–61. Peirce, C. (Ed.) (1883). Studies in logic. Boston, MA: Little Brown. Pettersson, R. (2006). Research in information design. Journal of Visual Literacy, 26(1), 7788. Pettersson, R. (2002). Information design, an introduction. Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamin Publishing. Pettersson, R. (1997). Verbo-visual communication: Presentation of clear messages for information and learning. Goteborg, Sweden: Valfrid Publishing Association and Goteborg University. Pettersson, R. (1993). Visual information. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technologies Publications. Rose, G. (2001). Visual methodologies: An introduction to the interpretation of visual materials. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Ross, P. (2004). Evaluation: A systematic approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Tarquin, P., & Walker, S. (1997). Creating success in the classroom! Visual organizers and how to use them. Englewood, CO: Teacher Ideas Press. Toms, E. (2002). Information interaction: Providing a framework for information architecture. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 53(10), 855862. Weinberger, D. (2007). Everything is miscellaneous: The power of the new digital disorder. New York: Times. Biographical note 192 Dr. Lesley Farmer, Professor at California State University Long Beach, coordinates the Librarianship program. She earned her M.S. in Library Science at the University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, and received her doctorate in Adult Education from Temple University. Dr. Farmer has worked as a teacher-librarian in K-12 school settings, public, special and academic libraries. She edits the International Federation of Library Associations’ School Libraries and Literacy/Reading Sections blogs. A frequent presenter and writer for the profession, she won IASL’s Research Award, American Library Association’s Phi Beta Mu Award for library education, and Library Instruction Round Table’s Librarian Recognition Award. She is also a Fulbright scholar. Dr. Farmer’s research interests include digital citizenship, information literacy, collaboration, assessment and data analysis. Her recent books are Introduction to Reference and Information Services in Today’s School Libraries (Rowman & Littlefield, 2014) and Library Services for Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ALA, 2013). Abstract Comic arts provide a compelling media for communicating concepts in an accessible and engaging manner, and its conventions leverage the interdependence of text and image, thus modelling effective information architecture. To that end, education needs to explicitly teach the medium’s communication conventions to help learners comprehend, critique, and generate content using comic arts. This paper explains information architecture, focusing on comic arts’ features for representing and structuring knowledge, also noting visual literacy. Content analysis of students’ graphic novels determined how well pre-service teacher librarians demonstrate competency in information architecture. 193 Does Guided Inquiry enhance learning and metacognition? Lee FitzGerald School of Information Studies Charles Sturt University Locked Bag 588 Wagga Wagga, NSW. 2678 Australia [email protected] Abstract Research carried out at Loreto Kirribilli, a Catholic independent secondary school in Sydney, Australia, in 2014 demonstrates that Guided Inquiry scaffolding enhances learning and metacognition. Students undertaking the Historical Investigation in Year 11 develop an interest in an area of Ancient or Modern history, explore it, develop an inquiry question, and answer it in an essay. The Ancient History class was scaffolded by Guided Inquiry curriculum design and support, while the Modern History class conducted their investigation independently. Deep learning was evident in the questions asked and the answers written in the Ancient History essays. There is evidence of a difference in quality in the questions asked and answered by Modern Historians. It would appear that the scaffolding of Guided Inquiry has enhanced learning, while recognizing the effect an excellent teacher has on already high achieving students. Ancient history students also demonstrated a high level of metacognition in their reflections. Keywords: Guided Inquiry; Information Search Process; Guided Inquiry Design Process; metacognition What is Guided Inquiry (GI)? “GI is a way of thinking, learning and teaching that changes the culture of the classroom into a collaborative inquiry community.” (Kuhltau, Maniotes, Caspari, 2012) It is an emerging pedagogy said to produce deep learning by its focus on the Information Search Process (ISP), the autonomy of students in finding and answering their own inquiry question, its focus on working in groups (inquiry circles), and its ongoing support for students from teachers and teacher librarians (TLs). st To thrive as 21 century learners, students must be able to judge the quality of information, find a way through complex and disparate information, formulate their own focus and answers to their own questions, and transform information into knowledge. They need to be agile, critical thinkers who are digitally fluent, able to read complex texts and write clearly. 194 They need to come up with creative solutions to problems they identify and to learn the skills of working in teams. These are the skills of the 21st century worker, and they are synonymous with the skills of GI. In a time of global curriculum reform, there is a move to inquiry learning across education systems in many countries. Since Peter Drucker’s (1992) work on knowledge workers, there has been a slow move towards at least enriching the industrial model of education (Robinson, 2010), in favor of education systems which produce people who can think creatively, research effectively, problem solve, and work in teams. Across the globe, education systems are reforming in favor of 21st century skills. Definition and promotion of these are the subject of close attention (Abbott, 2014; ATC21S, 2012; EE Explore America, 2012; GELP, 2012; P21, nd; Responsible subversives, 2011). Common to taxonomies of 21st century skills are these: Creativity, innovation, critical thinking, problem-solving, decision-making, Learning to learn/metacognition, Information literacy, ICT literacy, communication, collaboration, citizenship and responsibility. These are the central concerns of GI. Central elements of GI Figure 1: Model of the Information Search Process and the Guided Inquiry Design Process (Kuhlthau, 2012) The ISP is the central concept of GI. New to GI is the Guided Inquiry Design Process (GID), with the two processes sitting side by side. The ISP describes what students do when they 195 research; and the GID process is what the inquiry community (the class) is doing. It is evident from the stages of the ISP in the diagram above that it takes time to develop the personal engagement characteristic of deep learning. Also the ISP suggests that there are times of information overload and stress during a researcher’s journey from curiosity to knowledge. At the bottom of Figure 1 is the GID process. This is intended to be used by teaching teams to: create the unit of work set the task in its stages use a shorthand for all students to use for the stage they are up to. schedule the task teach the skills required at each phase describe what the Inquiry community (class) is doing at any given point. Guided Inquiry design: A framework for inquiry in your school (Caspari, Kuhlthau and Maniotes, 2012) (GIDF) has made the operation of a GI quite concrete. The book presents a highly structured approach to GID, and looks in detail at central concepts, such as Collaboration of the instructional team guiding the inquiry – the roles of each member in each part of the process from design, to implementation, to assessment. Third space: bringing the world of the student (first space), the world of curriculum (second space) into a third space where students can construct world views of their own. Whole units delivered by inquiry – where there is minimal teaching and the emphasis is on learning taking place by inquiry with teacher and TL facilitators. Inquiry community and Inquiry circles – The whole class group is the Inquiry community. Inquiry circles can be used in curriculum areas which might benefit from dividing up the work into perspectives. Inquiry circles are useful for students working together on inquiry skills. 6C’s: Collaboration, Conversation, Composition, Choosing, Charting, and Continuing – These are the six elements of a GI – the six skills necessary to its continuance. Journals, logs and inquiry charts – Throughout a GI, students keep notes, record logs of their bibliographic processes, and at the Collect/Create and Present phases, use inquiry charts and mind maps to synthesize their information. Continuous reflection and feedback – A hallmark of a GI is reflection. This can be a formal reflection and/or conversation between student and the teaching team. Reflections can be used to gather data for evidence-based practice. Culmination conversation – There is a formal agenda in GIDF for the teaching team to use at the conclusion of an inquiry unit. It allows for discussion on the achievements or otherwise of individual students. It also allows for discussion of interventions that worked, those that didn’t, and changes that might be needed. In some schools, the idea of a culmination conversation has become a part of what’s expected of students, as well as the teaching team, at the end of an inquiry unit. Students are given five minutes to think about a higher order question arising from their area of study, but not the same as their inquiry question, and then speak for 2 minutes on it, with the rest of 196 the inquiry community listening. The culmination conversations for students make clear that the level of engagement a GI demands pays off in terms of deep learning, critical thinking and commitment. Literature review Professor Carol Collier Kuhlthau’s observations of how people of all ages feel, think and act when they are doing a research task have spanned multiple studies over the last three decades. The original study can be found in Kuhlthau (1989) and a comprehensive re-visiting of the ISP was carried out in 2008 (Kuhlthau, Heinstrom &Todd). This study showed the model to be as relevant as ever, especially in the digital environment. Other studies by Kuhlthau confirmed the ISP as an observed model of how people research (Kulthau 1988a, 1988b, 1989, 1991). The theory and practice of GI has burgeoned over the last 10 years in the publication of three books on Guided Inquiry, which are practical approaches to its implementation – (Kuhlthau 2004; Kuhlthau, Maniotes & Caspari,2007 and 2012). Alongside this, evidence based practice has become very much part of what TLs need to do to demonstrate the difference they make to student learning. (Gordon 2009a and 2009b; Gordon & Todd 2009; Todd 2011b, 2012a and 2012b). The School Library Impact Measure (SLIM) (Todd, Kuhlthau & Heinstrom, 2005) was devised for practitioner’s use in schools, and has been used by TLs, especially in Australia. (Todd, 2011 and 2012a). The combination of the developing theory and practice of GI, and the need for evidence based practice has led to practitioner articles about GI and the use of SLIM to demonstrate achievement of learning outcomes, for example FitzGerald (2011), Scheffers (2008) and Sheerman (2011). There have been studies carried out by academics in schools to demonstrate the impact of GI on student learning as well. (Harada, 2002; Todd, 2006; Kim & Todd, 2008; Todd, 2010). And academics have written in practitioner journals to spread the word about evidence based practice and GI (Todd 2011a; Hay & Todd 2010; Todd 2011b, 2012a and 2012b). There was an opportunity offered by the 2014 historical investigations at Loreto Kirribilli to use the new scaffolding of GI (Kuhlthau, Maniotes & Caspari, 2012), elements of SLIM (Todd, Kuhthau &Heinstrom, 2005), and other data to investigate whether students with the benefit of this support fared better in their growth to deep learning than students not so supported. Research aim My aim was to find out if the scaffoldings of GI assisted in both the development of deep learning and awareness of the process of learning and to answer my research question: Does GI enhance learning and metacognition? Context/participants History students at Loreto Kirribilli, a Catholic independent school in Sydney, Australia, undertook an historical investigation in 2014, with one class conducting their investigation using GI methods and scaffolding, while the other two classes had scaffolding of a moderate level. The class that was scaffolded with GI was Ancient History, and the two classes that were not so scaffolded were Modern History. 197 The Year 11 Historical Investigation was chosen as the area of research, because it is possibly the only time in the History curriculum where students are free to identify, explore and make conclusions on an area of history, only restricted by time periods and whether or not the topic is one they have to study as part of their curriculum The sample was 52 students in two modern history classes of 18 students each, and one Ancient history class of 16 students. The students are 16/17 years old, all capable, highly motivated students, who have never undertaken a long term inquiry project before. Their teachers and TLs are dedicated, talented teachers. Control group issues It was intended that the control group of two Modern History classes would take exactly the same survey questions. But it turned out for reasons beyond the researcher’s control that the only valid responses were for Question 5 and for Question 6, and from one class only. What did the GI entail? The inquiry task in each class was effectively the same – Choose an area of Modern/Ancient history, create a question and answer it in an essay. What was the same for both Modern and Ancient History? Each class had: active support and feedback from teachers throughout the process resourcing from the TL. teaching of how to use Easybib, (a bibliographic software), create footnotes and to use the PEEL(Point, Evidence, Explain, Link) essay writing technique similarly highly motivated and capable students a culmination conversation at the end of the unit. What was different in the Modern and Ancient investigations? Ancient historians: were explicitly taught the use of GI and the ISP throughout, including different search techniques for different stages of the ISP. worked in inquiry circles, which categorized choices of topics, as well as providing peer support for information gathering and synthesizing. reflected daily, as well as using the SLIM toolkit, on the wiki created by the TL for the task. had TL support throughout. used the wiki to house the task, scaffolds, reflections and feedback. were taught how to use Questia (an online database) and Evernote, (a notetaking software and app) with feedback. were scaffolded explicitly on creating questions. On all of the above points, modern historians had no input. The teaching team in the GI The team of teacher and TLs for the Ancient History GI had the following responsibilities: Teacher Teacher librarians 198 Teacher Introduced the Ancient Historical Investigation Scaffolded choice of topics into inquiry circle areas Teacher librarians Introduced Guided Inquiry and Information Search Process Taught searching appropriately for each stage of the process. Provided sources throughout inquiry. Provided feedback on wiki Set up and monitored wiki for reflection Worked with students on sources Set up and provided feedback on Evernote Marked the essay Marked the process side of the assignment and cross marked essays with teacher. Both: Attended each class, worked in inquiry circles, worked with students on a roster, worked with students to develop inquiry questions, and attended culmination conversations. The inquiry took 5 weeks, with 3 classes per week. Methodology The following data were gathered from both Modern and Ancient History students: Responses to the SLIM Toolkit (School Library Impact Measurement) (Todd, Kuhlthau & Heinstrom, 2005) Essays written by students, including comparison of questions between Ancient and Modern historians. Marks given to students for their essays and for their process. A final reflection was asked of the Ancient historians only: Describe your feelings as you progressed through the stages of the Information Search process. These are the questions in the SLIM Toolkit: Q1: Take some time to think about your topic. Now write down what you know about it. Q2: How interested are you in this topic? Not at all/Not much/Quite a bit/A great deal Q3: How much do you know about this topic? Nothing/ Not much/Quite a bit/A great deal. Q4: When you do research, what do you generally find easy to do? Q5: When you do research, what do you generally find difficult to do? Q6: What did you learn in doing this research project? This instrument has been used in frequent practitioner and professional research. The questions were presented to students at Open, Identify, and Create/share stages of the task, except the last question, offered once at the end. 199 Findings Question 1: Take some time to think about your topic. Now write down what you know about it. This is the question with the potential to answer the first part of the research question: Does GI enhance learning? Analysis involves tabulating each response as to whether they are facts, explanations and conclusions. Typically students will have a lot of facts at Open. It is hoped they will begin to add to the facts with explanations and conclusions as their knowledge and commitment to the topic grows. The underlying thesis is that students allowed to follow their own interest and given time to do so, will develop deep learning, as evidenced by the growing number of explanations and conclusions. From Question 1, ideally there should be a movement from many facts at the beginning, diminishing at the second and third collection points into a smaller but clear growth of explanations and conclusions. This is evident here. This graph shows three students in the top range (for essay and process marks) and the number of facts, explanations and conclusions they had at the three gathering points. 200 This graph shows three students in the mid-range for process and essay marks and the number of facts, explanations and conclusions they had at the three gathering points. These students, who scored in the lower range on their essays and process marks nonetheless show a growth from facts to explanations, while they show less movement to conclusions than the other two groups. All students showed a growth indicative of the processing of information from facts, through explanations, to conclusions – thus demonstrating a clear growth towards deep knowledge. Analysis of Question 1 caused the researcher to consider types of conclusions and if there were differentiations to be made on the kinds of conclusions students use. Analysis of the essays of these students demonstrated that though there were many conclusions, they were of distinctly different quality. A differentiation was made on the following basis: C – Straightforward expression of conclusion, no justification or elaboration C2 – Conclusion contains 1 justification or elaboration C3 – Conclusion contains more than 1 justification or elaboration. An analysis of the top ranked students’ essays demonstrated that: 201 they had a uniform number of conclusions in their essays. they had no C conclusions. their conclusions included a substantial number of the richer kind of conclusions. This pattern was generally not repeated in the lower marked students, who had mostly straightforward conclusions. Question 2: How interested are you in your topic? This question was given to students at Open, Identify, Create/Share parts of the process. They could choose not at all, not much, quite a bit, a great deal. This is an excellent finding, as it shows a majority of students expressing unwavering interest throughout the project. Question 3: How much do you know about your topic? This response shows student self-judgment on how much they know about their topic, collected at the three gathering points for the survey. They could choose nothing, a bit, quite 202 a bit, a great deal. Most started at knowing nothing and moved to quite a bit. Some judged themselves by the end of the project as knowing a great deal. Question 4: What do you generally find easy to do? This was administered at Open/Identify/Create and Share. Of interest is the fact that the two things students say they could do best are Take notes using Evernotes, and Search effectively for each stage of the ISP. However, the affirmation for taking notes and searching effectively for the stage of ISP may be as a result of the focus on these two elements of the GI. It is interesting too that nobody thought it was easy to create an inquiry question, or to answer it. 203 Question 5: What do you generally find difficult to do? This and Question 6 are the only ones that the researcher was able to gather data from both classes for, owing to circumstances in the school beyond her control. The Ancient historians show an interesting range of difficulties here. They could articulate that it is difficult to persevere through the dip of confidence that comes in the ISP at Immerse, and to stay on track, and to search effectively for the stage of the ISP. Their awareness of the process of research was articulated, showing that students have gained some facility with the ISP. They also report that they find it difficult to use complex sources. The Modern History group did not have the ISP outlined to them, and their reported difficulties are noticeably different from the Ancient History group. It is interesting that a significant number did not know how to get started. Identifying their own perspective was the greatest difficulty they had, followed by equally, stay on track, use appropriate sources, and synthesize information. They did not refer to reflecting on their process, and in the “other” category were three responses saying I don’t know how to start my investigation, and I need a more structured approach to my investigation. 204 Question 6: What did I learn from doing this project? Ancient Historians learnt some of the same concrete tasks as the Modern historians, i.e. to use Easybib, and to do footnotes. Ancient historians highlight that they learnt to take notes using Evernote, indicate a high level of awareness of the ISP, and the graph shows that they learnt how to use appropriate sources as their biggest learning. Modern historians’ most often expressed learning was recording bibliographic details, which included footnoting. There is no awareness of the ISP. 205 Summary of findings from the SLIM questions Questions 1-4 were taken by the Ancient History class only, due to difficulties with the administration of the survey for Modern History. Q1: Take some time to think about your topic. What do you now know about it? The growth from facts to explanations to conclusions in the reflection sheets and in the essays does demonstrate a growth to deep knowledge. Every Ancient history student was able to take the movement from large numbers of facts, through explanations, to variable numbers of conclusions. But conclude they all did. Some of this movement can be attributed to the quality of the teaching they had, and their intrinsic motivation as highly achieving students at a highly achieving school, some to the scaffolding provided by GI. The Culmination Conversation also demonstrated the growth of deep knowledge, as students were able to express knowledge about historical ideas relating to their content area very clearly and at some depth. Q2: How interested are you in this topic? Ancient historians all maintained a high level of interest in the project throughout. Q3: How much do you know about this topic? Ancient history students’ self-reported knowledge grew from Response 1 to Response 3 Q4: When you do research, what do you generally find easy to do? The most frequently mentioned items were take notes, and search effectively for the stage of the ISP. Q5 and Q6: taken by both classes. Q5: When you do research, what do you generally find difficult to do? Persevering and using complex sources were the most mentioned by Ancient historians Getting started, identifying own perspective, persevering, using appropriate sources, synthesizing information were the most mentioned by Modern historians. Q6: What did you learn in doing this research project? Both groups learnt the same concrete tasks, Use Easybib and how to do footnotes. Ancient historians also learnt how to search differently for the stage of the ISP concerned, use Evernote for notetaking, and Questia for deeper reading at Explore. Ancient historians demonstrated a strong awareness of ISP, while Modern historians had no awareness of an information process. 206 Other data - Essay questions This is a range of Ancient Historians’ essay questions and the mark assigned to them /25. Of note is the higher order nature of the questions, the use of quotes to frame the question. Note also, that even the highest achieving students did not achieve full marks. This could be explained by a more rigorous process of marking in Ancient History. 207 This is a range of Modern Historians’ essay questions and the mark assigned to them /25. A clear difference from Ancient history questions is not using quotes to frame a question and a wider approach to what makes history. Questions are much more straightforward than their Ancient history counterparts. Specific guidance in creating questions was given to the Ancient historians. 208 Other data - Marks Ancient historians’ process and essay marks show some alignment between process and essay, especially the top rangers, 4, 5, 9 and 16. The graph shows lower marked students having correspondingly lower process grades: 1,2, 8. Other factors, as in student 1, where her process was haphazard, but her essay quite good, can be accounted for with good writing skills, and/or a good question. In the Modern History project, teachers did both process and product marking. There was no TL involvement in the marking. There were considerably less steps expected in the process 209 and this may account for the closer alignment between process and product than appears in the Ancient marks, where process was marked by TL and product was marked by teacher. The marks awarded for essays in the top range are higher than in Ancient. This could be because of differences in teacher marking expectations and better writing in some of the Modern students. Other data: Reflections - Describe your feelings as you progressed through the stages of the Information Search process. Following are reflections gathered from the final reflection, administered to the Ancient historians only. They show more than any of the graphs the level of involvement in learning students had, and the quality of their metacognition. They show a definite yes to both parts of the research question: Does GI enhance learning and metacognition? Open I liked that we were also given complete freedom to choose what we liked, that way it was ensured that we were doing something that we found interesting, rather than something that was assigned… Immerse The Sea people were so fascinating to me and I couldn’t wait to immerse myself in information about them. But I made sure to keep to overview information and not to immerse myself too greatly… The true honeymoon stage! Basking in my decision to focus on Emperor Nero, I pursued various online encyclopedias and websites and watched as many YouTube videos as I could, .his was a great way to absorb information quickly whilst being entertained, and gave me a fantastic overview basis to envisage the path for exploration... Explore This was the fun part of the assignment, where there was no imposed time limit on you or any sort of expectation/pressure (yet). I could actually just sit there hours on end just reading information about the Sea Peoples… There was so much information! I did fall into a dip, in which I wished to change my topic as I felt that there was nothing controversial about Herodotus.. Identify At this point it was clear that my area of interest was in how history had shaped the various portrayals of Alexander through time and the implications of this for our modern idea of who the ancient personality was.. I found this part quite challenging as it was really hard to narrow my choices down. But with the help of my teacher and TL, it was easier for me to decide on my focus area.. Gather When it was time to start gathering relevant information was when I had the most challenges in my research process. . I found it extremely tedious and time consuming. This stage really required active learning, and persistence… 210 Create/Share For me, the most challenging part of this whole process was the essay. I had talked over my mind map with my teacher, which definitely helped the whole process and I had a definite idea of where my essay was going however getting all my ideas out of my head and onto paper was harder than anticipated. At this point I was feeling frustrated, and I just wanted the whole process to be over… Evaluate Throughout this whole topic I have had the chance to evaluate my research skills. The daily logs have been good in a sense as they have structured my reflection and given me key goals to complete both short term and long term. The weekly reflections have helped me to gauge the progression of my researching skills and have targeted particular aspects of my research which I have needed to keep up to date, such as Easybib… Conclusions Does GI enhance learning and metacognition? It would appear that the scaffolding provided to Ancient history students did enhance learning and metacognition, as evident from the data showed in this paper. There are other reasons for the achievements of these students – they are motivated, high achievers, often with strong writing skills. They have very experienced and dedicated teachers. Achievements of the Modern historians without the benefit of GI scaffolding show that there are other factors at play, such as those mentioned already. However, there are definite differences in the quality of the questions posed by the two groups, and it is also clear that the Ancient historians became adept at recognizing the stage of the ISP they were experiencing, and their reflections show this. They learnt how to manage their information process, and what to expect whenever they do research, e.g. The Dip - that loss of confidence expected at Explore in the ISP. Reading complex sources is anecdotally the greatest difficulty both groups had – they resist it. As well, there were issues with creating an inquiry question – Modern historians said they found it difficult, Ancient historians wanted to create it too early. In conclusion, it would appear that teaching/providing students with the scaffolding of GI and the ISP has enhanced their learning and metacognition. Implications for practice Some broad generalizations about using GI in schools might be developed from this research, and the myriad other studies in this area, mentioned in the Literature review. They are: Teach students the ISP and help them practice using it – from as early as Year 5. The earlier students realize that their information seeking and using behavior follows the same process every time they have an assignment, if they are doing it with engagement, is a valuable support for learning. Allow students to choose their own area of interest and to develop their own questions as often as it is feasible, as this is at the heart of GI, and inquiry learning, which is so favored in curriculum documents in Australia and elsewhere. Expect TLs to-co plan, co-teach and co-assess research tasks. They are teaching partners in the inquiry curriculum of the school. 211 Make TLs responsible for information literacy skills, and for the school’s achievement of the Critical and Creative Thinking General Capability (CCT) in the Australian curriculum, by building process steps into the grading of any inquiry task. Teach students how to search appropriately for the stage of the ISP they are at. Essentially this is to avoid information overload at Explore, to keep the search general then, in order to gather a notion of the scope of the topic. It’s also to search deeply at Gather, when pertinent information is the key, rather than just relevant. Teach students how to create inquiry questions, and specifically not to create them too early. Use scaffolding provided by such techniques as Question Focus Formulation (Rothstein & Santana, 2011) Consider whether active teaching on coming to rich, substantiated conclusions where the conclusion is substantiated is necessary. Look at how (if?) students are reading non-fiction texts and provide scaffolding from early years. The last word is from a student, demonstrating the excitement of learning, through GI: Without realizing it I have actually connected a few dots in my understanding of world history as Alexander’s world is linked to the experiences of other people in history. It surprised me at how connected every event is despite seeming a long time ago. I’m very happy with my final essay. References Abbott, J. (2014) Battling for the soul of education: moving beyond school reform to educational transformation. Retrieved from: http://www.battlingforthesoulofeducation.org/ ATC21S Assessment & teaching of 21st century skills (2012): 21st Century skills. Retrieved from: http://www.atc21s.org/ Drucker, P. (1992) The new society of organisations. Harvard Business Review, Sep-Oct; 70(5):95-104. EF Explore America (2012) What is 21st Century education? Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ax5cNlutAys FitzGerald, L. (2011) The twin purposes of Guided Inquiry: guiding student inquiry and evidence based practice. Scan 30(1) Global Education Leadership Programme (GELP) We wanted to talk about 21st Century education. Retrieved from: https://vimeo.com/32674575 Gordon, C.A.(2009a) An emerging theory for evidence based information literacy instruction in school libraries, Part 1: Building a foundation. Evidence based library and information practice 4:2 212 Gordon, C.A. (2009b) An emerging theory for evidence based information literacy instruction in school libraries, Part 2: Building a culture of inquiry. Evidence based library and information practice 4:3 Gordon, C.A. and Todd, R. J. (2009) Weaving evidence, reflection and action into the fabric of school librarianship. Evidence Based Library and Information Practice 4:2 Harada, Violet H. (2002). Personalizing the information search process: a case study of journal writing with elementary-age students. School Library Media Research, 5. Hay, L. & Todd, R.J. (2010). School libraries 21C: The conversation begins. Scan, 29(1), 3042 Kim, S.U. & Todd, R.J. (2008) The information search process of English language learner (ELL) students in a Guided Inquiry Project: an in-depth case study of two Korean high school students in the United States. Information Research, Vol.13, No 4 Kuhlthau, C.C. (1988a) Longitudinal case studies of the information search process of users in libraries. Library and Information Science Research, 10, 257-304 Kuhlthau, C.C, (1988b) Perceptions of the information search process in libraries: a study of changes from high school through college. Information Processing and Management, 24, 419-427 Kuhlthau, C.C. (1989) The information search process of high-, middle- and low-achieving high school seniors. School Library Media Quarterly, 17, 224-226. Kuhlthau, C.C. (1989) Information Search process: A summary of research and implications for school library media programs. School Library Media Quarterly, Volume 18, Number 1. Kuhlthau, C.C. (2004) Seeking meaning: a process approach to library and information services. Westport CT: Libraries Unlimited Kuhlthau, C.C., Maniotes, L.,and Caspari, A.(2007) Guided Inquiry: learning in the 21st Century. Santa Barbara, California, Libraries Unlimited. Kulhtau, C.C., Heinstrom, J., and Todd, R. (2008) The Information Search process revisited: Is the model still useful? Information Research, Vol 13, No 4 Kuhlthau, C., Maniotes, L.,and Caspari, A. (2012) Guided Inquiry design: a framework for inquiry in your school. Santa Barbara, California: Libraries Unlimited. Partnerships for 21st Century skills (nd), Framework for 21st Century learning. Retrieved from: http://www.p21.org/about-us/p21-framework Responsible subversives (2011) Born to learn. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=falHoOEUFz0 213 Rothstein, D and Santana, L. (2011) Make just one change – Teach students to ask their own questions, Harvard Education Press RSA Animate - Robinson, K. (2010) Changing educational paradigms. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zDZFcDGpL4U#aid=P8wNMEma2ng Scheffers, J. (2008) Guided Inquiry: a learning journey. Scan 27 (4) Sheerman, A, (2011) Accepting the challenge: evidence based practice at Broughton Anglican College. Scan 30 (2). Todd, R. J. (2006). From information to knowledge: charting and measuring changes in students' knowledge of a curriculum topic. IR Information Research, 11 (4). Retrieved from: http://www.informationr.net/ir/11-4/paper264.html. Todd, R. J., Kuhlthau, C.C. & Heinstrom, J.E. (2005) School library impact measure (SLIM) Center for International Scholarship in School Libraries, Rutgers University. Retrieved from: http://cissl.rutgers.edu/images/stories/docs/slimtoolkit.pdf Todd, R. J. (2010) Guided Inquiry: a framework for opening doors and opening minds through the school library (in Swedish) in Framsidan 1: Oppna Dorrar For Oppna Sinnen: Skolbiblioteken Och Framtiden, edited byFredrik Swedemyr. Gotebord, Sweden: Kultur I Vast Regionbiblioteket, Todd, R.J. (2011a) Charting student learning through inquiry. School Library Monthly, Vol 28 (3) p5-8. Todd, R.J. (2011b) From literacy to inquiry: a holistic approach to literacy development in selected Australian Schools. IFLA 2011 Puerto Rico. Retrieved from http://conference.ifla.org/past-wlic/2011/114-todd-en.pdf Todd, R. J. (2011c) One Common Goal: Student Learning. Evidence from New Jersey. Synergy 9(2). Todd, R. J. (2012a) Visibility, Core Standards and the power of the story: creating a visible future for school libraries. Teacher Librarian, vol.38, 6, p8+ Todd, R. J. (2012b) School libraries as pedagogical centers. SCAN, vol 31, (3) p. 27-36 Biographical note Qualifications: Sydney University: B.A. Dip. Ed. (English and Modern History) UTS, Sydney: Graduate Diploma in Library Science Australian Catholic University: Master of Education (Curriculum) Lee FitzGerald joined Charles Sturt University School of Information Studies in January, 2014, following a long career as a teacher librarian in school libraries. She has a passion for 214 teacher librarianship and the burgeoning theory and practice of Guided Inquiry. Her research interest is to confirm the growth of deep learning through inquiry, as well as the transferability of the process from one subject area to another, which she is investigating with Dr. Kasey Garrison. He book for ABC Clio in the Guided Inquiry series, tentatively entitled: Implementing Guided Inquiry in a time of Global Curriculum Reform is due for publication in 2016. 215 Self-Regulated Learning in Practice: a comparison of national board certified teacher librarians and non-national board certified teacher librarians in the United States Dr. Kasey L. Garrison Lecturer Teacher Librarianship Program School of Information Studies Faculty of Education Charles Sturt University Locked Bag 588 Wagga Wagga, NSW 2650 Australia [email protected] Dr. Robin S. Spruce Lecturer School of Education and Leadership Studies College of Arts and Sciences University of San Diego 5998 Alcala Park San Diego, CA 92110 United States of America [email protected] Abstract In the United States, educators have the opportunity to apply for National Board Certification (NBC), a rigorous process that awards them the highest recognition of teacher mastery and accomplishment in the nation. A core proposition of NBC, the management and monitoring of student learning, is strongly related to self-regulated learning (SRL) and the role of the teacher librarian (TL). This research investigates the differences and similarities between the application of SRL strategies in the teaching of two groups of TLs in the US: five with NBC and five without NBC. Using interviews and teaching observations, researchers found similar practice of SRL strategies by both groups in their teaching. However, in the interviews, the TLs with NBC were better able to articulate and provide context for how they teach students SRL strategies. These 216 findings support research from other scholars regarding NBC (Johnson, 2009; Strong et al., 2007; Unrath, 2007). Keywords: Metacognition, Self-regulated Learning, National Board Certified Teachers, Teacher Librarian, National Board Certification Countries around the world have differing ways of recognizing talented educators. There are many awards available where teachers are nominated by students, colleagues, and their surrounding communities. Some examples of such programs include the National Teacher Award in South Africa, the Roll of Honor Award given to educators demonstrating outstanding service in the Jamaican Teachers’ Association, and the Global Teacher Prize awarded to nominated teachers from around the world. In addition to awards, some countries have special programs where teachers provide extensive support and evidence to demonstrate their mastery. In Australia, teachers apply for recognition as Highly Accomplished and Lead Teachers, submitting artifacts and evidence of their mastery to the Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL, 2014). (For a firsthand account of this process, see Uther & Pickworth, 2014.) Teachers in the United States apply for National Board Certification (NBC), one of the highest recognitions an educator can earn. The application process is very rigorous and enlists applicants to demonstrate mastery of Five Core Propositions relating broadly to professional practices and applications of teaching and learning. Proposition 3 states: “Teachers are responsible for managing and monitoring student learning” and stresses the need for teachers to utilize divergent teaching strategies and instructional techniques with their students (National Board Professional Teaching Standards, 2013). In this paper, we consider the role of the teacher librarian (TL) as related to this proposition using the lens of self-regulated learning. The main purpose of this research was to examine how National Board Certified Teacher Librarians (NBCTLs) and non-NBCTLs apply self-regulated learning strategies in their teaching and to investigate the differences between the two groups. Literature Review Self-regulated learning (SRL) is the ability to plan, monitor, and evaluate one's own learning processes. Van den Boom, Paas, and Merrienboer (2007) assert “there is a broad consensus that SRL comprises many aspects related to students' learning, such as goal setting, using effective strategies to organize learning, monitoring, performance, selfawareness, motivation and holding positive beliefs about capabilities” (p. 533). After an extensive search of literature on SRL and NBCTs, no direct studies were discovered. However, research about NBCTs and patterns in their teaching practices reveal connections to SRL. For example, reflection is an integral part of SRL as learners monitor and consider their own learning processes and progress. In a self-report survey study of NBC art teachers, Unrath (2007) found that these teachers labeled themselves as reflective practitioners before undertaking the certification process, but that they noted an increase in their reflective practices after engaging in NBC. Johnson (2009) found similar results regarding reflection in her sample of 57 teachers’ practices post certification. NBCT participants in another study also noted how the certification process reinforced to them the 217 importance of developing critical thinking capabilities in their students (Scheetz & Martin, 2006). Both reflection and the ability to think critically are important to fostering SRL. Researchers examining differences between NBCTs and teachers without this specialized certification show mixed results regarding student achievement. Some results indicate superior student achievement using competency measures or standardized achievement data (Phillips, 2008; Vandevoort, Amerine-Beardsley, & Berliner, 2004). For example, in a study comparing NBC and non-certified physical education teachers, the students of NBCTs outperformed students of non-NBCTS on measures of motor skill performance, cognitive fitness knowledge, outside of class participation and health related fitness levels (Phillips, 2008). Conversely, a comparison study of 27 NBCTs and 27 non-NBCTs teaching Kindergarten through Grade 8 found that student scores on end of the year standardized tests did not significantly differ (Rouse, 2008). Finally, data from a larger study incorporating statistical analysis of standardized test variables and qualitative data including teacher interviews and classroom observations found that while NBCTs’ dispositions and preinstructional characteristics were higher quality than non-NBCTs, no differences were observed in classrooms between the two groups (Stronge et al., 2007). Findings from these studies suggest there is a need to explore both qualitatively and quantitatively NBCTs and those without this certification to better identify what factors influence teachers to pursue certification and what influence the process itself may have, or not, on their classroom practice. Specifically, this study aims to illuminate how teacher librarians with NBC and those without differ in their explanation and practice of SRL in the school library. Methods This study used mainly qualitative methods to study the teaching and learning practices of NBCTLs and non-NBCTLs in regards to their practice of SRL as teachers and learners. We compared two groups of five NBCTLs and five non-NBCTLs working in primary and secondary schools in the mid-Atlantic area of the United States. The ten participants volunteered to be interviewed and observed while teaching after completing an online questionnaire for a preliminary stage of this research reported in Garrison and Spruce (2013). The information in Table 1 includes demographic and descriptive information about the ten participants. NBCTL Status NBCTLs Participant School Level Highest Degree Gender Age Years of Education Experience (Library/Total) Naomi Elementary Masters F Under 35 9/9 years Eleanor Middle Masters F Over 45 15/18 years Violet Elementary Masters F Between 35-45 23/23 years Incognito Secondary Masters F Over 45 15/31 years Ruby Secondary Masters F Over 45 34/34 years 218 NBCTL Status NonNBTLs Years of Education Experience (Library/Total) Participant School Level Highest Degree Gender Age Sydney Elementary Masters F Between 35-45 4/14 years Owl Secondary Masters F Over 45 2/20 years Jacqueline Elementary Masters F Between 35-45 7/20 years JDL Secondary Masters M Between 35-45 16/20 years Tessa Middle & Secondary Masters F Over 45 26/26 years Table 1: Characteristics of Teacher Librarian Participants Each participant engaged with one of the researchers in an approximately one hour interview and two of their library lessons were observed by one or both of the researchers as well. The interview and observation protocols were created by one of the researchers for her dissertation research using a similar research design studying classroom teachers (Spruce, 2012). See Appendix A and B for these protocols. The interview includes 16 questions about teacher perception, understanding, and application of SRL and was developed from Zimmerman’s SRL model (2008). The observation protocol lists 18 observable behaviors teachers might perform to facilitate student development of SRL across three phases of learning: Planning, Monitoring, and Evaluating (Zimmerman, 2008). These behaviors were evaluated using a scale ranging from zero to four with zero meaning the behavior was not observed and four meaning there was a strong application of the behavior observed. The observation protocol was designed using Zimmerman's model of SRL (2008) and also Schraw's Metacognitive Checklist (1998) as guides. The scores from the observation protocol are the sole quantitative data used in this study. The participants’ were rated in both observations and then the average score of the two observations were taken for each of the three stages of learning and the overall mean. Next, the researchers used an inductive content analysis approach to investigate the patterns in qualitative data (Patton, 2002). In this method, themes and patterns emerge and become categories; researchers then code the data using these categories. In this study, we analyzed the interview transcripts first to find recurring themes and patterns in the participants’ responses. After analyzing the interviews, the codes listed and defined in Table 2 emerged from the data. Code Visualization Definition Visual or graphic representation of concepts or the learning process to aid in imagining a topic or idea 219 Code Chunking Definition Dividing tasks into smaller steps in order to prepare for and manage learning Scaffolding student learning by literally showing them how to do something, often described as a thinking aloud to monitor internal processes The thinking that occurs after a learning event or activity, a deliberate consideration and evaluation of the learning process Challenges to implementing time for reflection also emerged Modeling Reflection Table 2. Codes Emerging from Interviews Applied to Observations The researchers then used these codes to analyze the observation field notes and protocol to investigate how the participants translated their interview reflections into their practice. This involved searching for particular instances where these codes were implemented. The following discussion of the results will examine first similarities and then differences with the NBCTLs and non-NBTCLs for each of the four codes, integrating the interview and observation data. Results Analysis of the interview and observation data reveals mixed results of the knowledge and application of SRL strategies across the two sample groups. The observation scores for the ten participants are included in Table 3 across the three stages of learning including totals for each individual (far right column) and each group labeled in bold. Status Participants Planning(4) Monitoring(4) Evaluating(4) Totals(12) 1.54 1.89 0.3 3.73 Violet 1.8 2.64 1.5 5.94 Eleanor 2.75 4 1.6 8.35 Incognito 1.42 1.79 0.4 3.7 Ruby 1.3 2.5 0.5 4.3 NBCTLs Mean Totals 1.76 2.56 0.86 5.20 NonOwl NBCTLs Sydney 1.08 2.64 0 3.72 1.42 1.79 0.5 3.71 Tessa 2.58 3.64 0.3 6.52 Jacqueline 2.6 3.15 1.5 7.25 JDL 1.33 1.57 0.6 3.5 NBCTLs Naomi 220 Non-NBCTLs Mean Totals 1.80 2.56 0.58 4.94 Table 3. Observational Scores for the Participants Across the Three Stages These scores reveal little difference with the inclusion of SRL strategies in teaching across the two groups; the scores are quite similar within the three stages. Similarities were also found in their teaching of SRL strategies. At the same time, however, differences in the knowledge and explanation of using such strategies were detected in the interview data. The remainder of the discussion surrounding the findings will address these themes organized by similarities and differences and supported by the interview and observation data. Similarities Visualization Similarities Both groups discussed the visual representation of concepts, such as graphic organizers, outlines, or teacher provided prompts to imagine or visualize an idea. In interviews, many mentioned offering graphic organizers to students, linking to the idea that seeing material presented visually was helpful for learners. For example, non-NBCTL Sydney said in reference to setting up goals for a learning event: ...ways to do goal setting so that you can present it to them and that they can choose a way to do it, you know. Often, graphics, some kind of graphic organizer is what we tend to lean towards because kids are visual. From classroom observations, the researchers observed little implementation of the strategies described by the teacher librarians. Four of the librarians in the study either made mention of using visual strategies to guide learning or offered a teacher-designed frame to help students sort information. Two of these were NBCTLs and two were not. They offered encouragement to their students to either use the tool, Incognito and Violet, or verbally encouraged their students to try to imagine/envision the information being presented, JDL and Sydney. None of the teachers during the observed classes offered students the opportunity to develop or consider their individual learning processes and what might best serve those for the learning activity, which would have elicited a higher observation score. Chunking Similarities Across groups, TLs used similar language and named like strategies when discussing dividing tasks to prepare for learning. Some of these included "chunking," "breaking things down into steps," "checklists," and "calendars." They suggested using checklists and calendars as tools for helping students break tasks into manageable "chunks" or "steps." For example, NBCTL Naomi describes beginning the process with students as young as five years-old: even my kindergartners, I start with Froggy Gets Dressed, that little book, and tell them about you know, Froggy didn’t get to play in the snow because he didn’t have a process for getting dressed so he just sat there starting over all the time, and um, that’s where you need a process because if you want to get something done, you’re going to have to have the steps to be able to do it. 221 Non-NBCTL Jacqueline described this same idea with reference to calendars and helping students to develop and maintain schedules for completing tasks. All five of the NBCTLs referenced "chunking" or "steps" in some way as did four of the non-NBCTLs, Tessa, Jacqueline, Sydney, and Owl. Upon observation, however, there was scant evidence of this type of skills coaching across both groups. NBCTL Eleanor made a verbal reference to breaking down the tasks for the class period, what students will accomplish, and the timeframe for doing so. One of the observed lessons non-NBCTL Tessa taught introduced a new research project where students used index cards to organize their notes; the handout of instructions for this project did include a marking rubric with deadlines. However, no other teachers referenced or used a calendar, rubric, or checklist for breaking down either a long-term project or the class period itself. Modeling Similarities Both the NBCTLs and non-NBCTLs stressed the importance of modeling and scaffolding student learning in their interviews. Non-NBCTL Sydney noted in her primary school library “modeling thinking is very important.” The NBCTLs frequently mentioned sharing their own personal ways of learning with their students to help give them a model to practice. NBCTL Violet was clear in her view of this as she said, the “other thing we do a lot of is modeling that, that um, as librarians we’re also, we’re teachers, but we’re also learners.” NBCTL Eleanor, who was teaching a middle school class researching a famous person of their choice, noted that the kids “haven’t lived long enough to have a really good schema on any of these topics” so “you show them what you want the product for each step to look like…and by doing it that way you scaffold them, you know, to build them up to succeed.” This modeling and scaffolding was quite evident in the observations from both groups. Many of these class sessions were dealing with the research process and using resources within the library collection like print books and online databases to find information. Non-NBCTL Owl modeled her search processes for her secondary students as did non-NBCTL Tessa and NBCTLs Naomi, Eleanor and Incognito. Naomi did a demonstration of an online search using her library’s catalog for her grade five students. The students were then encouraged to use the catalog themselves to find resources interesting them. Tessa’s lesson was heavy on research and included students critically analyzing the value of their sources. She engaged them in a discussion about Wikipedia as a source stating, “Let’s talk about Wikipedia for a moment, I know it is not to be a resource, but I also know you will use it.” She went on to admit using Wikipedia herself and described the ways she uses it, verbally modeling her own research processes. Reflection Similarities In the interviews, all participants stressed the importance of reflecting on the process of learning in broad and detailed terms. Reflection activities mentioned by both groups included exit tickets, peer evaluation exercises, and self-questioning techniques. NBCTL Violet stated it is important to be: …encouraging kids to be reflective about what they’re doing. So, not just doing it, again, but understanding why you’re doing it and what’s working and what’s not 222 working so then they can start to think about, okay, what do I need to do better or differently next time and really getting them to think about the whys. As shown in Table 3 reporting the observation scores of each of the ten participants, the scores for the reflection phase were the lowest scores across the three phases and across the two groups. The NBCTLs scored just slightly higher than the non-NBCTLs. NBCTL Eleanor and non-NBCTL Sydney included “exit tickets” for their students to complete before leaving the library. However, Sydney’s activity was more content-driven instead of processdriven, and process is what the observation protocol sought. Non-NBCTL JDL and NBCTL Violet included verbal prompts for their students to reflect on the “why” of how and what they learned during the research lesson. These were the only instances of reflection observed during the lessons. There was also a clear pattern of challenges in regards to the interviews about the reflection phase. Both groups noted time constraints and the testing culture as impacting their ability to incorporate reflection activities. NBCTL Ruby reflected “it’s the [standards], maybe we’re so test driven now that kids can’t sit around a table and come up with a solution to a problem.” NBCTL Eleanor voiced a similar statement when she noted being “so crunched with the demands of the curriculum that [she] struggle[s] to get [teachers] to do the lengthy things we used to do for research.” Despite the time and curricular challenges in implementing reflection into the final stage of a learning event, Naomi eloquently notes that: …really that last step is the one that gets shoved off sometimes because we just want to be done with the stinking thing, but it’s one of the most important to get the kids to do, is really to get them to reflect on what they’ve done because otherwise it’s just kinda um, repeating the same mistakes and um, you know you’re not getting experience your just doing a bunch of stuff. Differences Visualization Differences Despite the similarities reported, a pattern of difference emerged from the theme of visualization. While NBCTLs and non-NBCTLs discussed many of the same strategies for making ideas more visual for students, including graphic organizers, imagery, and outlines, the information presented by the NBCTLs was more detailed and context embedded (i.e., provided an example of strategy use in an example from classroom practice.) A comparison of two responses helps illustrate this distinction. NBCTL Incognito shared her perspective on strategies to help learners set goals for an assignment saying: so like for me, two column notes are magic, but you might hate that, it may not work for you at all. So you need a different trick and maybe your trick is making a movie in your head about everything you read, about everything that is being lectured, or draw a little picture every time there is a key concept in the lecture, drawing a little picture in your notebook so finding those tips and tricks or maybe you have to talk it out, underlining it and when you get home you just talk it out. Whatever works for you, teach your brain that, this is my tip, this is my trick, this is what works, this is what makes me successful, tada! 223 While non-NBCTL JDL also lists some of the same ideas, he provides little elaboration of direct application, stating, "...making outlines and lists and using note cards for research, others might use the technology, there are organizers." As discussed previously, four of the observed TLs included references to worksheets for visually representing ideas from the lesson: JDL and Sydney, non-NBCTLs and Incognito and Violet, NBCTLs. Both of the NBCTLs had handouts for the students to use. Incognito's was a step-by-step guide for working through a science inquiry lesson requiring book and Internet research. The sheet involved complex thinking tasks and a graphic to guide students' analysis of various minerals. Violet also guided students through an Internet research activity; hers was to help students evaluate websites. The sheet she provided them was a graphic organizer based around the acronym CARRDSS, each letter representing a step in the website evaluation process. Students' evaluated websites in collaborative groups, using the organizer as a tool. These four examples illustrate a striking contrast between the two groups of TLs. The NBCTLs had materials prepared for their students to use that visually organized information for them. Two non-NBCTLs depended solely on verbal prompts to do so. Chunking Differences Two distinct differences emerged from the data regarding "chunking" of tasks. As noted above, in practice, TLs did little to support this skill. However, from interviews, the NBCTLs once again provided greater context and a stronger narrative for describing how to implement these tools than did the non-NBCTLs. NBCTL Ruby used an example to describe how she might herself go about using time/calendar as a guide for accomplishing a learning task: ...set time goals for yourself. In two weeks, I want to know um, everything about ancient art, I want to be able to identify all the pieces of ancient art, or pictures that are going to be on that, or I want to um, be able to recognize all the vocabulary for this unit and then move into the next step and the next step and you have to be so methodical about it in order for them to grasp so much knowledge. She both references time and breaking the task into steps in the example she sketches. In contrast, non-NBCTL Tessa describes breaking a unit into steps for students, but speaks in more general terms: Monitoring is a matter of steps. Any good teacher is going to create a unit with lots of little baby steps and again this depends on the age because we deal with, at my school, with such a wide range of learners um, and they, ages and grades, it really varies heavily from the youngest to the oldest, but you’re gonna structure the unit in small steps. Tessa's example leads into the second notable difference between NBCTLs and nonNBCTLs discussion of "chunking." The NBCTLs placed a greater emphasis on student independence and autonomy; the goal of teaching or modeling the skill of chunking was to have students be able to carry out that task themselves. Whereas the non-NBCTLs spoke of "chunking" more in terms of what they do to structure a lesson, as did Tessa in the quote above. 224 Modeling Differences As noted in the previous themes, the major difference between these two groups in the area of modeling was again the NBCTLs discussion of the ways that they model and scaffold for students. There were nineteen instances where statements from the NBCTLs’ interviews were coded into this pattern with only seven instances from the non-NBCTLs’ interviews. Further, in the interviews, the NBCTLs discussed more descriptively that modeling and scaffolding were essential to their teaching; they considered it part of the lesson. However, some of the non-NBCTLs voiced more surprise at the level of scaffolding and modeling their students needed. In working with secondary students, non-NBCTL Owl noted “I really was amazed at the amount of coaching and scaffolding that I felt was necessary to make projects successful.” Reflection Differences Prior analysis of reflection similarities detailed here showed little difference between the teaching observation scores with the two groups in regards to reflection. However, there were clearer differences in the interviews about reflection. The NBCTLs gave a stronger discussion in how to implement reflective activities into their teaching, offering specific details and more succinct responses than the non-NBCTLs. They gave examples of the types of questions they would enlist students to ask themselves post-learning in order to pinpoint their strengths and weaknesses as researchers. NBCTL Violet described this process of selfquestioning using a journey metaphor: So we’re trying to build, I’m trying to build in constantly space for kids to reflect on either how something can help them in a different situation or how can they improve whatever it is they’ve done so that the next time they encounter it, they sorta know how to know what the new road map is. Limitations Limitations that must be noted from this study are related to the participants and their different characteristics as well as the schools they teach. There was a wide range of experience in teaching and teaching in the school library, but it is clear that the NBCTLs have more school library and teaching experience, respectively, (96/115 years) than the nonNBCTLs (73/100 years). Further, the researchers note that we only observed two teaching lessons and that the both groups of TLs may incorporate more SRL strategies into other lessons. The age range of learners is another factor. It would be assumed that secondary students should naturally have more autonomy and knowledge of their learning processes than primary students. Another factor that we note that was evident in our discussion in the findings as well is the difference in the interviews of the NBCTLs and non-NBCTLs. In many cases, the NBCTLs were better able to express and reflect on their teaching and learning practices. The process for earning NBC is very rigorous and includes multiple elements of just this: reflecting and analyzing one’s teaching. Thus, the NBCTLs would have much practice and experience in answering questions like those in our interview protocol. Using the observations helps to negate this limitation, but it was still present as we analyzed the interview data. 225 Significance Research regarding differences between NBCTs in the US and those without the certification includes mixed results. Researchers reported that NBCT before engaging in the process of certification tend to be reflective practitioners and carry a belief system of encouraging critical thinking (Johnson, 2009; Unrath, 2007). Our study found similar results in that while the NBCTLs in our sample more richly described reflective practice, they did not engage their students more actively in it than did the non-NBCTLs. NBCTLs provided a richer, more complex context and extensive answers to interview questions across emic codes than did the non-NBCTLs, yet classroom practice looked largely the same. This finding correlates to the work of Stronge et al. (2007) who found that in interviews with NBCTs, their description of strategy was superior to non-NBCTs, but classroom practice was generally equivalent. Sparse research has paired examining SRL knowledge - as described by teachers - with classroom practice. However, much evidence indicates that the skills can be taught (Azevado & Cromley, 2004; Perry, VandeKamp, Mercer, & Nordby, 2002). Key factors for students to learn these skills include direct teacher instruction, guided practice, and instructor feedback (Butler, Karpicke, & Roediger, 2008; Bol, Hacker, Walck, & Nunnery, 2012; van den Boom, Paas, & van Merrienboer, 2007). While our study did not examine student achievement or SRL skills acquisition specifically, these findings tie to comments made by some of the study participants. Participants from both groups explained the major obstacle for teaching SRL skills is finding time to do so in the school day. Time for direct instruction, guided practice, and meaningful feedback of SRL skills has to compete with instruction on content area learning as measured by high-stakes standardized tests. Even though many of our participants knew of and understood how to teach SRL skills, NBCTL and non- NBCTL alike, results from this study suggest SRL skills instruction is losing the race. However, teachers from our study clearly value these skills and the Common Core Standards adopted by most states in the US place the emphasis back on skills instruction. Perhaps, this will help boost SRL skills back into the winners' circle. References Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership. (2014). Certification of Highly Accomplished and Lead Teachers. Retrieved from, http://www.aitsl.edu.au/certification/about-certification/certification-of-highlyaccomplished-and-lead-teachers. Azevado, R., Moos, D., Greene, J., Winters, F., Cromley, J. (3008). Why is externallyfacilitated learning more effective than self-regulated learning with hypermedia? Education Tech Research Development, 56, 45-72. Bol, L., Hacker, D., Walck, C., & Nunnery, J. (2012). The effects of individual or group guidelines on the calibration accuracy and achievement of high school biology students. Contemporary Educational Psychology.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2012.02.004 226 Butler, A. C., Karpicke, J.D., & Roediger, H. L. (2008). Correcting metacognitive error: Feedback increases retention of low-confidence correct responses. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34, 918-928. Garrison, K.L., & Spruce, R.S. (2013). “Asking questions,” “chunking,” & “sharing the progress”: How school librarians apply metacognitive strategies in their teaching. American Educational Research Association Annual Conference, San Francisco, CA, USA. Johnson, T.S. (2009). Performing “teacher”: A case study of a National Board Certified teacher. English Education, 41(2), 158-176. National Board of Professional Teaching Standards. (2013). The Five Core Propositions. Retrieved from, http://www.nbpts.org/five-core-propositions. Perry, N., VandeKamp, K., Merer, L., Nordby, C. (2002). Investigating teacher-student interactions that foster self-regulated learning. Educational Psychologist, 37, 5-15. Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods. (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Phillips, A. (2008). A comparison of National Board Certified Teachers with non-National Board Certified teachers on student competency in high school physical education. The Physical Educator, 114-121. Rouse, W. (2008). National Board Certified Teachers are making a difference in student achievement: Myth or fact?. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 7, 64-86. Scheetz, N. & Martin, D. (2006). Teacher quality: A comparison of National Board-Certified and non-Board-Certified teachers of deaf students. American Annals of the Deaf, 151 (1), 71-87. Schraw, G. (1998). Promoting general metacognitive awareness. Instructional Science, 26, 113-125. Spruce, R. S. (2012). Teacher beliefs, knowledge, and practice of metacognition and selfregulated learning (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Old Dominion University. Norfolk, VA, USA. Stronge, J., Ward, T., Tucker, P., Hindman, J., McColsky, W., & Howard, B. (2007). National Board Certified Teachers: Is there a difference in teacher effectiveness and student achievement? Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education, 20 (3-4), 185210. Unrath, K. (2007). The impact of the reflective portfolio on National Board Certified art teachers. Visual Arts Research, 33(1), 100-109. 227 Uther, J., & Pickworth, M. (2014). TLs as leaders: Are you a highly accomplished teacher librarian? Access, 28(1), 20-25. van den Boom, G., Paas, F., van Merrienboer, J. (2007). Effects of elicited reflections combined with tutor or peer feedback on self-regulated learning and learning outcomes. Learning and Instruction, 17, 532-548. Vandevoort, L., Amrein-Beardsley, & A., Berliner, D. (2004). National Board Certified Teachers and their students' achievement. Education Policy and Analysis Archives, 12(46). Zimmerman, B. J. (2008). Investigating self-regulation and motivation: Historical background, methodological developments, and future prospects. American Educational Research Journal, 45(1), 166-183. Biographical Notes Kasey Garrison is a lecturer with the Teacher Librarianship Team in the School of Information Studies at Charles Sturt University’s Wagga Wagga campus in New South Wales, Australia. Kasey’s primary research areas are focused on diversity within children’s and young adult literature and reader responses to such titles. She earned a PhD in Education from Old Dominion University in August 2012. Her dissertation, entitled “’This intense desire to know the world:’ Factors Influencing the Collection Development of Multicultural Children’s Literature,” was a mixed methods study focused on diversity within library collections and their surrounding communities. Robin Spruce is a lecturer at the School of Education and Leadership Studies and in the College of Arts and Sciences at the University of San Diego, in the state of California, United States. Her research interests include teacher and student self-regulated learning as well as sense of community in on-line learning environments. Robin earned a PhD in Education from Old Dominion University in August 2012. Using mixed methods in her dissertation, "Teacher knowledge and practice of self-regulated learning and metacognition" she examined teacher knowledge and practice of self-regulated learning in relationship to their classroom actions. 228 Appendix A. Interview Protocol Planning: 1. How might you use goal setting in your own learning? 2. How would you encourage your students to use goal setting when planning for a learning task? 3. How would you plan before beginning a learning task? 4. How would you encourage students to plan for a learning task? 5. How would you enhance students' self-motivational beliefs to improve student learning? Probe: Self-Efficacy Probe: Outcome expectations Probe: Task interest Probe: Goal orientation Monitoring: 6. In what ways would you monitor or control your own learning (assert self-control)? Probe: Using self-instruction? Probe: Using imagery? Probe: Using attention focusing? Probe: Using specific task strategies? 7. What techniques might you employ to encourage self-control (self-instruction, imagery, attention focusing, specific task strategies) of learning for your students? 8. What are some methods you might employ to monitor your learning process, metacognition, while engaged in a learning task? 9. How would you encourage or implement monitoring of the learning process, metacognition, in your teaching? 10. What are some techniques you might use to track your progress through a learning task? 11. How would you encourage students to track their progress through a learning task? Evaluation: 12. How might you evaluate your learning after completing a learning task? Probe: Self-evaluation Probe: Causal attribution 13. What are some activities you might design to encourage student reflection and evaluation after a learning task? 229 14. How might you determine your satisfaction with a learning outcome after you complete a learning task? 15. How would you encourage students to evaluate their satisfaction with the outcome of a learning task? 16. How would you describe self-regulated learning to your students? Appendix B. Observation Protocol SRL Classroom Observation Instrument Pseudonym: _______________________________________________________________ R = Teacher reference to DA= Teacher provided opportunities to practice/perform/discuss (directed activity) Observable Behaviors Planning reference to/directed activity for: 0 Not observed 1 Limited application R 2 Somewhat limited application R (once) 3 Somewhat strong application DA 4 Strong application DA (more than once 0 1 2 3 4 1. setting task goals 2. seeking information and strategies needed 3. setting time and resource allotment 4. self-instruction 5. attention focusing 6. self-recording (e.g. maintenance of a record of progress) Monitoring reference to/directed activity for: 7. clarifying understanding of task/content 8. evaluation of progress towards goals 9. self-instruction 230 Observable Behaviors Planning reference to/directed activity for: 0 Not observed 1 Limited application R 2 Somewhat limited application R (once) 3 Somewhat strong application DA 4 Strong application DA (more than once 0 Not observed 1 Limited application R 2 Somewhat limited application R (once) 3 Somewhat strong application DA 4 Strong application DA (more than once 10. attention focusing 11. self-recording 12. use of specific task strategies 13. assessment of task-understanding Evaluating reference to/directed activity for: 14. progress towards task goals 15. strategy use those that succeeded and failed 16. actions to be repeated or modified for subsequent related tasks (adaption based on performance) 17. determining selfsatisfaction (based on performance) 18. causal attribution Comments: _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ 231 Awards with rewards: implications and perceptions for collection development for youth Dr. Kasey L. Garrison Lecturer Teacher Librarianship School of Information Studies Faculty of Education Charles Sturt University Wagga Wagga, NSW 2650 Australia [email protected] Keywords: Multicultural children’s literature, children’s literature awards, collection development, ethnicity Including award-winning literature in children’s library collections is often openly stated in a library’s collection development policy. Hateley (2012) notes these “meaningful markers” as a way “to grant our wish of someone somewhere, somehow having read all the books, and worked out which one is best” (p. 190). In an age where librarians are pushed to their limits with time, budget, and curriculum, such designators are useful in helping to develop and maintain a quality collection. At the same time, Hateley (2012) enlists readers to acknowledge the unavoidable human subjectivity involved in the judging process of literary book awards: What must not be forgotten, however, is that this superhuman work is undertaken by humans—passionate and knowledgeable humans, to be sure, but humans nonetheless. To automatically rely on award winners for collection development may mask the necessary fallibility and idiosyncrasies of individual judges or judging panels. (p. 197) In a study of “Children’s-Choice” State Book Awards in the US, Storey (1992) further notes censorship issues associated with the selection of books on the award lists and, thus, the availability of books to the children readers meant to select the winners. Storey’s (1992) research reports on a survey of school librarians about censorship related to these book awards. The librarians in the study noted that censorship was “expected and accepted” (Storey, 1992, p. 1). They also supported the use of award lists for selection and collection development which is the focus of the current study reported in this paper. Specifically, the purpose was to investigate youth librarians’ perceptions of using award lists for collection 232 development and to also survey their collections for the presence of five children’s book awards. Literature Review The professional library literature is fraught with debates about the value and quality of children’s book awards. Sometimes the crux of the issue in these discussions is the fact that adults are making the choice of the best books; these may not necessarily be the books that the intended audience (i.e., children) would choose as the best or would even check out from the library at all. In the Australian context, Hateley (2012) notes the importance of encouraging librarians and young patrons to use a critical lens when evaluating award winners and to also examine the collection development policies in relation to such choices as one would any addition to the collection. In the United States, much controversy surrounds ethnic specific book awards including the Coretta Scott King Award honoring African American writers and illustrators (Aronson, 2001; Pinkney, 2001), the Pura Belpré Award recognizing Latino/a American writers and illustrators (Balderrama, 2006), and the Asian/Pacific American Award for Literature (APAAL) acknowledging outstanding literature with Asian/Pacific American themes. However, children’s book awards like these based on ethnicity were created due to a lack of diversity within the ranks of popular non-ethnic specific awards such as the Caldecott and Newbery Awards (Pinkney, 2001). Gillespie, Powell, Clements, and Swearingen (1994) analyzed the ethnicity of characters within the 73 Newbery Award-winning books from the award’s inception in 1922 through 1994 and found 90 percent featured White Anglo characters. Characters from non-Anglo backgrounds (using labels from Gillespie et al., 1994) included: Blacks at 26 percent, Native Americans at 19 percent, White non-Anglos at 18 percent, and Hispanic and Asian/Pacific peoples both at 10 percent. Research by Rawson (2011) of young adult awards and lists like the Michael L. Printz Award suggests a similar lack of diversity. For example, in her sample of 297 books, she found 241 books (81.1 percent) included White characters but only 11 books (3.8 percent) included Hispanic characters (Rawson, 2011). Research from Kidd (2009) suggests “anticensorship efforts…function much like literary prizing” (p. 197). This makes sense considering that a lack of diversity within literary award lists like the Newbery Award and Caldecott Award is partly what led to awards like the Coretta Scott King Award and Pura Belpré Award (Pinkney, 2001). Kidd (2009) notes that the very presence of censorship creates “nearly always leads to or involves anticensorship” (p. 214). Methods The research reported here resulted from findings from the author’s dissertation study (Garrison, 2012). In this mixed methods study analyzing the factors influencing the collection development of multicultural literature in children’s collections, the researcher surveyed the collections themselves and the youth librarians tasked with developing these collections. The researcher searched the library collections for five children’s literature awards including the APAAL, King Award, Newbery Award, Belpré Award, and Caldecott Award. The APAAL began in 2006 by the Asian/Pacific American Library Association (APALA), and is awarded annually to books “related to Asian/Pacific Heritage, not necessarily written by or illustrated by an Asian/Pacific American” (APALA, 2010, para. 1). The other three awards are given by 233 sections of the American Library Association (ALA) including the Ethnic and Multicultural Information Exchange Round Table (EMIERT) and the Association of Library Services to Children (ALSC). The Coretta Scott King Award began in 1970, and is given annually to one African American author and one African American illustrator who have created books celebrating the African American experience (EMIERT, 2011). Started in 1922, the oldest award, the John Newbery Award annually honors the author of “the most distinguished contribution to American literature for children” (ALSC, 2011c, para. 1). The Pura Belpré Award was started in 1996 and honors one Latino/a author and one Latino/a illustrator who have written or illustrated a children’s book celebrating the Latino cultural experience (ALSC, 2011a). It was given biennially until 2008 and has been awarded annually after that. Since 1938, the Randolph Caldecott Award has annually honored the illustrator of “the most distinguished American picture book for children” (ALSC, 2011b, para. 1). As stated previously, the Newbery and Caldecott are non-ethnic specific while the other three awards focus on specific ethnic groups. Since these awards began in different years, the researcher started the survey with books honored from 1996 to 2010 for the Belpré, Caldecott, King, and Newbery as the Belpré began in 1996; the APAAL survey started in 2006 when the award came into existence. Further, the APAAL, Belpré, and King include author and illustrator awards so each year, there will be two winners of these. All of the awards also include one to four honor titles each year depending on the pool. Of these years, the research looked for a total of 221 books in the ten communities in the sample. The researcher searched the library’s online public access catalog for these books. This purposeful sample included ten communities of different geography, population, and cultural diversity in one mid-Atlantic state in the US. The characteristics of these ten communities and their representing library systems are shown in Table 1. White, Non-Hispanic African American Hispanic/ Latino Asian & Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander Number of Libraries and Branches in System Number of Municipalities Served by Library System 98.6% 0.3% 0.8% 0.2% 16,469 1 1 Brookfield 72,711 95.5% 2.3% 1.3% 0.5% 149,818 2 2 Grasston 35,604 38.5% 59.0% 2.1% 0.4% 93,990 2 3 Treetown 97,032 64.2% 28.5% 5.5% 1.8% 265,639 6 1 Creekton 118,542 86.2% 5.7% 8.2% 1.5% 246,770 3 3 Lakeland 149,270 88.8% 3.2% 8.1% 1.6% 274,946 7 3 Streamland 204,214 40.8% 50.6% 6.3% 2.4% 467,627 8 5 Forest City 209,021 78.7% 12.9% 4.6% 3.8% 691,807 9 1 19.6% 6.6% 6.3% 1 b Total Population a 2,321 Collection Size in Volumes Communities Riverburg 437,994 67.7% 754,796 10 Hillville 1,104,291 62.8% 9.1% 15.6% 17.6% 2,302,357 22 2 Sample Totals 8,001,024 68.6% 19.4% 7.9% 5.6% 5,264,219 70 22 Watervale Table 1. Characteristics of the Ten Communities in this Sample a Population data is from U.S. Census Bureau (2011). This data is from Institute of Museum and Library Services (IMLS) website (2009). b 234 As shown, these ten communities are of varying sizes and cultural diversity. Riverburg is the smallest in the state while Hillville is the biggest. The information in Table 2 includes characteristics of the youth librarians selecting resources for these libraries.Library System Riverburg Chosen Pseudonym Job Title Highest Degree Attained Cultural Background Study Participation Renee Library Director Bachelor of Arts Not given Questions only Brookfield Dixie Interviewed by phone Virginia Not given Interviewed by phone Treetown Dana Creekton Carolina Bachelor of Arts in K-6 Education Masters & 36 post graduate credits in non-profit leadership Masters of Library and Information Science Not given Caucasian Grasston Children’s Librarian Library Director Lakeland Kari Forest City Frog Streamland Leann Watervale Mary Hillville Libby Youth Services Caucasian Librarian Youth Services Not given Librarian Coordinator of Double Bachelors Irish Youth Services Children’s Masters Caucasian Services Manager Collection Masters White/ European Development descent Manager Youth Librarian Masters in English, Masters Not given in Library Science Children’s and Masters of Library and German, English, Young Adult Information Science Irish Selector Interviewed by phone Interviewed by phone Questions only Interviewed by phone Interviewed by Skype Interviewed in person Interviewed by phone Table 2. Characteristics of the Ten Youth Librarians in this Sample Each of these librarians was interviewed by phone, on Skype, or in person or answered a survey questionnaire including questions about their collection development practices and the tools they use to aid in selection. The interview guide was developed using a blueprint based on a thorough review of the professional literature regarding collection development and selection. During this review, themes of professional practice and personal beliefs emerged within the areas of the value of multicultural literature, professional policies regarding selection, user value for multicultural literature, selection sources, and challenges during the selection process. The interview guide is included in Appendix A. In order to analyze the interview data, the researcher first used a deductive approach to examine the more fixed questions (e.g., What specific review journals do you use?). The researcher then 235 used an inductive content analysis approach to analyze questions eliciting more open-ended answers (e.g., How important do you believe award lists are for your collection development?). An inductive approach allows themes and patterns to emerge from the data instead of implementing strict codes of analysis. The research reported in this paper focuses on the aspects of the awards lists and the participants discussion of that topic. Findings The study reveals interesting results for the way librarians use award lists for collection development. To give a background context, first examine the data in Table 3. Award (N) Mean of Titles Median of Titles (percent of N) (percent of N) Asian/Pacific American Award for Literature (APAAL) Mode of Titles (percent of N) Range of Titles (percent of N) Winners (8) 2.89 Titles (36%) 3 Titles (38%) 3 Titles (38%) 0-6 Titles (0-75%) Honors (11) 2.97 Titles (27%) 2 Titles (18%) 1 Title (9%) 0-9 Titles (0-82%) Totals (19) 5.81 Titles (31%) 5 Titles (26%) 3 Titles (16%) 0-14 Titles (0-74%) 7.24 Titles (40%) 7 Titles (39%) 8 Titles (44%) 0-17 Titles (0-94%) 12.32 Titles (26%) 11 Titles (23%) 8 Titles (17%) 0-40 Titles (0-85%) 19.56 Titles (30%) 17 Titles (26%) 17 Titles (26%) 0-56 Titles (0-86%) Pura Belpré Award Winners (18) Honors (47) Totals (65) Coretta Scott King Award Winners (18) 12.37 Titles (69%) 14 Titles (78%) 16 Titles (89%) 0-18 Titles (0-100%) Honors (42) 20.39 Titles (49%) 22 Titles (52%) 22 Titles (52%) 1-42 Titles (2-100%) Totals (60) 32.76 Titles (55%) 36 Titles (60%) 36 Titles (60%) 1-60 Titles (2-100%) Randolph Caldecott Award Winners (9) 8.20 Titles (91%) 9 Titles (100%) 9 Titles (100%) 2-9 Titles (22-100%) Honors (30) 22.75 Titles (76%) 25 Titles (83%) 25 Titles (83%) 8-30 Titles (27-100%) Totals (39) 30.95 Titles (79%) 34 Titles (87%) 37 Titles (95%) 10-39 Titles (26100%) Winners (9) 8.22 Titles (91%) 9 Titles (100%) 9 Titles (100%) 2-9 Titles (22-100%) Honors (29) 22.71 Titles (78%) 25 Titles (86%) 27 Titles (93%) 8-29 Titles (28-100%) Totals (38) 30.92 Titles (81%) 34 Titles (89%) 37 Titles (97%) 10-38 Titles (26100%) John Newbery Award Table 3. Descriptive Statistics for the Awards across Library Sample 236 This table shows descriptive statistics, including the mean, median, mode, and range of titles, to compare the prevalence of these five awards in the ten library systems overall. The full range of the APAAL and the Belpré Award were present in the library collections less often than the King, Newbery, and Caldecott Awards. None of the libraries had all of the APAAL and Belpré Award titles, but some of the libraries did have all of the King, Newbery, and Caldecott Awards based on these figures. The APAAL and Belpré also had the lowest means for their winners and honors. Using Award Lists for Selection In the interviews, the participants revealed their perceptions about award lists and how/if they used them for collection development and reading promotion. They were specifically asked about their familiarity with the five awards used in this study; these results are shown in Table 4. CommunityLibrarian Riverburg- Renee Brookfield- Dixie Grasston- Virginia Treetown- Dana Creekton- Carolina Lakeland- Kari Forest City- Frog Streamland- Leann Watervale - Mary Hillville- Libby Totals (N=10) Newbery Caldecott King Belpré APAAL X X X X X X X X X X 10 X X X X X X X X X X 10 X X X X X X X X X X 10 X X X X X X X X 8 X X X 3 Table 4. Youth Librarian Participants’ Knowledge of Awards used in this Study As shown in the table, the least known awards were the awards for literature specifically honoring minority groups including Latino/a Americans and Asian/Pacific Americans. This finding is mirrored in the presence of these titles in the library collections as shown in Table 3. Overall, all of the librarians noted award lists as tools they use to help select books for their collections. Many of the librarians talked about waiting to hear the titles on the award lists when they come out in January and then matching up what they already had in their collection to the winning titles. Dana and Dixie talked about how good it felt when they had already selected the books because they knew the books were good the preceding year when they were first published. Others were purchased right after the award announcement. Frog said, “I am most aware of [the awards] when, you know the Newbery and the others come out, and at that time, I usually order most of them.” In fact, the Newbery and Caldecott Awards were often mentioned in the interviews as important pieces of the collection before the award question was asked. Mary reflected that “…those [Caldecott and Newbery] are the books people are going to possibly hear about, read about, so I think it’s a real disservice to the public if you don’t have those.” Dixie echoed Mary’s sentiment: 237 …we want to have the award lists, and especially the most known ones, but I can’t wait to try this Asian/Pacific American Award for Literature and take a look and see that too because, you know, you want to have these things, and they are recommended things, and I love recommended lists…you know if it is a list, I mean someone is going to come looking for it. Dana further noted that the award lists offer “librarians a way to do readers advisory unplugged if necessary. You want a great illustrated book? Go visit the Caldecotts." Publishing Challenges It was further evident in the interviews that using ethnic specific award lists are particularly useful when the ethnicity is outside of one’s own cultural experience. Leann is the sole selector for her nine-branch library system. She noted that “Because of the background that I have, sometimes I feel like I am not, that I am making assumptions about what people of a different culture are going to want that may not be true.” Mary identified ethnic specific awards like the three used in this study as holding strong implications for selection and collection development because the books have “that stamp of endorsement on it.” At the same time, Dixie was mindful that “you still take them with a little grain of salt for the most part.” Circulation Circulation was one of the main reasons identified by the librarian participants for purchasing books, whether or not the books were recognized by the field as high quality like the Caldecott and Newbery Award titles or acknowledged by the librarian participants as lower quality like Dana’s examples of “Dora the Explorer” and “Transformers.” Leann talked about this with her statement, “the reality is, it’s not always high quality stuff that is really moving out the doors the fastest.” Dana noted that: I need to have books that are going to serve the people that come in these doors, because there is nothing better than being able to pull a book off of the shelf that is what they want at that instant. At the same time, the librarian participants identified circulation as a conflicting balance between what culturally diverse materials will and what will not get circulated. While Dana wants to have the books for her patrons, she does not feel she can justify buying them because that particular ethnic demographic is not visiting her library. Virginia echoes this with regards to the APAAL used in this study: I have seen that [Asian/Pacific American Award for Literature] but I have not really ordered that because we don’t have a lot of Asians in our community. I have seen it in some readings I have done, but I have never had to use it, it would not have been desired here. Virginia does not think purchasing the APAAL will serve her community because they are not represented by the Asian/Pacific American demographic. According to Virginia, the demand is not there because the demographic is not there. 238 Whilst not a specific question, many of the librarian participants cited the same circulation order for the book awards used in this study. Of further interest is that this order (Caldecott, Newbery, King, Belpré) mirrored the mean order featured in Table 3. Carolina explained: so Newbery and Caldecott are asked for right away. Coretta Scott King Awards, they always circulate, I find that within that same day they are checked out. I don’t hear the running footsteps on them as I do for Newbery and Caldecott, but Coretta Scott King Awards, they are. The Pura Belpré Awards will be checked out, but as soon as we focus on that, put up a display. We do still give some explanation of that. And then the Asian/Pacific always seem to be very vibrant books that have great covers and so whether it is an award winner or not, people are going to pick them up. Carolina’s quote also indicates the way the books are marketed to patrons encourages circulation, which then encourages the selectors to purchase the books. Some of the librarians mentioned that in order to facilitate access to the Caldecott and Newbery Awards, they are separated out from the general children’s collection and put on their own shelves. While this may assist patrons in finding these books, it could also prevent them from checking out other shelves, including those where the King, Belpré, and APAAL titles reside. Significance It is clear from the interviews and collection surveys that librarians are using award lists for selection and collection development. However, as the descriptive statistics included in Table 3 show, different awards are present (i.e., selected) at different frequencies. As is common in mixed methods studies, the qualitative data collected from the interviews serves to shed light on the findings from the quantitative data. A potential explanation for the low mean and familiarity of the APAAL could be its lack of affiliation with ALA. The APAAL was the only award in this study that is not awarded by divisions or groups within ALA. Some of the librarian participants pointed at this lack of affiliation with ALA as a reason it is not as popular. Dana was explicit about this in saying, “because [the APAAL] is not on the ALA list, I don’t think it gets as much push as it should.” The Newbery, Caldecott, King, and Belpré Awards hold authority for these selecting librarians partly due to the awards’ relation to ALA. Further, the librarian participants identified the ALA awards, specifically the Newbery and Caldecott, as getting more media attention than other award lists. Renee said that “those are the ones that get recognition in the news so they’re the ones people will be asking for.” This perpetuates the cycle of circulation and drives selection decisions as librarians know award titles like the Newbery and Caldecott will circulate, but may be less convinced about the three ethnic awards. By focusing on circulation, the librarians are supporting the demand of the patrons who already use their library, but could potentially be missing other groups. Dana stated this explicitly: In my mind, I am trying to address the needs of the people who use our library. I would love to have an award winning collection of beautiful gorgeous books that won every illustration award possible, but you know, those are not books that consistently check out for our patrons. 239 Some of the librarians noted the challenge in encouraging diverse groups in their community to use the library and check out books, which would in turn, justify more diverse book purchases. As shown in Table 1, many of the communities represented by these youth librarians have high populations of Latinos and Asian/Pacific Americans who need literature with metaphorical mirrors reflecting their socio-cultural identity. Further, as stated in the IASL 2015 conference theme, the library should serve as a window to the world. Thus, patrons from other ethnic groups need to have access to cultures different from their own but represented in their local and global communities. References Aronson, M. (2001). Slippery slopes and proliferating prizes. The Horn Book Magazine, 77(3), 271-278. Asian/Pacific American Library Association. (2010). Literature award guidelines: Asian/Pacific American Award for Literature. Retrieved from http://www.apalaweb.org/awards/literature-awards/literature-award-guidelines/. Association for Library Service to Children. (2011a). About the Pura Belpré Award. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/ala/mgrps/divs/alsc/awardsgrants/ bookmedia/belpremedal/belpreabout/index.cfm. Association for Library Service to Children. (2011b). Caldecott Medal. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/ala/mgrps/divs/alsc/awardsgrants/bookmedia/caldecottmedal/ caldecottmedal.cfm. Association for Library Service to Children. (2011c). Newbery Medal. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/ala/mgrps/divs/alsc/awardsgrants/bookmedia/newberymedal/ newberymedal.cfm. Balderrama Balderrama, S.R. (2006). ¡Celebración!: The tenth anniversary celebration of the Pura Belpré Award. Children and Libraries, 4(3), 35-37. Ethnic and Multicultural Information Exchange Round Table. (2011). About the Coretta Scott King Book Awards: History of the award. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/ala/mgrps/rts/emiert/cskbookawards/about.cfm. Garrison, K.L. (2012). “This intense desire to know the world”: Factors impacting the collection development of multicultural children’s literature. Unpublished dissertation study, Old Dominion University. Gillespie, C.S., Powell, J.L., Clements, N.E., & Swearingen, R.A. (1994). A look at the Newbery Medal books from a multicultural perspective. The Reading Teacher, 48(1), 40-50. Hateley, E. (2012). And the winner is…?: Thinking about Australian book awards in the library. The Australian Library Journal, 61(3), 189-199. 240 Institute of Museum and Library Services. (2009). Library Statistics. Retrieved from http://harvester.census.gov/imls/compare/index.asp. Kidd, K. (2009). “Not censorship but selection”: Censorship and/as prizing. Children’s Literature in Education, 40, 197-216. Pinkney, A.D. (2001). Awards that stand on solid ground. The Horn Book Magazine, 77(5), 535-540. Rawson, C.H. (2011). Are all lists created equal?: Diversity in award-winning and bestselling young adult fiction. Journal of Research on Libraries and Young Adults, 1(3). Retrieved from, http://www.yalsa.ala.org/jrlya/2011/06/are-all-lists-created-equaldiversity-in-award-winning-and-bestselling-young-adult-fiction/. Storey, D. (1992, February). Censorship and child-choice state book award programs (Report No. IR053983). Retrieved from Educational Resources Information Center database. (ED 345721) U. S. Census Bureau. (2011). 2010 Census Data. Retrieved from http://2010.census.gov/2010census/data/. Biographical Note Kasey Garrison is a lecturer with the Teacher Librarianship Team in the School of Information Studies at Charles Sturt University’s Wagga Wagga campus in New South Wales, Australia. Kasey’s primary research areas are focused on diversity within children’s and young adult literature and reader responses to such titles. She earned a PhD in Education from Old Dominion University in August 2012. Her dissertation, entitled “’This intense desire to know the world:’ Factors Influencing the Collection Development of Multicultural Children’s Literature,” was a mixed methods study focused on diversity within library collections and their surrounding communities. 241 Appendix A. Interview Guide Opening Script Thank you so much for doing this interview with me; I really appreciate your time! First, let me explain a little bit about this study. The main purpose is to analyze factors impact your collection development decisions of multicultural children’s literature. You have read the study description and have forwarded me your signed informed consent forms. Do you have any questions about the study or your participation before we begin? I am going to be using pseudonyms for you and your library system in the transcripts and paper, I already have a pseudonym selected for your library and will replace that with any references you make throughout the interview, so feel free to use your system’s real name. o Have you chosen a pseudonym for yourself? Library Pseudonym_____________________ Participant’s Selected Pseudonym_______________________ I am going to be a little repetitive here once I start the recording, but just to be sure, you agree to be audio recorded? If yes, push record on recorder. Introductory Questions I am interviewing Participant’s Pseudonym_________________________ on DATE_________, discussing my dissertation study on collection development. Participant’s Pseudonym__________________________ has signed the informed consent forms, and again, do you agree to be recorded? Have Participant say yes so it is recorded. Participant’s Pseudonym____________________________, before we begin, do you have any questions about the study or your participation? Interview Questions Professional Organizations 1. What professional library organizations do you belong to? 2. How would you describe your level of activity with these organization(s)? Possible Probes: VLA, ALA, ALSC; Do you attend the national, state, or regional conferences? Do you read the organization’s publications? 3. How does your participation in these organizations influence or guide your collection development activities? Possible Probes: Do you use them as a reference? Do you have a copy of the policies? a. Does your library have its own collection development policy? User Value 4. What community factors do you take into account when selecting books for your children’s collection? a. Do you perform needs assessment of your community? Formal or informal? i. If so, what factors do you analyze? How does this process work? ii. What is most challenging about this process? Selection Sources 5. What vendors does your library use? 242 6. How does your library use your vendor for selection? a. Do they offer specific services? Possible Probes: Needs Assessment of community by vendor; Outsourcing 7. Besides your vendors, what other resources do you use when selecting books for your children’s collection? Possible Probes: People including patrons, word of mouth 8. What selection journals do you use most frequently for your children’s collection development? Award Lists 9. I am going to name five children’s book awards, you will be familiar with some of them. Please tell me which ones you are and are not familiar with. Newbery Award Y or N Caldecott Award Y or N Pura Belpré Award Y or N Coretta Scott King Award Y or N Asian/Pacific American Award for Literature Y or N 10. Do you use any of these award lists when selecting books for your children’s collection? a. Which ones? b. Why or why not? c. Do you see these awards being circulated frequently? i. How does this influencing your selection decisions? 11. How important do you believe award lists are for your collection development? Challenges in Selection 12. What is most challenging about choosing multicultural literature for your children’s collection? Possible Probes: Lack of experience with representing cultures; Lack of quality titles being published or included in review sources like journals and award lists 13. To what degree do you believe your own cultural background affects your selection and collection development decisions? 14. How diverse do you think a children’s collection should be? Possible Probes: Reflective of immediate community; reflective of global community Other Potential Questions 1. Does your library use the state’s interlibrary loan system? a. If so, how much is this used by your patrons? Closing Script Thank you so much for doing this interview with me; I really appreciate your time! Is there anything you would like to add to your responses or clarify? Do you have any other questions about the study? Is the address I sent your form packet to the address the best address to reach you via postal mail? o If not, please give me the best address: Thanks so much again!! 243 A study of the Bookery’s Library Assistants programme in Cape Town: a way forward for the staffing of school libraries in South Africa and other developing countries? Genevieve Hart, PhD University of the Western Cape, South Africa [email protected] Abstract The paper reports on a qualitative case study of one high school library. It forms part of a broader study of the Bookery’s School Library Project which has established 40 libraries in disadvantaged schools in Cape Town. The paper examines what difference the library is making to the school. The overarching aim is to find what might be learned from the Bookery’s Library Assistant (LA) programme about the staffing of school libraries in the South African context, where fewer than 20% of schools have functional libraries. The case study over two weeks comprised observations, interviews, and a questionnaire survey of the teachers. The working relations between the Bookery library assistant and the “teacher-librarian”, a full- time class teacher and the library’s driving force, are found to be crucial to the library’s sustainability. The library is clearly playing an important role in the students’ school experience and in meeting the information needs of teachers in their classroom teaching. But, despite general beliefs that the library is “a good thing”, only a minority of teachers integrate it into their teaching. It seems that teachers lack insight into the role of a library and information literacy in 21st century learning. Other key restrictions on the fulfilment of the library’s potential are its limited collections and the lack of ICTs. In the words of one participant, the overall conclusion is that “ It is helping but there are limitations”. Keywords: South Africa, library staffing, the Bookery , case study Introduction The paper reports on a case study of one library that forms part of a larger study of the Bookery’s School Library Project in Cape Town. The findings that result from my observations and interviews over the two weeks in the school will I hope provide useful insights in themselves – and later will add richness to my broader survey of the other schools. The Bookery claims to be building a model that offers a feasible solution to the huge backlogs in school library provision in South Africa. 244 The Bookery came into being in 2010,– having evolved from the School Library campaign of the civic action group Equal Education. It has so far established 40 libraries in disadvantaged township schools. Seeing the waste in providing libraries that are locked up all day for lack of staff, the Bookery supports a team of library assistants (LAs). They are mostly unemployed school leavers who are paid a stipend. The Bookery is confident that they are making a real difference in their schools. My research aims to explore this claim – with a view to throwing light on the bigger questions over the possible value of the Bookery project in dealing with our huge backlogs. Library advocacy in the South African context and probably that of other developing societies is especially challenging. Can one argue for libraries over proper sanitation for example? Nonetheless, a fundamental premise of my research is that advocacy for school libraries is advocacy for quality education and equal opportunity. As the LIS Transformation Charter (2014: 47) asserts: “If school libraries are deemed to be important for quality learning, then the principles of redress and equity enshrined in the South African Constitution and educational legislation mean that ways must be found to provide them”. Another premise of my research is that the provision of infrastructure is futile if it is not accompanied by the provision of staff. My lens in this paper is focused on how the Bookery library is staffed and how this impacts on its use. As I will argue below, the issue of human resources is arguably the most pressing question confronting advocates of school libraries in South Africa. School LIS in South Africa Since the mid-1990s I and other commentators have been documenting the dire, and indeed deteriorating, position of school libraries in South Africa. Our advocacy has argued for the contribution of libraries to quality schooling (for example Hart & Zinn 2007). Nicholas Spaull, a prominent researcher in education, estimates that 75% of our schools are dysfunctional. His study of our educational performance since 1994 highlights how our schooling is perpetuating historic inequalities: Most black children continue to receive an education which condemns them to the underclass of South African society …. This substandard education does not develop their capabilities or expand their economic opportunities, but instead denies them dignified employment and undermines their own sense of self-worth. In short, poor school performance in South Africa reinforces social inequality and leads to a situation where children inherit the social station of their parents, irrespective of their motivation or ability (Spaull 2013: 60). Sadly, one of the indicators of disadvantage across our schools is the non-existence of a library. Most commentators rely on the figures given in the Department of Basic Education’s NEIMS report in 2011 which found that about 21% of schools had a library with 7% of those having “stock” (Table 7). The vast majority of our school librarians are to be found in the historically advantaged sector – their contracts paid from school fees levied by schools’ governing bodies. Nonetheless, the past three years have brought some positive developments. The LIS Transformation Charter, commissioned by our National Council for Library and Information 245 Services (NCLIS), was approved by government early in 2014; it asserts unequivocally that school libraries are important for quality learning. In November 2014 NCLIS hosted a gathering of the LIS sector at the National Library of South Africa which placed “national school library policy” as the second most pressing priority for action. At number four was the recommendation that courses in school librarianship and information literacy be embedded in our teacher-training programs (Library and Information Services Charter: an update. 2015). Secondly, thanks to the campaigning of Equal Education, we now have regulations for norms and standards for school infrastructure that state that every school must have a library space. (However, no mention is made of staff or stock). Thirdly, although lacking the teeth of policy, the release of the National Guidelines for School LIS by the Department of Basic Education (DBE) in 2012 opens a door through which government might be held to account. The chapter in the Guidelines on staffing is of particular interest. It begins with the assertion that a school library should be under the management of an appropriately qualified teacherlibrarian or a "dedicated trained person". Smaller schools should appoint part-time librarians; and larger schools should have fulltime teacher-librarians as well as fulltime library assistants (p.19). Such statements look good on paper – but without a funded policy on school library staffing they are empty rhetoric. Central government dictates teacher-pupil ratios across all the provinces and any "extra" post has to be paid for from funds generated by schools. Research problem and questions The issue of school library posts is indeed a hot potato. There is consensus that teachers’ salaries are taking up too much of our educational budgets at the expense of other needs (Spaull 2012). Even if school libraries received a huge injection of funds from Treasury as public libraries did (Department of Arts & Culture 2012), where would the staff come from? School library training has largely disappeared from our university library schools. Moreover, an alarmingly high proportion of our existing school librarians are at retirement age (Reynolds 2008: 15). My interest in the Bookery project comes from its recognition that a library is not merely a room or collection of materials. Its distinguishing feature is its Library Assistant program, in which unemployed school leavers are employed to manage the Bookery libraries. My research explores what we might learn about the staffing of school libraries in the South African context by investigating the strengths and weaknesses of the Bookery’s LA program. The Bookery is confident that their LAs are making a difference in their schools. Is this indeed so? The research poses such questions as: What is the status of the LAs assistants in their schools? What are their functions and responsibilities? What involvement do the assistants have in the learning programs of their schools? How are they regarded by the teachers? What support do they have – inside and outside their schools? How do the assistants perceive their work and their futures? The data gathering to throw light on these questions has two phases or components: 246 Questionnaire surveys of and interviews with the LAs – conducted since late 2013. So far 48 respondents are included. A qualitative case study of the workings of one of the longest-established libraries. Here the lens widens to include interviews with the principal and key informants and a questionnaire survey of the teachers. The focus of this paper is this second component. Case study at NSS High School Khayelitsha (pseudonym) I hope that the case study might provide insights which are applicable to the larger group of libraries; and, I hope as well that it might stand alone. There might be doubt about the value of a small-scale case study of one library in terms of its generalizability to the larger population of Bookery sites. Many qualitative researchers would dismiss such concerns. As Stake puts it in one of the standard texts on case study research: The real business of case study is particularization, not generalization. We take a particular case and come to know it well, not primarily as to how it is different from others but what it is, what it does. There is emphasis on uniqueness, and that implies knowledge of others that the case is different from, but the first emphasis is on understanding the case itself (1995: 8). In his article Five misunderstandings about case study research, Flyvbjerg shows how indeed a single case throws light on the larger group. He points out that knowledge is built from many cases: Context-dependent knowledge and experience are at the very heart of expert activity. Such knowledge and expertise also lie at the center of the case study as a research and teaching method … (2006: 222). To explore the above questions, I spent two weeks in the NSS library towards the end of the first quarter of 2015. I deemed this to be a good time since learners were busy completing assessment tasks as laid down by CAPS, South Africa’s national curriculum; and I assumed the library would be in heavy use. In Flyvbjerg’s terms the school could be regarded as a “good” site (2006: 230) as it differs from most of the Bookery schools in that it has a qualified school librarian on its staff. She is however a full-time teacher and a Head of Department. Flyvberg claims that an atypical case often opens up the deeper causes behind a given problem (p. 229). Another reason for the choice is that it is one of the early Bookery libraries and so should be well embedded in the school. The school was built in the 1980s with a library room but, in common with most of the so-called “black” schools in the apartheid era, its library never functioned properly. Photos in 2010 show it to be in shambles. At the start of its School Library campaign in 2011 Equal Education revived it and provided a volunteer assistant. It was then taken over by the Bookery when Equal Education decided that it could no longer sustain its libraries. NSS School is one of the 12 schools with Bookery libraries in Khayelitsha, a densely populated township established in 1983 by the apartheid government as a relocation point for African residents of the city (South African History Online n.d.). The area immediately surrounding the school is pleasant with two parks and solid brick houses. But I was told by a 247 key informant that the learners in NSS School are largely from the informal settlements further away. The library is a stand-alone single storey building. I was to learn the significance of this fact on hearing how thieves broke in through the roof last year and stole four PCs . The library is often used as a meeting place - to the chagrin of the library staff whom I heard complain that the principal likes to use it as a “showpiece”. And indeed it was shut for a whole day in the first week of my stay for a meeting of the surrounding principals. The library has a Bookery Library assistant (LA), Lindi Maropa (a pseudonym), who has been working in it since 2013 with a stipend from the Bookery. The driving force behind the library is Thandi Sibandla (pseudonym), who trained as a school librarian at the University of the Western Cape in 2010, one of 120 teachers whose training was funded by the provincial Western Cape Education Department (WCED) in the school improvement initiative QIDS-up. The fundamental failure of the QIDS-up project is that, despite the provincial funding, there were no librarian posts for the graduates (Hart 2012; Hart 2013). They are almost all still today full-time classroom teachers. Data-gathering methodologies My data in the course of the two weeks came from a variety of sources: Field diary notes and photographs An interview with the principal - international research has highlighted the importance of school principals to the success of school libraries (for example Henri, Hay & Oberg 2002) Interviews with the computer studies teacher whom I assumed to be an important role-player and with Mr Isaacs (pseudonym), a senior teacher, who is described by the library staff as a key supporter A series of interviews with Lindi Maropa, the LA, and Thandi Sibandla, the teacher– librarian A questionnaire survey of the teachers. Summary & analysis of findings This section summarizes the data from each component – analyzing the data and triangulating the different sets of data where useful. All names are pseudonyms to protect participants’ anonymity. Observations: Day 1 – emerging themes Space constraints make it impossible to describe all the days I spent in the school. The solution to the space restraints is to follow the advice of an expert on case study, Robert Stake, in making use of the device of vignettes. Vignettes are, according to Stake, “briefly described episodes to illustrate key aspects of the case” (1995: 128). The vignette of the first morning that follows depicts experiences on the first morning. My first morning 248 My first morning 9.00 I make my way to the library where I meet up with Lindi the LA. We sit together for an introductory conversation. She talks of studying to be a teacher. But she is the sole bread– winner in her family and, as she puts it, “My family needs me not to be a student”. Her vision of a library is revealed when she compares NSS with her own high school library which she describes as “just a place to study, not functional". NSS is better she says as “It’s more welcoming and the books are more relevant. It’s a resource centre rather than a place to study”. She suddenly breaks off to say: “Things are messed up. Some teachers booked the library for Life Orientation and Arts & Culture but now the timetable is all wrong. Ms Sibandla will visit at break to let me know the changes”. 9.30 Thandi comes in. She tells me that it is her one free period for the day. I ask her how she copes with so little time in the library. Ncwdi:. I feel stifled. I want to grow. GH: If you were in the library more – would that be growing for you? Thandi: YES! I want to own it. I want to become part of the library. I feel an outsider. 9.50 A Maths teacher, new to the school, comes in. Thandi tells her about Lindi and the block loan services of EDULIS, WCED’s teachers’ library. She also tells her about “the trolley”, a secure container on wheels box with TV and CD player that is kept in Thandi’s classroom. She tells later me that she “keeps the trolley to herself” as it’s a “way to rope in teachers”. As the teacher leaves, Thandi tells her: “If I’m not in the library I’m in my classroom”. Another teacher comes in asking if she can bring her Life Orientation (LO) class in the next period to work on careers. Thandi laughs and says: “I love you to bits but you could have told us!” I wonder about the contradiction here – Lindi told me earlier that she had been expecting a LO class. Thandi and Lindi and the teacher go to the careers shelves. The teacher says “I don’t know the topics”. Thandi takes charge of the conversation - and they decide that the learners will be grouped according to their career interests. Lindi is quiet but is involved – then she moves away to the library shelves to gather books to put out on the tables. But I jot down a question in my field notes: “What if it had not been Thandi’s free period and she had not been here?" The teacher leaves and I continue the conversation with Thandi. I pick up her earlier statement that she is an “outsider”. She talks of her allies in the staffroom, for example Mr Isaacs, who has the “attention” of the principal. She says: “I try to work hand in hand with him. If I take something to him the fact that he’s a guy makes teachers learn from him. He is my Ace card - he’s an HOD for CAT [Computer Applications Technology] and he feels guilty about the computers”. She then describes how in the refurbishment of the computer lab last year she asked for at least four of the old PCs for the library. Apparently Mr Isaacs’s “guilt” comes from his unfulfilled promise some months ago to set some of the old PCs up in the library. Another teacher comes in – to borrow the newspaper. He tells me that libraries are important 249 My first morning to preserve culture. Thandi reminds him of the reading club proposed by a Xhosa specialist at EDULIS; she asks him why no one from the Xhosa department attended her presentation the week before. When he has left Thandi proclaims: ““He theoretically says all the right things but then he disappears - and never comes near the library”. The siren goes for the 3rd period. Thandi hands her classroom keys to a passing pupil asking her to open the room. 10.06 The Grade 11 LO class comes in to gather information on possible careers. They have been provided in class with questions. Their teacher tells them “Lindi will help you find information”. Lindi has already placed some materials on the tables but there are not enough for the large class. Lindi moves from group to group guiding them to answer the questions. Her comment afterwards is: “They all want to ask ‘When can I earn R60, 000!’” Already by 10.30 on the first day, themes were emerging to be followed up in interviews, such as: The working relationship of Lindi and Thandi Thandi’s frustrations as a fulltime teacher Power issues: as shown in Thandi’s comments on her reliance on Mr Isaacs.as “a guy” The vision of the library as, in Lindi’s words, a “learning resources centre rather than a place to study” The lack of ICTs. The questions around ICTs and Internet access in the library clearly had to be explored in the next few days. They made up a large part of my interview with the CAT (Computer Applications Technology) teacher. He runs the only functional computer lab in the school, which is restricted to learners taking CAT as a school subject. There are another two labs: one is used in the afternoons for the WCED’s Telematics broadcasts to the Grade 12 learners; and the other is the old Khanya lab, now disused and with its PCs piled up in a storeroom. WCED’s Khanya project, from 2002 until 2012, was tasked with installing ICT infrastructure in every school in the Western Cape. Given the pressing need to redress historical disparities, the empty Khanya lab throws doubt on the claims from its director in 2011 that it is “the most successful project of its kind in South Africa” (Marnewick 2011). It also throws into relief Thandi and Lindi’s constant complaints over the lack of ICTs in the library. The need for Internet access was highlighted in an incident in the first week of the case study, which uncovered the limitations of the library’s collection and also Lindi’s lack of power in the school’s hierarchies. A Grade 9 Arts and Culture class was in the library with their teacher to work on their Visual Arts formal assessment task, in which they had to “research a South African artist". The textbook told learners to choose a South African artist who interested them. Lindi put out one book on each table from a boxed set of seven books, each on one artist. There was thus no possibility of browsing and choosing – and six children were extracting information from one book. Seeing this and that one table had no book, Lindi decided to go across to the administrative block which has Internet access to search for material. However, she came back empty-handed – having not been allowed access by one 250 of the secretaries. Some days later, I chanced upon one of the outcomes of the Visual Arts project – a poster. At first sight it looked rather impressive – but a closer look revealed that the pages provided in the pouch were merely photocopies from one of the library books with no acknowledgement of the source. The Visual Arts assignment gave rise to some questions, for example: How do teachers assess this kind of work? How aware are they of the demands of this kind of assignment? What do they think the library is for? Much of the focus of the case study was on the teachers’ use of the library and their beliefs about its role. I soon realized that the first morning, when three teachers had come into the library by 10.30, was misleading. In the first week of the study the library was booked by two teachers for two of their classes to work on assessment tasks and by one (the principal who is also a Xhosa teacher) for a reading session. As will be shown in a later section, the underuse of the library by the teachers is a strong thread in my interviews with Lindi and Thandi. Questionnaire survey of teachers The questionnaire was a convenient tool to explore the attitudes of teachers to the library. Only 16 of the school’s 35 teachers chose to complete the questionnaire – 13 of them claiming to have supported the revival of the library in 2010. Bias in favor of the library in the analysis of the questionnaires is thus likely. Statistical analysis would be inappropriate in dealing with such small numbers – so the discussion below merely summarizes the responses. The average time at the school is 15 years. On being asked why they supported the revival of the library in 2010, several refer to the need to improve the reading culture of the school and several talk of access to resources. The issue of resources is returned to frequently in answers to later questions. Three make the point that their learners have no other resources – with one saying “Most of our learners are from disadvantaged communities (informal settlements), our library is the best place for them to do their school work”. The clear concern over low literacy is evident in the finding in the next question where almost unanimously all rate their learners’ literacy abilities as “weak”. The figure below summarizes the responses to a series of generalized declarations on the value of school libraries. It reveals almost unanimous positive views. 251 Figure 1: What are school libraries for? Opinions are more divided when asked in the next question if the library in their school is fulfilling its full potential – with seven saying yes and nine no. Those who answer negatively give a range of suggestions on how it might improve as follows: More resources - one adding they should be more up to date Access to the Internet Two say a full-time qualified librarian is needed. The comments from two respondents on the under-use of the library are significant. One asserts that if teachers used it more it would reach its potential; and the other reveals that Thandi Sibandla “keeps complaining to the teachers that they don’t utilise the library”. Figure 2 summarises the responses to a series of statements about the NSS School library probing their use of specifically this library. Figure 2: Use of NSS School library Despite their claims of the value of the library to their teaching, Figure 3 confirms my observations on the low use in the teaching day. 252 Figure 3: How many times have you brought a class to the library this year? There are three categories of responses to the follow-up question on what students learn in the library as opposed to the classroom: The use of and behavior in a library Independence – in finding information and reading and studying Extending classroom knowledge for new insights. The table that follows shows, perhaps surprisingly that, although the teachers might not be bringing their classes to the library, they themselves depend on it for their own information seeking. Table 1: Respondents’ sources for their professional information needs & teaching Q12.8 World Wide Web (Internet) at public library Q12.5 Public library 1 Q12.7 World Wide Web (Internet) at school Q12.6 World Wide Web (Internet) at home 6 Q12.3 EDULIS (WCED’s teachers’ library) Curriculum materials from the Education Q12.2 Department(s) Q12.1 Textbooks 11 Q12.4 Mayisile school library 16 4 10 12 15 Interviews This section extracts a few of the themes in the interviews with three central role-players: the LA, the teacher-librarian and the principal. The underuse of the library by teachers and the standing of the library in the school are two strong themes running through the interviews with the LA and teacher-librarian. Other themes are: The complex relationships inside the library 253 The sustainability of the library The impact of the library on students’ academic performance The ambiguities of the LA job. In their separate interviews Thandi and Lindi agree that the underuse by teachers is their biggest challenge. Echoing the finding of the questionnaire survey (Figure 1), Thandi acknowledges that teachers do not consult enough with the library: “I wish more teachers would include the library in their planning: If we can get some support from teachers …. Like working together, you know, the planning and so forth. That for me would work. And not only that . I think.. Giving credit, not only to people … but acknowledging the library, and what it can do.”. Thandi refers to the prevailing teaching styles – in which the library is something “extra”: “Not everybody sees the value because they are too busy in the classroom. For them library is an extra thing. Whereas in reality you should be incorporating it into learning. I don’t know, it’s as if, … sometimes one gets the feeling that it’s two schools in one. It’s like the library does its own thing and then the school functions - whereas we should actually work together. For some reason there’s something missing.” Linda provides another perspective in the extract below. To her the problem might lie in staffroom politics. Some teachers see Lindi and the library as belonging to Thandi and so keep away: “Because I am always with her [Thandi], I work with her, then maybe some teachers don’t like her. So they don’t like the idea of the library because she takes ownership of it, she is very protective of the library. She is very territorial.” Thandi is certainly aware of staffroom politics. In her interview she talks of how she uses her allies in the staffroom as “leverage” “to go and influence the other guys”. Thandi and Lindi’s working relationship surfaces in Thandi’s interview when I ask for her opinion on whether the Bookery’s LA programme offers a possible solution for the staffing of South African school libraries. She says it does as Lindi can “keep the library open during the day”: “I think it does in a way, Gen. … there are times, for instance in the morning, I should be in the library, and I’m thinking “If I’m not there, what happens?” Because she [Lindi] is there to ensure that the library is open during the day. Whereas, if it was just me and the kids [the library monitors], obviously there will be days when I’m able to, and days when I’m unable to. So again, even if I’m not there, like yesterday afternoon for instance … I don’t have to worry who manages the library, … so to me it does work to my advantage.” . And later on she expresses confidence in Lindi’s capacity to teach: “But in a way, I’m kind of glad that she’s kind of thrown in the deep end because one thing she has shown me is that she is not sinking. Instead she is swimming …if there is a class in here - information skills or whatever it is.” However, later she seems dismayed at my comment that many Bookery LAs do not have a teacher-librarian to work with and suggests that Lindi can only “swim” because of her: 254 “If I wasn’t there would she [Lindi]’ be able to swim? You mean that guys are on their own without anyone. Huh! That’s torture.” Thinking of an incident earlier in the week when a male library monitor upset Lindi, I ask about delineation of responsibilities. G Hart Are there issues in terms of you working together in terms of who does what? Thandi No. GH Because there was that incident the other day with Unathi feeling that the monitors were not listening to her. Thandi No, I think kids in high school will always be… Some of them tend to be emotional GH Who do they report to? You or Lindi? Thandi Both of us are the bosses if you like GH Don’t they play one off against the other? Thandi Not necessarily , well they try to but then fortunately it doesn’t work like that. But for instance I think I just , the incident that you talk about, I wasn’t there when it happened. But then I tried to get both sides of the story but she [Lindi] was very upset about the whole thing you know and then the kids were also upset but for me now, I’ve got to try and mend those fences. My main interest in speaking with the principal was to find out how he values the library and sees its future, specifically with regard to its staffing. He praises Thandi Sibandla’s “tireless work” in establishing the library but is quick to add “with our support of course”. He adds: “I persuaded her to study because she is so passionate about library issues”. Later on we return to Thandi’s position as a fulltime teacher. G Hart . P Your situation is different from the other Bookery schools, most of them, because you do have [Thandi Sibandla] and [Lindi Maropa], who is here on a stipend from the Bookery. Most of the other schools don’t have a qualified librarian, but Ms Sibandla is, as you know, a full time English teacher, and an HOD. She’s very involved in all sorts of things like the timetabling and the telematics in the afternoon. Do you think that’s sustainable? Do you think that that situation can last forever? Because she is actually doing, what many people would say, is two full time jobs. Ja, it is not completely sustainable. It is not completely sustainable, I’m concerned that she is going to leave us, for the personal growth. … So my main worry.. We need to have someone whom we should groom . But besides that someone can work with her because she’s overloaded. She has got too much work. She works over weekends, she works afternoons and all that - but what is happy is that I am pleased with her. She’s got a group of learners [ library monitors] that she is working with. She has groomed those learners so even if she is not there they can fill the gap. Despite this seeming recognition of Thandi’s untenable position, he admits that he would be reluctant to let her drop her English teaching if librarian posts were created, " Because really she’s doing very well in both.” 255 Noting that he refers to the student monitors but not to the LA, I ask what he would do if the Bookery withdrew the stipend. (The Bookery schools are expected to take over responsibility for the LAs after three years). As the following extract shows, he is perplexed by my question but eventually suggests he would find a volunteer or rely on student monitors – again using the phrase “fill the gap”: “Well, well, well, well – I’ll I’ll I’ll … persuade the governing body … sure the governing body has got a muscle of power to tell the parents in terms of saying can’t we donate something for this particular person. Or or …whereas I know in the community round here there are unemployed. We once had a similar problem [when Equal Education withdrew its support] …but certain kids in the school they managed to fill the gap. It’s part of empowerment when a child is involved.” In their separate interviews both Thando and Lindi agree on what they like best – seeing the library full of learners. Lindi describes a “good” day as one when she cannot get away at her usual time of 4.00: “The library was very full. Lots of learners came and asked for books. There was a lot of issuing of fiction books like the English novels and the Xhosa novels. And I actually leave at five o’clock. So, that would be a good day. Like there was a lot of activities.” She says this might happen three times a week. Lindi talks with pride of the reading intervention she conducted with 30 Grade 9s in 2014 at the end of which she says they were reading all the FundZa books. All three interviewees are confident that the library’s programs have contributed to the improvement in recent years in matric results and in the DBE’s Annual National Assessments for languages and maths. The principal was at pains to show me the congratulatory letter from the WCED. Throughout the study Lindi was busy planning a program for Human Rights Day 21 March. She was excited to have found a veteran of the 1953 Langa pass law protests to speak. However, her excitement was dashed when the principal vetoed her invitation at the last minute. She sent me an SMS “It’s very bad!” Having seen the hours that Lindi spends alone, it was no surprise to learn from her that the worst part of her job is its isolation. She told me: “It’s quite lonely. It’s almost like you’re a bit of an outsider.” The evident ambiguity around her position supports her feeling. She is about the only person apparently who is not expected to sign in every day. I have already mentioned the hurtful incident when a monitor told her she did not belong – she should “go away”. Mr Isaacs, supposedly a library ally, was surprised to hear from me that she is not a volunteer. Both she and Thandi told me that the Bookery should be clearer on her status: “I would like them [the Bookery] to be more visible first of all. GH: Because? “Like, actually, them having a relationship with the principal. Like if I know that I have the Bookery behind me, it would actually make things easier.” (Lindi) “I think the Bookery needs to explain, because you know how it is, people get they can make their own conclusion at the end of the day if nobody says anything. So I think the Bookery has to tell them [the school] “You know what? This person does A, B, C.” Then everything is clear. Because sometimes we don’t know. I don’t think they [the school] give her the credit she should be given at the end of the day because no one actually came up and said “Hey guys this is so and so”.” (Thandi) 256 Conclusions Earlier, I expressed the hope that, in uncovering the strengths and weaknesses of the NSS library, the case study might give insights into the potential of library assistant programmes to fill the gaps in school library provision in South Africa. This paper has just scratched the surface of the mounds of data I accumulated but I hope it has achieved this goal. The shortcomings are evident, for example: The low use by teachers with their classes raises questions over how the school is developing the information skills required of today's school leavers The lack of ICTs hampers its mission to teach these information skills The teacher-librarian’s position is untenable. She says that, if she could drop two of her classes, she would be able to establish better relations with teachers – with the assistance of the LA to manage the library The surprising vagueness over the status of the LA affects her morale and probably contributes to the low use of the library by teachers. However, despite the problems, the overall finding has to be that the library is indeed making a difference in the lives of the learners and the school would suffer if there was no assistant to keep the library open throughout the school day and afterwards. Thus: It is crammed with learners every lunch time and afternoon It is a lively reading center and there is consensus that its reading programs have made a difference to reading skills The principal is convinced that the school’s improved academic performance might be attributed to the revival of the library It is the teachers’ number one resource for their professional information needs. However, the study highlights the importance of the committed teacher-librarian to support the LA. The larger study might throw light on the significance of Thandi’s librarian qualification. Lindi Maropa and Thandi Sibandla’s shared vision and commitment are clear – despite the challenges from their rather inhospitable environment. The findings might be summed up in the judgement of one of the teachers: “It is helping but it has a lot of limitations.” References Department of Arts & Culture. ( 2012). Community libraries conditional grant. Pretoria: National Library of South Africa. Department of Basic Education. (2011). NEIMS (National Education Infrastructure Management System) reports May 2011. Pretoria: Department of Basic Education. Retrieved from http://www.education.gov.za/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=hHaBCAerGXc%3D&tabid= 358&mid=180. Department of Basic Education. (2012). National Guidelines for School Library and Information Services. Pretoria: DBE. Flyvbjerg, B. (2006). Five misunderstandings about case study research. Qualitative Inquiry, 12 (2), 219-245. 257 Hart G. (2012). Teacher-librarians leading change: some stories from the margins. School Libraries Worldwide, 18 (2), 51-60. Hart, G. (2013). How school libraries improve literacy: some evidence from the trenches. Mousaion, 30 (2), 47-60. Hart, G. & Zinn, S. (2007). The conundrum of school libraries in South Africa. In T. Bothma, P. Underwood & P. Ngulube. (Eds). Libraries for the future: progress and development of South African libraries (pp.89-107). Pretoria: LIASA. Henri, J, Hay, L & Oberg, D. (2002). The school library-principal relationship: guidelines for research and practice. The Hague: IFLA. Library and Information Services Charter: an update. (2015). LIASA-in touch, 16(1), 4. Marnewick, A. (2011, September 28). A look at Khanya and ICT in schools with Kobus van Wyk. Teacher’s Monthly. Retrieved from http://www.teachersmonthly.com/a-lookat-khanya-and-ict-in-schools-with-kobus-van-wyk/ Reynolds, M. (2008). Capacity building for the school library of the future. Background paper to a workshop at the ISASA School Librarians Conference,Hilton College, April 2008. Retrieved from [email protected]. South African History Online. (nd). Khayelitsha township. Retrieved from http://www.sahistory.org.za/place/khayelitsha-township. Spaull, N. (2013). South Africa’s education crisis: The quality of education in South Africa 1994-2011 . Report commissioned by CDE. Johannesburg: Centre for Development & Enterprise. Retrieved from http://www.section27.org.za/wpcontent/uploads/2013/10/Spaull-2013-CDE-report-South-Africas-EducationCrisis.pdf Stake, R. E. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Biographical note Dr Genevieve Hart is Extraordinary Associate Professor in the Department of Library and Information Science at the University of the Western Cape. Before arriving at UWC in 1995, she had many years’ experience as a high-school teacher and then librarian in academic, research, public and school libraries. She is a National Research Foundation rated researcher, with her research interests including: information literacy and literacy education in schools and libraries; the role of libraries in social inclusion; and LIS human resources issues. Enabling Teacher Librarian Leadership for Technology Integration 258 Melissa P. Johnston Assistant Professor University of Alabama School of Library & Information Studies Tuscaloosa, AL USA [email protected] Abstract The highly technological environment of 21st century schools has significantly redefined the role of the teacher librarian by presenting the opportunity to assume leadership roles through technology integration. The teacher librarian must evolve as a leader in order to address the needs of today’s learners and ensure that they are equipped with the knowledge and skills they need to use technology as an important tool for learning. This research, based on distributed leadership theory investigates practices of teacher librarians in order to identify what is enabling some to thrive as technology integration leaders and what is hindering others. This paper presents the findings from the replication research identifying what is enabling some teacher librarians to thrive as technology integration leaders and serve as a foundation on which to build researchbased strategies to support practicing teacher librarians in understanding how to enact this vital role and on how to better prepare future teacher librarians for a leadership role in the integration of technology. Keywords: teacher librarianship, leadership, technology integration Introduction The ubiquitous presence of technology and digital resources has resulted in major changes in education in the 21st century, leaving schools searching for ways to deal with and integrate technology for learning. This presents an important opportunity for teacher librarians as they themselves seek to establish their place in these efforts and maintain relevancy in the digital age. Teacher librarians are in a unique position to make meaningful contributions to the integration of technology for teaching and learning due to their knowledge of pedagogical principles and curriculum paired with their technology and information expertise (Johnston, 2012). As technology and digital resources have evolved to an essential component of teaching and learning, teacher librarians have been afforded the opportunity to be responsible for the management and integration of technology as many U.S. schools are utilizing the expertise of the teacher librarian as a key element in the transition to digital learning to aid in the effective integration of technology to improve student outcomes (Wolf, Jones, & Gilbert, 2014). This research is a replication of previous research conducted in 2011 that examined the enablers and barriers teacher librarians experience enacting a leadership role in technology integration. The original research focused on a purposive sample of those teacher librarians in the United States who have obtained National Board certification. The present research was conducted with a random nation-wide sample of teacher librarians across the United States. 259 Research Purpose As technology permeates teaching and learning, teacher librarians are continually directed to assume a leadership role in integrating technology in schools from professional standards and guidelines, as well as from theorists and researchers in this area (e.g., Everhart & Dresang, 2006; Everhart, Mardis, & Johnston, 2011; Hanson-Baldauf & Hughes-Hassell, 2009; Shannon, 2002), yet there is limited research and direction on how to enact this role in practice. The ambiguity surrounding the technology integration leadership role has led to teacher librarians who are uncertain how to and ill-prepared to enact this vital role. The specific purpose of this research was to identify what is enabling some teacher librarians to thrive in the role of technology integration leader, as well as the barriers they face, to inform practice and further the understanding needed to enact this role successfully. The goal of this research was to serve as a foundation on which to build research-based strategies to support practicing teacher librarians who seek to overcome barriers, and to distinguish those factors that enable this vital role to be achieved in practice and to inform teacher librarian preparation programs in preparing future teacher librarians for a leadership role in the integration of technology. Additionally, this research is a replication of previous research, but with a larger random sample of teacher librarians from across the United States and serves not only to lend validity to the findings, but also strengthen the application of the theoretical framework and conceptual framework to teacher librarian research. This report of the findings will focus on the enabling factors from a nationwide survey of teacher librarians from across the United States. Defining Technology Integration In the world of education there is much terminology with multiple definitions, technology integration being among these. For this research technology integration is defined as Curriculum integration with the use of technology involves the infusion of technology as a tool to enhance the learning in a content area or multidisciplinary setting. Technology enables students to learn in ways not previously possible. Effective integration of technology is achieved when students are able to select technology tools to help them obtain information in a timely manner, analyze and synthesize the information, and present it professionally. The technology should become an integral part of how the classroom functions — as accessible as all other classroom tools. The focus in each lesson or unit is the curriculum outcome, not the technology. (ISTE, 2000, p. 6) The key to technology integration in education is that technology is seamlessly blended to enhance the learning experience and develop learners’ thinking skills, not as an add-on or afterthought (Hew & Brush, 2007). “Leveraging technology can help…improve learning and assessment, technology can help…build the capacity of educators by enabling a shift to a model of connected teaching” (Office of Educational Technology, 2010, p. 39). The National Educational Technology Plan set out three categories that define technology integration by teachers: “powerful use of innovative digital teaching objects; curriculum planning and assessment to ensure consistency and differentiation; a new digital and teaching learning environment.” Access to technology and digital resources for teaching and learning has become paramount, with the school library and the teacher librarian becoming key components in providing access to these resources, yet teacher librarians also have 260 expertise to offer in regards to effectively integrating technology (Everhart et al., 2012; Johnston, 2011; Mardis, ElBasri, Norton, & Newsum, 2012). Why Technology Integration? Integration of technology in schools has changed the world of education and also the way teachers instruct and that students learn. Technology provides ways to enhance instruction, personalize it, make it relevant for students, and therefore engage them in the learning process. Progress is also being made in the research that reinforces the benefits of effectively integrating technology and the link to student achievement, which has led to an increasing number of educators realizing the potential that technology has in their efforts to improve student achievement (e.g. Darling-Hammond, Zielezinski, Goldman, 2014; Project Tomorrow, 2014; Duffey & Fox, 2012). There are also many federal and state policies that encourage greater use of instructional technology, coining the term “digital learning” (e.g. Alliance for Excellent Education, 2011; Office of Educational Technology, 2010; U.S. Department of Education, 2013). The Alliance for Excellent Education defines digital learning as “any instructional practice that is effectively using technology to strengthen the student learning experience.” Digital learning encompasses a broad array of tools and practices, including online courses, applications of technology in the classroom, computer-based assessment, and adaptive software for students with special needs (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2012). Why the Teacher Librarian? Since Information Power was released in 1998 (ALA), teacher librarians in the United States have been tasked as the person responsible for technologies in the school. In 2009, when Empowering Learners: Guidelines for School Library Media Programs (AASL, 2009) was released, the belief that teacher librarians should act as leaders within their school communities to ensure that learners are equipped with the skills and knowledge they need to succeed and participate in the technological society of the 21st century was emphasized. Teacher librarians are charged, “to play a leading role in weaving such skills throughout the curriculum so that all members of the school community are effective users of ideas and information” (AASL, 2009, p. 46). It is this “weaving” or the integration of technology into the curricular areas where teacher librarians, based on their knowledge of pedagogical principles and school curriculum, technology expertise, and collaborative experience, can serve as leaders and valuable assets to their schools (Johnston, 2012). Increasingly learning resources and tools are digital, and while the number of teachers using these resources in their classroom is increasing, there are still issues with effectively integrating and appropriately utilizing them to present new opportunities for student learning (Common Sense Media, 2013; digedu, 2014; Mardis et al., 2012; Project Tomorrow 2012). Teachers are still struggling in locating digital resources, with a majority of teachers agreeing that it is difficult to find the digital resources they need and research shows that educators are regularly frustrated when seeking digital resources to support the needs of a variety of students (Common Sense Media, 2013; Mardis et al., 2012). Further, educators’ confidence in locating and selecting digital resources has been shown to influence their future use of these resources for instruction, yet teachers lack adequate information skills to locate and manage educational resources and continue to express being overwhelmed by the amount of digital resources when searching for resources to support their instruction (Albertson & Johnston, 2015; Common Sense Media, 2013; Diekema & Olsen, 2012; Duke & Ward, 2009; 261 Mardis et al., 2012). It is this lack of information skills and frustration that continue to lead to the underutilization of digital resources by educators even though they are aware of the importance and usefulness demonstrating that teachers are in need of professional development instruction for locating and identifying digital content, to enhance student learning (Albertson & Johnston, 2015; Common Sense Media, 2013; Diekema & Olsen, 2012; digedu, 2014; Mardis, 2009; Project Tomorrow, 2014). The research supports the assertion that teacher librarians must embrace their leadership role in technology integration, identifying two roles of the teacher librarian that impact student achievement: leader and technology facilitator (Scholastic, 2008). Classroom teachers need assistance in harnessing the new technology and digital tools for both teaching and learning and teacher librarians can lead the efforts to integrate digital resources and technologies effectively into all disciplines across the curriculum and at every grade level (Albertson & Johnston, 2015; Common Sense Media, 2013; Diekema & Olsen, 2012; Duke & Ward, 2009; Johnston, 2012; Mardis et al., 2012). Teacher librarians can lead through modeling and partnering with teachers to offer expertise on the integration of emergent technology and digital resources, through keeping teachers abreast on new technologies, facilitate teachers’ efforts to utilize technology through ongoing professional development opportunities that help them learn how to use new technologies, the instructional strategies needed to integrate technology into their teaching, including practical applications (AASL, 2009; Branch-Mueller & de Groot, 2011; Ertmer, 2005; Everhart et al., 2010; Johnston, 2011). Students also need support in digital learning, with the AASL Standards asserting that with the changing information landscape of the 21st century that includes interactive technologies and a participatory culture, teacher librarians must evolve as leaders to address the needs of this new generation of learners. As educators it is the responsibility of teacher librarians to prepare students for their future and to “develop information skills that will enable them to use technology as an important tool for learning, both now and in the future” (AASL, 2007, p. 2). Students need to be taught the skills they need to create, invent, design, and expand their world by actively participating in the digital culture (Todd, 2008). Addressing these needs requires a shift in thought about instructional practice and provides an opportunity for teacher librarians to lead by applying their knowledge of learners, curriculum, and technology to enact changes in the way teachers utilize technology to connect to their students to create engaging and relevant learning experiences for students (AASL, 2009). These 21st century learners and the new literacies that they require present the opportunity for teacher librarians to assume leadership roles within their schools through modeling and teaching integrating technology (Hanson-Baldauf & Hughes-Hassell, 2009; Johnston, 2011). Theoretical Framework: Distributed Leadership Theory This research assumes that teacher librarians operate as teacher leaders within a school and the leadership practices of teacher librarians are essentially those of teacher leaders. Teacher leaders are those teachers that assume informal and formal leadership responsibilities outside the classroom, create a participatory environment where all learn from each other, and engage with others in working together for student learning (Katzenmeyer & Moller 2009; Spillane 2006). Therefore this research is based on the educational leadership theory of distributed leadership, which asserts that leadership is about more than just people in formal leadership positions and attempts to acknowledge all contributors, formal or informal, who participate in leadership practice (Spillane 2006). The 262 most contemporary interpretation of distributed-leadership theory from Spillane defined leadership as ―the activities tied to the core work of the organization that are designated by organizational members to influence the motivation, knowledge, affect, or practices of other organizational members as intended to influence their motivation” (2006, p. 11) and leadership practice as ―the activities engaged in by leaders, in interaction with others in particular context around specific tasks” (2006, p. 5). Spillane has asserted that in a distributed approach, it is necessary to start by examining leadership practices and then to explore interactions among leaders, followers, and their situation. A fundamental proposition of distributed leadership is that “the situation is not simply a context within which school leaders practice; it is a defining element of practice” (Spillane, 2006, p. 22). Aspects of the situation define leadership practice, and, therefore, it is necessary to understand how these aspects enable and constrain leadership practice. It is this proposition, in Spillane’s interpretation of distributed-leadership theory, that formed the theoretical basis, and presented a means for exploring and analyzing the leadership activities, actions, and role of teacher librarians. Method The collection of new research is not always a necessary step in the research process; it is sometimes possible to examine a new research question using previously collected data, or secondary analysis. Original survey research rarely uses all of the data collected and this unused data can provide answers or different perspectives to other questions or issues (Clark & Maynard, 1998), therefore the researcher chose to utilize unused archived survey data that addresses the enablers and barriers teacher librarians perceive when enacting technology integration leadership practices. Data Collection This research utilizes the data obtained from the two open-ended questions at the end of the School Library Media Specialist and Technology Integration Survey (PALM, 2009), which asked respondents about enablers and barriers that facilitate or constrain their technology integration leadership involvement. This was the same instrumentation utilized in the previous research with the sample only consisting of National Board Certified teacher librarians (Everhart et al., 2012). Technology integration leadership practices, for the purposes of this research, are identified as those found in the School Library Media Specialist Technology Integration Survey (PALM, 2009) (Appendix A). The first section of the survey consisted of 30 demographic questions covering areas such as staffing levels, education and experience of the teacher librarians, as well as questions relating to the technology available and Internet accessibility in the school where they worked. The second section, and the main focus of the survey, was 60 statements related to technology integration activities with response choices for statements that reflected respondents’ degree of leadership regarding the particular integration activity: 0=Not my job; 1=Rarely involved; 2=Partially involved; 3=Substantially involved; 4=Fully involved. Each of these response choices was fully explained in the context of the survey instrument. Finally, there were open-ended questions that asked respondents to discuss barriers, enablers, and other factors that influenced their leadership practices. These questions ask respondents to “Think back about the activities in the preceding statements, specifically those in which you are fully involved. What enables you to be involved at that level?” and “Again, think about those activities addressed earlier. Are there any activities in 263 which you’d like to be more involved than you are right now? If so, please tell us about the barriers that hinder your involvement” (PALM, 2009). This research focuses on the two openended questions as they allowed respondents to provide a personal answers in their own words to questions; which yield useful information, especially when researchers need to explore issues that do not have a finite or predetermined set of responses (Babbie, 2013; Dillman, Smyth, & Christian, 2009) as is the case in this research. Participants The participants in this research are the same as those documented in the primary research teacher librarians practicing in various schools across the United States at the elementary, middle, and high school levels. The 1183 usable survey responses from the primary study of teacher librarians practicing in various schools across the United States at the elementary, middle, and high school levels is the same sample utilized by this secondary research. This research is based on those respondents who answered the open-ended question addressing the variable of interest, enablers to the enactment of the leadership role in technology integration. Upon obtaining the original data it was found that 976 (82.5%) participants that answered the enabler question. Procedure Secondary analysis is a systematic method with procedural and evaluative steps to be followed, just as there are in collecting and evaluating primary data. The advantage is that the data already exist in some form and can be evaluated for appropriateness and quality in advance of actual use (Stewart & Kamins, 1993); however, it is important to identify and evaluate data in a “stepwise fashion.” The researcher utilized Stewart and Kamins’ (1993) six step process for evaluating a dataset: (a) what was the purpose of this study; (b) who was responsible for collecting the information; (c) what information was actually collected; (d) when was the information collected; (e) how was the information obtained; and (f) how consistent is the information obtained from one source with information available from other sources. In answering these questions the researcher utilized documentation of the primary study, information from the original study found in publication, and consulted the investigators from the primary study. In the case of this replicated research the data from the School Library Media Specialist and Technology Integration Survey (PALM, 2009), was once again evaluated to ensure congruency, appropriateness, and quality of the primary study and the resulting dataset. Data Analysis This research employed content analysis for “systematic, objective, quantitative analysis of message characteristics” (Neuendorf, 2002, p. 1). In the case of this research, the messages are the responses to the two open-ended survey questions. Content analysis allowed for coding and categorizing the text in a way that relationships could be identified. The goal of this content analysis was to identify the enablers perceived by respondents, categorize them, and then determine frequency. In order to extract the specified enablers and barriers from the text of the open-ended questions, the researcher performed content analysis. The researcher has 12 years of experience as a teacher librarian; this background of practice and commonality of experience assisted the researcher in performing the content analysis through reading each response to determine manifest and latent content enablers and barriers. The participant responses were 264 read and analyzed to extract individual descriptors of enablers and barriers. In most cases, participants listed more than one enabler in their responses. Once enablers were identified, they were spilt into separate fields in the spreadsheet, but each remained connected to their individual case number. This resulted in 2222 enablers to be considered for analysis. The content analysis and data coding resulted in the identification of the perceived enablers and barriers for teacher librarians in enacting a leadership role in technology integration. Following Neuendorf’s (2002) procedure for content analysis, the researcher utilized an a priori coding scheme of exhaustive and mutually exclusive categories taken from the conceptual framework. In the previous research, the conceptual framework The Four Domains of Supports and Barriers to Teacher Leadership (Zinn, 1997), taken from teacher leadership research, was utilized to categorize the enablers and barriers. A result of that research was an adapted version of the framework for teacher librarians, Johnston’s Domains of Enablers and Barriers to School Librarian Technology and Leadership (Johnston, 2011). This newly created framework was utilized in this replicated research and the enablers were coded and categorized based on the Johnston’s Domains framework (Appendix B) which are: Domain One: People and Interpersonal Relationships, Domain Two: Institutional Structures, Domain Three: Personal Considerations and Commitments, and Domain Four: Intellectual and Psycho-social Characteristics. This framework explicitly lists descriptor indicators within each category of specific enablers and barriers that reside in each domain. The data was coded by the most finite enabler descriptor and by broader domain as well. Results The result of the content analysis was the identification of the perceived enablers for teacher librarians in enacting a leadership role in technology integration, as well as frequency distribution tables. Frequency or univariate tables represent the simplest method for analyzing categorical data and are often used as a procedure to review how different categories of values are distributed in the sample (Vaughn, 2001). Table 1 displays the list of enablers, in descending frequency in which participants mentioned the enabler as facilitating involvement in technology integration leadership. Enablers Rep. f Rep. % Initial f Initial % % Difference 230 10.3 70 9.67 0.63 189 8.5 69 9.53 171 7.69 41 5.66 157 7.06 69 9.53 132 5.94 33 4.56 1.38 Sense of obligation to get involved 131 5.89 48 6.63 -0.74 Personal interest in technology 92 4.1 19 2.62 1.48 Personal belief and values 90 4.0 22 3.04 0.96 Professional organizations 115 5.17 33 4.56 0.61 Supportive principal Opportunities for a leadership role and responsibilities Commitment to continual professional growth Desire to make a difference for students and teachers Collaborative teachers 265 -1.03 2.03 -2.47 Enablers Rep. f Rep. % Initial f Initial % % Difference Professional development opportunities 74 3.3 60 8.29 Technology resources 72 3.2 15 2.07 1.13 Respected and valued by staff 68 3.1 15 2.07 1.03 Flexible schedule 64 2.88 12 1.66 1.22 Expertise 63 2.8 36 4.97 -2.17 District level support Time Supportive teachers 61 57 53 2.7 2.56 2.38 17 11 12 2.35 1.52 1.66 0.35 1.04 Professional responsibility 52 2.3 18 2.49 -0.19 Dual role as instructional technologist 48 2.16 16 2.21 -0.05 Collaborative instructional technologist 46 2.1 7 0.97 1.13 Education 35 1.57 16 2.21 -0.64 Personal time 35 1.57 2 0.28 1.29 Experience 34 1.5 14 1.93 -0.43 Funding 32 1.4 15 2.07 -0.67 Full-time clerk 30 1.3 10 1.38 -0.08 Supportive district personnel 27 1.2 17 2.35 -1.15 Full-time tech support 14 0.63 9 0.40 0.69 NA -0.06 Small school population 5 NA Supportive school climate 8 0.36 5 0.69 -0.33 Volunteers 6 0.27 6 0.27 0.69 NA -0.42 Curriculum 5 NA Staffing 6 0.27 NA NA Personal finances 5 0.22 5 3 2 0.22 0.13 0.09 0.14 NA 0.08 Standards Family support Students 1 NA 1 NA 0.14 NA -0.01 -4.99 0.72 Table 1: Frequency Distribution of Leadership Enactment Enablers Note. The replication % (Rep. %) symbolizes the percentage that the specific enabler was found in relation to all the total identified enablers (n=2222). The initial % symbolizes the percentage that the specific enabler was found in relation to all the total identified enablers (n=724). The researcher calculated frequency distribution tables for the enablers in each of the four domains (Table 2), finding: Domain One: People and Interpersonal Relationships (n=673), Domain Two: Institutional Structures (n=681), Domain Three: Personal Considerations and Commitments (n=43), and Domain Four: Intellectual and Psycho-social Characteristics 266 (n=825). This framework explicitly lists descriptor indicators within each category of specific enablers and barriers that reside in each domain. Domain Domain 1: People & Interpersonal Relationships Domain 2: Institutional Structure Domain 3: Personal Considerations & Commitments Domain 4: Intellectual & Psychosocial Characteristics Rep. f Rep. % Initial f Initial % 673 30.28 188 25.97 681 30.64 243 33.56 43 0.02 4 0.55 825 37.12 289 39.92 % Difference 4.31 -2.92 -0.035 -2.8 Table 2. Frequency of Leadership Enactment Enablers Categorized by Johnston’s Domains of Enablers and Barriers to School Librarian Technology and Leadership Note. The replication % (Rep. %) symbolizes the percentage of enablers in the Domain in relation to all the total identified enablers (n=2222). The initial % symbolizes the percentage of enablers in the Domain in relation to all the total identified enablers in the initial study (n=724). Findings and Discussion This report of the findings focuses on the identification of the factors that enable teacher librarians to be fully involved in technology integration leadership practices. Overall it was found that the random sample of U.S. teacher librarians mirrored the results of those teacher librarians in the U.S. who have achieved National Board certification. The conclusions about those most frequently identified enablers and the similarities and differences in the two populations will be discussed. Relationships The “success or failure of teacher leadership depends in large part on the effectiveness or personal support systems, mutual respect, and interdependency” (Zinn, 1997, p. 17). As in the initial research, the relationships identified as frequently occurring factors in teacher librarians’ technology integration leadership enactment include: the principal, the district administrator, teachers, other teacher librarians, and instructional technologists. As in the initial study, the most frequently cited enabler in teacher librarians enacting a leadership role in technology integration is a supportive principal. Respondents comment on encouragement they received from their principal in assuming a leadership role and responsibilities, such as “I have a principal who encourages my participation. I am asked to get involved in technology related committees and groups.” Others describe respectful relationships where leadership was shared and their opinion was valued, with responses such as “I work for a principal who has confidence in my ability to research, apply and teach new technologies” and “support from my principal who values my skills and expertise” as enablers to technology leadership enactment. The quality of a principal’s relationship with teachers is correlated with teachers’ willingness to participate in teacher leadership: the more open, supportive, and facilitative a principal is with teachers, the more willing they are to take on a leadership role (York-Barr & Duke, 2004). 267 Administrators other than the school principal serve as enablers for teacher librarians in enacting technology integration leadership. Slightly more participants spoke of a district school library coordinator or supervisor who facilitated their efforts in technology integration leadership. One comment was that “we have a media director who oversees the district's media program and helps each media specialist with education and technology initiatives” This facilitating relationship with district administrators is not prevalently mentioned in the teacher leadership literature and only limited research exists in the teacher librarian literature (DiScala, Moses, & Weeks, 2015; Hughes-Hassel & Hanson-Baldauf, 2008; Johnston, 2011) that examines this connection. The association of the district library supervisor as an enabler is a relationship that has emerged from this research and appears to be unique to teacher librarians. Participants in both studies highly noted collegial relationships with teachers serving as enablers that facilitate teacher librarians’ enactment of a leadership role in technology integration. Respondents spoke not only of teachers supporting them in their efforts through serving as “critical friends,” but also through respecting and valuing their contributions to technology integration efforts and in their willingness to collaborate with them. For example, one respondent shared that “collaboration with classroom teachers provides me opportunities to instruct students and teachers” was what enabled them to function as technology integration leaders. Cultivating accepting and trustful relationships with teachers is vital for enacting leadership. In the initial study participants spoke of the importance of professional organizations as enabling their leadership, in this replication that same finding was present with respondents increasingly naming local, state, and national professional organizations that serve as enablers. Professional organizations provide support for teacher librarians through relationships with other school librarians, but this research finds that professional growth opportunities from professional organization activities such as conferences and publications serve as enablers as well. One respondent expresses that “professional organizations keep my knowledge fresh and me involved.” These findings reveal the importance of professional organizations as providing a network of fellow teacher librarians to learn from and share with. Finally, a relationship that emerged from the initial research and was also prevalent in this replication was the collaborative relationship with their building level instructional technology specialist. Respondents noted “having a great professional and personal relationship with the tech specialist” and of being viewed “as a full partner” by the instructional technology specialist when it comes to technology integration. The emerging relationship between the teacher librarian and technology specialists is one that is of great concern as schools search for ways to deal with the increased demands of technology for teaching and learning (Johnston, 2015). Leadership and Professional Development Opportunities Opportunities for an authentic leadership role and responsibilities were mentioned very frequently as enabler facilitating involvement in technology integration leadership in both studies. It must also be noted that a school principal’s influence in enabling leadership enactment is overarching in that the principal can serve to encourage and promote teacher leadership opportunities with formal appointments such as creating teams to address certain tasks or responsibilities as a substitute for administrative leadership, suggesting a teacher conduct a professional development session in an area of expertise or creating a situation for spontaneous leadership to emerge (Spillane, 2006). Both studies found that leadership opportunities, such as serving on leadership, technology, and curriculum committees at the 268 school and the district level served as natural enablers for involvement in technology integration leadership. Teacher leaders require opportunities to be involved in school decision-making and to be involved in the professional development of others (Katzenmeyer & Moller, 2009; Spillane, 2006). When educators are part of decision-making, they feel that their expertise is valued and they increase their commitment and participation in the school (Barth, 2001). Also respondents describe serving in a leadership role as providers of staff development for their faculty. Teacher librarians have the potential to serve as leaders through “forg[ing] partnerships” with teachers and sharing their expertise with the teaching staff by using collaborative activities and by designing and teaching staff development workshops (Zmuda & Harada, 2008, p. 39). Opportunities for leadership are vital in providing teacher librarians with the experience, confidence, and skills necessary for leadership involvement. Participants in both studies mentioned opportunities for professional development frequently, but the professional development was more related to technology, rather than leadership skills. The teacher librarian respondents in both studies perceive professional development activities and opportunities that were devoted to technologies and learning to be essential for developing “expertise” in technology and technology integration in order to lead. This research reveals the important connection to expertise; in order to assume a leadership role in technology integration it is important to have the technology expertise necessary, including the knowledge and skills to integrate technology into instruction. Yet, the teacher leadership literature asserts that instructional expertise alone is insufficient to allow teachers to function as instructional leaders and requires knowledge and skills related to leadership in addition to the instructional expertise (Barth, 2001; Katzenmeyer & Moller, 2009). Therefore the same could be assumed for teacher librarian leaders, signifying a needed change in the professional development needed for teacher librarians. Self-Initiative Six of the top ten most frequent enablers identified in both studies reside in Zinn’s framework as intellectual and psycho-social characteristics including a commitment to continual professional growth, a desire to make a difference for students and teachers, sense of obligation to get involved, personal interest in technology, and personal beliefs and values. In this domain the teacher librarian, herself serves as an enabler to leadership enactment; these enablers represent the personal characteristics and beliefs that can serve to facilitate one to assume leadership responsibilities (Zinn, 1997). Teacher librarians in both studies illustrate these same beliefs. The perception that one can make a difference in the lives of student and teachers is prominently identified as the third third most frequently occurring enabler facilitating teacher librarians’ involvement in technology integration leadership practices demonstrating the commitment of teacher librarians to ensuring that students are equipped with the skills and knowledge they need for success. Respondents often noted a responsibility to advocate on behalf of students to ensure access and equity, commenting on the importance of ensuring that students are equipped for their future, can use technology in their learning, and making sure that teachers know how to integrate technology to benefit the students. This intrinsic reward of improving learning outcomes for students is rewarding work for teacher librarians and serves as an enabler for technology integration leadership enactment. Teacher librarians in both studies also commented on being enabled by personal connections to their tasks through their personal interest in technology, personal values and beliefs that demand excellence, and a professional responsibility. These findings illustrate 269 the parallels between teacher leaders and teacher librarians in taking ownership of, and responsibility for, maximizing student learning. This is consistent with the finding of HansonBaldauf and Hughes-Hassell (2009) that teacher librarians agree that integrating technology into their instruction is an important aspect of their job. Strong personal beliefs can serve to motivate teachers to assume leadership responsibilities through belief in strong work ethics, a need to maximize talents and expertise, and commitment to excellence (Zinn, 1997). Recent scholars have recognized that successful leaders have a clear awareness of their values and beliefs and these leaders work with integrity allowing values and beliefs dictate their decision-making. Many teacher leaders prefer leading to following when the issues have personal importance or there is a sense of connection with the task (Sergiovanni as cited in Robertson, 2008). A personal sense of obligation to get involved in technology integration leadership activities is found to facilitate involvement in technology integration leadership activities. Teacher librarians in both studies reflect a willingness with comments such as feeling a need to get involved and a personal commitment to being an active involved part of the learning community; they spoke of getting involved because that is what is needed to be done. Respondents also mention professional responsibility and that it was the responsibility of teacher librarians to step up and take on this role not only because of their knowledge and skills, but also a personal desire or self-motivation to be involved. Zinn (1997) defines this as an “initiator,” a teacher who recognizes that leadership is needed in a situation and is willing to step up and take on additional responsibility. The commitment to continual growth is a prominent enabler in facilitating teacher librarians’ involvement in technology integration leadership practices. These efforts are designated differently from “professional development opportunities” which represent formal professional development leadership opportunities through institutional structures. Aligning with the literature, this research conveys the importance of professional growth in leadership involvement, but respondents in both studies frequently note informal professional growth activities that enabled them to be involved in technology integration leadership practices. Respondents comment on their efforts and commitment to continual learning and staying current, including personal informal self-initiated efforts such as reading journals, attending conferences, reading web pages, joining listervs, creating a PLN (Personal Learning Networks) through social media, and attending webinars. This is consistent with Miller’s (as cited in Massey, 2009) findings that professional development gained either from attending conferences or from consulting with colleagues, positively influenced technology integration. When asked how they prefer to learn to use technology tools and applications, teacher librarians in the 2008 research by Hughes-Hassell and Hanson-Baldauf also chose methods that indicated self-motivation and that they were willing to learn technology on their own time to develop their expertise. Teacher leaders are consummate learners and research suggests that a sense of inquiry and love of learning enables teachers to assume leadership responsibilities (Katzenmeyer & Moller, 2009; Zinn, 1997). Technology is constantly changing and it is essential that teacher librarians to stay up to date through continuing their professional learning in order to advance and hone the skills and knowledge that are mandatory to lead in technology integration efforts. Implications 270 The initial study served as the initial identification of enablers and barriers that teacher librarians experience in enacting a technology integration leadership role. This replication of the research with a larger random sample contributes to the validity and the reliability of the findings. While the overall goal was not generalizability, there are implications of interest to the school library profession as a whole. The findings from this study have implications for the teacher librarian research and literature, including an adapted framework; for teacher librarian preparation programs; and for the practice of teacher librarianship. The implication for the research and literature of teacher librarianship and teacher leadership is that this study fills a gap in the existing teacher librarian research and contributes to the literature regarding teacher librarians as leaders in technology integration. Currently there is very little research that examines leadership roles of teacher librarians and no research that examines teacher librarian leadership practices in technology integration within a teacher leader framework. While there is limited research on teacher librarians’ role in technology integration and separate research on the leadership role, there is little empirical research that combines the two areas to examine teacher librarians as technology integration leaders. Additionally the replication research allowed for reusing the survey and utilizing the adapted framework created as a result of the initial study, contributing to instrument reliability and validity for both the survey and the framework. The ambiguity surrounding the technology integration leadership role has led to teacher librarians who are ill prepared to enact this vital role. The identification of the enablers and barriers that teacher librarians experience enacting a leadership role is valuable information for school library preparation educators. Future teacher librarians can be taught how to identify enablers and develop strategies to use them to their advantage. The findings from this research can be useful for planning curriculum to better prepare teacher librarians to assume an active leadership role. Teacher librarian preparation programs need to include competencies that support the concept of teacher leadership and teach teacher librarians leadership skills such as effective communication, relationship building, problem solving, conflict resolution, time management, and other skills that will prepare them to assume leadership roles. The primary implication of this research is the identification of the enablers and barriers that can facilitate and constrain teacher librarians’ involvement in technology integration leadership. The ambiguity surrounding the technology integration leadership role has led to teacher librarians who are uncertain how to perform this role in practice. This research informs practice by providing support for teacher librarians in searching out those factors that will enable enactment and in identifying the barriers that must be overcome in order to achieve this vital role in practice. These findings are useful to furthering the understanding of this role for practicing teacher librarians who seek to enact or expand their leadership role in technology integration. References Albertson, D., & Johnston, M. P. (2015). Science teachers and interactive video retrieval. Electronic Library. Alliance for Excellent Education. (2011). Digital learning and technology: Federal policy recommendations to seize the opportunity—and promising practices that inspire 271 them. Washington, DC. Retrieved from http://www.all4ed.org/files/DigitalLearning.pdf Alliance for Excellent Education. (2012). 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The new digital playbook: Understanding the spectrum of students’ activities and aspirations. Irvine, CA: Project Tomorrow. Retrieved from http://www.tomorrow.org/speakup/SU13DigitalLearningPlaybook_StudentReport.ht ml Robertson, M. O. (2008). Distributing leadership to teachers through a district level math council. (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from Dissertation Abstracts International. (3296859). Scholastic. (2008). School libraries work! Retrieved from http://www2.scholastic.com/content/collateral_resources/pdf/s/slw3_2008.pdf 274 Shannon, D. M. (2002). The education and competencies of school library media specialists: A review of the literature. School Library Media Research, 5. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/ala/mgrps/divs/aasl/aaslpubsandjournals/slmrb/schoollibrary.cf m Spillane, J. P. (2006). Distributed leadership (1st ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Stewart, D. W., & Kamins, M. A. (1993). Secondary research: Information sources and methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. U.S. Department of Education. 2013. Expanding evidence approaches for learning in a digital world. Washington, DC: Office of Educational Technology. Retrieved from http://tech.ed.gov/files/2013/02/Expanding-Evidence-Approaches.pdf Todd, R. J. (2008). Youth and their virtual networked worlds: Research findings and implications for school libraries. School Libraries Worldwide, 14(2), 19-34. Retrieved from http://www.iasl-online.org/pubs/slw/index.htm Vaughan, L. (2001). Statistical methods for the information professional: A practical, painless approach to understanding, using, and interpreting statistics. Medford, NJ: Information Today. Wolf, M. A., Jones, R., & Gilbert, D. (2014). Leading beyond the library. Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education. York-Barr, J., & Duke, K. (2004). What do we know about teacher leadership? Findings from two decades of scholarship. Review of Educational Research, 74(3), 255-316. doi:10.3102/00346543074003255 Zinn, L. P. (1997). Supports and barriers to teacher leadership: Reports of teacher leaders. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Dissertation Abstracts International. (304369244) Zmuda, A., & Harada, V. H. (2008). Librarians as learning specialists: Moving from the margins to the mainstream of school leadership. Teacher Librarian, 36, 15-20. Biographical Note Melissa P. Johnston is an Assistant Professor at The University of Alabama in the School of Library and Information Studies, where she coordinates and teaches graduate courses in the school library media certification program. Johnston worked as a school librarian for 13 years in Georgia before completing her PhD at Florida State University’s School of Information. Johnston received the IASL Ken Haycock Leadership Award in 2013 and the IASL Takeshi Murofushi Research Award in 2011 to investigate international school librarian practices. In 2014 Johnston was the co-recipient of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology Cross-Cultural Research Award. Johnston’s research and publications focus on school librarians as leaders, the school librarian’s role in technology integration, and school librarianship on a global level. 275 276 Growing from Nothing: the performance of teacher librarians in Taiwan Joyce Chao-chen Chen Professor, National Taiwan Normal University [email protected] Li-jen Tseng Research Assistant, National Taiwan Normal University [email protected] Abstract Since 2009, Taiwan's Ministry of Education has begun to add the post of teacher librarians in some elementary schools. Teachers who are enthusiastic about reading education become teacher librarians to take charge of managing school libraries and promoting reading after receiving short professional training. This study aims to probe into whether the system is helpful to the management of libraries in elementary schools and to the establishment of reading environment at school. Specifically speaking, this study aims to discuss whether there is any difference in the activities of school libraries and schools' attitudes toward reading between schools with teacher librarians and schools without ones. The study surveyed elementary schools in Taiwan with a questionnaire which was filled out by teacher librarians or general librarians at school. The questionnaire was tested with Cronbach’s α reliability, and a coefficient of 0.975 was obtained, which is considered excellent reliability. 742 copies of the questionnaire were retrieved, and 741 of them were considered valid after the elimination of one with incomplete answers. Among which, 213 copies were from schools with teacher librarians, and the rest 528 copies were from schools without teacher librarians. In addition, the fill rate of schools with teacher librarians reached 80%. The study found that schools with and without teacher librarians had significant differences in library management of their libraries and behavior and attitudes toward reading. Keywords: Professional development, Teacher librarians, Taiwan Introduction Most of Taiwan’s elementary school libraries are primarily supervised concurrently by the section chief of the equipment section; most of these libraries do no hire full time librarians. If these libraries are to open to the students, the assistance of the parent volunteers are required; they are to be in charge of the basic circulation services of the library. To enhance 277 the function of the library and to promote reading, the Ministry of Education of Taiwan began to establish the position of teacher librarians in 2009. The selected teacher was to reduce ten of his or her teaching hours; he or she is responsible of the operation of the library and the reading promotion tasks. The number of teacher librarians assigned has been increased year by year. In 2014, 308 schools have employed teacher librarians. Because the small number of schools that are financially supported by the Ministry of Education, cities such as Taipei, New Taipei City, and Taichung started to subsidize the grant to financially support the schools that have not received any grant from the Ministry of Education to organize their establishment of teacher librarians. The teacher librarians are not full time professionals. In addition to assist with the operation of the school libraries and the promotion of reading, they are required to provide official course instructions. The teacher librarians do not receive complete professional training; they only received three-day short-term training for beginners and for advanced learners. Although the conditions for teacher librarians are inadequate, to the education authorities, the establishment of teacher librarians is the enthusiastic work resulted from the resources. In addition, to the school, the establishment of teacher librarians displays the evidence that the school does place its focus on reading. Thus, the purpose of this study is to explore the issue that whether the schools that provide the professional services of teacher librarians possess better quality in reading awareness and attitudes displayed by the teacher librarians (or the person in charge of operating the library), the staff, and the parents in comparison to the schools without the establishment of teacher librarians. Literature Review The elementary school libraries in many countries include full-time teacher librarians or school librarians. For examples, many European elementary schools employ school librarian and chartered librarians. Similarly, the elementary schools and the junior high school in the US include library media specialist or school media specialist. In addition, the elementary schools in Japan and Korea acquire teacher librarians and in Hong Kong, “director of the library” (Lu and Lin, 2008). In 1988, the U.S. Department of Education formalized the appointment standards of school librarian teachers. The law requires that the school must include a full time library media specialist who meets the appointment standard. The responsibility of the library media specialist is to provide the curriculum teaching resource and the teaching material consulting services for the entire school. In addition, the law clearly specified the roles of the library media specialist; the specialist plays the role of a teacher, teacher partner, information specialist, and administrator. To ensure that the library media specialists are able to play the diverse roles, they must acquire a master’s degree and receive curriculum training in library and information science, teaching technology, and communication theories (AASL & AECT, 1988). Loertscher, Ho, and Bowie (1987) investigated the personnel organization and services of the teaching resource center from 209 public elementary schools in the US. The study found that up to 84% of the school included at least one full-time professional personnel and several staff members who were responsible of managing the teaching resource center. In addition, between 2006 and 2009, Dow, Lakin, and Court (2012) conducted an investigation in the library at the public school located in Kansas. The study examined whether or not the library media specialist had positive influence on the learning achievement of the students. The participants of the study included approximately 2,500,000 students from 1389 schools; the schools comprised of elementary, junior high, and high schools in Kansas. The results of 278 the study showed that in schools where full-time library media specialists were employed, the academic achievement of the students were significantly better than the school where no library media specialists were employed or only part-time library media specialists were employed. To enhance the reading ability of the students, in September 1998, the Education Bureau in Hong Kong started to provide elementary schools with financial assistance to support the operation of the school library including its construction and book collection. In addition, the funding required that the schools provided the position of the director of the school library who must have at least two years of teaching experience and a professional employee history in library management. The directors of the library who obtained an employment offer must study the day-time training courses or other professional training courses organized by the Hong Kong Education Bureau. The Hong Kong curriculum development council recommended that in addition to planning and managing the daily operation, the directors of the school library are to play the role of a coordinator for reading resources and reading projects. Specifically, the director must also play the roles of information literacy trainers, and the assisting personnel of teachers of various subjects and curriculum development (Hong Kong Curriculum Development Council, 2002). The following figure explained the five service levels of the directors of school library. The work content of the five service levels are shown as follows: The First level: the basic operations of the library including the recommendation and purchasing of the library data, assigning the call number and formatting files, borrowing and returning of books, library spatial planning, book collection development, and reading promotion activities. The Second level: the planning and the conducting of library utilization educational courses for the entire grade levels. The Third level: the directors of the school library must cooperate with the need of the teachers from the various subjects to purchase books required for teaching instructions. The Fourth level: the directors of the school library must conduct team teaching with other teachers, thereby cultivating the information sensitivity of the students. In addition, the teacher librarians must participate in the planning and designing of the curriculum; the library should support the teaching and learning demand of the school. The Fifth level: The integration of diverse data resources from the community, the public, and the schools; the planning of school-wide, diverse reading projects that encourage the teamwork of the faculty and staff, the parents, and the students to jointly participate in the reading projects organized by the school. 279 Students learn the way to learn parent student integrate integrate the the teaching teaching information information technology technology of of the the various various academic academic fields fields Organize Organize diverse diverse reading reading projects projects Invite Invite parents parents and and other other partners partners to to jointly jointly participate participate teacher librarian teacher 閱讀推動教師 Director of the school library 閱讀推動教師 Director of the school library 教師，學生 Instructor, Student Instructor, Student Coordinate Coordinate with with other other team team members members to to conduct conduct teaching teaching and and training training on on information information technology technology Participate Participate in in the the planning planning and and design design of of the the school school curriculum curriculum 教師，學生 Instructor, Student 閱讀推動教師 Director of the school library 閱讀推動教師 Director of the school library develop develop library library collection collection with with the the main main content content on on curriculum curriculum To To support support learning learning and and promote promote reading reading Participate Participate in in several several teaching teaching activities activities Plan Plan library library curriculum curriculum Provide Provide general general information information required required for for teaching teaching Operate Operate the the fundamental fundamental library library services services Support reading projects Support reading projects Purchasing Purchasing books books Cataloguing Cataloguing Borrowing Borrowing books books Influence the development of curriculum and learning outcomes Cooperate with teachers and students (participate in course planning and teaching) Learning through resources Support fundamental demands on learning and teaching The main demand is to enhance capabilities 閱讀推動教師參與教學的最小程度 閱讀推動教師參與教學的最小程度 Figure 2-1. The five service levels of the director of the school library in Hong Kong Data source: Curriculum Development Council (2002). Basic Education and Curriculum Guide: Building on the Strength (1st grade to 9th grade). Hong Kong: Hong Kong Education Bureau. The least participation in teaching by the director of school library In conclusion, professional librarians or teacher librarians are necessary professional personnel of the elementary school libraries in advanced countries. The work responsibilities of the teacher librarians not only include the basic operation and management of the libraries, they are required to instruct the educational use of the library, to provide library resources for the teachers of the various subjects in order to team teach with the teachers of the various subjects and to participate in the curriculum design of the entire school including planning school-wide reading activities. Method Research Hypotheses Based on the previously mentioned studies, this study hypothesized several differences between the schools that offer teacher librarians and the schools that do not offer the position. The differences are stated in the following hypotheses: H1: There is difference in the basic operation and management of the library such as book purchasing, cataloging, borrowing and returning books, training volunteers, and promoting reading. H2: There is difference in the library education. 280 H3: There is difference in developing the library collection to support teaching and learning and to support reading activities. H4: There is difference in collaborative teaching and the participation of school curriculum planning. H5: There is difference in the integration of the teaching resources and the planning of school-wide reading projects. H6: There is difference in the reading attitudes and behaviors between teacher librarians and non-teacher librarians. H7: There is difference in the reading attitudes of the faculty and staff, students, and parents between the schools that offer teacher librarians and the schools that do not offer the position. 3.2 Research Method and Tool This study adopted questionnaires; the questionnaires mainly included the two major dimensions: the management of libraries and the reading attitudes and behaviors. In the management of libraries, the study mainly referred to the job responsibilities defined by the Hong Kong Curriculum Development Council in issue designing. In reading attitudes and behaviors, the study mainly referred to the Reading Habits and Literacy Attitudes of Inservice and Prospective Teachers compiled by Morrison, Jacobs, & Swinyard (1999) and the Reading Attitudes of Teachers compiled by Wang (2009) when designing the questions. In addition, the questionnaire adopted 5-point Likert scale. The Cronbach’s test was adopted to test internal reliability. The overall reliability or the coefficient of Cronbach’s α was 0.975, which indicated the excellence of the reliability of the questionnaire. Data Collection In May 2014, the questionnaires were distributed to the 2768 elementary schools in Taiwan. 742 questionnaires were retrieved; one questionnaire was invalid because of incompletion. Thus, the number of valid questionnaire was 741; the availability factor of the questionnaire was 99.87%. Of the 741 valid questionnaires, 213 were from the schools that employed teacher librarians and 528 were from the school without such positions. The completed ratio of the schools that employed teacher librarians reached 80% whereas the completed ratio of the schools without such position reached 21.87%. The distribution and the retrieving of questionnaires of the schools with teacher librarians and those without such position were compiled in Table 3-1. Schools with teacher librarians The number of valid 213 questionnaires The number of 264 school nationwide Percentage 80.68 Schools without teacher librarians Total 528 741 2414 2678 21.87 27.67 Table 3-1. The distribution and the retrieving of valid questionnaires of the schools with teacher librarians and those without such positions. Results 281 The analysis of variance on the basic operation of libraries between the schools that employ teacher librarians and the schools without the position The basic operation management is the fundamental service that meets the demands of the teachers and students and also provides the necessary tasks before the high-level of services can be offered. The basic task of the librarians include purchasing library resources, cataloguing, borrowing and returning books, volunteer training, theme exhibition, and reading promotion activities. Table 4-1 showed that regardless of the employment of the teacher librarians, the mean number of the operation task: borrowing and returning books was the highest in the 7 dimensions. However, the independent sample t-test analysis indicated that the significant differences were found between the two types of schools in the various dimensions. Of the 7 dimensions, the items with the most differences were found in the following dimensions such as whether the libraries are cultivating volunteers, organizing theme exhibition, and promoting reading activities. The data indicated that the school’s employment of teacher librarians was beneficial to the basic operation and management of the school libraries. School with School without teacher librarians teacher librarians Significant T value test (P) Standard Standard Mean deviation Mean deviation df The school will assign budget annually to purchase library books 4.13 0.99 3.44 1.14 8.22 0.00*** 452 The school will assign budget annually to organize reading promotion projects 4.15 0.99 3.47 1.10 8.32 0.00*** 436 The school library conducts book purchasing and cataloguing 4.80 0.46 4.34 0.80 9.85 0.00*** 651 The school library conducts putting books on the shelves, organizing shelves, burrowing and returning books 4.93 0.25 4.55 0.67 11.47 0.00*** 735 The school library conducts the recruitment, training, and management of volunteers 4.61 0.70 3.67 1.20 13.24 0.00*** 643 The school library conducts spatial planning and theme exhibition 4.57 0.65 3.75 0.98 13.18 0.00*** 580 282 School with School without teacher librarians teacher librarians Significant T value test (P) Standard Standard Mean deviation Mean deviation df The school library often organizes reading promotion activities 4.52 0.66 3.60 0.94 15.21 0.00*** 554 Total 4.53 0.45 3.82 0.70 16.29 0.00*** 600 Table 4-1. The variance analysis on basic operation of libraries between schools that employ teacher librarians and those that provide no such position ***P<0.001 The variance analysis on library education between the schools that employ teacher librarians and the schools without the position Library education is to nurture students’ basic skills to use the library and search for the various resources. This required capability is necessary for the students to conduct research project. Table 4-2 indicated that the overall performance of the 4 items including “planning library usage courses for all grade levels”, “instructing library use for students from all grade levels”, “providing relevant book recommendation for the courses of the various subjects”, and “providing relevant resource websites for the courses of the various subjects” are better than that of the school without the employment of teacher librarians. The results of the independent t test analysis indicated significance among the variance of the various dimensions. School with School without teacher librarians teacher librarians Significant T value Standard Standard test (P) Mean deviation Mean deviation df The school library plans library-utilizing education for the various grade levels 4.57 0.61 3.40 1.14 18.11 0.00*** 684 The school library instructs library education courses for the various grade levels 4.49 0.66 3.28 1.07 18.79 0.00*** 621 The school library provides reading recommendation for the various subjects for all 3.82 0.97 2.96 1.11 9.81 0.00*** 739 283 School with School without teacher librarians teacher librarians Significant T value Standard Standard test (P) Mean deviation Mean deviation df the grade levels The school library provides course-related resource websites for the various subjects 3.67 1.00 2.85 1.07 9.65 0.00*** 739 Total 4.14 0.63 3.12 0.94 17.04 0.00*** 576 Table 4-2 The variance analysis on library education between schools that employ teacher librarians and those that provide no such position ***P<0.001 The variance analysis on developing library collection to support teaching and learning, and to promote reading activities between schools that employ teacher librarians and those that provide no such position The third level of the job responsibilities of teacher librarians is to develop library collection to support teaching and learning, and to promote reading activities, thereby allowing the library resource, teaching and learning to become closely connected. Table 4-3 indicated that on “the use of reading strategies to conduct reading instruction curriculum”, “the cooperation of the demands of the teachers from various subjects to purchase relevant library collection”, “the integration of curriculum of the various subjects to organize relevant reading promotion activities”, and “the integration of curriculum from various subjects to provide relevant learning recommendations or homework”, the schools that employed teacher librarians showed greater quality compared to the schools without such positions. The independent t test analysis indicated that on developing library collection to support teaching and learning and promoting reading activities, the differences between the two types of schools reached significance. School with School without teacher librarians teacher librarians Significant T value df Standard Standard test (P) Mean deviation Mean deviation The school library uses reading strategies to conduct reading instruction curriculum 4.33 0.78 284 3.20 1.03 16.24 0.00*** 511 The school library cooperates with the demands of the teachers from various subjects to purchase relevant library collection 4.20 0.82 3.45 1.06 10.33 0.00*** 504 The school library integrates the curriculum of the various subjects to organize relevant reading promotion activities 3.95 0.89 3.08 1.08 11.36 0.00*** 472 The school library integrates the curriculum from various subjects to provide relevant learning recommendations or homework 3.69 1.01 2.88 1.13 9.50 0.00*** 437 Total 4.04 0.69 3.15 0.93 14.38 0.00*** 524 Table 4-3 The variance analysis on developing library collection to support teaching and learning, and to promote reading activities between schools that employ teacher librarians and those that provide no such position ***P<0.001 The variance analysis on teacher librarian’s (or the person in charge of the library) conduction of collaborative teaching and participation in planning school curriculum between schools that employ teacher librarians and those that provide no such position If the teacher librarians or the person in charge of the library can coordinate with the teachers of the various academic fields to conduct team teaching and participate in school curriculum planning, the role or the library will be more incorporated with the teaching and learning of the school. Table 4-4 indicated on “the participation of planning and designing of school curriculum”, “the establishment of the group for developing teachers’ reading expertise”, “the team teaching with teachers of the various academic subjects”, and “the design of teaching materials that nurture students’ information literacy”, the schools that employed teacher librarians showed greater quality compared to the schools without such positions. Compared to the tasks of the other 3 dimensions, the mean of teacher librarians’ participation in team teaching was significantly lower; this dimension requires further development. The independent sample t test analysis indicated that on team teaching and the participation of school curriculum planning, significant difference were found between the schools that employ teacher librarians and the schools without this position. School with School without teacher librarians teacher librarians Significant T value Standard Standard test (P) Mean deviation Mean deviation 285 df The school library participates in planning and design of the school curriculum 4.02 0.92 2.89 1.13 14.15 0.00*** 478 The school library plans and establishes the group for developing teachers’ reading expertise 4.20 0.94 2.86 1.20 16.24 0.00*** 499 The school library conducts team teaching with teachers of various subjects 3.81 0.84 2.68 1.10 15.06 0.00*** 507 The school library designs materials that nurture students’ information literacy 3.95 0.85 2.69 1.09 16.79 0.00*** 497 Total 4.00 0.69 2.78 1.00 18.91 0.00*** 556 Table 4-4 The variance analysis on collaborative teaching and the participation in school curriculum planning between schools that employ teacher librarians and those that provide no such position ***P<0.001 The variance analysis on the integration of teaching resources of the various academic fields and the planning of school-wide and comprehensive reading project between schools that employ teacher librarians and those that provide no such position Reading is not an activity that confines to the students and teachers; the role of the parents is crucial. Thus, the greatest challenge for promoting reading by the school is to integrate the relevant resource and academic subjects and to incorporate the comprehensive reading planning of the parents and the community. Table 4-5 indicated that on “the integration of public libraries and civil resource to jointly organize reading activities”, “the invitation of the entire faculty and staff to jointly participate in reading activities”, “the invitation of parents of the entire student body to jointly participate in reading activities”, “the coordination of school-wide activities such as school anniversary to plan relevant reading activities”, and “the integration of teaching resource and related technology of the various academic fields to plan school-wide reading projects”, the mean of the schools that employed teacher librarians was higher than the school without such positions. The independent sample t test analysis indicated that on “the integration of teaching resources of various academic fields and the planning of school-wide and comprehensive reading projects”, the difference between the two types of schools was significant. School with School without teacher librarians teacher librarians 286 T value Significant df test (P) Mean Standard Standard deviation Mean deviation The school library integrates public libraries and civil resources to jointly organize reading activities 4.15 0.95 3.04 1.26 13.14 0.00*** 516 The school library invites the entire faculty and staff to jointly participate in reading activities 4.51 0.63 3.45 1.13 16.20 0.00*** 670 The school library invites the parents of the entire student body to jointly participate in reading activities 4.28 0.78 3.13 1.14 15.75 0.00*** 567 The school library coordinates with schoolwide activities such as school anniversary to plan relevant reading activities 4.39 0.77 3.20 1.18 16.16 0.00*** 589 The school library integrates the teaching resources and relevant technology of the various academic subjects to plan school-wide reading projects 4.09 0.86 2.99 1.14 14.34 0.00*** 518 Total 4.28 0.61 3.16 0.99 18.76 0.00*** 621 Table 4-5. The variance analysis on the integration of teaching resources of the various academic fields and the planning of school-wide and comprehensive reading project between schools that employ teacher librarians and those that provide no such position ***P<0.001 The variance analysis on the reading attitudes and behaviors between teacher librarians and the personnel who are not Reading is a habit. The person who promotes reading must possess passion for reading and a positive attitude toward reading. Table 4-6 indicated that for teacher librarians and the personnel who do not possess this title, they are aware that reading is a valuable activity and a habit that is beneficial to lifelong learning. In addition, they were able to feel the joy of reading and were willing to share with their families and friends. However, the mean of reading during leisure time and carrying books while traveling, and sharing their reading with 287 their families are higher for the teacher librarians compared to the individual who do not carry this title. The independent sample t test analysis indicated that on reading attitudes and behaviors, the two groups were significantly different. School with School without teacher librarians teacher librarians Significant T value Standard Standard test (P) Mean deviation Mean deviation df I can feel entertained while reading 4.89 0.33 4.40 0.66 13.33 0.00*** 705 I will read for the purpose of leisure entertainment 4.73 0.59 4.31 0.77 8.13 0.00*** 504 I believe that reading is a valuable activity 4.93 0.25 4.54 0.60 12.67 0.00*** 738 I enjoy the fulfillment after reading 4.87 0.36 4.44 0.66 11.52 0.00*** 678 I believe that reading is beneficial to the habit and growth of lifelong learning 4.92 0.27 4.54 0.61 11.85 0.00*** 731 When I have time, I usually read 4.73 0.51 4.22 0.79 10.52 0.00*** 592 When I travel, I will carry books and read 4.51 0.75 3.80 1.02 10.46 0.00*** 529 I would be happy to purchase my own reading material 4.70 0.54 4.13 0.86 10.67 0.00*** 609 When I find interesting reading material, I will share it with others 4.77 0.47 4.26 0.81 10.63 0.00*** 646 I will read with other family members and friends 4.62 0.61 4.01 0.92 10.65 0.00*** 586 Total 4.77 0.34 4.26 0.62 14.12 0.00*** 676 Table 4-6. The variance analysis on the reading attitudes and behaviors between teacher librarians and the personnel who are not ***P<0.001 288 The variance analysis on reading attitudes of the entire faculty and staff, students, and parents between schools that employ teacher librarians and those that provide no such position The attitudes of the entire faculty and staff, the reading habit of parents, and the reading interaction between parent and child all provides positive influence on a child’s reading attitude and behavior. During their participation in relevant reading activities, the teacher and parent not only can share their learning experience, they can create a model that helps students to engage and become highly involved in reading, and create a reading atmosphere for the students. Thus, the reading attitudes and behaviors of the faculty and staff and parents can influence the reading attitudes and behaviors of the students. This major issue is to investigate the reading attitudes and behaviors of the faculty, staff, parents, and students. However, the questionnaire did not directly inquire the faculty, staff, parents, and students. The teacher librarians or the personnel in charge of the library were asked to answer the questions based on their understanding of the situations. Table 4-7 indicated that on the attitudes of faculty, staff, parents, and students, the parents of all the schools (regardless of having teacher librarians or not) did not oppose their children in reading extracurricular books. All the students enjoyed participate in reading activities organized by the libraries. The faculty and staff greatly support the library in reading promotion projects. The parents all supported their children in participating in the reading activities organized by the library. The findings of this study indicate that the parents, faculty and staff, and students shared positive attitude toward reading and reading activities. The independent sample t test was adopted to analyze the difference between the two types of school on the reading attitudes displayed by the faculty, staff, students, and parents. The results indicated significant difference in each dimension. The school that employed teacher librarians showed higher support from faculty, staff, students, and parents compared to the schools without such position. School with School without teacher librarians teacher librarians T Significant Standar Standard df value test (P) d deviation Mean deviation Mean The faculty and staff are supportive of the reading promotion projects organized by the library 4.35 0.72 3.75 0.88 9.61 0.00*** 472 The faculty and staff enjoy reading and are willing to share their joy in reading 4.07 0.82 3.57 0.92 7.20 0.00*** 437 The students enjoy participating in reading activities organized by the library 4.44 0.61 3.76 0.90 11.93 0.00*** 571 The students enjoy reading and are willing to share their joy in reading 4.22 0.68 3.63 0.94 9.51 0.00*** 533 289 The students can motivate themselves spontaneously to reading extracurricular books 4.06 0.77 3.43 0.92 9.55 0.00*** 463 The parents support their children to participate in the reading activities organized by the library 4.36 0.75 3.73 0.92 9.62 0.00*** 477 The parents do not oppose their children in reading extracurricular books 4.55 0.59 4.03 0.82 8.54 0.00*** 739 The parents will read with their children 3.77 0.86 3.04 1.03 9.18 0.00*** 739 Total 4.23 0.57 3.62 0.76 11.97 0.00*** 520 Table 4-7 The variance analysis on reading attitudes of the entire faculty and staff, students, and parents between schools that employ teacher librarians and those that provide no such position ***P<0.001 Conclusion 1) After the analysis of this study, the following conclusions were found: 2) Significant difference was found in fundamental operation and management of the library; the schools that employed teacher librarians possess higher qualities in this area compared to the school without such positions. 3) Significant difference was found in the library-utilizing education; the schools that employed teacher librarians possess higher qualities in this area compared to the school without such positions. 4) Significant difference was found in the development of library collection to support teaching and promoting reading activities; the schools that employed teacher librarians possess higher qualities in this area compared to the school without such positions. 5) Significant difference was found in team teaching and the participation in school curriculum planning conducted by the teacher librarians; the schools that employed teacher librarians possess higher qualities in this area compared to the school without such positions. 6) Significant difference was found in the integration of teaching resources of the various academic fields in planning school-wide and comprehensive reading projects; the schools that employed teacher librarians possess higher qualities in this area compared to the school without such positions. 7) Significant difference was found in the reading attitudes and behaviors between the teacher librarians and the personnel who did not carry this title; the schools that employed teacher librarians possess higher qualities in this area compared to the school without such positions. 8) Significant difference was found in the reading attitudes of faculty, staff, students, and parents; the schools that employed teacher librarians possess higher qualities in this area compared to the school without such positions. 290 9) The job responsibilities of a teacher librarian including library operation management, library education, supporting teaching and learning, collaborative teaching, and comprehensive reading planning and promotion indicated that the position is a professional work that requires professional training. Although the current teacher librarians in Taiwan do not require a full-time commitment and obtained short-term training, this study indicated the excellent performance achieved by the teacher librarians. The schools that employed teacher librarians showed higher qualities on reading environment, reading education, reading support, and reading attitude compared to the schools without this position. The finding supported the significant value of investment by the government in supporting professional reading personnel. References AASL, & AECT. (1988). Information Power﹕Guidelines for School Library Media Programs. Chicago: American Library Association. Curriculum Development Council (2002). Basic Education and Curriculum Guide: Building on the Strength (1st grade to 9th grade). Hong Kong: Hong Kong Education Bureau. Dow, Mirah J., Lakin, Jacqueline McMahon, & Court, Stephen C. (2012). School Librarian Staffing Levels and Student Achievement as Represented in 2006–2009 Kansas Annual Yearly Progress Data. SCHOOL LIBRARY RESEARCH, 15. Loertscher, David V, Ho, May Lein, & Bowie, Melvin M. (1987). " EXEMPLARY ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS" AND THEIR LIBRARY MEDIA CENTERS. School Library Media Quarterly, 38-40. Lu, Jui-Lien, & Lin, Chi-Hui (2008). A Delphi Study of Elementary Library Science Teachers’ Information Management Competence. Journal of National Taiwan Normal University,53(2),83-110. Morrison, T. G., Jacobs, J. S., & Swinyard, W. (1999). Do teachers who read personally use recommended literacy practices in their classrooms? . Reading Reserch and Instruction, 38(2), 81-100. Wang, Ling Yan (2009). A study of relationship between the kindergarten classroom reading environments, teacher reading attitudes and young children reading attitudes (Unpublished master’s thesis). National Chengchi University, Taiwan. 291 Mind the gap: school librarians’ anticipated and preferred professional development methods for integration of digital textbooks Ji Hei Kang Florida State University 142 Collegiate Loop, Tallahassee, FL 32306 USA [email protected] Abstract While the mandate to adopt digital textbooks in the U.S. state of Florida is looming for the next school year, there has been few discussion about how to provide professional development for school librarians who will be expected to play a leadership role. This study identifies both preferred and anticipated methods of professional development of Florida school librarians and the gap between them. It has been found that school librarians wish to initiate their training with other colleagues through workshops and study groups, which will enable them to discuss digital textbooks, and build networks with respect to the new technology. The anticipated way, however, reflects the environment of solo librarians. In conclusion, this study urges that professional development that will enlarge their viewpoint and enhance their awareness of the need for methods of implementation of digital textbooks, is urgently required. Keywords: professional development, digital textbooks, school librarian Introduction The comprehensive adoption of digital technology has led to the exploration of digital textbook initiatives: twelve states in the U.S. (Fletcher, Schaffhauser, & Levin, 2012), and such countries as Denmark, Hong Kong, Japan, Singapore, and South Korea have initiated digital textbook projects (Kampylis et al., 2013). This trend is projected to expand (Murray & Perez, 2011): by the 2015-2016 school year, it will be mandatory in Florida to use only digital textbooks for public schools from kindergarten through grade twelve (K–12) (The Florida Senate, 2011). With this mandate, school librarians are expected to play a leadership role in integrating technology into schools while also taking charge of various traditional tasks (Everhart, Mardis, & Johnston, 2012; Johnston, 2012; Perez, 2013). In order to help school librarians be leaders in implementing digital textbooks, it is essential for them to have opportunities for 292 professional development. There should be wider discussion about such professional development, as various factors impact how educators integrate technology, including content, depth, and delivery format (Claesgens et al., 2013; Hixon & Buckenmeyer, 2009). Empirical research to identify professional development for digital textbook implementation is not present in the literature. As an initial step, this exploratory study identifies the methods of professional development that school librarians prefer and anticipate to educate themselves in digital textbook integration. This study also suggests an improved method to provide professional development tools by analyzing the gaps between the expected and anticipated. Literature Review School librarians have taken on various roles, such as leaders, instructional partners, information specialists, teachers, and program administrators (American Association of School Librarians, 2009). The new leadership roles for integrating technology in schools are still emerging for school librarians (Branch-Mueller & De Groot, 2011; Everhart et al., 2012; Johnston, 2012; Lankford, 2006; Perez, 2013). School librarians are expected to increase instruction and services for learners, in addition to collaborating with teachers, counselors, and administrators to provide better access and promote information literacy (Perez, 2010). Previous research asserts that professional development has been a valued approach for educators to continue learning about educational technology innovations. This in turn reinforces leadership development (Hixon & Buckenmeyer, 2009; Muijs & Harris, 2007), a key type of professional development for school librarians to integrate technology into schools (Johnston, 2012; Perez, 2010) and they have employed a variety of professional development methods such as traditional conferences, workshops, periodicals, and books. Yet school librarians are also using 21st century tools such as wikis, blogs, online learning communities, collaborative dialogue, and professional learning networks (Harvey, 2012; Starkey, 2012). After a recent radical restructuring of professional development channels, professional development tools can be customized and include free online webinars, livestreams, Twitter chats and podcasts. School librarians are encouraged for to use digital these tools (Foote, 2013), but the discussion about professional development for digital textbook implementation remains absent. On the other hand, digital textbooks which may seem simple on the surface, have complex and unique features. Digital textbooks are now encompass “a reader, read-on-demand computer-based textbooks, print-on-demand digital textbooks, and modular assemblages of audio, visual, interactive, and text resources” (Mardis, Everhart, Smith, Newsum, & Baker, 2010, p. 3). This provides various interactive functions for students to study anytime and anywhere by containing “reference books, workbooks, learner's dictionaries, notebooks, and existing textbooks as well” (The Korea Education and Research Information Service (KERIS), 2009, para. 1). School librarians’ will continue to implement their expert knowledge at “identifying, collecting, and organizing the best content” (Mardis et al., 2010, p. 14) and building open-content learning resources. They will also continue to collaborate with classroom teachers in the use of digital textbooks. 293 Data Collection In order to identify school librarians’ anticipated and preferred professional development methods, the researcher conducted a survey with Florida school librarians in October, 2012. The researcher promoted the research among the members of the Florida Association for Media in Education (FAME) and recruited 170 school librarians from both primary and secondary schools (K-12). There were two questions regarding professional development methods and the questionnaires allowed for multiple responses. The first question—inquiring about anticipated professional development methods—obtained 568 answers from 160 participants. The second question asked about preferred professional development methods and obtained 462 answers from 158 participants. Data Analysis The researcher investigated two survey questions and identified the gap between anticipated and preferred methods of professional development: Figure 2: Anticipated and preferred professional development methods What method do school librarians prefer for professional development regarding digital textbooks? Regarding the preferred way to be educated about digital textbooks, the survey found that 22.9% (n=106) of responses preferred “county or school-based workshops.” Workshops are considered a very hands-on way for school librarians to plunge into discussion, and are the best method to build networking (Harvey, 2012). Analysis thus suggests that school librarians need more in-depth meetings to interact with other school librarians. Of the responses, 17.5% (n=81) preferred “colleagues or study groups with colleagues”, 15.4% (n=71) “professional seminars including webinars”, and 9.1% (n=42) preferred “conferences.” These high-ranked methods consist of 64.9% of all responses, indicating that school librarians prefer to be educated in a collaborative way. The six methods that got lower answers, suggest that school librarians have low interest in being educated as follows: 294 14.7% (n=68) “on the job”,6.9% (n=28) “by myself”, 6.1% (n=28) “online course”, 5.2% (n=24) “mentors”, 1.7% (n=8) “university campus-based courses”, and 0.4% (n=2) “other” methods. What do school librarians anticipate for professional development regarding digital textbooks? The second question pertains to which methods school librarians anticipate in order to educate themselves about digital textbooks based on their previous experience. Unlike the answers about their ‘preferred’ way, the answers for anticipated professional development methods are more concentrated. The highest ranking method is “on the job” (20.1%, n=113) indicating librarians expect to be educated on the job. The third highest method is “by myself” (17.2%, n=97). These two methods describe modern school librarians’ working environment as solo librarians who work independently. The traditional methods are as follows: “county or school-based workshops” (18.5%, n=104), “colleagues or study groups with colleagues” (15.8%, n=89), “professional seminars including webinars” (12.1%, n=68) and “conferences” (8.7%, n=49). Gap between anticipated way and preferred way Statistical analysis confirms that school librarians express strong disagreement between the anticipated and preferred ways. The researcher entered the statistical data into Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) version 21.0. The anticipated percentage of each method differs by the expectation percentage: χ2 (1, N = 1025) = 42.503, p = .00. Figure 2 indicates the percentage gaps between anticipated and preferred methods. Figure 3: The gap between anticipation and preference Among the ten items, “by myself” has the biggest gap (10.3%). It means that the selfeducation is the way that school librarians did not want to have, but they anticipated that they 295 would have most. As another indicator of self-education, “on the job” received 5.4%, indicating that more school librarians anticipated that they would educate themselves during their jobs. On the other hand, 4.5% more school librarians preferred “county or school based workshops” for their professional development, and 3.3% of school librarians preferred “professional seminars including webinars”. Although a small number of participants chose “online course”, 3% more librarians selected “online courses” for their preferred method of professional development. Conclusion and Suggestions Although the previous literature has indicated that professional development, and the methods by which that is accomplished, are significant for the integration of technology in schools, there has been no discussion about how to provide professional development for school librarians in integrating digital textbooks. In order to stimulate discussion on this subject, this study identifies both preferred and anticipated methods of professional development and the gap between them. It has been found that school librarians wish to initiate their training with other colleagues through workshops and study groups, which will enable them to discuss digital textbooks, and build networks with respect to the new technology. This result is consistent with Kang and Everhart's (2014) research. Since school librarians’ most significant stage of concern is Stage 0, Unconcerned, and most of them have lower stages of concern (unconcerned, personal and informational stages), they will require consultations and discussions about digital textbooks in order to understand their importance. However, the anticipated method reflects the environment of the solo librarian, who is likely to receive professional development alone or on the job. These two methods differ greatly. Because school librarians are largely not yet interested in the implementation of digital textbooks, it is worth noting that professional development should address not only technical skills, but also school librarians’ beliefs and attitudes (Hixon & Buckenmeyer, 2009). Digital textbooks will be embraced in the next school year, and school librarians, who are leaders in technology integration, still express lower stages of concern about the subject. In order to help school librarians play their part by creating new services, collaborating with other educators, and celebrating this new technology, professional development that will enlarge their viewpoint and enhance their awareness of the need for methods of implementation of digital textbooks, is urgently required. References American Association of School Librarians. (2009). Empowering learners: Guidelines for school library media programs. Chicago: American Association of School Librarians. Branch-Mueller, J., & De Groot, J. (2011). The power of Web 2.0: Teacher-librarians become school technology leaders. School Libraries Worldwide, 17(2), 25-41. Claesgens, J., Rubino-Hare, L. L. h. n. e., Bloom, N., Fredrickson, K., Henderson-Dahms, C., Menasco, J., & Sample, J. (2013). Professional development integrating technology: Does delivery format matter? Science Educator, 22(1), 10-18. 296 Everhart, N., Mardis, M., & Johnston, M. P. (2012). National Board Certified school librarians’ leadership in technology integration: Results of a national survey. School Library Media Research, 14, 1-19. Fletcher, G., Schaffhauser, D., & Levin, D. (2012). Out of print: Reimagining the K-12 textbook in a digital age. Washington, DC: The State Educational Technology Directors Association (SETDA). Foote, C. (2013). From professional development to personalized learning. Library Media Connection, 31(4), 34-35. Harvey, C. A. (2012). Adult learners: Professional development and the school librarian. Santa Barbara, California: Libraries Unlimited, an imprint of ABC-CLIO, LLC. Hixon, E., & Buckenmeyer, J. (2009). Revisiting technology integration in schools: Implications for professional development. Computers in the Schools, 26(2), 130146. doi: 10.1080/07380560902906070 Johnston, M. P. (2012). Connecting teacher librarians for technology integration leadership. School Libraries Worldwide, 18(1), 18-33. Kampylis, P., Law, N., Punie, Y., Bocconi, S., Brečko, B., Han, S., . . . Miyake, N. (2013). ICT-enabled innovation for learning in Europe and Asia. Retrieved from http://ftp.jrc.es/EURdoc/JRC83503.pdf doi:10.2791/25303 Kang, J. H., & Everhart, N. (2014). Digital textbooks: School librarians' stages of concerns in initial implementation. Information Research, 19(2), paper 625. Retrieved from http://InformationR.net/ir/19-2/paper625.html Lankford, M. D. (2006). Leadership and the school librarian: Essays from leaders in the field. Worthington, Ohio: Linworth Pub. Mardis, M., Everhart, N., Smith, D., Newsum, J., & Baker, S. (2010). From paper to pixel: Digital textbooks and Florida's schools. Tallahassee, FL: PALM (Partnerships Advancing Library Media) Center. Muijs, D., & Harris, A. (2007). Teacher leadership in action: Three case studies of contrasting schools. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 35(1), 111-134. doi: 10.1177/1741143207071387 Murray, M. C., & Perez, J. (2011). E-textbooks are coming: Are we ready? Issues in Informing Science & Information Technology, 8, 49-60. Perez, L. (2010). The Role of school librarians in promoting the use of educational technologies. Teacher Librarian, 38(1), 72-73. Perez, L. (2013). Master librarian. Knowledge Quest, 41(4), 22-26. 297 Starkey, C. J. (2012). Releasing your inner leader. Knowledge Quest, 40(3), 10-13. The Florida Senate. (2011). SB 2120: K-12 Education Funding. Retrieved from http://www.flsenate.gov/Session/Bill/2011/2120 The Korea Education and Research Information Service (KERIS). (2009). Digital Textbook. Retrieved from http://www.dtbook.kr/renew/english/index.htm Biographical note Ji Hei Kang is a doctoral candidate at the School of Information within the College of Communication and Information at Florida State University (FSU), USA. The main topic that she focuses on is school librarians’ leadership role in implementing technological innovations. For her dissertation project, she is conducting research analyzing school librarians’ Stages of Concern in employing digital textbooks. She plans to follow up her research by applying a qualitative method to identify school librarians’ Level of Use of digital textbooks. She is also interested in studying how librarians promote new types of educational technology, such as mobile augmented reality and big data, in theory and practice. She can be contacted at [email protected]. 298 Information literacy: Hong Kong primary teachers’ perceptions of the role of the teacher librarian Leung Yuet Ha, Angel HKU School of Professional and Continuing Education; Rm608, Chun Mau House, Ko Chun Court, Yau Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong; China/Hong Kong; [email protected] Abstract This study aims at investigating Hong Kong primary teachers’ perceptions of the teacher librarian role in relation to information literacy. Primary teachers’ responsibility for equipping students with information literacy skills in cooperation with the teacher librarian is focused. A mixed-method of quantitative and qualitative approach was taken. The data were collected through questionnaires sent to every tenth primary schools listed in the Primary School Profiles 2011 published by the Committee on Home-School Co-operation, EDB, HKSAR and face to face interview with six questionnaire respondents. Questionnaires were sent to 146 schools. 75 teacher respondents answered and sent back. The results have identified teachers’ understanding of information literacy, the need to develop student such skills, professional development needs and teaching in terms of information literacy skills, government policies and school administration related to the teacher librarian role. Some suggestions were made regarding to teachers’ professional development needs in terms of information literacy. Keywords: Information Literacy, information technology and information skills; Differences in the teacher librarian role; Hong Kong primary teachers’ perceptions of the teacher librarian role; teachers’ professional development need in terms of information literacy; CPT and flexible library timetable. The research problem and its context Information needs and library programs in the information age Advances in computers and information technology mean that the world is now experiencing the ‘Age of Information’ (Heilprin, 1989). According to Todd 1996, the amount of information available is growing rapidly at an exponential rate. Production, processing and use of information have become one of the most important human activities. The world economy is changing from one based on manufacturing to one based on information (Ontario Ministry of Education and Training, 1995) and the major unit of exchange has shifted from goods to information or knowledge. “Knowledge is information from every available source, analysed 299 and targeted to needs. The skills for doing this are what we mean by information literacy” (Latham, 1998, p.1). Extracts from Doyle’s (1993) and McKenzie’s (1998) work defined information literacy as the six skills of formulating need based questions; identifying and locating all possible sources of information effectively; evaluating and organizing information for application; combining new information with the existing knowledge to create new knowledge; making informed decisions; and using information in problem solving. Information literacy is also at the core of lifelong learning (American Association of School Librarians, 1998). To ensure the employability of workers, the government must provide citizens with the necessary education and training to ensure that they know about and are able to use information literacy skills (Latham, 1998). In the information age, the mission of the programs run by the teacher librarians in school libraries is to ensure that students and staff are effective users of ideas and information. These programs should be centered on information literacy that are designed around active and relevant learning where the skills learnt can be used in daily life (American Association of School Librarians, 1998). Since 1998, Hong Kong government has provided each primary school with a school library and a teacher librarian to manage the library. This is a rather unique development which requires scrutiny and investigation of the role of the teacher librarian. The provision of the teacher librarians and their roles In Hong Kong schools, before 1997, the Chinese and English Extensive Reading Schemes had been implemented by phases by the Education Department, HKSAR. Since 1997, the government has extended these schemes “gradually to cover Primary 1 to Secondary 5” (Education Department, 1997, cited in Education Bureau, HKSAR, 2012, n.p.). School libraries and teacher librarians have been provided by the government for primary schools since 1998. Such provision was to “enhance the library services and to coordinate the implementation of the Chinese and English Extensive Reading Schemes in primary schools” (Education Department, HKSAR, 1998, n.p.). It did not mention meeting the information needs of students in this new and ever-changing information age by equipping them with information literacy skills. It was not until 2001, the duty of the teacher librarian to “enhance students’ self-learning ability and attitude in project learning” (Education Department, HKSAR, 2001, p.2) was legislated. In 2002, the need to develop student independent learning skills was stressed in the education reform document when the Education Department, HKSAR, (Curriculum Development Council, 2001) set out seven learning goals that Hong Kong students should be able to achieve in ten years' time. Independent learning skills were the fifth goal. In 2010, independent learning was reiterated together with lifelong learning by the Education Bureau (formerly known as Education Department), HKSAR, in the Consultation Document on the Information Technology for Quality Education (Education Bureau, HKSAR, 2010). What the newly established teacher librarian in Hong Kong primary schools should and can do is unprecedented. The role of the teacher librarian has never been made explicit to the teachers. In May 2000, A Pilot Scheme on Collaboration and Learning: Role of the Teacher Librarian, was jointly organized by the Education Department and District Teacher Network, Hong Kong Primary Education Research Association (Education Department, HKSAR, 2000; District Teacher Network, 2000). A team of the principal or the vice-principal, one to two subject teachers and the teacher librarian from each school were invited to participate in order to gain an understanding of the value of collaborative planning and teaching (CPT) between subject teachers and the teacher librarian. A video recording of this pilot project and the practices that were developed was 300 produced, but follow-up sessions and new resources have not happened and have not been produced. Interpretation of the legislated teacher librarian role Although the role of the teacher librarian is legislated, the interpretation of this varies in different schools. Their duty ranges from the circulation of library materials to the set of information services that integrate school library resources into effective classroom learning activities (McDougald and Bowie, 1997). One of the key ways of determining what the role of the teacher librarian looks like is to consider the teaching workload issues that face teacher librarians. From the school year of 2003/04 to 2007/08, the Library Section, Education Bureau, HKSAR (2009) had collected data of the overall teaching workload, including the teaching of library lessons, of teacher librarians. Questionnaires were completed by the teacher librarian of all schools at the beginning of each school year and sent back to the Library Section of the Education Department, HKSAR. Most (19 – 26%) of the teacher librarians had to teach 11-20 lessons per week in addition to managing the school library in primary schools. The number of teaching lessons per week ranged from zero to 31 showing a great variety of deployment models. In-service training and professional development of teacher librarians Year after year, the government continues to fund the in-service teacher librarianship training for newly appointed teacher librarians who then work as ordinary subject teachers when they go back to school after such training. The huge gap between the latest global professional development trends in teacher librarianship introduced in the training courses of teacher librarians and the actual practices in participants’ schools have been a source of frustration for me ever since I have been involved in all the above including being an ordinary subject teacher, a newly appointed teacher librarian in 1998 and in another school in 2008, a participant in the pilot scheme in 2000 and a part-time tutor of the Diploma in Teacher Librarianship in the University of Hong Kong, School of Professional and Continuing Education, which is totally funded by the government. Most course participants complain that they are part-time teacher librarians. They cannot find their specific role in their schools. They are assigned to subject teaching jobs which are their major duties in addition to managing the library. Very limited time resource is allocated for the library related work. Most participants of the course are not working as full-time teacher librarians. What they learn in the training course can hardly be put into practice when they go back to their schools. Principals and subject teachers have no ideas about their instructional roles solely as teacher librarians. So subject teaching duties are assigned to them. There is hardly any personal pursuance of professional development. The two year in-service professional training for a mostly part-time job is questionable. The government, school administrators and teachers are not consistent in their expectations of the fully funded professional training course for teacher librarians. There is a huge gap between the budget spent funding such a professional training course and the daily job conditions of the professionally trained teacher librarians. Participants of the training course often complain that their teacher colleagues and the principals do not understand their specific role. To some extent, the principals’ perceptions represent teachers’ perceptions. In the long term, experienced teachers will become principals. So studying teachers today involves the principals of tomorrow. Principals’ perceptions of the role of the teacher librarian have a direct impact on utilizing such a post which in turn shapes the teachers’ perceptions 301 of the role of the teacher librarian. Being the part-time tutor of the training course for newly appointed teacher librarians, I have to face the course participants who have difficulties performing their specific role to collaborate with their teacher partners to equip students with information literacy skills. I need to know what teachers think or how they perceive this role which drives me to carry out this research. Literature review Information Literacy, information technology and information skills The definition of information literacy for the necessary skills has been discussed in the previous section. For attitudes and mindset, I combine Stauffer Library, Queen’s University’s (2012), Colorado Educational Media Association’s (1994) and Association of College and Research Libraries of American Library Association’s (1998) information literacy characteristics to include the following: actively deal with ideas; be confident to solve problems; function smoothly whether there are more than one answers or none; complete work to high standards and create quality products; be flexible and adaptable; function independently and in groups; aware of opportunities; being able to express personal ideas; develop arguments; refute others’ opinions when necessary; learn new things and identify the truth. One of the eight Key Learning Areas in Hong Kong primary schools is Information Technology (Education Bureau, HKSAR, 2015). Information technology and information literacy have always been taken as similar in education settings. There is a need to distinguish information literacy from information technology so that the research area of this study will not be misunderstood. Bruce (1995) argued that information literacy is the ability to use information technology for information retrieval and communication. Stauffer Library, Queen’s University (2012) clarified the relation between them by saying that information literacy includes computer literacy. Computer skill enables people to use electronic information tools to gain access to information which is only part of the variety of information tools. It should not take greater value than other tools. Computers do not think by themselves so that effective searches rely totally upon the searchers themselves. One of the four 2002 legislated teacher librarian roles by Hong Kong government states that teacher librarians are information and media specialists who develop students' information skills. The relation between information literacy and information skills needs to be clarified. According to The Library, University of Bath (2015), information skills include: Finding quality information, avoiding plagiarism and the ability to find, evaluate and synthesize various sources of information. Carey (1998) pointed out that information skills are an indispensable component of information literacy. Differences in the roles of teacher librarians 302 School Library Association of South Australia (SLASA) (2008) highlighted the dual role of teacher librarians as both teachers and information specialists. They issued the Teacher Librarian Role Statement which can be adapted to suit the level of responsibility of the teacher librarian. When all the roles listed are fulfilled, the teacher librarian is at a leadership level. I would like to compare some of the teacher librarian role stated by SLASA and the Education Bureau (EDB), HKSAR (2002) below. In the teaching and learning role of the teacher librarian, SLASA listed training students to seek, critically evaluate, synthesize and present information. These are the four out of the six skills in the definition of information literacy discussed in the previous section. EDB, HKSAR did not list the information literacy skills to be learnt by students. Rather, a comparatively general role of the teacher librarian to facilitate the development of information literacy within the school was legislated. Developing resource-based programs to enhance the independent learning skills of students was also stressed. SLASA listed integrating the necessary knowledge, skills and dispositions of the South Australian Curriculum Standards and Accountability Framework into teaching and learning programs. EDB, HKSAR did not list integration of skills into teaching. SLASA listed collaboratively planning and teaching units of study with subject and classroom teachers to develop information literacy skills. EDB, HKSAR also listed working collaboratively with teachers in planning and teaching. But the aim was to promote the use of a wide range of information sources in learning and teaching. In curriculum involvement, SLASA listed being a partner in planning, implementing and assessing school policies relating to the curriculum and advocating student information literacy across the curriculum. These were missing in EDB, HKSAR’s teacher librarian role statement. According to SLASA, the aim of working with teachers was to establish a schoolwide information skills continuum and to cooperate with school administrators to incorporate Information and Communication Technology into the curriculum. In the EDB, HKSAR’s role statement, such aim does not relate to skill learning but to identify required curriculum content, appropriate information resources to develop school-based curriculum strategies such as project learning and “life-wide” learning activities. In services, the aim of coordinating resources by SLASA was to support the information needs of the whole school. Such aim by EDB, HKSAR was to support learning through reading and curriculum development. SLASA listed arranging efficient policies for delivery of services, including flexible time-tabling for use of the library which was not mentioned in EDB, HKSAR’s statement. The role of the teacher librarian is central to this research. There will be research questions arising out of the role of the teacher librarian. Cooperative planning and teaching (CPT) Henri (1990 ) claimed that cooperative planning and teaching (CPT) is an instructional model in which the teacher librarian and the class teacher are equal partners in the instructional process. They share the responsibility for the planning, implementing and evaluating of learning programs that incorporate information literacy. Resource based enquiry approaches will be employed wherever suitable to maximize the contribution from the teacher librarian through the use of a wide range of learning resources, and the application of information skills. The role that each of the partners plays varies from a little more than an exchange of ideas to the very detailed and time consuming input from both partners resulting in a fully integrated unit of work in the optimum use of the partners which is most likely to enhance 303 student learning. The information skills that are trained in a unit must be appropriate to the learners’ need as it arises, in curriculum context, not scheduled at the beginning of the year, not just an extra item. “When a decision is made to involve the teacher librarian in the assessment of student work, it makes sense to involve the teacher librarian in the assessment of the students and their use of information skills. It makes little sense simply to divide the students’ work into two piles” (Henri, 1990, p.12). Class teachers benefit from getting a few trusted items and relevant information to the topic without going through unnecessary ones. They have no time to read more than enough materials (Henri, 1990). Flexible library timetable Mills (1991) argued that to carry out CPT, administrative changes must be made in the use of the school library. The library accommodates the students’ learning needs as they arise. Its use is not determined by a schedule. Fisher (2000) claimed that the flexible library timetable enables teachers to decide the frequency and length of library time in need. Students will go to the library with the needs to solve problems making the library visit more motivated to learn and practice their locating skills. Individual students are able to seek immediate answers to the problems they encounter in the classroom. Small groups from different levels can share the same library space and time slot so long as the resources needed are different. The reference collection and audio visual resources will play their role as research tools which they should be. Literature and non-fiction books can play an active role in creative subjects such as Art and Writing. “Lessons, activities, assignments on units of study will be planned co-operatively by the teacher and library staff by first checking to see the extent of relevant resources in the library. Teachers can share unit activities and resources more effectively and thus save doubling up on preparation and time”(Fisher, 2000, n.p.). The research title and questions The title of this research is: Information literacy: Hong Kong primary teachers’ perceptions of the role of the teacher librarian. The following questions are derived from the research title: What is the role of the teacher librarian in Hong Kong primary schools? What are teachers’ perceptions of the role of the teacher librarian? How have these perceptions developed? What are teachers’ perceptions of information literacy skills? Who do teachers think are responsible for developing student information literacy skills? What strategies teachers have been adopting to develop information literacy skills amongst their pupils? Findings and discussions This section discusses some of the findings from the data collected from the questionnaire survey and the open ended questions in the questionnaire survey and the face to face interview. The qualitative data collected are represented by fifteen themes and their subthemes. Some themes have only one subtheme while others have more than one. They are bolded for easy identification. “Respondents” refers to questionnaire respondents. To 304 enhance the clarity of presentation, direct quotations of the interviewees’ responses are italicized and enclosed with double quotation marks. (Q16:2) means interview question 16 responded by Interviewee Two. The literature reviewed is referred to during the discussions. Teachers’ understood information literacy skills as observing copyright 66.3% respondents said that they understood information literacy skills. An examination of their specification in their own words about what they understood by “information literacy skills” found that 42% understood them as copyright. McKenzie (1998) mentioned three components of information literacy. One of them is creating new insights and fresh knowledge which is completely different from rehashing others’ ideas and plagiarizing. It means information literate people observe copyright. The ability of observing copyright is only one of the information literacy skills. Teachers take information literacy skills as part of information technology skills 11% respondents take information literacy skills as part of information technology skills. Stauffer Library, Queen’s University (2012) clarified the relation between the two by saying that information literacy included computer literacy. Computer skill enables people to use electronic information tools to gain access to information which is only part of the variety of information tools. It should not take greater value than other tools. Computers do not think by themselves so that effective searches rely totally upon the searchers themselves. Most (61.3%) respondents selected “another person” who mainly teaches students how to use information in an ethical and responsible way. 79.2% of this another person are Information Technology (Computer) teachers. This shows that teachers take information literacy skills as part of information technology skills which might be taught by information technology teachers. It is just the opposite according to Stauffer Library. It is further evidenced by one respondent who said that, “Information Technology panel head,” was the person who was mainly responsible for developing teachers' and students' information searching skills and information literacy skills in the use of the school library collection. “But s/he does not necessarily use the school library collection.” S/he took information literacy skills as information technology skills which could be disconnected with library books. Similarly, in Interview Data Theme Thirteen: Teachers’ information literacy skills ─ understand information literacy skills as Information Technology ability to use a computer, tablet PC and software. The 66.3% respondents said that they understood information literacy was not completely reliable when compared with the literature. Two third, the majority of the respondents did not give reasons to support their agreement to the fact that “information literacy skills are necessary in the information age”. That mirrors 32.4% of the respondents who said that they were at the poor level of understanding information literacy skills. Most (33%) respondents agreed that the initial teacher training course prepared teachers to teach information literacy skills. Given the fact that teachers take information literacy skills as part of information technology skills, are they assuming that the training of information technology skills provided by the government and in teacher training includes information literacy skills? Such assumption is supported by the following statement, “It is the responsibility for all teachers to teach information literacy skills, however training is not necessary” (Q12:2, 3). The assumption that information technology skills include information literacy skills misleads teachers to the following statements: “The 2002 legislated teacher librarian role as an information and media specialist can be fulfilled by non-teaching clerical staff” (Q16:2). 305 “The 2002 legislated teacher librarian role as an information and media specialist is not the case in my school” (Q13:1, 2, 4), (Q14: 2, 4), ( Q15:2). It is recommended to clarify the relationship between information literacy skills and information technology skills in teacher training course. Teachers’ perceptions of the need to develop student information literacy skills The third largest group (47.3%) chose "Students learn how to solve a problem on their own by searching for relevant information from the school library" to be a difference to the teaching and learning since the presence of the teacher librarian in their school since 1998. Less than half schools have such student performance. Only two related examples were provided by the interviewees in the interview. Solving problems independently is one of the six information literacy skills. Function independently is one of the information literacy characteristics. Teachers’ perceptions of the need to develop student such skills were reflected in the interview data as Interviewee One said, “In my school, senior grades do more project-based learning. Each time when we do project learning, the teacher must ask students to find information from the following sources: newspapers, books, Internet resources. So we will certainly ask students to go to the library to try to find information. They need to search for information not just from our school library, also from libraries outside our school. Of course, given the ability of the students, whether they are able to find suitable resource is another matter, but we must ask students to really get to the library to find appropriate resources / information. May be even not just projectbased learning, sometimes for homework, we also ask them to do so. So the teacher librarian does his/her duty to help students find resources” (Q45:1). “Project learning” (Curriculum Development Council, HKSAR, 2001, p.83) is one of the four key tasks in the education reform in Hong Kong since 2001. The above school is really implementing it. All teachers are involved including the teacher librarian. Students increasingly need the skills to search for suitable information which they are simply asked to during project learning and in doing homework. Definitely, they need the two skills of “identifying and locating all possible sources of information effectively; and, evaluating and organizing information for application” out of a series of six information literacy skills. They also need the other four skills of formulating need based questions when deciding on their project titles; combining new information with the existing knowledge to create new knowledge to achieve their project learning outcome; making informed decision when answering the project learning question and using information in problem solving when they present their project learning results. The teaching in this school reflects the questionnaire survey result of 93.2% teachers strongly or agreed that “information literacy skills are necessary in the information age”. Twenty four out of seventy five, nearly one third of the respondents gave the following reasons to support their agreement: “The wealth of information is part of life.” “Work more efficiently.” “Do not want to cause ‘crime’ due to ‘convenience’”. “Opportunities for the need of using information technology in daily life and classroom learning are increasing. Unable to grasp the information literacy skills will inevitably create obstacles for learning, will most likely be eliminated by the information age.” “Now it is too easy to receive all kinds of information, people must know how to distinguish and choose the true and beneficial.” “The online world is the same as the real world. It reflects personal behavior and quality. 306 Each person should be responsible for their own actions.” “Lacking this skill will become blindly and will be utilized to create a force. It may eventually contribute to cyberbullying.” “Avoid breaking the law, to educate the importance of respecting intellectual property rights.” These are only a small part of the information literacy attitude and mindset of being confident to solve problems; function smoothly whether there is more than one answer or none; learn new things and identify the truth. In project learning group work and doing homework, students need more information literacy skills, attitudes and mindset such as completing work to high standards and creating quality products; be flexible and adaptable; function independently and in groups; aware of opportunities; being able to express personal ideas; develop arguments; refute others’ opinions when necessary as mentioned in the literature review. The reasons of agreeing that “information literacy skills are necessary in the information age” provided by the respondents show that being a community member in the globalized information society; teachers have already sensed the importance of information literacy. However, being the front line educators and teachers who are students’ significant adults, they lack the information literacy cognition. They need the comprehensive and professional understanding of information literacy skills and most importantly, the way to equip students with them because they have such responsibility as in Interview Data Theme Six: Agree with the 2002 legislated teacher librarian role as an information and media specialist ─ we need to develop students' information skills. The second largest group (30%) of respondents disagreed that the initial teacher training course prepared teachers to teach information literacy skills. That means not all the teachers are ready to teach information literacy skills. It was argued that “Only when teachers understand that information literacy must begin with them, is an information literate school community possible” (Henri, Hay and Oberg, 2002, p.2). 58.9% respondents chose “Awareness of information literacy skills” to be the way to help them utilize the skills of the teacher librarian and 41.1% chose “Developing your personal information literacy skills.” It is recommended that the initial teacher training course develop teacher information literacy skills and prepare teachers to teach information literacy skills. Teachers’ perception of further professional development needs in terms of information literacy skills. Most (57%) respondents agreed that they have further professional development needs in terms of information literacy skills. This is consistent with Interview Data Theme Fourteen: Teachers’ responses regarding information literacy skills ─ it is the responsibility for all teachers to teach information literacy skills. The following kinds of training requirement are needed for them to be able to do that: 1. “Coupled with the ability of teachers to use information technology, what is information literacy? How to teach students knowledge in this area?”(Q12:1) 2. “In today's heavy teaching, teachers cannot afford to attend courses frequently. In my school experience, different subject teachers go out to attend lectures. The message will be disseminated in our school's own sharing sessions and staff meetings. The teacher librarian, who gets his /her training, can share with us when s/he comes back” (Q12:6). 3. “Some workshops by the Education Bureau for colleagues to attend. Let colleagues know 307 what to pay attention to.….. Or simply circulate a memo. Then we will all know about what we have to comply with the Code” (Q12:4). 4. “First teachers have to correct the concept that making use of information and library materials are the duties of the teacher librarian or the Information Technology teacher. Now learning is not a teacher only responsible for a subject. When teachers are on the Internet, endless and unlimited information appear. How should we apply the information and do screening? When encountering copyright issues, some skills are needed. Some points need to be noted. We should not casually use someone’s information. How to tell whether one is able to use the information correctly? If teachers are aware of these, they are willing to share the work to help students learn” (Q12:5). Other findings and discussions include: The relationship between the role of the specialized teacher who teaches information literacy skills and the responsibility of all teachers to teach such skills. There is no conventional way of teaching information literacy skills. The legislated teacher librarian role is not known explicitly to all. The library does not have a curriculum guideline. The progress of each school is not the same. Disagree with some items in the 1998 legislated teacher librarian role items (a) to (j). Teachers’ perceptions of the teacher librarian role as a teaching partner. Teachers’ perceptions of the four roles of the teacher librarian legislated in 2002. Trained teacher librarians fulfil the role of ordinary subject teachers. Reading materials versus curriculum-related resources. Administration jobs versus management jobs in a library. References American Association of School Librarians, Association for Educational Communication and Technology (1998). Information Power: Building Partnerships for Learning, American Library Association, Chicago and London. Association of College and Research Libraries, American Library Association (1998). A Progress Report on Information Literacy: An Update on the American Library Association Presidential Committee on Information Literacy: Final Report [online]. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/acrl/publications/whitepapers/progressreport Bruce C. (1995). Information literacy: how do university educators understand this phenomenon? Paper submitted to Learning for Life-Information Literacy and the Autonomous Learner, 2nd National Conference on Information Literacy, to be held in Adelaide 30 Nov-1 Dec, 1995. Carey J. O. (1998). Library Skills, Information Skills, and Information Literacy: Implications for Teaching and Learning [online]. Retrieved from file:///C:/Documents%20and%20Settings/angel/My%20Documents/DEd/Literature %20Review/SLMR_LibrarySkills_V1.pdf Colorado Educational Media Association (1994). Information Literacy Guidelines. Denver, Colo.: Colorado Department of Education. 308 Curriculum Development Council, HKSAR, China (2001). Learning to learn: Life-long learning and whole-person development ─The way forward in curriculum development. Hong Kong: CDC, HKSAR. Doyle C. S. (1993). The Delphi Method as a Qualitative Assessment Tool for Development of Outcome Measures for Information Literacy. School Library Media Annual (SLMA), v11, pp.132-144. Education Bureau, HKSAR, China (2012). Overview on Primary Education [online]. Retrieved from http://www.edb.gov.hk/en/edu-system/primarysecondary/primary/overview/index.html Education Bureau, HKSAR, China (2015). Subjects under the 8 Key Learning Areas. [online]. Retrieved from http://www.edb.gov.hk/en/curriculum-development/cs-curriculumdoc-report/8-key-area/index.html Education Bureau, HKSAR, China (2010). Consultation Document on the Information Technology for Quality Education Chapter 1 - Our Vision [online]. Retrieved from http://www.edb.gov.hk/en/about-edb/press/consultation/it-quality-edu/ch1.html Education Bureau, HKSAR, China (2002). Basic Education Curriculum Guide -- Building on Strengths, Booklet 7 [online]. Retrieved from http://cd1.edb.hkedcity.net/cd/EN/Content_2909/html/index.html Education Department, HKSAR, China and District Teacher Network (2000). A Pilot Scheme on Collaboration and Learning: Role of the Teacher Librarian (leaflet). Fisher, J. (2000). Handout at Collaborative Planning and Teaching Workshop 3, Hong Kong District Teacher Network: Resource Based Teaching and Learning Through Collaborative Planning and Teaching, 19-20 May, 2000. Heilprin L. (1989). Foundations of information science reexamined. Annual review of information science and technology. Volume 24, p.343-372 Henri J. (1990). Cooperative Curriculum Planning and Team Teaching: A Conceptual Overview. In ed. Henri J. Cooperative planning and teaching: Australian theory and practice. Wagga Wagga, NSW: Centre for Information Studies, Charles Sturt University-Riverina. Henri, J. Hay, L. and Oberg, D. (2002). The School Library-Principal Relationship: Guidelines for Research and Practice. The Hague, IFLA Headquarters, IFLA Professional Reports Latham M. (1998). Information Access, Information Literacy, Lifelong Learning: Keys to Our Survival and Progress in the Global Economy. In ed. Booker D. Information Literacy: The Professional Issue, Proceedings of the third national information literacy conference conducted by the University of South Australia Library and the 309 Australian Library and Information Association Information Literacy Taskforce 8 and 9 December 1997, Adelaide, University of South Australia Library Library Section, Education Department, HKSAR, China (1998). Appointment of TeacherLibrarians in Primary Schools, Government document. Circular LIB48C/122/82 Library Section, The Education Bureau, HKSAR, China (2009). Teacher Librarians Survey [online]. Retrieved from http://www.edb.gov/index.aspx?langno=2&nodeID=4282#seclesson Little, J.W. (1981). The power of organizational setting: school norms and staff development. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Los Angeles, CA, 13-17 April 1981. McDougald, D. and Bowie, M. (1997). Handbook for school libraries. 2nd edn. Ryde, NSW: Curriculum Directorate, The Department. McKenzie J. (1998). The Information Literate School Community. From Now On The Educational Technology Journal, Vol 8, No 1, September, 1998 [online]. Retrieved from http://fno.org/sept98/infolit.html Mills, M.L. (1991). Cooperative Program Planning and Flexible Scheduling: What do Principals Really Think? Emergency Librarian, September October 1991, 19:1, p.25-28 Ontario Ministry of Education and Training (1995). Information Literacy and Equitable Access: A Framework for Change. A Draft Document for Discussion and Response. School Library Association of South Australia (2008). SLASA Teacher Librarian Role Statement [online]. Retrieved from http://www.slasa.asn.au/Advocacy/rolestatement.html Stauffer Library, Queen’s University (2012). Information Literacy [online]. Retrieved from http://library.queensu.ca/inforef/literacy.htm The Library, University of Bath (2015). Information Skills [online]. Retrieved from http://www.bath.ac.uk/library/infoskills/ Biographical note Leung Yuet Ha, Angel, Part time studying Doctor of Education--Lifelong Education, The University of Nottingham. Master of Applied Science (Library and Information Management), Charles Sturt University. Bachelor of Education (Primary and Secondary Education), Major in Library Studies, The University of Hong Kong. Primary teacher, teacher librarian, Primary School Mistress Curriculum Development and Director of Academic Affairs. Part-time tutor for Diploma in Teacher Librarianship at HKU SPACE since 2005. Education Officer, “Reading Battle”, Cite HKU since 2013. Part time tutor for a training workshop in Macau as 310 part of the “Promoting Reading Research Project” (CACLER) Faculty of Education, HKU since 2013. Mentorship Coordinator, Librarian Training Program in Hefei, Anhui, China, and Hong Kong and Macau Coordinator, School Library Research Program, Chen Yet-sen Family Foundation. 2006-2009 elected East Asia Regional Director of IASL. Currently the vice-president of Hong Kong Teacher-Librarians’ Association. Main research topics are reading, information literacy and teacher librarianship. 311 Transfer, transformation, transition: what the school librarian can do in transliteracy, the French context Anne Lehmans Bordeaux University, School of Education, Bordeaux Montaigne University ESPE d’Aquitaine, 33705 Mérignac France [email protected] Valentine Mazurier Bordeaux University, School of Education, Bordeaux Montaigne University ESPE d’Aquitaine, 33705 Mérignac France [email protected] Abstract With the emergence of digital information, the school library as a physical location still exists but its spaces and boundaries are reshuffled. This major change encourages us to study the new distribution of spaces in school libraries, the relationships between different types of spaces (physical and digital, individual and social, private and public) and the way pupils move from one to the other. Information transliteracy is the topic of a research project led in France. Our research points out the transformation of learning strategies in collaborative situations, transfers between informal personal digital abilities and formal academic skills and between experts and novices, transition from learning to creating, cognitive redistribution between spaces. We explore and try to explain some of these processes which seem to us encouraging for the future of school libraries and signs of a renewal of the task of librarians, implying new modes of action which we will describe: mediation, creation, education. Keywords: Transliteracy, school library, teacher librarian, mediation, knowledge format. Introduction Information literacy can be defined as series of abilities that can be connected to various ways of seeking, selecting, finding, scrutinizing, organizing and compiling information for meaningful use in late modern society, where people are expected to use information for constructing new knowledge (Limberg, Sundin, Talja 2013). It is based on a humanistic and 312 universalistic conception of the right to be educated (Lehmans, 2007) and the project to make education a path to individual empowerment towards information. Recently, information literacy has been completed and enlarged by the concept of transliteracy that Sue Thomas (2007), defines as the ability to read, write and interact across a range of platforms, tools and media from signing and orality through handwriting, print, TV, radio and films, to digital social networks. According to Vincent Liquète (2012), the concept of transliteracy focuses the attention on the “trans” prefix: transversality of skills and abilities common to all media contexts and techniques, transformation of situations and information by personal practices and procedures, transition from personal to collective knowledge, transgression of academic standards. It is at the crossroad of three main fields: information, media and computer literacies, as well as a metaliteracy. Digital literacy, computer literacy, information literacy, and media literacy are no longer isolated. The concept of transliteracy has been evolving and already impacted the organization of spaces, resources, and teaching by school librarians. It is related to the transmedia and culture convergence theory (Jenkins, 2006) describing the layering, diversification and interconnectivity of media, and it points out the importance of interaction skills applied by users on all types of media and communication, oral, textual, iconic, digital, mainly in digital environments (Delamotte, Liquète, Frau-Meigs, 2014, 146). The way pupils at school access to and use information, which is available anytime and anywhere, has changed learning strategies and the relationship between information and knowledge. Library professionals have to accommodate to this new informational ecosystem inside and outside the walls of the library. In France, in every secondary school, a teacher librarian is in charge not only of the school library management and organization, but also of education on information. Even if the teacher librarian does not usually follow a precise curriculum, he plays an important role in information and media literacy. He is dedicated to the training of information literate pupils, which is a prerequisite for the sustainable development according to the Moscow Declaration (2012), and for their integration in the knowledge society demanding the skills to ask questions about the construction and dissemination of particular media artefacts. (boyd, 2014 : 181). We try to question the way the concept of transliteracy, which has precise theoretical roots, has been transforming the understanding of school libraries’ and teacherlibrarians’ action in and on education. Information transliteracy is the topic of a research project led in France, Translit. School libraries have long been places dedicated to collect, storage, access and preservation of printed collections. With the emergence of digital information, the school library as a physical location still exists but its spaces and boundaries are reshuffled. This major change encourages us to study the new distribution of spaces in school libraries, the relationships between different types of spaces (physical and digital, individual and social, private and public) and the way pupils move from one to the other. Our research points out the transformation of learning strategies in collaborative situations, transfers between informal personal digital abilities and formal academic skills and between experts and novices, transition from learning to creating and from creating to learning, cognitive redistribution between spaces. These phenomena are facilitated by, and sometimes created by the action of the teacher librarian. 313 We intend to explore and try to explain some of these processes which seem to us encouraging for the future of school libraries and signs of a renewal of the task of librarians, implying specific modes of action which we will describe: mediation, creation, education. Mediation by space organization and transfer process School librarians are mediators in different ways: socially -between school disciplines, teachers, families, institutions, and pupils regarding skills and expertise-, informationally between documents and users-, cognitively, developing instrumental skills with tools and devices, facilitating situated and shared knowledge creation in spaces. In the context of transliteracy, space is a key component to consider. It is not an empty frame, it does influence pupils’ uses. To encourage interaction, exploration and shared knowledge creation, James Paul Gee (2004 :73) proposes the concept of “ affinity space ” as " a place or set of places where people affiliate with others based primarily on shared activities, interests, and goals, not shared race, class culture, ethnicity, or gender ”. School librarians‘ actions of mediation may focus on space to propose a third space, an autonomous, incentive but not intrusive space. Methodology and research design: space in the pupils’ information ecosystem In the research project we are working on, we have tried to characterize typical transliterate activities which are cognitively distributed and situated. Our scientific protocol is based on an “ecological” approach of capturing pupils’ information retrieval and production practices, and teachers’ training practices. We focus on environments and interactions in the phenomenographic tradition (Limberg et al., 2013), considering the social, ideological, and physical contexts and environments in which information and technical artefacts are used' (Tuominen et al., 2005, 340). For this project, we observe the information activities of young people in school project situations, especially in school libraries. Our research, based on ethnographic qualitative methodologies, enables us to observe in details thin and elaborate cognitive phenomena and social relations taking place in the pupils’ information working process, especially when digital tools allow them to expand the walls of the classroom and the library. The teacher librarian in France is in charge of the school library in middle and high schools, called Center for Documentation and Information, which is supposed to support pupils and teachers in their need of information. It provides not only books related to school work, but also leisure literature – or at least literature which may give them the desire to read-, and digital resources. The teacher librarian is in charge of information literacy, education on media and information, culture and communication, bibliotheconomy. The emergence of digital technologies in everyday life has questioned the role of school in the use of tools which can at the same time be useful to get needed information for academic or professional work, and be damaging to the attention and safety of children and personal freedom. Most CDI are equipped with computers, but digital uses and practices differ from school to school, depending on equipment and access to the internet, the policies of the headmasters, and the capacity of the teacher librarian to manage the use of these computers. Thereby, the CDIs can be considered as unifying spaces for the pupils, and even mediating spaces: with the same spatial organization, the same codes and the same tools, they provide a familiar informational structuring environment where pupils can expect the help and training of an 314 information professional. Many discipline programs mention the CDI as a place where pupils are supposed to go, get information and work with, especially when they work on projects. The real space is often completed with a virtual space, either on a virtual office where pupils can find documents, or on a web site where the teacher librarian organizes documentation through special pages. Some teacher librarians also use social networks, creating a Facebook or a Twitter account for the CDI, in order to disseminate information using familiar tools or to educate pupils to the use of these networks. Nobody doubts that pupils develop informal information uses and skills in their private, personal leisure activities. But researchers (Fluckiger, Bruillard, 2008) point out a limited transfer between these skills and formal ones inside the walls of the classroom and, by extension, the school library, contrary to the assertions of Mark Prensky’s “digital natives” theory. The use of academic digital workspaces which seems to fit pupils’ habits and practices remain quite limited at home. Besides, teachers are sometimes still reluctant to use digital tools and favor broadcasting media (Guichon 2012). It is as if personal, digital and informal space on one hand and academic space, on the other hand , were impervious. This is why mediation action seems to be necessary. School librarians develop different mediation devices. Fabre and Gardies (2010) point out the distinction between intentional device and attribution device. The teacher librarian builds the first one using professional standards and skills in order to organize and disseminate information. When pupils appropriate the second one, it conveys meaning. The mediation action of school librarians is to create devices enabling pupils to play an active role in their information literacy learning process. These devices are various but they all serve the same purpose: to help with the ability to embrace the multimedia layout that encompasses skills for reading, writing, counting and computing with all the available tools (from paper to image, from book to blog); and the capacity to navigate through multiple domains that includes the ability to search, to evaluate, to test, to validate, and to modify information according to its relevant contexts of use (as code, news and document) (ANR, 2012). Web based platforms are specific devices among others. They are likely to enable pupils to find an in-between space: a digital space proposing academic and more informal resources. Pupils can access the platform at home and in the walls of the school. This type of tool can play a positive role of frontier. Border is often considered as a physical limit but it is also a relation and a link, a boundary-object (Star, 2010) between print and digital collections, print and digital uses, private and social spaces. To what extent do pupils benefit from this type of device? Does it enlarge spaces and practices as school librarians may assume? To answer these questions, we made an inquiry in the context of a junior high school located in Bordeaux with thirteen-years old pupils with heterogeneous academic levels. We collected qualitative material resorting to semi-structured interviews and observation of pupils’ uses of the web-based platform inside the school library. The platform is “Scoop-It”, a widely spread platform in the educational field and especially in school libraries. It enables professionals to curate and publish content. The interface is seducing, it contains both images and short texts to present web pages. It is quite easy to update. The web pages suggested on the platform come from the school librarian‘s choices. They are selected according to the criteria of quality and reliability, free information, match to school syllabus and pupils‘ main interests and information needs considering pedagogical projects and news. Mediation as a complex process of boundaries creation for information and competencies transfers As teenagers spend a lot of time on the internet, we assumed that the platform was transparent to them and quite easy to understand and master. What we observed is rather 315 different. Pupils’ answers to our survey show that they are not comfortable with it: 35% find it “difficult” to use. They have difficulty to understand how it works - its intellectual organization but also its technical functioning-. Most pupils are not able to define it at once and 40 % of them simply answer « I don’t know » when asked to describe it. No pupil can say that it has been created by the teacher librarian. It confirms that, at that age, pupils have a poor knowledge of the internet as a whole and of the teacher librarians’ tasks. They do not understand the organization of the home page while it is very important for the librarian to make it readable and efficient. The technical facets are not as easy as we may think for pupils to describe. One pupil says: “You need to push to access information”. Another one even says he doesn’t know how to access the web pages. Observing pupils in the library confirms that they have difficulty to understand and to use this tool. They hardly browse the website. They examine neither pages nor topics. They target a single page. They skim the page through and their use is extremely limited. It confirms that skills, even the basic ones, are not inborn. But it also sheds light on the device as an additional layer to access information. Instead of making it easier, the platform adds difficulty and may widen the gap between pupils. No pupil consulted the Scoop-It platform at home or on their own in the library even if 95% of them found it useful at school. The reason is the same for all of them, even if they formulate it in different ways: “I don’t think of it” or “I forget”. Only 10 % express their lack of interest. They clearly distinguish private use and academic use. One pupil state : “At home, I never visit websites for school”. Even if they all declare using the internet every day at home, only 30% of the sample use the internet at home for school. We know that listening to music is one of the most widespread leisure activities among teenagers. However, the link to Deezer was not used at all. This site was directly linked to a project led with another group in music lessons. Thus, not one of the pupils activated the link. It highlights the question of information need. If there is no direct information need for school, the resource is not consulted, which is quite easy to understand. Thirteen-years old pupils’ relationship to knowledge is still in construction. They are building their own autonomy and tools can’t replace it. It also shows that even if music is familiar to them, it remains a private activity that teenagers do not want to introduce at school except in their earphones. The project points out the fact that boundaries not only concern uses and skills but also time and space. The development of digital information which is supposed to abolish time and space borders could reinforce them in reality. Space may even be an additional barrier and constraint to develop transliterate uses and skills inside the walls of the school, and teacher librarians can’t ignore it. Fabre (2013) shows that the distribution of spaces in French school libraries is constraining because it splits medium and, consequently, use. It compartmentalizes information uses, and even organizes it in a hierarchy, instead of favoring mobility. At another level, French researchers Roselli and Perrenoud (2010) led a research project on Toulouse University library and point out how space planning, but also sorting, and professionals, create genuine but invisible frontiers inside the library. The way teacher librarians foresee passage from one to another requires some reflection. Both school librarians and pupils have difficulty to move original boundaries. “Bring Your Own Device” (BYOD) may be a chance to think over space issue. It reshuffles boundaries and changes the way pupils relate to space, mixing informal skills and formal environment, mobile technologies and physical location, private and social spaces. It could be interesting to conduct the same study with older pupils. Secondary school time is a transitional period leading to more autonomy. Guichon (2012) points out that high school pupils use social networks to solve homework difficulty all together, for example by publishing Facebook status. Teachers can’t be aware of this specific collaborative use 316 because they simply do not know, refuse or ignore it. Reflection on a specific space for homework may be a first step to bridge the gap between informal and formal skills, private and social spaces as it is situated at the crossroads of home and school. Transliteracy may be an opportunity for school librarians to propose new space affordances to ensure a real information culture. Creation by knowledge formats and transformation process In a part of our research dedicated to sixteen years old high school pupils working on group projects, we were able to evaluate the pupils’ capability to organize their information environment, to coordinate the work among the members of the groups and to use various information strategies in order to achieve a creative project. There is a direct correlation between these capabilities and the success of the projects. The supply of adequate knowledge formats in project scenario is a way to combine individual and collective strategies, tools and spaces in the process of knowledge creation. Conditions for creative learning Education in France is based mainly on the mastering of disciplinary, patrimonial and formal knowledge. Project based education is still quite rare and late in the school curriculum. Pupils are used to meet the demands of teachers with very formal strategies, without resorting to creative springs. These are mobilized at home, or clandestinely at school, during or between courses, in non-formal practices. Elisabeth Schneider (2012) shows that students have writing practices which design complex journeys during classes, away from the eyes of teachers, mobilizing complex skills and transmedia activities. Yet digital tools appear as a means of fostering creativity so little encouraged at school, because it is, in the imagination of pupils, associated with private practices, games, communication. When a teacher encourages personal skills for school use, pupils can take to move the boundaries they usually oppose the demands of the teachers. Nonetheless, our research has shown that they do not easily use their personal skills and do not “naturally” make bridges between their private uses and academic demands. They have to be encouraged and work in strong groups where they can rely on each other. When asked why they do not rely upon their personal skills, some answer that they do not want to mix school life and leisure, and that it would kill the pleasure to use tools such as a blog or Facebook. They have to be encouraged to “have fun” with their school work in order to allow themselves the right to use their ordinary creation practices, image creation and mixing, video and music making, creative writing. We have observed some teachers who did so and encouraged pupils in this way, while others were too demanding on academic forms to allow any creative process. It appears that it is important to valuate unformal, private skills and tastes, to give consciousness and confidence to pupils into their own capabilities and also to their understanding and critics. Similarly, while pupils often find information through images (via Google image or YouTube), they do not appear to them as legitimate sources of information: a movie, a video or an image is used only with the encouragement of teachers but not spontaneously. The image is a research format, but rarely a legitimate knowledge building size or disclosure. Moreover, if most pupils have integrated the importance of authorship in high school, and the need to cite sources, they do so only for written sources. For still images or movies, questioning the author seems to disappear behind an informational status of the image blur difficult to question. The images belong to the personal world of leisure and 317 intimacy, the text to the school and knowledge world. There is a gap between actual cognitive processes and representation of legitimate knowledge. This shift is reinforced by the sense of generational gap. The bridge is so difficult to build between the informational universe of the web, shifting and blurring, and school communication formats and legitimacy. Several examples illustrate these blocking in legitimacy. For example, bibliographies, which are often webographies, are mostly built as copied and pasted url lists, except when a specific instruction is given and explained by the teacher-librarian. The use of copy-paste is considered illegitimate, except when teachers see it as a first phase in the work of collecting information, followed by a writing and reformulation phase. Formats are sources of reflection on legitimacy. Forms, formats and transformation Knowledge formats allow the establishment of communicative conditions and provide frameworks for the emergence of transliterate skills. A format is a tangible and intangible knowledge organization model, linking "logic of knowledge and dynamic of uses" (Morandi, 2013, 139). It designs forms to knowledge and information questioning (mind maps), work organization (logbooks), information management (indexing) or communication (books, web documentaries, blogs…). The logbook, for example, is mandatory in some projects but often reduced to a formal and unnecessary requirement. Some teachers have transformed this requirement by explaining it as an effective information storage tool and work organization. When it exists, the book may be strictly organized by some pupils with a color code system, and often used to store and manage the references of key documents and ideas that are useful to the editor. It sometimes becomes, at the initiative of the teacher librarian, a true cognitive and didactic training tool. The logbook is a tool for storage, sharing and documentation of found information. It allows to organize information at the end of the project, a heuristic for retrieved media information to operate and maintain the correct references. Logbooks of pupils we observed in high schools also reflect the diversity of research tools and communication skills. A pupil, for example, explains in his diary that he synthetized information in English combined with video clips of presidential speeches for his subject on the U.S. elections. He adds that he wanted to propose an oral presentation based on an animated slide show, mixing music clips and photo montage. His logbook shows quite a complex hybridization of practices monitoring academic prescription (standardized references as prescribed by the teacher librarian) and communicative creativity and support on its common research and communication practices. Formats can also be offered in a prescriptive guide blog and was effective in our observations from one year to another, to guide pupils in their choice of tools and document description formats. Finally, a specific communication format allows pupils to think about alternative ways of rendering a research and reduces the contradictions they perceive between familiar multimedia fixtures and academic formats used at school (written presentation). This is the case for radio, video, data visualization or blog productions in media classes. These formats may open pupils to the design of information through content production, they do not only solicit academic knowledge, but critical thinking, not just problem solving, but also issues discovering. Despite what is commonly said on pupils’ information practices, they own an elaborate “art of doing” (de Certeau, 1980) and a strong consciousness of their uses and the management of their personal information system. They tend to invent ways of doing things which are not orthodox according to what they are taught, but nonetheless efficient and explicable using thoughtful devices. They need to be mentored in the process of transfers of uses and 318 expertise among them. We use the word grammatization of information to characterize the process of creative learning, construction of knowledge and competencies on information which lead to information culture or transliteracy. This grammatization appears when pupils are induced to think about their own practices and criticize them according to their social, academic and individual needs, constructing formal from informal knowledge on information, media and computers. It relies on two conditions: the existence of intuitive but nonetheless efficient information practices, commonly acquired in social situations, and the presence of a teacher librarian who induces awareness and control of the practices through conscience knowledge formats. When one of these conditions is lacking, the process cannot be completed. It was the case in some situations that we observed: when pupils have no or poor social experience of using media information and when the teacher librarian has few occasions to interact with them, a strong difference among pupils is observed, which creates inequality: in this case, transliteracy will mainly depend on social conditions and not on education. In the third case, while the pupils’ social conditions are not favorable to transfers between personal and school information practices or between different media, the role of the teacher librarian is important to compensate the lack or poverty of informal knowledge. Transition and education process Educational support to media, digital and information literacy is the sine qua non condition of equality in transliteracy and promotion of democracy at school. Our observations show that pupils are very unequal regarding access to and use of information. They also need to develop their critical sense. A more or less formal curriculum is necessary to ensure a real «information culture » based on transliteracy among pupils. Education in transliteracy as a social construction The fundamental role of teacher librarians is to guarantee the emancipation of the individual, conscience and knowledge production. This emancipatory function appears all the more essential that the cultural and cognitive "legacy" of students is unequal, depending on the geographical location and the social composition of the school. In the vocational school we observed, students are those of much greater difficulties than others to construct knowledge from information and from personal and informal practices. In this situation, digital tools make the social and cognitive gap wider, and education in essential. The digital gap between pupils is so important that a systematic effort on education has appeared as a necessity. We observed different schools in which the educational strategies were quite different. The problem is that information and media literacy are not included into a formal program but cross different programs in which the teachers do not always pay equal attention to information competencies. In training schools, it may have dramatic consequences, because most pupils do not have access to knowledge on information in their families or social groups. Under the vocational school, the process of mutual enrichment between personal, social and academic practices is complicated, either because non-formal information practices are poorly developed, mainly for entertainment, or because the school format is not mastered by pupils: the transition from spontaneous information and communication practices to school knowledge requires significant support from the teacherlibrarian. Some mechanisms may still be unlocked when letting, for example, pupils seek information from images, or Wikipedia, and encouraging them to link the information found with their personal observations on the professional field, or with a collective reflection involved in the group with the teachers. 319 Education as an activity-based transition process Finally, the role of teacher librarians facing the ever-changing information environments relies in their ability to draw knowledge path from the non-formal and multimedia practices. Our study shows how the spontaneous and ordinary information and communication practices are a lever for educational action. Moreover, teacher librarians met during our investigations tend to encourage and value these practices, which is rarely the case for teachers from traditional disciplines who tend to reproduce a closed discourse centered on prohibitions and restrictions, nor for librarians who are more interested in the information searching processes than in its use for learning (Limberg, Sundin, Talja, 2013). On one hand, the discipline teachers only consider the content of knowledge produced and not of its mode of production, which is a source of tension between the teachers themselves. On the other hand the librarians, especially at university, do not pay attention to the cognitive processes and rely on procedures and tools. Information literacy, as Christine Bruce (1997) has clearly demonstrated, is not uniform but engaged into various experiences and constructions of information uses. From the beginning of their history, French teacher librarians have tried to assume pedagogical strategies. Their actions focus on skills to empower pupils to become enlightened and critical information literate citizens in an unstable and information overloaded environment. Knowledge mediation is even more on the agenda as people often confuse information and knowledge, access and skill. Researchers and field actors develop a set of information and documentation didactic notions. They promote the idea of a curriculum to ensure a real and solid “information culture”. They use various learning situations. Distance learning is also an interesting path which starts to be used by some teacher librarians who build personalized courses (Lehmans, Cordier, 2012) based on collaboration between pupils. This field of research is still under construction but it already shapes school librarians actions, tools and mediations. The lack of a precise academic program forces them to concentrate their action on activities, processes and projects prior to a locked knowledge content. The transliteracy perspective engages them into a renewed reflection on the architecture of school learning and information literacy (Cordier, Liquète, 2013) taking into consideration social and technical interactions and transfers, and the need of creative mediation processes. The theory of activity (Engeström, 2014), based on the socioconstructivist legacy, reminds the centrality of the cognition processes in the use of information as socially situated and distributed into the activity understood as a process of production and meaning construction. Conclusion Transliteracy, observed in educational and informational contexts, features a transformation of learning strategies and porosity between academic skills and "intuitive" competencies, formal and informal. This transformation of the constitutive rules of schoolwork and redistribution of cognitive and social roles, skills and knowledge in building transliterate strategies, highlight the need to support knowledge formats, informational activities, and new forms of pedagogical mediation allowing the meeting of spontaneous informal practices with formal requests and legitimate and inclusive cultural constructs. References 320 ANR TRanslit (2012). Présentation. Available at: http://www.univ-paris3.fr/presentation-anrtranslit-317833.kjsp [accessed 10/3/2015]. Boyd, d. (2014). It’s complicated: the social lives of networked teens. New Heaven: Yale University Press. Bruce, C. (1997). The Seven Faces of Information Literacy. Adelaide: Auslib Press. Certeau, M. (de). (1980) L'Invention du quotidien, 1. : Arts de faire. Paris: Gallimard. Cordier, A., Liquete, V. (2013) La translittératie, un facteur de réagencement de l'organisation scolaire ?. 19ème Colloque Bilatéral Franco-Roumain en Sciences de l'Information et de la Communication, Mar 2013, Romania. Available at: http://archivesic.ccsd.cnrs.fr/sic_01066402 [accessed 10/3/2015]. Delamotte, É., Liquète, V., Frau-Meigs, D. (2014) La translittératie, ou la convergence des cultures de l’information : supports, contextes et modalités, Spirale, 53, 145-156. Engeström, Y. (2014) Learning by Expanding: An Activity-Theoretical Approach to Developmental Research. Cambridge: Cambridge U.P. Fabre, I. (2013). L'espace documentaire comme lieu de médiations. Esquisse. Available at : http://oatao.univ-toulouse.fr/9136/1/Fabre_9136.pdf [accessed 10/3/2015]. Fabre, I., Gardies, C. (2010). La médiation documentaire. In Médiations, Les essentiels d’Hermès, Institut des sciences de la communication du CNRS (ISC), 121-139. Fluckiger, C., Bruillard, E. (2008). TIC : analyse de certains obstacles à la mobilisation des compétences issues des pratiques personnelles dans les activités scolaires. Available at: http://archivesic.ccsd.cnrs.fr/sic_00343128 [accessed 10/3/2015]. Gee, J. P. (2004). Situated Language and Learning: A Critique of Traditional Schooling. London: Routledge. Guichon, N.(2012). Les usages des TIC par les lycéens - déconnexion entre usages personnels et usages scolaires, STICEF, Vol.19, Available at : http://sticef.org [accessed 10/3/2015]. IFLA, UNESCO (2012). The Moscow Declaration on Media and Information Literacy. Available at: http://www.ifla.org/publications/moscow-declaration-on-media-andinformation-literacy [accessed 10/3/2015]. Jenkins, H. (2006). Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide, New York: NYU Press. Lehmans, A. (2007). Information Literacy : un Lien entre Information, Education et Démocratie. Esquisse, 50-51, 25-40 . 321 Lehmans, A., Cordier, A. (2012) Distance learning as a central issue for the learning and professionalization process of professeurs documentalistes: The French synthesis of transliteracy. School Libraries Worldwide, International Association of School Librarianship, 18(2), 41-50. Limberg, L, Sundin, O., Talja, S. (2013). Three Theoretical perspectives on Information Literacy, Human It, 11(01). Liquète, V. (2012). Can one Speak of an “Information Transliteracy”? International Conference Media and Information Literacy (MIL) for Knowledge Societies, 24-28 June, Moscow, Russian Federation, Available at : http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CI/CI/pdf/In_Focus/Liquete _text.pdf [accessed 10/3/2015]. Roselli, M., Perrenoud, M. (2010). Du lecteur à l’usager : ethnographie d’une bibliothèque universitaire. Toulouse: Presses universitaires du Mirail. Star, S.L. (2010). This is not a boundary object: Reflections on the origins of a concept. Science, Technology and Human Values, 35(5), 601-617 Schneider, E. (2012) Pratiques d'écriture adolescentes et translittératie. GRCDI (Groupe de Recherche sur la Culture et la Didactique de l’Information) Séminaire du 7 septembre 2012 : La translittératie en débat : regards croisés des cultures de l’information (infodoc, médias, informatique) et des disciplines. Available at: http://culturedel.info/grcdi/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/Seminaire-GRCDI2012_texte-E.Schneider.pdf [accessed 10/3/2015]. Thomas, S and al. (2007). Transliteracy. Available at: https://suethomasnet.wordpress.com/transliteracy / [accessed 10/3/2015]. Tuominen, K., Savolainen, R. & Talja, S. (2005). Information literacy as a socio-technical practice. Library Quarterly, 75(3), 329-345. Biographical notes Anne Lehmans has worked as associate professor at Bordeaux University (School of Education) since 2003. She holds a PhD in Political Science. She holds and coordinates courses on information literacy and information and communication science. She takes part of the selection board of teacher librarians for the French Minister of Education. She is a project manager for digital uses at the School of Education in Bordeaux university. She is involved into several research projects among which Translit (Convergence between media, digital, information literacies). Her most recent contributions were in Media and Education Futures Conference in Tampere (Finland) with Vincent Liquète in Conditions for a Sustainable Information Transculture and in the European Conference on Information Literacy 2014 in Dubrovnik (Croatia) with Anne Cordier in Transliteracy and knowledge formats. She is one of the authors of the book Culture of information recently published by Vincent Liquète (CNRS, Essentiels Hermès, 2014). 322 Valentine Mazurier has been a teacher librarian in Bordeaux since 1999. She is a PHD student in Information and Communication Science (under the direction of Pr Vincent Liquète). Her research subject focuses on the documentary space in the French context of school libraries through the study of representations and practices of teacher-librarians and pupils in terms of space. She takes part in the teacher librarian training at the School of Education in Bordeaux. She has been a selection board member of teacher librarians (CAPES) for the French Minister of Education (2007-2010). 323 Educational activities of the School Library of the School Teaching Centre of Basic Education of UFMG Flávia Filomena Rodrigues da Mata Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais Brasil [email protected] Raquel Miranda Vilela Paiva Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais Brasil [email protected] Abstract Working in a school library requires a professional who combines his library science técnias with knowledge of Education. From the premise that the library is no longer an accumulation of space but now a place of dissemination of knowledge, its performance changes, is increased. Thus, in 2013, the School Teaching Centre of Basic Education Library was called to offer one GTD – WGD - Working Group Differential - for students of the second cycle of human development. The GTD is a present discipline in the curriculum of Teaching Centre. The overall objective of GTD "storytelling" was to interest students of the second cycle of human training to become storytellers. The search activity to the dictionary, with a view to enriching the vocabulary, was called "The Word is". The librarian working together with teachers demonstrates the importance of this partnership and the good achieved consequences. Keywords: School librarians, School library, Librarians – Activities, Brazil. The School library in Brazil When speaking in Brazilian school library is important to consider the question of education in Brazil. Thus, the library follows the rise and the development of education in the country. The books, as well as schools, arrived in Brazil together with the Jesuits around 1549, in Bahia. At that time the books were few and difficult to acquire, which required that the priests would use the collections of the libraries of convents for literacy. This shortage and the lack of specific books for children were obstacles to the establishment of libraries dedicated to teaching, that is, to the existence of what we now know as school library. Still, we note that "the strength of religious colleges in the construction of school libraries 324 occurred, significantly, until the end of the eighteenth century, when it begins its decline, effective in mid-nineteenth century (Silva, 2011, p. 492)". The decadence of religious schools create the conditions necessary for the foundation of other types of schools. In this context, school libraries are formed very focused on students and create an association between children's literature and school literature. In relation the functions of education, Válio (1990) indicates that "schools have been established with the law of 10/15/1827 to teach reading, writing, arithmetic and religion, privileging the readings of the Empire Constitution and History of Brazil (Válio, 1990, p. 16)." Also related to the creation of the first school libraries in Brazilian lands Válio (1990) points out that "The creation of school libraries within the meaning understood today, started happening in the country with the establishment of normal schools. The first to be created was the Library of Normal School Caetano de Campos, São Paulo, on June 30, 1880 and, years later, on June 16, 1894, inaugurated the Library State Capital Gymnasium (INL, 1944) (Válio, 1990, p. 18).” If the implementation of the first school library, with the characteristics we know today, only occurred in the late nineteenth century, discussions and reflections on this space and its functions only started from the mid-twentieth century. Making an analysis of these discussions is possible to observe changes in the concept of school library over the decades. Until the 1970s, the literature on school library consists of many manual for implementation or maintenance of these spaces. This decade brings the discussion around the school research and puts the formation of readers as library function. But in fact the schools, this space is often non-existent or poor. The 1980s mean to the school library an increase in the debates which includes its concept and possibilities arising from new technologies. Different from the traditional concept, the library goes to show as a resource for teaching and as an alternative place for development of educational activities. However, even if the discourse on school library exalt this space, it is perceived that it is still precarious. Conceptually, the 1990s seems to recover the concepts of earlier decades: the school search gets new enhancement, especially because of the possibilities from the Internet, and reading continues valued. The difference is that the reading acquires more than its utilitarian function, but also happens to be explored your playful side, enjoyment and pleasurable. Despite the fervent discourses in favor of school libraries, their importance still remained on paper. At this time, enough to question the need for school library, since its lack does not prevent the teaching-learning process (Silva, 2001). From the 2000s, the discussion on information literacy brings to the library the need to change and adapt to the new model of society and citizens. While this concept and its debates have arisen in the United States even in the 1980s, only from 2000s Brazilian librarians begin to reflect on this issue. 325 Information Literacy wish to move the library and insert it really as a pedagogical tool within the school. This is an alternative to change the present situation of school libraries in the country. However, the position of librarian, active in school libraries should also change. These professionals must have the challenge to prepare students for the present context, which noted an informational excess. Thus, it is necessary to break with the notion of the library as a mere appendage of the school, making it a vital space in the process of teaching and learning, both students and the school collective (Dias & Santos, 2004). This way "it can be considered that information literacy is a step forward in the path of the library profession in the search for more space to exercise their educational role (Campello, 2009, p. 7)." School library x Education By analyzing the history of the school library in Brazil, as well as education, we can see changes not only at the conceptual level, but also in their functions. At the moment the school library was established like a teaching support tool, is now considered necessary for the school. In this new scenario, the school library provides services not only to students but also to the teachers, which becomes part of the users of this space. From the premise that the library is not an accumulation of books, but now a place of dissemination of knowledge, its change of operation is accentuated. Since the beginning of the twentieth century can be registered the state's efforts and society to eradicate illiteracy in Brazil. Of the various elaborate campaigns and programs, we can highlight Paulo Freire's efforts (late 1950s, early 1960s), which has its distinctive method of the current education yet. For Freire, the subject is part of the teaching-learning process and this new vision of the student directly affects the teaching methodology. But Freire's view, because of the very changes in the political order, will be questioned by the military regime in post-1964 force in Brazil and as a result of the new balance of power in place, Freire's educational proposal is emptied and replaced. Thus, in the 1970s there is the replacement of a focused education in critical reflection and giving up the institution of MOBRAL. The state creates the MOBRAL as a new attempt to eradicate the question of illiteracy in the adult population in the country. The school then goes on to have as a guideline the formation of an economically productive guy, so as to respond to market demands, and therefore considered a valuable citizen. In August 1971, Law No. 5692 proposes to reformulate the education that shall be replaced by as general objective provide the student the formation skills to enable their development for self-realization, to work and to the conscious exercise of citizenship. Also in the 1970s enlarges the influence of capitalism, and the society is, in a forceful way, to be regulated by the market. According Frigotto (1991), Brazil, from the point of view of its economy, came late in capitalism, bringing rancidity of a patriarchal, slavocratic and conservative society. In this scenario the author explains that the idea included at that time 326 was that "the pure and simple access to school would raise all Brazilians to equal competitive conditions in the market. Thereafter the problem is each (Frigotto, 1991, p. 47). " However, the same author points out that "not MOBRAL solved the problem of illiteracy, aggravated it, not everyone had access to school and, much less, who had obtained access greater social mobility (ibid, p. 48)." That is, access to education was seen an apologetic way, as being able to save all the people, but without then this responsibility was transferred to the individual, leaving him perform the necessary change in the country. In the context that in Brazil as previously said is characterized by the military dictatorship education takes a utilitarian function, leaving aside the humanistic education in favor of forming a qualified workforce. In light of this movement education, the school library also suffers restructuring. At this time, it becomes a center of information and culture, which should serve the school community. Law 5.692 / 71 brings elements that contribute to the debate on the school library at that time and the search for changes in its operations. At that moment there is a valuation of school research and the formation of readers as essential functions of school libraries. The 1980s is marked by the economic crisis and political effervescence in Brazil. It is called by many the last decade, but in the educational environment, was not as negligible. The establishment of the Constituent brought political discussion to the educational environment (Frigotto, 1991). Law 7044/82 amending the Law 5692/71, however, maintains the objective of teaching four ideas considered fundamental: - The development of the student's potential; - Self-realization; - Preparation for work; - Preparation for the conscious exercise of citizenship. (Silva, 2001, p. 40-41) As pointed out, the school library suffers an impulse in his reflections, ranging from conceptualization of space to issues of technology. It is at this time that presents itself as an alternative space for teaching and learning within the school. By the time the school library has established itself as a tool to support teaching, became perceived as necessary to school. In this new scenario, the school library is not only positions the student service, but also the teaching staff, which is placed as part of the users of this scope. The expansion of the use of the library by the school community expand the informational and formative opportunities for students, who until then were limited to the information contained in the textbooks. Given this reality, the practice of scholarly research is gaining ground in the debate arena. The studies about this practice show positive and negative points. The negative points, the most criticized is the fact that, generally, the school library research has become synonymous mere copy. This practice certainly does not contribute effectively to the formation of knowledge. Another element that gained even more strength in the discussions was the question of 327 reading development, more precisely, the importance of educating readers. We agree that the library is a way to guarantee citizens the right to access to reading, but the way of performing such an enterprise is not yet effective. Thus, spite of so many speeches in favor of the importance of the library, which can be seen in the 1980s is that it remains far from their ideal continuing with a poor performance. The 1990 presents discussions in Education around the student as an individual, that is, it becomes the focus of action in order to develop their potential, their freedom, their continued learning. Finally, the student is seen and respected with its own characteristics. Accompanying the changes of Education, the school library also has new functions. Face of this new approach to education, the library is viewed as a space that contributes to the formation of the student. The evolution of society has brought new concepts, including the Information Society. This new society has in itself the information explosion and the necessary changes in all areas. The information society also requires a new individual model, namely flexible people, criticism, attentive to changes, conscious of their rights and obligations, able to act in this new context. Thus we have a society with a new model citizen hat generates the need for change in the education scenario and consequently the school library. Today it is required that the individual is able to consciously select what you relevant, thus exercising, reading skills, research and selection. This information society brings with it new educational paradigms as accents Furtado (2004) Once one of the new paradigms of education is learning to learn; that is, acquire the ability to learn, know how to get, use and generate new information; information systems become extremely important as they may contribute to its democratization, namely to facilitate and increase their access and even more, contribute to the received information to become knowledge, improving the quality of life of citizens. (Furtado, 2004) The new educational paradigm throws on the man responsibility for their learning, without worrying about the context in which it operates. Morin (2006) made the UNESCO request some reflections on what he calls seven knowledge necessary for the future education. Are they: 1. The blindness of knowledge: the error and illusion. You need to know what really is to know. There is a need to understand brain function, physical, mental and cultural part, seeking to have the clarity that may be incurred in error or illusion. 2. The principles of the relevant knowledge. The familiar should be designed as possible to understand global and fundamental problems, inserting partial and local knowledge. Knowledge should not be fragmented, seizing thereby the objects in context, given its complexity, as a whole. To this end, it is necessary teaching methods to establish mutual and reciprocal relations between the parties and the whole in a complex world. 3. Teaching the human condition. The human being is also complex. Also consists of 328 4. 5. 6. 7. several parts (physical, biological, psychological, cultural, social) to compose a whole, however, the education tends to study this all too piecemeal, disintegrated into disciplines. Therefore, it is necessary to reconstruct the integrity, this complex identity. Teaching earthly identity. The development of planetary era begins in the sixteenth century, with the advent of communication between all continents. The global financial crisis triggered in the twentieth century points out that human beings share a common destiny. Addressing the uncertainties. The sciences produce many certainties and these were followed by numerous other uncertainties. Education should prepare the student to deal with unforeseen, unexpected situations and uncertainties, making a counterpoint to the deterministic concepts of human history. Teach understanding. For the development of understanding, the reform of mentality is required. It is more important to understand what causes racism, xenophobia and despises than gather and explain your symptoms. This is the most effective way in the search for peace. The ethics of humankind. The human condition is at the same time, be individual / society / species. This reality evokes the twenty-first century, global citizenship, and ethics developed from the moment the individual to understand how formed and forming these three facets. Therefore, based on the reflections of Morin (2006), thinking about education this century is to go beyond what was set before. It is more to think about the student as a repository of knowledge transmitted by the teacher. It think about the formation of terrestrial, complex and citizens living in a complex society also. Simplistic solutions, who view only one or another aspect of the problem, cannot obtain satisfactory results. These changes certainly are reflected in school libraries and reinforce the need to put the librarian to act as educator. School librarian educator The course of decades, the conceptual and library functions changes made the librarians would also go to work as educators and this premise must accompany these professionals. Authors such as Santos (2000) emphasize that the active librarian in the school library must match of library techniques with a social and human side. The librarian, especially one operating in the school context, should be willing to serve as a catalyst for information, dynamically and integrated into the educational performance of teachers. As I said, this professional must master more than of library techniques, requiring some understanding of the area of Education, since they must also act as educators. In the information society, where the information really is the center of the discussions, the school library can serve as a center for cultural dissemination, through activities such as storytelling, lectures, meeting with writers, among others (Furtado, 2004). Also the movement of Information Literacy (Dudziak, 2003) brings reflections on the role of the library and the librarian, by changes in behavior and attitude of both, "this way, librarians need to reinvent themselves, taking a more active stance, triggering processes and organizational innovation projects, both within the library, as in the context of educational 329 institutions (Dudziak, 2003, p.33). " The research Morais (2009) demonstrates the difficulty of librarians to act as educators, since all the librarians interviewed said they were not prepared to coordinate school libraries during your undergraduate degree. The Silveira's work (2007) shows the importance given to the technical content of the librarian profession in lieu of the humanistic disciplines. However, in a different light, Campello (2009) emphasizes there by librarians awareness of their role as educators, beyond the technical functions they need to perform. Therefore, the practice within the school context, allied to search for additional training, help to minimize the librarian performance difficulties in the educational context. In its work in the school library, the librarian needs initially to raise awareness and gain the user. Thus, the predominant actions that attract the school community to the library and reading. Authors like Alves (1992), Mota (2004) and Morais (2009) highlights the need for interaction between teachers and library staff, which does not always occur. This relationship would be very promising, but unfortunately is still lacking, by several factors. Among these factors we can cite the lack of knowledge on the part of teachers of the school's performance and potential library. Thus, a stereotypical and negative view of the teacher regarding this space ends up interfering with the students with the library. Silva (2001) highlights the fact the school library, mostly just consider the student as a user, forgetting the teacher and the school community. In this process of forgetting, the library ends up away or fail to approach the teachers, which could contribute greatly to the work of both professionals. Although the librarian has to play their role as an educator, Ellwein (2006) points out that, However, must be careful, do not confuse its function, ie having well defined who is the teacher and who is the librarian because the librarian was not prepared to be a teacher and the teacher was not prepared to be librarian. (Ellwein, 2006, p. 91) The school librarian should be a dynamic and pro-active professional who is aware of the need for constant updating. Should also seek their insertion in the school community, partnering with teachers and showing the library's potential to aid the process of teaching and learning. The School Teaching Center of Basic Education UFMG The Pedagogical Center originated in old Application Gymnasium UFMG, which was founded in April 21, 1954, to comply with legal arrangements established by Decree Law No. 9053 in 1946. This Decree forced the Faculties of Philosophy Federal to maintain a school for the teaching practice of students enrolled in its Didactic courses. From 1958 became Application School, to meet the demand of Education of valuation. At that time the courses offered: High School, Scientific, Classic and Normal. 330 In 1968 the UFMG was restructured and at that time the "College of Philosophy School of Application" became "Pedagogical Centre", integrated into the "Faculty of Education of UFMG" and with the basic function of offering courses on education 1st and 2nd degrees. From 1972, the "Pedagogical Centre" was moved to the campus of Pampulha and started to take responsibility only for the then 1st Degree. Also started to work in our own building. At this time, begins the Technical College, which will offer professional development courses for high school. In 1997, based on guidelines of the new Guidelines and Framework Law (LDB 9394/96), the School of 1st degree received a new name: "Elementary School of the UFMG Teaching Centre". In 2007, the Pedagogical Centre (CP) joined together with the Technical College (COLTEC) and the University Theatre (TU), the School of Basic Education and Professional UFMG, special unit whose charter was approved by the University Council of the University Federal of Minas Gerais by Resolution No. 05/2007 of 03 May 2007. To suit the legislation, since 2006, the elementary school is offered in nine (09) years and based on the Human Formation Cycles (this one from 1995). The entrance to the school is made by lottery. As the school itself, its objectives are: Teach the elementary school, taking it as a basis for the production of investigative knowledge, education and research. Constitute itself as field of reflection and research on pedagogical practice. Constitute itself as space of new pedagogical experiments, that support progress and reflection on educational practice. Place for holding internship for students of Degree and Graduation. The GTD and the library With the conceptions of school library, with the premise of the teacher librarian role and being in a school with the philosophy of the Pedagogical Centre in 2013, the library was called to offer a GTD (Group Differentiated Work) for students of the second cycle of human development. The GTD is a discipline included in the curriculum "Teaching Centre". This is the formation of a group of students from the diagnosis of their training requirements, aiming to make possible the expansion of this curriculum. Search respect the pace, time and experience of each student. Just as the school teachers who offer GTD, one of the school librarians conducted the work with a group, performing systematic monitoring. In a collective work with teachers, the librarian participated in the planning, coordination and definition of the group to be assisted. Was proposed to draw up a GTD Library to teach students the art of storytelling. The aim 331 was to form storytellers among the students of the second cycle of human, that is, students between 9:11 years old or so. The methodology used included the weekly meetings with students, totalling 60 hours during the semester. The works were developed with the child and youth literature books that treat or bring legends of Brazilian folklore, rhymes, riddles and tongue-twister. It was organized also a literary contest, where the characters and authors of children's books were worked. Experiments were done with drama, recitations and retellings of the stories, written and oral forms. It was also developed research activity in the dictionary with the goal to enrich the vocabulary. This activity was called "The Word is". At the end of the semester was made the evaluation of GTD with students as well as teachers of that cycle. The evaluation and the exchange of information was made at a meeting. In the final evaluation, was appointed the individual student progress and of each in relation to the working group. Conclusions The school library assumes, from the 1980s in the United States, and 2000 in Brazil, its more proactive and integrated into the teaching process. The assumptions of information literacy bring to the practicing librarian in this space the need to re-invent and take an educational role. This role is best played when it is integrated into the education program and in partnership with the school staff. In the Pedagogical Centre for Basic Education UFMG, the discipline of GTD intended to be a time of expansion of the students' knowledge of training, according to their needs and interests. So the role of the library at this time demonstrates its interaction with the school's goals where it belongs and also the possibilities of training of students within that space. The school's invitation to a librarian to take responsibility for a group of students shows the recognition of that school's educational professional role and potential of the library as an alternative space for student education. The librarian working together with teachers demonstrates the importance of this partnership and the good achieved consequences. Finally, the study demonstrates the importance of effective use of library space, the acting professional in the same and their collections, which are devoted to the service of the students' knowledge of training. References Alves, M. C. (1992). 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Information literacy: princípios, filosofia e prática. Ciência da Informação, v. 32, n. 1, p. 23-35. Ellwein, S. A. F. (2006). Pesquisa escolar e o enfadonho exercício de cópia: como separar o trigo do joio. In: Silva, R. J. & Bortolin, S. (Org.). Fazeres cotidianos da biblioteca escolar. São Paulo: Polis. Frigotto, G. (1991). O contexto sócio político brasileiro e a educação nas décadas de 70/90. Contexto e Educação, year 6, n. 24, p. 43-47. Furtado, C. (2004). A biblioteca escolar brasileira no sistema educacional da sociedade da informação. In: Anais Do Segundo Seminário Biblioteca Escolar Espaço De Ação Pedagógica, Belo Horizonte. Retrived 15 may 2008, from: http://www.eci.ufmg.br/gebe/downloads/317.pdf Morais, E. M. C. (2009) Impasses e possibilidades da atuação dos profissionais das bibliotecas da Rede Municipal de Belo Horizonte. Dissertação. (Mestrado em Educação). Faculdade de Educação, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brasil. Morin, E. (2006). Os sete saberes necessários à educação do futuro. (11ª) São Paulo: Cortez & Brasília: Unesco. Mota, F. R. L. (2004). Bibliotecários e professores no contexto da biblioteca escolar: uma interação possível e necessária. In: Anais Do Segundo Seminário Biblioteca Escolar Espaço De Ação Pedagógica, Belo Horizonte-MG, Brasil. Santos, C. A. S. & Santos, M. P. (2013). A atividade de “indicação de leitura” realizada na IFSP: promoção de práticas de incentivo à leitura. Bibl. Esc. em Rev., v. 2, n. 1, p. 55-68. Silva, J. L. C. (2011). Perspectivas históricas da biblioteca escolar no Brasil e análise da lei 12.244/10. Revista ACB: Biblioteconomia em Santa Catarina, v.16, n.2, p. 489517. Silva, M. A. (2001). Biblioteca escolar e professor: duas faces da mesma moeda? Investigação sobre a interação entre a biblioteca escolar e o professor do ensino fundamental na Rede Municipal de Ensino. Dissertação (mestrado) – Escola de 333 Ciência da Informação, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brasil. Silveira, F. J. N. (2007) Biblioteca como lugar de práticas culturais: uma discussão a partir dos currículos de Biblioteconomia no Brasil. Dissertação (Mestrado em Ciência da Informação) – Escola de Ciência da Informação Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brasil. Soares, L. V. O. (2014). A formação como aliada no exercício do papel educativo do bibliotecário na escola. Dissertação (Mestrado em Ciência da Informação) – Escola de Ciência da Informação, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brasil. Válio, E. B. M. (1990). Biblioteca escolar: uma visão histórica. Transinformação, v. 2, n. 1, p. 15-24. Biographical notes Flávia Filomena Rodrigues da MATA has worked as library school on Federal University of Minas Gerais. Master's Degree in Education from PUC-Minas. It storyteller. Teaches courses and workshops on the subject and had recurring roles in the Hall of Books and Literature Meeting sponsored by the Mining Book Council and Municipality of Belo Horizonte. Work and study on Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil. Raquel Miranda Vilela PAIVA, PhD student in Information Science from the ECI / UFMG. Master in Information Science from the School of Science at UFMG info (2009). Graduated in Library Science from the Federal University of Minas Gerais (2006) and a degree in Social Empowerment Communication in Advertising in the Belo Horizonte University Center UniBH (1999). Doing broad post-graduation, specialization Readers Training. He is currently a librarian Information Officer, Federal University of Minas Gerais, the Pedagogical Centre. Areas of interest: school library, study users, literacy and information literacy. 334 A Glimpse into the Brighton College Abu Dhabi Library’s Virtual Learning Environment: how can this help school libraries? Virgilio G Medina Jr Brighton College Abu Dhabi PO Box 129444 United Arab Emirates Abu Dhabi [email protected] Abstract The Virtual Learning Environment is becoming a popular learning platform among various educational institutions in delivering a vibrant and effective learning environment. It enables many school libraries to perform their role in improving services and supporting the school community. The researcher examined the status of Brighton College Abu Dhabi Library’s VLE based on users’ preferences and usage. The researcher surveyed pupils, teachers, and administrators and used frequency distribution to show results. The findings revealed how the library VLE could further be improved and marketed to strengthen its value to the community. Along with this, the included sample of the library VLE content structure and each content’s description can serve as a guide in designing a library VLE. Keywords: Virtual Learning Environment, Digital library, e-learning, library management, VLE Introduction Brighton College Abu Dhabi: Overview Opened in 2011, Brighton College Abu Dhabi (BCAD) campus was built through a joint venture between UK and Bloom, the property development arm of National Holding of Abu Dhabi. Brighton College Abu Dhabi comprises of three schools: The Pre-Prep caters to children from the Foundation Stage 1 to Year 2, the Prep School from Years 3 to 8, and the Senior School from Years 9 to 12. 335 Brighton College Abu Dhabi Library is committed to serving the community by providing wide-range items covering Fiction, Non-fiction, General Subjects, References, Subjectbased, Arabic materials and online resources which aim to support the college curriculum, develop reading skills, and enhance the information literacy of the community. Related Literature School Libraries in a Digital World Transforming students to be proficient in the digital world appears to be one of the challenges of every educational institution today. This conformed to the statement of Kuhlthau (2010) that the “21st century demands for new skills, knowledge, ways of learning that prepare students with abilities and competencies to address challenges of an uncertain changing world” (p. 17). Schrum & Levin (2009) believed that knowledge should not occur in just one individual, text, object or tool. Thus, Asselin (2008) emphasized that it has become urgent that meeting the literacy and learning needs of the net generation must be addressed. What is fortunate, however, is that Kelleher (2013) believed that the digital age provides an opportunity that enables a school library to create a distinctive space where it can continue to inspire the love of learning, whether in the traditional world or online. Former American Association of School Librarians (AASL) President David Loertscher (2008) coined the term ‘School Learning Commons’ that describes a flexible, studentcentered space where students and teachers have access to mobile technologies, digital and print resources, and modular spaces that can be utilized for collaborative activities, content creation, presentation and even performances (Loertscher, as cited in Mclester, 2013). The Canadian Library Association (2014) defined it as the “physical and virtual collaborative learning hub of the school” (p. 5). The information overload that learners can experience nowadays has caused the school libraries to contemplate how they can stay relevant in the digital world (Roscorla, 2013). This issue has been a concern back then but it still continues to bring an impact to the development of school libraries. Leunissen (2013) explained that digital resources are becoming more abundant to the point that learners cannot find or evaluate the right resources. What is a Virtual Learning Environment (VLE)? A virtual learning environment is defined as a collection of integrated tools enabling management of online learning, providing a delivery mechanism, student tracking, assessment and access to resources (JISC, 2004). JISC also noted that a VLE is designed to support and enhance the learning progress of the community. To sum up, it is a learning platform that allows users 24/7 access through the Internet. Moreover, the VLE serves as a platform for collaboration where interaction can take place among its users (O’Driscoll, Cross, & Trondsen, 2007). Thus, tutors can monitor their students’ progress and can provide immediate feedback, whilst pupils can access various resources and other academic requirements set by their tutors. Notably, O’Leary and Ramsden (2002) enumerated the tools and features of VLE (p. 2) as detailed below: 336 ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● “Communication between tutors and students - e.g. emails, discussion board and virtual chat facilities, which support various types of communication. Self-assessment and summative assessment – e.g. multiple-choice assessment with automated marking and immediate feedback. Delivery of learning resources and materials – e.g. through the provision of lecture notes and supporting materials, images and video clips, links to other Web resources, online discussion and assessment activities. Shared and work group areas – allows designated groups of students to upload and share files as well as communicate with each other. Support for students – could take the form of communication with tutors or other students, provision of supporting materials such as course information and Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs). Management and tracking of students – usernames and passwords to ensure that only registered students can access the course; analysis of assessment undertaken by students or their use of materials within the VLE. Student tools – e.g. individual student webpages, ‘drop boxes’ for the upload of coursework, electronic diaries and calendars. Navigation structure – structured delivery of information supported by a standard navigation toolbar. Most VLE software assume that students will work their way through linear sequences of instructional material. Others are more flexible and will accommodate alternative information structures, e.g. multi-path case studies” (p. 2) The Roles of Virtual Learning Environment in School Libraries In Roche’s blog post (2015) she discussed that ICT opportunities, like those offered by VLEs, can make the library accessible 24/7 to the school community “by means of school library websites, online catalogues and the use of Web2.0 services”. Librarians and school administrators should make use of these opportunities because according to Koganuramath (2007), “virtual library appears to offer substantial benefits to lifelong learners over both formal study and conventional open learning” (p. 538). This enables students to utilize and explore various options in relation to their queries in an effective and economical manner. In 1995, Marchionini and Maurer (Cited in Gunn, 2002) pointed out that virtual libraries tailored for specific needs could produce global communities of learners. Tutors or other educators should not be complacent on a traditional learning space and instead should explore various options that cater to the needs of the present generation. Riccio (2001) defined that a virtual a library is a technological way of bringing resources together so users can find what they need. Lamb and Callison (2005) highlighted the following services provided for online users through a virtual school library media center: ● ● ● “Instructional resources such as online tutorials, WebQuest, practice/testing environment, instructional modules, virtual labs, and simulations; Informational materials such as pathfinders, electronic databases, reference resources, streaming video, and digitized primary resources; Virtual adventures such as Web-based tours and virtual field trips 337 ● ● ● ● ● Live interactions using video conferencing such as special events and expert interactions; Collaborative online learning such as email, blogs, discussions, project sharing, collaborative science experiments, collaborative writing, online book discussions, online author visits and expert discussions; Online assistance such as technical support, reference questions, mentoring and peer tutoring; Sharing space such as virtual galleries of student work, online newspapers, and collaborative writing areas; and Online request such as interlibrary loans and multimedia ordering that can be sent through mail to students” (p. 32). Subsequently, the idea of a virtual library, which can be supported by the VLE, serves the concept of “Just in time learning” and “Just enough learning”, coined by Gunn (2002), wherein instead of looking around in the Internet where information overload is common, pupils can browse only the recommended and useful resources evaluated by librarians or teachers. Roles of Virtual Libraries (through the VLE) in supporting Pupils’ Learning Progress Gunn (2002) cited various examples that reinforce the idea that virtual libraries support student learning as they are designed to assist in meeting pupils’ needs through credible and reliable resources. She also added that these are very valuable when searches for the right information elsewhere can be time-consuming and the results can be incomplete, or filled with biases or commercial advertising. Besides, according to Lamb and Callison (2005), virtual libraries “enhance the experience of online learners” by providing access to remote materials. Furthermore, Neuman (Cited in Gunn, 2002) mentioned that two different types of learning that can result from using digital libraries: “Learning related to accessing, evaluating, and using the information resources available in this environment and learning related to mastering and building upon ideas embodied within these resources” (p. 1). Aside from this, Northcote (2008) argued that online learning environments, like digital libraries in VLE, necessitate that students apply various skills (e.g., analyzing, filtering, and organizing online resources, interactive communication skills, etc.) that eventually leads to an environment that encourages their contribution and development. Teachers nowadays are also encouraged to explore further possibilities that support their classroom instruction. For instance, teachers are now engaged in probing the potential of blogs, media-sharing services, and other social software which are specifically designed for e-learning that can empower students and can create exciting learning opportunities (O’Hear 2006). However, Markus (Cited in International Federation of Surveyors, 2010) argued that “e-learning does not save time for the teachers – but it improves the knowledge transfer” (p. 24). Advantages and Disadvantages of a Virtual Learning Environment As mentioned, VLE is becoming prevalent in the present academic setting, not only because of institutions making the most of information technologies for education, but also because of 338 the impact that it can bring to the students’ learning. BBC Active (2015) provided some reasons in using the VLE: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Collaboration with others Submitting prep/homework virtually Online storage for all shared resources Customizable and dynamic home page on each subject area Links to various online resources Embedding outside useful resources Integration of various format and multimedia in classroom’s instruction On the other hand, technology entails pitfalls that every user has to understand. Below are the disadvantages in handling the VLE (Posey, Burgess, Eason, & Jones 2010): ● ● ● ● ● Time consuming Long-term technical training Lack of face-to-face interaction Technical problems/connectivity Cost allocation Given all of these, the success of VLE relies not on a short term effort but on a long term commitment that requires proper management, support, and guidance among the school community. Research Problem Users' preferences and usage were examined, along with their awareness of the library VLE features. The researcher intended to find out the level of success of the implementation of the virtual library through VLE in terms of helping the school library perform its roles in improving and managing library services. The findings also serve as a guide in further developing the library VLE in order to promote more the value of the school library to the community. VLE in the Brighton College Abu Dhabi The VLE was initiated last 2014 by the ICT department. Each school subject and department has its own VLE champion who is responsible in overseeing and maintaining its VLE contents and layout. In conceptualizing the library VLE contents, the author decided to structure it based on current library services and activities. The library VLE is divided into three major areas: Senior, Prep, and Pre-prep School. Each school has its own customized features suitable to the pupils’ needs and teachers’ requirements. Under each school section, the BCAD library VLE is further subdivided into five major sections: “about the library”, “library announcements”, “library system”, “online resources” and “library services” as illustrated on Figure 17. The chart is the primary tool in planning the library VLE contents. The contents may vary depending on the school’s needs and policies but it is also essential that each feature has to be in line with the current library practices. 339 Subsequently, the author came up with a supporting document that explains each feature’s description and levels of user access. It also enumerates overall contents of each school’s section library VLE (See Figure 18.). All of these were ultimately approved by senior management before it was implemented. Research Methodology A modified survey based on the study of Barker and Gossman (2013) was utilized to determine the students’ and teachers’ awareness of the college VLE, to identify its effective VLE features, to discover technical challenges in using VLE, and to gather ideas in further improving the library services in support to the community’s learning progress. Results and Discussions Frequency of Pupils’ VLE Usage Figure 1 illustrates the VLE frequency usage of the respondents. The author found out that the majority of the respondents (56.66%) use the VLE once a month, followed by 36.67% of respondents who use it weekly and the rest of respondents (6.67%) visit it daily. It is assumed that if teachers use the VLE more often, the usage on VLE will increase and pupils will likely be more encouraged to use it. 6,67% Daily 36,67% 56,66% Weekly Monthly Figure 1: Frequency of Pupils’ VLE Usage Frequency of Pupils’ Internet Usage Respondents were asked whether they use Internet in a frequent basis (Figure 2). There was a huge difference in the percentage of daily use (89.48%) compared to weekly (7.89%) and monthly (2.63%) use. These responses signified that the Internet has become a daily experience of most of all the respondents which potentially enables them to access any resources they wish to have. Considering the frequency of their Internet use, the VLE can easily serve as an additional online platform for learning where they can get their educational resources. 340 2,63% 7,89% Daily Weekly Monthly 89,48% Figure 2: Frequency of Pupils’ Internet Usage Usage of Subject Areas in the VLE by Pupils Another survey question determined which subject areas the pupils usually consulted with while using the VLE. Science (Physics/Chemistry/Biology) ranked the first having 70.00% followed by Maths at 66.67%. Fifty percent (50%) of the respondents answered they use VLE for Modern Foreign Languages (MFL) (i.e., French, Spanish, Italian, Mandarin). English ranked 4th on the list at 46.67%. However, Careers, Islamic Studies and Psychology were the least used subjects in VLE in support of their classroom instruction while the teachers teaching the three least used subjects do not use the VLE more often in their classroom. In a librarian’s perspective, this data is a great indicator in deciding how the digital resources can be further developed; for instance, which databases to acquire and highlight in the virtual library, in line with the needs of teachers and pupils. The author believed that continuous collaboration appears to be an effective way of strengthening the contents of the library’s offering in the VLE. Science (Physics /Chemistry / Biology) Maths MFL ( French, Spanish, Italian, Latin, Mandarin &… English Humanities Computing Arabic Music DT Year 3 and 4 Senior School PE SEN House Rooms Government & Politics EAL Drama Business Studies & Economics Art Psychology Islamic / Social Careers and UCAS 70,00% 66,67% 50,00% 46,67% 36,67% 26,67% 20,00% 13,33% 10,00% 6,67% 6,67% 6,67% 6,67% 6,67% 6,67% 6,67% 6,67% 6,67% 3,33% 3,33% 3,33% Figure 3: Usage of Subject Areas in the VLE by Pupils 341 Pupils’ Awareness of the VLE Features As the next figure showed, uploading of documents/revisions/presentations/video (88.46%) is the most popular VLE feature. Identifying their learning path (i.e getting immediate feedback from their teacher) was next in the list at 38.46%. And 34.62% of respondents said that they are also aware of the feature that enables teachers to communicate with pupils and to use school calendar. On the other hand, four features were identified as the least popular at 15.38%: communicating using a forum, administering assessment work, creating a question database, and enabling a parental log in. These findings might indicate that some features are less known as these may only be available to other authorized users like teachers and parents. As observed, some of the VLE features that pupils were least aware of only apply to those who administer the subject or parents who ensure and control their children’s access of information. Yet, the most popular VLE feature allowed collaborations among pupils, teachers and parents and aimed to monitor users’ learning development. Uploading documents/Revisions/Presentations/Videos 88,46% Identifying learning path 38,46% 34,62% 34,62% 30,77% 30,77% 26,92% 23,08% 19,23% 19,23% 19,23% 19,23% 15,38% 15,38% 15,38% 15,38% Using school calendar Communicating with pupils Conducting quizzes/exams/assessments Posting announcement Posting subject-related external links (online resources) Communicating with staff Creating a virtual to do list Blogging Surveying pupils Communicating with parents Enabling a parental log in Creates question database Administering assessment work Communicating using a Forum Figure 4: Pupils’ Awareness of the VLE Features VLE Features Used by Pupils Pupils were questioned about the VLE features they have used (Figure 5). 86.36% of the pupils answered that they use VLE to upload documents/revisions/presentation/videos. Aside from this, they saw VLE as a way to communicate with staff by 22.73%. Posting announcements and creating virtual to-do lists have the same percentage of usage at 13.64%. Communicating with parents was the least used feature (4.55%) as indicated on the table. The author assumed that the teachers’ initiative to integrate VLE in their lessons plays a vital role to maximize the pupils’ VLE usage. 342 Uploading documents/Revisions/Presentations/Videos 86,36% Communicating with staff 22,73% Creating a virtual to do list 13,64% Posting announcement 13,64% Blogging 9,09% Communicating using a Forum 9,09% Communicating with pupils 9,09% Communicating with parents 4,55% Figure 5: VLE Features Used by Pupils Reasons in using the VLE by Pupils The library wanted to find out what factors push the respondents to engage in the VLE. As figure 6 demonstrated, the highest percentage of respondent (51.72%) has answered that “finding online resources”, “following teacher’s requirements” and “checking homework/prep/projects” are the main reasons why they use VLE. This is followed by “finding answers to my assignment” at 24.14%. Yet, logging into VLE to ask a question and communicating to teachers seemed to be the least compelling reason at 6.90%. The responses only confirmed that the success of the VLE implementation hinged largely on the teachers’ initiative in promoting it in their class, as they play a huge role in ensuring its usage. To find online resources 51,72% To check my homework/prep/projects 51,72% My teacher requires me to do so 51,72% To find answers to my assignments 24,14% To upload my homework/prep/projects 20,69% To waste my time/when I am bored 10,34% To ask questions 6,90% To communicate with my teacher 6,90% Figure 6: Reasons in Using the VLE 343 How the VLE Affects a Pupil’s Learning Development In order to measure the effectiveness of the VLE in the pupil’s learning development, they were asked how the VLE helps them in their studies. Interestingly, 22.58% of the respondents strongly agreed and 35.48% of them agreed that VLE helps in identifying the right resources/material. Meanwhile, 15.63 of them strongly agreed that it helps them to identify what to accomplish or what they want to accomplish at 15.63% and 40.63% of the other respondents agreed with this. Questions Strongly Agree Agree Uncertain Disagree Strongly Disagree Mean The VLE helps me to become an effective pupil 3.13% 50% 28.13% 6.25% 12.5% 2.75 The VLE helps me to identify what/want to accomplish 15.63% 40.63% 15.63% 18.75% 9.38% 2.66 The VLE helps me to become motivated and inspired 0.00% 37.50% 25.00% 25.00% 12.50% 3.13 The VLE helps me to improve my learning habits 6.25% 46.88% 21.88% 12.50% 12.50% 2.78 The VLE helps me to do my independent reading and learning 3.13% 34.38% 34.38% 15.63% 12.50% 3 The VLE helps me to identify the right resources/material 22.58% 35.48% 25.81% 9.68% 6.45% 2.42 The VLE helps me to collaborate with other classmates 0.00% 6.45% 48.39% 19.35% 25.81% 3.65 The VLE helps me to become updated with my academic requirements 6.25% 46.88% 21.88% 15.63% 9.38% 2.75 Figure 7: How the VLE Affects Pupil’s Learning Development Problems and Challenges Encountered in the VLE The next question inquired about the problems and challenges in using the VLE. Being at the top of the list at 45.45%, lack of interest was the major issue. Though, 40.91% of the respondents stated that technical skills also hinder them to use the VLE. While 9.09% of respondents had other various concerns including password not being provided to them, lack of information regarding VLE, and some never trying it at all. These responses gave the author some ideas on how to re-design the library VLE into a site not only tailored for academic purposes but a place where they can interact and play as well. 344 Overload information; 22,73% Others; 9,09% Lack of interest; 45,45% Lack of time; 27,27% Lack of technical skills; 40,91% Non-related topics; 27,27% Figure 8: Problems and Challenges Encountered in the VLE Teachers and Pupils’ Awareness with the Library Services The library had to determine the community’s level of awareness of the current library services. The responses will support the librarian’s initiative to identify effective features and services that encourage and promote the library VLE. The respondents’ level of awareness to various library services was provided on Figure 9. Most of the pupils (42.86%) were aware that the library offers library lessons to classes and most of them were also aware that reserving a book (38.10%) for check-out are library services. Suggesting a book was the third most popular library services at 33.33%. On the other hand, providing library guides and uploading eBooks, and booking a library (room) are services which pupils are least aware of (4.76%). For the teacher’s part, recommended reading lists at 60.71% was the most well-known library service. This was followed by suggesting a book to the library which is at 53.57%. On the other hand, uploading eBooks (3.57%) seemed to be the library service they are least aware of as illustrated below. The responses only reinforced the notion that collaboration with department heads and teachers should continue in strengthening the library services. The lack of awareness in some of the library services may signify that a more effective library management should be made top priority. 345 Students Teachers 42,86% Library lesson Reserving a book 21,43% 33,33% Suggest a book to the library New titles in the library 60,71% 23,81% 14,29% Library announcements 23,81% Searching online resources 23,81% 28,57% 17,86% 19,05% Library events/competitions Library information/hours/email 14,29% Reference service (Virtual) 14,29% Booking a library room 4,76% Uploading ebooks 4,76% Library guides 53,57% 28,57% Recommended reading lists 50,00% 38,10% 39,29% 21,43% 21,43% 17,86% 3,57% 4,76% 28,57% Figure 9: Teachers and Pupils’ Awareness with the Library Services Teacher’s Encouragement to Use the VLE The teachers were asked whether they encourage their pupils to use the VLE. Notably, the majority of the teachers said ‘Yes’ at 43.47%, followed by ‘only when needed’ at 34.78%. However 21.74% of the teachers answered that they do not actively recommend their students to use the VLE. With these responses, the majority was still in favor in using the VLE and believed that VLE can help them in supporting their classroom instruction. Only when needed 34,78% Yes 43,47% No 21,74% Figure 10: Teacher’s Encouragement to Use the VLE 346 Common VLE features used by Teachers Understandably, “uploading documents/revisions/presentations/video” obtained (82.05%) with respect to teachers’ usage of all VLE features. “Posting subject related-external links (online resources)” at 48.72% was ranked at second place. Many teachers also confirmed that they use VLE as one way to communicate with parents (28.21%). In contrast, communicating with staff and creating virtual to-do lists (2.56%) were the least used feature. These responses showed that VLE functions not only to support the community’s learning progress but also as an alternate for collaboration with pupils and parents. Uploading documents/Revisions/Presentations/Videos 82,05% Posting subject-related external links (online resources) 48,72% Communicating with parents 28,21% Communicating with pupils 23,08% Posting announcement 23,08% Identifying learning path 17,95% Conducting quizzes/exams/assessments 10,26% Administering assessment work 10,26% Enabling a parental log in 7,69% Using school calendar 7,69% Surveying pupils 7,69% Communicating using a forum Creating question database Blogging 7,69% 5,13% 5,13% Creating virtual to-do lists 2,56% Communicating with staff 2,56% Figure 11: Commonly VLE features used by Teachers Teachers’ Motivation in Using the VLE As the next chart (Figure 12) revealed, 60.47% of the teachers are motivated to use the VLE because the college requires it while 51.16% of them believed that this can increase communication with staff/parents/pupils. However, “to save time” was the least motivator in usage (11.63%). These responses suggested that the school’s initiative to require every teacher to utilize the VLE can maximize its use. Not only this, it can also create a unified learning platform where everyone from the community can collaborate. 347 60,47% 51,16% 37,21% 20,93% 11,63% To save time I am into technology It helps and Increase supports me to communication provide quality with learning staff/parents/pupils School policy requires it Figure 12: Teachers Motivation in Using the VLE Expertise and Skills needed for VLE Of all the faculty respondents, almost 61.54% of the teachers thought that basic HTML programming is the most important skill needed for VLE. Followed by this was the basic web browsing skill (41.03%) that teachers should be competent with. 30.77% of the respondents recommended that the skill of teaching technology is a requirement in using VLE as faculty, while only 12.82% of them believed blogging is essential. It is believed that expertise and skills should also be put into priority. Not everyone has experienced this platform before, so it is important to align the training development of faculty based on the perceived technical expertise and skills needed for VLE. 61,54% 41,03% 30,77% 25,64% 12,82% Blogging MS Office applications Teaching technology to others Basic web browsing Figure 13: Expertise and Skills needed for VLE 348 Basic HTML Programming How the VLE Library Supports Teacher’s Classroom Instruction In the responses to the question on how the VLE library supports academic classes, Figure 15 revealed that 56.76% of the faculty respondents agreed and 10.81% strongly agreed that the VLE library helps pupils to become effective users of technology. And teachers strongly agreed by 13.89% that it introduces the pupils to a wide-range of resources. The result of this part the survey shall help the librarian to structure the VLE library contents based on users’ needs. For instance, 54.05% of the respondents said they are uncertain whether the VLE library helps their pupils to identify what is only needed. With this information, the librarian will in the future create an advanced list of online resources and recommended titles based on the scheduled weekly lesson. Also, having reading lists for class lessons in advance placed in the library prior to the lessons will also be put into consideration. Strongly Agree Questions Agree Uncertain Disagree Strongly Disagree Mean It helps me to create a list of resources I needed for my class 5.13% 33.33% 48.72% 7.69% 5.13% 2.74 It helps me to create reading list for independent reading 5.26% 50.00% 31.58% 7.89% 5.26% 2.58 It provides additional references to my pupils’ homework/projects 11.43% 48.57% 31.43% 8.57% 0.00% 2.37 It helps me to know the existing library collections 10.81% 45.95% 37.84% 5.41% 0.00% 2.38 It introduces my pupils to a wide-range of resources 13.89% 44.44% 30.56% 11.11% 0.00% 2.39 The VLE helps my pupils to identify the right resources they ‘only’ needed 5.41% 29.73% 54.05% 5.41% 5.41% 2.76 The VLE helps me to inform my class about the library updates/activities/programs 5.41% 43.24% 37.84% 10.81% 2.70% 2.62 It supports my pupils to read different wide range of books 5.26% 50.00% 36.84% 5.26% 2.63% 2.5 It helps my pupils to develop their reading habit 5.26% 44.74% 44.74% 2.63% 2.63% 2.53 It helps my pupils to become effective users of technology 10.81% 56.76% 27.03% 2.70% 2.70% 2.3 Figure 14: How the VLE Library Supports Teacher’s Classroom Instruction Teachers’ Attitudes in Using Technology With regards to the usage of technology, more than half of the faculty respondents (56.62%) stated that they are confident in using technology while some (41.30%) are still open to receive assistance with regards to using it. It is remarkable to say that all respondents had shown an interest in exploring technology. The author believes that the users’ positive 349 attitudes towards using technology may exactly reflect their attitudes towards the wellmanaged and structured VLE. I am confident in using it 56,52% I am open to learn yet need assistance 41,30% I am afraid because I have no background in IT 4,35% I don’t need this for my subject I have no interest in exploring technology 2,17% 0,00% Figure 15: Teachers’ Attitudes in Using the Technology Summary, Recommendations, and Conclusions The succeeding data summarizes the principal findings of Users’ preferences and usages survey administered to the respondents: For the pupils a. Majority of the respondents said that they use VLE on a monthly basis at 56.66%. b. Most of the pupils (89.48%) mentioned that they use Internet on a daily basis. c. Science (Physics/Chemistry/Biology is the most preferred subject used by pupils at 70%. d. 88.46% of the pupil respondents told that uploading e. Documents/revisions/presentation/videos considered to be the most popular VLE feature. f. Finding online requirements, checking of homework/prep/projects and teacher’s requirement are the main reasons why most pupils (51.72%) use the VLE. g. By having average mean of 2.42, pupils believed that VLE help them to identify the right resources/material. h. Lack of interest seems to be the major problem in using the VLE at 45.45%. i. Library lesson is the most known library service as per pupils (42.86%). For teachers and administrators: j. Teachers and administrators indicated that the recommended reading list is the most popular library service at 60.71%. k. 43.47% of the teachers answered that they encourage their pupils to use the VLE when needed. l. Likewise, uploading documents/revisions/presentation/videos is the most aware VLE feature at 82.05%. m. Teachers (60.47%) are motivated to use the VLE because the college requires them. 350 n. Majority of the teachers (61.54%) said that basic HTML programming is the most important skill needed for VLE. o. Having 2.3 average mean, teachers believed that using library VLE helps their pupils to become effective users of technology. p. Most of the teachers (56.52%) described that they are confident in using technology. Recommendations These are the following recommendations to effectively promote the usage of library VLE and strengthen its purpose in providing library services to the community: Continuous collaboration with teachers on how the library can support their classroom instruction. Promote the newly-acquired subject-based online resources in the Library by creating a Current Service Awareness program. Coordinate with teachers on what resources can be acquired for each subject area. Collate all online resource links from the subjects’ areas in VLE and organise them in the library VLE for school community reference. Maximise the function of VLE by encouraging and motivating pupils to use it as part of the academic requirement or homework. Conduct training and support to the school community regarding VLE and its developments and changes. Establish interactive yet subject-based learning activities as one motivator in using the VLE. Recommend VLE as part of the school and learning policy. Boost various lesser known library services mentioned by respondents and teachers by conducting marketing and promotional programs. Re-assess library programs based on users’ needs and satisfaction. Conclusion The movement of school libraries towards establishing a virtual library through a VLE is a trend which shows that librarians have realized their important roles in assisting learning in the digital world. The virtual library’s benefits and roles empower school libraries to perform its function in supporting the school community. It is also believed that, by providing wellstructured and constantly managed library VLE contents, school libraries can further strengthen its importance by successfully meeting current and hopefully even future demands. References Asselin, M. & Doiron R. (2008). Towards a transformative pedagogy for school libraries 2.0. School Libraries Worldwide. 14(2), 1-18. BBC Active (2015). Why you should use a virtual learning environment. Retrieved from http://www.bbcactive.com/BBCActiveIdeasandResources/WhyyoushoulduseaVirtu alLearningEnvironment.aspx Canadian Library Association (2014). Leading learning: standards of practice for school library learning commons in Canada. Retrieved from http://apsds.org/wp351 content/uploads/Standards-of-Practice-for-SchoolLibrary-Learning-Commons-inCanada-2014.pdf Gunn, H. (2002). Virtual libraries supporting student learning. School Libraries Worldwide. 8(2), 27-37. International Federation of Surveyors (FIG), (2010). Enhancing surveying education through e-learning. Retrieved from https://www.fig.net/pub/figpub/pub46/figpub46.pdf JISC Infonet. (2004). Effective use of VLEs: introduction to VLEs. Retrieved from http://www.jiscinfonet.ac.uk/infokits/vle/ Kelleher, T. (2013, May 30). What does a school library look like in a digital age? [Blog post]. Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/teacher-network/teacherblog/2013/may/30/school-library-digital-age Koganuramath, M. (2007). Virtual library: an overview. INFLIBNET's Institutional Repository. Retrieved from http://ir.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/1944/1430/1/535-542.pdf Kuhlthau, C.C. (2010). Guided inquiry: school libraries in the 21st century. School Libraries Worldwide. 16,(1), 17-28. Lamb, A. & Callison, D. (2005). Key words in instruction: online learning and virtual schools. School Library Month. 11(9), 29-35. Leunissen, R. (2013, November 12). What is the new role of a school library in the digital age? Retrieved from http://elearningindustry.com/what-is-the-new-role-of-a-schoollibrary-in-the-digital-age Mclester, S. (2013, March). Transitions to digital media: are school libraries on the way out? Retrieved from http://www.districtadministration.com/article/transitions-digitalmedia Northcote, M. (2008). Sense of place in online learning environments. Paper presented at Ascilite 2008 Melbourne: hello! where are you in the landscape of educational technology?, Melbourne, Australia. O’Driscoll, T., Cross, J., & Trondsen, E. (2007, March). Another life: virtual worlds as tools for learning. eLearn Magazine. Retrieved from http://elearnmag.acm.org/featured.cfm?aid=1235515 O’hear, S. (2006, August 8). E-learning 2.0 – how technologies are shaping education. Retrieved from http://readwrite.com/2006/08/08/e-learning_20 O’Leary, R. & Ramsden, A. (2002). Virtual learning environments. Retrieved from https://www.economicsnetwork.ac.uk/handbook/printable/vle_v5.pdf 352 Posey, G., Burgess, T., Eason, M., & Jones, Y. (2010, March 3). The advantages and disadvantages of virtual classroom and the role of the teacher. Paper presented at Southwest decision sciences institute conference, Dallas, Texas. Riccio, H. (2001, December 3). The virtual library – past, present, & future. Retrieved from http://www.llrx.com/features/virtuallibrary.htm Roche, C. (2015). Virtual libraries. Retrieved from http://heartoftheschool.edublogs.org/whatwe-do/virtual-libraries/ Roscorla, T. (2013, December 5). 5 ways school libraries can stay relevant in the digital age. Retrieved from http://www.centerdigitaled.com/news/5-Ways-School-LibrariesCan-Stay-Relevant-in-the-Digital-Age.html Schrum, L. & Levin, B. (2009). Leading 21st century schools: Harnessing technology for engagement and achievement. USA: Corwin. Biographical Note Virgilio G Medina Jr is currently working as Librarian at Brighton College Abu Dhabi. He graduated cum laude with the course of Library and Information Science in University of the Philippines-Diliman. He is responsible in managing the library and has successfully organized various library programs and events that promote the importance of the library and reading in the school community. His areas of interest include library planning and management, library technology, marketing programs, collection development, information and references, and information literacy. 353 Appendix I VLE Fronter About the library Senior Prep Pre-prep Announcement Library System Online Resources Library Services Mission and Objectives New Books English Suggest a book How the books arranged? Library News Science (Chemistry, Biology, Physics) Reading lists Library Rules Reviews Maths Library Awards DT History Humanities Geography Drama Music PE MFL Arabic Business Psychology Career Teachers Resources General References Figure 47: BCAD's Library VLE Contents 354 Appendix II Figure 18: Library VLE Contents Description 355 Literature in digital environments: changes and emerging trends in Australian school libraries Judy O’Connell Courses Director, School of Information Studies, Faculty of Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia. [email protected] Dr Jenni Bales Adjunct Lecturer, School of Information Studies, Faculty of Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia [email protected] Pru Mitchell Manager, Information Services, Australian Council for Educational Research; Adjunct Lecturer, School of Information Studies, Faculty of Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia [email protected] Abstract Igniting a passion for reading and research is core business for school libraries, inevitably placing the library at the center of the 21st century reading and learning experience. It is in this context that digital literature creates some challenging questions for teachers and librarians in schools, while the emergence of digital technology and/or device options also offers a great many opportunities. Collection development in school libraries encompasses an understanding of the need to contextualize these e-literature needs within the learning and teaching experiences in the school. The Australian Library and Information Association’s 2013 statement Future of collections 50:50 predicted that library print and ebook collections in libraries would establish a 50:50 equilibrium by 2020 and that this balance would be maintained for the foreseeable future. This statement from the Australian professional body raised the need to know more about e-collections in school libraries. For teacher librarians in Australian schools, the nature of online collections, and the integration of ebooks into the evolving reading culture is influenced by the range and diversity of texts, interfaces, devices, and experiences available to complement existing print and media collections or services. Management and budget constraints also influence e-collections. By undertaking a review of the literature, a discussion of the education context, and a critical analysis of the trends evidenced by national survey data, this paper presents an overview of the changes and emerging trends in digital literature and ebook collections in school library services in Australia today. 356 Keywords: eBooks, eReading, School libraries, Collection development, Learning ecology Like the history of libraries around the world, school libraries also have a long history reaching back to medieval times. While the physical expression of the idea of a school library has undergone great change, the idea itself is not new. The library has been seen as the ‘pivot’ or ‘center’ of the school for several hundred years, over time increasing in size and sophistication of organization and administration (Clyde 1981). A major shift in the fabric of possibilities for school libraries in Australia took place in the latter part of the 20th century, commencing in 1968 for secondary schools, and 1973 for primary schools. Through to the mid-1980s school libraries were provided for by the Commonwealth Government, with funding for the necessary buildings, equipment, trained teacher-librarians, centralized services, books and other resources (Reynolds & Carroll 2012). In another wave of funding, the Australian Government’s Building Education Revolution stimulus funding resulted in as many as 3017 library projects by 2010, of which 2,650 were new library facilities (DEEWR 2011). Learning takes place across the life spaces of home, school and community and includes physical and virtual spaces transformed through technology. This results in a learning ecology in each school that is an expression of a set of contexts comprised of a unique configuration of activities, material resources, technology fluencies, and the interactions that emerge from them (Barron, 2006). The goal of any school library, big or small, regional or city, is to respond to these needs and provide the school with a collection that meets the leisure, learning and teaching requirements of its community, within the limits of fiscal and organizational constraints. The role of the teacher librarian is to promote books, reading and research in old and new ways (Gordon, 2010); to nurture a learning ecology that supports all literacies relevant to reading, writing, interaction and culture both past and present (Gogan & Marcus, 2013); and, in so doing respond to an information renaissance that is rewiring tacit and explicit knowledge and embedding a new culture of learning (Thomas & Brown, 2011). School libraries that adapt to the digital needs of their community not only continue to build a reading culture in the school, but facilitate divergence and convergence in media. This supports the motivation, differentiation, variation in platforms, collaboration and connections necessary for the new learning ecology (Lamb & Johnson, 2010; Hay & Foley, 2009; Gogan & Marcus, 2013; Marcoux & Loertscher, 2009).The fundamental process of learning at the heart of our school libraries is as complex and changeable as the spaces, formats and pedagogies that are the essence of education today. The Centre for International Scholarship in School Libraries <http://cissl.rutgers.edu/> provides a summary of the extensive body of international research which substantiates that school libraries and teacher librarians help young people learn, and also notes the considerable body of research that has explored how dimensions of reading are enhanced when school librarians provide access to reading materials, promote reading, and integrate literacy with instruction (Todd and Gordon 2010). School libraries are therefore important in 357 helping to deliver quality education in Australia by igniting the passion for reading and research. School Library Collections Collections have to remain responsive to the learning and teaching needs within the school. Educationally contextualized social and learning needs help to shape decisions in response to cultural diversity, including age, gender, disability, family context, sexual preference, and socio-economic status, in a genuine and non-tokenistic way (Strick, 2013). In keeping with collection development principles as outlined by Johnson (2014, p. 3), school library staff take responsibility for selecting materials in all formats for acquisition and access, reviewing devices, and negotiating contracts to acquire or access eresources. However, the changing impact and formational influence of technology, online media, formats and media devices is part of the story of change. Now school libraries can embrace a range of ‘eproducts’ in the quest to provide a timely means to guide research, curriculum needs, reading and literacy experiences in schools. Reading in digital environments A fundamental requirement of learning is to be able to read. But what does ‘read’ mean in a 21st century paradigm? Lamb (2011) argues that reading goes beyond interpreting text to also include graphics, sound, motion, and other kinds of symbols in addition to or instead of text. This interpretation is supported by the Australian Curriculum: English which states that students ‘listen to, read, view, speak, write, create and reflect on increasingly complex and sophisticated spoken, written and multimodal texts across a growing range of contexts with accuracy, fluency and purpose’ (ACARA, 2014, par. 1). If Australian schools are to address this national directive then it is imperative that ebooks are incorporated into the reading and literature programs of schools as well as being available for students’ personal reading choices. How well school libraries are addressing this challenge is influenced by a number of factors. After years of conjecture and a variety of failed products, Amazon's Kindle introduced in 2007 was the first popular dedicated ebook reader. Now a reader can buy and download a book from their internet-enabled device with just a few clicks, and be reading immediately. Ebooks are on dedicated devices, smartphones, laptops, and it is possible to immediately share our opinions with social networks such as Goodreads. With Amazon reporting ebook sales outstripping print for the first time in 2011 (Rapaport, 2011), authors and publishers are seeking to move beyond the traditional print-style format of books and are experimenting with new forms of digital literature, with varying degrees of success. With all these changes teacher librarians and library staff have begun to question and experiment with making ebooks and ebook readers available to the school community. “How teacher librarians select, promote, maintain, and evaluate e-book collections, especially in the face of a constantly changing market, waxing and waning publisher restrictions on e-publication use, a staggering number of e-book file formats, and an evolving e-reader market, remains a huge challenge. But most of us see that the future of the book is digital, and we need to figure this out or get left behind (Johnson, 2013, p. 31)”. 358 Texts have moved from the single form of print to multiforms of text. “Electronic texts have the potential to reduce educational expenses because they can be produced and stored at less cost than print texts. Additionally, portable, accessible libraries provide students with opportunities to read and to study in diverse locations at any time. Electronic texts can be found in increasing numbers of school libraries and classrooms where they are not only enhancing teaching and learning; they are also profoundly changing the signature pedagogy of reading literacy instruction (Felvegi & Matthew, 2012, p. 40)”. In responding to pedagogical goals, teachers need to clearly identify what the digital experience can offer that print does not. Research on successful reading practice conducted prior to digitization remains relevant when the focus is on engagement with texts. Rosenblatt’s (1995) research into reader-response theory, first published in the 1930s, continues to underpin current literacy teaching. Rosenblatt differentiates between efferent reading (for literal and factual meaning) and aesthetic reading, where the reader’s attention turns inwards to focus on literary enjoyment, engagement and involvement with the text. Enhanced ebooks are ideally suited to aesthetic reading as they encourage multiple perspectives, interpretations and levels of engagement to more fully immerse the reader. Ebooks can encourage deep reader response for both individual reading and classroom teaching. Vandergrift (1996) argues for the power of a community of readers to develop into an interpretive community. These principles continue to be relevant and enhanced by the fusion of technology – interactive whiteboards and electronic multimodal texts – in the classroom to support teaching strategies such as interactive read-alouds What is an ebook? Lamb (2011) and Larson (2009) have examined the multiple forms in which ebooks can be accessed and the following definitions have been informed by their work. These differences in multimodal texts each contribute in unique ways to the digital reading environment. The term ‘ebook’ has layers of meaning beyond the more traditional construct of an ebook as an electronic version of a print book with a linear structure that can be read or listened to on an ereader, tablet or on a computer, and may require software to make it accessible. Other forms of ebooks include: ● etextbooks as electronic versions of print textbooks. It may include images, maps and exercises with added tools for bookmarking and note-taking. Etextbooks may be available in an online format with embedded multimedia elements, links to related internet sites, quizzes and tests. ● enhanced ebooks, including ○ interactive storybooks that maintain a linear story structure with the addition of interactive features such as audio, video and glossary functionality. Related activities and games may be included. ○ hypertexts and interactive ebooks in nonfiction and fiction genres that o may include images, maps, audio, and video elements and links to related websites and games to extend the reading experience. ○ transmedia ebooks are multimodal, multimedia, non-linear stories that encourage active participation through a range of connected resources (e.g playing cards, websites, maps or online clues). (O’Connell, Bales & Mitchell, in press) 359 Each of these ebook formats has relevance for students as the progress along the learning continuum from when they start school through to completion of their secondary education. National survey on ebooks in Australian schools In 2014, members of the Australian education community contributed to a survey on ebooks, titled 50:50 by 2020 Ebook Trends in Australian Schools, to collect data about current use of digital book content in schools. The survey sought schools’ opinions on trends for the next 5 years, in order to gain a school library perspective on the Australian Library and Information Association’s (2013) statement that library and print ebook collections would establish a 50:50 equilibrium by 20:20. To facilitate the collection of useful comparative data, the survey was framed to incorporate questions that aligned with, and expanded upon, the 2013 Survey of Ebook Usage in U.S. School (K-12) Libraries (School Library Journal, 2014) and the Australian School Library Survey (Softlink, 2014a). The survey was made available online, and was open to all Australian schools from all states and territories, across government, Catholic and independent sectors. The survey ran for three weeks commencing mid October 2014, providing a total of 450 responses. School library e-futures Public media have reported instances around the world where a school library space has been closed in a policy of ‘gone digital’. Media hype does not include any research or positive evidence that this move has merit - perhaps the opposite. Rather, research has shown that online access and the internet has a crucial role to play in education, and that the role of the school library becomes more important. A well-resourced library becomes a ‘hub for learning’ and integral to the school. A telling example was reported from New Zealand: “In 2003, Cambridge High School dismantled its library in favor of a $1.5m cyber cafe. The move was short-lived. The cafe never opened and two years later, under a new principal, the library was restored. e-books and the internet complement rather than replace printed books and present no more of a challenge than audio books, video and the internet have – other than the cost”. (Neale, 2011) The Softlink (2014b) Australian School Library Survey (which received 1380 responses) provided a useful snapshot of ebook trends. Key findings showed that ● ● ● ● 49% of schools with eBooks started their collection in the last year In 2013 15% of school library collections indicated that eBooks accounted for more than 5% of their collection. In 2014, this number has risen to 20% 53% of respondents said that it is ‘Very Important’ or ‘Important’ for them to implement an eBook strategy for their library in 2015 54% of school libraries are planning on buying eBooks in 2015 Responses from the 50:50 in 20:20 survey showed a similar trend, with 18.6% respondents in 2014 with a collection consisting of ebooks (of any kind). Of these 93.75% were fiction resources, 76.79% were non-fiction resources, 42.86% were reference resources and 47.32 were teacher resources. This growth trend is reflected by increased percentage allocation to 360 ebooks in the school library resource purchasing budget, with 2.6% allocating more than a quarter of the budget in 2013, 5.9% in 2014 and 11.79% in 2015. In other words, ebook resourcing demonstrates an important emerging trend, particularly in relation to collection size. Australian school library collections reported in the 50:50 by 2020 survey showed only 34% school libraries to have collections of 10,000-14,999 total resources, and 66% with 15,000-30,000 total resources in the library collection. However, it is important to note that the number, and even proportion of ebooks available in a school, is sometimes hidden by the fact that access is not limited to individual 'borrowers', and is not a one-to-one association. Whole classes can engage with the same ebook in the classroom as a part of their language and learning area curriculum, or small sections of a digital text may be incorporated into a lesson. From a school’s perspective, the priority for an ebook collection is the quality of the collection and its alignment with teaching methodology, rather than on how many ebooks are available in a collection. Some school libraries have preferred to invest in audio versions of texts which offer an additional multimedia format. Cahill and Richey (2014) report that while there is limited research into the value of audiobooks to literacy development and content knowledge of listeners, there is evidence from publishers that audiobooks are popular in the 18-24 year old market. The 50:50 by 2020 Survey showed that only 20% of schools with ebooks included audiobooks in their collection, and for only 3% of these did the audiobook component make up more than 10% of their digital collection. Most of these schools with audiobooks had enrolments of 750-999 students. Another aspect of school library ebook collections is highlighted by the 16% of respondents who indicated that student or staff-created ebooks were a feature of their collection. Reid (2013) explores the educational values of student-created ebooks in the primary school and McAllan (2013) outlines how secondary students create nonfiction ebooks to demonstrate their learning on a topic. However, the potential to create targeted, customized resources internally that support student and teacher self-publishing brings additional responsibilities for management of access and authority control within the library catalogue or digital delivery systems Textbooks associated with traditional teaching styles require many students to have simultaneous, long-term access to the same content. The trend found in Australian schools was for students to access etextbooks online or through an app provided by the publisher or textbook aggregator service, usually on an annual subscription basis. Digital textbooks were in use in 60% of surveyed secondary schools and 67% of combined primary/secondary schools, with 2% of these being totally digital in terms of textbooks. See Figure 1. 361 Figure 1. Implementation of etextbooks in Australian schools by level of schooling In a quarter of secondary and combined primary/secondary schools, parents were responsible for purchasing etextbooks. In the remainder, either the school library or subject departments took responsibility for acquiring and managing school-owned etextbooks. This was a marked point of difference with primary schools, where less than 10% of schools were using etextbooks, and where parents paid for the content in only 6% of cases. While the transition to etextbooks challenged existing models of acquisition and management for schools, there was less educational change involved for teachers in the textbook model of one book to one student. Some students reported a preference for access to both physical and digital formats of their textbooks, recognizing benefits specific to each format. Enhanced ebooks, on the other hand, with their media-rich interactivity, support both a ‘one book to many students’ model of teaching, or a model where one student device contains many ebooks or apps. Figure 2 reveals there was limited evidence of teachers harnessing this form of enhanced ebook content in teaching, with only 21% of this sample accessing book apps or online literature collections despite the fact that many of these are free. The availability of online literature subscription services provides teachers with an opportunity to use traditional printbased literacy practices with a whole class (one to many) as a scaffold for a later introduction to digital reading experiences for independent readers. 362 Figure 2. Use of enhanced ebooks or apps according to level of school Impact of technology Many students come to school with a wealth of experience in the use of a range of digital technologies for personal entertainment, learning and social interaction (Bain and Weston, 2012, p. 3). Students from Kindergarten through to Year 12 have grown up with technology and see it a standard aspect of life. Yet, on entering the school gates, these devices may be banned, have limited access or be non-existent. In this scenario, ‘today’s education system faces irrelevance unless we bridge the gap between how students live and how they learn’ (Partnership for 21 Century Skills, 2002, p. 4). Vockley (2007, p. 15) argues that schools that provide networked education enable personalized and equitable learning opportunities for students. When students experience a seamless digital ecology that transcends boundaries there are increased opportunities for authentic and meaningful learning to occur. Perhaps because of the desire to emphasize digital experiences, some schools have taken a radical response to technology. Just over 5% of survey respondents predicted that ebooks would make up 80% or more of their school collection, with 2 schools predicting 100% digital collection by 2020 due to “school wishing to go totally digital and paperless” (QLD F-12 Independent), and “the deputy principal pushing digital resources and insisting on culling huge numbers of books” (NSW Independent Primary). Besides school management pushing for ebooks (5), schools referenced their existing strong digital collection (3), ease of use and management (2) and user preference (3). Others in this band refer to trends in technology and publishing (6) reporting “circulation of hard copy non-fiction is crashing” (QLD independent F-12) and “rapid growth and establishment of infrastructure, clients also becoming more familiar with the format” (Vic Catholic secondary). However, the growth in technology in both the home and school environments provides increased opportunities for students and educators to interconnect their learning through the ‘third space’ as a place where different cultures meet. Millard (2003) argues that students’ home and social interests, brought to classroom literacy learning, are influenced by access to 363 new technologies and engagement with popular culture. One strategy to make connections between home and school experiences is through the use of technology for reading – for both recreational and academic purposes. Complexities around the range of ebooks are further complicated when you factor in the reading purposes ranging from teaching literacy skills, supporting curriculum programs (factual and class literature) and personal reading. A particular issue revealed in the 50:50 by 2020 survey was the management of digital textbooks. The trend in Australia is for students to have a direct log in to access these online, although the format may range from a digital book that is read online, a downloadable pdf that students save to their hardware, or a CDROM. Free ebooks are attractive as they may be read online or downloaded and the sites may be catalogued with a direct link provided or made accessible as a link on the school or library’s learning management system. Purchased PDF ebooks need to be managed within the school’s network and the school needs to ensure that digital rights protocols are in place or limit purchases to ebooks that have a campus license. Enhanced books available as apps require downloading to individual devices, often with regular updates, and management through an account with the provider. Management of enhanced ebook apps is restrained by provider protocols and often require individual management on each device. Regardless of the systems adopted, the library needs to facilitate home access and establish methods to promote ebooks in new and exciting ways, harnessing technology to do so. Questions arise as to how schools manage these for home access. Technology, and the school’s stance on the use of personal devices in the school, also impacts on collection development decisions. Equipment includes personal computers, laptops, tablets, ereaders and smart phones, and their operating systems., Some ebooks are platform specific and some operate across different platforms (Cavenaugh, 2005, p. 56). Uniform standards for ebooks are still developing and enhanced books with media rich features add further complexities. It is important that ebook collections address popular culture reading material as well as subject content and etextbook resources. Access to high-interest digital fiction that is portable between and across devices encourages students to read recreationally and bring alternative and personal literary experiences to the classroom. However, publishers are currently dictating the market and individual feedback from the survey indicates that lack of access to popular titles impinges on students’ interests in, and take-up of, ereading for recreational purposes. Open access is helping schools meet these challenges with 36% of the respondents to the 50:50 in 2020 survey reporting that they use Project Gutenberg as an ebook provider, which was higher than all but one commercial provider out of a list of 19 options. A learning ecology that supports learners in multiple environments requires the capability to download ebooks to both school equipment and home devices through a library management system that is accessible 24/7. So ‘free and flexible’ from Project Gutenberg provides any school library the option to make a start in the use of digital ebook resources. School library collection development presents some unique circumstances and challenges that encompass national curriculum requirements through to specific community needs (Sheehan 2013, p. 81). Customizing collections requires meeting departmental standards, 364 providing curriculum relevant content for the breadth of age and ability in the school cohort, responding to the recreational interests of students, supporting the teaching and professional learning requirements of teachers and addressing unique local community aspects. Ebooks are not necessarily available to address this breadth in collection development. Added to this, are issues on ebook publishing formats, digital rights management and the subsequent borrowing restrictions that do not adequately address the way schools and students interact with and use texts. Conclusion The digital future of school libraries presents a vision of rich, diverse and multimodal collections, where eresources contribute to new cultures of reading and learning. The feedback received from Australian schools via the 50:50 by 2020 survey indicates that for most schools there is some way to go before the breadth of this vision is realized. What is encouraging is the evidence that teacher librarians are responding to the ereading challenges, and adapting library collections. Nevertheless, while the survey shows a steady increase in the implementation of ebooks over the past two years, the qualitative responses reveal schools grappling with significant issues related to collection building, collection management and use of digital resources. There are also glimpses of libraries that are making headway with these issues as they immerse themselves in the digital space. A challenge for the school library sector is to respond to these findings and promote opportunities for school library staff to share what works, and to learn from each other’s experience. Given the pace at which technology changes progress, it is essential that school libraries keep abreast of the changes and developments taking place and ensure that collections remain responsive to needs for literature in digital environments. While there is no way to predict the technologies of the future, it is important to consider the ways that students will read in the future; the changes that need to be made to incorporate literature into curriculum and learning experiences; and how the library collection can support and create engaging, innovative experiences for students. Australian school libraries are travelling towards exciting new futures for library collections - yet in many ways the journey has just begun! References ACARA (Australian Curriculum and Reporting Authority) (2014). Australian Curriculum V7.2 English: Aims. Retrieved from http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/english/aims. Australian Library and Information Association (2013). 50:50 by 2020. Retrieved from http://www.alia.org.au/sites/default/files/documents/about/ALIA-5050-by2020_2.pdf. Bain, A., & Weston, M. (2012). The learning edge: What technology can do to educate all children. New York: Teachers College Press. Barron, B. (2006). Interest and self-sustained learning as catalysts of development: A learning ecology perspective. Human Development, 49, 193-224. 365 Cahill, M., & Richey, J. (2014, August). Do you hear what I hear? Questioning the legitimacy of audiobooks as ‘reading’ material. Paper presented at IFLA Satellite Conference: Libraries For Children And Youth And School Libraries Section, Lyon, France. Retrieved from http://www.reseau-canope.fr/ifla-seminairebnf/pdf/cahill_article.pdf. Cavenaugh, T. (2005). The Digital reader: Using e-books in K-12 education. Eugene, OR: ISTE. Clyde, L. A. (1981). The magic casements: A survey of school library history from the eighth to the twentieth century (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). James Cook University, Townsville. Retrieved from http://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/2051/1/01front.pdf. DEEWR (Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations). (2014). Chapter 2 Impact of Recent Commonwealth Government Policies and Investments on School Libraries. Submission 344.1. p. 2 to the inquiry of the House of Representative Committee on school libraries and teacher librarians in 21st century Australia. Retrieved from http://www.aph.gov.au/parliamentary_business/committees/house_of_representati ves_committees?url=ee/schoollibraries/report/chapter2.htm. Felvegi, E., & Matthew, K. I. (2012). Ebooks and literacy in K-12 schools. Computers in the Schools, 29, 40-52. doi: 10.1080/07380569.2012.651421. Gogan, B., & Marcus, A. (2013). Lost in transliteracy. Knowledge Quest, 41(5), 40–45. Gordon, C. (2010). 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Teacher Librarian, 37, 8-14. 366 McAllan, T. (2013). Snapshots of learning in the library and classroom: E-books in a history unit - a case study. In J. Bales (Ed.), E-books in learning: A beginners guide (pp. 29-31). Sydney, NSW: Australian School Library Association. Millard, E. (2003). Towards a literacy of fusion: New times, new teaching and learning? Reading, 37, 3–8. doi: 10.1111/1467-9345.3701002. Neale, I. (2001). School libraries the poor relation. Education Stuff NZ. Retrieved from http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/education/5602314/School-libraries-the-poorrelation. O’Connell, J., Bales, J. & Mitchell, P. (in press). [R]Evolution in reading cultures: 2020 vision for school libraries. Australian Library Journal. Partnership for 21st Century Skills. (2002). Learning for the 21st century: A report and mile guide for 21st century skills. Washington, DC: Partnership for 21st Century Skills. Retrieved from http://www.p21.org/storage/documents/P21_Report.pdf. 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Retrieved from http://www.slav.vic.edu.au/synergy/volume-10-number-1-2012/research/235collaborators-or-competitors-the-roles-of-school-libraries-classroom-librariesteachers-and-teacher-librarians-in-literacy-development.html. Rosenblatt, L. (1995). Literature as exploration (5th ed.). New York: Modern Language Association. School Library Journal. (2014). Survey of ebook usage in U.S. school libraries: Fifth annual survey. Retrieved from http://www.thedigitalshift.com/research/ebook-usage-u-sschool-k-12-libraries-2014-report. Sheehan, K. (2013). The ebook revolution: A primer for librarians on the front lines. Santa Barbara, CA: Libraries Unlimited. 367 Softlink. (2014a). 2013 Australian school library survey. Softlink. Retrieved from http://www.softlinkint.com/2013-australian-school-library-survey-schools. Softlink. (2014b). The 2014 Australian school library survey summary. Softlink. Retrieved from http://www.softlinkint.com. Strick, A. (2013). Is everybody in? Part 2. Making our school library collection truly inclusive. School Librarian, 61(4), 198-99. Thomas, D., & Brown, J. (2011). A new culture of learning: Cultivating the imagination for a world of constant change. Lexington, Ky: Create Space. Todd, R. & Gordon, C. (2010. School libraries, now more than ever: a position paper of the center for international scholarship in school libraries. Center for International Scholarship in School Libraries, Rutgers University. Retrieved from http://njasl.info/wp-content/NJ_study/Oct2012_CISSL.pdf Vandergrift, K. (1996). Vandergrift's reader response criticism and resources. Retrieved from http://comminfo.rutgers.edu/professional-development/childlit/readerresponse.html. Vockley, M. (2007). Maximizing the impact: The pivotal role of technology in a 21st century education system. Partnership for 21st Century Skills. Retrieved from http://www.p21.org/storage/documents/p21setdaistepaper.pdf. Biographical notes Judy O’Connell has worked as lecturer and Courses (programs) Director at Charles Sturt University since 2011. From 2008-2010 she was Head of Library and Information Services at St Joseph’s College, Hunters Hill, Sydney. In 2006-2007 she was an Education Consultant in Library and Web 2.0 developments for 80 primary and secondary schools in the Western Region of Sydney. Her professional leadership spans school and tertiary education, with a focus on libraries, learning spaces, online learning design, innovation, social media and technology for learning and teaching. In 2014 she received a Charles Sturt University Faculty of Education Award for Academic Excellence. Dr Jennie Bales has worked as an adjunct lecturer in the School of Information Studies at Charles Sturt University since 2014. Prior to that a long career as a teacher librarian for the Department of Education Tasmania has included school leadership in the primary and secondary sectors, predominantly around the integration of ICT into teaching and learning. Her professional and research interests revolve around online and digital learning, curriculum resourcing and children's literature with several action research investigations conducted within schools. Pru Mitchell is Manager of Information Services at the Australian Council for Educational Research in Melbourne and an adjunct lecturer, School of Information Studies at Charles Sturt University in Wagga Wagga. Her professional and research interests include metadata, education librarianship, collection management and professional learning. After working as a teacher librarian across K-12, Pru spent twelve years managing national online education 368 projects including the Schools Catalogue Information Service. In 2010 she received the Australian School Library Association Citation. 369 How the image drawing method can act as an alternative barometer of librarian instruction Daisuke Okada Akashi National College of Technology 679-3 Nishioka, Uozumi-cho, Akashi, Hyogo 674-8501 Japan [email protected] Abstract Previously, I examined changes in pictures of school libraries drawn over time by university students in a teacher training program taking a course on the importance of school libraries. The results revealed an increased tendency to depict librarians; even so, librarians featured in only 12 of 32 pictures. This study compares my results with those for similar teacher and teacher librarian courses by other teachers and (in most cases) at other universities. Besides my course, only 1 of 15 other courses revealed an increased tendency to draw a librarian, with no significant differences in proportion of students who depicted librarians among the courses, revealing that my lectures successfully communicated the importance of school librarians. Also, 4 of 11 courses that focused on information media revealed an increased to draw PC(s). These results show that the image drawing method may suffice as an alternative barometer for librarian instruction. Keywords: perception of school libraries, image drawing method (IDM), teacher training, librarian training Aim Okada (2014) examines changes in the pictures that university students in a teacher training program drew of their school library over time (Figure 1) (an approach called the image drawing method [IDM]) while taking a course I taught on “The Planning of a School Library” in the 2013 autumn term. The course explained the importance of school libraries and in particular school librarians to future teachers (excluding school librarians). It was expected that if the lecture objectives had been achieved, while even students who understood the importance of a school librarian would not necessarily in all cases draw a librarian, but that the number of students who drew a librarian would increase compared with drawings done by the same students prior to taking part in the course. 370 ex. 1. Librarian is not applicable ex. 2. Librarian is applicable ex. 3. Librarian is applicable ex. 4. PC(s) is applicable Figure 1: Example pictures While the results revealed an increased tendency to depict librarians after the related lectures, librarians featured in only 12 of the total of 32 pictures drawn by students (Okada 2014). As such, this study has two purposes: (1) to determine whether 12 out of 32 can be considered “high” or “low,” and, relatedly, whether or not improvements to the curriculum are needed, and (2) to consider whether IDM can act as an alternative barometer for librarian instruction. The present study is an extension of Okada (2015) that in contrast to that study, which analyzed only 2014 spring term data, also considers a wider range, including 2014 autumn term data as well. 371 Method Target There are not many lectures with similar objectives to those found in my class—geared toward future classroom teachers—in other universities in Japan. Thus, in this study, my course is compared to the same course taught the next year by another teacher (since I transferred to a different institution) and to teacher librarian courses at other universities. In Japan, the teacher librarian program is composed of the following five courses, credit in which, along with a teacher’s license, is required for a “teacher librarian license.” School Library and School Management Building and Organization of School Library Media Teaching and School Library Character Development Through Reading Information Media and Their Use In general, teacher librarian course students are of course expected to understand the importance of librarians. The data collection for these course was held in 2014 (either the spring or the autumn term). IDM in this study In the present study, the Okada (2014) method is used, with a few modifications. The pretest was held at the time of the initial lectures in the course, and the posttest at the time of the final lecture. The questionnaire has two questions: “1. Please draw a picture of your image of the school library. (3 minutes)” and “2. Please explain in writing why you drew the picture above. (2 minutes).” The pictures produced by the students reflected various elements of the school library: “Librarian,” “Bookshelves,” “Desks for users,” “PC(s),” “Student(s),” “Sofas,” and “Class in session.” It was not easy to determine whether a given human figure in a picture was a librarian or student by Okada (2014, section 2.2.3) criteria; question 2 answers were used only when this was difficult to determine. In Okada (2014), the pictures were evaluated by me and three graduate students in psychology; as the concordance rate was 94%, in the present study, pictures were evaluated by me only. Results The materials for analysis were 604 drawings produced by 302 students attending 15 teacher and teacher librarian training courses at 12 universities. This study focused on increases in representations of “Librarian” and “PC(s).” Fluctuation of appearance of the depicted “librarian” From the 15 lectures, 1 revealed an increasing tendency to draw a librarian, 1 had a decreasing tendency, and the others (including the next year’s course by another teacher) had no significant differences (Table 1). Univ./ Course Year and Stu- 372 Applicable Not McNemar’s campus A/i A / ii B The Planning of a School Library (my class) The Planning of a School Library (another teacher) Building and Organization of School Library Media G H I J Information Media and Their Use L Character Development Through Reading E Teaching and School Library C D/i D / ii F K term dents not applicable applicable test 2013 Autumn 32 2 8 +(p = 0.0578) 2014 Autumn 14 3 5 n.s 12 1 3 0 1 1 n.s n.s 83 11 10 n.s 14 5 7 12 1 3 1 1 2 0 1 2 n.s +(p = 0.0833) n.s n.s 5 1 1 n.s 6 0 3 +(p = 0.0833) 16 26 2 3 3 3 n.s n.s 12 1 3 n.s 60 9 13 n.s 29 3 5 n.s 2014 Spring 2014 Spring (Intensive) Building and Organization of School Library Media Teaching and School Library Information Media and Its Use 2014 Autumn Table 1: Appearance of Librarian in Pictures by Course ( applicable; +p<.1, *p<.05, **p<.01) 373 Ratio of depiction of librarian The ratio of students who depicted librarians in the results for my original class was compared with the same ratio for the new students in the teacher librarian course (Table 2). “The Planning of a School Library” Teacher librarian course students 2013 (my class) 2014 (another teacher) 2014 Total 2014 Spring 2014 Autumn Pre-test Applicable : Significance not applicable of difference (depicted ratio) compared to my class 6 : 26 (18.8%) 4 : 10 (28.6%) n.s. 83 : 205 (28.8%) 33 : 112 (22.8%) 50 : 93 (35.0%) Post-test Applicable : Significance not applicable of difference (depicted ratio) compared to my class 12 : 20 (37.5%) 6:8 (42.9%) n.s. n.s. n.s. +(p = 0.0755) 92 : 196 (31.9%) 33 : 112 (22.8%) 59 : 84 (41.3%) n.s. +(p = 0.0830) n.s. Table 2: Ratio of Depicted Librarians by Term There were no significant differences between my class (2013) and the same class taught by another teacher (2014) or between my class and the overall teacher librarian course results (2014). For the spring 2014 teacher librarian courses, in the pre-test, there were no significant differences between the two groups, but in the post-test, the ratio for my class was higher than that for the teacher librarian courses (p = 0.0830). For the autumn 2014 teacher librarian courses, in the pre-test, the ratio of my class was lower than that for the teacher librarian courses (p = 0.0755), but in the post-test, there were no significant differences. From this viewpoint, it seems that my students were able to catch up with the teacher librarian students’ level of awareness of the importance of a librarian in the school library. Fluctuation of appearance of depicted “PC(s)” Generally, PCs may be required by school libraries for online catalog search or for inquirybased learning, but they were not considered in my course due to insufficient time. Therefore, it was expected that changes in representations of them would be smaller than those in representations of the librarian in my course. In fact, there was no significant change in representations of PC(s). In contrast, in the lectures on the importance of IT media, such as “Building and Organization of School Library Media” and “Information Media and Their Use,” an increase was expected. In fact, of the 15 lectures, 5 revealed an increased to draw PC(s) and 1 revealed an increasing tendency to draw PC(s) (Table 3). 374 Univ./ campus A/i A / ii B G H I J Course The Planning of a School Library (my class) The Planning of a School Library (another teacher) Building and Organization of School Library Media Information Media and Their Use L Character Development Through Reading E Teaching and School Library C D/i D / ii F K Building and Organization of School Library Media Teaching and School Library Information Media and Their Use Year and term Students Applicable not Not applicable applicable McNemar’s test 2013 Autumn 32 3 2 n.s 2014 Autumn 14 0 3 +(p = 0.0833) 12 1 83 14 5 7 12 1 0 8 0 1 0 0 1 1 5 2 0 2 7 n.s n.s n.s n.s n.s n.s **(p = 0.0082) 5 0 2 n.s 6 1 0 n.s 16 26 12 0 4 0 7 3 5 **(p = 0.0082) n.s *(p = 0.0254) 60 3 12 *(p = 0.0201) 29 1 10 **(p = 0.0067) 2014 Spring 2014 Spring (Intensive) 2014 Autumn Table 3: Appearance of PC(s) by Course Conclusion My original students showed an increased tendency to draw a librarian, but with the exception of one other course only, students in the other 14 courses had no significant differences or showed a decreased tendency (3.1); the ratio of my students who depicted librarians was at the same level as that of the students in the teacher librarian courses (3.2), revealing that my original lectures were successful in communicating the importance of school librarians. In addition, 4 of 11 courses that focused on information media revealed an increased to draw PC(s). Thus, the study findings suggest that IDM can be used not only as a barometer for measuring perceptions of the importance of librarians, but also for investigations into the effectiveness of other aspects of librarian and teacher instruction. 375 Future directions To investigate the following issues, we need collaborators; please get in touch if you are interested in participating in a trial. A larger sample is still needed for better statistical validity and to identify regional differences. Is it optimal for all students to draw a librarian? Probably not. Many students drew general library maps or scenes, while some drew a picture like the following (Figure 2). Point out the present condition of the library (e.g., ex. 5) Abstract drawing (e.g., ex. 6, flowers and mountains, the sun, a cube) Explanatory diagram (e.g., ex. 7, the relationship between the library and children) ex. 5. Point out the present condition of the library ex. 6. Abstract drawing ex. 7. Explanatory diagram Figure 2: Librarian is not applicable It cannot be said with certainty that these students did not understand the importance of the school librarian, but since they did not depict a librarian, I placed them in the “not applicable” group automatically. However, I did not formulate criteria to distinguish between the implications of pictures using a map or scene style versus the above-described style. Future research could take up this goal. 376 Can IDM serve as a barometer of understanding the importance of the librarian? Teacher librarian students are expected to understand the importance of librarians, and the ratio of these students who drew a librarian showed about 20% to 40%. But this study was answered by students. It is still necessary to investigate the rate of librarians in pictures drawn by in-service teachers, who sometimes teach with school librarians in the field (and teachers, who rarely teach alongside school librarians). Acknowledgment I would like to thank the students who drew the pictures and gave permission for them to be used, as well as the teachers who conducted IDM in their courses. References Okada, D. (2014). Using the image drawing method to examine students’ perceptions of school libraries. In Proceedings of the International Association for School Librarians Annual Conference, 205–212, August, 2014. Cosmos Hotel, Moscow. Okada, D. (2015). The course evaluation questionnaire by the image drawing method: Whether students draw the objective of the class in the picture (in Japanese). In Proceedings of Kyoto University Conference on Higher Education, 21, 298–299, March 2015. Kyoto University, Kyoto. Biographical note Mr. Daisuke Okada has worked as an Assistant Professor at Akashi National College of Technology in Hyogo Prefecture, Japan, since December 2014. From 2007 to 2010, he served as a teacher librarian at a private junior high school. He currently offers faculty development activities for the teachers and staff at the college and lectures in information literacy classes in the liberal arts. Since April 2015, he has been a part-time lecturer in a librarian program at Bukkyo university. His research interests include the educational effects of the (school or university) library, lesson planning in the library, and training in inquiry-based learning for schoolteachers. He is the author of Ask essential questions: Handbook for inquiry-based learning beginners (in Japanese). 377 Understanding teacher-librarian collaboration: the contribution of Patricia Montiel-Overall’s studies and of TLC model Gleice Pereira Department of Library Science, Federal University of Espírito Santo - UFES, Vitória, Brazil Av. Fernando Ferrari, 514 29075-910 Vitória, Brazil [email protected] Bernadete Campello School of Information Science, Federal University of Minas Gerais – UFMG, Belo Horizonte, Brazil Av. Presidente Antônio Carlos, 6627 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, Brazil [email protected] Abstract Montiel-Overall’s TLC model has been used as a basis for several studies on teacherlibrarian collaboration. In Brazil, research on the subject has showed to be superficial, although there is evidence that collaboration with teachers is a crucial factor if the library is to contribute to improve students’ reading. This study sought to understand how Montiel-Overall’s TLC model was designed and validated, and to analyze studies that applied TLC, trying to verify its consequent benefits. Methodology was textual analysis of articles by Montiel-Overall and colleagues from 2005 to 2013, which describe TLC and further attempts to its validation, plus five studies that used the model. Results show that the work of Montiel-Overall and colleagues brings a useful contribution that can help in improving research on this topic in Brazil. Keywords: Teacher-librarian collaboration; School librarianship; School library research; Brazil Introduction Collaboration is a theme present in North-American library literature since the 1940s. Mary Peacock Douglas, one of the pioneers of the school librarianship in the US, emphasized at that time the need for teachers and librarians to work together in the development of 378 curricular activities and reading (Miller, 2003, p. 46). Currently, when many studies show the influence of teacher-librarian collaboration in academic achievement (Lonsdale, 2003), the question has been a matter of concern in other countries (Ash-Argyle & Shoham, 2012; Kimmel, 2012; Chu & Chow, 2011; McCluskey, 2011; Freire 2007; Mokhtar & Majid, 2006). IFLA/UNESCO School Library Manifesto consolidated the issue stating that “It has been demonstrated that, when librarians and teachers work together, students achieve higher levels of literacy, reading, learning, problem-solving and information and communication technology skills” (IFLA/UNESCO, 1999). Emphasis on the educational role of the librarian and the emergence of the concept of information literacy increased the debate. Teacher-librarian collaboration was highlighted in Information Power: Building partnerships for learning (AASL/AECT, 1998), which describes it as the involvement of librarians with teachers in planning, implementation and evaluation of activities related to the library. The librarian is seen as a catalyst of this collaboration, starting relationship, not only with individual teachers, but seeking to create a culture of collaboration in school. A more recent AASL document, Empowering Learners: Guidelines for school library media programs (AASL, 2009), continues to highlight teacher-librarian collaboration. Problem statement In Brazil, "library integration in school life", "interaction of the librarian with the teaching staff" and other similar expressions have been present for a long time in the discourse of library practitioners (Oliveira, 1979; Silva, 1984; Alves, 1992). However, the issue of teacherlibrarian collaboration has been treated superficially (Campello et al, 2013), and usually related to a typical librarian feature: a preference for working alone. The practitioners’ discourse presents often an admonishing tone to change this situation, trying to persuade librarians to be participatory and to interact more with teachers and the school staff. However, the factors involved in this process are not detailed, failing in presenting the issue in all its complexity. The few Brazilian studies on teacher-librarian collaboration (Silva, 1984; Alves, 1992; Bessa, 2011) have been limited to emphasize the importance of the teacher’s participation in library activities, drawing attention to the small number of integrated work with the librarian. The reasons are mainly the lack of training of librarians and teachers to work together, in addition to poor working conditions (two shifts for teachers, librarian’s multiple assignments, lack of time, ignorance of librarian’s functions, etc.). Brazilian studies analyzed teacher-librarian collaboration mainly pointing out how each perceives the other's work and how both work (or have the potential to work) together when teachers understand the educational function of the school library. The studies are guided by flimsy theoretical framework, and terms such as integration, constant involvement, communion, union, team work and collaboration are used with little precision to name the phenomenon, bringing as consequence a fragile and weak analysis (Alves, 1992, p. 67). In a study that examined the librarian educational role in Brazilian school libraries, Campello (2009) used for the first time in Brazil the Teacher Librarian Collaboration Model – TLC, developed by the North American researcher Patricia Montiel-Overall, trying to verify, among other things, if - and how – a sample of librarians performed collaborative work. The conclusion was that collaborative practices occurred in three of the four levels identified by Montiel-Overall: coordination, cooperation and integrated instruction. “Although there were 379 projects integrated with the academic planning, it would not be adequate to characterize them as integrated curriculum since they did not consist in a complete information literacy program as characterized in the model” (Campello, 2009, p. 11). In a preliminary study for a master's thesis, Moreira & Duarte (2013) applied TLC (MontielOverall, 2005b) to study teacher-librarian collaboration based on the analysis of 20 reading projects implemented in four public schools of basic education in a Brazilian city. The result was similar to that of Campello (2009): collaboration occurred in the three lowest levels: the prevailing level found in all activities was coordination; cooperation was found in eight activities and integrated instruction in only three. In these studies TLC was efficient to present teacher-librarian collaboration in a more specific way. However, a detailed examination of the model and of its application would be necessary to allow assessment of its usefulness to the Brazilian context. The present study sought to understand how TLC was designed and validated by the author; and to understand how the model was applied, trying to verify its consequent benefits. Methodology was textual analysis of nine articles authored by Montiel-Overall and colleagues, published from 2005 to 2013, describing TLC and subsequent attempts to its validation plus five reports of studies that used the model in two countries (Portugal and Israel). These documents were identified by means of Portal Capes2 and Google Scholar. Each text has been analyzed to reveal how the model was applied and the results obtained. Teacher Librarian Collaboration Model - TLC Montiel-Overall firstly formulated TLC in two theoretical studies (Montiel-Overall, 2005a, 2005b), based on the assumption that the factors that made teacher-librarian collaboration effective were not yet clearly identified because there was a disorder in the use of terms representing the way these two groups of professionals work together. The author argued that to fully understand the meaning of collaboration and its relationship with student academic performance, it would be necessary to build a theory of collaboration. Based on Loertscher’s taxonomy, originally published in 1988 (See a synthesis of the taxonomy in Montiel-Overall, 2005a, p 9) and in the review of literature on collaboration, Montiel-Overall proposed TLC and produced a definition for teacher-librarian collaboration, which is widely cited by LIS authors: Collaboration is a trusting, working relationship between two or more equal participants involved in shared thinking, shared planning, and shared creation of innovative integrated instruction. Through a shared vision and shared objectives, student learning opportunities are created that integrate subject content and library curriculum by co-planning, coimplementing, and co-evaluating students’ progress throughout the instructional process in order to improve student learning in all areas of instruction (Montiel-Overall, 2005a, p. 5). 2 Portal Capes is a virtual library that provides access to Brazilian and international scientific literature by means of 36,000 full text journals and research papers, 137 databases, besides books, encyclopedias and reference works, technical standards, statistics and audiovisual content. 380 Montiel-Overall (2005a, 2005b) refined Loertscher’s taxonomy, proposing a model - TLC composed of four facets: A coordination; B cooperation; C integrated instruction and D integrated curriculum3 that identifies the level of interaction and communication that occurs between librarians and teachers and that consists in a continuum from a relatively low level of involvement among collaborators to a deep intellectual commitment. Coordination involves simple collaborative practices as setting schedules for activities in the library and making the necessary adjustments to avoid overlapping activities, requiring a minimal amount of involvement. Focus is more on efficiency than on student learning. Cooperation implies a higher level of intentionality requiring more than commitment to efficiency. It’s about two or more people working together, guided by a similar purpose, for example, when librarians and teachers share responsibility in projects undertaken by students. There is a predominance of the role of a partner, the librarian being a support for the teacher, for example, when he/she selects material for a class to be taught by the teacher. In integrated instruction, librarians and teachers are jointly engaged in the planning and implementation of learning activities that include both curriculum content and information skills. They are equal partners whose skills complement each other and are integrated to provide meaningful learning experiences for students. In many cases, the librarian is also a teacher. Both are aware of the capacities of each other and have common ideas on how to accomplish the task. Integrated curriculum occurs when librarians and teachers, working together, reach full articulation of the syllabus with library activities. The librarian works regularly in conjunction with each teacher to plan, implement and evaluate curriculum activities that integrate subject content with library activities. The director has an important role to provide opportunities for collaboration, facilitating the establishment of flexible hours, providing opportunities for training of staff and encouraging librarians to collaborate in teaching. He/she recognizes the librarian at the same level of teachers, as a professional able to plan and develop activities with students. In summary, coordination and cooperation “describe low-end collaboration where there is minimal shared thinking and shared planning and little interaction between teacher and librarian”. Integrated instruction and integrated curriculum “describe high-end collaboration where teachers and librarians are fully engaged in jointly creating, teaching, and evaluating activities” (Montiel-Overall, 2007, p. 280). TLC validation Since the design of TLC in 2005, Montiel-Overall carried out several empirical studies in order to validate her theory. Table 1 shows some characteristics of these studies. Publication year/ title 2007 Research on 3 Participants Schools/level Data collection instrument Data analysis 64 teachers, seven librarians, Seven public schools Two questionnaires (Loertscher survey and - TLC survey) five-point Exploratory factor analysis The facets were originally called models. 381 Publication year/ title teacher and librarian collaboration: An examination of underlying structures of models Participants Schools/level Data collection instrument six principals, and one vice principal purposely selected (kindergarten through middle school) Likert-type scale 2008 Teacher and librarian collaboration: A qualitative study 18 teachers and librarians Three public schools (Pre-K, 1–2, elementary (K–5), and middle school) Interviews, observation of collaborative planning activities and field notes Qualitative data analysis by categories 2009 Teachers' perceptions of teacher and librarian collaboration: Instrumentation development and validation 2011 Teacher and school librarian collaboration: A preliminary report of teachers’ perceptions about frequency and importance to student learning 2010 1st phase Further understanding of collaboration: A case study with teachers and librarians. 194 teachers and 11 librarians 11 elementary schools Questionnaire TLC II (16 statements) four-point Likert-type scale Exploratory factor analysis Same as 2009 Same as 2009 Same as 2009 SAS 9.1.3 Descriptive statistics Three 3 teachers and three librarians 3 elementary schools Intervention workshops Observations, interviews (pre- and post-workshops) and participant diaries Qualitative data analysis by categories 2013 2nd phase Teachers and librarians collaborating on inquiry-based science instruction: A longitudinal study 18 teachers and librarians 6 elementary schools Intervention workshops (four hours monthly sessions) Observations registered in field diaries, interviews, participant diaries Qualitative data analysis by categories 2012 The effect of professional development on teacher and librarian collaboration: Preliminary findings using a revised instrument, TLC-III 30 teachers and six librarians Six elementary schools (thirdgrade and fourthgrade) Intervention workshops 24-item questionnaire (TLC-III) 4point Likert-type scale, used preand post-workshops Quantitative data analysis Table 1: Characteristics of Montiel-Overall studies 382 Data analysis In the first study (Montiel-Overall, 2007), two surveys (one based on Loertscher’s taxonomy and the other on TLC) were used to gather empirical data, enabling to better understand teacher-librarian collaboration and the extent to which theory and practice were integrated. Besides revealing a complementary relationship between the two models, the study started to operationalize specific collaboration practices present in LIS literature. It seems that the major contribution of the 2007 study was to point out the need for research that would reveal ways in which librarians work successfully with teachers and how limitations for collaboration are overcome. The author suggested qualitative studies to better understand the conditions required to develop and facilitate strong relationships leading to high end collaboration and showed concern on the need to prove the connection between teacher-librarian collaboration and student academic achievement. After that, Montiel-Overal (2008) sought to examine practices of highly collaborative teachers and librarians in which instruction in information literacy and subject content were fully integrated in order to identify facilitating elements. Communication, management and motivation proved to be essential elements of successful collaboration; school culture and positive attributes of collaborators were considered prerequisites. The study participants were introduced to - and discussed TLC, leading to its validation and review, presented in a schematic illustration that included the several trodden paths in collaborative activities (See the diagram in Montiel-Overall, 2008, p. 148). The following study (Montiel-Overall, 2009; Montiel-Overall & Jones, 2011) tried to understand two central aspects of collaboration: the frequency it occurred and its importance to student learning, as perceived by teachers. A first report (Montiel-Overall, 20094) described the procedures for validation of the data collection instrument, a questionnaire named TLC II5 (See example in Montiel-Overall, 2009, p. 190). According to the author, the instrument rating was positive and the factors identified were similar to the four TLC facets, which needed to be more detailed and some items renamed. She advised librarians to focus efforts towards high collaborative practices (C and D TLC facets) that, according to her, have theoretically the greatest potential to enhance learning. Thus, she recognized that TLC II is unable to show practical evidence of the impact of collaboration on learning. The research results were analyzed in another article (Montiel-Overall & Jones, 2011), which reported other limitation of the study: the fact that TLC II was developed by librarians whose perspective may differ from the teachers’ (Montiel-Overall & Jones, 2011, p. 57). Data revealed that teachers perceived all collaborative practices as important to student learning, although they were more engaged with traditional types of collaborative activities, as shown by previous studies. These traditional collaborative activities included school librarians helping teachers find library material and gathering resources for lessons taught by teachers. 4 Presented earlier with the title Assessing Teacher and Librarian Collaboration, as juried paper at the 37th International Association of School Librarians Conference (IASL 2008,) Berkeley, California. Retrieved February 20, 2015 from http://www.kzneducation.gov.za/Portals/0/ELITS%20website%20Homepage/IASL%202008/research%20f orum/overallrf.pdf 5 TLC II was based on TLC survey, a questionnaire developed previously for the 2007 study. 383 The study confirmed the function of this lower level of collaboration as a step for the development of trust that can lead towards a higher level of collaboration. Another significant result was that teachers’ perception did not match with what was recommended on collaboration in LIS literature, which promotes the librarian ‘increasingly working with teachers in a teaching capacity’ (Montiel-Overall & Jones, 2011, p. 69). Following a longitudinal case study was developed, which lasted three years. (MontielOverall, 2010; Montiel-Overall & Grimes, 2013). A real situation was created for teachers and librarians to work together and, from there, data were collected through observations, interviews and participant diaries. In the first year (Montiel-Overall, 2010), teachers and librarians (identified as peer mentors) worked together, planning a course to be delivered later to other librarians and teachers in order to prepare them to develop inquiry learning strategies to be applied in Science activities with Latino students of elementary education. Participants were instructed by experts (identified as advisors) on inquiry learning, information literacy, Latin culture and on the TLC itself. Results obtained through interviews, observations and participant diaries were analyzed on the basis of TLC and revealed enablers for collaboration in more detail: shared knowledge, building relationships (communication and qualities), deep thinking around ideas (accommodation and consensus) and environment. A conceptualization of a collaborative process was proposed (See the process scheme in Montiel-Overall, 2010, p. 47), which was composed of three phases that reflect the empirical evidence for the advancement of teacher-librarian collaboration theory: initial phase, marked by interest, motivation and commitment; phase of relationship building, characterized by the need to know each other; productive phase, featuring group cohesion. The study showed the complexity of collaboration, and increased the understanding of the factors involved in it, previously described in the literature, added to the understanding of their relations, complementing facets of TLC. In the second phase of the study (Montiel-Overall & Grimes, 2013), which lasted two years, the course planned was given to teachers and librarians by means of long term professional development workshops, covering the following topics: teacher-librarian collaboration (TLC), information literacy, inquiry-based science instruction, language and culture, in order to prepare participants to develop inquiry based learning projects (See the contents of the modules in Montiel-Overall & Grimes, 2013, p. 44). Five categories of analysis were established a priori based on TLC: building relationships, sharing curriculum, making connections, changing perceptions, and changing teaching. Revised categories included knowledge and understanding of TLC, experience with inquiry-based science content, information literacy, instructional strategies, changed perceptions, and changed pedagogy. Major themes emerged from the categories: preparation, experience, transformation/change over time and motivation. In this study, the complexity of the collaboration process and the difficulties associated with high level collaboration were evidenced. Results showed that since teachers demonstrated to have no awareness of librarians' role as instructional partners, working together needs to be learned. The study confirmed elements of collaboration already identified in previous studies and added others specifically related to the fact that collaboration needs to be 384 learned: peer mentoring and professional development. Peer mentors were considered integral to the professional development workshops, modeling best practices of TLC. Although in earlier studies Montiel-Overall and colleagues have collected data from teachers (2007, 2008, 2009, 2011), it was in the 2013 study that she was able to show more clearly how they react to a collaborative situation. The intervention methodology used attested that collaboration can be learned but takes time and experience. In the conclusion, the text displays an especially exhortative tone, suggesting that “A national initiative is desperately needed to improve librarians' participation in education, as well as to ensure full support of educators in teacher and librarian collaboration, as described in LIS literature” (MontielOverall, 2013, p. 48). The authors urge librarians to become more active, helping educators to change their perception about them, librarians, by raising their awareness of the existence of information literacy standards and of the importance of collaboration in higher levels, as a way to improve student achievement6. In collaboration with Anthony C. R. Hernandez, Montiel-Overall developed a study to revise and test TLC II (Montiel-Overall & Hernández, 2012). The revised questionnaire increased from 16 to 24 statements, which have been rewritten for greater clarity, and called TLC III (see TLC III in Montiel-Overall & Hernandez, 2012, p. 21). The study was conducted similarly to the 2013 study (Montiel-Overall & Grimes, 2013), with teachers and librarians participating in training workshops. The difference was that there was a group of control that did not participate in the workshops. Only two aspects of teacher-librarian collaboration were investigated: frequency of collaborative practices and their importance to student learning. Findings confirmed the influence of professional development intervention workshops, that contributed to changes in teachers’ and librarians’ collaborative behaviors related to how frequently they collaborate, and their perceptions about the importance of collaboration to student academic success, although perceptions differed slightly from each group on these two aspects. Model Applications Three studies in Portugal and two in Israel examined teacher-librarian collaboration using TLC. Table 2 depicts some characteristics of these studies. Publication year/ authors 2007 Freire, A. C. 2008 Dotan, G. & Aharony, N. 2010 Rodrigues, M. C. G. D. 6 Title Participant s Schools/Level Data Collection Instrument Data Analysis School library and classroom: Intersection of two realities through collaborative work (translated from Portuguese) Information literacy roles of library media specialists in high schools: Israeli perspectives Strategies to demonstrate the value of the school library and obtain 15 teachers One high school in Portugal Qualitative data analysis 138 school librarians Junior high and high schools in Israel Theoretical intervention+ implementation of collaborative activities, questionnaire, interview, observations registered in field diaries Questionnaire five-point Likert-type scale Theoretical intervention+ implementation of collaborative activities, Qualitative data analysis One high school in Portugal Quantitative data analysis: This article was selected in 2013 by the American Library Association Library Instruction Round Table (LIRT), as one of the LIRT’s Top Twenty. http://www.ala.org/lirt/sites/ala.org.lirt/files/content/archive/2014jun.pdf (p. 10) 385 Publication year/ authors 2010 Santos, M. L. M. 2012 Ash-Argyle, R. & Shoham, S. Title Participant s collaboration (translated from Portuguese) School libraries: What cooperation? The collaborative work between the teacher- librarian and teachers (translated from Portuguese) Librarians' leadership efficacy, training, and school involvement: Collaboration between teachers and school librarians in Israel Schools/Level Three teacherlibrarians Three schools in Portugal 170 teachers, 88 school librarians and 33 principals Secondary and elementary schools in Israel Data Collection Instrument questionnaire, interview, observations registered in field diaries Multiple case studies, Interviews, observation of collaborative activities and fieldnotes Questionnaire Data Analysis Qualitative data analysis Quantitative data analysis Table 2: Characteristics of studies that used TLC Freire (2007) sought to understand how teachers integrated the library in their teaching practices and the degree of collaboration with the teacher-librarian, investigating initially their perceptions about collaborative work. Being an action research, which was meant to change a reality, the study sought then to stimulate teachers to reflect about collaboration through a theoretical intervention that consisted of discussions of collaboration theories and models using David Loertscher, Patricia Montiel-Overall and Carol Doll’s works. After the theoretical discussion Freire (2007) investigated if there were changes in teachers’ perceptions. Finally there was the implementation of collaborative activities, involving teachers in the sample who were willing to voluntarily work with the teacher-librarian. The study found that collaboration between teachers and the library already existed involving mainly extracurricular activities usually occurring at the coordination level. Teachers had a limited view of what collaboration was, and the process of reflection and the theoretical discussion expanded perceptions in eight of the fifteen participants, mainly because they highlighted the partner role of the teacher-librarian, which was unknown to many of them. For Freire (2007), the presentation of the models and the respective levels acted as pedagogical innovation opportunities and a goal to be reached. The study, she said, may have been the beginning of change in school culture characterized by isolation. Starting from Freire’s perspective (2007) affirming that the theoretical intervention performed had had a positive effect in changing the teachers’ perceptions and practices on collaboration, Rodrigues (2010) also sought to create and manage opportunities for them to reflect and change their attitudes and behavior in the context of an information literacy project. Collaborative practices were categorized according to Loertscher’s taxonomy and TLC and results confirmed the low levels of collaboration found by Freire (2007), which were limited to coordination and cooperation in extracurricular activities, and occasionally, in curricular activities. Rodrigues (2010) concluded that the experience of working together with the teacher-librarian, even in the two observed cases that started in a "constrained" mode, was very well accepted by teachers. This success contributed to a qualitative improvement in the school library work, which took on new meaning and importance. 386 Santos (2010) investigated concepts and types of collaboration of three teacher-librarians, their role in collaborative practices and enablers and inhibiting factors of collaboration. Results showed that collaboration conceptions of one stood at integrated curriculum level and of the other two in the cooperation level. In the first case, there was a concern to relate collaboration with student learning. In the other, the concept of collaboration was related with what participants called availability, an understanding that to collaborate in the library's perspective meant to provide resources for curricular activities, not considering that they should have significant involvement in those activities. Learning practices in the three cases revealed a low level of collaboration, even so participants seemed concerned about student learning success. An Israeli study (Dotan and Aharony, 2008) aimed to establish if teacher-librarian collaboration correlated with a higher involvement in the provision of information literacy programs to students. Results showed that an ongoing relation with teachers, particularly in providing them with information resources, is highly correlated with teaching information literacy to students. They also revealed that librarians working in libraries equipped with advanced technological resources and facilities cooperate more frequently with teachers, and at a higher level, suggesting that the use of technology enables the expansion of their teaching roles. Ash-Argyle and Shoham (2012) examined the correlation between the kind of training received by librarians in Israel, the degree of leadership they showed (as perceived by themselves, teachers and directors), their involvement in school life with patterns of teacherlibrarian collaboration. The perceived collaboration level was lower among librarians who do not have a teaching license. Those with a teaching license (teacher librarians) were perceived to have the highest level of pedagogical and social involvement. Analysis showed that leadership capability denoted a high level of collaboration. The researchers called attention to the need to prepare librarians with educational skills, suggesting a change in the current tendency of training librarians as information scientists. Discussion This analysis has shown the breadth and consistency of knowledge on teacher-librarian collaboration produced by the studies of Montiel-Overall, which started with a broad theoretical framework and evolved to a more applied research. Studies using TLC support hers and her colleagues’ findings. Limitations of the studies have been well explained. Employing different methodological approaches, the studies used TLC to: Determine practices of teacher-librarian collaboration; determine the level of collaboration; identify factors that affect the process of collaboration; identify correlations between factors related to collaboration. TLC was based on Loertscher’s taxonomy (1988), which was perhaps the first work to clearly disclose the complexity and ambiguity of collaboration, showing different possibilities for teachers and librarians to act in partnership. Montiel-Overall’s studies reinforced these characteristics and went further, demonstrating the difficulties in implementing a collaboration process, especially due to differences in the perceptions of teachers and librarians on the 387 matter. Montiel-Overall sought to integrate knowledge about collaboration from different areas (Hara et al., 2003; Mattisech and Monsey, 1992), which seems to make TLC an open and widely understandable model. Although no model is able to capture the full complexity of a phenomenon because it is a simplified representation of reality, it enables the comparison of research results. This analysis suggests that TLC is useful to capture characteristics of cultures and to understand the differences between collaborative practices of diverse schools in different countries. Accordingly, the consolidation of terminology is a positive aspect brought about by TLC, allowing to identify and to name objectively the degree of collaboration. TLC materializes the notion of collaboration, already present in the perception of teachers, featuring in more detail the collaborative practices. Levels of collaboration identified in TLC make more visible the pedagogical function of the librarian, which has been considered generally only as an element that supports the teacher in activities related to the use of the library collection and not as a partner in learning. These levels may represent goals to be achieved, since there is an understanding by teachers that collaborative work may foster educational innovations. The model’s general structure and tools developed for validation, especially the questionnaires used in the study of 2009 (TLC II) and 2012 (TLC III) are useful to systematize issues to be investigated in other studies. Application of TLC to comprehend collaborative practices can reveal issues that need to be improved, as shown by Dotan & Aharony (2008), which identified little cooperation in the aspect of planning and by Freire (2007), in assessing students learning. Although the graphical representations of the model suggest that collaboration has a positive effect on student learning (Montiel-Overall, 2005a, p 10, 16, 18;. 2008, p 148;. 2009, p 190;. 2012, p 21; 2013, p 47), this was not really tested in the studies. Most of the studies showed the perception of the different participants and it is necessary to understand these narratives as linguistic constructs that did not directly mirror practices, even if they provided the possibility to say something about these practices. Nevertheless, by enabling a more realistic understanding of teacher-librarian collaboration, TLC helps overcome the stage of simple apology of the issue, displaying possibilities and challenges for its practice. Interestingly, research in the two countries where the TLC was applied has peculiar characteristics: in Portugal it seems to exist a concern in developing collaborative actions (two of the three studies used action research with intervention of the researchers), based on the fact that it has been increasingly valued in the context of educational policies and in the discourse of leaders in the country. In Israel, it can be observed a will to know factors related to collaboration, measuring the correlation of these factors by means of statistical techniques. These researches open interesting perspectives for further studies. Conclusion Incipient research on teacher-librarian collaboration in Brazil points to the need for further studies, since partnership with teachers proved essential to the library intervention in reading projects in Brazilian schools (Moreira, 2014). In other words, collaboration must be seen not 388 only as a factor to improve learning outcomes, but as an imperative for the librarian to become part of the effort to improve reading skills of Brazilian students, whose rates are at low levels (55th place in the world ranking in 20127), pointing to the need to put into action all available resources at the schools. Analysis revealed that teacher-librarian collaboration research can be deepened and that using TLC can help better understand the collaborative process from the perspective of the school culture of particular schools, revealing specific issues that need to be addressed. 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Práticas educativas bibliotecárias de formação de leitores: Uma análise inicial de projetos da Rede Municipal de Educação de Belo Horizonte a partir de modelos de trabalho colaborativo entre bibliotecários e professores. In: Anais do 25º Congresso Brasileiro de Biblioteconomia, Documentação e Ciência da Informação. Florianópolis, SC, Brasil, FEBAB. Retrieved February 20, 2015 from http://portal.febab.org.br/anais/article/view/1258/1259 Moreira, J. A. (2014). Práticas educativas bibliotecárias de formação de leitores: Um mapeamento de suas iniciativas e articulações na Rede Municipal de Ensino de Belo Horizonte – RME- BH. Master thesis. Belo Horizonte, Escola de Ciência da 391 Informação, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais. Retrieved February 20, 2015 from http://www.bibliotecadigital.ufmg.br/dspace/bitstream/handle/1843/BUOS9RQGWB/disserta__o_moreira__juliana_alves.pdf?sequence=1 Oliveira, T. S. F. (1979). A biblioteca escolar no regimento comum das escolas de 1º e 2º graus do Estado de São Paulo. Revista Brasileira de Biblioteconomia e Documentação, 2 (3/4), 230-277. Retrieved February 20, 2015 from http://www.brapci.ufpr.br/documento.php?dd0=0000002068&dd1=bb614 Rodrigues, M. C. G. D. (2010). Estratégias para demonstrar o valor da biblioteca escolar e obter colaboração: Um estudo numa Escola Secundária com 3º Ciclo. Master thesis. Lisboa: Departamento de Ciências da Educação e Ensino a Distância, Universidade Aberta. Retrieved February 20, 2015 from http://repositorioaberto.uab.pt/bitstream/10400.2/1706/1/ceu_rodrigues_dm_k.pdf Santos, M. L. M. (2010). Bibliotecas escolares: Que colaboração? O trabalho colaborativo entre o professor bibliotecário e os professores; estudo de caso. Master thesis. Lisboa: Departamento de Ciências da Educação e Ensino a Distância, Universidade Aberta. Retrieved February 20, 2015 from https://repositorioaberto.uab.pt/bitstream/10400.2/1574/1/BEsColabora%C3%A7% C3%A3oLSantosVol.I.pdf Silva, V. A. P. (1984). Proposta de interação entre educadores e bibliotecário nas escolas de 1º e 2º graus. Master thesis. Campinas, SP: Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Campinas. Biographical notes Gleice PEREIRA has worked as an assistant professor at the Department of Library Science, Federal University of Espírito Santo - UFES, in Vitória, Brazil since 2010. Her main research topic is school library and learning. Currently she is pursuing a doctorate degree in Information Science at the School of Information Science at Federal University of Minas Gerais – UFMG and her dissertation subject is teacher-librarian collaboration. Bernadete Santos CAMPELLO is a full professor at the School of Information Science at Federal University of Minas Gerais - UFMG, in Belo Horizonte, Brazil, where she coordinates the Research Group on School Libraries since 1998. Her main research topic is school library and learning. She coordinated the Portuguese translation and adaptation of Carol Kuhlthau’s books School Librarian’s Grade by Grade Activities Program: A Complete Sequential Skills Plan for Grades K-8 and Teaching the Library Research Process. Title in Portuguese: Compreendendo a colaboração professor-bibliotecário: a contribuição do trabalho de Patricia Montiel-Overall e do modelo TLC Abstract in Portuguese O modelo de Patricia Montiel-Overall (TLC) tem sido usado como base para vários estudos sobre a colaboração do professor-bibliotecário. No Brasil, a pesquisa sobre o assunto se mostrou superficial, embora haja evidências de que a colaboração com os professores é um fator crucial para que a biblioteca possa contribuir para melhorar a aprendizagem da leitura. 392 Este estudo buscou compreender como o TLC foi desenvolvido e validado, e analisar os estudos que o utilizaram, tentando verificar os benefícios da sua utilização. A metodologia empregada foi a análise textual dos artigos de Montiel-Overall e colaboradores, de 2005 a 2013, que descrevem o TLC e as tentativas para a sua validação, além de cinco estudos que utilizaram o modelo. Os resultados mostram que o trabalho de Montiel-Overall e colaboradores traz uma contribuição útil que pode ajudar a melhorar a pesquisa sobre o tema no Brasil. Acknowledgment The presentation of this work in the IASL 44th Annual Conference & 17th International Forum on Research in School Librarianship (2015) was made possible by a grant from CAPES, Brazil. 393 The School Library as a Bridge to Literacy: A Garden of Words Yvonne Perriel Principal of Goshen All Age, St. Elizabeth, Jamaica [email protected] Abstract Administrators and teachers have the expertise to utilize theoretical and practical experiences in dealing with students but are unaware of the vital role of parental involvement in students’ academic achievement. The purpose of this research was to explore whether the impact of the implementation of a literacy garden could improve reading level of fourth grade boys at Northside All Age School. Data was obtained using the quasi experimental design. Fifty-three students from two classes grade four at Northside All Age were used. The study was done after a survey was conducted among children in grade four. Data were analyzed using charts and descriptive statistics. . Some of the findings revealed that the implementation of literacy garden has a positive effect of literacy at grade four. The reading level of the boys increases as their self-esteem increases. It was recommended, based on the findings that parents should be more involved in their child’s life at school. That both teachers and parents should motivate slow readers and also that teachers use teaching strategies that will help children who are slow readers Keywords: School libraries, Literacy, Parents’ involvement, Boys, Reading Introduction Excellence or any level of success on the part of students depends heavily on parental involvement. Jesse (1997) confirmed that parental involvement in education significantly “increases students’ achievement and also creates a positive school environment.” Fullan (2004) also asserted that “parental involvement is a high predictor of school success,"p.16. Hester (1989), adding another dimension, made it clear that the home and school relationship must be supported because education is a shared responsibility. Therefore, schools must reach out to parents to establish partnerships because the full potential of children will not be realized unless parents are actively involved. The literature and available research are consistent in showing that meaningful parent involvement results in gainful prospects in student achievement. The Ministry of Education also placed parental involvement as a high priority level with their platforms. It is quite evident in this slogan from the Ministry of Education which states, “Every child can learn and every child must learn,” (Henry-Wilson, 2005). Since 70% of a student’s 394 waking hours including weekends and vacations are spent outside the school setting (Clark, 1993), it is imperative that parents are involved in their child’s education for success. Children, in a special way, still need to be guided through assignments and use of study time. As academic and other activities progress through any given scholastic period, the parents’ role is to act as vigils, motivators, and guards of what should be their key interest— the holistic development of their young ones. If schools are going to survive in the 21st century, then educators must begin to give significant attention to building and strengthening the relationship among teachers, parents and principals. Parents can no longer be used as sales agents for tickets, fund-raisers, or called in only when the child is in trouble. Parents need to embrace the education process and be encouraged to play an active role in the day -to day life of the school. Background of the Problem It can be said that literacy is the cornerstone of school achievement. Thus, improving school outcomes requires that we focus on raising literacy achievement. "Children may fail to develop adequate reading skills because of their environment, abnormal brain structure, or both," postulates Mark A. Eckert, Ph.D., of the McKnight Brain Institute of the University of Florida. Poor reading is a major issue that warrants close attention. Educators such as Chall, Jacobs, & Baldwin, (1990) have noted that boys’ reading levels are cause for concern. Boys have been lagging behind girls in reading on the National Assessment Program in our Jamaican schools and this gap seems to be getting wider every year as evidenced in the Grade four literacy results. Boys seem to have a lack of interest when it comes on to reading and as a result of this, it affects them all subject areas. At Northside All Age School where this research was conducted, there are more boys than girls in most classes. The researcher has seen two grade four classes with 25 boys and 28 girls. They are all given the same opportunity yet the girls seem to be reading and performing above the boys’ level. The yearly grade four literacy examinations, which capture the data of students’ performance, reveal that boys score ridiculously lower than their counterparts both at the national and regional levels. Keywords in the Research Process The meanings of certain terms used in this are best clarified: Mastery: the required standard of 80% in the three areas of literacy to include word recognition, reading comprehension and writing tasks, set by the Ministry of Education for fourth grade level. Parental involvement: refers to the participation or inclusion of parents or guardians in their children’s education by partnership in and contribution to various at home at home. Parent: is used to refer to mother, step-mother, foster-mother, adopted mother, father, foster father, step- father and adopted father. Positive parent involvement: refers to the establishment of productive relationships between the school and the home to enhance communication, promote understanding, and provide opportunities for children to interact with people, places and things in their immediate environment and beyond. Slossons: refers to a standardized reading test used to assess students’ reading level from non-starter, to grade nine levels approved by the ministry of education in Jamaica. 395 Literature review In this chapter the researcher outlined other researchers’ views on stimulation on reading and the impact parental involvement have on improving reading. The prime importance of being able to read has long been recognized: “Reading makes a full person” as mentioned by Beacon, 1596 as stated by Pumfrey (1996) alluded to this and stated, “Reading is also an amplifier of human abilities. Not to be able to read is to be marginalized and impoverished, both culturally and economically” (p. 17). Society recognizes that literacy skills are essential to both the current well-being and the future of the individual and society, and expects that schools should ensure reading standards are safeguarded and raised. Therefore, a teacher should make the teaching of reading a major priority for those reasons. Concerns about reading standards are not a new phenomenon and these concerns are still with us according to Beard (1993). There is no obvious collective view of what has happened to our national reading standards in recent years but they are decreasing according to Gleaner (2006). “When parents are involved in their children’s education at home, they do better in school. And when parents are involved in school, children are further motivated to the school and the school to which they go progress” (Colker, 2000, p. 3). This quote suggests that it is a wellestablished fact that parental involvement is linked to children’s success at school. Epstein(1992) also agreed with statement. Colker (2000) stated that the positive result of parental involvement in their children’s schooling include improved achievement, reduced absenteeism, improved behavior, and restored parental confidence. She further added that the earlier this involvement begins, the more profound the results and the longer lasting the effects. When families are involved in their children’s education in positive ways, children achieve higher grades and test scores, complete more homework assignments, demonstrate attitudes and behavior that are more positive, graduate at a higher rate than others, and have greater enrollment in higher education. Parental involvement with older children extends these benefits beyond schooling into later life and career decisions. Colker (2006) purported that of all academic subjects, reading has been found to be the most sensitive to family influence. In 1994, the College Board established a correlation between reading and family support for their children’s effort. Reading achievement is considered to be more dependent on learning activities in the home than is either math or science. Moreover, success in reading appears to be the gateway to success in other academic areas. Lee and Croniger (1994) informed us that children’s success in school can be linked to reading to children and listening to them read. Indeed, the single most important activity for building the knowledge required for eventual success in reading is reading aloud to children. In addition, they added that parents can also take their children to the library, help them get a library card, and help them find books on their areas of interest and hobbies. The availability of reading material at the home, whether owned or borrowed from the library, is directly associated with children’s achievement in reading comprehension. It can be said that reading is an essential skill for functioning in society and is fundamental to achievement and success. Yet, an alarming proportion of students have significant difficulties 396 with reading. Despite the efforts of teachers, parents and several national educational programs and literacy initiatives over a number of decades (Calfee & Drum 1986; Steinberg 1996), many students continue to have reading abilities far below those expected at their grade levels. In the Nation’s Report Card for Fourth Grade Reading for 2000, more than 68 % of the nation’s fourth graders scored below the recommended proficient level. That number jumps to more than 85% of fourth graders in high-poverty schools. Poor reading skills adversely affect a student’s other learning endeavors, often causing serious learning difficulties and resulting in low academic achievement overall. Consequently, it is imperative to find instructional methods and media to help poor readers develop and improve their reading skills and achieve reading proficiency. The Importance of Stimulated Activity in Reading Snyder & Tan (2005) postulate that “in our great eagerness to teach our children we studiously look for educational toys, games with built-in lessons and books with a message. Often these tools are less interesting and stimulating than the child's natural curiosity and playfulness”. Snyder further states “that play is by its very nature educational, and it should be pleasurable. When the fun goes out of play, most often so does the learning”. Making learning fun motivates students and helps them pay attention and stay focused on the subject. Children will go out of their way to play games, even a single game, for hours, as it captivates their interests. Effects of Hands on Activity According to Wierus and Wierus (1994), Games are designed to exist in relation to a broader array of classroom activities. Games offer teachers enormous resources they can use to make their subject matter come alive for their students, motivating learning, offering rich and compelling problems, and enabling more sophisticated assessment mechanisms. Students are motivated to play games; games make learning fun, so students would not even realize that they are learning. Learning to read is hard work especially when one gets older, it must be maintained over a long period of time. Wierus and Wierus (1994) also stated that games help and encourage many learners to sustain their interest and work. According to Ersoz (2000), games also help the teacher to create contexts in which reading is useful and meaningful. The learners want to take part and in order to do so must understand what others are reading and they must speak or write in order to express their own point of view or give information. Boys’ Attitudes toward School and Learning Several early sociological studies investigated the behavior of specific groups of young men without making 'masculinity' explicit or problematic. These early studies were focused on delinquency and deviance from the 'norm'. In the 1960s and 1970s some researchers were concerned with how socio-economic status affected boys' experiences in secondary schools Hargreaves (1967). These researchers found that working class boys left school earlier and achieved less. Miller (1998) argues that male and female students perform differently in education because of sex differences in maturation rates and learning styles. While males and females have 397 innate differences, influencing factors from children’s social environments likely have a more profound impact on their life outcomes than do biological and cognitive differences. Research Methodology The purpose of this research was to ascertain if a literacy garden could be used to improve Grade Four boys’ reading level. The sample size included twenty-five boys and twenty eight girls from two Grade Four classes. In this chapter the researcher will outline the type of research and design used to carry out this research. Research Design The researcher undertook a quasi-experiment; this is a type of quantitative research which is used in educational research. Quantitative research, broadly defined, means "any kind of research that produces findings arrived at by means of statistical procedures or other means of quantification" (Strauss and Corbin, 1990, p. 17). Where quantitative researchers seek causal determination, prediction, and generalization of findings, qualitative researchers seek instead illumination, understanding, and extrapolation to similar situations. A quasi experimental design works in natural settings according to Schoenfeld, (2006).The researcher used this design as the class setting would not be interrupted. Shavelson and Towne (2002) cited that with the implementation of No Child Left Behind statue, educational research put forth an agenda of scientifically based research. The purpose of a quasi-experimental is focused on finding a solution to a problem and the solution can be generalized setting. The purpose of this research was to investigate the impact of a literacy garden on the reading level of grade four boys. Therefore, we addressed the following questions in this study: 1. What was the reading level of fourth grade boys at Northside before treatment intervention? 2. What factors affect the reading level of grade four boys at Northside All Age? 3. How has the implication of Literacy Garden and books from the school library impacted the literacy level of grade four boys? Method of Data Collection Participants This 12- week study was conducted in two 4th grade literacy classes (N=53 ) at Northside All Age school with low –socioeconomic background with majority of the parents not completing high school education and are unemployed. Twenty -five boys and twenty -eight girls were tested for reading levels and follow up with parental involvement. They were given a standardized Grade Four Literacy Test. Seventeen boys and sixteen girls were given treatment with the instruction for the literacy garden that was administered by class teacher for twelve weeks before the posttest was given to both the control and the treatment group. The instruments that were used to collect data are, standardized reading test prepared by the Ministry of Education (see Appendix A) with students, academic records that showed progress before and after implementation of strategies. In addition a Slossons test (see Appendix C) was used as a pretest and post test to determine the reading level of the boys. 398 Data Collection Instruments Slossons The Slosson test sheet was distributed to schools by the Ministry of Education for the teacher to ascertain the reading level for the students. A Slosson test is a series of words that range from Primer to High school words for the students to identify (see Appendix C). Each list contains 20 words. The number of words that each students call correctly from each of the word list will be tallied and divided by two for the administrator to know the grade level at which the literacy test as stipulated by the Ministry of Education in word recognition, reading comprehension, and writing. Strategies for literacy garden were implemented and words were planted in garden and students rewarded from books read. Data Analysis and Results Data were analyzed using charts and descriptive statistics to explore the differences among groups. The results showed that there was an increased in literacy performance with pretest and post- test. Research questions This research took the form of a quasi- experimental. The researcher used a sample of 53 students from the Grade 4 class. Thirty-three students in the treatment group to ascertain if the impact of literacy garden could improve their reading level. This chapter considers the main findings from the data collected using the methods of a pretest and post -test, treatment group when the administration of the group. The following research questions formed the basis of the analysis of the findings. Research questions 1. What was the reading level of fourth grade boys at Northside All Age School before the intervention? 2. What factors affect the reading level of Grade 4 boys at Northside All Age? 3. How has the implementation of Literacy Garden and books from the school library impacted the reading level of grade 4 boys? Research question 1: What are the reading levels of Grade 4 boys at Northside All Age? In response to this question the researcher gave a detailed description of the results of the pre- test. The aim of which was to ascertain the reading level of the boys before the administering and implementation of literacy garden. Students were tested from the levels primer to grade 7. Each grade level had 20 words. The number of words that each student called correctly from each of the word list was tallied and divided by two to determine the grade level at which the child was reading. Overall it was noted that majority was reading at their level or slightly above 53% these students were reading at or above their grade level. The required level of each student is for them to be reading at or above their grade level. I can therefore be said that only some students were reading the required level when the pre-test was administered. Between September 2014 and December 2014, a pre -test was carried out at Northside All Age School in two grade 4 classes, to be completed by fifty-three students in order to assess pupils’ reading levels. Table 1. presents the results for seventeen (17) male pupils 399 and sixteen (16) female pupils. The Slossons was used to ascertain these results as recorded below in Table 1. There were 8 (47%) students reading below or at level three, this was nearly half of the boys’ reading at this level. There were five students reading at grade three, which had (5) 29% reading at this level .The lowest level that the students were reading from was pre-primer which had (1) 6% . There were five (5) at grade four level and four at grade five level. Table 1. Reading results from Slossons Treatment Group GENDER No of Students Reading Levels for Sept 2014 M 2 Preprimer M 2 Grade 1 M 1 Grade 2 M 3 Grade 3 M 5 Grade 4 M 4 Grade 5 F 2 Grade 2 F 3 Grade 3 F 4 Grade 4 F 5 Grade 5 The table below represents the control group reading results from the Slossons conducted in September, 2014.The results showed that all the male students reading at grade three or below grade three levels. Table 2. Reading results from Slossons Control Group Gender M M F F F F No of Students 2 6 2 7 2 1 Results Grade2 Grade 3 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 8 Grade 7 Table 3. Post Reading Results from Slossons Treatment Group, Dec 2014 Gender M M M M M F F F F F No of Students 1 1 5 2 3 1 6 3 3 3 400 Grade Level Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 7 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Grade 7 Table 3. reflected that was an increased in the reading levels of boys, only two boys were now reading below grade four reading level. There was a seventy-five percent increase in the reading levels of the male students. Table 4. Post Reading Results from Slossons Control Group Dec 2014 Gender No. of Students Results M 2 Grade 2 M 5 Grade 3 M 1 Grade 4 F 2 Grade 3 F 7 Grade 4 F 2 Grade 5 F 1 Grade 7 Research question 2: What factors affect the reading level of Grade 4 boys at Northside All Age? The researcher used quasi-experiment research method using treatment of the literacy garden to collect data to respond to this question. Thirty-three students were given treatment. The researcher used the intact class so as to obtain unbiased outcome at the fourth grade class at Northside All Age. The information gathered from the treatment group with a semi –structured interview instrument was sorted and was categorized in themes. Based on the information gathered, the themes were used as factors affecting reading level of Grade 4 boys. The factors affecting reading level of Grade 4 boys 1. Lack of Parental involvement 2. Demotivation 3. Teaching Strategies Parental Support The students’ views were mostly that their parents were not around and they are unable to do homework as they have no help at home as a result of this about six reported that they did not do any school work at home. Some students felt embarrassed when parents tried to assist them as their parent often used discouraging words while assisting them. De-motivation Students were asked if they liked school. Most reported that school was hard and as a result of that they did not like school. Nine reported that they are often laughed at whenever they said or did something wrong. One student reported that he was bored at school and just did not want to participate in class. Others reported that they could not read well and as a result they just stopped paying attention in class. Teaching Strategies Students were asked what it is that they did not understand when the teacher teaches, some students reported that it was just too fast and they did not understand. Based on what the 401 students reported, the students seemed to be having difficulties with the teacher’s teaching style. They complained that they liked when games are played in a lesson and when they used objects in the lesson. Therefore these factors are affecting the students both academically and emotionally. Research question 3: How has the implementation of literacy garden and books from the school library impacted the literacy level of grade 4 boys? To collect data for research question three, six books from the school library in an effort to these books and planting unfamiliar words in the garden were implemented. The result from the pre-test mock literacy test is depicted in Table 4.5. Literacy Mock Examination was used to answer research question three. The pretest literacy mock examination with treatment group revealed that five male students were at non-mastery level in the examination while two female students were at the near mastery level. Twelve male students gained mastery and fourteen female students mastered. Table 5. Results for Pretest Literacy Mock Exam for treatment Group Gender No of Students Results M 5 Non Mastery M 12 Mastery F 2 Near Mastery F 14 Mastery Table 6. This table revealed the results from the pretest Literacy Mock from the Control Group. Two male students are at the near mastery and five female students were near mastery level. Table 6. Results for Pretest Literacy Mock from Control Group M 2 Near Mastery M 6 Mastery F 5 Near Mastery F 7 Mastery Table 7. This table revealed the results from the post-test the treatment administered to the treatment group. The treatment had a positive impact on students who sat the posttest. It also revealed that no male student remained at the non- mastery level and three out of the five male students whose scores were deemed at non- mastery now mastered. It therefore can be said that 60% of the male students soared to mastery while the female students increase was slightly lower. Table 7. Results from Post-test for Treatment Group Gender No of Students M 2 M 15 F 1 F 15 402 Results Near Mastery Mastery Near Mastery Mastery Table 8. The table revealed the results from the post-test for the Literacy Mock Examination. It was noted very little change in this group scores. Table 8. Results from Post-test for Control Group M 2 M 6 F 5 F 7 Near Mastery Mastery Near Mastery Mastery Literacy Pretest for Boys 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 88% 82% 70% 30% Percentages 20% 10% 0% Word Recognition Reading Comprehension Writing Task Literacy Pretest for Girls 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 94% 40% 94% 75% 30% 20% 10% 0% Word Recognition Reading Comprehension 403 Writing Task Percentages Figure 1. By comparing the pre-test and post -test literacy mock, it is evident that the reading level of all the students had improved. In the pre -test 12 (70%) of the students were doing reading comprehension at mastery level. In comparison to the post test, where 94% students or sixteen of seventeen boys in the treatment group obtained mastery level in literacy mock test. In the pre-test of the students word recognition was 88% reading at the mastery level. While the post-test revealed that 17 (100%) of the male students mastered the word recognition. In the pre-test 82% students mastered the writing task. However after the post test was administered 94% were mastering writing task. Based on the findings it is evident that there was a marked improvement in the literacy level of the Grade four boys’. All students have improved at least one or more grade levels and 12%-24 % on literacy mock post- test. It can therefore be said that there is a significant improvement in the reading levels of the grade four boys after the implementation of the literacy garden and using books from the school library. See Figure 2. below which shows the results from the Post-test. Literacy Posttest for Boys 101% 100% 99% 98% 97% 96% 95% 100% Percentages 94% 96% 93% 94% 92% 91% Word Recognition Reading Comprehension 404 Writing Task Literacy Posttest for Girls 101% 100% 99% 98% 97% 96% 95% 100% Percentages 94% 93% 92% 94% 94% Reading Comprehension Writing Task 91% Word Recognition Figure 2. Summary, Implications and Conclusion The researcher conducted quasi experimental research. The sample size of the research was 17 boys and 16 girls from Grade 4. The purpose of this research was to find out the impact of literacy garden with the use of school library on the reading level of Grade 4 boys. The researcher found from the pre-test that the boys were reading below their grade level. Based on the post test, it was found that planting words in the literacy assisted in improving the boys’ reading level. In order for this to happen, six books were implemented to guide the students in improving in their reading. They were challenged to read books from the school library and planting words in the garden. These books got progressively more difficult while they allowed the students to have fun while reading and learning. These books motivated reading habit created by planting words in the literacy garden also addressed different areas in literacy. The boys all improved at least one or more grade level while 16 (96%) of the boys were reading at the required level for grade four. It found that the factors that affected the boys were Lack of Parental involvement, De-motivation and Teaching Strategy. According to Miller (2003) reading attainment is positively affected by parental support. The researcher found that parents were not actively involved in their children’s school life. Pearson (1994) postulates that reading is an effortful activity that children often can choose to do or not to do, it also requires motivation. The literature reveals that much of the work relevant to readers’ motivation has been framed in terms of attitude towards reading. Reading attitudes typically are defined as readers’ affect toward reading (McKenna, 1995). The motivational consequences of reading attitudes are that children with more positive attitudes are more motivated to read. However the researchers’ findings were that most of the students felt de-motivated while at school. A substantial body of work also exists on reading interest, defined as either a characteristic of the person or of the text (Schiefele, 1996). Learning strategies are plans which are followed in order to reach learning objectives 405 and are techniques that are improved by person to ensure that students understand task when being taught (Derry, 1989). Conclusion Findings from the Slossons and pretest indicated that most the students were reading below their reading level and were not mastering the grade four literacy test. However in comparison with the post test, it was noted that all the students improved at reading level and mastering the grade four mock examinations. Findings from the implementation of the literacy garden and books from the school library were positive. Books that students like to read will keep them involved and eager to learn. The finding could not be generalized because of the sample size but it is noteworthy. The Ministry of Education states that “every child can learn every child must”. However not all children learn in the same way and at the same pace. In our society, we have children who are more advanced than others. Some are good readers and others are poor readers. It is our duty as educators to continue to create and implement activities which would foster the academic welfare and growth of these students. This will help the students to become better readers for a brighter tomorrow. Recommendations Based on the overwhelming improvement in the reading level and mastering literacy there are some recommendations that I would like to make. These are based on the three factors that affected reading level and literacy levels in boys. I recommend that: 1. Parents should be more active in their child’s/children’s school life, 2. Schools should provide regular feedback on pupils’ progress and information about ways for parents to support their children’s learning. 3. Teachers and parents should find ways to motivate children to read. 4. Teachers should use different teaching strategies with students and know their learning styles so as to address reading issues. 5. Every school should be equipped with a variety of books in the school library that targeted boys and girls. 6. Parents and teachers perceived support and encouragement as major areas of parental involvement and these are important for students’ academic achievement. References Calfee, R.C. and Drum, P. 1986. Research on reading instruction. In M. Wittrock (ed.)Handbook Research on Teaching (3rd ed.). New York: Rand McNally Chall, J. S., Jacobs, V., & Baldwin, L.(1990). The reading crisis: Why poor children fall behind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Clark, R. (1993). Homework –focused parenting practices that positively affect student achievement. In N.F Chavkin (Ed.). Families and Schools in Pluralistic Society, New York:New : State University of New York Press. Colker,L. J.(2006) Family involvement: A Key ingredient in children’s reading success. Retrieved October 5, 2005, from http://www.rif/parents/articlesFamInvolvement.mspx 406 Derry, S. J. (1989). Putting learning strategies to work. Educational Leadership, 46 (4), 2-7. Epstein J.L. (1992). School and family partnerships. In M. Alkin (Ed.), Encyclopedia of educational research,(Sixth Edition). New York: MacMillan. Ersöz, Aydan (2000) Six Games for the EFL/ESL Classroom by The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VI, No. 6, June. Fullan, M.2001 Leading in a culture of Change, San Francisco, CA: John Wiley. Gilmore, T. Krantz, J & Ramirez, R.(1986). Action Based Modes of Inquiry and the HostResearcher Relationship. Consultation 5.3: 160-76 Hargreaves, D. (1967) Social Relations in a Secondary School. London: Routledge Hester,H. (1989). Sart at home to improve home school relations. NASSP Bulletin, 73(513), 23-27. Jesse, D.,(1997). Increasing parental involvement: A key to student academic success. Lee, V.E. & Croninger, R.G.(1994).The relative importance of home environment in the development of literacy skills for middle grade students. American of Education. 102 (3). 286-329. McKenna, M.C., Kear, D.J., & Ellsworth, R.A. (1995). Children’s attitudes toward reading: A national survey. Reading Research Quarterly, 30, 934–955. Mehrens, W. A. & Lehmann, I. J. (1987). Using standardized tests in education. New York: Longman. Miller, E. (2003). The effect of parental involvement (Men at risk). Kingston Jamaica: Jamaica Publishing House Miller, E. (1998). Education Reform in Independent Jamaica: Themes in Education Reform in the Populist Era. UWI, Mona Muller, C., & Kerbow, D. (1993). Parent involvement in the home, school, and community. In B. Schneider, and J.S. Coleman (Eds.), Parents, their children, and schools. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo. Pearson, P.D. (1994). Commentary on California’s new English-language arts assessment. Authentic reading assessment: Practices and possibilities (pp. 218–227). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. 407 Pumfrey,P. (2006). Reading and writing, Journal of Research in Early Childhood Education, 17(1), 38-40. Schiefele, U. (1996). Topic interest, text representation, and quality of experience. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 21, 3–18. . Snyder, T.D., & Tan, A.G. (2005, October). Digest of education statistics, 2004 (NCES publication no. 2006-005). Washington, DC: Steinberg, Laurence. (1996). Beyond the class-room: Why school reform has failed and what parents need to do. New York: Simon & Schuster. (ERIC Document No.ED398346) Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Wierus, and Wierus. 1994. Zagrag Razem a nami, Cze sc Jezyki abee w szkole, June : 218222. Biographical note Yvonne Perriel is a graduate of Guelph University Ontario, Canada, with a Bachelor of Science Degree in Food Science. She received her Master of Arts Degree in Education from Andrews University in 1998. She earned a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in Educational Administration in 2009 from Northern Caribbean University. She is a Master Teacher who has worked in several schools in the Bahamas and Jamaica. She served as an Assistant Professor at Northern Caribbean University for seven years, and now serves as an adjunct professor in Graduate Studies at this institution. Currently, serves as Principal of Goshen All Age, St. Elizabeth, Jamaica. Dr. Perriel-Mapp has over thirty years working experience in Education. Among her many awards are: Outstanding Service Award from South Andros, Teacher of the Year for the San Salvador, Bahamas, 2001. Bahamas Union of Teachers- Master Teacher award, 1998. Outstanding Service award in Seventh-day Adventist Service in the Bahamas, Outstanding award 2005 from Teacher Education Department at the Northern Caribbean University, Distinguished Faculty Award from Northern Caribbean University in 2007, Certified Professional in Home Economics in 2011 and Excellence in Teaching from Jamaica Teaching Council in 2014. Dr. Perriel –Mapp has co-authored one book Introduction to Educational Research. She has presented papers at national, regional and international forums. She also authored four articles in three separate journals. Dr. Perriel-Mapp’s major objectives are to render quality service, to motivate and support others in discovering their hidden potentials, and to empower individuals to make positive changes. She is a motivator, a confidant, but most importantly, she is a Christian lady. 408 The School Library as a Sexual Health Learning Environment Jennifer Richey, Ph.D. Texas Woman’s University School of Library & Information Studies Stoddard Hall, Room 404 P.O. Box 425438 Denton, TX 76204-5438 United States of America [email protected] Abstract In Northern Europe and the United States, approximately half of adolescents have engaged in sexual activity by the age of 18 years, but attitudes, behaviors, and outcomes among adolescents in the two geographic areas differ greatly. Although multiple factors contribute to decision-making and although adolescents receive sexual health information through myriad information channels, one commonality exists between the two geographic areas: the school library. This paper presents the findings of two studies exploring the role of high school librarians in Texas as sexual health information providers and motivators and barriers to information provision, as perceived by district-level library coordinators, high school principals, and high school librarians. Results suggest the librarian potentially plays this role, and more motivators for information provision exist than do barriers; as such, the school library potentially serves as a sexual health learning environment. Keywords: Adolescent sexual health; Sexual health information; School libraries; Health information literacy Introduction Despite approximately the same percentage of Northern European and American adolescents engaging in sexual activity by the age of 18 years, American adolescents engage in riskier behaviors and express unhealthier attitudes than their Northern European counterparts. Within the United States, Texas ranks among the highest in both adolescent birth rates and adolescent pregnancies. Information sources as well as educational programs can influence adolescents’ sexual attitudes and behaviors. Based on guidelines from the International Association of School Librarians (IASL), the American Library Association (ALA), and the American Association for School Librarians (AASL), the school library can serve as a sexual health learning environment for adolescents, where adolescents can receive current, accurate, reliable, and balanced sexual health information from certified school librarians. 409 This paper shares the results of two studies exploring high school librarians as sexual health information providers and concludes with a discussion about the school library as a sexual health learning environment. Literature Review Adolescent Sexual Behavior in Europe, America, and Texas: A Comparison The percentages of adolescents in Northern Europe and the United States of America engaging in sexual intercourse are comparable, but the behaviors and outcomes vary greatly. Exact years of comparison are not available for European countries, but Advocates for Youth (2008) report that in varying years during the 2000’s, the rate of adolescent pregnancies, birth rates, and HIV/STI rates in France, the Netherlands, and Germany were considerably lower than those in the United States. Adolescents in these European countries were more likely to use some form of birth control compared to their American counterparts. Although approximately the same percentage of Texas adolescents have sex as do adolescents across the United States (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014a), the outcomes also vary greatly. In 2010, out of 50 states, Texas ranked third in nation for number of adolescent pregnancies at a rate of 73.0 per 1000 compared to the national rate of 57.4 births per 1000. The same year, Texas ranked fourth in the nation for birth rates at a rate of 52.0 per 1000 compared to the national rate of 34.4 births per 1000 (Kost & Henshaw, 2014). Additionally, 19.0% of Texas adolescents report not using any form of birth control compared to the national average of 13.7% (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014b). Adolescent pregnancies in America have detrimental social, health, economic, and educational repercussions for the mothers, their children, and society as a whole. For the children, there are increased risks of health problems, learning disabilities, and becoming victims of neglect or abuse. For the adolescent mothers, there are increased risks of health problems, living in poverty, and not completing high school (Hoffman, Foster, & Furstenberg 1993; Moore, Morrison, & Greene 1997; Kirby 2007). Additionally, American adolescents have reduced access to health care (Alan Guttmacher Institute, 2001), potentially further contributing to or exacerbating existing health problems. Nationally taxpayers spend approximately $9.4 billion each year on costs related to adolescent pregnancy (National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy, 2015a), and Texas taxpayers spend approximately $1.1 billion annually (National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy, 2015b). Sexual Health Information Sources and Education American adolescents typically are provided with sexual health information through both formal and informal sources. Examples of formal sources include programs organized through schools, churches, health agencies, etc., and examples of informal sources include family members, peers, and various media formats like television, books, movies, and the Web (Cornog & Perper, 1996; Bleakley, Hennessy, Fishbein, & Jordan, 2009). A positive correlation exists between source type and sexual attitudes and behaviors: when adolescents receive information from formal sources, they are less likely to engage in risky 410 behaviors and more likely to express cautious attitudes than when receiving information from informal sources (Somers & Surmann 2005; Bleakley, Hennessy, Fishbein, & Jordan, 2009). Additionally, providing adolescents with sexual health information early in the adolescent stage also reduces an adolescent’s likelihood of engaging in risk-taking behaviors (Somers & Surmann 2005). Informal sources can vary in accuracy, reliability, and currency, thus promoting misconceptions and/or misinforming the information receiver. Compared to adolescents receiving information from formal sources, adolescents receiving information from informal sources are more likely to engage in riskier sexual behaviors and express less cautious attitudes and beliefs (Somers & Surmann 2005; Bleakley, Hennessy, Fishbein, & Jordan, 2009). When American schools choose to offer sexual education programs, they are of two primary types: comprehensive programs and abstinence education programs. Comprehensive programs teach "...a broad set of topics related to sexuality including human development, relationships, decision making, abstinence, contraception, and disease prevention" (Sexuality Information and Education Council of the United States, n.d.). A meta-analysis examining the long-term effects of all sexual health education programs suggest comprehensive programs have more positive effects on adolescent behaviors and attitudes than do abstinence programs (Kirby, 2007). The Social Security Administration branch of the United States government promotes abstinence education, which is defined as “an educational or motivational program which...teaches abstinence from sexual activity outside of marriage...[and] is the expected standard of human sexual activity” (Social Security Administration, 2009). The type of sexual health program varies by geographical region, state, and sometimes even within a state (Landry, Darroch, Singh, & Higgins, 2003). Texas does not require schools to teach sexual education, but if schools do provide sexual education, abstinence must be stressed (Alan Guttmacher Institute, 2015). In Northern Europe, comprehensive sexual education is standard (Boonstra, 2011). Educational programs encourage adolescents to use information and critical thinking skills to decide if, and, or when each individual is ready to enter into a sexual relationship, compared to America where the overall goal is to prevent adolescents from engaging in sexual behaviors for as long as possible, preferably until marriage (Santelli, Sandfort, & Orr, 2000; Singh & Darroch, 2008). Providing adolescents with accurate, current, reliable, and balanced sexual health information promotes healthier sexual attitudes and behaviors compared to adolescents receiving limited or no information. The school library can provide such information, and, in turn, promote healthier attitudes and behaviors. Why school libraries as a sexual health learning environment? Libraries as sexual health learning environments date back at least to the 1800’s with the “Enfer” (hell) collection in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris, France. Since then, libraries in general have met the sexual health information needs of their patrons of all ages, modifying 411 and updating collections to reflect changing social issues and health information needs (Cornog & Perper, 1996). The International Association of School Librarianship (IASL) identifies the school library as an environment where students learn life-long literacy and technology skills transferable beyond curricular needs, by which students are able “to locate and evaluate information to answer educational and recreational needs and interests” (1993). School librarians teach adolescent patrons life-long literacy skills, including how to locate, evaluate, and use information from a range of sources answering curricular and personal needs and interests. Personal needs include sexual health information. Materials and resources include both print and digital, and access potentially includes 24/7 availability. According to the American Library Association’s Bill of Rights (2015), all libraries should provide resources and materials “for the interest, information, and enlightenment of all people of the community the library serves…[and] should provide materials and information presenting all points of view on current and historical issues” (ALA, 2015). Two goals of the American Association for School Librarians (AASL), a division of ALA, identify the school library as a place to "connect learners with ideas and information, and [to] prepare students for life-long learning, informed decision-making" (AASL, 2015). American adolescents have expressed a need for more information than they have received in existing programs (Hoff & Greene, 2000). Depending on the school, curriculum may also include sexual health information. School libraries serve as a learning environment and school librarians serve as teachers providing access to current, reliable, and balanced information. Sexual health information falls within the parameters of the curricular and personal information needs of adolescents; thus, the school library potentially serves as a sexual health learning environment, just as the school librarian potentially serves as a sexual health information provider. Research Questions Through two separate studies conducted in Texas, a state in the southern part of the United States of America, three groups of people, two who supervise school librarians and then school librarians themselves, responded to the following research questions: Study 1 Do district level library coordinators and campus level principals in Texas public school districts perceive high school librarians as playing the role of sexual health information providers? What factors do these participants perceive as influencing librarians’ role as sexual health information providers? Study 2 Do high school librarians in Texas public school districts perceive themselves as playing the role of sexual health information providers? 412 What factors do these participants perceive as influencing their role as sexual health information providers? Methods The following definitions clarify terms frequently used in the methods section of this article: Public school - schools funded by state governments; all students, beginning at age 5 years and concluding at approximately the age of 18 years may attend public school for free. High school - schools serving students typically 14 - 18 years of age School district - multiple schools within one town consolidate under a single administrative entity Campus - each individual school building within a school district District-level library coordinator - a certified school librarian who serves as an administrator for all librarians in the district; although district-level library coordinators supervise all campus librarians, the campus librarians do not report directly to the district-level library coordinator. High school campus principal - the administrator of each campus who also serves as liaison between the campus and the district-level administration; campus librarians report directly to the principal School librarian - a professional who must have a high school degree, a college degree, two years of teaching experience in the state of Texas, a Master’s degree with a School Library Certification in Texas, and who has passed a state-mandated certification test. Depending on the school district, a school librarian may serve one or more campuses. Sample and site The state of Texas was selected due to its high birth rates and pregnancy rates, as well as its focus on abstinence education if and when sexual health education curriculum is taught. For the first study, two participant groups were selected: high school campus principals and district-level library coordinators. These two participant groups were selected because both supervise and interact with campus librarians but potentially have different experiences with multiple facets of the school library and librarians. Texas is the second largest state in the United States. Due to its size, the study was webbased so representation from multiple geographical areas within Texas would be represented. Participants received a link to each survey. The only identifying information requested was the participant’s position (district-level library coordinator or principal). No other identifying information was collected, including names, locations, or IP addresses. 413 Data Collection and Analysis The Delphi method was used to collect data. With the Delphi method, data is generated over multiple rounds, seeking a consensus among participants. In the first round participants provide qualitative data by answering open-ended questions. The themes generated from content analysis form the quantitative survey statements for subsequent rounds. The survey items are grounded in participant responses instead of being prescribed by a pre-fabricated instrument (Cline, 2000; Colton & Hatcher, 2004). The second round introduces Likert scale statements based on themes from round one, indicating a level of agreement which correspond to the numbers 5-0, respectively: Strongly agree; Agree; Neither agree nor disagree; Disagree; Strongly disagree. As to not skew the data, respondents having no experience with the statement’s theme are asked to select “Not Applicable.” Upon analyzing the data, any question for which participants arrive at a consensus is removed from the questionnaire. A new questionnaire is generated for a third round, and the statements for which a consensus was not generated in round two are reworded and submitted again. The survey concludes when either a consensus has been reached or the data suggests a consensus will not be reached (Keeney, McKenna, & Hasson, 2010). For the first study, 13 high school principals participated in round one, and 10 participated in rounds two and three. Sixteen district-level library coordinators participated in round one, and 15 participated in rounds two and three. For the second study, 24 high school librarians participated in all three rounds. Round one for both studies consisted of the same three open-ended questions asking participants if they perceived the school librarians as playing the role of sexual health information provider, to identify factors they perceive encourage sexual health information provision, and to identify factors they perceive discourage sexual health information provision. Participants provided narrative responses, and content analysis was used to generate themes for the development of statements for round two. The data collection and analysis methods in round two for both studies were the same. The instrument’s statements were based on themes generated from the open-ended responses in round one. Descriptive statistics were used to determine if a consensus had been reached: a mean of 3.8 - 5.0 or a mean of 1.0 - 2.2 equaled a consensus (70.0% agreement or disagreement). Depending on how the statement was written, statements for which participants arrived at a consensus were listed as factors either encouraging or discouraging sexual health information provision. The instruments for the first study and the second study differed, however. In the first study, the themes generated from round one for both principals and district-level library coordinators were merged into one instrument. For the second study, the campus librarians responded to statements that were generated only from their responses to round one. For round three, surveys in both studies were revised to include only those statements where consensus was not reached in round two. Each statement was rewritten. Two separate instruments were required for round three in the first study, however. District-level library coordinators received one instrument tailored to their responses in round two, and principals received a different instrument tailored to their responses in round two because the 414 responses between the two groups varied greatly and because the majority of the principals remained neutral on all statements. For the second study, participants again responded to Likert scale statements specific to their responses in their round one. As with round two, descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data. To reach consensus, a statement’s response must have a mean of 3.8-5.0 or 1.0-2.2, or 70.0%. For both studies, data collection concluded with round three. Findings For both studies, participants were initially asked if they perceive high school librarians as playing the role of sexual health information providers. The two participant groups working in the library field overwhelmingly perceived high school librarians as playing this role compared to high school principals, as shared in Table 1. Response District-level Library Coordinators Yes 13 (81.25%) No 2 (12.50%) Maybe 0 (0.00%) Other 1 ( 6.25%) High School Principals High School Librarians 3 (23.10%) 7 (53.80%) 1 ( 7.70%) 2 (15.40%) 19 (79.17%) 1 ( 4.17%) 0 (0.00%) 4 (16.67%) Table 1: Participants’ Perceptions of the School Librarian’s Role as a Sexual Health Information Provider Participants identified a total of 19 motivators, or factors that encourage information provision, and six barriers, or factors that discourage information provision. Table 2 is arranged so that within the top portion of each column, commonalities between each group’s responses are aligned. Below the dashed lines are responses unique to that participant group. Motivators District-level Library Coordinators Adolescents’ lack of knowledge Confidentiality of patron circulation records Job responsibility Librarian-asinformation-provider Patrons’ personal information needs Rapport between librarian and patrons Availability of time for collection development Patrons’ curricular information needs High School Principals Librarian-asinformation-provider Availability of time for collection development Patrons’ curricular information needs ---------------------------- High School Librarians Adolescents’ lack of knowledge Confidentiality of patron circulation records Job responsibility Librarian-asinformation-provider Patrons’ personal information needs Rapport between librarian and student --------------------415 Barriers District-level Library Coordinators ---------------------------Access to information Appropriateness of content within resources Availability of resources Emotional maturity of patrons Emphasis on promoting resources Physiological maturity of patrons Professional guidelines High School Principals Librarians’ personal beliefs ---------------------------Conflict avoidance Political climate Reconsideration request concerns Librarians’ personal beliefs ---------------------------Legal Liability High School Librarians Campus population behaviors Collection development knowledge Librarians understanding of information needs Willingness to assist --------------------Internet filters Table 2: Findings, Motivators and Barriers, by Participant Group High school principals do not work in the library; thus, their knowledge of the librarian’s role of a sexual health information provider, as well as the library as a sexual health learning environment, could be limited based on myriad factors. District-level library coordinators identified more motivators and barriers to information provision than did campus librarians. While no data currently exists to explain why, one could only speculate that it is because this participant group manages multiple campuses’ libraries and thus has more exposure to possible motivators and barriers. Discussion All three participant groups identified more motivators for sexual health information provision than barriers in Texas, but participant groups provided conflicting responses regarding the role of the school librarian as a sexual health information provider. Because of such small participant groups and because the participants only represented the population of Texas, the results cannot be generalized to other states, to the United States, nor to any country outside of the United States. AASL’s Empowering Learners (2009) identifies school librarians as playing the roles of leaders, teachers, information specialists, instructional partners, and program administrators. Some of the responsibilities within these roles include (1) advocating for their adolescent patrons’ information needs; (2) teaching students how to locate and evaluate high-quality, 416 accurate, and current information; (3) providing access to a variety of resources in a multiple formats; (4) teaching curriculum-based lessons; and (5) meeting the personal and curricular information needs of their adolescent patrons. Participants in this study identified motivators to sexual health information provision within the library including personal information needs, curricular information needs, the librarian as an information provider, access and availability of resources, advocacy of resources, all of align within the five roles. As such, it is possible that the school librarian can serve as a sexual health information provider. According to IASL’s Policy Statement on School Libraries (1993), ALA’s Bill of Rights (2015), and AASL’s Governing Documents (2015), the school library is a learning environment where students may access resources and materials for both curricular and personal information needs, providing accurate, reliable, and current information representing multiple perspectives. Sexual health information is both a curricular and personal information need in the United States. High school libraries provide the benefits of formal sources yet can provide a variety of materials with the appeal of informal sources. Additionally, school library collections, both print and digital, offer information found within comprehensive sexual education programs. The school librarian is a teacher, and the school library is a campuswide classroom; thus, the school library can serve as a sexual health learning environment. Further research, however, is needed. Conclusion Human sexuality is complex. Physiological, emotional, psychological, cultural, religious, educational, and societal factors contribute to an adolescent’s sexual health attitudes and behaviors. Despite its complexity, adolescents who receive current, accurate, reliable, and balanced sexual health information are more likely to express healthier sexual attitudes and engage in healthier sexual behaviors than adolescents receiving limited, inaccurate, or no sexual health information. High school librarians as sexual health information providers and high school libraries as sexual health learning environments can potentially promote healthy decision-making among adolescents. References Advocates for Youth. (2008). Adolescent sexual health in Europe and the US. Retrieved from http://www.advocatesforyouth.org/publications/419?task=view. Alan Guttmacher Institute. (2001). Can more progress be made? Teenage sexual and reproductive behavior in developed countries. Retrieved from http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/summaries/euroteens_summ.pdf. Alan Guttmacher Institute. (2015). State policies in brief: Sex and STI/HIV Education. Retrieved from http://www.guttmacher.org/statecenter/spibs/spib_SE.pdf. American Association of School Librarians. (2009). Empowering learners: Guidelines for school library programs. Chicago: American Library Association. American Association of School Librarians. (2015). AASL governing documents. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/aasl/about/governing-docs. 417 American Library Association. (2015). Library Bill of Rights. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/advocacy/intfreedom/librarybill. Bleakley, A., Hennessy, M. Fishbein, M., & Jordan, A. (2009). How sources of sexual information relate to adolescents’ beliefs about sex. 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Retrieved from https://thenationalcampaign.org/sites/default/files/resource-primarydownload/EA2007_full_0.pdf. 418 Kost, K., and Henshaw, S. (2014). U.S. teenage pregnancies, births and abortions, 2010: National and state trends by age, race and ethnicity. Retrieved from https://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/USTPtrends10.pdf. Landry, D., Darroch, J., Singh, S., & Higgins, J. (2003). Factors associated with the content of sex education in U.S. public secondary schools. Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 35(6), 261-269. Moore, K., Morrison, D., & Greene, A. (1997). Effects on the children born to adolescent mothers. In R. Maynard (Ed.), Kids having kids: Economic costs and social consequences of teen pregnancy (145-180). Washington, DC: Urban Institute. National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy. (2015a). Counting it up: The public costs of teen childbearing. Retrieved from https://thenationalcampaign.org/why-it-matters/public-cost. National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy. (2015b). Counting it up: The public costs of teen childbearing in Texas in 2010. Retrieved from https://thenationalcampaign.org/sites/default/files/resource-primary-download/factsheet-texas.pdf. Sexuality Information and Education Council of the United States. (n.d.) Fact sheet: What the research says...comprehensive sex education. Retrieved from http://www.siecus.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=Page.ViewPage&PageID=1193. Singh, S., & Darroch, J. (2000). Adolescent pregnancy and childbearing: Levels and trends in developed countries. Family Planning Perspectives, 32(1),14–23. Social Security Administration. (2009). Compilation of the Social Security Laws: Separate program for abstinence education, Section 510. Retrieved from http://www.ssa.gov/OP_Home/ssact/title05/0510.htm. Somers, C. & Surmann, A. (2005). Sources and timing of sex education: Relations with American adolescent sexual attitudes and behaviour. Educational Review, 57(1), 37-54. Biographical note Jennifer Richey has worked as an Assistant Professor at Texas Woman’s University’s School of Library and Information Studies in Denton, Texas since 2011 where she teaches courses focusing school library certification, young adult literature, and youth library programs. Her primary research interest is on health information literacy of adolescents. Prior to that, she was an elementary school librarian in the Austin, Texas area. 419 Using Your Outside Voice: action research speaks for the school librarian Jennifer Robins, Professor University of Central Missouri, USA [email protected] Abstract Successful school library programs occur through careful planning and reflection. School librarians who are reflective practitioners observe how learning occurs in the library and the classroom and consider ways to improve it. They consult research and collaborate with teachers so students are more successful. This reflective process is improved when it is applied in a systematic way, through action research. With action research, reflection is based on evidence, using data collected by the practitioner. This study presents cumulative outcomes from 156 action research projects conducted by 39 school librarians. It also includes results from a follow-up survey completed by 19 of the 39 school librarians that demonstrates how conducting action research affects their sense of professional efficacy. Keywords: School library programs, Action research, Professional efficacy Action Research: Evidence of School Library Success As the school library evolves to include learning commons, makerspaces, and other areas for collaboration, discovery, and study, it is easy to lose track of which traditional library services to preserve, the innovations that work, and those that need improving or abandoning. It is even more difficult to make the case to onlookers that what is going on in the library, which has become a noisier place, is progress (Palin, 2014). In a climate of school accountability, evidence of successful practice is required. As reflective practitioners, school librarians have a feel for what is successful in their libraries. Action research is a way for this reflection to be systematic and evidence-based. Action research provides data that can be used for decision-making and school library evaluation (Todd, 2015; Wideman, 2011). Action research is a model for continuous quality improvement, a concept administrators and politicians understand (Ballard, 2015). As this study shows, the concrete evidence collected through action research speaks ‘out loud’ for school librarians, making the case for how the changes taking place in the library improve student engagement and learning as well as teacher productivity. 420 School librarians who are reflective practitioners observe how learning occurs in the library and the classroom and consider ways to improve it (Todd, 2015). They consult research and collaborate with teachers so that students are more successful. This reflective process is much improved when it is applied in a systematic way, through action research. Action research is a bridge between research and practice (Parsons & Brown, 2002). It is research designed to improve local conditions. It differs from academic research which has stricter standards for validity and reliability (Bruce, Flynn, & Stagg-Peterson, 2011). This is not to say action research does not consider threats to the validity of data and conclusions. The school librarian as an action researcher addresses threats as a matter of professionalism and accountability to administrators, other teachers, and students. Decisions are made according to the best approach to improve practice rather than to generate and confirm theories. In addition to improving practice, action research in the school library provides a way to demonstrate and justify library programs (Loerstcher & Woolls, 2001) and to highlight how the librarian is a leader in school improvement (Howard & Eckhardt, 2005). Action research is a “process of investigation based on development, execution, and evaluation of experiments” that can be used to improve classroom practice (Wideman, 2011, p. 52). Top down initiatives in education, such as the Common Core State Standards in the United States and the standardized testing that accompanies it, garner public attention. However progress toward student achievement occurs when the front line workers, the teachers in classrooms and school libraries, put educational research into action (Hattie, 2012). With action research, teachers use research literature and research methods to pursue innovations in their practice (Kuntz, et al., 2013; Parsons & Brown, 2002; Postholm, 2009; Wideman, 2011). Though action research holds the promise of restoring professionalism to teaching and improving student learning outcomes in the classroom and library (Brandt, 1993; Todd, 2015), it is not widely practiced by educators. Instruction in action research provided to preservice school librarians has limited impact because they do not have a classroom in which to conduct research. They are not able to act on what they learn until they are in their own libraries. In-service school librarians have a facility and often are familiar with action research, but lack confidence and support. These librarians routinely alter their practice in response to the needs of students. However they rarely collect data on their alterations, might not conduct their evidence gathering in a systematic way, and do not have a venue for sharing results and gaining feedback on these efforts. Collaborative partnerships between librarians and university researchers can remedy these short comings (Bruce, Flynn, & Stagg-Peterson, 2011). University researchers can provide concepts and vocabulary related to conducting research. They provide advice, encouragement, and confirmation as well as warn of potential threats to librarians’ action research studies. The communication between partners builds competence, while the school librarians maintain the agency to determine which practices to develop and enhance (Postholm, 2009). For school librarians new to action research, designing and conducting their first action research studies can be a source of anxiety over the rigor required to effectively collect and analyze data. A partnership with university researchers that provides opportunities for multiple cycles of action research builds librarians’ expertise and confidence in their ability to 421 make judgments based on the demands of their particular situation (Bruce, Flynn, & StaggPeterson, 2011; Kuntz, et al. 2013; Postholm, 2009). They also gain experience evaluating the success of their interventions. The results presented here are of a collaborative partnership that required school librarians to conduct four action research studies. School librarians proved to be ideal candidates for these partnerships. They are likely to be more familiar with research studies, they encounter students inside and outside of normal class periods, they interact with all teachers in the school, and they have access to abundant resources. The objective of this study was to give librarians sufficient experience so that the issues related to how to conduct an action research study diminish, and the objectives of improving practice take the forefront. This study involved having in-service school librarians select and conduct four action research projects each in their own schools over one academic school year. This study describes a collaborative partnership between a single university researcher and 39 school librarians who conducted a combined total of 156 action research projects. Aggregate results from these action research projects are presented. This includes an overview of the projects chosen by the school librarians, outcomes from these projects, and specific examples of the types of studies completed. Along with this data, results from a follow-up survey with the librarians will be included that probes how becoming action researchers helped the librarians gain credibility in their schools, increase collaboration with teachers, and gain prestige in the eyes of their administrators. In a time of rapid change, this type of concrete evidence shouts out on behalf of the success of these innovative school librarians. Method The study was designed to demonstrate a means for in-service school librarians to gain the experience necessary to view themselves as action researchers. The goal of requiring 4 action research projects was to move recipients beyond the stage of familiarity with action research to create a mindset where they identified themselves as action researchers. The impacts of the action research projects on library services, student learning, and collaboration with teachers are presented. This is a mixed methods study employing different but complementary data, offering the potential to either merge or compare and contrast data (Creswell & Clark, 2007). The method also employed a survey which probed the impact of conducting action research on the librarians’ sense of professional efficacy. Several types of data are tallied. Centrality measures were employed for the survey results. The study is based on responses from a non-random, opt-in, sampling of librarians in rural schools. Participants The 39 school librarians who participated in this study are teachers who gained additional certification to serve as school librarians by passing a PRAXIS II exam. The PRAXIS II exam, developed by the Educational Testing Service (ETS), assesses content area proficiency, measuring “knowledge of specific subjects that K–12 educators will teach” (ETS, 2011). This path to additional certification was adopted in some parts of the United States as a way to address the shortage of school librarians. However since these 39 librarians have not taken any formal coursework, they were aware that they were often underperforming in their roles and leaving their schools and communities underserved. Because many rural school districts are low income (U. S. Census Bureau, 2009), these 422 librarians lacked economic resources to pay for the coursework that would adequately prepare them for the role of school librarian (Reeves, 2003). The 39 PRAXIS II certified school librarians who produced the action research projects for this study received scholarships through the Laura Bush 21st Century Librarian Program Grant from the Institute of Museum and Library Services (IMLS). This $843,000 grant provided scholarships to these school librarians, making it possible for all 39 of them to obtain master’s degrees in Library Science and Information Services. These librarians reflected the gender and racial characteristics of the population of rural teachers in the Midwest United States, predominantly white and female. Project Timeline The librarians were divided into two graduate student cohorts. Nineteen students were in the first cohort and 20 students were in the second. The two cohorts of practicing school librarians conducted action research projects in their schools. The study period began in the Spring, 2012 when the 19 librarians in the first cohort took an online course in action research where they worked in groups to design their first study. In this course participants studied evidence-based practice (Geitgey & Tepe, 2007; Todd, 2003) and action research (Parsons & Brown, 2002). Then in Fall, 2012 and Spring, 2013 each school librarian in the first cohort completed four action research projects. Seventy-six action research studies were completed by cohort one. These students received their master’s degrees in Summer, 2013. The 20 school librarians in the second cohort took their online course in action research in Spring 2013 where they worked in groups to design their first study. Then in Fall, 2013 and Spring, 2014 these school librarians completed four action
