Table of Contents - Friends of the Aviary

Transcription

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Table of Contents
Acknowledgements – Page 2
Blue & Gold Macaw (Billy, Bubette) – Page 3
Scarlet Macaw (Manuel) – Page 7
Green-Winged Macaw (Ron) – Page 12
Catalina Macaw (Dwight) – Page 15
Moluccan Cockatoo (Baby) – Page 18
Umbrella Cockatoo (Jessie) – Page 22
Sulphur-Crested Cockatoo (Tia) – Page 29
Goffins Cockatoo (Howard, Snowball) – Page 35
Rose-Breasted Cockatoo (Len, Rosie) – Page 40
African Grey Congo (Cocoa, King) – Page 45
African Grey Timneh (Flint) – Page 49
Double Yellow-Headed Amazon (Mya, Sinbad) – Page 53
Yellow-Crowned Amazon (Harvey) – Page 59
Red-Lored Amazon (Kerrie) – Page 65
Eclectus (Caol, Millie) – Page 69
Senegal Parrot (Sydney) – Page 77
Alexandrian Parakeet (Maxine) – Page 82
Rose-Ringed Parakeet (Charlie, Pebe, Puff Daddy, Puff Mommy, Veronica) – Page 90
Green-Napped & Swainson’s Blue Mountain Rainbow Lorikeet (Blueberry, Gibberish) – Page 98
Green-Cheeked Conure (Joey) – Page 105
Eastern Rosella (Rainbow) – Page 109
Cockatiel – Page 115
Zebra Finch – Page 122
Indian Peafowl – Page 128
Lady Amherst’s Pheasant – Page 140
Golden Pheasant – Page 145
Domestic Chicken – Page 151
California Quail – Page 158
Scaled Quail – Page 163
Domestic Pigeon – Page 171
Carolina Parakeet (Non-Resident – Facts of Interest) – Page 178
Kakapo (Non-Resident – Facts of Interest – Page 188
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Acknowledgements
This document was assembled by Rick Boyd, solely for the purpose of educating the general
public about the bird species we have at the Friends of The Aviary. The information within was gathered
from numerous internet sites, in addition to personal bird data from the Friends of The Aviary itself.
The main focus is informing people about these birds, both in their natural habitats and as pets.
The information within covers a broad range, from taxonomy to aviculture, including conservation status
and of course our own birds. In addition other facts of interest have been added.
With this data collection we hope it give further insight to fellow avian lovers and encourage
sound decision making to those who are considering the responsibilities of owning pet birds.
I cannot stress the importance of thorough research before committing to any of these wonderful
animals as pets. We have to remember they are generally with us for a long time and deserve the best
commitment and care. In addition these birds should always be selected from captive-bred stock and
never taken directly from illegal wild trade sources. Many of these birds are now facing extinction due to
human irresponsibility. With education we hope to help reverse these trends and stop any further losses
of the earth’s biodiversity, before it’s too late.
Special thanks goes too PaperWorks Industries in Hamilton, ON, for printing this
guide as donation to Friends of The Aviary
Please see our website for further information, such as how you can help.
www.friendsoftheaviary.com
2015
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Blue & Gold Macaw
Introduction
Blue & Gold Macaw
Close-up
Feral birds roosting on a palm tree
The Blue & Gold Macaw (Ara ararauna), also known as the Blue & Yellow Macaw, is a large South
American parrot with blue top parts and yellow under parts. It is a member of the large group of
Neotropical parrots known as macaws. It inhabits forest (especially varzea or seasonal flooded forest, but
also in open sections of terra firme or non-flooded forest) and woodland of tropical South America.
They are popular in aviculture because of their striking color, ability to talk, ready availability in
the marketplace, and close bonding to humans.
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Resident Bird(s)
Billy – Sex (M) – Born June 1994 (21 years)
Bubette – Sex (F) – Born March 2000 (15 years)
Taxonomy
The Blue & Gold Macaw (Ara ararauna, Linnaeus 1758) is a member of the genus Ara (Lacepede
1799), one of six genera of Central and South American macaws. Protonym: Psittacus ararauna. The
species name is derived from Tupi Ara onomatopoeia macao: macaw; Tupi arara: parrot +una: dark or
black, hence "dark parrot/macaw".
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Description
These birds can reach 76 to 86 cm (30 to 34 in) long and weigh 900 to 1500 grams (1.9 to 3.3 lbs),
making it one of the larger members of its family. They are vivid in appearance with blue wings and tail,
dark blue chin, golden under parts, and a green forehead. Beaks are black. The naked face is white,
turning pink in excited birds, and lined with small black feathers. Blue & Gold Macaws live from 30 to 35
years in the wild and reach sexual maturity between the ages of 3 and 6 years.
There is little variation in plumage across the range. Some birds have a more orange or
"butterscotch" underside color, particularly on the breast. This was often seen in Trinidad birds and others
of the Caribbean area. The blue-and-yellow macaw uses its powerful beak for breaking nutshells, and also
for climbing up and hanging from trees. Their lifespan is 30 to 50 years.
Distribution & Habitat
This species occurs in Venezuela and south to Peru, Brazil, Bolivia, and Paraguay. The range
extends slightly into Central America, where it is restricted to Panama. The species' range formerly
included Trinidad, but it became extinct there by 1970 as a result of human activities. Between 1999 and
2003, wild caught Blue & Gold Macaw’s were translocated from Guyana to Trinidad, in an attempt to reestablish the species in a protected area around Nariva swamp.
There has been a small breeding population in Miami-Dade County, Florida, since the middle
1980s.
Conservation Status
The Blue & Gold Macaw is on the verge of being extirpated in Paraguay, but it still remains
widespread and fairly common in a large part of mainland South America. The species is therefore listed
as Least Concern by BirdLife International. It is listed on CITES Appendix II, trade restricted.
Diet
Macaw’s primarily eat nuts, seeds and fruits. They require a varied diet; a seed only diet will lead
to health problems such as vitamin deficiency. An example of a good diet would be a quality pelleted
mix, in conjunction with a mix featuring seed, nuts, and dried fruits, with fresh vegetables (greens and
roots) and fruits fed regularly; furthermore, it is quite common (and appreciated by the parrot) to partake
with their human owners of safe foods like pasta, bread, etc. It is important to avoid foods with high fat
content (generally) while striving to provide a wide variety of foods. There are some foods which are toxic
to birds and parrots as a group. Cherries and most other Rosaceae pits and seeds, avocados, chocolate,
and caffeine are among the foods toxic to parrots. Chocolate and caffeine are not metabolized by birds
the same way they are in humans. Rosaceae seeds contain cyanogenic glycosides, and avocados contain
persin which are both toxic compounds to birds. Safe foods include oranges, apples, grapes, peanuts,
walnuts, and sunflower seeds.
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Reproduction
The Blue & Gold Macaw generally mates for life. They nest almost exclusively in dead palms and
most nests are in Mauritia flexuosa palms. The female typically lays two or three eggs. The female
incubates the eggs for about 28 days. One chick is dominant and gets most of the food; the others perish
in the nest. Chicks fledge from the nest about 97 days after hatching. The male bird's color signals
readiness for breeding. The brighter and bolder the colors the better the chance of getting a mate is.
Behaviour
Macaw’s in the wild can be very aggressive, but as babies they can be very playful. Given their
intelligence, Blue & Gold Macaw’s can be taught to do tricks once they have gained enough trust from
their owners.
Aviculture
Blue & Gold Macaw’s are popular as pets because of their vivid appearance and ability as a
talking bird; however, their large size makes accommodation problematic, and they tend to require more
effort and knowledge from owners than more traditional pets such as cats or dogs. They are very
intelligent and social birds that bond very closely to owners, however, so for people who are able to
provide for their needs, they make great and loving companion parrots.
Even the most well-tended Blue & Gold Macaw will "scream" and make other loud noises. Loud
vocalizations, especially "flock calls", and destructive chewing are natural parts of their behaviour and
should be expected in captivity. Due to their large size, they also require plentiful space in which to fly
around. According to World Parrot Trust, an enclosure for a Blue & Gold Macaw should, if possible, be at
least 50 feet (15 metres) in length.
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Scarlet Macaw
Introduction
Scarlet Macaw
Feral birds roosting in a tree
Close-up
Feral birds in flight
The Scarlet Macaw (Ara macao) is a large, red, yellow and blue South American parrot, a member
of a large group of Neotropical parrots called macaws. It is native to humid evergreen forests of tropical
South America. Range extends from extreme south-eastern Mexico to Amazonian Peru, Bolivia,
Venezuela and Brazil in lowlands up to 500 m (1,640 ft) (at least formerly) up to 1,000 m (3,281 ft). It has
suffered from local extinction through habitat destruction and capture for the parrot trade, but locally it
remains fairly common. Formerly it ranged north to southern Tamaulipas. It can still be found on the
island of Coiba. It is the national bird of Honduras.
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Resident Bird(s)
Manuel – Sex (M) – Born 2001 (14 years)
Taxonomy
The Scarlet Macaw (Ara macao Linnaeus 1758) is a member of the genus Ara (Lacepede, 1799),
one of 6 genera of Central and South American macaws. Carolus Linnaeus described and named the
scarlet macaw in his Systemae Naturae in 1758. Protonym: Psittacus macao.
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Two subspecies present differing widths in their yellow wing band:
•
•
A. macao macao South American Scarlet Macaw, the nominate subspecies
A. macao cyanoptera (Wiedenfeld 1995) North Central American Scarlet Macaw
The Central American Scarlet Macaw is larger and has blue on its wings instead of green. In May
2013 it was announced that a team of scientists, led by Dr. Christopher M. Seabury and Dr. Ian Tizard of
Texas A&M University had sequenced the complete genome of the Scarlet Macaw.
Description
It is about 81 centimetres (32 in) long, of which more than half is the pointed, graduated tail
typical of all macaws, though the Scarlet Macaw has a larger percentage of tail than the other large
macaws. The average weight is about 1 kilogram (2.2 lb). The plumage is mostly scarlet, but the rump
and tail-covert feathers are light blue, the greater upper wing coverts are yellow, the upper sides of the
flight feathers of the wings are dark blue as are the ends of the tail feathers, and the undersides of the
wing and tail flight feathers are dark red with metallic gold iridescence. Some individuals may have green
in the wings.
There is bare white skin around the eye and from there to the bill. Tiny white feathers are
contained on the face patch. The upper mandible is mostly pale horn in color and the lower is black.
Juveniles have dark eyes; adults have light yellow eyes.
It is frequently confused with the slightly larger Green-Winged Macaw, which has more distinct
red lines in the face and no yellow in the wing.
Scarlet Macaws make very loud, high and sometimes low-pitched, throaty squawks, squeaks and
screams designed to carry many miles to call for their groups. They may live up to 75 years in captivity,
although a more typical lifespan is 40 to 75 years.
The South American range is extensive and covers the Amazon basin; extending to Peru east of
the Andes, to Bolivia.
In Central American the range extends from extreme eastern and southern Mexico and Panama
through Guatemala and Belize, the island of Coiba and infrequently on the mainland of Panama, and two
isolated regions on the Pacific Coast of Costa Rica; the Carara National Park and Peninsula de Osa.
Scarlet Macaw’s inhabit humid lowland subtropical rain forests, open woodlands, river edges, and
savannas.
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Conservation Status
The habitat of the Scarlet Macaw is considered to have the greatest latitudinal range for any bird
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in the genus Ara, as the estimated maximum territorial range covers 6,700,000 km . Nevertheless, the
Scarlet Macaw's habitat is fragmented, and the bird is mostly confined to tiny populations scattered
throughout its original range in Middle America. However, as they still occur in large numbers over most
of their original range in South America, the species is classified by IUCN as least concern.
Diet
Scarlet Macaws eat mostly fruits, nuts and seeds, including large, hard seeds.
Reproduction
Scarlet Macaw’s mate for life. The hen lays two or three white eggs in a tree cavity. The female
incubates the eggs for about five weeks, and the chicks fledge from the nest about 90 days after hatching,
and leave their parents about a year later. Juveniles reach sexual maturity at five years of age.
Behaviour
A typical sighting is of a single bird or a pair flying above the forest canopy, though in some areas
flocks can be seen. They may gather at clay licks.
Aviculture
The Scarlet Macaw is an early example of a parrot breeding in captivity. Captive breeding
occurred in Northern Mexico at Paquime (also called Casas Grandes) and very likely Southwest New
Mexico in Mimbres Valley the 1000s CE. Breeding pens, perches, bones, and eggshell fragments have
been uncovered. The straightforward nature of Scarlet Macaw breeding and the value of their plumes in
trade created a market for trade wherein the animals were utilized in religious rites North to the Colorado
Plateau region.
Today the Scarlet Macaw is found worldwide in captivity, but is best represented in captivity in the
Americas. Captive techniques developed from the pet trade have positively impacted wild populations: In
areas with low macaws populations, the "extra" babies that typically die in the nest may be reared by
humans hands and released into the wild to bolster the population, as has been done by the Tambopata
Macaw Project. Their captive diet, egg incubation, assisted hatching, hand rearing, co-parenting, parentrearing, fledgling, maturation, and breeding are well understood within the aviculture community (AFA
Watchbird magazine.)
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The birds can hybridize with other members of Genus Ara in captivity, leading to lovely hybrids.
In the US, hybrids Scarlet Macaw’s are created for their appearance and value in the bird trade. Hybrid
Scarlet Macaw’s are also created because of fear of persecution, as birds breeders find themselves
potentially liable for enormous fines and felonies (i.e., Lacey Act) as their captive-bred pets are added to
the US Endangered Species List. As punishments are not given to those who sell or work with hybrid
macaws, breeders are encouraged to mix genes to avoid punishment. In this way, law that have no effect
on wild birds, because the birds occur only outside the US, create destruction of potentially important
"captive arks" of genetic diversity.
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Green-Winged Macaw
Introduction
Green-Winged Macaw
Close-up
Feral macaws at a clay lick, where they ingest clay to neutralize toxins from their diet and get
additional minerals
The Green-Winged Macaw (Ara chloropterus), also known as the Red & Green Macaw, is a large
mostly-red macaw of the Ara genus. This is the largest of the Ara genus, widespread in the forests and
woodlands of northern and central South America. However, in common with other macaws, in recent
years there has been a marked decline in its numbers due to habitat loss and illegal capture for the parrot
trade.
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Resident Bird(s)
Ron – Sex (M) – Born ?, arrived at aviary 1996 (19 years +)
Taxonomy
Collar (1997) argues that the spelling of the specific epithet is probably more appropriately
"chloroptera" rather than "chloropterus".
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Description
The Green-Winged Macaw can be readily identified from the Scarlet Macaw as whilst the breast of
both birds is bright red, the upper-wing covert feathers of the Green-Winged Macaw are mostly green but
can occasionally sport a few yellow feathers above the band of green (as opposed to mostly yellow, or a
strong mix of yellow and green in the Scarlet Macaw). In addition, the Green-Winged Macaw has
characteristic red lines around the eyes formed by rows of tiny feathers on the otherwise bare white skin
patch; this is one of the biggest differences from a scarlet macaw to the casual viewer. Iridescent teal
feathers are surrounded by red on the tail. If seen together, the Green-Winged Macaw is clearly larger
than the Scarlet Macaw as well.
In terms of length, this species is second only in size to the Hyacinth Macaw, the largest of the
macaws. The Green-Winged Macaw attains a total body length of 90 to 95 cm (35 to 37 in) in adults. 12
adults were found to average 1,214 g (2.676 lb). A weight range of between 1,050 and 1,708 g (2.315 and
3.765 lb) has been reported. While its weight range is broadly similar to that of the Hyacinth, the average
weight of the Green-Winged Macaw is slightly surpassed by both the Hyacinth and Great Green Macaw’s,
and amongst all living parrots additionally by the Kakapo (See Kakapo).
The lifespan of Green-Winged Macaw’s is about 50 years.
Green-Winged Macaw’s are usually seen in pairs, small flocks of several pairs, or (less frequently)
family groups. They sometimes associate with Scarlet or Blue & Gold Macaws (Ara ararauna). In the
northern part of their range, Green-Winged Macaw’s tend to inhabit terra firme rainforest (forests that do
not experience seasonal flooding), apparently avoiding swampy areas. In the southern and eastern parts
of the range, they are often found in more open and drier habitats. They have been reported to
elevations of 1000 m in Panama, 500 m in Colombia, and 1400 m in Venezuela. Also as far south as (at
least reported formerly, though conceivably based on escaped captives) northern Argentina.
Conservation Status
This species is generally uncommon due to population declines from capture for the pet trade,
habitat loss, and hunting. The population is in decline. The current IUCN Red List category is least
concern. However, in common with other macaws, in recent years there has been a marked decline in its
numbers due to habitat loss and illegal capture for the parrot trade.
Reproduction
The Green-Winged Macaw generally mates for life. The female typically lays two or three eggs in
large trees with cavities are generally required for nesting, but in some areas they nest in crevices in rock
faces. The female incubates the eggs for about 28 days, and the chicks fledge from the nest about 90
days after hatching.
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Catalina Macaw or Rainbow Macaw
Introduction
Catalina or Rainbow Macaw
Close-up
Hybridization is very rare in feral populations
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Resident Bird(s)
Dwight – Sex (M) – Born 1991 (24 years) (Came to us from The African Lion Safari)
Taxonomy
Catalina Macaw’s are hybrids, so they don't have a true scientific name. The best way to represent
these birds in taxonomy is by the expression Ara ararauna x Ara macao. Catalina Macaws are only
produced in captivity, by crossing a Blue and Gold with a Scarlet Macaw. Therefore, they originate in the
homes of bird breeders around the world.
Description
Catalina Macaws can have a wide variation in their colors and patterns. Most are primarily red or
deep orange on their chests and bellies, with green and blue on their backs. Many of them have gold
feathers edging their wings and in their tails. Being that hybrids are bred primarily for color traits, a large
range of colors and combinations are available. Catalina Macaws generally weigh 2 - 3 pounds and can
reach up to 35 inches in length from the beak to the tip of the tail feathers. These birds can have a
lifespan of 50+ years.
Breed in captivity. Hybridization is very rare in the wild.
Diet
Like any large parrot, a Catalina Macaw should be fed a diet that includes a high quality
seed/pellet mix, along with fresh bird-safe fruits and vegetables.
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Behavior
It's been said that owners of hybrid macaws get the "best of both worlds." Scarlet Macaws, half of
the Catalina's parentage, are known to be curious, feisty, and extremely active, while Blue and Gold
Macaws have a reputation for being more laid-back. Catalina owners describe their birds as being a
perfect mix between the two.
Aviculture
Catalina Macaws need plenty of exercise in order to maintain top mental and physical condition.
Those interested in owning a Catalina Macaw should set aside a minimum of 2-4 hours per day for the
bird to play outside of its cage. This is crucial to prevent boredom and allow the bird to properly stretch
its wings and other muscles.
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Moluccan Cockatoo or Salmon-Crested Cockatoo
Introduction
Moluccan Cockatoo
Close-up
Feral birds roosting in the rainforest canopy
The Salmon-Crested Cockatoo (Cacatua moluccensis) also known as the Moluccan Cockatoo, is a
cockatoo endemic to the south Moluccas in eastern Indonesia.
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Resident Bird(s)
Baby – Sex (M) – Born 1992 (23 years)
Description
At a height of up to 46–52 cm and weight of up to 850 g, it is among the largest of the white
cockatoos. The female is larger than the male on average. It has white-pink feathers with a definite peachy
glow, a slight yellow on the underwing and underside of the tail feathers and a large retractable
recumbent crest which it raises when threatened, revealing hitherto concealed bright red-orange plumes
to frighten potential attackers. It may also be raised in excitement or in other 'emotional' displays. Some
describe the crest as "flamingo-colored." It also has one of the louder calls in the parrot world and in
captivity is a capable mimic. Average lifespan is 65+ years for these birds.
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Taxonomy
Moluccan’s are native to islands of Indonesia as shown in red
In the wild the salmon-crested cockatoo inhabits lowland forests below 1000 m.
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Conservation Status
The Salmon-Crested Cockatoo is a vulnerable species, and has been listed on appendix I of CITES
since 1989, which makes trade in wild-caught birds illegal. Trade in captive bred birds is legal only with
appropriate CITES certification. Numbers have declined due to illegal trapping for the cage-bird trade and
habitat loss. During the height of the trapping of this species over 6,000 birds were being removed from
the wild per year. It has a stronghold in Manusela National Park on Seram, although even today some
illegal trapping continues.
Diet
The diet consists mainly of seeds, nuts and fruit, as well as coconuts, and also eats meat. There is
additional evidence that they eat insects off the ground, and pet Moluccan cockatoos have tested positive
for anemia if their diet does not include enough protein.
Reproduction
The Salmon-Crested Cockatoo can no longer be imported into the United States because it is
listed on the Wild Bird Conservation Act. However, they are being bred in captivity.
Behaviour
Salmon-Crested Cockatoos are highly social and pets can be extremely cuddly, affectionate, and
gentle birds. This can lead to problems if a young cockatoo is spoiled with a great deal of attention and
cuddling when young and does not get the opportunity to learn to play with toys, forage, or otherwise
entertain itself. As with most large cockatoos, the Salmon-Crested Cockatoo may develop health and
behavioral problems such as feather-plucking and aggression if not provided with the appropriate
environment, attention, and enrichment opportunities.
Aviculture
They are popular for their beauty and trainability (which makes them popular in trained bird
shows). The salmon-crested cockatoo is widely considered to be one of the most demanding parrots to
keep as a pet due to their high intelligence, large size, potential noise level, and need to chew. Moluccan
cockatoos require a very large and very sturdy cage or aviary. Salmon-Crested Cockatoos require a great
deal of attention and activity to remain healthy and well-adjusted. Attention and training from human
caregivers is important in keeping them occupied, as are chewable toys and foraging toys that require
them to work for their food.
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Umbrella Cockatoo or White Cockatoo
Introduction
Umbrella Cockatoo
Close-up
Feral flock in flight
The White Cockatoo (Cacatua alba), also known as the Umbrella Cockatoo, is a medium-sized all
white cockatoo endemic to tropical rainforest on islands of Indonesia. When surprised, it extends a large
and striking head crest, which has a semicircular shape (similar to an umbrella, hence the alternative
name). The undersides of the wings and tail have a pale yellow or lemon color which flashes when they fly.
It is similar to other species of white cockatoo such as Yellow-Crested Cockatoo, Sulphur-Crested
Cockatoo, and Salmon-Crested Cockatoo, all of which have yellow, orange or pink crest feathers instead
of white.
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Resident Bird(s)
Jessie – Sex (F) – Born 1997 (18 years)
Jessie decided to have social time with Rick
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Taxonomy
The White Cockatoo was first described in 1776 by German zoologist Philipp Ludwig Statius
Müller. Its species name alba is a feminine form of the Latin adjective albus for "white". It lies in the
subgenus Cacatua within the genus Cacatua. The term "white cockatoo" has also been applied as a group
term to members of the subgenus Cacatua, the genus Cacatua as well as larger groups including Major
Mitchell's cockatoo and the galah cockatoo.
While psittaciform parrots and cockatoos have many common anatomical attributes like
zygodactyl feet and hooked bills, the cockatoos and parrots diverged from the ancestral parrots as
separate lineages as early as 45 MYA (fossil record) or 66 MYA (molecular analysis) (Wright 2008) during
the period when Australia, South America and Antarctica were breaking away from the super-continent
Gondwanaland where the ancestral parrots were believed to have evolved.
Though historically they (white cockatoos as well as related species) have been referred to as
"white parrots", taxonomically they are not considered to be true parrots.
Description
The White Cockatoo is around 46 cm (18 in) long, and weighs about 400 g (14 oz) for small
females and up to 800 g (28 oz) for big males. The male white cockatoo usually has a broader head and a
bigger beak than the female. They have brown or black eyes and a dark grey beak. When mature some
female white cockatoos can have reddish/brown irises, while the irises of the adult male are dark brown or
black.
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The feathers of the White Cockatoo are mostly white. However, both upper and lower surfaces of
the inner half of the trailing edge of the large wing feathers are a yellow color. The yellow color on the
underside of the wings is most notable because the yellow portion of the upper surface of the feather is
covered by the white of the feather immediately medial (nearer to the body) and above. Similarly, areas of
larger tail feathers that are covered by other tail feathers and the innermost covered areas of the larger
crest feathers are yellow. Short white feathers grow from and closely cover the upper legs. The feathers of
this species and others create a powder similar to talcum powder that easily transfers to clothing.
In common with other cockatoos and parrots, the white cockatoo has zygodactyl feet with two
toes facing forward and two facing backward, which enable it to grasp objects with one foot while
standing on the other, for feeding and manipulation.
Whilst the maximum lifespan of the White Cockatoo is poorly documented; a few zoos report that
they live 40–60 years in captivity. Anecdotal reports suggest it can live longer. Lifespan in the wild is
unknown, but believed to be as much as ten years less.
Umbrella’s are native to North Maluka Island, Indonesia. As shown above in yellow
Cacatua alba is endemic to lowland tropical rainforest on the islands of Halmahera, Bacan,
Ternate, Tidore, Kasiruta and Mandioli (Bacan group) in North Maluku, Indonesia. Records from Obi and
Bisa (Obi group) are thought to be introductions. It occurs in primary, logged, and secondary forests
below 900m. It also occurs in mangroves, plantations including coconut and agricultural land. Cacatua
alba is endemic to the islands of Halmahera, Bacan, Ternate, Tidore, Kasiruta and Mandiole in North
Maluku, Indonesia. Records from Obi and Bisa are thought to reflect introductions, and an introduced
population breeds locally in Taiwan (China).
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Conservation Status
It remains locally common: in 1991-1992, the population was estimated at 42,545-183,129 birds
(Lambert 1993), although this may be an underestimate as it was largely based on surveys from Bacan and
not Halmahera where the species may have been commoner. Recent observations indicate that rapid
declines are on-going, and are predicted to increase in the future (Vetter 2009). CITES data show
significant harvest rates for the cage bird trade during the early 1990s. Annual harvests have declined in
actual terms and as a proportion of the remaining population in recent years, but illegal trade continues
and is likely to have been underestimated (S. Metz in litt. 2013).
The White Cockatoo is considered Endangered by the IUCN. Its numbers in the wild have
declined owing to capture for the cage bird trade and habitat loss. It is listed in appendix II of the CITES
list which gives it protection by restricting export and import of wild-caught birds. BirdLife International
indicates that catch quotas issued by the Indonesian government were 'exceeded by up to 18 times in
some localities' in 1991, with at least 6,600 umbrella cockatoos being taken from the wild by trappers,
although fewer birds have been taken from the wild in recent years, both in numerical terms and when
taken as a proportion of the entire population. RSPCA supported surveys by the Indonesian NGO
ProFauna suggest that significant levels of trade in wild-caught white cockatoos still occur, with 200+
taken from the wild in north Halmahera in 2007. Approximately 40% of the parrots (White Cockatoo,
Chattering Lory, Violet-Necked Lory, and Eclectus Parrot) caught in Halmahera are smuggled to the
Philippines, while approximately 60% go to the domestic Indonesian trade, especially via bird markets in
Surabaya and Jakarta.
The illegal trade of protected parrots violates Indonesian Act Number 5, 1990 (a wildlife law
concerning Natural Resources and the Ecosystems Conservations).
Diet
In the wild, White Cockatoos feed on berries, seeds, nuts, fruit and roots. When nesting, they
include insects and insect larvae in their natural habitat, Umbrella Cockatoos typically feed on various
seeds, nuts and fruits, such as papaya, durian, langsat and rambutan. As they are also feed on corn
growing in fields, they do considerable damage and are, therefore, considered crop pests by farmers.
(BirdLife International, 2001), They also eat large insects, such as crickets (order Orthoptera) and skinks.
Captive birds are usually provided a parrot mix containing various seeds, nuts and dried fruits and
vegetables. Additionally, they need to be offered lots of fresh vegetables, fruits and branches (with
leaves) for chewing and entertainment.
Health issues with captive birds are common since many people do not provide a proper diet for
cockatoos. Seeds provide little nutrition (they are mostly fat) and is considered similar to a person living
on junk food. Assorted fresh fruits and veggies and properly created pellets available at many good pet
stores is more appropriate. A sick bird naturally will try to hide its health issues. In the wild, it has been
observed that a flock will force out an unhealthy bird for fear of attracting predators. An often cited rule
of thumb among avian enthusiasts and veterinarians is: "If the bird looks sick, it is likely to be very, very
sick, possibly near death". Qualified avian veterinary care is required, both for prevention of disease, and
for care in the event of a major illness or trauma.
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Signs of illness in a cockatoo can include runny eyes, sluggish behavior, unusually colored
droppings (especially indicating blood in the digestive tract), sleeping more than normal, droopy wings,
tail bobbing when sleeping (indicating difficulty in breathing), sleeping on the bottom of the cage (birds
naturally want to be high on a perch), sudden change in or unusual behavior, feather plucking, biting
themselves, sudden weight loss or gain, and a drop in appetite, among other symptoms.
Reproduction
Like all cockatoos, the White Cockatoo nests in hollows of large trees. Its eggs are white and there
are usually two in a clutch. During the incubation period of about 28 days, both the female and male
incubate the eggs. The larger chick becomes dominant over the smaller chick and takes more of the food.
The chicks leave the nest about 84 days after hatching, and are independent in 15–18 weeks. Juveniles
reach sexual maturity in 3–4 years. As part of the courtship behavior, the male ruffles his feathers, spreads
his tail feathers, extends his wings, and erects his crest. He then bounces about. Initially, the female
ignores or avoids him, but provided he meets her approval, will eventually allow him to approach her. If
his efforts are successful and he is accepted, the pair will be seen preening each other's head and
scratching each other around the tail. These actions serve to strengthen their pair bond. Eventually, the
male mounts the female and performs the actual act of mating by joining of the cloacae. For bonded
pairs, this mating ritual is much shorter and the female may even approach the male. Once they are ready
for nesting, breeding pairs separate from their groups and search for a suitable nest cavity (usually in
trees).
Behavior
Cockatoos are also noisier than many parrots. They can become very bonded (or dependent) on
human companion and this combined with their long life and often misunderstood behaviors can lead to
behavior issues. They have very strong beaks, and umbrellas are capable of breaking walnuts and fingers
if very scared. They have a "fight or flight" flock mentality, and general prefer to fly away from danger. In
a cage, with no escape path, they can be subjected to stress which often leads to feather picking (as with
many pet birds).
Pet white cockatoos may raise their crests upon training, or when something catches their interest
such as a new toy or person.
Aviculture
White Cockatoos are kept as pets because they can be very affectionate, bond closely with people
and are valued for their beauty. They are often called "velcro birds" because they like to cuddle with
people, especially their owners, or primary care-taker. Anyone not used to cockatoo behavior may find
this cuddling behavior odd, as most parrots do not cuddle like the umbrella cockatoo. Although capable
of imitating basic human speech, they are not considered the most able speakers among parrots. They
are often used in live animal acts in zoos and amusement parks because they are naturally acrobatic and
easily trained, because of their highly social nature and high level of intelligence.
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They were quite popular in China during the Tang dynasty, a fact which in turn influenced the
depictions of Guan Yin with a white parrot. The Fourth Crusade was also sealed between Holy Roman
Emperor Frederick II and the Sultan of Babylon in 1229 with a gift of a white cockatoo.
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Sulphur-Crested Cockatoo
Introduction
Sulphur-Crested Cockatoo
Close-up
Feral flock in an urban environment
The Sulphur-Crested Cockatoo (Cacatua galerita) is a relatively large white cockatoo found in
wooded habitats in Australia and New Guinea and some of the islands of Indonesia. They can be locally
very numerous, leading to them sometimes being considered pests. They are well known in aviculture,
although they can be demanding pets.
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Resident Bird(s)
Tia – Sex (M) – Born 2000 (15 years)
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Taxonomy
There are four recognised subspecies:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Tritons Cockatoo, C. g. triton (Temminck, 1849) is found in New Guinea and the surrounding
islands,
Eleonora Cockatoo, C. g. elenora (Finsch, 1867) is restricted to the Aru Islands between Australia
and New Guinea,
Mathews Cockatoo, C. g. fitzroyi (Mathews, 1912) in northern Australia from West Australia to the
Gulf of Carpentaria
And the nominate subspecies, the greater Sulphur-Crested Cockatoo, C. g. galerita which is found
from Cape York to Tasmania.
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Introduced Species:
Within Australia, Sulphur-Crested Cockatoos of the nominate race have also been introduced to
Perth, which is far outside the natural range. Outside Australia, they have been introduced to Singapore,
where their numbers have been estimated to be between 500 and 2000. They have also been introduced
to Palau and New Zealand. In New Zealand the introduced populations may number less than 1000. This
species has also been recorded as established in Hawaii and from various islands in Wallacea (e.g. Kai
Islands and Ambon), but it is unclear if it has managed to become established there.
Description
It has a total length of 44–55 cm (17–22 in), with the Australian subspecies larger than subspecies
from New Guinea and nearby islands. The plumage is overall white, while the underwing and -tail are
tinged yellow. The expressive crest is yellow. The bill is black, the legs are grey, and the eye-ring is
whitish. Males typically have almost black eyes, whereas the females have a more red or brown eye, but
this require optimum viewing conditions to be seen. The differences between the subspecies are subtle.
C. g. fitzroyi is similar to the nominate race but lacks the yellow on the ear tufts and slightly blueish skin
around the eye. C. g. eleonora is similar to C. g. fitzroyi but is smaller and has broader feathers in the crest,
and C. g. triton is similar to C. g. eleonora except it has a smaller bill.
It is similar in appearance to the three species of corellas found in Australia. However, corellas are
smaller, lack the prominent yellow crest and have pale bills. In captivity, the sulphur-crested cockatoo is
easily confused with the smaller yellow-crested cockatoo or the blue-eyed cockatoo with a differently
shaped crest and a darker blue eye-ring. These birds produce a very fine powder to waterproof
themselves instead of oil as many other creatures do.
These birds are very long-lived, and can live upwards of 70 years in captivity, although they only
live to about 20–40 years in the wild.
In Australia, Sulphur-Crested Cockatoos can be found widely in the north and east, ranging as far
south as Tasmania, but avoiding arid inland areas with few trees. They are numerous in suburban habitats
in cities such as Adelaide, Melbourne, Canberra, Sydney and Brisbane. Except for highland areas, they
occur throughout most of New Guinea and on nearby smaller islands such as Waigeo, Misool and Aru,
and various islands in the Cenderawasih Bay and Milne Bay.
Conservation Status
In some parts of Australia, the sulphur-crested cockatoo can be very numerous, and may cause
damage to cereal and fruit crops, newly planted tree seedling, and soft timber on houses and outdoor
furniture. Consequently, they are sometimes shot or poisoned as pests. Government permit is required,
as they are a protected species under the Australian Commonwealth Law.
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Diet
They have been known to engage in geophagy, the process of eating clay to detoxify their food.
Diets are similar to that of other cockatoo species.
Species that feed on the ground are very vulnerable to predator attack. The cockatoo has evolved
a behavioural adaptation to protect against this: whenever there is a flock on the ground, there is at least
one high up in a tree (usually a dead tree), keeping guard. This is so well known that it has even entered
Australian slang: a person keeping guard for sudden police raids on illegal gambling gatherings is referred
to as a cockatoo or cocky for short.
Reproduction
The Sulphur-Crested Cockatoo is a seasonal breeder in Australia, little is known about its breeding
behaviour in New Guinea. In southern Australia the breeding season is from August to January, whereas
in northern Australia the season is from May to September. The nest is a bed of wood chips in a hollow in
a tree. Like many other parrots it competes with others of its species and with other species on nesting
sites. Two to three eggs are laid and incubation lasts between 25–27 days. Both parents incubate the
eggs and raise the nestlings. The nestling period is between 9 to 12 weeks, and the young fledglings
remain with their parents for a number of months after fledging.
Behavior
Their distinctive raucous call can be very loud; it is adapted to travel through the forest
environments in which they live, including tropical and subtropical rainforests. These birds are naturally
curious, as well as very intelligent. They have adapted very well to European settlement in Australia and
live in many urban areas.
A 2009 study involving an Eleonora Cockatoo (the subspecies Cacatua galerita eleonora) named
Snowball found that Sulphur-Crested Cockatoos are capable of synchronising movements to a musical
beat.
Aviculture
Sulphur-Crested Cockatoos may no longer be imported into the United States as a result of the
Wild Bird Conservation Act (WBCA). However, they have been bred in captivity. They are demanding pets,
being very loud and having a natural desire to chew wood and other hard and organic materials.
One cockatoo called Fred was still alive at 100 years of age in 2014. Cocky Bennett of Tom Ugly's
Point in Sydney was a celebrated Sulphur-Crested Cockatoo who reached an age of 100 years or more.
He had lost his feathers and was naked for much of his life, and died in the early years of the twentieth
century. His body was stuffed and preserved after death. Another 'cocky', born in 1921 and residing in
Arncliffe with his owner Charlie Knighton, was 76 years old in the late 1990s.
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Sulphur-Crested Cockatoos, along with many other parrots, are susceptible to psittacine beak and
feather disease, a viral disease, which causes birds to lose their feathers and grow grotesquely shaped
beaks. The disease occurs naturally in the wild, and in captivity.
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Goffins Cockatoo or Tanimbar Corella
Introduction
Goffins Cockatoo
Close-up
Feral flock roosting in a Eucalyptus
The Tanimbar Corella (Cacatua goffiniana) also known as Goffin's Cockatoo or Goffin's Corella.
This species was only formally described in 2004, after it was discovered that the previous formal
descriptions pertained to individuals of a different cockatoo species, the Ducorps' or Solomons Cockatoo
(Cacatua ducorpsii). Tanimbar Corellas are the smallest of the white cockatoos. This species is near
threatened due to deforestation and bird trade. The species breeds well in captivity and there is a large
avicultural population.
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Resident Bird(s)
Howard – Sex (M) – Born 2002 (13 years)
Taxonomy
Snowball – Sex (F) – Born 2005 (10 years)
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Historically, the discovery of the species as Lophochroa goffini is attributed to Otto Finsch in
1863. It was named for Andreas Leopold Goffin, a friend of Finsch and apparently a Dutch naval
lieutenant who died the same year at the age of 26.
In 2000, it became clear that Finsch's formal description of this species was based on two
specimens that actually belonged to an entirely different cockatoo species, the Ducorps' or Solomons
Cockatoo (Cacatua ducorpsii). Cacatua goffini thus became a synonym for Cacatua ducorpsii, leaving this
species without a proper scientific name and description. In 2004, the species was formally described as
Cacatua goffiniana, maintaining the intent of Finsch to name a species of cockatoo after his friend. The
new description is based on an individual collected from the Tanimbar Islands in 1923 by Dr. Felix
Kopstein.
Description
Tanimbar Corellas females weigh, on average, about 250 g for females and 300 g for males. They
are about 31 cm (12 inches) from head to tail.
Like all members of the Cacatuidae family, the Tanimbar Corella is crested, meaning it has a
collection of feathers on its head that it can raise or lower. Its body is mainly covered with white feathers,
with salmon or pink colored feathers between the beak and eyes. The deeper (proximal) parts of the crest
feathers and neck feathers are also a salmon color, but the coloration here is hidden by the white color of
the more superficial (distal) areas of these feathers. The under-side of its wing and tail feathers exhibit a
yellowish tinge. The beak is pale grey and eye colour ranges from brown to black. Both sexes are similar.
They are often confused with the Little Corella (Bare-Eyed Cockatoo) due to their similar appearance.
The maximum recorded lifespan for a (captive) Tanimbar corella is 26 years, though this figure
may be a significant under-representation, considering the long-lived nature of many other cockatoo
species. But can live up to 40+ years.
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Tanimbar Corella’s are native to Australia. As shown above in green
Goffin’s are a species of cockatoo endemic to forests of Yamdena, Larat and Selaru, all islands in
the Tanimbar Islands archipelago in Indonesia. The species has been introduced at the Kai Islands,
Indonesia, Puerto Rico and Singapore.
Conservation Status
Due to ongoing habitat loss on Tanimbar, limited range and illegal hunting, the Tanimbar corella
is evaluated as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The species is listed on
Appendix I of CITES. In the 1970’s, Japanese loggers ravaged the islands. Many of the dazed, disoriented
birds were captured for the pet trade. Although many died from stress during shipment, there may be a
small silver lining behind this ecological disaster, because many Tanimbar Corellas have reproduced in
captive breeding programs. As such, there are now more Tanimbar Corellas in captivity than in the wild.
Behaviour
Tanimbar Corellas learn by watching and copying. Just by opening the cage door, a Tanimbar
Corella's attention can be drawn to the latch on its cage and it can learn by trial and error how to open
the latch with its beak and escape the cage in seconds. Tanimbar corellas can destroy furniture with their
beaks and can chew through wires and cause potentially dangerous electrical incidents.
Tool use behaviour has been observed in the Tanimbar Corella in captivity. It was reported in
November 2012 by Professor Alice Aursperg of the University of Vienna, that a cock bird named Figaro
was observed spontaneously shaping splinters of wood and small sticks in order to create rakes that were
then utilized, enabling him to extend his reach and retrieve otherwise unavailable food items located
upon the other side of his aviary mesh.
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A later experiment also conducted at the Vienna Goffin Lab by Prof. Auersperg and her team
broadly adapted the Stanford marshmallow experiment for the Tanimbar Corella, to investigate whether
the birds were capable of self-control and of anticipating a delayed gain. The corellas were given the
opportunity to exchange a favoured food item (in this case a pecan nut) for an even more desirable nut (a
cashew), if they were only able to hold the first nut for a period of time and then return it to the human
researcher's hand uneaten, at which point the nuts would be exchanged. Although pecan nuts are
normally consumed instantly, it was discovered that the corellas could resist the temptation to eat the nut
for periods of time for up to 80 seconds once aware that a cashew was also on offer. This behaviour
(having also previously been demonstrated in corvids) further disproves the previous belief that birds are
incapable of self-control.
In July 2013, the results of a joint study involving scientists from University of Oxford, the
University of Vienna and the Max Planck Institute, again involving the Tanimbar corellas of the Vienna
Goffin Lab, were announced. It was discovered that the birds possessed the ability to solve complex
mechanical problems, in one case spontaneously working out how to open a five-part locking mechanism
in sequence to retrieve a food item. The corellas were able to very quickly adapt their behaviour and again
open the lock when the mechanism sections were modified or re-ordered, demonstrating an apparent
concept of working towards a particular goal and knowledge of the way in which physical objects act
upon each other, rather than merely an ability to repeat a learned sequence of actions.
Aviculture
In aviculture the parrot is widely known as the Goffin's Cockatoo. Pet birds hand-reared from
hatching can imitate human speech, but generally they are not good talkers. They are generally quiet, but
they can make a loud screeching noise. They can make good pets, as they are friendly and sociable. Like
most cockatoos, they enjoy being handled and stroked. They are intelligent and they can be trained and
can learn tricks.
Hand-reared Tanimbar Corella’s tend to demand a lot of attention. Occasionally, captive birds of
this species (like many cockatoos) develop self-destructive behaviours such as feather-plucking, or
stereotypy if they do not have an interesting and enriching environment. Caged Tanimbar Corella’s
require a frequent change of toys to play with so they do not become bored. They need time out of their
cage for one-on-one social contact of at least one hour daily and also to exercise their wings and fly.
Even very tame birds can bite humans when irritated or even when being excessively playful. Their
droppings are semi-solid and can be messy. Many new bird owners are not aware of the time and money
a cockatoo demands and pet birds are often passed from one owner to the next or relinquished to animal
shelters.
Tanimbar Corella chicks make a repetitive soft howling/screeching noise (producer calls) when
they are hungry.
In the UK their sale is controlled as they are classified as a rare species. Each bird must have an
official certificate to prove that it was captive-bred and not imported.
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Rose-Breasted Cockatoo or Galah
Introduction
Rose-Creasted Cockatoo
Close-up
Flock of feral Galah’s in the Australian outback
The Galah, (Eolophus roseicapilla), also known as the Rose-Breasted Cockatoo, Galah Cockatoo,
and Roseate Cockatoo, is one of the most common and widespread cockatoos, and it can be found in
open country in almost all parts of mainland Australia.
It is endemic on the mainland and was introduced to Tasmania, where its distinctive pink and grey
plumage and its bold and loud behaviour make it a familiar sight in the bush and increasingly in urban
areas. It appears to have benefited from the change in the landscape since European colonisation and
may be replacing the Major Mitchell's cockatoo in parts of its range.
The term Galah is derived from Gilaa, a word found in Yuwaalaraay and neighbouring Aboriginal
languages.
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Resident Bird(s)
Len – Sex (M) – Born 2000 (15 years)
Taxonomy
Rosie – Sex (F) – Born 2009 (6 years)
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The classification of the Galah was difficult. It was separated in the monotypic genus Eolophus,
but the further relationships were not clear. There are obvious morphological similarities between the
Galah and the White Cockatoos that make up the genus Cacatua and indeed the Galah was initially
described as Cacatua roseicapilla. Early DNA studies allied the Galah with the cockatiel or placed it close
to some Cacatua species of completely different appearance. In consequence, it was thought that the
ancestors of the Galah, the cockatiel and Major Mitchell's cockatoo diverged from the main white
cockatoo line at some stage prior to that group's main radiation; this was indeed correct except for the
placement of the cockatiel. Ignorance of this fact, however, led to attempts to resolve the evolutionary
history and prehistoric biogeography of the cockatoos, which ultimately proved fruitless because they
were based on invalid assumptions to start with.
It fell to the study of Brown & Toft (1999) to compare the previously available data to their
mitochondrial 12S rRNA sequence to resolve the issue. Today, the Galah is seen, along with Major
Mitchell's Cockatoo, as an early divergence from the White Cockatoo lineage which have not completely
lost their ability to produce an overall pink (Major Mitchell's) or Pink and Grey (Galah) body plumage,
while already being light in colour and non-sexually dimorphic. The significance of these two (and other)
characteristics shared by the Cacatuinae had previously been explained in earlier studies by strict
application of parsimony on misinterpreted data.
Subspecies:
Three subspecies are usually recognised. There is slight variation in the colours of the plumage
and in the extent of the carunculation of the eye rings among the three subspecies. The south-eastern
form, E. r. albiceps, is clearly distinct from the paler-bodied Western Australian nominate subspecies, E. r.
roseicapillus, although the extent and nature of the central hybrid zone remains undefined. Most pet birds
outside Australia are the south-eastern form. The third form, E. r. kuhli, found right across the northern
part of the continent, tends to be a little smaller and is distinguished from albiceps by differences in the
shape and colour of the crest, although its status as a valid subspecies is uncertain.
Galatiel (Off-Spring)
Galah x Cockatiel (Parents)
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Hybrids:
Aviary-bred crosses of Galahs and Major Mitchell's Cockatoos have been bred in Sydney, with the
tapered wings of the Galah and the crest and colours of the Major Mitchell's, as well as its plaintive cry.
The Galah has also been shown to be capable of hybridising with the cockatiel, producing offspring
described by the media as 'Galatiels'. Galahs are known to join flocks of little corellas (Cacatua
sanguinea), and are known to breed with them also. A Galah/Sulphur-Crested Cockatoo hybrid which was
hatched in 1920 was still living in the Adelaide zoo in the late 1970s, being displayed in a small cage alone
near the entrance to an on-site cottage. The back feathers were a patchwork of grey tones and the breast
feathers a soft apricot tone and the crest a slightly richer orange . The crest was longer that a Galah crest
but without the long curl of the Sulphur-Crested Cockatoo. The bird was not significantly larger than a
Galah.
Galatiel
Galah x Sulphur-Crested Cockatoo
Description
Galahs are about 35 cm (14 in) long and weigh 270–350 g. They have a pale grey to mid-grey
back, a pale grey rump, a pink face and chest, and a light pink mobile crest. They have a bone-coloured
beak and the bare skin of the eye rings is carunculated. They have grey legs. The genders appear similar,
however generally adult birds differ in the colour of the irises; the male has very dark brown (almost black)
irises, and the female has mid-brown or red irises. The colours of the juveniles are duller than the adults.
Juveniles have greyish chests, crowns, and crests, and they have brown irises and whitish bare eye rings,
which are not carunculated. Living in captivity Galahs can reach up to 70 to 80 years of age. In their
natural habitat the Galah is unlikely to reach the age of 20 years. The average age of all Galah’s is about
40 years of age.
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Galahs are found in all Australian states, and are absent only from the driest areas and the far
north of Cape York Peninsula. It is still uncertain whether they are native to Tasmania, though they are
locally common today, especially in urban areas. They are common in some metropolitan areas, for
example Adelaide, Perth and Melbourne, and common to abundant in open habitats which offer at least
some scattered trees for shelter. The changes wrought by European settlement, a disaster for many
species, have been highly beneficial for the Galah because of the clearing of forests in fertile areas and the
provision of stock watering points in arid zones. Flocks of Galahs will often congregate and forage on
foot for food in open grassy areas.
Reproduction
Like most other cockatoos, Galahs create strong lifelong bonds with their partners. The Galah
nests in tree cavities. The eggs are white and there are usually two or five in a clutch. The eggs are
incubated for about 25 days, and both the male and female share the incubation. The chicks leave the
nest about 49 days after hatching.
Cultural References & History
"Galah" is also derogatory Australian slang, synonymous with 'fool' or 'idiot'. Because of the bird's
distinctive bright pink, it is also used for gaudy dress. A detailed, yet comedic description of the Australian
slang term can be found in the standup comedy performance of Paul Hogan, titled Stand Up Hoges.
Another famous user of the slang "Galah" is Alf Stewart from Home and Away who is often heard saying
"Flaming Galah!" when he is riled by somebody. Stella from Angry Birds is a Galah.
The Australian representative team of footballers which played a series of test matches of
International rules football against Irish sides in the late 1960s was nicknamed "The Galahs" (see "The
Australian Football World Tour).
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African Grey Congo
Introduction
African Grey Congo
Close-up
African Grey Congo’s are commonly found drinking in forest elephant clearings of the jungle
The African Grey Congo (Psittacus erithacus) is an Old World parrot in the family Psittacidae.
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Resident Bird(s)
King – Sex (M) – Born 2010 (5 years)
Cocoa – Sex (M) – Born approx. 1958-1960 (approx. 56 years)
P a g e | 47
Taxonomy
Description
The African Grey parrot is a medium-sized, predominantly grey, black-billed parrot which weighs
400 g, with a length of 33 cm and an average wingspan of 46–52 cm. The tail and under-tail coverts are
red, in comparison to the maroon of the smaller Timneh parrot. Both sexes appear similar.
The colouration of juveniles similar to that of adults, however the eye is typically dark grey to
black, in comparison to the greyish-yellow eyes of the adult birds. The under-tail coverts are also tinged
with grey. The lifespan of these birds is 50 to 70 years.
P a g e | 48
African Grey Congo’s are native to central Africa, as shown above in red
The African Grey parrot is endemic to the Congo, Africa.
Conservation Status
Humans are by far the largest threat to wild African grey populations. Between 1994 and 2003,
over 359,000 African grey parrots were traded on the international market. Mortality amongst imported
birds is high. As a result of the extensive harvest of wild birds, in addition to habitat loss, this species is
believed to be undergoing a rapid decline in the wild and has therefore been rated as vulnerable by the
IUCN.
Diet
The African grey parrot is primarily a herbivore, feeding on fruit, nuts, leaves, bark and flowers.
However it will also eat insects.
Reproduction
African Grey parrots are monogamous breeders which nest in tree cavities. The hen lays 3–5 eggs,
which she incubates for 30 days while being fed by her mate. Young leave the nest at the age of 12 weeks.
Little is known about the courtship behaviour of this species in the wild.
Behaviour
The species is common in captivity and is regularly kept by humans as a companion parrot, prized
for its ability to mimic human speech. However, it may be prone to behavioural problems due to its
sensitive nature.
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African Grey Timneh
Introduction
African Grey Timneh
Close-up
Feral African Grey Timneh’s enjoying the fruit of a palm
The African Grey Timneh (Psittacus timneh), also known as the Timneh Grey Parrot, is a West
African parrot that is variously considered a subspecies of the African Grey Congo Psittacus erithacus
timneh, or a full species Psittacus timneh. In aviculture it is often referred to by the initials TAG and is
commonly kept as a companion parrot.
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Resident Bird(s)
Flint – Sex (M) – Born 1997 (18 years)
Taxonomy
P a g e | 51
Description
Growing to 28–33 centimetres (11–13 in) in length and weighing 275–375 grams (9.7–13.2 oz), the
Timneh is a medium-sized parrot. Its plumage is mainly a mottled grey, with a white face mask and pale
yellow eyes. Compared with the only other recognised Psittacus species, often known as the African Grey
parrot or Congo African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus), the Timneh is smaller and darker, with a dull,
dark maroon (rather than crimson) tail and a horn-coloured patch on the upper mandible. As in the
nominate species, the Timneh parrot is also a very intelligent bird and a skilled mimic. The Timneh parrot
may be less nervous and more outgoing around human beings, and can learn to talk at a younger age
than the Congo Grey. The lifespan of these birds is 30 to 50 years.
African Grey Timneh’s are native to west-central Africa, as shown in brown above
The Timneh parrot is endemic to the western parts of the moist Upper Guinean forests and
bordering savannas of West Africa from Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone and southern Mali eastwards to at
least 70 km east of the Bandama River in Ivory Coast. There is no natural range overlap with the Congo
parrot although, as both taxa are common in aviculture, escapes can occur and hybridization between
Congo and Timneh greys has been observed in captivity. The birds typically inhabit dense forest, but are
also seen at forest edges and in clearings, in gallery forest along waterways, savanna woodland and
mangroves. Though they are sometimes found in cultivated areas and gardens, it is not clear whether
these habitats contain self-sustaining populations; the birds may make seasonal movements out of the
driest parts of their range in the dry season.
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Conservation Status
Of a total estimated population of 120,000–259,000 individual birds, the largest populations are in
Ivory Coast (54,000–130,000) and Liberia (50,000–100,000). In the other range countries estimated
numbers are Sierra Leone (11,000–18,000), Guinea (5,000–10,000) and Guinea-Bissau (100–1,000), with
insignificant numbers in southern Mali. Surveys indicate that the species has disappeared from the forests
around Mount Nimba and in Nimba County, Liberia.
The Timneh parrot has been undergoing population decline both through loss of its forest habitat
and trapping for the international wild bird trade. Lumped with the closely related Congo parrot as the
African grey it is one of the most popular pet birds in the United States, Europe and the Middle East due
to its longevity and ability to mimic human speech.
In January 2007 the CITES’ Animals Committee imposed a two-year ban on exports of Timneh
parrots from Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast and Guinea, while the importation of wild-caught birds into
the EU was banned in the same year. Despite this, in 2009 Guinea exported 720 birds. The legal trade,
which is monitored by CITES may constitute only a small proportion of the total numbers trapped in the
wild.
In 2012 BirdLife International gave the Timneh parrot full species status on the basis of genetic,
morphological, plumage and vocal differences and classified it as Vulnerable.
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Double Yellow-Headed Amazon
Introduction
Double Yellow-Headed Amazon
Close-up
Double Yellow-Heads roosting in the tree tops
The Double Yellow-Headed Amazon (Amazona oratrix), also known as the Yellow-Headed Parrot,
is an endangered amazon parrot of Mexico and northern Central America. Measuring 38–43 centimetres
(15–17 in) in length, it is a stocky short-tailed green parrot with a yellow head. It prefers to live in
mangrove forests or forests near rivers or other bodies of water. It is sometimes considered a subspecies
of the yellow-crowned amazon. It is a popular pet and an excellent talker.
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Resident Bird(s)
Above left: Sinbad – Sex (M) – Born approx. 1958-1960 (approx. 56 years)
Above right: Mya – Sex (F) – Born ?, arrived at aviary 2006 (approx. 9 years +)
Taxonomy
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This species is part of the Amazona ochrocephala complex, which also includes the yellow-naped
amazon (A. auropalliata). This complex, "a taxonomic headache", is considered a single species by some
authorities and split into three species by others. The split is mainly based on the amount of yellow in the
plumage, the color of the legs and bill, the proximity of A. oratrix and A. auropalliata in Oaxaca, Mexico,
without apparent interbreeding, and the presence of both A. ochrocephala and A. auropalliata in northern
Honduras.
This evaluation has, however, been confused by misunderstandings regarding the plumage
variations in the populations in northern Honduras, where birds vary greatly in amount of yellow on the
head, crown and nape, but have pale bills and a juvenile plumage matching A. oratrix, but neither A.
ochrocephala nor A. auropalliata. In 1997, the population from the Sula Valley in northern Honduras was
described as a new subspecies, hondurensis, of A. oratrix. A. auropalliata caribaea on the Islas de la Bahía,
which is relatively close to the recently described A. oratrix hondurensis, may have a relatively pale lower
mandible, indicating that gene flow may occur between the two. If confirmed, this could suggest that the
two are better considered conspecific. Alternatively, it has been suggested that caribaea and parvipes,
both typically considered subspecies of A. auropalliata, may be closer to A. oratrix than they are to the
nominate A. auropalliata. Both are relatively small and have red on the shoulder like A. oratrix, but unlike
nominate A. auropalliata. The members of this complex are known to hybridize in captivity, and recent
phylogenetic analysis of DNA did not support the split into the three "traditional" biological species, but
did reveal three clades, which potentially could be split into three phylogenetic species: a Mexican and
Central American species (including panamensis, which extends slightly into South America), a species of
northern South America, and a species from the southern Amazon Basin. The Central American clade can
potentially be split further, with panamensis (Panama amazon) and tresmariae (Tres Marías amazon)
recognized as two monotypic species.
According to the traditional split, A. oratrix includes the taxa tresmariae (from Tres Marías Islands),
belizensis (from Belize) and hondurensis (from Sula Valley, Honduras) as subspecies. An additional
subspecies, magna, has sometimes been recognized for the population on the Gulf slope of Mexico, but
today most authorities consider it invalid, instead including this population in oratrix, which also occurs on
the Pacific slope of Mexico. In contrast, the population in north-western Honduras and adjacent eastern
Guatemala (near Puerto Barrios), which resembles A. oratrix belizensis and commonly is included in that
subspecies, may represent an undescribed subspecies. It has sometimes been referred to as
guatemalensis, but until this population is officially described, the name remains provisional.
The origin of the common epithet "Double Yellow-Headed" is that this species is differentiated
from the others in the yellow-headed amazon complex by possessing both the yellow nape and yellow
crown of its two close relatives, hence a "double-yellow" head.
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Description
The Double Yellow-Headed Amazons average 38–43 centimetres (15–17 in) long. The shape is
typical of amazons, with a robust build, rounded wings, and a square tail. The body is bright green, with
yellow on the head, dark scallops on the neck, red at the bend of the wing, and yellow thighs. The flight
feathers are blackish to bluish violet with a red patch on the outer secondaries. The base of the tail also
has a red patch, which is usually hidden. The outer tail feathers have yellowish tips.
The bill is horn-colored (gray), darker in immatures of the Belizean subspecies. The eye ring is
whitish in Mexican birds and grayish in others. The most conspicuous geographical difference is the
amount of yellow. In adults, the head and upper chest are yellow in the subspecies of the Tres Marías
Islands (tresmariae); just the head in the widespread subspecies of Mexico (oratrix); just the crown in
Belize (belizensis); and the crown and nape in the Sula Valley of Honduras (hondurensis, which thus
resembles the yellow-naped parrot). Immatures have less yellow than adults; they attain adult plumage in
2 to 4 years.
The variety "Magna" (or "Magnum") is bred for more yellow and commands a premium price as a
pet. Some "extreme" Magnas have as much yellow as Tres Marías birds, but are distinguished from them
by heavier barring on the chest and a less bluish tint to the green plumage.
Wild birds give low-pitched, sometimes human-sounding screams, but often fly silently (unlike
many other parrots). The calls can be described as "a rolled kyaa-aa-aaah and krra-aah-aa-ow, a deep,
rolled ahrrrr or ahrhrrrr," etc. Young birds make a "clucking" sound to indicate that they are hungry.
Lifespan is generally 50+ years.
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Double Yellow-Headed Amazon’s are native to Mexico and Central America as shown above in
purple
This species lives in riparian forest and areas with scattered trees, as well as evergreen forest in
Belize and mangroves in Guatemala. A notable ecoregion of occurrence is the Belizean pine forests. It
occurs singly or in pairs, in small groups, and occasionally in big flocks. The range formerly included both
coastal slopes of Mexico from the Tres Marías Islands and Jalisco to Oaxaca and from Nuevo León to
northern Chiapas and southwestern Tabasco, as well as a disjunct area including most of Belize, and
another comprising a small part of northeastern Guatemala and northwestern Honduras. However, their
numbers have been reduced drastically, by 90%, to 7,000, from the mid 1970’s to 1994, and by 68% from
1994 to 2004, because of capture for the pet trade and habitat destruction.
Introduced populations can be found in Stuttgart, Germany where a population of over 50
individuals resides . Smaller introduced populations are to found at Imperial Beach, Santa Ana, Loma
Linda and Pasadena; all in Southern California.
Conservation Status
The Yellow-Headed Amazon is considered endangered by the IUCN, and is on the CITES
Appendix I, which by international treaty, has made export, import and trade of wild-caught YellowHeaded Amazons illegal and the trade in birds bred in aviculture subject to controls in most of the world.
Captive-bred Yellow-Headed Amazons can be sold and owned legally subject to checks and regulations.
Populations range from Central America, through Mexico, and even into the southernmost region of
Texas. Generally, throughout the world, sale of Appendix I species bred in aviculture must be
accompanied with official certification which is provided by the breeder, and they must have a closed ring
on one leg.
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The popularity of Yellow-Headed Amazons as a pet continues to fuel poaching efforts, which have
nearly driven it to extinction in the wild. Their wild population has declined from 70,000 to 7,000 in the
past two decades alone. An estimated 40-60% of poached yellow-headed amazons die before they are
sold.
Reproduction
Yellow-Headed parrots nest in holes in tree trunks or fallen branches. Poachers usually hack at the
nest site with a machete to steal parrots, which is especially destructive because habitat is lost at the same
time that the wild parrot population is reduced. The situation for tresmariae, which potentially can be
treated as a separate species, is unclear, but it’s very small range gives cause for concern and some
reports indicate it is under considerable threat.
Behaviour
The double yellow-headed Amazon is rarely shy, rather this Amazon parrot is outgoing, intelligent
and possess a strong personality. Sometimes considered a “drama queen," owners should supervise the
double yellow-headed Amazon around strangers and practice behavior training daily in order to keep
them active. Double yellow-headed Amazons are known for entertaining an audience, be it talking or
singing to the crowd. Female double yellow-heads are often more girlie, demonstrating nesting behaviors
such as hiding in the sofa or kitchen cupboards, while males are more gregarious and tend to strut
around.
Aviculture
Though only captive-bred Yellow-Headed Amazons may be owned, these are widely available (if
somewhat expensive) and their personalities make them highly desirable pets; they have been kept as
such for centuries because they are among the parrots that "talk" best. Their vocal abilities are generally
bested only by the African grey parrot and matched by similar species, such as the Yellow-Naped. YellowHeaded Amazons in captivity appear to have an affinity for both singing and the learning of song, and a
naturally powerful, operatic voice.
As in most amazons, nervous plucking of plumage is rare among this species. A generally
recognized disadvantage of the Yellow-Headed Amazon and its close relatives (such as the Yellow-Naped
Amazon) is hormonal aggressiveness, most notable among males in the breeding season. It is a member
of the "Hot Three" (referring to the male bird's "hot" temper), along with the Yellow-Naped and BlueFronted.
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Yellow-Crowned Amazon
Introduction
Yellow-Crowned Amazon
Close-Up
Feral Yellow-Crowned Amazons are often seen in small flocks
The Yellow-Crowned Amazon or Yellow-Crowned Parrot (Amazona ochrocephala), is a species of
parrot, native to the tropical South America and Panama.
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Resident Bird(s)
Harvey – Sex (M) – Born ?, arrived at aviary 1998 (approx. 17 years +)
Taxonomy
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The taxonomy is highly complex, and the Yellow-Headed (A. oratrix) and Yellow-Naped Amazon
(A. auropalliata) are sometimes considered subspecies of the Yellow-Crowned Amazon. Except in the
taxonomic section, the following deals only with the nominate group (including subspecies xantholaema,
nattereri and panamensis).
The Amazona ochrocephala complex, which has been described as "a taxonomic headache", is
considered a single species by some authorities and split into three species, A. ochrocephala (YellowCrowned Amazon), A. auropalliata (Yellow-Naped Amazon) and A. oratrix (Yellow-Headed Amazon), by
others. The split is mainly based on the amount of yellow in the plumage, the color of the legs and bill,
the close proximity of the oratrix group and auropalliata group in Oaxaca, Mexico, without apparent
interbreeding, and the presence of members of both the nominate group and the auropalliata group in
northern Honduras. This evaluation has, however, been confused by misunderstandings regarding the
plumage variations in the populations in northern Honduras, where birds vary greatly in amount of yellow
on the head, crown and nape, but have pale bills and a juvenile plumage matching the oratrix group, but
neither the nominate nor the auropalliata group. The taxon caribaea from the Bay Islands is a member of
the auropalliata group, and occurs in relatively close proximity to the members of the oratrix group. As
caribaea may have a relatively pale lower mandible, this could indicate a level of gene flow between this
and the nearby taxa of the oratrix group. If confirmed, this could suggest that the two are better
considered conspecific. Alternatively, it has been suggested that caribaea and parvipes, both typically
placed in the auropalliata group, may be closer to the oratrix than they are to the auropalliata sensu
stricto. Both are relatively small and have red to the shoulder as in the members of the oratrix group, but
unlike auropalliata sensu stricto.
The members of this complex are known to hybridize in captivity, and recent phylogenetic
analysis of DNA did not support the split into the three "traditional" biological species, but did reveal
three clades, which potentially could be split into three phylogenetic species: A Mexican and Central
American species (incl. panamensis, which extends slightly into South America), a species of northern
South America (northern nominate), and a species from the southern Amazon Basin (nattereri,
xantholaema and southern nominate). The Central American clade can potentially be split further, with
panamensis and tresmariae recognized as two monotypic species. The members of the clade from the
southern Amazon Basin should arguably be included as subspecies of the Blue-Fronted Amazon, as they
are closer to each other than to the northern clades. Disregarding these problems, the following taxa are
part of the Amazona ochrocephala complex as traditionally delimited:
•
nominate group ("true" Yellow-Crowned Amazon):
o Amazona o. ochrocephala: East-central and south-eastern Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad,
Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana and the northern and eastern Amazon Basin in Brazil.
o Amazona o. xantholaema: Marajó Island, in the Amazon River delta of north-eastern
Brazil.
o Amazona o. nattereri: Far south-eastern Colombia, eastern Ecuador, eastern Peru,
northern Bolivia and south-western Amazon Basin of Brazil (east to around Mato Grosso).
Often included in A. o. ochrocephala.
o Amazona o. panamensis: Western Panama to north-western Colombia; sometimes called
the Panama Amazon
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•
auropalliata group (Yellow-Naped Amazon):
o Amazona a./o. auropalliata: Southern Mexico to north-western Costa Rica.
o Amazona a./o. parvipes: Mosquito Coast in eastern Honduras and north-eastern
Nicaragua.
o Amazona a./o. caribaea: Bay Islands, Honduras.
•
oratrix group (Yellow-Headed Amazon):
o Amazona o./o. oratrix: Pacific and Gulf slopes of Mexico. Also a population in Stuttgart
exists.
o Amazona o./o. tresmariae: Tres Marías Islands, off west-central Mexico.
o Amazona o./o. belizensis: Belize.
o Amazona o./o. hondurensis: Sula Valley, Honduras.
Of these, hondurensis was only recently described, while the population in north-western
Honduras and adjacent eastern Guatemala (near Puerto Barrios) resembles belizensis and commonly is
included in that subspecies, but may actually represent an undescribed subspecies. It has sometimes
been referred to as guatemalensis, but until officially described, the name remains provisional. An
additional subspecies, magna, has sometimes been recognized for the population on the Gulf slope of
Mexico, but today most authorities consider it invalid, instead including this population in oratrix.
Description
Subspecies in the nominate group (including subspecies xantholaema, nattereri and panamensis)
have a total length of 33–38 cm (13–15 in). As most other amazon parrots, it has a short squarish tail and
primarily green plumage. It has dark blue tips to the secondaries and primaries, and a red wing speculum,
carpal edge (leading edge of the wing at the "shoulder") and base of the outer tail-feathers. The red and
dark blue sections are often difficult to see when the bird is perched, while the red base of the outer tailfeathers only infrequently can be seen under normal viewing conditions in the wild. The amount of yellow
to the head varies, with nominate, nattereri and panamensis having yellow restricted to the crown-region
(occasionally with a few random feathers around the eyes), while the subspecies xantholaema has most of
the head yellow. All have a white eye-ring. They have a dark bill with a large horn (gray) or reddish spot
on the upper mandible except panamensis, which has a horn colored beak. Males and females do not
differ in plumage. Except for the wing speculum, juveniles have little yellow and red to the plumage.
Their longevity should also be a consideration. These parrots can live to the old, ripe age of 60 to
80 years
P a g e | 63
The Yellow-Crowned amazon is found in the Amazon Basin and Guianas, with additional
populations in north-western South America and Panama. It is a bird of tropical forest (both humid and
dry), woodland, mangroves, savanna and may also be found on cultivated land and suburban areas. In
the southern part of its range, it is rarely found far from the Amazon Rainforest. It is mainly a lowland
bird, but has locally been recorded up to 800 m (2600 ft) along on the eastern slopes of the Andes.
Conservation Status
The Yellow-Crowned Amazon is considered to be of least concern by BirdLife International, and
consequently, also by IUCN. Although populations are believed to be in decline, they do not yet
approach the threshold specified by BirdLife International to rate the species as near threatened. As is the
case with most parrots, it is listed on appendix II of CITES. It occurs in numerous protected areas, and
remains fairly common throughout a large part of its range.
Diet
They are normally found in pairs or small flocks up to 30, but larger groups may gather at clay
licks. Their food includes fruits, nuts, seeds and berries. Foods with sugar and a large amount of salt can
be dangerous for them.
Reproduction
The nest is in a hollow in a tree, palm or termitarium, where they lay two to three eggs. The
incubation time is about 26 days, and the chicks leave the nest about 60 days from hatching.
Sexing: Males and females look alike. DNA sexing is recommended for breeder birds.
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Behaviour
They are known for their loud voices, which is said to be the loudest of all Amazon Parrots.
People who are not tolerant to noise, will not do well with this parrot. Like most larger parrots they can
also be very destructive and their need to "customize their environment" needs to be redirected by
providing them plenty of chewing toys and branches.
Aviculture
The Yellow-Crowned Amazon parrots are known for their playful antics and excellent talking
abilities. This being said, talking ability will vary between birds and even though many of them are
excellent talkers, some may never learn to talk. They are handsome and generally affectionate. Their
friendly and playful nature, make them excellent pets.
They are easily tamed and trained and are known to be very active, which makes them more
suitable to an environment that allows them to fly and move around, such as an aviary or flight. Provided
they are given sufficient daily exercise, they can adjust to indoor cages and indoor living as well.
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Red-Lored Amazon
Introduction
Red-Lored Amazon
Close-up
Mating pair of Red-Lored Amazon’s
The Red-Lored Amazon or Red-Lored Parrot (Amazona autumnalis) is a species of amazon parrot,
native to tropical regions of the Americas, from eastern Mexico south to Ecuador where it occurs in humid
evergreen to semi-deciduous forests up to 1,100 m altitude. It is absent from the Pacific side of Central
America north of Costa Rica. Not originally known from El Salvador, a pair - perhaps escaped from
captivity - nested successfully in 1995 and 1996 in the outskirts of San Salvador and the species might
expand its range permanently into that country in the future. This species has also established feral
populations in several California cities.
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Resident Bird(s)
Kerrie – Sex (M) – Born ?, arrived at aviary 1996 (19 years +)
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Taxonomy
There are three subspecies:
•
•
•
Amazona autumnalis autumnalis (Linnaeus, 1758). Caribbean coasts from eastern Mexico south to
northern Nicaragua.
Amazona autumnalis salvini (Salvadori, 1891). Northern Nicaragua south to Colombia and
Venezuela.
Amazona autumnalis lilacina (Lesson, 1844), the Lilacine amazon. Western Ecuador.
Description
The Red-Lored Amazon is 32–35 cm (13 in) in length, with a weight of 310–480 g. The plumage is
primarily green, with a red forehead and, in some subspecies, yellow cheeks (sometimes with red spots).
The crown is blue. Adult males and females do not differ in plumage. Juveniles have less yellow on the
cheeks, less red on the forehead, and dark irises. Their average life span is up to 80 years.
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Red-Lored Amazon’s are native from Mexico to northern Colombia as shown above in green
Conservation Status
In some areas, notably parts of Mexico and Venezuela, the Red-Lored Amazon has become rare
through trapping for the cage-bird trade. On the other hand, it seems to be able to adapt to humanaltered habitat to a considerable degree.
Diet
Their food includes fruits, nuts and seeds. Like all parrots, Red-Lored Amazons need a varied diet
consisting of high quality pellets, a quality seed mix, and daily servings of fresh, bird-safe fruits and
vegetables. While they largely feast on seeds, fruits and nuts, avocados and eggplants are poisonous to
them and can kill them.
Reproduction
The Red-Lored Amazon nests in tree cavities. The eggs are white and there are usually three or
four in a clutch. The female incubates the eggs for about 26 days and the chicks leave the nest about 60
days after hatching.
Behaviour
Their behavior ranges from being quiet and curious to being aggressive, this can all be changed
by basic training when the bird is of a young age.
Aviculture
Red-Lored Amazons are fairly common pet parrots in the Americas. They can be devoted pets and
some make fairly good talkers. Like most amazon parrots they often have a tendency to vocalize loudly,
and sometimes to bite.
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Eclectus Parrot
Introduction
Eclectus
Male close-up
Female close-up
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Mating pair of Eclectus Parrots
Eclectus nest in hollow tree cavities
The Eclectus Parrot (Eclectus roratus) is a parrot native to the Solomon Islands, Sumba, New
Guinea and nearby islands, northeastern Australia and the Maluku Islands (Moluccas). It is unusual in the
parrot family for its extreme sexual dimorphism of the colours of the plumage; the male having a mostly
bright emerald green plumage and the female a mostly bright red and purple/blue plumage. Joseph
Forshaw, in his book Parrots of the World, noted that the first European ornithologists to see eclectus
parrots thought they were of two distinct species. Large populations of this parrot remain, and they are
sometimes considered pests for eating fruit off trees. Some populations restricted to relatively small
islands are comparably rare. Their bright feathers are also used by native tribes people in New Guinea as
decorations.
Resident Bird(s)
Caol – Sex (M) – Born 2000 (15 years)
Millie – Sex (F) – Born 1996 (19 years)
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Taxonomy
Ornithologists usually classify the Eclectus parrot as a member of tribe Psittaculini in the
Psittacidae family of order Psittaciformes. However, some recent thought indicates that there is a great
deal of commonality between the eclectus parrot and the Lorini tribe.
Sir D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson noted there were similarities in the skull between the Eclectus
parrot and members of the genus Geoffroyus, specifically in the auditory meatus and the prefrontal
reaching but not joining the squamosal bones. The skull of members the genus Tanygnathus is also
generally similar.
The Eclectus parrot is the most sexually dimorphic of all the parrot species. The contrast between
the brilliant emerald green plumage of the male and the deep red/purple plumage of the female is so
marked that the two birds were, until the early 20th century, considered to be different species.
Although the Eclectus parrot is the only extant species in the genus Eclectus, fossil remains of
another species, Oceanic Eclectus parrot (Eclectus infectus), have been found in archaeological sites in the
islands of Tonga and Vanuatu. The species presumably existed in Fiji as well. E. infectus had proportionally
smaller wings than the Eclectus parrot. The species became extinct after the arrival of humans 3000 years
ago, presumably due to human-caused factors (habitat loss, introduced species).
Subspecies:
Female E. r. vosmaeri at North Carolina Zoo. No other subspecies combines a purple abdomen
and clear yellow under-tail coverts.
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There are nine (possibly more) subspecies of Eclectus parrots, although the species as a whole
needs reviewing. Access to some regions where the species occurs is difficult due to geographical or
political reasons, and hence field observations have been limited. Furthermore, many skins were collected
in the early part of the 19th century and have deteriorated in some museums. However, most Eclectus
skins in US museums are in good condition. In captivity in the U.S., some of the most common subspecies
are the Solomon Island, the Vosmaer's, and the New Guinea Red-Sided.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Eclectus roratus roratus, known as the grand eclectus, is found on Buru, Seram, Ambon, Saparua
and Haruku in the southern Maluku Islands. The subspecies begins intergrading with race
vosmaeri on Seram.
Eclectus roratus vosmaeri, known as the Vosmaer's Eclectus or Vos Eclectus, was originally
described by Rothschild. Larger in size than the nominate subspecies with more yellow in the
plumage, it is found on islands in the North Maluku province. The male has more yellow-toned
plumage on the head and neck. The tail is bluer and has a small pale lemon yellow border. The
female is a brighter red on the head, back and wings. Her undertail coverts are yellow and there
is at least an inch of bright pure yellow tail tip.
Eclectus roratus cornelia, known as the Sumba Island Eclectus parrot, is restricted to Sumba island
in the Lesser Sunda Islands. Also larger than the nominate, the male is a paler shade of green
overall and has a bluer tail. The female has an all red plumage, except for the primaries which are
a dark royal blue. It was described by Bonaparte.
Eclectus roratus riedeli, known as the Tanimbar Islands Eclectus parrot, is found on the Tanimbar
Islands. It is smaller than the nominate race. The male has a more bluish tinge to its green cheeks
and neck, and its tail is edged with a broad band of yellow. The female has all red plumage,
except for royal blue primaries and a broad band of yellow to edge the tail.
Eclectus roratus polychloros, known as the New Guinea Red-Sided Eclectus parrot, was named by
Scopoli. Larger than the nominate race. The green plumage of the male only has a slight yellow
tinge and the tail is tipped with a half inch yellow band. The central tail feathers are green and
lateral ones blue and green. It is widely distributed from Kai Islands and western islands of the
West Papua province in the west, across the island of New Guinea to the Trobriands,
D'Entrecasteaux Islands, and Louisiade Archipelago to the east. It has also been introduced to the
Goram Islands, Indonesia.
Eclectus roratus macgillivrayi, known as the Australian eclectus parrot, was named by Gregory
Mathews in 1912. It is found on the tip of Cape York Peninsula. It resembles polychloros but is
larger overall.
Eclectus roratus solomonensis, known as the Solomon Island eclectus parrot, resembles
polychloros but is smaller overall with smaller bills and paler orange in the upper mandible of the
male. The green of the male has a more yellow tint, quite similar to the green of the vosmaeri.
Dubious subspecies:
•
•
Aru Island Eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus aruensis). While some believe this bird is doubtfully
valid from polychloros others believe it is a distinct subspecies, as the rich yellow on the tail tip of
the male often is infused with pink, orange or bright red. At this point, no male Eclectus in other
subspecies has been described with this type of tail feather coloring. The Aru Island Eclectus
specimens are also larger than polychloros, often weighing 100 grams or more than polychloros.
Biak Island Eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus biaki). While some believe the Biak Eclectus is
doubtfully valid from polychloros others believe it is a distinct subspecies due to the size
difference, vocalization and behavior differences.
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•
Westerman's Eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus westermani). Many of the museum specimens have
clipped wings and clipped tails and there is no uniformity in the coloration of the female
specimens, indicating the likelihood of these specimens being cross bred aviary birds. However,
Joseph Forshaw doubted it was an aberration, and its status remains unclear. If it ever existed, it
is extinct today.
Description
The Eclectus parrot is unusual in the parrot family for its marked sexual dimorphism in the colours
of the plumage. A stocky short-tailed parrot, it measures around 35 cm (14 in) in length. The male is
mostly bright green with a yellow-tinge on the head. It has blue primaries, and red flanks and underwing
coverts. Its tail is edged with a narrow band of creamy yellow, and is dark grey edged with creamy yellow
underneath, and the tail feathers are green centrally and more blue as they get towards the edges. The
grand Eclectus female is mostly bright red with a darker hue on the back and wings. The mantle and
underwing coverts darken to a more purple colour, and the wing is edged with a mauve-blue. The tail is
edged with yellowish-orange above, and is more orange tipped with yellow underneath. The upper
mandible of the adult male is orange at the base fading to a yellow towards the tip, and the lower
mandible is black. The beak of the adult female is all black. Adults have yellow to orange irises and
juveniles have dark brown to black irises. The upper mandible of both male and female juveniles are
brown at the base fading to yellow towards the biting edges and the tip.
The above description is for the nominate race. The abdomen and nape of the females are blue
in most subspecies, purple abdomen and nape in the subspecies (roratus) and lavender abdomen and
nape in the (vosmaeri) subspecies from the north and central Maluku Islands, and red abdomen and nape
in the subspecies from Sumba and Tanimbar Islands (cornelia and riedeli). Females of two subspecies have
a wide band of yellow on the tail tip, riedeli and vosmaeri which also have yellow undertail coverts. The
female vosmaeri displays the brightest red of all the subspecies, both on the head and body.
The average lifespan of the eclectus parrots in captivity is unknown, since these birds were not
kept in captivity in great numbers until the 1980s. Some sources consider the lifespan to be 30 years. The
maximum reliably recorded longevity for this species is 28.5 years, however a lifespan of 50 years has also
been reported.
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Eclectus are natice to Papua New Guinea and surrounding islands as shown above in red
Diet
The diet of the Eclectus in the wild consists of mainly fruits, wild figs, unripe nuts, flower and leaf
buds, and some seeds. Two favorite fruits are the pomegranate and the papaya (pawpaw) with seeds. In
captivity, they will eat most fruits including mangos, figs, guavas, bananas, any melons, stone fruits
(peaches etc.), grapes, citrus fruits, pears and apples. The Eclectus has an unusually long digestive tract
and this is why it requires such a high fiber diet. In captivity the Eclectus parrot does benefit from a
variety of fresh fruits and vegetables, leafy greens such as endive and dandelion, as well as a variety of
seeds, including spray millet, and a few nuts such as shelled almonds and shelled walnuts.
Breeding
In its natural habitat, the Eclectus nests within hollows in large, emergent rainforest trees.
Suitable hollows are at a premium and the hen will vigorously defend her chosen nesting site from other
females (perhaps even fighting to the death), remaining resident at 'her tree' for up to 11 months of the
year, rarely straying from the entrance to her hollow and relying on multiple males to feed her via
regurgitation. Males may travel up to 20 km to forage and up to five males will regularly provide food for
each female, each competing with the others for her affections and the right to father her young. Unlike
other parrot species, Eclectus parrots are polygynandrous, females may mate with multiple male suitors
and males may travel from nesting site to nesting site to mate with multiple females. This unique
breeding strategy may explain the pronounced sexual dimorphism of the Eclectus, as it is the female
which must remain conspicuous at the entry to the nest hole, (in order to advertise her presence at her
hollow to males and rival females), but well hidden when in the depths of the nest, because the red color
hides her well in the darkness. The male is primarily a brilliant green color, which offers camouflage
amongst the trees whilst foraging. However, the plumage of both sexes appears spectacular when viewed
in the ultraviolet spectrum, an ability which predators such as hawks and owls lack.
Two white 40.0x31.0 mm (1.5x1.2 in) eggs are laid, which are incubated for 28–30 days. Young
fledge at about 11 weeks of age. Although eclectus parrots may reach sexual maturity earlier or later,
they usually reach it between 2–3 years.
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Eclectus hens have a strong maternal instinct, which is displayed in captivity where they will
constantly seek possible nesting spaces, climbing into cupboards, drawers and spaces beneath furniture
and becoming very possessive and defensive of these locations. An unpaired hen may go on to lay
infertile eggs with little encouragement in the spring. It is often possible to place abandoned eggs from
other parrot species beneath a broody Eclectus hen, which she will readily accept and then happily
incubate to the point of hatching and even rearing the hatched chick to the point it is removed from the
nest.
Adult females with poor nest hollows often commit infanticide on the male, if they produce both
a male and a female chick. Inadequate nest hollows have a habit of flooding in heavy rain, drowning the
chicks or eggs inside. This reported infanticide in wild pairs may be the result of other causes, since this
behavior is not observed in captive pairs where the hen selectively kills male chicks.
Behaviour
Eclectus parrots are generally calm birds in captivity, displaying a pensive nature when faced with
novel items or situations, which may give rise to the mistaken impression that the species is 'dull-witted'.
The Eclectus may also exhibit a more neophobic nature than other species of companion bird. Eclectus
parrots are prone to feather destruction (picking, pulling, cutting and or barbing) in captivity. Causes can
be difficult to pin down, but diet is generally the primary cause, along with failure to provide a soft wood
perch to chew, with health problems and hormonal changes thought to be additional causes, as well as
clipping primary wing feathers so that the cut ends irritate the bird's sides. Once this behavior begins it is
nearly impossible to stop unless the cause has been addressed. Often only a mechanical barrier (e-collar)
is successful in keeping the afflicted parrot from completely stripping all but its head of feathers. Other
captive species that are prone to this behavior are the Cockatoo, African Grey, and to some extent the
Macaw.
Cultural References & History
Many Eclectus parrots in captivity in Australia are apparently hybrids between subspecies
polychloros and solomonensis, as Sydney's Taronga Park Zoo had a flock of these in a large aviary many
years ago. Specimens of the Australian subspecies macgillivrayi have only recently entered the aviculture
market in Australia and are more expensive.
Aviculture
Eclectus parrots are one of the more popular birds kept in captivity, as either parent or hand
reared. Unlike many other species of parrot they are relatively easy to breed yet difficult to hand feed.
Eclectus in captivity require vegetables high in beta-carotene, such as lightly cooked sweet potato, fresh
broccoli clumps, and fresh corn on the cob. Fresh greens such as endive or commercial dandelion are a
very important in providing calcium and other nutrients. As with all pet birds, they should not be fed
avocado, chocolate, or high fat junk foods such as French fries or commercially processed human foods
such as pizza. Parrots are unable to digest the lactose in milk. Spray millet is one of the seed items they
enjoy, though the Eclectus diet should typically contain much less seed than other birds. A variety of
soaked and cooked beans and legumes, along with brown rice, provided in limited amounts help provide
protein. Nuts and seeds provide vitamin E, but should be limited in order to avoid too much fat in the
diet, as Eclectus parrots can become obese.
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The captive Eclectus can be susceptible to muscle spasms known as toe-tapping and wing
flipping. While all the causes are not clear, a major cause is a chemical imbalance in vitamins and minerals
which inhibits the uptake of calcium, which often occurs subsequent to feeding commercially produced
food treats or a high proportion of pellets in the diet. These movements have not been observed in the
wild. Potential causes include consumption of pellets or other foods that are overly fortified with manmade vitamins or artificially coloured, or even simple dehydration. Dr. Debra McDonald, avian nutrition
researcher, has discussed the effect of man-made vitamin A on the uptake of calcium. Fortified or
artificially colored food items may also cause allergic reactions in some individuals, including severe
itchiness leading to feather and skin damage.
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Senegal Parrot
Introduction
Senegal Parrot
Close-up
Roosting on a palm frond
The Senegal Parrot (Poicephalus senegalus) is a Poicephalus parrot which is a resident breeder
across a wide range of west Africa. It makes migrations within west Africa, according to the availability of
the fruit, seeds and blossoms which make up its diet. It is considered a farm pest in Africa, often feeding
on maize or millet. It is popular in aviculture.
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Resident Bird(s)
Sydney – Sex (M) – Born 2002 (13 years)
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Taxonomy
There are three subspecies. They do not differ in behaviour, but only in the colour of the "vest". In
the pet trade, the nominate subspecies is the most common though all three are raised and sold as pets.
•
•
•
P. s. senegalus (the nominate subspecies): this subspecies has a yellow vest; its native range
includes Senegal, southern Mauritania, southern Mali to Guinea and Lobos Island.
P. s. mesotypus: this subspecies has an orange vest; its range is from eastern and northeastern
Nigeria and Cameroon into southwest Chad.
P. s. versteri: this subspecies has a deep-orange/red vest; its range is from the Ivory Coast and
Ghana east to western Nigeria.
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Description
Senegal parrots are about 23 cm (9 in.) long, weigh about 120 to 170 g. (4.2-6.0 oz.). They have a
relatively large head and beak for their overall size, and feathers form a short broad tail. Adults have a
charcoal grey head, grey beak, bright yellow irises, green back and throat, and yellow underparts and
rump. The yellow and green areas on a Senegal parrot's front form a V-shape resembling a yellow vest
worn over green. Young Juveniles have dark grey, almost black, irises, which change to light grey. Senegal
parrots live an average of approximately 25–30 years in the wild, and have been known to live for 50 years
in captivity.
Senegal parrots are not sexually dimorphic, but there are some hypotheses which sometimes might
help to determine the gender of adult birds:
•
•
•
•
The V-shape of the vest is usually longer in females; in females the green area extends down over
the chest to between the legs, whereas in males the tip of the green area ends midway down the
chest.
The female's beak and head are generally slightly smaller and narrower than the male's.
The under-tail covert feathers (short feathers under the base of the main tail feathers) are
generally mostly yellow in the male and generally mostly green in the female.
Males are generally, but not always, larger and heavier than female birds.
Senegal Parrots are native to west-central Africa as shown above in grey
Senegal parrots are birds of open woodland and savanna. They flock most commonly in countries
in West Africa. It is a gregarious species, continuously chattering with a range of whistling and squawking
calls.
Conservation Status
Because of its vast range in Africa, the wild Senegal parrot population is difficult to estimate.
Nevertheless, in 1981 concerns about extensive trapping of wild parrots for the pet trade lead to it being
listed on appendix 2 of The Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), along
with all parrot species. This has made the trade, import and export of all wild caught parrots illegal.
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Reproduction
Senegal parrots nest in holes in trees, often oil palms, usually laying three to four white eggs. The
eggs are about 3 cm long x 2.5 cm wide. The eggs are incubated by the female, starting after the second
egg has been laid, for about 27 to 28 days. Newly hatched chicks have a sparse white down and they do
not open their eyes until about two to three weeks after hatching. They are dependent on the female for
food and warmth who remains in the nest most of the time until about four weeks after hatching when
the chicks have enough feathers for heat insulation. During this time the male brings food for the female
and chicks, and guards the nest site. From about two to four weeks after hatching the female also begins
to collect food for the chicks. The chicks fly out of the nest at about 9 weeks and they become
independent from their parents at about 12 weeks after hatching.
Senegal parrots are relatively easy to breed in captivity and there is a small industry in breeding
and hand rearing Senegal parrots and other parrots for the pet trade. In aviculture Senegal parrots can
start to breed at the age of 3 to 4 years in captivity, but some do not breed until age 5 years. Parent
reared birds are known to breed as early as 2 years of age.
Senegal parrot nest boxes can be any of a variety of sizes and shapes; but for example, a nest box
about 18 iches high and 8 inches to 10 inches square would be suitable. An exit and entrance port about
2.5 inches in diameter would be suitable, and the birds may enlarge the port by chewing the wood. Nest
boxes generally have a secure side door for inspecting the nest.
Aviculture
Hand reared Senegal parrots are one of the most popular parrots to be kept as pets, and the
most popular Poicephalus parrot. Their calls are generally high pitched whistles and squawks, but they are
not as noisy as many other parrot species. Wild caught Senegal parrots do not usually become tame and
do not make good pets.
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Alexandrine Parakeet
Introduction
A pair of Alexandrine Parakeets (male top, female bottom)
Alexandrine Parakeet (M)
Alexandrine Parakeet (F)
Close-up
Close-up
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The Alexandrine Parakeet or Alexandrian Parrot (Psittacula eupatria) is a member of the
psittaciformes order and of the Psittaculidae family. The species is named after Alexander the Great, who
is credited with the exporting of numerous specimens of this bird from Punjab into various European and
Mediterranean countries and regions, where they were considered prized possessions for the nobles and
royalty.
A wild flock of Alexandrine’s have even adapted to major urban centers
The species name eupatria has its origins from Greek. Where the prefix eu translates into good or
noble and the suffix patria is a Greek word translating as either fatherland or ancestry. Consequently, the
species' scientific name means something in the line "of noble ancestry", "of noble fatherland" or "of
noble nation".
Male Alexandrine gathering cashew fruit
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Resident Bird(s)
Maxine – Sex (F) – Born 1993 (22 years)
Taxonomy
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The following sub-species, many of them allopatric are recognised based on geographical
distribution:
•
•
•
•
•
Psittacula eupatria eupatria, Nominate Alexandrine Parakeet - East India to Hyderabad, Telangana
in the South, Sri Lanka.
Psittacula eupatria avensis, Indo-Burmese Alexandrine Parakeet - Northeast India to Amherst in
Myanmar
Psittacula eupatria magnirostris, Andaman Islands' Alexandrine Parakeet - Andaman Islands
Psittacula eupatria nipalensis, Nepalese Alexandrine Parakeet - Eastern Afghanistan, Pakistan,
North and central India, Nepal, Bhutan to Assam in Northeast India.
Psittacula eupatria siamensis, Laos' or Siamese Alexandrine parakeet - Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos,
north and east Thailand
The P. e. nipalensis ssp. (Nepalese Alexandrine Parakeet) is the largest of the species measuring
62 cm (24.5 in) in total length with a wing length averaging 20–24 cm (8–9.5 in). It is thus recognized as
the world's largest genuine parakeet (short to mid-sized long-tailed parrot) species. It looks much like the
Nominate sub-species. However, the feathers on the chest and abdomen in both genders display whitishgrey sheens, the cheeks and napes are washed with blue and the adult males display large pink nape
bands. These parrots are "aggressive" and can bite if disturbed when doing some curious work. They
have red and pink patches on the wings.
The P. e. magnirostris ssp. (Andaman Island's Alexandrine Parakeet) is slightly larger than the
nominate sub-species, displaying a wing length anywhere between 20–22.5 cm (8–9 in). It looks much like
the nominate race, however, the feathers on the chest and abdomen in both genders display whitish-grey
sheens. The maroon 'shoulder' patch is of a much redder (or less brownish) colour than that of thee
nominate. The beak is larger and more massive. The adult males display large pink nape bands, the blue
sheens above the nape-bands are restricted and sometimes absent in some specimens.
The P. e. avensis ssp. (Indo-Burmese Alexandrine parakeet) is of similar size as the nominate species,
measuring 58 cm (23 in), displaying a wing length averaging anywhere between 19.4–22 cm (7.5–8.5 in)
and often mistaken for the Nominate ssp. However, the top of the head and the nape are of a yellowishgreen, the blue sheens are restricted to the cheeks and thus absent in the nape. The adult males display
thinner and pinker nape-bands.
The P. e. siamensis ssp. (Laos or Siamese Alexandrine parakeet) is the smallest of the species, measuring
56 cm (22 in), displaying a wing length averaging anywhere between 17.9–20.5 cm (7–8 in) and looks
much like the Nominate ssp. Typically, the top of the head and the nape display pale-blue sheens which
can extend to the crown in some specimens. The cheeks are yellowish-green, the 'shoulder' patch is of a
nearly brown-less red colour and the legs display a pronounced yellowish shade.
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Description
The Alexandrine parakeet is one of the largest species of parakeet (long tail) species, thus often
being the largest parrot in their native range. This species measures 58 cm (23 in) in total length with a
wing length averaging 18.9–21.5 cm (7.5–8.5 in) and a tail length of 21.5–35.5 cm (8.5–14.0 in). Adult birds
commonly weigh between 200 and 300 g (7.1 and 10.6 oz). It is mainly green with a blue-grey sheen on
its cheeks and nape, particularly in males. The abdomen is yellowish-green, the upperside of the middle
tail feathers is blueish-green, the upperside of the external tail feathers is green while the underside of the
tail feathers are all yellow. All Alexandrine parakeets (no matter the age, gender, or sub-species) boldly
display a maroon (reddish-brown) patch at the top of their wing coverts (commonly called 'shoulder
patch’). The shoulder patch is seen in parakeets at their first feathering before fledging. The lower and
upper mandibles are red with yellow tips. The adult's irises are yellowish-white and the periopthalmic
rings are light grey. The legs are grey except in the P. e. siamensis (Laos' or Siamese sub-species) where
they are yellowish-grey.
The species is dimorphic in adulthood (3 years and older). The immature birds are monomorphic
and are similar but duller in appearance to that of the adult females. Adult males always show pitch-black
neck rings and large pink bands on their napes (commonly called nape bands). Often males only display a
narrow band of bluish-grey above their bold pink nape-band. Adult females frequently show neck ring
shadows that are anywhere between light and dark shades of grey. Females never display true black
feathers in their neck-rings. Immature birds of either gender are very similar to adult females but, as with
all genuine parakeet species, the young Alexandrine parakeets always display shorter middle-tail feathers
and thus shorter tails than adults. The adult feathering usually is acquired between 18–30 months of age,
but may sometimes show up as young as 12 and/or as old as a full 36 months of age. Consequently, it
may be difficult to identify the sex of Alexandrine parakeets by sight with absolute certainty until they are
a full 36 months of age.
The young males can be identified as soon as they display one (or more) pitch-black feathers of
their neck rings and/or one (or more) pink feathers of their nape bands. Often, the young males develop
their neck rings and nape bands in two or sometimes three successive moulting seasons. Adult parakeets
with neither pitch-black feathers in their neck rings nor pink feathers in their nape bands are usually
females.
The Alexandrine Parakeet has an average lifespan of 40 years.
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Alexandrine Parakeets are native to south east Asia as shown above in orange
Alexandrine Parakeets range from Afghanistan in the west, south to Sri Lanka, across the north
through Nepal, and then south eastward from Burma to Vietnam. The species has naturalized itself in
numerous European countries. Particularly in Germany, in the south of England, in Belgium, in Greece, in
western Turkey and in the Netherlands where it generally lives amongst or alongside flocks of naturalized
Psittacula krameri (Indian Ring-Necked or Rose-Ringed Parakeets). They prefer areas with lots of older
trees for protection and hollows for breeding.
Conservation Status
They are critically endangered in Pakistan, especially in Punjab province. This is mostly due to loss
of habitat (cutting of old trees), and excessive poaching of wild chicks. Although their sale is officially
banned in Pakistan, they can be found openly being sold in markets of Lahore. Trapping pressure to cater
to the demands of the pet trade, have caused a drastic decline in this species' wild population. It is illegal
to trade in Alexandrine parakeets in India and yet these birds are sold in broad daylight in urban bird
markets, suggesting that the Indian government is allocating insufficient resources towards the protection
of this species.
Diet
Alexandrine Parakeets are very food greedy when feeding. They have varied diets of seed, fruit, and
vegetables. They are vigorously chewers, so it is important to provide a constant and regular supply of
any non-toxic materials such as non-toxic tree branches (i.e. apple, aspen, birch, pear, pine, and willow)
that has never been treated with any type of chemical products (i.e. disinfectant, fungicide, insecticide,
chlorine bleach, or pesticide).
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Behaviour
This parakeet can be moderately loud depending on whether the individual was tamed and
reared and socialized apart from its siblings or other loud birds. The Alexandrine parakeet's call is a
powerful screech but deeper than that of its very close-relative the Psittacula krameri (Indian Ring-Neck
Parakeet or Rose-Ringed Parakeet). It is an active species, very loving of water (bathing, misting, raining
and showering). The species is hardy and vigorous when acclimatized. The pairs must be isolated one pair
per cage/flight during the reproduction season, since females in all Psittacula spp. (Afro-Asian RingNecked Parakeet species) become very intolerant and territorial.
The Alexandrine Parakeet as with all other Psittacula spp. (Afro-Asian Ring-Necked Parakeet
species) are among the top five greatest mimicking champion parrot species, alongside African grey
parrots (all ssp.), Amazon parrots (all spp.) Eclectus parrots (all ssp.) and male budgerigar parakeets
(females are comparatively poor mimics). Individuals reared and socialized as either fledglings or
weanlings become excellent companion pet birds.
Alexandrine Parakeets are naturally docile, food greedy, peaceful, playful, socially tolerant
(although females tend to be more exclusive) and display an intelligence that is as astonishing as that of
large parrot species such as African greys, Amazons and Macaws. They combine the intelligence and the
mimicry talent of the latter species with a well-balanced personality. They are friendly/social without
being affectively dependent, and they are playful without being dizzily hyper-active. In India, the buying,
selling or killing of Alexandrine Parakeets is banned, with five years imprisonment being the consequence.
Reproduction
Breeding season is from November to April in their natural distribution range. Average clutch size
is 2–4 eggs measuring 34.0 x 26.9 mm (1 x 1.3 in). The average incubation period is 28 days usually
starting with the laying of the second egg. The chicks fledge around seven weeks of age. They are cared
for, educated and reared for about the 21 days (3 weeks) after hatching and are typically weaned between
3 to 4 months (12 to 16 weeks) of age.
It is easy to bring these birds to reproduce by isolating a pair alone in a large aviary. A nest-box
that is either high or long shaped, hanged either diagonally or not and measuring about 45 X 40 X 60 cm
(16 X 18 X 24 inches), with an entrance/exit hole of 11 to 12 cm (4 to 5 inches) in diameter.
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Aviculture
The Alexandrine Parakeet is one of the oldest captive parrot species on the Eurasian continent. It
is commonly named after its famous European "discoverer", the legendary Emperor Alexander The Great,
who had numerous specimens exported back to the various Mediterranean countries by his legionaries.
From then on, the Alexandrine Parakeets lived and were raised among the various wealthy, nobles &
monarchs throughout the Empire's Anatolia (Asia Minor), European, and Mediterranean countries (i.e.
Egypt, Greece, Persia, Italy).
Ideal outdoor aviary for breeders: minimum of 2 m High X 1 m Deep X 4,5 m Long (about 6 feet
High X 3 feet Deep X 15 feet Long) Metal construction with shelter, minimum of 1.6 mm gauge wire-mesh
and minimum temperature of 5°C (41°F).
Ideal indoor aviary for breeders: minimum of 100 cm High X 90 cm Deep X 180 cm Long (about
3½ feet High X 3 feet Deep X 6 feet Long) Metal construction without shelter, minimum of 1,6 mm gauge
wire-mesh and minimum temperature of 5°C (41°F).
Ideal cage for pets: The largest ever possible cages that are readily available for any mid to large
sized parrot species. Most particularly those recommended for mid to large sized Macaws. With absolute
minimum of 90 cm High X 60 cm Deep X 90 cm Long (3 feet High X 2 feet Deep X 3 feet Long).
These parakeets can spend the winter in the outdoors as long as they have a shelter where they
are protected against frostbite on their feet or toes.
Thailand, Mongolia and Iran have issued stamps depicting the Alexandrine Parakeet.
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Rose-Ringed Parakeet or Ring-Necked Parakeet
Introduction
Rose-Ringed Parakeet (M)
Rose-Ringed Parakeet (F)
Close-up
Close-up
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Pair roost in tree canopy (female left, male right)
Rose-Ringed Parakeet Lutino (M)
Close-up
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Rose-Ringed Parakeet Lutino (F)
Close-up
The Rose-Ringed Parakeet (Psittacula krameri), also known as the Ring-Necked Parakeet, is a
gregarious tropical Afro-Asian parakeet species that has an extremely large range.
Resident Bird(s)
Charlie – Sex (M) – Born 1997 (18 years)
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Above left: Puff Daddy – Sex (M) – Born 2001 (14 years)
Above right: Puff Mommy (Lutino) – Sex (F) – Born ?, arrived at aviary 2001 (14 years +)
Above left: Pebe – Sex (M) – Born 2000, Passed 2014 (14 years)
Above right: Veronica – Sex (F) – Born 1999 (16 years)
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Taxonomy
The scientific name commemorates the Austrian naturalist Wilhelm Heinrich Kramer.
Phylogeny & Distribution
Four subspecies are recognized, though they differ little:
•
African subspecies:
African Rose-Ringed Parakeet (P. k. krameri): western Africa in Guinea, Senegal and southern
Mauritania, east to western Uganda and southern Sudan, Egypt. Resident among the Nile valley
and certainly Giza sometimes seen on the north coast and Sinai. The African parakeet also started
to breed in Israel in the 1980s and is considered an invasive species.
Abyssinian rose-ringed parakeet (P. k. parvirostris): northwest Somalia, west across northern
Ethiopia to Sennar district, Sudan.
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•
Asian subspecies:
Indian Rose-Ringed Parakeet (P. k. manillensis) originates from the southern Indian Subcontinent
and has feral and naturalized populations worldwide. In Australia, Great Britain (mainly around
London), the United States, and other western countries, it is often referred to as the Indian
ringneck parrot.
Boreal rose-ringed parakeet (P. k. borealis) is distributed in Bangladesh, Pakistan, northern India
and Nepal to central Burma; introduced populations are found worldwide.
A phylogenetic analysis using DNA showed that the Mauritius Parakeet (Psittacula echo) is closely
related to this species, and probably needs to be placed between the African and Asian subspecies.
Consequently, this species is paraphyletic.
Description
The Rose-Ringed Parakeet is sexually dimorphic. The adult male sports a red or black neck-ring
and the hen and immature birds of both sexes either show no neck rings, or display shadow-like pale to
dark grey neck rings. Indian Rose-Ringed Parakeets measure on average 40 cm (16 in) in length including
the tail feathers, a large portion of their total length. Their average single wing length is about 15–17.5 cm
(5.9–6.9 in). In the wild, this is a noisy species with an unmistakable squawking call and a distinctive green
colour. It is herbivorous and non-migrating. 20 to 30 years is the average lifespan, but there are reports
of up to 50 years.
Rose-Ringed Parakeet is common in cultivated areas, urban parks and gardens, open countryside
with trees, palm-trees thickets, dry and open forest. It also may be found in semi-desert areas and second
grow open jungles, mainly in lowlands. It frequents semi-desert savannahs with short grass, open bushy
areas, wooded valleys and evergreen forests. This species is now common in the large urban parks.
Rose-Ringed Parakeet ranges from Central Africa to Uganda, southern Asia, India and Sri Lanka.
It has been introduced in Middle and Far East, North America, England, the Netherlands, Belgium and
Germany. It is very cosmopolitan.
Conservation Status
One of the few parrot species that have successfully adapted to living in disturbed habitats, it has
withstood the onslaught of urbanisation and deforestation. As a popular pet species, escaped birds have
colonised a number of cities around the world. Since the population appears to be increasing, the species
was evaluated as being of least concern by the IUCN in 2012, but its popularity as a pet and unpopularity
with farmers have both reduced its numbers in some parts of its native range.
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Diet
In the wild, rose-ringed parakeets usually feed on buds, fruits, vegetables, nuts, berries and seeds.
Wild flocks also fly several miles to forage in farmlands and orchards causing extensive damage. In India,
they feed on cereal grains, and during winter also on pigeon peas. In Egypt, during the spring they feed
on mulberry and in summer they feed on dates and nest inside palm trees and eat from sunflower and
corn fields.
Behaviour
Both males and females have the ability to mimic human speech. First the bird listens to its
surroundings, and then it copies the voice of the human speaker. Some people hand-raise Rose-Ringed
Parakeet chicks for this purpose. Such parrots then become quite tame and receptive to learning.
Reproduction
In north-west India, Indian Rose-Ringed Parakeets form pairs from September to December. They
do not have life mates and often breed with another partner during the following breeding season.
During this cold season, they select and defend nesting sites, and thus avoid competition for sites with
other birds. Feeding on winter pea crops provides the female with nutrients necessary for egg production.
From April to June, they care for their young. Fledglings are ready to leave the nest before monsoon. They
lay 4 to 6 broad oval eggs, 30.5 x 24.0mm (1.2 x 0.9 in) in tree hollows.
Aviculture
Rose-Ringed Parakeets are popular as pets and they have a long history in aviculture. The ancient
Greeks kept the Indian subspecies P. krameri manillensis, and the ancient Romans kept the African
subspecies P. krameri krameri. Colour mutations of the Indian Rose-Ringed Parakeet subspecies have
become widely available in recent years.
A popular pet, the Rose-Ringed Parakeet has been released in a wide range of cities around the
world, giving it an environment with few predators where their preferred diet of seed, nut, fruits, and
berries is available from suburban gardens and bird feeders. Its adaptations to cold winters in the
Himalayan foothills allow it to easily withstand European winter conditions. It has established feral
populations in India, a number of European cities, South Africa and Japan. There are also apparently
stable populations in the US (Florida, California and Hawaii) and a small self-sustaining population in
Ankara, Turkey (concentrated in parks), Tunis, Tunisia, and Tripoli, Libya, Tehran, Iran (concentrated in the
north side of the city). It is also found throughout Lebanon, Israel, the UAE, Bahrain, Qatar, and Oman.
There are a small number of escaped birds in Australia.
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The European populations became established during the mid-to-late 20th century. The main
British populations are based around London, primarily in the west and south-western suburbs. They can
be regularly seen in places such as Crystal Palace Park, Battersea Park, Richmond Park, Greenwich Park
and Hampstead Heath, as well as Surrey and Berkshire. A large population in the south-west of London,
consisting of many thousands of birds, is known as the Kingston parakeets. The winter of 2006 saw three
separate roosts of circa 6000 birds around London. A smaller population occurs around Margate,
Broadstairs and Ramsgate, Kent. Elsewhere in Britain, smaller feral populations have become established
from time to time (e.g., at Sefton Park and Greenbank Park in Liverpool, Studland, Dorset, Kensington
Gardens, and south Manchester). It has been suggested that feral parrots could endanger populations of
native British birds, and that the Rose-Ringed Parakeet could even be culled as a result. A major
agricultural pest in locations such as India, as of 2011 the Rose-Ringed Parakeet population was growing
rapidly but is generally limited to urban areas in southern England.
In the Netherlands, the feral population in the four largest urban areas (Amsterdam, Rotterdam,
Utrecht and especially in The Hague) was estimated at 10,000 birds in 2010, almost double the number of
birds estimated in 2004. There also exists a feral population in Belgium, with as many as 5,000 pairs
estimated in Brussels. These originate from an original population that was set free in 1974 by the owner
of the Meli Zoo and Attraction Park near the Atomium who wanted to make Brussels more colourful. In
Germany, these birds are found along the Rhine in all major urban areas such as Cologne, Bonn,
Ludwigshafen and Heidelberg, Wiesbaden and in the north-east of Hamburg. Other populations are
found around Paris, Rome, notably in the gardens of the Palatine Hill and at Villa Borghese, in the Orto
Botanico di Palermo in Palermo, in Genoa, in Barcelona and in Lisbon.
The specimens in these naturalized populations often represent intra-specific hybrids, originally
between varying numbers according to locality, of the subspecies manillensis, borealis, and/or (to a lesser
extent) krameri along with some inter-specific hybrids with naturalized Psittacula eupatria (Alexandrine
parakeet).
However, in some parts of South Asia where the Rose-Ringed Parakeets originated, populations
of these birds are decreasing due to trapping for the pet trade. Despite some people's attempts to revive
their population by freeing these birds from local markets, the rose-ringed parakeet's population has
dropped drastically in many areas of the Indian subcontinent.
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Green-Napped & Swainson’s Blue Mountain Rainbow Lorikeet
Introduction
Rainbow Lorikeet
Close-up
Feral Rainbow Lorikeet searching for nectar
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Green-Napped Lorikeet (T. h. haematodus)
Swainson’s Blue Mountain Lory (Trichoglossus haematodus moluccanus)
Rainbow Lorikeets (Trichoglossus moluccanus) are a nectar feeding species of parrot found in
Australia. There are a variety of sub-species within the family.
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Resident Bird(s)
Left: Blueberry our Swainson’s Blue Mountain Lory (Trichoglossus haematodus moluccanus). Born
2005, Passed 2009 (4 years)
Right: Gibberish our Green-Naped Lorikeet (Trichoglossus haematodus haematodus). Born 2005,
Passed 2008 (3 years)
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Taxonomy
Rainbow Lorikeets are true parrots, within the Psittacoidea superfamily in the order Psittaciformes.
The Rainbow Lorikeet has often included the Red-Collared Lorikeet (T. rubritorquis) as a
subspecies, but today most major authorities consider it separate. Additionally, a review in 1997 led to the
recommendation of splitting off some of the most distinctive taxa from the Lesser Sundas as separate
species, these being the Scarlet-Breasted Lorikeet (T. forsteni), the Marigold Lorikeet (T. capistratus) and
the Flores Lorikeet (T. weberi). This is increasingly followed by major authorities.
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Description
The most well-known subspecies, T. h. moluccanus has a blue belly and lacks the barring on the
breast found on the nominate subspecies. The Rainbow Lorikeet is a medium-sized parrot, with the
length ranging from 25 to 30 cm (9.8–11.8 in), including the tail. The weight varies from 75 to 157 g (2.6–
5.5 oz). The plumage of the nominate race, as with all subspecies, is very bright. The head is deep blue
with a greenish-yellow nuchal collar, and the rest of the upper parts (wings, back and tail) are deep green.
The chest is red with blue-black barring. The belly is deep green, and the thighs and rump are yellow with
deep green barring. In flight a yellow wing-bar contrasts clearly with the red underwing coverts.
There is little to visually distinguish between the sexes; however, to a keen observer of their
colouring and behaviour, their dimorphism is readily apparent. Juveniles have a black beak, which
gradually brightens to orange in the adults. The markings of the best known subspecies T. h. moluccanus
resemble those of the nominate race, but with a blue belly and a more orange breast with little or no
blue-black barring. Other subspecies largely resemble either the nominate race or T. h. moluccanus, or
are intermediate between them. Two exceptions are T. h. flavicans and T. h. rosenbergii. In the rather
variable T. h. flavicans the green of some individuals is dull, almost olivaceous, but in others the green hue
approaches that typical of the Rainbow Lorikeet. T. h. rosenbergii is highly distinctive and several features
separates it from all other subspecies: Its wing-bars are deep orange (not contrasting clearly with the red
underwing coverts in flight), the entire nape is yellow bordered by a narrow red band and the dark blue
barring to the red chest is very broad.
Rainbow Lorikeets are native to east and southeast Australia as shown in green above
It is common along the eastern seaboard, from northern Queensland to South Australia and
Tasmania. Its habitat is rainforest, coastal bush and woodland areas. Several taxa traditionally listed as
subspecies of the rainbow lorikeet are now treated as separate species. Rainbow lorikeets have been
introduced to Perth, Western Australia; Auckland, New Zealand; and Hong Kong.
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Conservation Status
Overall, the Rainbow Lorikeets remain widespread and often common. It is therefore considered
to be of Least Concern by BirdLife International. The status for some localised subspecies is more
precarious, with especially T. h. rosenbergii (which possibly is worthy of treatment as a separate species)
being threatened by habitat loss and capture for the parrot trade.
The Rainbow Lorikeet was accidentally released into the southwest of the state of Western
Australia near the University of Western Australia in the 1960’s and they have since been classified as a
pest.
A feral population of Rainbow Lorikeets had been established after a North Shore (Auckland)
resident illegally released significant numbers of captive-reared birds in the area in the 1990’s, which
started breeding in the wild. By 1999, a sustaining feral population of 150–200 birds had been established
in the region, proving that they can survive and adapt to the New Zealand environment. The Department
of Conservation began eradicating the feral population in 2000, concerned about competition with native
honeyeaters and the possible threat to pristine island habitats such as Little Barrier Island. MPI (the
Ministry of Primary Industries) Bio-security, in partnership with DOC and regional councils, now manages
Rainbow Lorikeets under the National Interest Pest Response initiative. The aim of the response is to
prevent Rainbow Lorikeets from establishing in the wild. Late in 2010 five of these birds were discovered
living in the Mount Maunganui area. They were fed for a few days before being trapped by a Ministry of
Agriculture & Fisheries contractor.
Many fruit orchard owners consider them a pest, as they often fly in groups and strip trees
containing fresh fruit. In urban areas, the birds create nuisance noise and fouling of outdoor areas and
vehicles with droppings.
In Western Australia, a major impact of the Rainbow Lorikeet is competition with indigenous bird
species. This includes domination of feeding resources, and competition for increasingly scarce nesting
hollows. Birds such as the Purple-Crowned Lorikeet (Glossopsitta porphyrocephala) and Carnaby's Black
Cockatoo (Calyptorhynchus latirostris) are adversely affected or displaced.
Diet
Rainbow Lorikeets feed mainly on fruit, pollen and nectar, and possess a tongue adapted
especially for their particular diet. The end of the tongue is equipped with a papillate appendage adapted
to gathering pollen and nectar from flowers. Nectar from eucalyptus is important in Australia, other
important nectar sources are Pittosporum, Grevillea, Spathodea campanulata (African tulip-tree), and
Metroxylon sagu (sago palm). In Melanesia coconuts are very important food sources, and rainbow
lorikeets are important pollinators of these. They also consume the fruits of Ficus, Trema, Mutingia, as
well as papaya and mangoes already opened by fruit bats. They also eat crops such as apples, and will
raid maize and sorghum. They are also frequent visitors at bird feeders placed in gardens, which supply
store-bought nectar, sunflower seeds, and fruits such as apples, grapes and pears.
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In many places, including campsites and suburban gardens, wild lorikeets are so used to humans
that they can be hand-fed. The Currumbin Wildlife Sanctuary in Queensland, Australia, is noted for its
thousands of lorikeets. Around 8am and 4pm each day the birds gather in a huge, noisy flock in the
park's main area. Visitors are encouraged to feed them a specially prepared nectar, and the birds will
happily settle on people's arms and heads to consume it. Wild Rainbow Lorikeets can also be hand-fed
by visitors at Lone Pine Koala Sanctuary in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
Semi-tame lorikeets are common daily visitors in many Sydney backyards, though many people,
ignorant of their dietary requirements, feed them bread or bread coated with honey. This is an
inadequate source of the nutrients, vitamins and minerals that the rainbow lorikeet requires and can lead
to health and feather formation issues in young Lorikeets. Packet mixes with a nutritional mix suitable for
feeding lorikeets are generally available from vets and pet stores. Rainbow lorikeets can also be fed in
numerous zoos and animal parks outside Australia.
Reproduction
Unlike the Eclectus Parrot, Rainbow Lorikeets do not have any immediately discernible dimorphic
traits. Upon closer observation of their colouring, size and behaviour however, it is possible to determine
the sex of a rainbow lorikeet. This process is made easier when one observes them in pairs; however the
general rules are that a male will have a greater concentration of dark orange on his breast as opposed to
the more pronounced bleeding of yellow into orange of a female.
The male will also be more robust across the breast and traditionally have a thicker, more squared
head whilst the female sports a more rounded visage. When feeding in a flock during breeding season,
the male will often puff up and produce a threatening display, hopping around his partner as she feeds
and ensuring that competitors for food do not interrupt her ingestion of food.
Rainbow Lorikeets are monogamous and pair for life. To the casual observer, there is no
discernible difference in terms of the sexes, however with continual observation of the species whilst in
flock behaviour, the dimorphism becomes apparent.
In Australia, breeding usually occurs during spring (September to December), but can vary from
region to region with changes in food availability and climate. Nesting sites are variable and can include
hollows of tall trees such as eucalypts, palm trunks, or overhanging rock. One population in the Admiralty
Islands nests in holes in the ground on predator-free islets. Pairs sometimes nest in the same tree with
other rainbow lorikeet pairs, or other bird species. The clutch size is between one and three eggs, which
are incubated for around 25 days. Incubation duties are carried out by the female alone.
Behaviour
Rainbow Lorikeets often travel together in pairs and occasionally respond to calls to fly as a flock,
then disperse again into pairs. Rainbow Lorikeet pairs defend their feeding and nesting areas aggressively
against other Rainbow Lorikeets and other bird species. They chase off not only smaller birds such as the
noisy miner, but also larger and more powerful birds such as the Australian magpie.
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Green-Cheeked Conure
Introduction
Green-Cheeked Conure
Close-up
Feral bird in tree canopy
The Green-Cheeked Conure (Pyrrhura molinae) is a small parrot of the genus Pyrrhura, which is
part of a long-tailed group of the New World parrot subfamily Arinae. This type of parrot is generally
called a conure in aviculture. It is native to the forests of South America.
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Resident Bird(s)
Joey – Sex (M) – Born 1997 (18 years)
Taxonomy
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The Green-Cheeked Conure has six subspecies:
•
Pyrrhura molinae, (Massena & Souance 1854)
o P. m. australis, Todd 1915
o P. m. flavoptera, Maijer, Herzog, Kessler, Friggens & Fjeldsa 1998
o P. m. hypoxantha,(Salvadori 1899)
o P. m. molinae, (Massena & Souance 1854)
o P. m. phoenicura, (Schlegel 1864)
o P. m. restricta, Todd 1947
P. m. sordida naturally occurs as a common green morph or as a rare yellow morph (which
however is more frequent in captivity). The yellow morph is also called the Yellow-Sided Conure and was
once erroneously considered to be a separate species, P. hypoxantha. As P. hypoxantha was described
before P. m. sordida the older name goes first, therefore P. m. sordida is called P. m. hypoxantha these
days.
The Green-Cheeked Parakeet is similar to the Maroon-Bellied Parakeet (P. frontalis), and formerly
there have been speculations that they were conspecific. It is also similar in appearance to the BlazeWinged Parakeet and the Black-Capped Parrot.
In addition to the natural color forms, color mutants have been selectively bred in aviculture:
•
•
•
•
•
Cinnamon are lime green and have a lighter, almost pale color to the feathers. The head is tan
and the tail feathers are a lighter maroon than in normal Green-Cheeked Conure.
Yellow-sided have a breast of bright colors.
Pineapple is cinnamon and yellow-sided combination. They have a breast of bright colors, a tan
head and lime green feathers on the back like a cinnamon Green-Cheeked Conure. The tail
feathers are the same as a yellow-sided, showing a halo effect.
Turquoise have a body with some blue-green and green feathers. The breast feathers are grayish
and the tail feathers are gray.
A green/red/blue apple mutation is not very common but has been seen.
Description
The Green-Cheeked Conure is typically 26 cm (10 in) long and weighs 60 to 80 g. It is mainly
green, with a brown/black/grey crown, white periophthalmic rings, green cheeks, blue primary wing
feathers, a grey beak, and its long pointed tail is mostly maroon. It has short transverse striations on its
breast and a red abdominal area. Males and females have an identical external appearance. Their lifespan
is 10 to 30 years.
The Green-Cheeked Conure occurs in west-central and southern Mato Grosso, Brazil, northern
and eastern Bolivia, northwestern Argentina, and western Paraguay. Its habitat is forests and woodland,
where it usually forms flocks of 10 to 20 individuals at treetop level, or larger flocks where there is more
food. It is also emerging as a popular pet for families and individuals.
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Diet
The Green-Cheeked Conure eats various seeds and fruits. They love fruits, (especially bananas
and raisins), and seeds such as sunflower, safflower, and hemp seeds, all found in their natural
environments. Green-Cheeked Conures also love table food. They are flock animals and love to eat with
their family. They can eat potatoes, carrots, corn, bread, pasta, and plain popcorn. A clipped and/or
caged bird can become obese from eating too many fatty seeds such as sunflower seeds and peanuts. A
bird-pellet diet with a calcium supplement provides proper nutrition and should comprise 60-70% of their
diet. A good rule of thumb is 70% pellet diet, 20% fruit and vegetables and <10% treat items. Parrots
with health problems related to the kidneys should not be fed a high protein diet, as it may lead to gout;
veterinarian prescribed low-protein diets are available for birds with such conditions. Green-Cheeked
Conures can live to 30 years with proper care, though the average lifespan is typically 10 years due to
owner neglect.
Reproduction
The average clutch is 4–6 eggs. Average incubation is 24 days, varying from 22 to 25 days.
Behavior
They are the quietest of the conures and can learn tricks and have a limited vocabulary, with
extensive training.
Aviculture
Green-Cheeked Conures are common in aviculture and are popular companion parrots. They are
playful, affectionate and intelligent, known as having a "big personality in a small body". They can learn to
talk, albeit with a limited vocabulary and a gravelly voice. They like to be held (although some like it more
than others) and can learn tricks such as lying on their backs, "kissing," shaking, hanging upside down and
even can be potty trained. Green-Cheeked Conures are quiet, so even a unit dweller can enjoy their
companionship. They can be prone to biting, particularly when young, but an owner can cure this
behavior with patience and time.
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Eastern Rosella
Introduction
Eastern Rosella (M)
Eastern Rosella (M)
Feral bird foraging for food
Close-up
Close-up
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The Eastern Rosella (Platycercus eximius) is a rosella native to southeast of the Australian
continent and to Tasmania. It has been introduced to New Zealand where feral populations are found in
the North Island (notably in the northern half of the island and in the Hutt Valley) and in the hills around
Dunedin in the South Island.
Resident Bird(s)
Rosa – Sex (F) – Born ?
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Taxonomy
The Eastern Rosella was named by George Shaw in 1792. It is sometimes considered a subspecies
of the pale-headed rosella (P. adscitus). The term White-Cheeked Rosella has been used for a species or
superspecies combining the pale-headed and Eastern forms. Hybrids of the two taxa have been recorded
where their ranges meet in northeastern New South Wales and southeastern Queensland.
Three subspecies of eastern rosella are recognised:
•
•
•
P. e. eximius, Victoria and southern New South Wales. Black feathers on the back have green
margins. Rump is pale green.
P. e. elecica, northeast New South Wales and southeast Queensland. In the male the black
feathers on the back have golden-yellow margins, and greenish-yellow in the female. The rump is
bluish-green. This subspecies is also called the golden-mantled rosella, often abbreviated to GMR.
P. e. diemenensis, eastern Tasmania. White cheek patches are larger and the red on the head is
darker.
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Description
The Eastern Rosella is 30 cm (12 in) long. It has a red head and white cheeks. The beak is white
and the irises are brown. The upper breast is red and the lower breast is yellow fading to pale green over
the abdomen. The feathers of the back and shoulders are black, and have yellowish or greenish margins
giving rise to a scalloped appearance that varies slightly between the subspecies and the sexes. The
wings and lateral tail feathers are bluish while the tail is dark green. The legs are grey. The female is
similar to the male though duller in colouration and has an under-wing stripe, which is not present in the
adult male. Juveniles are duller than females and have an under-wing stripe. Lifespan is 15+ years.
Females can be sexed by a duller colour and under-wing stripe as shown above
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Eastern Rosella’s are native to southeastern Australia as shown in green above
Natural range is eastern Australia, down to Tasmania. The Eastern Rosella is found in lightly
wooded country, open forests, woodlands, gardens, bushlands and parks.
The Eastern Rosella (Platycercus eximius) has become naturalised in New Zealand. By the 1970's
the population, probably originally from cage escapees, strongly established throughout Auckland,
Northland, & the far north, extending into west Waikato, as far south as Kawhia, & Te Kuiti, & East to the
Coromandel Peninsula. Also in the Wellington-Hutt Valley Region, established in the 1960's from escaped
cage birds, later colonising the foothills of the Tararua Range, to Eketahuna in the east, & Otaki in the
west (range up to 1985). Sightings from New Plymouth, Taupo, Gisborne, Tiritea, Banks Peninsula, Nelson
area, & Stewart Island. The first occurrence of these parrots in New Zealand was about 1910 when a small
shipment of Eastern Rosellas, as well as a few Crimson Rosellas (P. elegans), that had been refused entry
into New Zealand by the Customs Department was released off Otago Heads by the ship that brought
them, as she was returning to Sydney. The two species cross bred and by 1955, no pure Crimson Rosellas
remained in the Dunedin area. The population of rosellas in Dunedin has always remained low, partially
due to them being trapped & sold as caged birds, & that the climate can be extremely cold in comparison
to their native homeland.
Conservation Status
Eastern Rosella are least concern, with healthy populations in their native range and have
established populations beyond their native range.
Diet
The Eastern Rosella mainly feeds on the ground, especially amongst grasses in lawns, pastures
and other clearings. Also feeds in trees and bushes. Main dietary items include: seeds, fruits, buds, flowers,
nectar and insects.
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Reproduction
The breeding season is August to January, with one brood. The nesting site is usually a hollow
over 1 m (3 ft) deep in a tree trunk anywhere up to 30 m (100 ft) above the ground. A clutch of generally
five or six (although up to nine have been recorded) round, white and slightly shiny eggs, measuring 26 x
22 mm, is laid.
Behaviour
Rosellas can make good companion parrots; however, they require a great deal of attention and
many toys to satisfy their need for social interaction and mental stimulation. These birds do not always
adapt to life as a family pet and even hand-raised birds may never become fully domesticated. Generally,
this species does not tolerate “petting” or “cuddling” and is apt to bite in response to this type of
handling. Many people believe that rosellas are best housed in large aviaries that enable them to fly freely
with minimal human socialization. Despite these difficulties, many people enjoy the eastern rosella as a
beautiful pet with a strong, feisty personality.
Aviculture
The Eastern Rosella is sometimes kept as a pet. These birds are desired for their beautifully
coloured plumage. They are intelligent creatures, which can be trained to whistle a wide repertoire of
tunes and may even learn to speak a few words or phrases.
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Cockatiel
Introduction
Grey Cockatiels
Close-up (Male)
Close-up (Female)
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Feral cockatiels at watering hole
The Cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus), also known as the Quarrion and the Weiro, is a member of
the cockatoo family endemic to Australia. They are prized as household pets and companion parrots
throughout the world and are relatively easy to breed. As a caged bird, cockatiels are second in
popularity only to the Budgerigar (Budgie Bird).
The cockatiel is the only member of the genus Nymphicus. It was previously considered a crested
parrot or small cockatoo; however, more recent molecular studies have assigned it to its own subfamily,
Nymphicinae. It is, therefore, now classified as the smallest of the Cacatuidae (cockatoo family).
Cockatiels are native to Australia, and favour the Australian wetlands, scrublands, and bush lands.
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Resident Bird(s)
Many cockatiels call the Friends of The Aviary home, mostly the true Grey’s and some of the most
common mutations
Taxonomy
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Originally described by Scottish writer and naturalist Robert Kerr in 1793 as Psittacus hollandicus,
the cockatiel (or cockateel) was moved to its own genus, Nymphicus, by Wagler in 1832. Its genus name
reflects the experience of one of the earliest groups of Europeans to see the birds in their native habitat;
the travellers thought the birds were so beautiful that they named them after mythical nymphs. The
specific name hollandicus refers to New Holland, a historic name for Australia.
Its biological relationship had long been argued; it is now classified into a monotypic subfamily
Nymphicinae but had sometimes in the past been misclassified among the Platycercinae, the broad-tailed
parrots. This issue has now been settled with molecular studies. A 1984 study of protein allozymes
signalled its closer relationship to cockatoos than to parrots, and Mitochondrial 12S rRNA sequence data
places it amongst the Calyptorhynchinae (dark cockatoos) subfamily. The unique, parakeet (meaning
long-tailed parrot) morphological feature is a consequence of the decrease in size and accompanying
change of ecological niche.
Sequence analysis of intron 7 of the nuclear fibrinogen gene, on the other hand, indicates that it
may yet be distinct enough as to warrant recognition of the Nymphicinae rather than inclusion of the
genus in the Calyptorhynchinae.
The cockatiel is now biologically classified as a genuine member of Cacatuidae on account of
sharing all of the cockatoo family's biological features, namely, the erectile crest, a gallbladder, powder
down, suppressed cloudy-layer (which precludes the display of blue and green structural colours), and
facial feathers covering the sides of the beak, all of which are rarely found outside the Cacatuidae family.
Description
1927 Brehms Tierleben painting
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In contrast to most cockatoos, the cockatiel has long tail feathers roughly making up half of its
total length. At 30 to 33 cm (12–13 in), the cockatiel is the smallest of the cockatoos which are generally
larger at between 30 and 60 cm (12–24 in).
The "normal grey" or "wild-type" cockatiel's plumage is primarily grey with prominent white
flashes on the outer edges of each wing. The face of the male is yellow or white, while the face of the
female is primarily grey or light grey, and both sexes feature a round orange area on both ears, often
referred to as "cheddar cheeks". This orange colouration is generally vibrant in adult males, and often
quite muted in females. Visual sexing is often possible with this variant of the bird. Lifespan is 15 to 25
years.
Cockatiels are native to Australia, where they are found largely in arid or semi-arid country, but
always close to water. Largely nomadic, the species will move to where food and water is available. They
are typically seen in pairs or small flocks. Sometimes, hundreds will flock around a single body of water.
To many farmers' dismay, they often eat cultivated crops. They are absent from the most fertile south
west and south east corners of the country, the deepest Western Australian deserts, and Cape York
Peninsula. They are the only cockatoo species which can sometimes reproduce in the end of their first
year.
The cockatiel's lifespan in captivity is generally given as 16 to 25 years, though it is sometimes
given as short as 10 to 15 years, and there are reports of cockatiels living as long as 32 years, the oldest
confirmed specimen reported being 36 years old. Diet and exercise are major determining factors.
Diet
Again nothing wrong with a seed diet as long as you have variety. Do make sure you clean the
seed tray as well with hot soapy water to avoid bacteria and fungus to grow, and do make sure that the
seed tray is completely and totally dry before serving seeds. Any time moisture is on the seed tray, you
are inviting fungus and bacteria. Your cockatiel will extract the seed from the husks and the bowl may in
fact be full of empty husks that your cockatiel does not consume, so it's important that you refresh the
seed tray as often as you can.
This has been a controversial subject among cockatiel owners. You don't have to convert your
cockatiel to pellets, as long as you are giving them a variety foods. We have had cockatiel living up to 22
years on this diet, a diet of variety.
When serving your cockatiel fruits and veggies, it will be best to serve small amounts, either
chopped, shredded or in very small pieces, this will motivate them to grab them and give them a try.
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Reproduction
Do you have the time to feed each baby cockatiel every 2 to 3 hours? We do not recommend
that you breed cockatiels unless you think you have the time, money and resources to do so, besides, in
the past few years there has been an explosion of cockatiel breeding in captivity that further exceeds the
demands for the bird. Please do try to adopt a cockatiel rather than buying one or breeding one. Check
out the following adoption resources:
Breeding cockatiels can be expensive as well, you will need the proper space for it, special food
formula for the chicks, special lighting, and most of all time, lots of time.
If your cockatiel laid eggs and your cockatiels does not have a mate, chances are the eggs are
infertile. You can hold and look the eggs close to a bright light, a tiny little red streak will indicate if the
egg is fertile, this is called "candling the egg." If your cockatiel has a mate and the eggs are infertile, there
could be an underlining cause, such as poor nutrition, reproductive issues, or even excessive breeding. If
the eggs are fertile but they do not hatch, it could be that the parents are not seating long enough on the
eggs to achieve the right temperature. The perfect condition for a cockatiel egg to hatch is the right
temperature and proper humidity.
The eggs usually hatch in 18 - 21 days. Even if you plan to hand feed, it will be wise to leave the
chicks with their parents until they're at least 2 1/2 to 3 weeks old. This allows them a healthy start and
makes them less inclined to having crop problems.
Behaviour
The cockatiel's distinctive erectile crest expresses the animal's emotional state. The crest is
dramatically vertical when the cockatiel is startled or excited, gently oblique in its neutral or relaxed state,
and flattened close to the head when the animal is angry or defensive. The crest is also held flat but
protrudes outward in the back when the cockatiel is trying to appear alluring or flirtatious.
Night frights are when your cockatiel gets scared at night and it starts flapping its wings, it's not
that your cockatiel is having a bad dream, it's rather that your cockatiel just got "startle" or scared by
something in the room. For example moving shadows from a curtain or blinds, car lights, the shadow of
you passing by can frighten your cockatiel. These reactions usually happen while you bird is trying to fall
asleep. If your cockatiel gets scared, it's very important to comfort him and reassure him that everything
is OK. Spend a few minutes petting it until it calms down.
While you pet your cockatiel, check for any injuries it might have suffered from flapping its wings.
Often cockatiels scrape their wings or break a blood feather while flapping their wings. If your cockatiel
is bleeding, you will need to stop it quickly, in the case of a blood feather you will need to pull the blood
feather out of your cockatiel can bleed to death very quickly. You should always have handy near by the
cage Tweezers, a towel and Kwik Stop to treat the blood feather injury.
Make sure you cover its cage at night, and move it away from possible moving objects or light
sources that might create shadows. If the material you cover the cage is too light or semi-translucent,
your cockatiel might see passing shadows that might startle your bird.
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Aviculture
Fifteen different cockatiel colour mutations are currently established in aviculture, including grey,
pied, pearled, cinnamon, white-faced, lutino, albino (a.k.a. white-faced lutino) and yellow-cheeked
cockatiels. Mutations in captivity have emerged in various colours, some quite different from those
observed in nature. In 1949 the species began to spread throughout the world, with the creation of
"wild", and then "pied" mutation developed in California in the United States. There are many mutations
of cockatiels with varied colours, they are: silvestre, harlequin, lutino, cinnamon, opaline (pearl), cara black,
silver, fawn, albino (there is a pattern and not just albino genetic mutations), pastel, silver and recessive
silver dominant.
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Zebra Finch
Introduction
Zebra Finches
Close-up (Male)
Close-up (Female)
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Feral finches feeding in Australia
The Zebra Finch (Taeniopygia guttata [formerly Poephila guttata]), is the most common estrildid
finch of Central Australia and ranges over most of the continent, avoiding only the cool moist south and
some areas of the tropical far north. It can also be found natively in Indonesia and East Timor. The bird
has been introduced to Puerto Rico, Portugal, Brazil and the United States.
Resident Bird(s)
Many Zebra Finches call the Friends of The Aviary home, including some of the most common
mutations
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Taxonomy
The two subspecies are:
•
•
Taeniopygia guttata guttata, the Timor zebra finch, extends from Lombok in the Lesser
Sunda Islands or Nusa Tenggara in Indonesia to Sermata, in addition to coastal areas
around the continent of Australia.
Taeniopygia guttata castanotis is found over the wide range of continental Australia.
The Australian race is sometimes split as chestnut-eared finch (Gould, 1837), Taeniopygia
castanotis.
The morphological differences between the subspecies include differences in size. T. g. guttata is
smaller than T. g. castanotis. In addition, the T.g. guttata males do not have the fine barring found on the
throat and upper breast of T.g. castanotis, as well as having small breast bands.
Description
The life expectancy of a zebra finch is highly variable because of genetic and environmental
factors. The zebra finch may reach up to five years in its natural environment. If they are kept caged, they
normally live for 5 to 9 years but can live as long as 12 years, with an exceptional case of 14.5 years
reported for a caged specimen. The greatest threats to zebra finch survival are predation by cats and loss
of natural food.
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Zebra Finches are native to Australia, much of Indonesia, and some of Papua - New Guinea, as
shown above in green
Zebra finches inhabit a wide range of grasslands and forests, usually close to water. They are
typically found in open steppes with scattered bushes and trees, but have adapted to human
disturbances, taking advantage of human-made watering holes and large patches of deforested land.
Zebra finches, including many human-bred variants to the species, are widely kept by genetic researchers,
breeding hobbyists and pet owners.
The zebra finch breeds after substantial rains in its native habitat, which can occur at any time of
the year. Birds in captivity are ready to breed year-round. Wild birds are adaptable and varied in their
nesting habits, with nests being found in cavities, scrub, low trees, bushes, on the ground, in termite hills,
rabbit burrows, nests of other birds, and in the cracks, crevices, and ledges of human structures. Outside
of the breeding time, brood nests are constructed for sleeping in.
Zebra finches are distributed over much of Australia and the Lesser Sunda Islands (Nusa
Tenggara), which are north-west of Australia.
Conservation Status
Zebra Finches are listed as least concern.
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Diet
Zebra finches, like most estrildid finches, are primarily seed-eating birds, as their beaks are
adapted for dehusking small seeds. They prefer millet, but will consume many other kinds of seeds, as
well. While they prefer seeds, captives will also eat egg food. They also readily consume fresh foods, such
as small bits of chopped lettuce, apples, and grapes. They are particularly fond of spray millet, and one or
two of these small birds will eat a spray millet stalk within a few days. Zebra finches are messy and
voracious eaters, typically dropping seeds everywhere. This behaviour spreads seed around, aiding in
plant reproduction. The availability of water is important to this bird's survival, therefore the zebra finch
will drink often when water is available and enjoys taking bird baths in a small, shallow bowl. A typical
zebra finch may be plump, because it eats quite often throughout the day, but an overweight bird needs
more exercise, not less food. Finches should always have access to fresh food and water.
Reproduction
In the zebra finch, sudden bursts of gathering behaviours signal that a pair is ready to nest. The
pair will pull strings or plant leaves they can reach, and if no materials are available to gather, they will use
feathers and bits of seed husks. Alfalfa or timothy hay is an acceptable nesting material, as it is closest to
what is readily available in the wild. Any item they can use to build a nest will be deposited in a corner of
the cage floor, or in their food dish. When these behaviours are noticed, a mating pair should be
provided with a sturdy wicker nest about the size of a large apple or orange. This nest should always be
placed in the highest possible corner of the cage, opposite the food dish, but near the normal night
perch. Nesting finches will abandon a perch if it is across the cage, with the male showing he prefers to
sit atop the nest while the female lays. During the nest building, however, both will spend the night
cuddling inside the nest.
When they accept the nest shell and begin using it each night, they should be provided with an
ample supply of very soft bits of short string and leaves. They prefer items only a couple of inches long
and will use nearly any type and colour of soft material; longer bits of string or nesting material can tangle
around the finches or nestlings and cause distress that will lead to strangulation or even death. The nest
shell will be packed with everything they can reach for at least a week before laying begins.
The number of eggs ranges from two to seven eggs per clutch, with five being the most common
number. In captivity, some birds lay larger clutches.
Males and females are very similar in size, but are easily distinguished from one another, as the
males usually have bright orange cheek feathers, red beaks (as opposed to the orange beaks of females),
and generally more striking black and white patterns. The beak is sometimes the only way to tell the
gender of a zebra finch, as sometimes the orange cheek colouring is faded or non-existent. However, the
orange cheeks are a stubborn indication that a young zebra finch is indeed a male and the cheeks begin
to appear when the young are about two months old. Young zebra finches will also have black beaks, with
the colouring coming in at puberty, though it begins changing at age one month.
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The chicks will hatch according to the laying time of each egg. It is common to have one or two
eggs remaining unhatched as the parents begin the task of feeding the nestlings. Though it is preferable
to leave nests alone after the egg-laying begins, once hatching begins, a breeder might find it useful to
make daily checks into the nest to correct problems early, such as larger chicks sitting on and smothering
smaller ones, thus increasing the number of chicks that eventually fledge. The time from laying until a
fledgling adventures outside will vary with each clutch, but generally good eggs will hatch within 14 to 16
days of laying and young will begin to venture out within about three or four weeks of hatching, and will
look full-grown in about three months. Breeding age is six or more months. Zebra finches are usually
excellent parents and will readily take turns sitting on the nest and bringing food to the young.
While the female is laying, only her mate will be allowed in the nest. Allowing the pair to start a
new family while the first clutch is still in the cage will overly stress all the birds in the family. The male of
the breeding pair will not allow any other birds near the nest while eggs are being laid. It is advised that
fully weaned birds from the previous clutch be removed and placed into a separate enclosure to prevent
aggressive actions of the adult male who will likely try to beat up younger birds which are seen as
competition for the female's attention.
Behaviour
Zebra Finches are loud and boisterous singers. Their calls can be a loud beep, meep, oi! or a-ha!
Their song is a few small beeps, leading up to a rhythmic song of varying complexity in males. Each
male's song is different, although birds of the same bloodline will exhibit similarities, and all finches will
overlay their own uniqueness onto a common rhythmic framework. Sons generally learn the song of their
fathers with little variation. Songs may change during puberty, but afterwards they are locked in for the
life of the bird. Scientific research at Japan's RIKEN institute has suggested that singing to females is an
emotionally rewarding experience for male zebra finches.
Male Zebra Finches begin to sing at puberty, while females lack a singing ability. This is due to a
developmental difference, where in the embryo, the male Zebra Finch produces estrogen, which is
transformed into a testosterone-like hormone in the brain, which in turn leads to the development of the
nervous system for a song system. Their songs begin as a few disjointed sounds, but as they experiment,
they match what they sing to the memory of their fathers' song, and they rapidly mature into full-fledged
songs. During these formative times, they will incorporate sounds from their surroundings into their
songs, also using the songs of other nearby males for inspiration.
Male finches use their songs, in part, as a mating call. The mating act is usually accompanied by a
high-pitched whining sound. They will also exhibit a hissing sound when protecting their territories.
Because Zebra Finch males learn their songs from their surroundings, they are often used as avian
model organisms to investigate the neural bases of learning, memory, and sensorimotor integration. The
Zebra Finch genome was the second bird genome to be sequenced, in 2008, after that of the chicken.
Their popularity as model organisms is also related to their prolific breeding, an adaptation to their
usually dry environment. This ability also makes them popular as pet songbirds.
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Indian Peafowl
Introduction
Indian Peafowl
Peacock close-up
Peahen close-up
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Male Indian Peafowl
Feral Peacock amongst deer in native India
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Feral Peacock roosting in the shade
The Indian Peafowl, Blue Peafowl, or Peacock (Pavo cristatus), a large and brightly coloured bird, is
a species of peafowl native to South Asia, but introduced in many other parts of the world like the United
States, Mexico, Honduras, Colombia, Guyana, Suriname, Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina, South Africa,
Madagascar, Mauritius, Réunion, Irian Jaya, Papua New Guinea and Australia. The species was first named
and described by Linnaeus in 1758, and the name Pavo cristatus is still in use now.
The male peacock is predominantly blue with a fan-like crest of spatula-tipped wire-like feathers
and is best known for the long train made up of elongated upper-tail covert feathers which bear colourful
eyespots. These stiff feathers are raised into a fan and quivered in a display during courtship. Females lack
the train, and have a greenish lower neck and duller brown plumage. The Indian Peafowl lives mainly on
the ground in open forest or on land under cultivation where they forage for berries, grains but also prey
on snakes, lizards, and small rodents. Their loud calls make them easy to detect, and in forest areas often
indicate the presence of a predator such as a tiger. They forage on the ground in small groups and usually
try to escape on foot through undergrowth and avoid flying, though they fly into tall trees to roost.
The function of the peacock's elaborate train has been debated for over a century. In the 19th
century, Charles Darwin found it a puzzle, hard to explain through ordinary natural selection. His later
explanation, sexual selection, is widely but not universally accepted. In the 20th century, Amotz Zahavi
argued that the train was a handicap, and that males were honestly signalling their fitness in proportion to
the splendour of their trains. Despite extensive study, opinions remain divided on the mechanisms
involved.
The bird is celebrated in Indian and Greek mythology and is the national bird of India.
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Resident Bird(s)
Dad, mom, & youngster roost on calm snowy morning
Peahen (Lucy) & juvenile
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Peacock (Frank)
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Taxonomy
The Indian Peafowl was one of the many species originally described by Linnaeus in his work,
Systema Naturae, in 1758 and it still bears its original name of Pavo cristatus. The Latin genus name Pavo
and the Anglo-Saxon pawe (from which the word "peacock" is derived) are believed to be echoic in their
origin and based on the usual call of the bird. The species name cristatus refers to the crest.
The earliest usage of the word in written English is from around 1300 and spelling variants include
pecok, pekok, pecokk, peacocke, peocock, pyckock, poucock, pocok, pokok, pokokke, and poocok among
others. The current spelling was established in the late 17th century. Chaucer (1343–1400) used the word
to refer to a proud and ostentatious person in his simile "proud a pekok" in Troilus and Criseyde (Book I,
line 210).
The Greek word for peacock was taos and was related to the Persian "tavus" (as in Takht-i-Tâvus
for the famed Peacock Throne). The Hebrew word tuki (plural tukkiyim) has been said to have been
derived from the Tamil tokei but sometimes traced to the Egyptian tekh.
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Description
Indian Peafowls are a larger sized bird with a length from bill to tail of 100 to 115 cm (40 to
46 inches) and to the end of a fully grown train as much as 195 to 225 cm (78 to 90 inches) and weigh 4–
6 kg (8.8–13.2 lbs). The females, or peahens, are smaller at around 95 cm (38 inches) in length and weigh
2.75–4 kg (6–8.8 lbs). Indian peafowl are among the largest and heaviest representatives of the
Phasianidae. Their size, colour and shape of crest make them unmistakable within their native distribution
range. The male is metallic blue on the crown, the feathers of the head being short and curled. The fanshaped crest on the head is made of feathers with bare black shafts and tipped with blush-green webbing.
A white stripe above the eye and a crescent shaped white patch below the eye are formed by bare white
skin. The sides of the head have iridescent greenish blue feathers. The back has scaly bronze-green
feathers with black and copper markings. The scapular and the wings are buff and barred in black, the
primaries are chestnut and the secondaries are black.
The tail is dark brown and the "train" is made up of elongated upper tail coverts (more than 200
feathers, the actual tail has only 20 feathers) and nearly all of these feathers end with an elaborate eyespot. A few of the outer feathers lack the spot and end in a crescent shaped black tip. The underside is
dark glossy green shading into blackish under the tail. The thighs are buff coloured. The male has a spur
on the leg above the hind toe.
The adult peahen has a rufous-brown head with a crest as in the male but the tips are chestnut
edged with green. The upper body is brownish with pale mottling. The primaries, secondaries and tail are
dark brown. The lower neck is metallic green and the breast feathers are dark brown glossed with green.
The remaining underparts are whitish. Downy young are pale buff with a dark brown mark on the nape
that connects with the eyes. Young males look like the females but the wings are chestnut coloured.
The most common calls are a loud pia-ow or may-awe. The frequency of calling increases before
the Monsoon season and may be delivered in alarm or when disturbed by loud noises. In forests, their
calls often indicate the presence of a predators such as the tiger. They also make many other calls such as
a rapid series of ka-aan..ka-aan or a rapid kok-kok. They often emit an explosive low-pitched honk! when
agitated.
There are several colour mutations of Indian Peafowl. These very rarely occur in the wild, but
selective breeding has made them common in captivity. The black-shouldered or Japanned mutation was
initially considered as a subspecies P. c. nigripennis (or even a species), and was a topic of some interest
during Darwin's time. It is however only a case of genetic variation within the population. In this mutation,
the adult male is melanistic with black wings. Young birds with the nigripennis mutation are creamy white
with fulvous tipped wings. The gene produces melanism in the male and in the peahen it produces a
dilution of colour with creamy white and brown markings. Other variations include the pied and white
forms all of which are the result of allelic variation at specific loci.
Cross between a male Green Peafowl (Pavo muticus) and a female Indian Peafowl, (P. cristatus),
produces a stable hybrid called a "spalding", named after Mrs. Keith Spalding, a bird fancier in California.
There can be problems if birds of unknown pedigree are released into the wild, as the viability of such
hybrids and their offspring is often reduced (see Haldane's Rule and outbreeding depression).
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Adult peafowl can usually escape ground predators by flying into trees. Large animals such as
leopards, dholes and tigers can sometimes ambush them however, and in some areas such as the Gir
forest, peafowl are fairly common prey for such formidable predators. Foraging in groups provides some
safety as there are more eyes to look out for predators. They are also sometimes hunted by large birds of
prey such as the crested hawk-eagle and rock eagle-owl. Chicks are somewhat more prone to predation
than adult birds. Adults living near human habitations are sometimes hunted by domestic dogs or by
humans in some areas (southern Tamil Nadu) for folk remedies involving the use of "peacock oil".
In captivity, birds have been known to live for 23 years but it is estimated that they live for only
about 15 years in the wild.
The Indian Peafowl is a resident breeder across the Indian subcontinent and is found in the drier
lowland areas of Sri Lanka. In South Asia, it is found mainly below an altitude of 1,800 metres (1.1 mi) and
in rare cases seen at about 2,000 metres (1.2 mi). It is found in moist and dry-deciduous forests, but can
adapt to live in cultivated regions and around human habitations and is usually found where water is
available. In many parts of northern India, they are protected by religious practices and will forage around
villages and towns for scraps. Some have suggested that the peacock was introduced into Europe by
Alexander the Great, while others say the bird had reached Athens by 450 BC and may have been
introduced even earlier. It has since been introduced in many other parts of the world and has become
feral in some areas.
In isolated cases, the Indian peafowl has been known to be able to adapt to harsher climates, such
as those of northern Canada. The species has been spotted as far north as Schomberg, Ontario, thriving in
its newly adapted northern climate.
Conservation Status
The Indian Peafowl is listed as of Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of
Nature (IUCN).
Indian Peafowl are widely distributed in the wild across South Asia and protected both culturally
in many areas and by law in India. Conservative estimates of the population put them at more than
100,000. Illegal poaching for meat however continues and declines have been noted in parts of India.
Peafowl breed readily in captivity and as free-ranging ornamental fowl. Zoos, parks, bird-fanciers and
dealers across the world maintain breeding populations that do not need to be augmented by the capture
of wild birds.
Poaching of peacocks for their meat and feathers and accidental poisoning by feeding on
pesticide treated seeds are known threats to wild birds. Methods to identify if feathers have been plucked
or have been shed naturally have been developed as Indian law allows only the collection of feathers that
have been shed.
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In parts of India, the birds can be a nuisance to agriculture as they damage crops. Its adverse
effects on crops, however, seem to be offset by the beneficial role it plays by consuming prodigious
quantities of pests such as grasshoppers. They can also be a problem in gardens and homes where they
damage plants, attack their reflections breaking glass and mirrors, perch and scratch cars or leave their
droppings. Many cities where they have been introduced and gone feral have peafowl management
programmes. These include educating citizens on how to prevent the birds from causing damage while
treating the birds humanely.
Diet
Peafowl are omnivorous and eat seeds, insects, fruits, small mammals and reptiles. They feed on
small snakes but keep their distance from larger ones. In the Gir forest of Gujarat, a large percentage of
their food is made up of the fallen berries of Zizyphus. Around cultivated areas, peafowl feed on a wide
range of crops such as groundnut, tomato, paddy, chilly and even bananas. Around human habitations,
they feed on a variety of food scraps and even human excreta. In the countryside, it is particularly partial
to crops and garden plants.
Reproduction
Peafowl produce loud calls especially in the breeding season. They may call at night when
alarmed and neighbouring birds may call in a relay like series. Nearly seven different call variants have
been identified in the peacocks apart from six alarm calls that are commonly produced by both sexes.
The colours of the peacock and the contrast with the much duller peahen were a puzzle to early
thinkers. Charles Darwin wrote to Asa Gray that the "sight of a feather in a peacock's tail, whenever I gaze
at it, makes me sick!" as he failed to see an adaptive advantage for the extravagant tail which seemed only
to be an encumbrance. Darwin developed a second principle of sexual selection to resolve the problem,
though in the prevailing intellectual trends of Victorian Britain, the theory failed to gain widespread
attention.
The American artist Abbott Handerson Thayer tried to show, from his own imagination, the value
of the eyespots as disruptive camouflage in a 1907 painting. He used the painting in his 1909 book
Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom, denying the possibility of sexual selection and arguing that
essentially all forms of animal coloration had evolved as camouflage. He was roundly criticized in a
lengthy paper by Theodore Roosevelt, who wrote that Thayer had only managed to paint the peacock's
plumage as camouflage by sleight of hand, "with the blue sky showing through the leaves in just sufficient
quantity here and there to warrant the author-artists explaining that the wonderful blue hues of the
peacock's neck are obliterative because they make it fade into the sky."
In the 1970s a possible resolution to the apparent contradiction between natural selection and
sexual selection was proposed. Amotz Zahavi argued that peacocks honestly signalled the handicap of
having a large and costly train. However, the mechanism may be less straightforward than it seems – the
cost could arise from depression of the immune system by the hormones that enhance feather
development.
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The ornate train is believed to be the result of sexual selection by the females. Males use their
ornate trains in a courtship display: they raise the feathers into a fan and quiver them. However, recent
studies have failed to find a relation between the number of displayed eyespots and mating success.
Marion Petrie tested whether or not these displays signaled a male's genetic quality by studying a feral
population of peafowl in Whipsnade Wildlife Park in southern England. She showed that the number of
eyespots in the train predicted a male's mating success, and this success could be manipulated by cutting
the eyespots off some of the male's ornate feathers. Although the removal of eyespots makes males less
successful in mating, eyespot removal substantially changes the appearance of male peafowls. It is likely
that females mistake these males for sub-adults, or perceive that the males are physically damaged.
Moreover, in a feral peafowl population, there is little variation in the number of eyespots in adult males.
It is rare for adult males to lose a significant number of eyespots. Therefore, females' selection might
depend on other sexual traits of males' trains. The quality of train is an honest signal of the condition of
males; peahens do select males on the basis of their plumage. A recent study on a natural population of
Indian Peafowls in the Shivalik area of India has proposed a "high maintenance handicap" theory. It states
that only the fittest males can afford the time and energy to maintain a long tail. Therefore, the long train
is an indicator of good body condition, which results in greater mating success. While train length seems
to correlate positively with MHC diversity in males, females do not appear to use train length to choose
males. A study in Japan also suggests that peahens do not choose peacocks based on their ornamental
plumage, including train length, number of eyespots and train symmetry. Another study in France brings
up two possible explanations for the conflicting results that exist. The first explanation is that there might
be a genetic variation of the trait of interest under different geographical areas due to a founder effect
and/or a genetic drift. The second explanation suggests that "the cost of trait expression may vary with
environmental conditions," so that a trait that is indicative of a particular quality may not work in another
environment.
Fisher's runaway model proposes positive feedback between female preference for elaborate
trains and the elaborate train itself. This model assumes that the male train is a relatively recent
evolutionary adaptation. However, a molecular phylogeny study on peacock-pheasants shows the
opposite; the most recently evolved species is actually the least ornamented one. This finding suggests a
chase-away sexual selection, in which "females evolve resistance to male ploys". A study in Japan goes on
to conclude that the "peacocks' train is an obsolete signal for which female preference has already been
lost or weakened".
However, some disagreement has arisen in recent years concerning whether or not female
peafowl do indeed select males with more ornamented trains. In contrast to Petrie's findings, a sevenyear Japanese study of free-ranging peafowl came to the conclusion that female peafowl do not select
mates solely on the basis of their trains. Mariko Takahashi found no evidence that peahens expressed any
preference for peacocks with more elaborate trains (such as trains having more ocelli), a more symmetrical
arrangement, or a greater length. Takahashi determined that the peacock's train was not the universal
target of female mate choice, showed little variance across male populations, and, based on physiological
data collected from this group of peafowl, do not correlate to male physical conditions. Adeline Loyau
and her colleagues responded to Takahashi's study by voicing concern that alternative explanations for
these results had been overlooked, and that these might be essential for the understanding of the
complexity of mate choice. They concluded that female choice might indeed vary in different ecological
conditions.
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A 2013 study that tracked the eye movements of peahens responding to male displays found that
they looked in the direction of the upper train of feathers only when at long distances and that they
looked only at the lower feathers when males displayed close to them. The rattling of the tail and the
shaking of the wings helped in keeping the attention of females.
Peacocks are polygamous, and the breeding season is spread out but appears to be dependent
on the rains. Peafowls usually reach sexual maturity at the age of 2 to 3 years old. Several males may
congregate at a lek site and these males are often closely related. Males at lek appear to maintain small
territories next to each other and they allow females to visit them and make no attempt to guard harems.
Females do not appear to favour specific males. The males display in courtship by raising the upper-tail
coverts into an arched fan. The wings are held half open and drooped and it periodically vibrates the long
feathers producing a ruffling sound. The cock faces the hen initially and struts and prances around and
sometimes turns around to display the tail. Males may also freeze over food to invite a female in a form
of courtship feeding. Males may display even in the absence of females. When a male is displaying,
females do not appear to show any interest and usually continue their foraging. The peak season in
southern India is April to May, January to March in Sri Lanka and June in northern India. The nest is a
shallow scrape in the ground lined with leaves, sticks and other debris. Nests are sometimes placed on
buildings and in earlier times have been recorded using the disused nest platforms of the white-rumped
vultures. The clutch consists of 4–8 fawn to buff white eggs which are incubated only by the female. The
eggs take about 28 days to hatch. The chicks are nidifugous and follow the mother around after hatching.
Downy young may sometimes climb on their mothers' back and the female may carry them in flight to a
safe tree branch. An unusual instance of a male incubating a clutch of eggs has been reported.
Behaviour
Peafowl are best known for the male's extravagant display feathers which, despite actually
growing from their back, are thought of as a tail. The "train" is in reality made up of the enormously
elongated upper tail coverts. The tail itself is brown and short as in the peahen. The colours result not
from any green or blue pigments but from the micro-structure of the feathers and the resulting optical
phenomena. The long train feathers (and tarsal spurs) of the male develop only after the second year of
life. Fully developed trains are found in birds older than four years. In northern India, these begin to
develop each February and are moulted at the end of August. The moult of the flight feathers may be
spread out across the year.
Peafowl forage on the ground in small groups, known as musters, that usually have a cock and 3
to 5 hens. After the breeding season, the flocks tend to be made up only of females and young. They are
found in the open early in the mornings and tend to stay in cover during the heat of the day. They are
fond of dust-bathing and at dusk, groups walk in single file to a favourite waterhole to drink. When
disturbed, they usually escape by running and rarely take to flight.
Peafowl roost in groups during the night on tall trees but may sometimes make use of rocks,
buildings or pylons. In the Gir forest, they chose tall trees in steep river banks. Birds arrive at dusk and call
frequently before taking their position on the roost trees. Due to this habit of congregating at the roost,
many population studies are made at these sites. The population structure is not well understood. In a
study in northern India (Jodhpur), the number of males was 170–210 for 100 females but a study involving
evening counts at the roost site in southern India (Injar) suggested a ratio of 47 males for 100 females.
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Aviculture
Prominent in many cultures, the peacock has been used in numerous iconic representations,
including being designated the national bird of India in 1963. The peacock, known as mayura in Sanskrit,
has enjoyed a fabled place in India since and is frequently depicted in temple art, mythology, poetry, folk
music and traditions. A Sankrit derivation of mayura is from the root mi for kill and said to mean "killer of
snakes". Many Hindu deities are associated with the bird, Krishna is often depicted with a feather in his
headband, while worshippers of Shiva associate the bird as the steed of the God of war, Kartikeya (also
known as Skanda or Murugan). A story in the Uttara Ramayana describes the head of the Devas, Indra,
who unable to defeat Ravana, sheltered under the wing of peacock and later blessed it with a "thousand
eyes" and fearlessness from serpents. Another story has Indra who after being cursed with a thousand
ulcers was transformed into a peacock with a thousand eyes. In Buddhist philosophy, the peacock
represents wisdom. Peacock feathers are used in many rituals and ornamentation. Peacock motifs are
widespread in Indian temple architecture, old coinage, textiles and continue to be used in many modern
items of art and utility. In Greek mythology the origin of the peacocks plumage is explained in the tale of
Hera and Argus. The main figure of the Kurdish religion Yezidism, Melek Taus, is most commonly
depicted as a peacock. Peacock motifs are widely used even today such as in the logos of the US NBC
and the PTV television networks and the Sri Lankan Airlines.
These birds were often kept in menageries and as ornaments in large gardens and estates. In
medieval times, knights in Europe took a "Vow of the Peacock" and decorated their helmets with its
plumes. Feathers were buried with Viking warriors and the flesh of the bird was said to cure snake venom
and many other maladies. Numerous uses in Ayurveda have been documented. Peafowl were said to keep
an area free of snakes. In 1526, the legal issue as to whether peacocks were wild or domestic fowl was
thought sufficiently important for Cardinal Wolsey to summon all the English judges to give their opinion,
which was that they are domestic fowl.
In Anglo-Indian usage of the 1850s, to peacock meant making visits to ladies and gentlemen in
the morning. In the 1890s, the term "peacocking" in Australia referred to the practice of buying up the
best pieces of land ("picking the eyes") so as to render the surrounding lands valueless. The English word
"peacock" has come to be used to describe a man who is very proud or gives a lot of attention to his
clothing.
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Lady Amherst’s Pheasant
Introduction
Lady Amherst’s Pheasant illustration (cock & hen)
Lady Amherst’s Pheasant (Male)
Close-up
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Lady Amherst’s Pheasant (Female)
Close-up
The Lady Amherst's pheasant (Chrysolophus amherstiae) is a bird of the order Galliformes and the
family Phasianidae.
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Resident Bird(s)
Our male Lady Amherst’s Pheasant
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Taxonomy
Description
The adult male is 100–120 cm in length, its tail accounting for 80 cm of the total length. It is
unmistakable with its black and silver head, long grey tail and rump, and red, blue, white and yellow body
plumage. The "cape" can be raised in display. This species is closely related to the golden pheasant and
the introduced populations in England will interbreed. The female is much less showy, with a duller
mottled brown plumage all over, similar to that of the female common pheasant but with finer barring.
She is very like the female golden pheasant, but has a darker head and cleaner underparts than the hen of
that species. Despite the male's showy appearance, these birds are very difficult to see in their natural
habitat, which is dense, dark forests with thick undergrowth. Consequently, little is known of their
behaviour in the wild.
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Lady Amherst’s Pheasants are indigenous to China and parts of southeast Asia, but breeding
colonies have naturalized throughout the UK, as shown above in green
The species is native to south-western China and Burma, but has been introduced elsewhere, and
has established a self-supporting, but now declining, feral population in England, the stronghold of which
is now in Bedfordshire.
Conservation Status
Widespread throughout its large range, the Lady Amherst's pheasant is evaluated as Least
Concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Diet
They feed on the ground on grain, leaves and invertebrates, but roost in trees at night. Whilst
they can fly, they prefer to run, but if startled they can suddenly burst upwards at great speed, with a
distinctive wing sound.
Reproduction
The male has a gruff call in the breeding season.
Aviculture
The name commemorates Sarah Countess Amherst, wife of William Pitt Amherst, Governor
General of Bengal, who was responsible for sending the first specimen of the bird to London in 1828.
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Golden Pheasant
Introduction
Golden Pheasant illustration (cock & hen)
Golden Pheasant illustration (cock & hen)
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Golden Pheasant (Male)
Golden Pheasant (Female)
Close-up
Close-up
The Golden Pheasant or Chinese Cheasant, (Chrysolophus pictus) is a gamebird of the order
Galliformes (gallinaceous birds) and the family Phasianidae (pheasants). It is native to forests in
mountainous areas of western China, but feral populations have been established in the United Kingdom
and elsewhere. In England they may be found in East Anglia in the dense forest landscape of the
Breckland.
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Resident Bird(s)
Our female Golden Pheasant
Taxonomy
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Description
The adult male is 90–105 cm in length, its tail accounting for two-thirds of the total length. It is
unmistakable with its golden crest and rump and bright red body. The deep orange "cape" can be spread
in display, appearing as an alternating black and orange fan that covers all of the face except its bright
yellow eye with a pinpoint black pupil.
Males have a golden-yellow crest with a hint of red at the tip. The face, throat, chin, and the sides
of neck are rusty tan. The wattles and orbital skin are both yellow in colour, and the ruff or cape is light
orange. The upper back is green and the rest of the back and rump is golden-yellow. The tertiaries are
blue whereas the scapulars are dark red. Other characteristics of the male plumage are the central tail
feathers, black spotted with cinnamon, as well as the tip of the tail being a cinnamon buff. The upper tail
coverts are the same colour as the central tail feathers. The male also has a scarlet breast, and scarlet and
light chestnut flanks and underparts. Lower legs and feet are a dull yellow.
The female (hen) is much less showy, with a duller mottled brown plumage similar to that of the
female common pheasant. She is darker and more slender than the hen of that species, with a
proportionately longer tail (half her 60–80 cm length). The female's breast and sides are barred buff and
blackish brown, and the abdomen is plain buff. She has a buff face and throat. Some abnormal females
may later in their lifetime get some male plumage. Lower legs and feet are a dull yellow.
Both males and females have yellow legs and yellow bills.
Golden Pheasants are indigenous to western China, as shown above in green
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Breeding colonies have naturalized throughout parts of central Asia, Europe, and the UK, as shown
above in dark blue
It is native to forests in mountainous areas of western China, but feral populations have been
established in the United Kingdom and elsewhere. Despite the male's showy appearance, these hardy
birds are very difficult to see in their natural habitat, which is dense, dark young conifer forests with sparse
undergrowth. Consequently, little is known about their behaviour in the wild.
Conservation Status
The Golden Pheasant is of least concern.
Diet
They feed on the ground on grain, leaves and invertebrates, but they roost in trees at night. While
they can fly, they prefer to run. If startled, they can suddenly burst upwards at great speed and with a
distinctive wing sound.
Reproduction
Golden pheasants lay 8-12 eggs at a time and will then incubate these for around 22–23 days.
They tend to eat berries, grubs, seeds and other types of vegetation. The male has a metallic call in the
breeding season.
Behaviour
Although they can fly in short bursts, they are quite clumsy in flight and spend most of their time on the
ground.
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Aviculture
The golden pheasant is commonly found in zoos and aviaries, but often as hybrid specimens that
have the similar Lady Amherst's pheasant in their lineage. There are also different mutations of the
golden pheasant known from birds in captivity, including the dark-throated, yellow, cinnamon, salmon,
peach, splash, mahogany and silver. In aviculture, the wild type is referred to as "red golden" to
differentiate it from these mutations.
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Domestic Chicken
Introduction
Male & female Domestic Chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus)
Male Red Jungle Fowl (Gallus gallus)
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Female Red Jungle Fowl (Gallus gallus)
The Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) is a domesticated fowl, a subspecies of the Red Jungle
Fowl (Gallus gallus). The traditional poultry farming view of the domestication of the chicken is stated in
Encyclopedia Britannica (2007): "Humans first domesticated chickens of Indian origin for the purpose of
cockfighting in Asia, Africa, and Europe”, and very little formal attention was given to egg or meat
production. This is a view which is still supported by many archeologists. Recent genetic studies have
pointed to multiple maternal origins in Southeast, East, and South Asia, but with the clade found in the
Americas, Europe, the Middle East and Africa originating in the Indian subcontinent. From India, the
domesticated chicken was imported to Lydia, in western Asia Minor, and to Greece by the fifth century BC.
Fowl had been known in Egypt since the mid-15th century BC, with the "bird that gives birth every day"
having come to Egypt from the land between Syria and Shinar, Babylonia, according to the annals of
Thutmose III.
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Resident Bird(s)
Our rooster (Gallus gallus domesticus)
Our hen (Gallus gallus domesticus)
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Over the years varieties of Fancy Chickens (also Gallus gallus domesticus) have resided at the
Friends of The Aviary, including the Silkie Chicken
Taxonomy
Red Jungle Fowl
Domesticated Chicken
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The other three members of the genus are the Sri Lanka Jungle Fowl (Gallus lafayetii), the Grey
Jungle Fowl (Gallus sonneratii), and the Green Jungle Fowl (Gallus varius), do not usually produce fertile
hybrids with the Red Jungle Fowl, suggesting that it is the Red Jungle Fowl is the sole ancestor of the
domestic chicken. However, recent research has revealed the absence of the yellow skin gene in the wild
Red Jungle Fowl found in domestic birds, which suggests hybridisation with the Grey Jungle Fowl during
the domestication of the species. A culturally significant hybrid between the Red Jungle Fowl and the
Green Jungle Fowl in Indonesia. This hybrid is known as the Bekisar.
Description
Roosters can usually be differentiated from hens by their striking plumage of long flowing tails
and shiny, pointed feathers on their necks (hackles) and backs (saddle), which are typically of brighter,
bolder colours than those of females of the same breed. However, in some breeds, such as the Sebright
Chicken, the rooster has only slightly pointed neck feathers, the same colour as the hens. The
identification can be made by looking at the comb, or eventually from the development of spurs on the
male's legs (in a few breeds and in certain hybrids, the male and female chicks may be differentiated by
colour). Adult chickens have a fleshy crest on their heads called a comb, or cockscomb, and hanging flaps
of skin either side under their beaks called wattles. Collectively, these and other fleshy protuberances on
the head and throat are called caruncles. Both the adult male and female have wattles and combs, but in
most breeds these are more prominent in males. A muff or beard is a mutation found in several chicken
breeds which causes extra feathering under the chicken's face, giving the appearance of a beard.
Domestic chickens are not capable of long distance flight, although lighter birds are generally capable of
flying for short distances, such as over fences or into trees (where they would naturally roost). Chickens
may occasionally fly briefly to explore their surroundings, but generally do so only to flee perceived
Chickens may live for five to ten years, depending on the breed. The world's oldest chicken, a hen,
died of heart failure at the age of 16 according to Guinness World Records.
The feral species that the Chicken was domesticated from is known as the Red Jungle Fowl (Gallus
gallus). Its natural range consists of India and parts of southeast Asia.
The range of the wild form stretches from Tamil Nadu, South India (where it has almost certainly
been diluted with cross breeding from domestic breeds) eastwards across southern China and into
Malaysia, the Philippines (where it is locally known as "Labuyo"), and Indonesia. Jungle Fowl are
established on several of the Hawaiian Islands, but these are feral descendants of domestic chickens. They
can also be found on Christmas Island, Vanuatu, and the Mariana Islands.
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Each of these various regions had its own subspecies of Gallus gallus, including:
•
•
•
•
•
•
G. g. gallus - from Indochina
G. g. bankiva - from Java
G. g. jabouillei - from Vietnam
G. g. murghi - from India
G. g. spadiceus - from Burma
G. g. domesticus - (domestic chicken)
As one of the most common and widespread domestic animals, with a population of more than
24 billion in 2003, there are more chickens in the world than any other species of bird. Humans keep
chickens primarily as a source of food, consuming both their meat and their eggs.
Conservation Status
Domestic chickens are the most widely distributed bird on the planet, thanks to man. But,
purebred Red Jungle Fowl are thought to be facing a serious threat of extinction because of hybridization
at the edge of forests where domesticated free ranging chickens are common.
Diet
Chickens are omnivores. In the wild, they often scratch at the soil to search for seeds, insects and
even larger animals such as lizards, small snakes or young mice.
Reproduction
Hens will often try to lay in nests that already contain eggs and have been known to move eggs
from neighbouring nests into their own. The result of this behaviour is that a flock will use only a few
preferred locations, rather than having a different nest for every bird. Hens will often express a preference
to lay in the same location. It is not unknown for two (or more) hens to try to share the same nest at the
same time. If the nest is small, or one of the hens is particularly determined, this may result in chickens
trying to lay on top of each other. There is evidence that individual hens prefer to be either solitary or
gregarious nesters. Some farmers use fake eggs made from plastic or stone (or golf balls) to encourage
hens to lay in a particular location.
Under natural conditions, most birds lay only until a clutch is complete, and they will then
incubate all the eggs. Many domestic hens will also do this, and are then said to "go broody". The broody
hen will stop laying and instead will focus on the incubation of the eggs (a full clutch is usually about 12
eggs). She will "sit" or "set" on the nest, protesting or pecking in defense if disturbed or removed, and she
will rarely leave the nest to eat, drink, or dust-bathe. While brooding, the hen maintains the nest at a
constant temperature and humidity, as well as turning the eggs regularly during the first part of the
incubation. To stimulate broodiness, an owner may place many artificial eggs in the nest, or to stop it they
may place the hen in an elevated cage with an open wire floor.
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Modern egg-laying breeds rarely go broody, and those that do often stop part-way through the
incubation. However, some "utility" (general purpose) breeds, such as the Cochin, Cornish and Silkie, do
regularly go broody, and they make excellent mothers, not only for chicken eggs but also for those of
other species—even those with much smaller or larger eggs and different incubation periods, such as
quail, pheasants, turkeys or geese. Chicken eggs can also be hatched under a broody duck, with varied
success.
Behaviour
Chickens are gregarious birds and live together in flocks. They have a communal approach to the
incubation of eggs and raising of young. Individual chickens in a flock will dominate others, establishing a
"pecking order", with dominant individuals having priority for food access and nesting locations.
Removing hens or roosters from a flock causes a temporary disruption to this social order until a new
pecking order is established. Adding hens, especially younger birds, to an existing flock can lead to
fighting and injury. When a rooster finds food, he may call other chickens to eat first. He does this by
clucking in a high pitch as well as picking up and dropping the food. This behaviour may also be observed
in mother hens to call their chicks and encourage them to eat.
Rooster’s crowing (a loud and sometimes shrill call) is a territorial signal to other roosters.
However, crowing may also result from sudden disturbances within their surroundings. Hens cluck loudly
after laying an egg, and also to call their chicks. Chickens also give a low "warning call" when they think
they see a predator approaching.
Aviculture
In the UK and Ireland adult male chickens over the age of one year are primarily known as cocks,
whereas in America, Australia and Canada they are more commonly called roosters. Males less than a
year old are cockerels. Castrated roosters are called capons (It is now illegal to perform surgical and
chemical castration in many parts of the world). Females over a year old are known as hens and younger
females as pullets, although in the egg-laying industry, a pullet becomes a hen when she begins to lay
eggs at 16 to 20 weeks of age. In Australia and New Zealand (also sometimes in Britain), there is a generic
term chook /ˈtʃʊk/ to describe all ages and both sexes. The young are called chicks and the meat is called
chicken.
"Chicken" originally referred to chicks, not the species itself. The species as a whole was then
called domestic fowl, or just fowl. This use of "chicken" survives in the phrase "Hen and Chickens",
sometimes used as a British public house or theatre name, and to name groups of one large and many
small rocks or islands in the sea. In the Deep South of the United States chickens are also referred to by
the slang term yardbird.
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California Quail
Introduction
California Quail
California Quail (male)
Close-up
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California Quail (female)
Close-up
The California Quail (Callipepla californica), also known as the California Valley Quail or Valley
Quail, is a small ground-dwelling bird in the New World quail family.
Resident Bird(s)
Male & female California Quail
Male California Quail
The above mentioned birds no longer reside at the Friends of The Aviary
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Taxonomy
There are seven recognized subspecies:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
C. c. achrustera (Peters, 1923) – San Lucas California quail – southern Baja California
C. c. brunnescens (Ridgway, 1884) – extreme northern costal California to southern Santa Cruz
County
C. c. californica (Shaw, 1798) – northern Oregon and western Nevada to southern California and
Coronado Islands
C. c. canfieldae (Van Rossem, 1939) – Owen Valley quail – Owens Valley of east central California
C. c. catalinensis (Grinnell, 1906) – Santa Catalina quail – Santa Catalina Island (off southern
California)
C. c. orecta (Oberholser, 1932) – Warner Valley quail – Warner Valley in Oregon to extreme
northern California
C. c. plumbea (Grinnell, 1926) – San Quintin California quail – San Diego County to southern Baja
California
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Description
These birds have a curving crest or plume, made of six feathers, that droops forward: black in
males and brown for females; the flanks are brown with white streaks. Males have a dark brown cap and a
black face with a brown back, a grey-blue chest and a light brown belly. Females and immature birds are
mainly grey-brown with a light-colored belly. Their closest relative is Gambel's quail which has a more
southerly distribution and, a longer crest (2.5 in or 6.4 cm), a brighter head and a scalier appearance. The
two species separated about 1–2 million years ago, during the Late Pliocene or Early Pleistocene. It is the
state bird of California.
California Quail are found along the Rocky Mountains, from as far north as Canada all the way to
the Baja California in Mexico, as shown above in purple
They are year-round residents. Although this bird coexists well at the edges of urban areas, it is
declining in some areas as human populations increase. They were originally found mainly in the
southwestern United States but they have been introduced into other areas including British Columbia,
Hawaii, Chile, Uruguay, Brazil, Argentina, Peru, South Africa, New Zealand, and to Norfolk Island and King
Island in Australia.
Diet
These birds forage on the ground, often scratching at the soil. They can sometimes be seen
feeding at the sides of roads. Their diet consists mainly of seeds and leaves, but they also eat some berries
and insects; for example, Toyon berries are a common food source.
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Reproduction
Their breeding habitat is shrubby areas and open woodlands in western North America. The nest
is a shallow scrape lined with vegetation on the ground beneath a shrub or other cover. The female
usually lays approximately twelve eggs. Once hatched, the young associate with both adults. Often,
families group together, into multifamily "communal broods" which include at least two females, multiple
males and many offspring. Males associated with families are not always the genetic fathers. In good
years, females will lay more than one clutch, leaving the hatched young with the associated male and
laying a new clutch, often with a different associated male.
Behaviour
The California quail is a highly sociable bird that often gathers in small flocks known as "coveys".
One of their daily communal activities is a dust bath. A group of quail will select an area where the ground
has been newly turned or is soft, and using their underbellies, will burrow downward into the soil some
one to two inches. They then wriggle about in the indentations they have created, flapping their wings
and ruffling their feathers, causing dust to rise in the air. They seem to prefer sunny places in which to
create these dust baths. An ornithologist is able to detect the presence of quail in an area by spotting the
circular indentations left behind in the soft dirt, some 7–15 cm (2.8–5.9 in) in diameter. If startled, these
birds explode into short rapid flight, called "flushing". Given a choice, they will normally escape on foot.
Aviculture
Exodus 16:1-13 relates how the migrating Israelites asked God for meat and were provided with a
massive flock of migrating quail. It is still heavily hunted as game on passage through the Mediterranean
area. This species over recent years has seen an increase in its propagation in the United States and
Europe. However, most of this increase is with hobbyists. In 1537 Queen Jane Seymour, third wife of
Henry VIII, pregnant with the future King Edward VI, developed an insatiable craving for quail, and
courtiers and diplomats abroad were ordered to find sufficient supplies for the Queen.
They have a variety of vocalizations including the social "chicago" call, contact "pips" and warning
"pips". During the breeding season, males utter the agonistic "squill" and will often interrupt their social
mate's "chicago" call with a "squill," a possible form of antiphonal calling.
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Scaled Quail
Introduction
Scaled Quail
Scaled Quail (Male)
Close-up
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Feral male getting a drink
Feral male sprinting away from danger
Feral female
Feral female with her brood of chicks
Close-up
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Feral male – left, female - right
The Scaled Quail (Callipepla squamata), also commonly called Blue Quail or Cottontop, is a
species of the New World quail family. It is a bluish gray bird found in the arid regions of the
Southwestern United States to Central Mexico. This species is an early offshoot of the genus Callipepla,
diverging in the Pliocene.
Resident Bird(s)
Our resident Scaled Quail, male left, female - right
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Taxonomy
Scaled Quail has formed several subspecies, 3 of which range into the USA:
•
Callipepla squamata squamata Vigors, 1830 (Altiplano Scaled Quail). The nominate subspecies; it
is only found on the Central Plateau (altiplano) of Mexico.
•
Callipepla squamata pallida Brewster, 1881 (Northern Scaled Quail). The most common
subspecies, it occurs from Arizona and New Mexico to Colorado and just into Oklahoma, and
western Texas, northern Chihuahua, and Sonora. It is paler than the nominate subspecies.
•
Callipepla squamata hargravei Rea, 1973 (Upper Sonoran Scaled Quail). A form of arid habitat, it
is only found in the area where the states of Colorado, Kansas and Oklahoma meet, and in
northwestern New Mexico. It is the palest subspecies, adapted to dry and sandy habitat.
•
Callipepla squamata castanogastris Brewster, 1883 (Chestnut-Bellied Scaled Quail). Found in
southern Texas from Eagle Pass and San Antonio south to adjacent northwestern Mexico
(Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas). Similar individuals are sometimes found in the extreme
northeast and west of the species' range. The chestnut brown belly distinguishes it from all other
subspecies; it is also darker than the other two found in the USA.
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Description
This bird is named for the scaly appearance of its breast and back feathers. Along with its scaly
markings, the bird is easily identified by its white crest that resembles a tuft of cotton.
Scaled Quail are native from the south-central United States to northeast Mexico, as shown above
in purple
Scaled Quail occur from south-central Arizona, northern New Mexico, east-central Colorado, and
southwestern Kansas south through western Oklahoma and western and central Texas into Mexico to
northeastern Jalisco, Guanajuato, Queretaru, Hidalgo, and western Tamaulipas. It has been introduced to
Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico and to the United States in Hawaii, central
Washington, eastern Nevada, and Nebraska, but is only considered established in central Washington and
eastern Nevada.
Scaled Quail inhabit dry, open valleys, plains, foothills, rocky slopes, draws, gullies, and canyons
that have a mixture of bare ground, low herbaceous growth, and scattered brushy cover. Good scaled
quail habitat is characterized by low-growing grasses with forbs and shrubs. Overall ground cover is
between 10 and 50%. Trees and shrubs should be less than 6.6 feet (2 m) tall. Scaled quail avoid the
dense growth associated with streamsides. Transmitter-fitted scaled quail had individual home range sizes
of 52 and 60 acres (21 and 24 ha).
An absolute requirement by scaled quail for a source of open water has not been established;
there is some debate in the literature whether there is such a requirement. Scaled quail have been
reported as inhabiting an area 7 or 8 miles (11.2–12.8 km) from the nearest water in Arizona. In New
Mexico, it was not unusual to find Scaled Quail 10 to 15 miles (16–24 km) from water. Wallmo observed
winter coveys 3 and 7 miles (1.8 and 11.2 km) from water in Big Bend National Park in southwestern Texas.
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In Arizona, Scaled Quail summer habitat is seldom within 660 feet (200 m) of water. Scaled Quail
were observed drinking at stock tanks from April to June (which was a dry period during the course of the
study) every 2 to 3 days. In Oklahoma, Scaled Quail often migrate to farms and ranches in winter and are
thus closer to a source of water in winter than in summer. DeGraaf and others reported that in winter,
Scaled Quail are usually found within 1.25 miles (2 km) of a source of water.
Conservation Status
Widespread and common throughout its range, the scaled quail is evaluated as Least Concern on
the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Diet
Scaled Quail are opportunistic eaters. Seeds are consumed year-round. Large seeds (such as those
of mesquite and snakeweed) are important in Scaled quail diets. Other seeds include those of elbowbush
(Forestiera angustifolia), catclaw acacia, mesquite, hackberry (Celtis spp.), Russian-thistle, rough pigweed
(Amaranthus retroflexus), and sunflowers, ragweeds (Ambrosia spp.), and other Asteraceous plants.
Scaled Quail consume more grass seeds than do other quail species. Other dietary components include
leaves, fruits, and insects. Summer diets are high in green vegetation and insects, which are also important
sources of moisture.
Reproduction
In Arizona, pairing and maximum dispersal is complete by mid-June. Nesting probably does not
begin until early July. In Oklahoma, egg laying usually starts in late April. Completed clutches have been
found as early as May 8. Egg laying occurs from March to June in Texas and Mexico, and from April to
September in New Mexico. Nests with eggs were reported as early as April 15 in New Mexico.
Scaled Quail lay from 9 to 16 eggs; most clutches are 12 to 14 eggs. Eggs are incubated by the
female for 21 to 23 days. Double-brooding (the production of two consecutive broods in one season) is
common. In west Texas, Wallmo observed the male rearing the first brood while the female began a
second clutch. Sutton stated, however, that scaled quail in Oklahoma are probably single-brooded, but
have hatched broods as late as September 6th. Ehrlich and others also list scaled quail as single-brooded.
The precocial young leave the nest shortly after hatching. They are accompanied by at least one,
usually both, parents, who show them how to find food. The young fledge rapidly (age at fledging not
reported in the literature), and are adult size in 11 to 15 weeks.
Scaled Quail are fairly sedentary. The winter home ranges of scaled quail coveys varied from 24
to 84 acres (9.6–33.6 ha). The home ranges of separate coveys overlap only slightly or not at all. From
September to November Scaled Quail coveys maintain stable territories. In Arizona, 75 to 90% of a
population apparently moved off of a breeding area by mid-November, moving to nearby mountain
foothills. The mountain habitat was consistent with that found on the breeding area. In March the
population on the breeding area increased again, with most birds in groups of four to eight.
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The average winter covey size for scaled quail is around 30 birds, although coveys of up to 150
birds have been reported.
Behaviour
Feeding cover: Scaled Quail use grass clumps and shrubs for cover while feeding. In one study
they were frequently seen crossing 82 to 165 feet (25–50 m) of bare ground. When disturbed, scaled quail
hid in snakeweed (Gutierrezia spp.) or in grass clumps. In June and July foraging occurs on open
grasslands which are not used at other times.
Loafing cover: Scaled Quail coveys occupy loafing or resting cover after early morning feeding
periods. Scaled quail occupy desert grassland or desert scrub with a minimum of one loafing covert per
approximately 70 acres (28 ha). In northwestern Texas, loafing coverts were characterized by: (1) overhead
woody cover, (2) lateral screening cover, (3) a central area with bare soil, and (4) one or more paths
through the lateral cover. Covert heights ranged from 1.6 to 5.9 feet (0.5–1.8 m) and 2.6 to 6.9 feet (0.8–
2.1 m) in diameter. Cholla formed all or part of the overhead cover of 85% of coverts, even though they
were dominant at only 12% of the study locations. In areas where Scaled Quail occur without cholla,
woody species such as wolfberry (Lycium spp.) and mesquite are important for overhead cover. In
Oklahoma pinyon-juniper habitats, Scaled Quail use the shade of tree cholla (Cylindropuntia imbricata)
and human-made structures. In Arizona, Scaled Quail occupied wolfberry and mesquite 1.7 to 5 feet (0.5–
1.5 m) tall for loafing cover. This overhead cover provides midday shade, but is open at the base to allow
easy escape from predators. In Oklahoma, winter home ranges always contained skunkbush sumac, tree
cholla, or human-made structures providing overhead cover.
Night-roosting cover: Scaled Quail roosts were observed in yucca (Yucca angustifolia), tree
cholla, and true mountain-mahogany (Cercocarpus montanus)-yucca-fragrant sumac (Rhus aromatica)
vegetation types. The height of vegetation used for night roosts was less than 1.6 feet (0.5 m).
Nesting cover: In March or April winter coveys spread out into areas with less cover. This use of
areas with less cover coincides with a seasonal decrease in the number of raptors in the same area. Scaled
Quail nests are constructed under tufts of grasses, and are sheltered by sagebrush (Artemisia spp.),
creosotebush (Larrea tridentata), mesquite, catclaw acacia (Acacia greggii), cactus, or yucca; under dead
Russian-thistle (Salsola kali), mixed forbs, or soapweed yucca; or sheltered in old machinery or other
human-made debris. In Oklahoma, 66% of nests were in one of four situations: (1) dead Russian-thistle,
(2) machinery and junk, (3) mixed forbs, and (4) soapweed yucca. In New Mexico, ordination of breeding
birds and vegetative microhabitats indicated that scaled quail were associated with increased levels of
patchiness and increased cover of mesquite and cactus.
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Aviculture
In Arizona, potential Scaled Quail predators include mammals, birds, and reptiles. Most scaled
quail kills are made by avian predators including Northern Harrier (Circus cyaneus), Red-Tailed Hawk
(Buteo jamaicensis), American Kestrel (Falco sparverius), Prairie Falcon (Falco mexicanus), and Great
Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus). In New Mexico, predators of the Scaled Quail include Hawks, Owls,
Coyote (Canis latrans), and Snakes. In Colorado, potential predators of Scaled Quail include Coyote, Gray
Fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes), Kit Fox (V. velox), Bobcat (Lynx rufus), Northern
Harrier, Rough-Legged Hawk (Buteo lagopus), Prairie Falcon, Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus),
American Kestrel, Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), and Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus). Scaled
Quail are also popular gamebirds.
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Domestic Pigeon
Introduction
Rock Dove (Columba livia)
Feral Pigeons or Rock Dove on the sea coast
Feral birds on cliff-face
The Domestic Pigeon (Columba livia domestica) is a pigeon that was derived from the rock
pigeon. The Rock Pigeon (Columba livia) is the world's oldest domesticated bird. Mesopotamian
cuneiform tablets mention the domestication of pigeons more than 5,000 years ago, as do Egyptian
hieroglyphics. Research suggests that domestication of pigeons occurred as early as 10,000 years ago.
People who keep domestic pigeons are generally called pigeon fanciers. Domestic pigeons can often be
distinguished from feral pigeons because they usually have a metal or plastic band around one
(sometimes both) legs which shows, by a number on it, that they are registered to an owner.
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Some common breeds of Domestic Pigeon (Columba livia domestica)
Resident Bird(s)
Ice Pigeons
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Duchess Pigeon (Mottled)
Duchess Pigeon (Pure White)
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Taxonomy
Feral Rock Dove
Domesticated Pigeon
Description
Feral rock pigeons commonly show a very wide range of plumage variation. Many domestic birds
have escaped or been released over the years, and have given rise to the feral pigeon. These show a
variety of plumages, although some look very like the pure Rock Pigeons. The scarcity of the pure wild
species is partly due to interbreeding with feral birds.
Fancy pigeons are domesticated varieties of the Rock Pigeon. They are bred by pigeon fanciers
for various traits relating to size, shape, color, and behavior, who often exhibit their birds at pigeon shows,
fairs and other livestock exhibits. There are about 800 pigeon breeds; considering all regional varieties all
over the world there may be 1100 breeds. The European list of fancy pigeons alone names about 500
breeds. No other domestic animal has branched out into such a variety of forms and colours.
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Charles Darwin is known to have crossbred fancy pigeons, particularly the Ice Pigeon, to study
variation within species, this work coming three years before his ground-breaking publication, On the
Origin of Species.
Pigeon breeders sometimes suffer from an ailment known as bird fancier's lung or pigeon lung. A
form of hypersensitivity pneumonitis, pigeon lung is caused by the inhalation of the avian proteins found
in feathers and dung. It can sometimes be combated by wearing a filtered mask. Other pigeon related
pathogens causing lung disease are psittacosis, histoplasmosis and cryptococcus neoformans.
Pigeons have made contributions of considerable importance to humanity, especially in times of
war. In war the homing ability of pigeons has been put to use by making them messengers. So-called war
pigeons have carried many vital messages and some have been decorated for their services. Medals such
as the Croix de guerre, awarded to Cher Ami, and the Dickin Medal awarded to the pigeons G.I. Joe and
Paddy, amongst 32 others, have been awarded to pigeons for their services in saving human lives. Some
people living in Urban areas consider pigeons to be pests. Domestic pigeons are sometimes called
"thoroughbreds of the air," while feral pigeons are sometimes called "rats with wings." A group of
pigeons flying together is called a "kit".
Diet
Pigeons are also bred for meat, generally called squab and harvested from young birds. Pigeons
grow to a very large size in the nest before they are fledged and able to fly, and in this stage of their
development (when they are called squabs) they are prized as food. For commercial meat production a
breed of large white pigeon, named "King Pigeon," has been developed by selective breeding. Breeds of
pigeons developed for their meat are collectively known as utility pigeons.
Reproduction
Domestic pigeons reproduce in a similar way to the wild Rock Pigeons. Generally humans will
select breeding partners. Crop milk produced by parent birds may occasionally be replaced with artificial
substitutes. Baby pigeons are called squeakers.
Behaviour
Pigeons have been trained to distinguish between cubist and impressionist paintings, for instance.
In Project Sea Hunt, a US coast guard search and rescue project in the 1970s/1980s, pigeons were shown
to be more effective than humans in spotting shipwreck victims at sea. Research in pigeons is widespread,
encompassing shape and texture perception, exemplar and prototype memory, category-based and
associative concepts, and many more unlisted here (see pigeon intelligence and discrimination abilities of
pigeons).
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Trained domestic pigeons are able to return to the home loft if released at a location that they
have never visited before and that may be up to 1000 km away. A special breed, called homing pigeons
has been developed through selective breeding to carry messages and members of this variety of pigeon
are still being used in the sport of pigeon racing and the white dove release ceremony at weddings and
funerals.
The ability a pigeon has to return home from a strange location necessitates two sorts of
information. The first, called "map sense" is their geographic location. The second, "compass sense" is the
bearing they need to fly from their new location in order to reach their home. Both of these senses,
however, respond to a number of different cues in different situations. The most popular conception of
how pigeons are able to do this is that they are able to sense the Earth's magnetic field with tiny magnetic
tissues in their head (magnetoception). This is all the more surprising as they are not a migratory species,
which is a fact used by some ornithologists to dispute this theory. Another theory is that pigeons have
compass sense, which uses the position of the sun, along with an internal clock, to work out direction.
However, studies have shown that if magnetic disruption or clock changes disrupt these senses, the
pigeon can still manage to get home. The variability in the effects of manipulations to these senses of the
pigeons indicates that there is more than one cue on which navigation is based and that map sense
appears to rely on a comparison of available cues.
Other potential cues used include…
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The use of a sun compass.
Nocturnal navigate by stars.
Visual landmark map.
Navigation by infrasound map.
Polarised light compass.
Olfactory stimuli.
Aviculture
Pigeon fanciers developed many exotic forms of pigeon. These are generally classed as fancy
pigeons. The Fanciers compete against each other at exhibitions or shows and the different forms or
breeds are judged to a standard to decide who has the best bird. Among those breeds are the English
carrier pigeons, a variety of pigeon with wattles and a unique, almost vertical, stance (pictures). There are
many ornamental breeds of pigeons, including the "Duchess" breed, which has as a prominent
characteristic feet that are completely covered by a sort of fan of feathers. The fantail pigeons are also
very ornamental with their fan-shaped tail feathers.
Pigeons are also kept by enthusiasts for the enjoyment of Flying/Sporting competitions. Breeds
such as tipplers are flown in endurance contests by their owners.
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In the US, some pigeon keepers illegally trap and kill hawks and falcons to protect their pigeons.
In American pigeon-related organizations, enthusiasts openly shared their experiences of killing hawks
and falcons, although this is frowned upon by the majority of fanciers. None of the major clubs condone
this practice. It is estimated that almost 1000 birds of prey have been killed in Oregon and Washington,
and that 1 to 2 thousand are killed in southern California annually. In June 2007, three Oregon men were
indicted with misdemeanour violations of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act for killing birds of prey. Seven
Californians and a Texan have also been charged in the case.
In the West Midlands region of the United Kingdom pigeon fanciers have been blamed for a trap
campaign to kill peregrine falcons. Eight illegal spring-loaded traps were found close to peregrine nests
and at least one of the protected birds died. The steel traps are thought to have been set as part of a
“concerted campaign” to kill as many of the birds as possible in the West Midlands.
Pigeon fanciers from many different countries exhibit their birds at local, inter-state or national
shows and compete against one another for prizes. One typical country show in Australia in 2008 had
hundreds of pigeons on display and prizes for the winners. In England, the Philoperisteron Society
conducted annual shows in the mid 1800’s. There was also the London Columbarian Society. The
extensive variations in the breeds attracted the attention of Charles Darwin and played a major role in
developing ideas on evolution.
Some fanciers organize exhibitions exclusively for pigeons; one held in Blackpool run by the Royal
Pigeon Racing Association is annually attended by about 25,000 people and generates around £80,000
profit, which is donated to charity.
The largest pigeon show is held in Nuremberg: the German National Pigeon Show, which had
over 33,500 pigeons at the 2006 show.
In the United States, there are hundreds of local, state and national pigeon clubs that sponsor
shows. The largest shows are the National Young Bird Show, held in Louisville, Kentucky in October, and
the National Pigeon Association's Grand National, held in a different city each year and usually in January.
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Carolina Parakeet (Non-Resident – Facts of Interest)
Introduction
Illustrations of Carolina Parakeets by Julie Zickefoose, C. Kulp, & Terry Sohl (left to right)
Our native parrot - the only parrot native to continental North America north of Mexico, the
extinct Carolina Parakeet (Conuropsis carolinensis) was a grackle-sized gregarious bird, mostly green with
a yellow head and orange cheeks. Sadly this species is extinct, but was once a living treasure found
occasionally each summer in parts of our unique Carolinian forest ecosystem. An ecosystem that today is
still home to many rare flora and fauna species that are at their most northerly range.
Specimens of the Carolina Parakeet at the Charleston Museum, Charleston, South Carolina & the
Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago, Illinois (left to right)
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Quick Facts About Carolinian Canada
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25% of Canada's population on 0.25% of its area
More endangered and rare species than any other life zone in Canada
A great diversity of wildlife of all kinds, including many species not found elsewhere in Canada.
Less than 2% of the landscape is in public ownership
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73% of the landscape is in highly productive agriculture.
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Forest cover has been reduced from 80% to 11.3%
Forest interior has been reduced to just 2%
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Wetlands reduced from 28.3% to 5.1%
Dark green areas show the remaining forested areas within the Carolinian ecosystem zone
The Carolina Parakeet (Conuropsis carolinensis) or Carolina Conure was a small green Neotropical
parrot with a bright yellow head, reddish orange face and pale beak native to the eastern, midwest and
plains states of the United States and was the only indigenous parrot within its range. It was found from
southern New York and Wisconsin to Kentucky, Tennessee and the Gulf of Mexico, from the Atlantic
seaboard to as far west as eastern Colorado. It lived in old-growth forests along rivers and in swamps. It
was called Puzzi la née ("Head of Yellow") or Pot Pot Chee by the Seminole, and Kelinky in Chickasaw.
Though formerly prevalent within its range, the bird had become rare by the middle of the 19th century.
The last confirmed sighting in the wild was of the ludovicianus subspecies in 1910. The last known
specimen perished in captivity at Cincinnati Zoo in 1918 and the species was declared extinct in 1939.
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The earliest reference to these parrots was in 1583 in Florida reported by Sir George Peckham in A
True Report of the Late Discoveries of the Newfound Lands of expeditions conducted by English explorer
Sir Humphrey Gilbert who notes that explorers in North America "do testify that they have found in those
countries; ... parrots." They were first scientifically described in English naturalist Mark Catesby's two
volume Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands published in London in 1731 and
1743.
Carolina Parakeets were probably poisonous. American naturalist and painter John J. Audubon
noted that cats apparently died from eating them, and they are known to have eaten the toxic seeds of
cockleburs.
Illustrations of Carolina Parakeets on cockleburs by John James Audubon & Keepoffgrass (left to right)
Specimens of the Carolina Parakeet at the Museum Wiesbaden, Germany & the Pacific Grove
Museum of Natural History, California (left to right)
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Taxonomy
Carolinensis is a species of the genus Conuropsis, one of numerous genera of New World longtailed parrots in tribe Arini, which also includes the Central and South American macaws. Tribe Arini
together with the Amazonian parrots and a few miscellaneous genera make up subfamily Arinae of
Neotropical parrots in family Psittacidae of true parrots.
The specific name Psittacus carolinensis was assigned by Swedish zoologist Carolus Linnaeus in
the 10th edition of Systema Naturae published in 1758. The species was given its own genus Conuropsis
by Italian zoologist and ornithologist Tommaso Salvadori in 1891 in his ‘Catalogue of the Birds’, in the
British Museum, volume 20. The name is derived from the Greek-ified conure ("parrot of the genus
Conurus" an obsolete name of genus Aratinga) + opsis ("likeness of") and Latinized Carolina (from
Carolana, an English colonial province) + ensis (of or "from a place"), therefore a bird "like a conure from
Carolina".
There are two recognized subspecies. The Louisiana subspecies of the Carolina parakeet, C. c.
ludovicianus, was slightly different in color than the nominate subspecies, being more bluish-green and
generally of a somewhat subdued coloration, and went extinct in much the same way, but at a somewhat
earlier date (early 1910s). The Appalachian Mountains separated these birds from the eastern C. c.
carolinensis.
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According to a study of mitochondrial DNA recovered from museum specimens, their closest
living relatives include some of the South American Aratinga parakeets: the Nanday parakeet, the sun
parakeet, and the golden-capped parakeet. The authors note the bright yellow and orange plumage and
blue wing feathers found in Conuropsis carolinensis are traits shared by another species, the jenday
parakeet (A. jandaya), that was not sampled in the study but is generally thought to be closely related.
Carolinensis is in a sister clade to that of Spix's macaw. The Carolina parakeet colonized North America
about 5.5 million years ago. This was well before North America and South America were joined together
by the formation of the Panama land bridge about 3.5 million years ago. Since the Carolina parakeets'
more distant relations are geographically closer to its own historic range whilst its closest relatives are
more geographically distant to it, these data are consistent with the generally accepted hypothesis that
Central and North America were colonized at different times by distinct lineages of parrots. Parrots that
originally invaded South America from Antarctica sometime after the breakup of Gondwana, where
Neotropical parrots originated approximately 50 million year ago.
A fossilized parrot, designated Conuropsis fratercula, was described based on a single humerus
from the Miocene Sheep Creek Formation (possibly late Hemingfordian, circa 16 million years ago,
possibly later) of Snake River, Nebraska. This was a smaller bird, three-quarters the size of the Carolina
parakeet. Westmore (1926) states, "The present species is of peculiar interest as it represents the first
known parrotlike bird to be described as a fossil from North America." However, it is not altogether
certain that this species is correctly assigned to Conuropsis, but some authors consider it a
paleosubspecies of the Carolina parakeet.
Description
The Carolina Parakeet was a small green parrot very similar in size and coloration to the extant
Jenday and Sun Conures. The majority of the plumage was green with lighter green underparts, a bright
yellow head and orange forehead and face extending to behind the eyes and upper cheeks. The
shoulders were yellow, continuing down the outer edge of the wings. The primary feathers were mostly
green, but with yellow edges on the outer primaries. Thighs were green towards the top and yellow
towards the feet. Male and female adults were identical in plumage. However males were slightly larger
than females (sexually dimorphic). The legs and feet were light brown. They share the zygodactyl feet of
the parrot family. The skin around the eyes was white and the beak was pale flesh colored. These birds
weigh about 3.5 oz., are 13 in. long, and have wingspans of 21-23 in.
Young Carolina parakeets differed slightly in coloration from adults. The face and entire body
was green, with paler underparts. They lacked yellow or orange plumage on the face, wings, and thighs.
Hatchlings were covered in mouse-gray down, until about 39–40 days when green wings and tails appear.
Fledglings had full adult plumage at around 1 year of age.
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Illustrations of Carolina Parakeets in the cypress swamp habitat by Rothman & Thomas A. Bennett
(left to right)
These birds were fairly long lived, at least in captivity - a pair was kept at the Cincinnati Zoo for
over 35 years.
The Carolina Parakeet had the northern-most range of any known parrot (summer regions
expanded into the southern Great Lakes region). It was found from southern New England and New York
and Wisconsin to Kentucky, Tennessee and the Gulf of Mexico. It also had a wide distribution west of the
Mississippi River, as far west as eastern Colorado. Its range was described by early explorers thus: the
43rd parallel as the northern limit, the 26th as the most southern, the 73rd and 106th meridians as the
eastern and western boundaries respectively, the range included all or portions of at least 28 states. Its
habitats were old-growth wetland forests along rivers and in swamps especially in the MississippiMissouri drainage basin with large hollow trees including cypress and sycamore to use as roosting and
nesting sites.
Year round range of the Carolina Parakeet, as shown above in pink
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Only very rough estimates of the birds' former prevalence can be made: with an estimated range
2
2
of 20,000 to 2.5 million km , and population density of 0.5 to 2.0 parrots per km , population estimates
range from tens of thousands to a few million birds (though the densest populations occurred in Florida
2
covering 170,000 km , so there may have been hundreds of thousands of the birds in that state alone).
The species may have appeared as a very rare vagrant in places as far north as southern Ontario
(believed to have extended its summer into southwest Ontario, occurring in the Carolinian forest zone
between Lake St. Clair and part of the north shore of Lake Erie. This range may have possibly extended as
far north as the shores of southwest Lake Ontario). A few bones, including a pygostyle found at the
Calvert Site in southern Ontario, came from the Carolina parakeet. The possibility remains open that this
specimen was taken to Southern Ontario for ceremonial purposes.
Conservation Status
There are no scientific studies or surveys of this bird by American naturalists; most information
about it is from anecdotal accounts and museum specimens. Therefore details of its prevalence and
decline are unverified or speculative.
There are extensive accounts of the pre-colonial and early colonial prevalence of this bird. The
existence of flocks of gregarious, very colorful and raucous parrots could hardly have gone unnoted by
European explorers, as parrots were virtually unknown in seafaring European nations in the 16th and 17th
centuries. Later accounts in the latter half of the 19th century onward noted the birds' sparseness and
absence.
In 1937, three parakeets resembling this species were sighted and filmed in the Okefenokee
Swamp of Georgia. However, the American Ornithologists' Union analyzed the film and concluded that
they had probably filmed feral parakeets.
About 720 skins and 16 skeletons are housed in museums around the world and analyzable DNA
has been extracted from them. This DNA obtained for the first time from extinct Carolina Parakeets
reveals their closest relatives and provides insight into the evolution of New World parrots. More detail
listed under ‘Taxonomy’, above.
The evidence is rather conclusive that extinction of the Carolina parakeet was by anthropogenic
activity, through a variety of means. Chief among them is deforestation in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Hunting played a significant role, both for their colorful feathers used to adorn women's hats and to
reduce predation on southern crops. This was partially offset by recognition of their value in controlling
invasive cockleburs. Minor roles were played by capture for the pet trade (aviculture) and, it was
hypothesized, by the introduction for crop pollination of European honeybees that competed for nest
sites.
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The Carolina Parakeet’s intensely saturated red, yellow and green plumage made it an ideal
candidate for spicing up one’s dated chapeau with a decoration that was charmingly American. So
enamored were the hat makers in Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York with the stiff little
beauties that they even worked in the entire bird into their creations.
A factor that exacerbated their decline to extinction was the unfortunate flocking behaviour that
led them to return to the vicinity of dead and dying birds (e.g., birds downed by hunting), enabling
wholesale slaughter.
The final extinction of the species in the early years of the 20th century is somewhat of a mystery,
as it happened so rapidly. Vigorous flocks with many juveniles and reproducing pairs were noted as late
as 1896, and the birds were long-lived in captivity, but they had virtually disappeared by 1904. Sufficient
nest sites remained intact, so deforestation was not the final cause. American ornithologist Noel F. Snyder
speculates that the most likely cause seems to be that the birds succumbed to poultry disease, this in
spite of the fact that no recent or historical records exist of New World parrot populations being afflicted
by domestic poultry diseases. The modern poultry scourge Newcastle disease was not detected until
1926 in Indonesia, and only a subacute form of it was reported in the United States in 1938. The IUCN has
listed the species as extinct since 1918.
Co-Extinction also occurred. We know that six species of mites went extinct along with the
Carolina Parakeet (Conuropsis carolinensis) only because some researchers happened to examine a
stuffed parakeet in a museum, and found the mites still attached.
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Diet
It mostly ate the seeds of grasses, forest trees, and shrubs including those of cypress, hackberry,
beech, sycamore, elm, pine, maple, oak, and other plants such as thistles and sandspurs (Cenchrus
species). It also ate fruits including apples, grapes and figs (often from orchards by the time of its
decline). Also the Carolina Parakeet switched to seeds of apple, peach, mulberry, pecan, grape, dogwood,
and grains, after the forests were cleared for farms.
Carolina’s also fed on cultivated fruit, tore apart apples to get at the seeds, and ate corn and other
grain crops. It was therefore considered a serious agricultural pest and was slaughtered in huge numbers
by wrathful farmers. They were especially noted for their predilection for cockleburs (Xanthium
strumarium), a plant which contains a toxic glucoside, and was an invasive pest in southern farms and
fields.
They were also feeding off mineral-rich soil. In captivity they were fed canary grass seed, hemp,
maize, oats and breadcrumbs.
Reproduction
Carolina Parakeets were monogamous and formed rookeries in cavities of deciduous trees. They
laid two white 34.2 x 27.8 mm (1.35 x 1.09 in) long eggs. Breeding among caged Carolina parakeets was
never particularly successful.
Behaviour
The bird lived in huge, noisy flocks of as many as 200-300 birds.
Aviculture
The birds' range collapsed from east to west with settlement and clearing of the eastern and
southern deciduous forests. John J. Audubon commented as early as 1832 on the decline of the birds.
The bird was rarely reported outside Florida after 1860. The last reported sighting east of the Mississippi
River (except Florida) was in 1878 in Kentucky. By the turn-of-the-century it was restricted to the swamps
of central Florida. The last known wild specimen was killed in Okeechobee County, Florida, in 1904, and
the last captive bird died at the Cincinnati Zoo on February 21, 1914. This was the male specimen, called
"Incas", who died within a year of his mate, "Lady Jane". Additional reports of the bird were made in
Okeechobee County, Florida, until the late 1920s, but these are not supported by specimens. It was not
until 1939, however, that the American Ornithologists' Union declared that the Carolina parakeet had
become extinct.
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Illustration of Lady Jane & Incas by Kristina Knowski
Some theorists at this time, though, believed a few may have been smuggled out of the country
in mid 20th century and may have repopulated elsewhere, although the odds of this are extremely low.
Photo of a living pet Carolina Parakeet, circa 1906
Illustration of Carolina Parakeets by S. Fox & Jaques Barraband (left to right)
P a g e | 188
Kakapo (Non-Resident – Facts of Interest)
Artist illustration of Kakapo
Kakapo or Night Parrot (Strigops habroptilus), measures in at 58 to 64 cm (23 to 25in) and weighs
0.95 to 4 kg (2 to 9lbs)
Kakapo at a conservation park in New Zealand
A very endangered feral Kakapoo
P a g e | 189
Kakapo’s are critically endangered, remaining on three small islands in New Zealand. Their
populations declined rapidly due to the introduction of foreign animal species. Because they are a
flightless bird, they became easy prey

Table of Contents - Friends of the Aviary

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