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PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI THE ANALYSIS OF WORD-FORMATION OF ENGLISH SLANG IN THE INBETWEENERS TELEVISION SERIES A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education By Elizabeth Ratri Dian Jati 101214133 ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTEMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2015 PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI THE ANALYSIS OF WORD-FORMATION OF ENGLISH SLANG IN THE INBETWEENERS TELEVISION SERIES A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education By Elizabeth Ratri Dian Jati 101214133 ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTEMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2015 i PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI ii PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI iii PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI iv PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI “Bersyukurlah pada yang Maha Kuasa Hargailah orang-orang yang menyayangimu dan selalu ada setia di sisimu” (Gigi –Sang Pemimpi) Untuk kalian, orang-orang kuat, sabar, setia, dan tidak pernah pergi ketika waktu-waktu yang sulit v PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI ABSTRACT vi PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI Jati, Elizabeth Ratri Dian. 2015. The Analysis of Word-Formation of English Slang in The Inbetweeners Television Series. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University. English learners must have knowledge on the English variation to help them communicate according to the context and the interlocutors. However, the schools only provide standard English materials. They do not provide the supporting materials about non-standard variation like slang, because it is regarded as low variation. On the other hand, slang is important to study as a part of language and social communication. It is found in the native speakers‟ daily conversation and films dialogue. The study on slang helps the learners to have an understanding on slang and its application. In this study, the writer analyzed the word-formation process that was used to form English slang in The Inbetweeners television series. The aim of the study was to answer two research questions. First question is “what types of word-formation are used to form English slang in The Inbetweeners television series?” The second one is “what is the distribution of the word-formation of English slang found in The Inbetweeners television series?” The writer used the word-formation theories from Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) also O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, & Rees-Miller (2010), namely: coined word, clipping, blending, proper noun, borrowing, internal change, suppletions, reduplication, cliticization, onomatopoeia, change in the part of speech, metaphorical extension, broadening, semantics drift, reversal, compounding, affixation, inflection, back-formation, acronym, abbreviation, generified-word, narrowing, and tone placement to answer those research questions,. Besides, the theory stated by Dumas and Lighter (1978) was used to identify slang. The writer employed four steps of document analysis by Cresswell (1998) to analyze the data, namely: organizing the data, examining the data, classifying and analyzing the data, and making the conclusion according to the finding. The data were taken from the first season of The Inbetweeners television series. Slang in The Inbetweeners was formed by coined word, clipping, blending, proper noun, borrowing indirect, internal change, suppletions, reduplication, cliticization, onomatopoeia, change in the part of speech, metaphorical extension, broadening, semantics drift, reversal, compounding, affixation, inflection, and backformation. Moreover, the writer found compounding is the most frequent wordformation process used in slang in The Inbetweeners. Meanwhile, acronym, alphabetical abbreviation, generified word, and narrowing were not found. Keywords: English Slang, Word-Formation, Morphology, The Inbetweeners vii PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI ABSTRAK Jati, Elizabeth Ratri Dian. 2015. The Analysis of Word-Formation of English Slang in The Inbetweeners Television Series. Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma Para pembelajar bahasa Inggris harus memiliki pengetahuan tentang ragam bahasa Inggris supaya bisa membantu mereka berkomunikasi berdasarkan lawan bicara dan sesuai dengan konteks. Tetapi, sekolah hanya menyediakan materi tentang bahasa Inggris formal. Sekolah tidak memberikan materi pendukung tentang ragam informal, contohnya bahasa gaul, karena bahasa gaul dianggap sebagai ragam bahasa rendahan . Di sisi lain, bahasa gaul sangat penting untuk dipelajari karena itu adalah bagian dari bahasa dan komunikasi sosial. Ragam bahasa gaul bisa ditemukan di percakapn sehari-hari atau dialog film. Penelitian tentang slang membantu para pembelajar untuk memahami bahasa gaul dan cara pemakaiannya. Dalam penelitian ini, penulis menganalisa proses pembentukan kata yang dipakai untuk membentuk kata-kata bahasa gaul. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah menjawab rumusan masalah “Apa jenis proses pembentukan kata yang dipakai untuk membentuk bahasa gaul dalam serial The Inbetweeners?” dan “Bagaimana proses distribusi pembentukan kata yang ditemukan dalam serial The Inbetweeners?” Penulis menggunakan teori pembentukan kata dari Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, dan Harnish (2010) serta O’Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, dan Rees-Miller (2010) untuk menjawab dua pertanyaan tersebut. Proses-proses yang digunakan adalah penciptaan kata, pemenggalan kata, kombinasi proses, eponim, penyerapan kata, perubahan internal, perubahan kata, reduplikasi, klitik, onomatope, transposisi, analogi, perluasan makna, semantic drift, perubahan makna, pembentukan kata gabungan, afiksasi, infleksi, derivasi balik, akronim, singkatan, generified word, penyempitan makna, dan, penempatan bunyi,. Selain itu, teori dari Dumas dan Lighter (1978) juga digunakan untuk mengidentifikasi bahasa gaul. Penulis menggunakan empat proses analisa dokumen dari Cresswell (1998) untuk menganalisa data, yaitu: pengumpulan data, pengkajian data, pengklasifikasian dan penganalisaan data, dan penyajian data. Data-data tersebut diperoleh dari transkrip serial The Inbetweeners sesi pertama. Proses-proses yang ditemukan untuk membentuk kata gaul dalam serial itu, adalah: penciptaan kata, pemenggalan kata, kombinasi proses, eponym, penyerapan kata, perubahan internal, perubahan kata, reduplikasi, klitik, onomatope, transposisi, analogi, perluasan makna, semantic drift, perubahan makna, pembentukan kata gabungan, afiksasi, infleksi, dan derivasi balik. Proses yang paling sering ditemukan adalah pembentukan kata gabungan. Sedangkan yang tidak ditemukan adalah akronim, singkatan, generified word, dan penyempitan makna. Kata kunci: English Slang, Word-Formation, Morphology, The Inbetweeners viii PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I give my gratitude to Jesus Christ for His eternal love that always keep and protect me and to Mother Mary with Her immense power in The Three Hail Mary Novena. I am also grateful because I have chance to have a beautiful life and feel love from my best parents ever, Antonius W. Topo Aji and Maria M. Lies Supriyantini, who are always faithful to encourage me. I also thank my brothers Mas Enggar and Dik Bayong for their support. I am highly indebted to F. X. Ouda Teda Ena, S.Pd, M.Pd, Ed.D for his guidance and patience to help me finish this thesis. He is never bored to review my thesis and remind me to finish my thesis. I thank Mas Simon Arsa Manggala, S.S and Mas Paskalis Damar Aji Kurnis, S.Pd., as well, for their kindness to give their spare time to proofread my work and for the discussion that enlightened my mind. I also thank Bayu Pamungkas, S.Pd. for reviewing my work. I thank all instructors of ILCIC LISDU: Mbak Ira, Mbak Tiara, Mbak Kitin, Mbak Aning, and Mbak Esti for the support. I also thank Rio and Vena, who are in the same boat, for the consolation and the laughter. My gratitude goes to Christophorus Estu N. Jati for knowing my situation when I am under pressure and his effort to make me smile. I also thank Christa Yona T. and Agatha Dwi Ira D. for colorful friendship. My gratitude also goes to Christina Dea, Veni, Nutnut, and Yos, who helped and encouraged me to finish my thesis and ix PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI all members of PBI C 2010 who make me feel happy to stay and study in this beautiful place. Yogyakarta, January 22, 2015 Elizabeth Ratri Dian Jati x PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI TABLE OF CONTENTS Page TITLE PAGE ………………………………………………….……………….. i APPROVAL PAGES ……………………………………….…………………... ii STATEMENT OF WORK‟S ORIGINALITY ………..………………………... iv DEDICATION PAGE …………………………………………………………... v LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ……………………….. vi ABSTRACT …………………………………………………………….............. vii ABSTRAK ……………………………………………………..………………... viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ……………………………………………………... ix TABLE OF CONTENTS …………………………………..…………………… xi LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………….…………………. xvi LIST OF APPENDICES ………………………………………………………... xviii CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study…..…………………………………….. 1 B. Research Problems………………………..………..………… 4 C. Problem Limitation…………………………………..…………... 5 D. Research Objectives…………………….…………..…………... 5 E. Research Benefits…………………………………..……………. 5 F. Definition of Terms…………………………………..………….. 6 xi PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE A. Theoretical Description …..…………..…………..…………..…. 8 1. Sociolinguistics…………..…………..…………..…………... 8 2. Language Variation…………..…………….……..…………. 10 3. Language Change …………..…………..…………..……….. 13 4. Slang …………..…………..…………..…………..………… 18 5. Rhyming Slang ……..…………..…………………………….. 34 6. Specific and General Slang……..…………..………………… 34 7. Morphology ……..…………..……………………………… 35 a. Creating New Words (Neologism)……………………… 37 1) Coined Words …..…………..………..……………… 37 2) Acronyms …..…………..……………………………. 37 3) Alphabetic Abbreviation…..…………..……………… 38 4) Clippings …..…………..……………..……………… 38 5) Blends …..…………..………………………………… 40 6) Generified words.…………..………………………… 40 7) Proper Nouns .…………..……………………………. 41 8) Borrowing .…………..………………………………. 41 9) Internal change .…………..……………..………… 42 10) Suppletion .…………..…………………………….. 42 11) Reduplication .…………..…………………………. 42 12) Tone Placement .…………..……………………….. 44 13) Cliticization .…………..…………………………… 45 14) Back-Formation.…………..………….…………….. 47 xii PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 15) Onomatopoeia …………..………………………….. 48 b. Changing the Meaning of the Words ……………………. 48 1) Change in the Part of Speech……………………….. 48 2) Metaphorical Extension…………………………….. 49 3) Broadening …………………………………………. 50 4) Narrowing…………………………………………... 51 5) Semantic Drift ……………………………………… 51 6) Reversal ……………………………………………. 52 c. Derivational Morphology ………………………………. 52 1) Compounds and Compounding ……………………. 52 2) Affixation …………………………………………. 54 d. Inflectional Morphology ………………………...……… 70 B. Theoretical Framework ……………………………………….. 71 CHAPTER III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY A. Research Method………………………………………………… 73 B. Research Subjects……………………………………………….. 74 C. Instuments and Data Gathering Technique …………………….. 76 D. Data Analysis Technique ……………………………………….. 80 E. Research Procedures…………………………………………….. 85 CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION A. Word-Formation Processes are Used to Form English Slang in The Inbetweeners……………………………………………… 88 1. Coined Word in English Slang………………………………. 89 xiii PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 2. Clipping……………………………………………………… 91 3. Blends………………………………………………………... 93 4. Proper Noun ………………………………………………… 94 5. Borrowing …………………………………………………… 96 6. Internal Change ……………………………………………… 98 7. Suppletion ………………………………………………….. 99 8. Reduplicative ……………………………………………….. 100 9. Cliticization …………………………………………………. 101 10. Back-Formation …………………………………………….. 103 11. Onomatopoeia ………………………………………………. 104 12. Change the Part of Speech …………………………………... 106 13. Metaphorical Extension ……………………………………... 107 14. Broadening …………………………………………………... 111 15. Semantic Drift ……………………………………………… 112 16. Reversal……………………………………………………… 113 17. Compounding ……………………………………………….. 114 18. Affixation…………………………………………………… 118 19. Inflection …………………………………………………… 127 B. The Distribution of Word-Formation Processes ...……………… 128 1. The Most Frequent Word-Formation Process.. ……… 129 2. The Undiscovered Word-Formation Processes………...… 130 CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS A. Conclusions ………………………………………………… xiv 134 PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI B. Implications …………………………………………………. 135 C. Suggestions ………………………………………………….. 136 REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………….. 138 APPENDICES …………………………………………………………………... 141 xv PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI LIST OF TABLES Tables Page 2.1: The Use and meaning of Genitive –„s…………………………………. 46 2.2: Clitics of Auxiliary Verbs ……………………………………………. 47 2.3: Common Prefixes in Standard English………………………………… 54 3.1: Blueprint of Research Instruments Table……………………………… 78 3.2: BlueprintRecord of Slang Word-Formation Distribution ……………... 79 3.3: Example of Data Organization …………………………………...…... 82 3.4: Example of Data Classification …………………………………...….. 83 3.5:The Example of Slang Word-Formation Distribution Recording …….... 84 4.1: Coined Word in English Slang .…………………………………...…... 90 4.2: Clipping in the Slang Word and Its Applications in Sentences ….….... 91 4.3: Blend in Slang and Its Applications …………………………………... 93 4.4: Proper Noun in English Slang …………………………………...…... 95 4.5: Borrowing Process in English Slang…………………………………... 97 4.6: Internal Change in Slang Word…………………………………...…...…... 98 4.7: Suppletion in English Slang…………………………………...…...…...... 99 4.8: The Example of Reduplicative Slang ………………………..…...…....... 101 4.9: Cliticization in English Slang ……………………………………………. 103 xvi PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 4.10: Back-Formation in Slang ………………………………………………... 103 4.11: The Example of Onomatopoeia in Slang ………………………………… 104 4.12: Conversion in English Slang ………………………………………… 106 4.13: Metaphorical Extension in English Slang ……………………………….. 108 4.14: Metaphorical Extension in Slang ………………………………………… 110 4.15: Broadening in English Slang …………………………………...…………. 112 4.16: Semantic Drift in English Slang …………………………………………. 114 4.17: Reversal in English Slang ………………………………………………….. 115 4.18: Endocentric Compound in Slang …………………………………………. 117 4.19: Exocentric Compounnd in English Slang ……………………………… 120 4.20: Suffix –er in English Slang ……………………………………………… 120 4.21: Suffix –y or –ie in English Slang ………………………………………… 122 4.22: Suffix –ed in English Slang…………………………………….………… 123 4.23: Suffix –o in English Slang ……………………………………………….. 125 4.24: Suffix –ing in English Slang ………………………………………………. 126 4.25: Inflections in English Slang ……………………………………………….. 128 xvii PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix Page 1. English Slang Word-Formation in Season 1 Episode 1The Inbetweeners 142 2. English Slang Word-Formation in Season 1 Episode 2 The Inbetweeners……………………………………………………………………. 146 3. English Slang Word-Formation in Season 1 Episode 3 The Inbetweeners …………………………………………………………………… 150 4. English Slang Word-Formation in Season 1 Episode 4 The Inbetweeners……………………………………………………………………. 152 5. English Slang Word-Formation in Season 1 Episode 5 The Inbetweeners …………………………………………………………………… 154 6. English Slang Word-Formation in Season 1 Episode 6 The Inbetweeners …………………………………………………………………… 158 7. The Distribution of English Slang Word-Formation in the First Season of The Inbetweeners………………………………………………………….... 161 xviii PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The first chapter consists of six parts, namely: (1) research background, (2) research problems, (3) problem limitation, (4) research objectives, (5) research benefits, and (6) definition of terms. Background of the study describes the topic of this thesis, the reasons why the writer chooses the topic of this research and why this study is important. Research problems show the problems esearch questions in this study. Problem limitation presents the scope and the focus of the research related to research questions which are going to be answered by this research. The research objectives state the expected findings of the study. Research benefits present the contribution of the study for students, teachers, and other researchers. The definition of terms defines the keywords specifically used in the study. A. Research Background English understanding is important for people of non-English speaking countries. It is because English becomes a main language for international communication. Randolph Quirk states, now, there are about 350 million people in this world who use English as their first language or their second language (cited by Verghese, 1989, p.1). Moreover, the number of English users from nonEnglish speaking countries becomes even more (Kachru, 1992). Therefore, possessing ability in speaking English will help the non-native English speakers to 1 PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 2 connect themselves to the people from other nations. By using English, communication among people from other countries can be built. Since English is used by people in a number of countries, like United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Australia, and Singapore as the first language, there are many English variations based on the geographical condition, for examples: British English, American English, and Australian English. Beside it is grouped based on the geographical matters, English varies because of the social classes. According to the social status, English is distinguished into standard and non-standard variety. Standard language represents middle-class, educated, or relatively formal speech and the non-standard form is emblematic working-class, uneducated, and highly colloquial speech (Chambers, Trudgill & Schiling, 2003). Non-standard language characteristics are just the same with slang characteristics because the users are regarded as lowly people (Coleman, 2012). Thus, it can be said that slang is a part of non-standard variety. Slang is considered as a low prestige language. The standard English speakers have an opinion that slang is sloppy, vulgar, a non-standard English variation and the users are uneducated men who do not know how to employ the appropriate language (Coleman, 2012). It is said so because slang is against the standard variety and full of vulgarism. The use of slang is not in accordance with the standard vocabulary. The slang users choose a new vocabulary to replace a conventional word for example, the slang users might state plum to shift stupid. Besides, most of slang terms are related to the vulgar thing, such as sex and excrement. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 3 Slang is regarded as a disgraceful language. Therefore, slang is not studied in schools. Coleman (2012) reveals slang is not a part of teaching material in a the schools by the reason it is less prestigious than standard English. Moreover, textbooks do not provide enough information about slang. Furthermore, it causes the students against the use of slang for hundred years (Alego, 2001). On the other hand, slang is important to be studied as a part of language and social communication. Moreover, slang is often captured in the film dialogue or in the native regular conversation. The study of slang is also needed to help the students to understand slang further. Slang understanding assists learners to acquire the slang words‟ meaning, the process how standard form changes into slang, and the appropriateness of slang application. In addition, it helps the students to distinguish the standard form, English slang and its use. Therefore, slang is beneficial, especially in education field and linguistics. However, the study about slang is limited. It is evident by Alego (2001), who states that slang has been ignored by linguists and few of them discuss about slang. Slang can be studied from the sociolinguistics aspect or the morphological aspects. In this study, the writer chooses to analyze slang‟s word-formation processes as the part of morphology. The writer has three reasons to choose wordformation process in slang. First, word-formation process is the way to form slang words. For example, slang can be formed by affixation, blending, and clipping (Mattiello, 2008). Second, word-formation is studied by pupils of English language education study program. Analyzing slang word-formation processes PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 4 make study about morphology is easier for them because slang is still a part of English. Third, studying English slang word-formation processes may lead to indepth study related to slang in sociolinguistics. To conduct this study the writer chooses The Inbetweeners television series. The Inbetweeners is a British situation comedy. The story is about a friendship of William McKenzie, Jay Cartwright, Neil Sutherland, and Simon Cooper. They are unpopular students of Rudge Park Comprehension School. They try to be cool and popular. The boys are obsessed to have sexual experiences with girls. The Inbetweeners television series show a lot of cases of the use of slang. In this film, slang words are often used by the teenage characters. The case is mainly found in the William‟s, Jay‟s, Neil‟s, and Simon‟s utterances who are sixteen year old boy. It is in line with Monaghan, Goodman, and Robinson (2012) who state that the teenagers have a lot of slang vocabulary and often apply it in their speech. B. Research Problems In this research, the writer proposes two research questions, namely: 1. What types of word-formations are used to form English slang in The Inbetweeners television series? 2. What is the distribution of the word-formation in English Slang found in The Inbetweeners television series? PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 5 C. Problem Limitation This study concerns to analyze the slang words that are used in the first season of The Inbetweeners television series. The writer examines slang in British English because the research object are television series using British English in its dialogue. In addition, the main focus of the discussion is the word-formation in slang. To analyze the word-formation process, the writer uses the theories of word-formation from Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) also O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, and Rees-Miller (2010). D. Research Objectives There are three purposes in this study. First, it describes the wordformation processes employed in British general slang in The Inbetweeners television series. Second, this study aims to discover the distribution of wordformation processes. Third, this research provides explanation related to slang. Thus, the English speakers gain their knowledge about word-formation and language variation in English. It also helps the people to use the language variation appropriately according to the context. E. Research Benefits This study is meant to give benefits to English learners, future researchers, and teachers. Through this research, English learners are able to enrich their knowledge about English language variation, especially slang. The students do not only study about English variation, but also learn about English word-formations PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 6 through this research. Moreover, it provides familiar material in morphology course because slang is a variation which is commonly used in the spoken informal situation and close to the real context of English speakers. Besides, Slang is also often found in the English films. By conducting the study, hopefully, other researchers will be encouraged to explore about any aspects in English slang deeper. Thus, the study related to English slang will be enriched and renewed. Moreover, the writer hopes the study in slang‟ word-formation will develop the linguistics study in morphology and sociolinguistics branches. Thus, the sources that are related to slang are increasing and can help the future researcher to conduct the study on slang. The writer wishes this study is beneficial for sociolinguistics teachers. The writer hopes this study can be an example for the teachers to provide an interesting teaching material, such as: movies or television series, to explain about slang because films show the application of slang in their dialogue. Thus, it may help the teachers to explain the context of the use of slang to the students as well. F. Definition of Terms This part is aimed to specify the terms that are used in this study. It creates the same base among the writer and the readers in order to avoid a misunderstanding. 1. English Slang English slang is one of English variation that is usually used in the spoken situation. It is regarded as low language variation since it is against English PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 7 standard variety. Mattiello (2008) defines slang as a variant that is full of obscenity, debases the language, contains informality and ephemerality, and creates group-restrictions. That idea supports Eble‟s statement that says, “slang is an ever changing set of colloquial words and phrases that speakers use to establish or to reinforce social identity or cohessiveness within a group or with trend or fashion in society at large” (1996, p.12). Therefore, slang is considered as an impolite and a low language variation that has an intension to restrict the outsiders to enter the group. Slang is dynamic as well; it always comes and goes. Slang changes like a fashion trend. It is popularly used in the period of time then it is stopped to be used and replaced by the new one. 2. Word-Formation Morphology is a part of linguistics which deals with the formation of words. It discusses about morphemes change into words. Once, Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, & Harnish (2010) state “morphology is subfield of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and relationships among words” (p.14). It is in line with O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff,, and Rees-Miller (2010) who define morphology as the system of categories and rules which is involved in word formation. Word building uses numbers of word formation processes. Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) group them into derivational morphology, inflectional morphology, neologism, and meaning modification. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE The second chapter consists of two parts namely theoretical description and theoretical framework. The theoritical description discusses the theories which are related to this study. The content of theoretical framework is the summary and the synthesis of all theories which will help the researcher to conduct this study. This part emphasizes theories that supported the study. A. Theoretical Description Theoretical description provides the description of the theories which are related to the study. They are the theory of sociolinguistics, language variation, language change, slang, morphology, and word formation. Those theories support the research. They give a base for the analysis of this study. 1. Sociolinguistics Sociolinguistics is a part of linguistics. It is a study that discusses a relation between language and society (Van Herk, 2012). The linguists study the phenomena which are caused by the relationship of language and society in sociolinguistics. The definition of sociolinguistics from Van Herk (2012) is in line with Radford, Atkinson, Britain, Clahsen, and Spencer (2009) who define sociolinguistics as a study of the relationship between language use and the 8 PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 9 structure of society. Moreover, Coulmas (1998) supports those definitions by stating, “the primary concern of sociolinguistic scholarship is to study the correlation between language use and social structure”. Thus, sociolinguistics is a part of linguistics study that focuses on the language phenomena which are influenced by the society. Language is affected by social backgrounds. It varies based on the geographical aspect, age, sex, gender, and social status. Sociolinguistics carries some factors like the social backgrounds of both the speakers, the relationship between the speakers and the addressee, and the context and the manner of the interaction and the addresse (Radford, Atkinson, Britain, Clahsen & Spencer, 2009). Based on Van Herk (2012), sociolinguistics studies about how language practices of one community differ from other communites. He also proposes sociolinguistics studies about the language that is formed based on status, gender, sexuality, ethnicity, language change, social relationship. Besides, it studies about relationship between different language within and across communites, how people feel about language and language diversity, and how their societies manifest those attitudes though language planning and policy, especially in the domain of education (Van Herk, 2012). Social background causes sub-studies in sociolinguistics. A number of phenomena ,such as: regional, social dialects, politeness, minimal responses, discourse markers, language shift, language variation and change, standard language, and non-standard varieties are studied in this branch (Radford, Atkinson, Britain, Clahsen & Spencer, 2009). Since slang is a part or language PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 10 variation, it is concluded as a part of sociolinguistics study. Slang is a nonstandard variation which is used in the casual speech. It is created and used widely by social group or age group that has a close relation (Fromkin , Rodman & Hyams., 2011). 2. Language Variation Language variation deals with the way speakers and groups of speakers can differ from each other in terms of the various forms of language that they use (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, 2010). To study language variation, linguists analyze the linguistic variables, including phonetic, phonological, lexical, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic variable (Burton, Dechaine & Vatikiotis-Bateson, 2012). Those variables show the differences of language. They can help the linguists to identify the varieties that are used by the speakers. Language variation shows the differences of linguistics variable in the same language. English has numbers of varieties. According to Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2003), the diversity is developed when the language users are separated geographically and socially. Holmes (2001) classifies the variation into Standard English and non-standard English based on the social status. Standard English is a variation that is regarded as an official form of English. Generally, a standard language has undergone some process of regularization or codification by recording the language in dictionary (Holmes, 2001). Thus, standard language PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 11 becomes the ratified measurement of the correct grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. The use of standard English is found commonly in formal situation. According to Holmes (2001), standard variation serves the H function. It means that standard variation is applied as the official communication vehicle in the court (Holmes, 2001). Moreover, Holmes (2001) states that standard form is used in the news broadcast and in print also in the educational domain, such as schools and universities. Standard language that is used as the language instruction in school is regarded as prestigious language (Holmes, 2001). The users of standard language are considered as educated men because the standard variation is acquired in educational environment. People who use this variation are remarked as highly educated and come from high social class. Therefore, standard dialect is regarded as prestigious dialect ( Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, 2003). The use of standard language indicates the level of social status and educational back-ground. Holmes (2001) states that people see the standard language speakers are well-educated and come from high social status. Vice versa, this feature is not found in non-standard language. Non-standard variation is a language form which is not ratified. It is against the rule of standard language. It engages the use of inappropriate vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation according to the codified language. Holmes (2001) states, “non-standard forms are associated with the speech of less PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 12 prestigious social group, the label inevitability acquires negative connotation” (p.133). According to Chambers, Trudgill, and Schilling-Estes (2007) standard speech is associated as high quality manner which is employed in the formal situation such as educational and white collar work environment also cultural institution but slang as the non-standard typed communicates the low quality manner. The use of non-standard vocabulary, like slang, shows someone‟s social class. People from upper social class will use different vocabulary with those who come from lower social class (Holmes, 2001). Meanwhile, the members of lower class use less prestigious vocabulary. The upper social class members tend to use the standard variety in their speech. They do not only apply the correct grammar but also standard vocabulary. Meanwhile, the lower class members, such as criminals, apply more non-standard language. According to Holmes (2001), English variation is not only determined by social status, but also by age, gender and regional. This idea is supported by Burton, Dechaine, and Vatikiotis-Bateson (2012) who state that origin, age, social status, gender and sex are numbers of factors that cause the variation in language. The clearest variation in English is showed by regional variation. Holmes (2001) classifies regional variation into two types, namely: international varieties and intra –national or intra-continental variation (e.g. British English variation in Yorkshire and London). PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 13 In English, international variety is exemplified by the distinction of British English and American English. The differences exist in their pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar (Holmes, 2001). This phenomenon does not only occur between British and American English. It is also discovered in other countries which use English as their first language. For example, the differences are also found among British English, American English, Canadian English, Australian English, Singaporean English, and New Zealand English. The international varieties are not only represented by standard variation, but also by slang. Regional variety classifies slang into particular types based on the area (Mattiello, 2008). Eble (1996) says some slang words are associated with certain area. English slang in one country may differ to other countries. For example, bloke is used in British and Americans use guy to refer „a man‟ (Eble, 1996). The distinctions are possibly laid on the meaning of the same slang word as well. In United Kingdom, the terms of baby buggy is used to denote „a mini metro car‟ whilst it means „a convertible Volkswagen beetle‟ in America (Dalzell & Victor, 2007). In the regional variation the distinction is discovered in the slang terms to denote particular object. Ayto (1998) reveals the British slang speakers use johnnies as slang words for „condom‟. Meanwhile, it is called scumbag by the American slang speakers (Ayto, 1998). 3. Language change Language surely changes over times (Keller, 1994). Holmes (2001) reveals, the phenomenon occurs because the new words are invented by the PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 14 speakers then they are spread. As soon as they are widely dispersed, the old vocabulary will be replaced by the new one (Holmes, 2001). There are two possibilities of the sustainability of the new words. According to Holmes (2001), the outspread new word probably stays or die, it depends on whether it is accepted by other speakers or it is rejected. If the word is rejected, thus, it will die and will be replaced by another new invention. This kind of phenomenon occurs in slang. In 1989, Eble has tried to conduct a study on the use of slang in the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill over fifteen years to attest the rapid change on slang vocabulary (as cited in Eble, 1996). She used students from fifteen period years. In addition, she tabulated 200 slang words that used on the fall of 1972, 200 words employed the fall of 1980, and 500 words applied in the fall of 1987 (cited by Eble, 1996). The finding stated that there were only two percent out of two hundreds slang words that were from 1972 reapplied in 1980. In Addition, there were only one percent of slang words from 1972 that were found on 1987. As the result, her study strengthens the evidence of the ephemerality of slang. Based on Holmes (2001), language change can spread widely from group to group interaction. She states that the change spreads from an age group, then to a social group, and the last it spreads to the regional group. People who interact with more than one social group have the biggest role of the distribution process of language change (Holmes, 2001). This phenomenon may occur in slang. At first, the new slang word is used by a particular individual or social group. Then it is spread in the wider social group. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 15 In addition, Holmes (2001) states that language changes are possible to infiltrate through the style to style. It occurs because the individual style is adapted by someone who is a member of particular social group (Holmes, 2001). Then, the change spreads from social group to another. Holmes (2001) reveals the case occurs when someone from working-class who adapts a middle-class style. Moreover, the middle class style is applied widely in the working-class group. It also occurs in the local workers‟ speech. The members of high social class use their speech to show the solidarity for the lower class (Holmes, 2001). According to Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, (2003), language change occurs in the linguistics aspects, such as: phonology, morphology, and syntax. They also add that the change in lexicon is also discovered. The lexical change engages some processes, namely: addition of new words, borrowing words (alcohol from al-kuhul in Arabic), and loss words, and semantics change (Fromkin, Rodman & Hyams, 2003). This is in line with Croft (2000) who states , “society can alter its language through borrowing coinage, calquing, and creation of new constructions, and development of written style in order to extend the language to new domains or stylistic registers or by not doing so, thereby allowing another language to occupy that social niche instead” (p.266) The addition of new words process in language change occurs by coinage new words, deriving new words from names, blends, back-formation, abbreviation or clipping, and acronym (Fromkin, Rodman & Hyams 2003). According to Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2003), coinage word is “the construction/ the invention of new words that then become part of lexicon” PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 16 (p.577). They reveal, the example of coinage is the word 24/7 (pronounced twenty four seven) to denote „all the time‟. Generified word is a process to create a new word from a particular name (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, 2010). Usually, the new vocabulary enters the language from a brand of product. Xerox is one of the generified word examples. At first it originates from a brand name of photo copy machine but it is used to denote a verb „to photocopy‟ now (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, 2010). Blends may affect the lexical change as well. In this process, each part from two words is combined. O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, and Rees-Miller (2010) defines blend as “a word that is created from parts of two existing items” (p.612). The word is made by mashing up two chunks of words. It is exemplified by word smog which consists in smoke and fog ( Fromkin, Rodman & Hyams 2003). Back-formation is one of processes that change the words. According to Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2003), back-formation is process of “removing an affix from an old word” (p.575). Basically, suffix is deleted from the existing word. For example, edit originates from editor (Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, 2003). Moreover, it is exemplified by scavenge from scavenger (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, 2010). Abbreviation process is possible to cause the language changes. Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2003) state “the abbreviation of longer words or phrase PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 17 may become lexicalized” (p.97). The process is applied by omitting the last part of the words. The process is exemplified by doc that is from doctor, bro that is from brother, and mom that is from mommy. This process is also called as clipping process (Fromkin, Rodman & Hyams 2011). A lexical change may be created by acronym. It is similar to the abbreviation. However, it is not read each one by one. It is read just like words. The process happens by taking the first letter of the words that created a phrase (Napoli, 1996). The examples of acronym are UNICEF (United Nations Children Fund) and ASEAN (Association of South East Asian Nations). Furthermore, based on Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2003), the addition of new word in lexical change occurs by derivational processes. Derivational processes are the process of affixes attachment to stems to create new words (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, 2001). It is exemplified by “uglification, finalize, and finalization” (Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, 2003, p.511). Compounding process is applied to make a lexical change as well. This process forms a new word by combining two or more existing words. The compound words are exemplified by: blabbermouth, bighead, and beat-box. In the lexical change, the existing words can be lost from the language (Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, 2003). The phenomenon occurs because the words are stopped to be used and replaced by the new words. It may happen in standard language, such as acutiator (Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, 2003). PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 18 Moreover, the process of words lost is found in slang. Eble (1996) reveals slang can be stopped to be applied because the new slang appears. Lexical change is also attained by meaning modification. The process is classified into broadening, narrowing, and meaning shift process. Broadening is defined as the sense of a word becomes broader. So the words that used to refer a specific thing now it means everything (Fromkin, Rodman & Hyams, 2003). For example, cool, which was a jargon of jazz musician, is used widely now (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, 2010). According to Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2003), narrowing is the process of specifying a word meaning which is more general before. Radfod, Atkinson, Britain, Clahsen, and Spencer (2009) suggest narrowing is exemplified by the word girl that meant a young male or female but now it only denotes a young female. Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, (2003) state that meaning shift process is a process of alteration a negative meaning to positive either from positive to negative. For example, silly meant happy, however, now it means foolish (Fromkin, Rodman & Hyams, 2003) 4. Slang Some experts define slang into some different definitions. As said by Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010), slang is not easy to be defined precisely but it is not impossible to be described to make it can be recognized. They add that although it is difficult to find the exact definition of slang, they suggest, there are number of salient features that can help to explain it. This is in PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 19 line with Battistella (2005) who states “the difficulty of defining slang does not mean that no one has tried” (p.85). The first feature of slang is informality. According to Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010), slang is a part of informal style. They add that the term of slang carries a negative connotation. The society deems that slang is included as a low and vulgar variety because slang is not sufficient to the formal English variety. That is in line with Coleman (2012) who suggests that slang is one of language variation that is used in the spoken language during the informal situation. Slang brings a bad connotation because it is in the contradiction with standard English which is more prestigious. The users of slang are also affected by the bad connotation from slang itself. People who speak in slang language will be considered as uneducated people who come from a low-social class because they do not use standard English (Coleman, 2012). Another feature of slang is its similaritties to fashion in clothes and popular music; reveals that it changes quite fast (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, 2010). Slang terms come and go rapidly just like fashion trend. It is popular and used only in a few months or even years. Coleman (2012) also has the same idea about this feature. She suggests that slang is only used briefly then it goes away. However, she also states that slang can enter the language as a colloquial language or the standard english instead of dead and never used anymore. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 20 The third slang feature is related to the group who uses this variation. According to Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010), specific parts of slang are often associated with particular group. Slang is a special vocabulary that is used by a member of a certain social group. The phenomenon is exemplified by slang that is used by a group of Kansas University students who have their own slang words (Dundes & Schonhorn, 1963). Dumas and Lighter (1978) also have the same view towards slang like Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) and Battistella (2005). Slang is hard to define since there are many different lexicographic definitions about slang (Dumas & Lighter, 1978). However, the definition cannot include all of slang properties. Since slang is difficult to define, Dumas and Lighter (1978) propose some characteristics to help distinguish slang and colloquialism. Dumas and Lighter (1978) state that a word can be defined as slang if “its presence will markedly lower, at least for the moment, the dignity of formal or serious speech or writing” (p.14). According to Dumas and Lighter (1978), it means that slang is used in the middle of serious speech that usually uses standard English without signaling the writer or speaker is deliberately undignified or intimate with the audience. They also add that the use of slang in this kind of situation is regarded as misuse of register. Dumas and Lighter (1978) reveal the second slang characteristics is “its use implies the user's special familiarity either with the referent or with that less statusful or less responsible class of people who have such special familiarity and PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 21 use the term” (p.14). Generally, the familiarity in that group is unaccepted by the people from the dominant society (Dumas and Lighter, 1978). For example, the special vocabularies that are used only by Oxford university students and slang that are by drug users. According to Dumas and Lighter (1978), a word can be defined as slang if “it is a tabooed term in ordinary discourse with persons of higher social status or greater responsibility” (p.15). They add that taboo terms include “the nonlatinate sexual and scatological terms” except the “nursery euphemism”, such as: little job to denote „urination‟ and job to denote “to defecate” (Dumas and Lighter, 1978:15; Holder, 2008). The fourth of slang characteristics is if “it is used in place of the wellknown conventional synonym, especially in order (a) to protect the user from the discomfort caused by the conventional item or (b) to protect the user from the discomfort or annoyance of further elaboration” (Dumas and Lighter, 1978: 15). Dumas and Lighter (1978) reveal slang has quite similar characteristics with euphemism. They state euphemism has a function to protect the audience and speaker from the discomfort of the use of unpleasant words. Meanwhile, slang is tend to be employed to protect the speakers (Dumas and Lighter, 1978) Thus, if a word has fulfilled at least two of those four criteria, that word can be qualified as slang (Dumas & Lighter, 1978). Eble (1996) supports their statement by revealing “whether or not the particular of their operational PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 22 definition are necessary or sufficient, in the final analysis Dumas and Lighter are right. Slang cannot be defined independent of its function and use.” (p.12). The application of the four criteria is exemplified by jerk which is used in the sentence, “Though their dissent was not always noisy or dramatic, many Americans felt the Presidents was jerk for continuing the war.” (Eble, 1996). Eble (1996) reveals, in this case, jerk is classified into slang because it fulfills the criteria 1, 2, and 4b. Slang has some sociological properties which make it differ to the other colloquial terms. Mattiello (2008) concludes some properties which are owned by slang from some experts. Sociological properties usually show the relation between the use of slang and sociological reasons. It is exemplified by the use of slang to create group restriction. Below is the sociological properties of slang and also the description according to Mattiello (2008). a. Group restriction The intention of slang users is to keep the outsiders not entering the group. Slang is employed in order to make the outsiders do not understand the conversation of particular group members. Mattiello (2008) states that slang is frequently described as an in-group vocabulary that identifies a “common age and experience, and facilitates their group solidarity“(p.46). This is in line with Battistella (2005) who suggests “slang is used to create a kind of linguistic solidarity or status by identifying oneself with a group out of the mainstream or by PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 23 setting oneself apart from conventional values through a style of toughness and ironic detachment” (p. 86). Slang is usually used by a group of people who share the same identity, for example a gang of teenagers who shares same age and habit or a group of college students who study in the same university. Slang strengthens member‟s solidarity and it alienates the outsiders because slang words are only understood by the group members. For example, students from particular university share slang words among them (Kratz, 1964). b. Informality Slang appears in the formal situation to make informality. The aim of slang is to decrease the formality and to create a more familiar situation in the conversation (Mattiello, 2008, p.46). It is usually used in the dailly conversation to make the situation less serious and friendlier. The slang users choose slang to replace the conventional vocabulary. Thus, the formality will decrease. c. Time Restriction Mattiello (2008) states “slang is temporary since it changes over time” (p.47). It means that slang exists in the particular generation. The change among the generations occurs as an effect of the old generations grow up and the next generations come then change the old slang by making a new trend. For example, in 1920s, slang for word excellent was wizard and in the 1930s-1940s that term PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 24 became groovy, then, people who lived in fifties changed it into magic. Meanwhile in 1960s, it was popular as fab which comes from fabulous. d. Ephemerality Slang is decribed as “… an ephemeral, short-lived, ever-changing vocabulary” by Mattiello in 2008 (p.47). This idea is supported by Eble (1996) who states, “slang is ephemeral” the new vocabulary that enters the language changes rapidly (p.12-13). Thus, slang is not long lasting. It will disappear as soon as after it is created. However, there are some slang words which have been slang for a long time or they transform into informal form or colloquial term (Eble, 1996). e. Debasement Mattiello (2008) states that slang is considered as “debased, subordinate speech, characteristically dominated by reversed prestige, lack of dignity and antisocial features.” (p.47). Slang is viewed as a low and negative variety. Its users are considered that they degrade their prestige and disgrace their self. It is regarded as non-prestigious variety since it against the standard variety. It breaks language rule in standard variety. Batistella (2005) reveals slang is regarded as a bad language which is seen as “undignified an unintelligible” so teachers and parent do not suggest their children to apply slang (p.84). f. Freshness PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 25 Freshness is one of properties that are found in slang. Based on Mattiello (2008), slang is often defined as “fresh vital vocabulary that keeps language alive and growing (p.47). This is also supported by Coleman (2012) who equalizes slang as a wild fruit implanted onto a tame stock of language which give a new vitality on language (p.9). Slang refreshes the language. It creates new words and keeps the language growing and renewing (Coleman, 2012). Using slang in the conversation brings a fresh feeling. It also makes the speech sound more interesting and less monotonous. g. Playfulness Mattiello (2008) states “slang is usually playful, since it manipulates word and their meaning. Slang makes word sounds funny. Its effect is created by applying jocular sounds to create slang words (Mattiello, 2008). It may happen by suffixation of affix –y and –ie. The exampling is showed by huggy to denote „hug‟. h. Obscenity Slang is close to the taboo subjects of culture because it is rich in dirty words and obscenity (Mattiello, 2008, p.48). Slang uses vocabulary which come from the subject which is taboo to be discussed. Usually, those words related to sexual things such as pussy, prick, fuck, wank, etc. Slang vocabulary also can be formed form excretion subject such as, crap, shit, and dingleberry. i. Subject Restriction PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 26 According to Mattiello (2008), “sometimes slang is described as the special, even specialized, vocabulary of some professions, occupations or activities in society”. Slang is usually used by particular people who have the same jobs. In instances, drug dealer, robber, and mafia. For those people who deal with the criminal field, slang has function as a secret code among their group. Furthermore, their slang is only recognized by people who have the same jobs. j. Novelty Slang is novel because new terms always appear in slang. As stated by Mattiello (2008) “slang is generally up-to-date” (p.48). Once, a slang word will be outdated. People stop using the word. Then, new generations renew it by created new vocabulary. This property of slang is exemplified by the word boo that is used to denote „a lover or babe‟ is replaced by bae. k. Orality Slang exists through spoken language. It does not develop in the formal situation. Commonly, it is used in the informal conversation. Mattiello (2008) reveals slang is associated to spoken language. The employment of slang in the oral language makes it popular in the particular social group. Slang is not created from written language. l. Unconventiality PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 27 Slang users have an intention to use different vocabulary than the conventional ones. Dumas and Lighter (1978, p.13) argue that the speakers form slang “to break with the established linguistics convention“, (As cited by Mattiello 2008, p. 49). Speakers want to create new terms and employ them to change common vocabulary. Thus, they change the usual words into the new terms. The speakers can use the words super, quality, rock, cool, badass, wicked, corker, killer, and brill to alter the use of word good, which is considered as a conventional term. m. Faddishness Dominantly, slang is figure of speech to create new vocabulary. Mattiello (2008, p. 49) cites slang consists of strange vocabulary which is invented by “bizarre metaphors” (Allen, 1998, p.878) and “extravagant, forced, or facetious figure of speech” (Mc Henry ed., 1993, p.871).” Slang is full of figure of speech. However, there is no clear reason why the figure of speech is used to denote the object. It is exemplified by bird and chick that are used to denote girls. There is no reason why they represent girls (Mattiello, 2008). n. Humor Slang usually sounds funny. According to Mattiello (2008, p.49), slang is usually hilarious. This is in line with Yust (Ed) (1950, p.766) who suggests, “an element of humour is almost always present in slang, usually as humorous exageration.” (as cited in Mattiello, 2008, p.50). PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 28 o. Vulgarity Mattiello (2008) states, “slang has been associated with bad language.”It is full of vulgar words which denote to taboo object. Things that are related to sexual activities (handy, blowy, beaver, hickie, reef, that there, rumpty-tumpty, clunge diver, fist fuck, etc.), excrement (doo-doo, skid, dingleberry, road apples, pooh, crap, dump, biggies, syphon the python, and widdle,), and other topics which are taboo to be mentioned or spoken frankly are commonly included in slang. That is why slang is considered as impolite language because it is used to cover the taboo object. p. Desire to Impress One of the reasons slang is used by the speakers is because they want “to impress or shock others” (Mattiello, 2008, p.50). This view is in line with Patridge (1947, p.288) who says that one of the reasons of using slang is to be “arresting, striking, or even startling.” (as cited by Mattiello, 2008). It is also supported by Andersson and Trudgill (1990, p.78) who state, “the point of slang words is often to be starling, amusing or shocking.” (as cited in Mattiello, 2008). The example of this case is that slang is applied by a group of male teenager to impress the girls. q. Hybridism Slang can be described as “a hybrid language” because some vocabularies from foreign language enter into slang list of word (Mattiello, 2008, p.51). It PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 29 means that slang can be created by borrowing several vocabularies from other languages outside English. Borrowing process in slang is exemplified by the word cojones denoting „testicles‟, it originally comes from Spanish word cojón (testicles). r. Localism Slang is just like standard English which is differentiated based on the geographic condition. It has differences in terms of vocabulary which is divided based on the regions (Mattiello, 2008, p.51). The distinctions are instanced by American slang and British slang which have different slang vocabulary. The differences also exist in Australian slang and Canadian slang. It means that every region uses different vocabulary. The distinction may be found in slang word that denotes „man‟. Australian slang speakers use cove, Scottish slang speakers say chappy, and New Zealand slang uses joker to denote „man‟. In addition, American slang employs dude and it is called bloke in British. Those variations also differ in terms of denoting a woman. For example, Australian slang and New Zealand slang call a woman as Sheila, sheelah, sheilah, shelah. Meanwhile, British people use bird to name her. However, In American people use chicks to refer a woman. s. Colour Anderson and Trudgill (1990, p.16) suggest that slang has a function “to make your speech vivid, colourful and interesting” (as cited in Mattiello, 2008, p.51). The characteristic of slang is not only to keep the group boundary but also to make the language sounds interesting. Since slang has several words to refer a PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 30 particular thing (e.g. bird, chick, gash, and muff to refer „girl‟), slang makes the language is not boring to be used. The users may change the conventional words with slang to make their utterances not boring and have a lot of word variations. t. Impertinence Slang is impertinent. It is impolite and it has a tendency to disrespect people. According to Mattiello (2008), slang uses some impolite appellations and derogatory terms. For an example, debbies is used as a derogatory of „an elegant and attractive man in high society who flirts‟; bimbo is used to „denote a stupid beautiful woman‟. u. Offensiveness Since slang is full of derogatory vocabularies, it offenses people. Based on Mattiello, (2008), slang is used to offense people by using particular vocabulary which characterizes certain group of people in the basis of negative stereotype. Some slang words convey negative meaning to offense a group of people with certain quality. For examples, fag is used to offense „male homosexual‟; bitch which has negative meaning is used to call „an unkind or unpleasant woman‟, is used as a derogatory for a woman; nigga is derogatory terms to denote the „black people from Africa‟. v. Secrecy One of slang‟s typicals is to keep secrets and to hide the conversation from people from outside the group (Mattiello, 2008, p.52). Slang is like a code of PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 31 particular social group. Slang users employ slang in order to conceal secret important information. They cover the real meaning so that the outsiders do not understand the information. Criminals, like drug dealer and robbers, employ slang so the police will not be able to capture their conversation which contains with important secret information. w. Musicality According to Mattiello (2008), slang tends “to play with sounds” and uses rhyme to create slang. She proposes it happens in the Cockney Rhyming Slang (Mattiello 2008 p.53), for example rock and ages „ wages‟, bull and cow „row‟, adam and eve „to believe‟. Besides Cockney rhyming slang, the rhyming sound of slang is exemplified by reduplication and alliteration. x. Privacy Slang is private vocabulary. Speakers use slang with the intention to keep the group privacy by excluding the outsiders because they do not want the outsiders to understand the in-group conversation (Mattiello, 2008). However, at the same time slang exhibits the group‟s bond and closeness because the shared information is only understood by the group members (Mattiello, 2008). For example, slang is applied in the group of the drug dealers, thieves, robbers or other criminals groups to keep their privacy so the police or the other people who PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 32 are not included in their group will not understand their conversation. This is also applied by a group of boys who look for girls as sexual partners. Slang is applied by homosexuals to cover their identity from society as well. y. Aggressiveness Slang is regarded as aggressive language variation because some slang words offense people. Allen (1998, p.878) suggests that slang is “vicious and hostile verbal aggression” (as cited in Mattiello, 2008, p.53). This is in line with Mattiello (2008,p.53) who says, “slang is aggressive and forceful and at times malicious or even cruel”. It is used as a derogatory vocabulary to refer a particular type of people. Slut, bitch, and bimbo are the examples of slang words that are offensive for woman. z. Culture Restriction Social boundaries are created by slang. Mattiello (2008) states, “slang is a marker of cultural differences. It is viewed as an anti-language that serves an antisociety (like beggars and gamblers) and generally associated with the level of society that is culturally sub-standard.” (p.53). It means that slang is considered as low language variety that is employed by the low social group such as thieves, gangster, drug dealers, etc. Slang becomes a limit that marks a certain group identity which is disapproved by the higher social group. aa. Efficiency PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 33 Slang is used to attain efficiency. Once, Mattiello (2008) reveals “slang is efficient in the sense that slang words may be much more direct than their standard corresponding description” (p.54). Patridge (1946) also suggests that slang is employed to change the complicated word with the brief and concise one (cited by Mattiello, 2008). Mattiello (2008) adds that slang is not always concise but it evidently simplifies word which becomes complicated when it changes into standard word. In example, it is easier to say chicken rather than „a young inexperienced male prostitute‟. It is also simpler to say the creep rather than „having a feeling of horror caused by something mysterious‟. bb. Individuality Mattiello (2008) states that slang are considered as “a marker of an individual‟s identity”. It reveals speakers personal information like age, gender, attitude, condition, education, interests, etc (Mattiello, 2008, p. 54). By employing slang, the users‟ identity may be identified because every group is divided based on the social background, such as age, hobbies, and lifestyle. Therefore, each social group has their own slang words. cc. Prestige Once Anderson and Trudgill (1990) also Allen (1998) state that slang is used to covert prestige which is associated with toughness and strength or other positives quality like independence and naturalness ( as cited in Mattiello, 2008, p.54). Covert prestige means conceal the real quality and build new image. It is usually applied by male. Men have a tendency to use more slang to gain prestige PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 34 because slang creates a strong, tough, and manly impression. According to Mattiello (2008), young men tempt to use slang swearword to build their reputation, status, and to strengthen group bound. dd. Technicality Slang explains the technical terms in particular realm based on the activity. Mattiello (2008, p.55) states, “slang can sometimes be viewed as a „technolect‟ as it behaves as terminology in terms of restricted use.” She adds that the technicality feature is exemplified by sloth which means „to kill or to injure someone‟. ee. Spontaneity Since slang is uttered spontaneously by the speakers, spontaneity becomes one of slang characteristics. Mattiello (2008) reveals slang is a free natural speech, associated with cities and modern society.” Allen (1998) noted that many slang words are used in spontaneous conversation and prompted by the media (cited in Mattiello, 2008). 5. Rhyming Slang Rhyming slang is one of slang types that are popular in East London. It calls Cockney rhyming slang because it consist of two word which the second word is rhyme with the actual meaning. In 2008, Mattiello proposes rhyming slang as “the process whereby an item is replaced by one or more words that PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 35 rhyme with it” (p.42). Trouble and strive for „wife‟, apple and pears for „stairs, and ham and beef for „chief‟ are the examples of rhyming slang. 6. Specific and General Slang Slang is classified into specific and general slang (Mattiello, 2008). Specific slang is a restricted slang that is only used by the particular group. According to Mattiello (2008), the use of specific slang conveys the users‟ identity, for examples their social group, and origins. Usually, it is used by people who share the same age, interests, lifestyle, and origins. Thus, slang can be specified into university students‟ slang, drug users‟ slang, adolescents‟ slang, homosexuals‟ slang, British slang, Australian slang, etc. (Matiello,2008). Each group has their own slang vocabularies which strengthens group solidarity (Eble, 1996). Moreover, Mattiello (2008) reveals specific slang is also limited by the topic. It can be classified into topic that relates to sex, drugs, criminal, or others. Meanwhile, Mattiello (2008) reveals general slang is applied to break the standard language and to change the formal speech into the informal speech. It does not show the group and subjects boundaries. Therefore, it spreads widely (Mattiello, 2008). General slang is not only used by people from particular social group. It is used widely in some social groups; for example, the slang word shit is not only used by teenagers but also applied by young adult. Mattiello (2008) states that, the classification of slang into specific type or general is depends on the context. Thus, slang vocabulary is possibly to have more than one different meaning. It is exemplified by the word rock or rocks. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 36 According to Thorne (2007), rocks means „cocaine‟ and the meaning exists among the drug dealers or users‟. However, it means „mistakes‟ in baseball (Ayto, 1998). 7. Morphology Morphology is one of linguistics branches focusing on how words are built. Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) suggest morphology as a part of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and the relationships among words. Mihalicek and Wilson (2011) also define morphology as the component of mental grammar that focuses on types of words and how words are formed out of smaller meaningful pieces and other words. They add that morphology tries to explain which meaningful pieces of language is able to be combined and what words will come as the result of the combination which will influence the meaning and the grammatical function. According to Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010), Morphology answers the questions about what words are, what the basic building blocks in the formation of complex words, how complex words are built up from simpler parts, how the meaning of complex words is related to the meaning of its part, and how individual words of language are related to other words of the language. Through those definitions, it can be concluded that morphology is a linguistics study about word formation. The linguists study about morphemes combination and new meaning which is formed by the transformation through the morphology. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 37 Many processes are applied to build new word. Katamba (1994) and Plag (2002), suggest affixation, derivation, blending, clipping, back-formation, and borrowing are processes to form new words. Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) also reveal some morphological processes which are in line with Katamba (1994) and Plag (2002). However, Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) stated some differences in the realm of word formation processes. They group English word-formation processes into four parts. They noted they are classified into neologism, derivational morphology, inflectional morphology, and changing the meaning of the words or meaning modification. a. Creating New Words (Neologism) Neologism can be concluded as processes to create new words (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, (2010). It involves fifteen types of processes. They are coined word, acronym, alphabetic abbreviation, clipping, blends, generified word, proper nouns, borrowing, internal change, suppletions, reduplication, tone placement, cliticization, back-formation, and onomatopoeia. The procedures of neologism are described in the following parts 1) Coined Words Coining is formation of a new word which comes by inventing new vocabulary. Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2003) reveal coining words is one of processes to broaden the vocabulary. In coining process, new word that never PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 38 exists previously but they keep entering the language (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, 2010). It is born to represent things that cannot be explained by the existed words. Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) give examples that coining happened in the adolescent slang like geek and dweeb. 2) Acronyms Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) define acronym as the formation of the first letter (letters) of a sequence of words is (are) used to spell a new word. Thus, it can be said as word that is created by the first letter from each word in the abbreviation. The special feature of acronym is that it can be read as one word. Acronym process is exemplified by: NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), UNICEF (The United Nation Children‟s Fund), and LASER (Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation). 3) Alphabetic Abbreviation In alphabetic abbreviation, each letter is individually pronounced. The format looks like acronym but the first letters are pronounced separately (Katamba, 1994). The letters are pronuced one by one. Alphabetic abbreviation acts like a new word. According to Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010), alphabetical abbreviation replaces the longer word into a short form. The exampling of alphabetic abbreviation is in OOT (Out of the Topic) and UNHCR (United Nation High Commissioner for Refugee). PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 39 4) Clippings O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, and Rees-Miller (2010) stated, clipping is the process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllable. This idea is supported by Katamba (1994) who reveals that clipping is defined as “word-formation where a long word shortened to one or two syllables” (p.184). In this process, some syllables in the back of the word are omitted. For examples, doctor is clipped into doc and lab is the result of clipping from the word laboratory. In conclusion, clipped word is polysyllabic words which their syllables are cut. Clipping has several types. Mattiello (2008) proposes there are four variation of clipping that may be applied to English slang. They are back clipping, fore-clipping and other marginal cases of clipping, and clipped compound. Back clipping is defined as a shortening in the last syllable. This process leaves the initial syllables; for examples, fave favorite, rehab rehabilitation, and psycho psychopath. The other type of clipping is fore-clipping. In this type of clipping, the first syllable is deleted; for instances, gator alligator, stache moustache, and nam Vietnam. Clipping can be happened in the first and the last syllable, as in the words scipt prescription and tec detective. Clipping does not only abbreviate the words. It is also possible to change the words spelling (Mattiello, 2008). Predominantly, it happens in back-clipping. This type of clipping is exemplified by jeez/ geez/ jez Jesus and siff syphilis. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 40 The last variant is clipped-compound. This type is a combination between clipping and compounding. It is made up from two bases. The clipping process occurs in one of the bases. It may happen by clipping the compound word, as in the words after afternoon and skin skinhead. However, compound clipping may happen by deleting the last syllable on the second base, like in the word street cred credibility. Clipped compound may be formed by clipping the second base and the last syllable from the second one, in an instance, mutt from mutton-head which means „an incompetent, a fool‟. Clipping compound is also possible to be formed by clipping the first base. For example, pike originally from turn pike denoting „a road which a toll is collected in the toll gate‟. Another pattern of clipping compound is shortened the last syllable in both bases. That formation is happened in misper missing person and slomo slow motion. The other pattern, which is less common, is existed in B-girl bar girl, three compound word like greycing greyhound racing, and shouse shit house. 5) Blends Blends are defined as vocabulary that are created from non-morphemic parts of two already existing items, usually the first part of one and the final part of the other (O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff & Rees-Miller, 2010). This is in line with Katamba (1994) who reveals blend is “a word formed by joining together chunks of two pre-existing words” (p.184). Two words are able to be blended into one word by unifying the syllables from each word. This happens in the word brunch which comes from breakfast and lunch. Word camcorder is another example of blends, which originally comes from camera and recorder. Moreover, PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 41 blends process is exemplified by fantabulous which is formed from fantastic and fabulous. 6) Generified word Generified word is a technique to create new words, namely, using specific brand names of products as names for the products in general (generification) (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, 2010). In this process, some words are replaced with particular brand names, for example, google. In the past, google denoted to the well-known search engine in the internet. However, nowadays google can be used as a verb to depict „search information in the internet‟. Xerox is also one of generified word from a brand of photocopy machine which replaces a verb „to photocopy‟. 7) Proper Nouns Proper noun or eponym is defined as “ Not in frequent, a trait, quality, act or some behavior associated with a person becomes identified with that person‟s name, typically his or her last name.” (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish , 2010, p.29). It is a process of word building which takes someone‟s name as vocabulary. Their name is taken because they represent particular quality. In an instance, guillotine, which is an instrument of execution, was named according to its inventor, Dr. Joseph Guillotin. Paparazzo (plural: paparazzi) that means„ a freelancer photographer doggedly pursues celebrity„, is also included as PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 42 eponym because it comes from Signor Paparazo, a character from a motion picture La Dolce Vita ( Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, 2011). 8) Borrowing Borrowing is a vocabulary expansion by taking words from other languages and making them as the part of language. Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2011) call borrowing process as loan word. According to Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010), English borrows several words from another language such as Aztec, for example: chocolate, coyote, maize, taco, Mexico, and tomato. Beside from Aztec‟s language, English also borrows from Arabic such as: harem. 9) Internal change Internal change is defined as a process of substituting non-morphemic parts to show a grammatical contrast (O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff & ReesMiller, 2010). A letter or a vowel is replaced with another letter to indicate grammar contrast. The examples are lied in the word draw drew; drive drove, and drink drunk. 10) Suppletion Suppletion is an allomorph of a word which bears no phonological resemblance with the root morpheme to indicate a grammar contrast (Katamba, 1994). O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, and Rees-Miller (2010) suggest suppletion is a process of replacing a morpheme with a whole new morpheme to indicate PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 43 grammar contrast. English suppletion is exemplified by word better to replace good, worst to replace bad, and were or was to replace to be ( are or is). 11) Reduplication Katamba (1994) defines reduplication as a process of repeating the base of word in parts or in entirely. This is in line with Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2011) who purpose reduplication is “a morphological process that repeats or copies all or part of a word to produce a new word” (p.591). According to O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, and Rees-Miller (2010), reduplication has a function to mark grammatical or semantic contrast by repeating all or part of the bases. Barbaressi reveals that English reduplication can be classified into four patterns (as cited in Mattiello, 2008). She names them as ablaut, rhyming reduplicative, reduplicative rhyming compound, and copy (or exact) reduplicative. It is distinguish based on the parts of the words which are repeated. Ablaut means a change in the root vowel (Katamba, 1994, p.54). Barbaressi calls it as apophonic (as cited in Matiello, 2008, p.131). Based on Mattiello (2008), “English ablaut reduplicative may be obtained either by lefthanded (handy-dandy), or right-hand base (dilly-dally), or have no existing base at all (zig-zag), with the two vowels suggesting the two different direction” (p.131). Rhyming reduplicative is a reduplicative form with an identical vowel or consonant(s) that appear after it in the last syllable (Katamba, 1994). This PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 44 statement is supported by Mattiello (2008) who reveals that it is a twin form consisting of two rhyming elements, one of which forms by changing its initial consonant. It may possess the first member as the base, the second member as the base, or no bases because it is merely fanciful sound cluster and without linguistics cluster (Mattiello, 2008). Reduplicative rhyming compound has a different rule with rhyming reduplicative and compound words. According to Mattielo (2008), in the rhyming reduplicative, there is only one base while in reduplicative rhyming compound there are two bases. She also reveals that it is also not the same with compound words since the relations between the two bases is different with the normal compound rule and no syntactic phrase identifiable. Rhyming compound has rhyming in those two bases and each base is created from an existed word. The main characteristic to distinguish it with regular compound is that syntactic paraphrase is almost not discovered in reduplicative rhyming compound. Exact reduplicative or copy reduplicative is a reduplicative with twin bases. Mattiello (2008) states that in general, English copy reduplicative has basic constituent with the second member being exact copy. It can be formed by reduplicating the exact word (no-no denoting „something unacceptable or forbidden‟), clipped word (ju-ju meaning „marijuana‟), and onomatopoeia (blingbling „ostentatious jewelry‟, representing the visual effect of light being reflected off metal or precious stone) (Mattiello, 2008). Aside from those four forms of reduplicative in slang, less common patterns of reduplicative words also exists Mattiello (2008) notes two marginal PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 45 cases. The first one is reduplicative word which exhibits linking element. It is exemplified on word ding-a-ling meaning „crazy person‟. The second one is a binomial which is excluded afore-mentioned type of reduplicative but shows a sort of internal phonic resemblance through assonance, consonance, or rhyme. That type is represented in jiggery-pockery „deceitful‟, „dishonest‟, „manipulation‟. 12) Tone Placement Tone placement is a process of placing tone or pitch that influences the meaning of the word. According to O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, and Rees-Miller (2010), tone placement occurs in the language which pitch affects the meaning of the words. The languages that applied the pitch of individual vowels or syllable to distinguish meanings of words are defined as tone languages (Fromkin, Rodman & Hyams, 2011). Vietnamese, Mandarin, and Thai exemplify tone languages. O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, and Rees-Miller (2010) propose that English is not atypical tone language, since pitch will not influence the word meaning. However, it is claimed as stress language because the meaning is signaled by stress. Stress placement in English is represented by record. The first syllable is stressed if it is a verb. However, it is a noun if the stress is in the first syllable. 13) Cliticization A process of attaching clitics to words is called cliticization. Katamba (1994) defines clitics as “a bound morpheme which is not an affix but which, nevertheless, occurs as part of world” (p. 108). O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, and PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 46 Rees-Miller (2010) support that idea by stating that clitics is morphemes which are alike words, but it cannot stand alone as independent word because of the phonological reason. Generally, cliticization happens in the end of the word after the word-formation rules of the lexicon have applied and following the application of syntactic rules (Katamba, 1994, p.108). Clitics is classified into two types by Katamba (1994). It is divided based on the capability of standing alone as a word. The class I only has –„s. Whilst, the class II is consisted by -„m, -„re, -„s, -„ll, -d, and -„ve. The class I clitics is named Genitive –„s by Katamba (1994). This type of clitics is not able to stand alone as an independent word. It has to be attached to noun. In 1973, Quirk and Greenbaum state that Gentive –„s in English possesses several functions, namely possessive genitive, genitive of origin, and genitive of measurement (written in Katamba, 1994). The use of genitive „-s and its functions are described in table 2.1 which is cited by Katamba (1994, p.109). Table 2.1: The Use and Meaning of Genitive –‘s Genitive –‘s Sentences Paraphrase Possessive genitive the farmer‟s cattle the cattle belonging the farmer the farmer‟s tractor the tractor belonging to the farmer the farmer‟s wife the wife belonging to the farmer the farmer‟s messenger the messenger sent by the farmer Genitive of origin PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 47 Genitive of measure the farmer‟s story the story told by the farmer two years‟ imprisonment imprisonment lasting for two years a day‟s journey a journey lasting one whole day. Note. From “English Words,” by Francis Katamba, 1994, p.109 The second type of clitics is able to appear as independent words when they are in the complete forms (Katamba, 1994). However, they are also possible to follow other words when they are not in the full word. It is exemplified in the sentences: “We‟ll see it later” (We will see it later); “They‟ve finished their work” (They have finished their work), and “I‟m really mad at you right now” (I am really mad at you right now). Table 2.2 describes about clitics in the auxiliary verbs. Table 2.2: Clitics of Auxiliary Verbs Auxiliary verbs Clitics Examples am -„m I‟m are -„re they‟re, we‟re is / has -„s She‟s, it‟s will -„ll we‟ll, he‟ll have -„ve I‟ve had/ would -„d I‟d, You‟d 14) Back-Formation PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 48 Back-Formation is a process of omitting suffixes from the bases to form new vocabularies (Katamba, 1994). It is in line with Bauer (1988a, p.238) who defines that back-formation is “the formation of words by the deletion of actual or supposed affixes in the longer words” (cited by Mattiello, 2010, p.129). It is exemplified by esacalate from escalator, edit from editor, beg from beggar (Plag, 2002 and Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish 2010). Suffix deletion in slang back-formation forms new words with new lexical category. Verbs can be created by back-forming nouns (Mattiello, 2008). Furthermore, Mattiello (2008) reveals nouns are built through deleting the suffix in adjective. It is exemplified by pea-brain from pea-brained, Yid from Yiddis, and dill from dilly (Mattiello, 2008) 15) Onomatopoeia Onomatopoeia is a word-building process that uses sound symbolism to build new word. The words enter the language by using the sound imitation which is associated with the object or activity they refer to (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2011). Their idea is supported by Katamba (1994). He states that in onomatopoeia, the sounds reflect some aspects of the meaning of the words that are represented. Onomatopoeic slang words are exemplified by the squits, which means „a case of diarrhea‟, and jink , which express the idea of nimble motion (Thorne, 2007; Ayto, 1998) b. Changing the Meaning of the Words or Meaning Modification PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 49 Changing the meaning of the words can be another alternative to form new word. In this process, new meaning is associated to the words that exist before (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, 2010). Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) state that there are several ways to form new words by changing the meaning of the words. 1) Change in the Part of Speech According to Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) “a word can be modified by changing its category.” Changing the part of speech or conversion can be called as zero-derivation, zero-affixation, or functional shift (Mattiello, 2008). She defines it as a process that consists of the syntactic change of a word without any corresponding formal change. For example, it occurs in the word ponytail (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, 2010). Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) state at the beggining ponytail is a noun and it refers to a hairstyle in which the hair is tied up at the back of the head so it looks like a horse‟s tail. They add that now ponytail has another function as a verb to ponytail that means a process to tie the hair in the back of the head. Marchand (1966) classifies conversion which is generally discovered in English conversion into some types, namely: from verb to noun, and the opposite of it, from adjective into verb, and from particle to verb (cited in Mattiello, 2008). Besides, Mattiello (2008) also proposes the other types. For example, noun is a conversion result from adjectives, adverbs, proper names, numerals, pronouns, and interjections. Meanwhile, adjectives can be obtained from nouns, PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 50 prepositions, and combining forms. Therefore, adjectives and prepositions are converted to adverbs (Mattiello, 2008). 2) Metaphorical Extension Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) define metaphorical extension as “Another way in which the meaning of an existing word is modified, thus resulting in new uses”. In metaphorical extension, the existing meanings extend to create a new meaning without making a new word. It means that the existing word is used in new way and with the new meaning. Metaphorical extension happens in the word spit which is from the physical of realm of food and digestion now it uses into meantal realm and interpersonal exchange of ideas (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, 2010). The employment of word spit as the member of realm food and digestion is exemplified by sentence “Children are eating a watermelon then spitting the seeds”. In that sentence, spit means „to force out the content of the mouth‟. Meanwhile, spit which means „to say or shout words quickly and angrily‟ is represented in sentence: “Spit it out, Jack! I want to know the truth!” It is also presented by swallow. The word swallow is possible to have two meanings; for example, “Grandma cannot swallow her meal”. In this case, swallow means „to make food in your mouth move into your stomach by using the throat‟. However, in the sentence “Don‟t just swallow their suggestions, Bill!”, the word spit has a significance “to accept something without question or disagreement expression”. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 51 3) Broadening In broadening, new meaning is also applied to the existed word but the use of word becomes broader (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, 2010). In another word, broadening is the process of using existed word with new meaning widely. This concept is represented by dogge. According to Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2011), at the beginning, dogge refers to a specific breed of dog. However, it was eventually broadened to embody all members of the species canis familiaris. Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) state the exampling of broadening is presented by cool. At first, cool is used to denote “a specific artistic style of jazz musician” but, now it is used widely to indicate “approval of the thing in question” (p.34). 4) Narrowing Narrowing means a process of taking a more restricted meaning than before (Radford, Atkinson, Britain, Clahsen & Spencer, 2009). The words that the meaning encompassed all member of certain thing before become narrowed. Thus, their meaning just covers particular context. Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish 2010 suggest that narrowing occurs in meat. They say, previously, meat referred to all solid edible food. Nowadays, it refers to „an edible animals‟flesh‟. 5) Semantic Drift PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 52 Semantic drift is the change in the meanings of the word (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, & Harnish, 2010). Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2011) call it as meaning shift. In this process, the meaning of existed word changes and created new meaning. Based on Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2011), semantic shifting is exemplified by lust which meant „pleasure‟ without any negative meaning or sexual overtone. Moreover, they state that the process is experienced by fond. During Romeo and Juliet era, it meant „foolish‟ but now it means „having a great liking for someone or something‟ (Fromkin, Rodman & Hyams, 2011). 6) Reversal The definition of reversal is a process when the meaning of a word reverses (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, 2010). The sense drifts from positive to negative or vice versa. For an instance, once, badass had negative meaning „really bad‟. Then, it is shifted into „really good‟. Moreover, Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) reveal the exampling of reversal is square which meant „honest‟ in 1930s and 1940s and the meaning changed into negative denoting „anyone or anything very conventional and uncomprehending by the more modern things‟. c. Derivational Morphology PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 53 According to Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010), derivational Morphology can be defined as an addition of other existed words or affixes to existing words. Their idea is supported by Katamba (1994) who reveals that “-derivation is motivated by the desire to create new lexical items using preexisting morphemes and words” (p.41). Derivation has a function to form words with clear semantic context (Fromkin, Rodman & Hyams, 2011). It may be concluded that derivation creates new words with new senses by attaching derivational affixes or existed words. In this class, there are two processes, namely compounding and affixation. 1) Compounding Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) state, “in English (as in many other languages) new words can be formed from already existing words by a process known as compounding, in which individual words are „„joined together‟‟ to form a compound word”. Compound word has two elements. Plag (2003) suggests that the first element consists of a root, a word, or phrase meanwhile the second element consists of a root or a word (as cited in Mattiello (2008). Predominantly, in English, the second base which is in the right of compound words has a role as the head. Mattiello (2008) states that generally the modifiers become the head based on the RHR (Righthand Head Rule). Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2003) state, “compounding is a particularly productive means of creating words. Thousands of common English words have entered the language by this process…” (p.511). Compounding can be applied both in standard English and slang words. Mattiello (2008) reveals that PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 54 the head or non-head may be from any lexical categories in slang. Nevertheless, it is possible to be occupied by prepositions, numerals, or pronouns. The combination from lexical categories can create compound nouns, compound verbs, and compound adjectives. The types of compound word are classified into two variants, namely: endocentric and exocentric compound. Endocentric compound is described as compound word with a semantic head (Katamba, 1994). The example of endocentric compound is existed in bumhole which means „a hole for excrement or usually called as anus‟. Meanwhile, exocentric compound is defined as compound word that its sense does not relate to the head. The instances of exocentric compounds are lied in jail-bait that means „a younger sexual partner‟ and supergrass having a significance as „an informer‟. 2) Affixation The process of attaching an affix to words is called affixation. Plag (2002) states affix is “a bound morpheme that attaches to bases (p.90). Affixes have three types, namely: prefix, infix, and suffix. a) Prefixation Prefixes are affixes that precede the word bases (Katamba, 1994). It is in line with Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2007) who say, “they occur before other morphemes” (p.43). Thus, prefixes are kind of affix followed by the bases. Table 2.3 is noted the example of prefixes in Standard Engish (adapted from O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, and Rees-Miller, 2010). PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 55 Table 2.3: Common Prefixes in Standard English Prefixes Change Example anti- NN anti-pollution de- NN de-active dis- VV dis-continue ex- NN ex-president in- Adj Adj in-complete mis- VV mis-place un- Adj Adj un-happy un- VV un-lock re- VV re-think Adapted. From O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, and Rees-Miller, 2010 Besides, it is applied in standard English, prefixation is also used to form slang words. Standard English and slang share several similar prefixes. Mattiello (2008) finds six types of prefixes in slang, namely: de-, re-, schm- or shm-, super-, un-, and under-. Prefix de- is applied in the standard English and slang. However, they have different function. According to Mattiello (2008), prefix de- has a function to form meaning „undoing the action of -‟ in the Standard English. Meanwhile, it means „deprive, divest, free from, or rid of the thing in question‟ if it is used in the slang. The distinction of prefix de- does not only lay on the function but also the application of it in the simple word. Usually, prefix de- is attached to a verb in standard language but it can be followed by noun in slang. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 56 Prefix re- also has a role to build a word in standard English or slang. Based on Katamba (1994), affix re- has a meaning „again‟. This is in line with Marchand, (1969, p.188) who said that re- has a meaning of „again‟ but sometimes it has a sense of „back‟ (as cited in Mattiello, 2008, p.92). The significance of re- is same when it is applied to Standard English either slang. Another prefix which is attached to slang is prefix schm- or shm-. It is only used in slang and not applied in Standard English. This prefix comes from Yiddish and it does not influence the meaning of the word (Mattiello, 2008). It does not have any meaning. Mattiello (2008) suggests schm- or shm- shows “disparagement, dismissal, and derision” and forms reduplicative in slang (p.92). The use of prefix schm- and shm- tends to convey no respect. It makes the word sounds mocking. The fourth prefix used in slang is super-. According to Mattiello (2008), affix super- that is attached to slang word conveyed sense of “exceedingly, very highly, extremely, supremely, extraordinarily over” (p.92). It is usually followed by an adjective. The combination between super- and adjective is exemplified by word super-cool. Prefix un- has a role to build a word both in Standard English and in slang. This prefix has a difference if it is applied to Standard English or slang. Mattiello (2008) reveals that prefix un- expresses „not‟ in Standard English. For examples of Standard English are unidentified, unacceptable, undeniable, uncountable, unable, unabridged, unappreciated, unaffordable, unavoidable, and unattractive. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 57 Meanwhile, the addition of prefix un- in slang obtains a negative adjective in slang (Mattiello, 2008). It is exemplified by uncool means „unrelaxed and unpleasant‟ and untogether which means „disorganize, confused, and diffused‟ (Mattiello, 2008). Slang also has prefix under-. It is attached to noun also “names of garments under other articles of clothing” in slang (Mattiello, 2008, p.93). For examples, it is applied in underchunders (Australian) and undercrackers (British) which convey a meaning „male or female underpants‟. Another example is found on the use of prefix under- which does not related to „underpants‟ is underarm denoting „illegal, illicit‟. b) Suffixation Suffixation is a process of attaching affix in the end of the word base. Affixes that go after the stem are called suffixes (Katamba, 1994). This process is implemented both in the standard English and slang word formation. Suffixes that are applied in the standard English are slightly alike to the suffix in the slang word. Inside slang, suffix is possible to be attached to regular words or irregular words (Mattiello, 2008). In the following, the writer describes suffixes that are proposed by Mattiello (2008). (1) The Suffix –able Suffix –able makes a denominal or deverbal adjective (Mattiello, 2008). It means that adjectives can come from a process of adding suffix –able to a noun PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 58 and to a verbal. The use of suffix -able can be discovered not only in standard English but also in slang. An example of the use of suffix –able is showed in the word fashionable, breakable, reasonable, perishable, and readable (Plag, 2002) (2) The Suffix –ation, -ion A noun may be built by adding suffix –ation or –ion. Mattiello (2008) states, “in English, -ion is a suffix forming noun of action from verbs…” (p.94). This kind of suffix is used in the standard English word immigrate immigration, cultivate cultivation, alter alteration, act action and liberate liberation. According to Mattiello (2008) suffix –ion or –ation may be found in slang as in the word buggeration which is a noun from a verb bugger „to ruin‟. Moreover, the use –ation in slang is exemplified by damnation which originates from damn. (3) The Suffix –dom Mattiello (2008) suggests, originally, suffix -dom is attached to a noun either an adjective to show the sense of „condition, state, dignity‟ and explain the sense of „domain, realm‟. It is also used in Standard English and slang. Suffix – dom in slang conveys those two meanings; for an instance, the term of gangsterdom denoting „realm of gangster‟ (Mattiello, 2008). (4) The Suffix –ed Suffix –ed is usually used to form an adjective. It is divided into two types based on the origins of the complex word. Mattiello (2008) categorizes it PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 59 into two types which are deverbal and denominal adjective. The addition of suffix –ed to a verb and a noun creates different types of adjective. A participial adjective is obtained by the combination of verb and -ed (Mattiello, 2008). Meanwhile, an adjective is made from a noun which has different sense. The combination of a noun and suffix –ed produces an adjective with a significance „possessing‟ (Mattiello, 2008). (5) The Suffix –er The ending –er is combined to a standard English or slang base to create a slang words. Regularly, suffix –er is attached to a verb to make a noun. It creates a “deverbal formative agent-noun with animate/ inanimate performer of an action” (Mattiello, 2008, p.96) which means the noun coming from the verb is being the subject. Thus, after the addition of suffix –er to a verb, the verb changes its meaning and becomes a noun. Usually, the combination has a meaning “a man who has to do with (the thing denoted by the base)” in general (Mattiello, 2008, p.96). This is in line with Katamba (1994) who states that suffix –er causes the noun means „person who does whatever the verb means” (p.44). It is also possible to attach –er to a noun in order to make a noun (Mattiello, 2008). However, this combination means a person who has an occupation related to the noun. Mattiello (2008) states –er “designates people based on professional employment (p.96). This idea is supported by Katamba (1994) who suggests that it means a meaning someone who practices a trade of profession according to the noun. Suffix –er + noun does not only have a PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 60 significance about a people job but also denotes “the native of …” (Mattiello, 2008). It is done by added adding -er to a noun especially a place name. The function of suffix –er is divided into two kinds by Mattiello (2008). The first type is suffix –er forming “a noun with general meaning”, a man who has to do with (the thing denoted by the base) (Mattiello, 2008, p.96). The second one is suffix –er that does not influence the word meaning but it creates colloquial jocular effect to words and name. The use of –er in slang is grouped into two groups based on its function in complex word. The second variant of –er does not influence the word meaning. This type is used to form “colloquial or jocular form of words and names, with curtailment and often some distortions of the root” (Mattiello,2008, p.96). Suffix –er from this variation intends to make the words sounds informal and funny. (6) The Suffix –eroo, -aroo Suffix –eroo or –aroo (and its kind –roo, -oo) is rarely used in the standard English suffixation. It is commonly discovered to make an American slang word (Mattiello, 2008). Wentworth (1972) defines –eroo as “a factitious or a neo-pseudo suffix” because it does not own “semantic consistency” (as cited in Mattiello, 2008, p.101-102). –eroo does not create a new meaning and change the lexical category. Dressler and Barbaresi (1994) state it causes the words like “a [non-serious] jocular account of a flop” (as cited by Mattiello, 2008). It causes the word sounds relaxing and not formal. Marchand (1969) states that affix –eroo is PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 61 an ending which is able to show “endearing forces” by Marchand in 1969 (as cited by Mattiello, 2008). (7) The Suffix –ery Suffix –ery is used to build words in standard English or slang. It is attached to a word with certain lexical category to form a noun. According to Katamba (1994), it is possible to combine –ery with a noun, a verb, and an adjective. It has four general senses (Mattiello, 2008). The first sense of –ery is showing a general collective sense (e.g.: machinery and scenery). The second sense is the classification of goods (e.g.: pottery and jewelry). Third, suffix –ery give the sense of action or behavior which is no-respect (e.g. knavery). The fourth sense of –ery is the place where an employment is carried on (e.g. nuttery which means “asylum” and nightery which denoted “a night club”). Mattiello (2008) states that, the second and third senses are rarely found in slang. In slang, -ery is generally attached to a noun. (8) The Suffix –ette The ending –ette originally comes from French. However, it is adapted to English. Suffix –ette is not discovered in standard English but it exists in slang. Mattiello (2008) states -ette is used “to form female noun from male personal noun”. This suffix shows feminine characteristics for something manly. The example of this suffix is laid in bachelorette coming from to bachelor (a single man) + -ette to denote „a single woman‟. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 62 (9) The Suffix –ful Slang and Standard English use affix –ful in their suffixation process. They share similarities. Katamba (1994) reveals that suffix –ful is attached to a noun. This is in line with Mattiello (2008) who suggests that it follows a noun. Though they share similarity in a type‟s lexical category of word, they create different result. According to Katamba (1994), Suffix –ful and a noun make an adjective which contains a meaning „to be filled with X” (p.45). At this point, X refers to a noun. In an instance, hate + ful hateful. (10) The Suffix –ie, -y Suffix –ie or –y is employed both in standard English and slang. Generally, those mentioned suffixes are combined with noun, adjective, proper noun, and clipped word (Mattiello, 2008). In a few case, the formation with verb or adverb also may happen. According to Mattiello (2008), suffix –y and –ie have a function to “form pet terms (pet of endearment) and familiar diminutives expressing jocularity or affection” (p.104). She also proposes that it may be used as a sarcasm or irony referring to people from different countries or race, someone with inappropriate behavior, and people who have special needs or mental deficiency. Besides, the ending –ie or –y exhibits jocularity, it may produce the other meaning. When those suffix create denominal, they represent people who is described by an activity, occupation, and hobby (Mattiello, 2008). They are also PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 63 possible to form inanimate noun. Based on Mattiello (2008), inanimate noun refers to something characterized or having to do with what the base denotes. A de-adjectival noun with those suffixes also has other significance. In 2008, Mattiello suggests the ending –y or –ie and adjective indicate people or things having a quality showing by the adjective, for examples, pikey and girlie. (11) The Suffix -ify, -fy Suffix -fy and –ify have a function to create a verb. Mattiello (2008) states “the English suffix –ify ( and its variant –fy quoted in the OED) regularly forms verbs” (p.109). It is in line with Carstairs-McCarthy (2002). He reveals verb may be formed by suffix –fy and –ify. For examples, beautify, clarify, simplify, verify, and qualify A noun and an adjective are commonly added with –fy or –ify. They make those combinations become denominal or deadjective verb. Mattielo (2008) suggests that combination forms a meaning “make, convert into, bring into the state of –“(p.109). Suffix –fy creates a significant process to make the object into the situation of the noun or the adjective. In slang, suffix –fy or –ify does not follow regular basis. Based on Mattiello (2008), -fy and -ify are attached to irregular bases. She also proposes that it can be attached to irregular word with affix -ed which is usually called participial irregular word. (12) The Suffix –ing ( to form nouns) PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 64 The employment of suffix –ing in common English and slang may be discovered. The function of –ing used in those language variations are similar. The similarity is laid in the meaning of the words that are formed after the suffixation. In common English, the presence of suffix –ing forms a noun which is created from a verb. Mattiello (2008) states, “in-present day English, -ing is a suffix forming verbal derivatives originally abstract noun of action (askasking, learnlearning), but subsequently developed in various direction, to express existence, process, habits, etc.” (p.109). She also proposes this suffix may be added to nouns, an ellipsis from adverb, and nonce word in form of words or phrases. Carstairs-McCarthy (2002) supports the statement of Mattiello (2008) by suggesting that suffix -ing is commonly employed to create nouns from verbs. In slang, -ing is also used to create a noun from a verb just like in presentday English. Verbal noun with –ing in slang usually shows actions which mean practice, and habits (Mattiello, 2008). Deverbal noun is not only formed by the single base noun but also possible to be formed by the compounded noun or verb. For example, jawboning and hot-rodding (Mattiello, 2008) Based on Mattiello (2008), another way to create a noun with –ing, besides using verb, is using adjectives. The deadjectival noun words in slang are exemplified by hotting (stolen group), sledging, and sugging denoting (Mattiello, 2008). (13) The Suffix – ing (to form adjectives) PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 65 Suffix –ing has two types. The first type changes a verb becomes noun and the second one makes adjectives. Mattiello (2008) suggests that –ing is employed to build adjectives of participial origin or nature and prepositions or adverbs of participial origin. According to Mattiello (2008), these types of adjective generally intensify adverbs or replace the expletive to euphemism (as in the words effing and fucking). She also proposes that it expresses a phonological similarity with the original word. (14) The Suffix –ish Affix –ish is discovered in slang word-formation process. The function of –ish in slang and standard English are alike. It changes the base into adjective. In word-building process, suffix –ish is generally attached to a regular noun and adjective regular bases (Mattiello, 2008). This occurs both in Standard English and slang. Meanwhile, in slang, it may be added to adverbial of time, adverbial of phrases, nominal compound and irregular bases like clipped nouns or back-slang noun (Mattiello, 2008). The -ish suffixation has a function to build adjectives with various meaning. Mattiello (2008) notes it creates the sense of “nature of, approaching the quality of somewhat” if it is attached to nouns or adjectives (p.111). Moreover, it has a meaning of “approximate age or time” when it follows numerals (e.g.: fortyish and ninis) (Mattiello,2008, p.111). These statements were supported by Katamba (1994) who suggests that –ish create a meaning of “having the (objectionable) nature qualities or character of X” (the X refers to nouns). He also PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 66 proposes that –ish and adjectives create a meaning of “having the property of being somewhat X.” (Katamba, 1994, p.46). Thus, suffix –ish changes nouns and adjectives with significances „having a characteristic of the noun‟ and „being almost adjective‟. (15) The Suffix –less Suffix –less is usually used to form adjectives with the negatives meaning. Marchand (1969, p.324) states that –less is “the negative counterpart of –ful” (as cited by Mattielo,2008). It is attached to a noun in order to create a sense of „without something‟. According to Mattiello (2008), -less conveys a sense „without‟ or „free from-„. This is in line with Katamba (1994) who suggests the combination of noun and –less creates a meaning „without X‟, where X refers to a noun. The sense „not having‟ which is created by –less is not always has literal meaning in slang. Mattielo (2008) states that adjectives with –less have to be read as metaphor. It is because the meaning is not always suitable with the bases. In slang, the ending of –less is not only possible to be added to a regular noun. As suggested by Mattiello (2008), -less can follow a deverbal noun of action. She is purposes the deverbal noun with suffix –less create a meaning „ not to be –ed‟ ( as in the word countless „not to be counted‟). (16) The Suffix –ly Suffix –ly is used to form adverbial terms in English. Usually, it is combined with an adjective. This suffixation occurs in Standard English and PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 67 slang. Mattiello (2008) suggested –ly forms adverbs of manner, mainly form adjectives. Katamba (1994) was supported her idea by proposing –ly creates adverbs from adjectives. For examples: hardly, easily, and loudly. It is also applied in the slang. However, this suffix may produce a metaphorical meaning if it is attached to slang words. Based on Mattiello (2008), slang adverbs may acquire the metaphorical sense „unusually, excessively, really, extraordinarily‟ if it is employed as intensifiers (e.g seriously). (17) The Suffix –ness Suffix –ness forms nouns from adjectives. However, according to Mattiello (2008), it is not only attached to adjectives in order to make nouns. She proposes, in slang, –ness is possible to be combined with a participles (drunkenness, knowingness), adjectival phrases (donothingness), (more rarely) nouns (childness), pronouns (I-ness), adverbs (nowness), particles (outness), and numerals (oneness). Noun slang with suffix –ness is also possible to be formed from compound adjectives, reduplicative adjectives, back-slang, and from a noun with suffix –y. (18) The Suffix –o The ending of –o is not common to be applied in standard English. Usually, it is discovered in the colloquial language or slang. Mattiello (2008) reveals that –o is borrowed from Romance in 16th century then it became a final after the shortening of words by deleting the last syllable after the o in the late 17th PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 68 centuries and the early 18th centuries. Then, after the middle English era, -o represented the interjection ho, o and, oh attached to words to create refrains or vocative expression (Mattiello, 2008). An adjective or a noun which is attached to an interjection from the ending of –o will be looked like a compound word because it is written with hyphen. Though it seems like a compound noun or adjective, the –o is treated as word with suffix –o (Mattiello, 2008). In slang, suffix –o has several functions. The first function is to form a personal noun from non-personal nouns. Secondly, it changes adjectives become nouns. The third one is deriving a noun from a verb or a group verb. Another functions of –o is to build familiar informal equivalent of nouns and adjectives (Mattiello, 2008). (19) The Suffix –ock According to Mattiello (2008), suffix –ock is popular in British slang. It is commonly created nouns. The implementation of –ock suffixation occurs on fussock/ fuzzock denoting „a fat, unwieldy woman‟ and pillock meaning „a fool, an idiot‟ (Mattiello, 2008). (20) Suffix –s Suffix –s is applied both in standard English and slang. However, it carries differences. In standard English, -s is used to show grammar contrast. If it is applied to verbs, it determines present tense. It can be seen from the sentence “He PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 69 buys a bouquet of flower for his girl everyday”. In this example, suffix –s indicates simple present tense Meanwhile, it indicates plural if it is attached to nouns. As in the case “He ate two apples yesterday”. In this case, suffix –s indicates plurality. In slang, suffix –s does not point grammar contrast. However, it is also possible to form plural nouns (Mattiello, 2008). .According to Mattiello (2008), -s forms denominal adjectives meaning „crazy, mad‟ or „eccentric, wildly enthusiastic‟. This type is exemplified by „nuts‟ denoting „insane‟. She also says, “it may also attach to nominal or adjectival bases to form noun which refer to „human skills‟ or „feeling, physical (or imaginary) mental disease-“ which is preceded “by a definite article the” (p.117). (21) The suffix –ster Suffix –ster builds an agent noun which is created from a verb or a corresponding noun (Mattiello, 2008). Marchand (1969, p.349) states that suffix – ster show the nuance of “shadiness” (as cited in Mattielo, 2008). The example of suffix –ster is represented in hipster and bombster. (22) The suffix –y Suffix –y is employed to create adjective slang from noun (Mattielo, 2008). Based on Mattiello (2008), nouns with –y attached have meaning „having the quality of-, full of-„. Besides, she proposes that it also forms denominal PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 70 derivatives with the meaning „of, pertaining to, or characterized by –„ (e.g. shitty and creepy) c) Infixation The process of inserting affixes in the middle of the words (Mattiello, 2008). Aronoff (1976), Siegel (1979), Bauer (1983), Plag (2003), and Dressler (2005) reveal that in general, morphologists agree that infix is not applied in English (as cited in Matiello, 2008). Instead, they suggest that English attaches expletives into the words to imply it for additional emphasis. Based on Mattielo (2008), in slang, -blessed- -bally-, -blooming-, -bloody-, and –fucking- (or –fuckin-) are inserted to words. The use of expletive in English is lied in abso-fucking-lutely. d. Inflectional Morphology Katamba (1994) states, “typically inflection contributes a morpheme that is required in order to ensure that the word has a form that is appropriate for the grammatical context in which it is used” (p.40). In the inflectional morphology, the inflectional affix is attached to the bases. The affix indicate grammar contrast and do not change lexical the category. Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) classify inflectional ending into three classes, namely: noun inflectional affixes, verb inflectional affixes, adjective inflectional affixes. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 71 Noun inflectional affixes consist of suffix –s which is possession maker or plural maker (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, 2010). Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) reveals that verb inflectional suffixes consists of –s to indicate present tense; -ed as past tense maker; -ing to show progressive, and -en or –ed to as the past participle markers. Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) reveal that adjective inflectional suffixes consists of suffix –er which is used to show comparative (e.g. smaller, bigger, taller, lower, cheaper) and suffix –est which is employed to indicate superlative (e.g smallest, biggest, tallest, lowest and cheapest). Generally, the adjective inflectional affix is usually attached to adjectives with single syllable. Moreover, suffix –er and –est can be used in the adjectives with two syllables and –y as the last letter (e.g. heavy, heavier, heaviest) B. Theoretical Framework This part describes the theories that support the analysis process of the study. The theories build borders in order to make the clear boundaries of what theories are applied in the analysis. They are related to the nature of slang and word-formation processes. Related to the nature of English slang, the writer employs previous studies of slang. The writer uses e-books and journals, mostly, from Mattiello (2008), Coleman (2012), Eble (1996), and Dumas and Lighter (1978) and other linguists. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 72 The use of those theories is for building same perception among the writer and the readers related the nature of slang. The writer uses theory related slang characteristics which are proposed by Dumas and Lighter (1978) to determine slang words before analyzing word-formation processes. The writer provides the theory of language variation as well. The theory is used to depict how slang differs to the standard variation. In addition, it describes how British slang is distinct to other English slang variation. To answer the research question “what types of word-formation are used to form slang in The Inbetweeners television series?” The writer chooses wordformation theories which are proposed by Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) also O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, and Rees-Miller (2010). After the morphological theories are examined carefully, it is found numbers of word-formation processes. The writer notes there are 24 type of wordformation, which is classified into neologism, derivational, changing the meaning of the words and inflection. The writer uses those word-formations because the writer sees almost all of those word-formation processes engage to lexical change process. Thus, the writer believed the processes are able to be used to analyze word-formation in English slang. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The third chapter will be divided into five parts. It includes method, subject of this study, instruments and data gathering technique, data analysis technique, and research procedure. Those parts discuss the steps that are taken in this study A. Research Method This part describes the nature of the study and the method that is implemented in this research. This research intends to find the word-formation processes used in English slang which are applied in The Inbetweeners television series and discusses its processes. Therefore, this research can be identified as a morphological study. Katamba (1994) reveals that “morphology is a study of word-formation and word-structure” (p.3). The writer implemented a qualitative method in this morphological research. Qualitative research may be used to conduct a linguistic study. For example, it implemented in discourse analysis which is a part of linguistics study (Litosseliti, 2010). Therefore, the writer employed qualitative method in this morphological study because morphology is a branch of linguistics study. Qualitative method is a research which focuses on the phenomena that occur in the natural settings or the real world and involves studying those 73 PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 74 phenomena in all complexity (Leedy & Ormrod 2005). Further, according to Denzin and Lincoln (2005, p.3), qualitative research transforms real world phenomenon into “series of representations, including field notes, interview, conversation, photographs, recording, and memo to the self” so all of the phenomena details may be interpreted carefully (as cited in Cresswell, 2007). In a qualitative study, the data are possible to be presented in the form of observation notes, research diary, photographs, drawings, patterns, interview, audio recording, questionnaire, participant‟s diary, transcription, verbatim notes, film, video recording, and photocopy (Holliday, 2002). Since this qualitative research analyzed English slang word-formation from television series transcripts, it refers to document analysis. According to Leedy and Ormrood (2005), document analysis is a detailed and systematic examination of the contents of a particular body of material for the purpose of identifying purpose, theme or biased. Moreover, they reveal document analysis is typically performed on forms of human communication, including” books, newspaper, films, television, art, music, video tapes of human interaction, and transcripts conversation” (p.42). Thus, it can be concluded that this study followed the nature of qualitative research proposed by Leedy and Ormrood (2005). B. Research Subjects The writer used transcripts from The Inbetweeners TV series as the research subjects which were found in Springfield website (http://www.springfieldspringfield.co.uk/.) The Inbetweeners is a title of British PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 75 situation comedy aired on E4, the British television channel from 2008 until 2010. It was written by Damon Besley and Ian Morris. The Inbetweeners has been nominated in British Academy of Film and Television Arts in 2009 and 2010, and won the Audience Award at the British Academy Television Awards 2010. Moreover, it won the Best Sitcom award in 2010 and the award for Outstanding Contribution to British Comedy in 2011 at the British Comedy Awards. The episodes talk about “school bullying, broken family life, indifferent school staff, male bonding, and largely failed sexual encounters”. It consists of 18 episodes which are divided into 3 seasons. The main characters are William Mckenzie, Simon Cooper, Neil Sutherland, and Jay Cartwright. They are sixteen year old boys who study at Rudge Park Comprehensive School. The boys are not popular students in their school. They are often bullied by other popular kids. Since they are not popular, they always try to be popular and cool. Moreover, they are obsessed about girls and sex. Thus, almost all of their discussion topics are about how to get the girls‟ attention and have sex with them. However, mostly, their effort is failed and gives them some troubles. To conduct this study, the writer only used the episodes from the first season because the writer believed it represented enough amounts of slang words as the data. In addition, analyzing transcripts from every episode in all seasons was unpractical because each episode has almost 18 pages of transcripts. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 76 The writer had some justification for choosing The Inbetweeners as the data source. First, the major of the conversations in it were done by adolescent characters especially male. Once, Coleman (2012) suggests that male teenagers have more tendencies to use slang to impress the girl. Besides, Anderson and Trudgill (1990) and Allen (1998) suggest that males often employ slang to covert prestige because using slang is regarded by having manly and strong qualities (as cited in Matiello, 2008). Second, almost all situations in it happen in informal spoken environment and it is in line with that Mattiello (2008) who that slang occurs in unofficial situation. C. Instuments and Data Gathering Technique In this research, the researcher was the main instrument to gather the data. As stated by Cresswell (2005), the researcher functioned as the primary instrument to collect the data in the qualitative study. This is in line with Merriam‟s (2002) statement that the researcher is the key for the data elicitation because the researcher is the one who collect the data in the qualitative inquiry. The writer gathered the data from the existed transcription of the first season of The Inbetweeners television series. The data source has been generated in Springfield website (http://www.springfieldspringfield.co.uk/). The writer downloaded the existed transcript in the website because of the practicality and accessibility. Thus, the writer did not need to transcribe the conversation laid in The Inbetweeners. The writer found it was impractical and inefficient if all episodes in the first season had to be watched and transcribed one by one by. In PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 77 addition, it is the most accessible source, which is complete and inexpensive. However, to keep the transcript reliability, the writer checked their accuracy by reading the transcript and re-watching the TV series. This study used protocols to support the human instruments in the data gathering process. The writer also applied coding technique to complete the table. According to Miles and Huberman (1994), coding is a process of giving tags or labels about the information of the data during the study. Thus, the writer applied process codes in this study to mark the process of word-formation and slang characteristics. The writer created the codes for twenty four word-formation types. They are created based on the word-formation theories that are purposed by Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) and O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, and ReesMiller (2010). For example, the writer put a label CW to a slang word which was coined. In addition, the writer created five codes to mark the slang characteristics. The codes were made in accordance with Dumas and Lighter (1978). For instance, a slang word was labeled as 3 and 4a if the slang is a tabooed term in ordinary discourse with persons of higher social status or greater responsibility and if it is a slang word which was used to place of the well-known conventional synonym to protect the user from the discomfort caused by the conventional item. By designing protocol, the writer believed that it could help to arrange the data into manageable segment. Thus, the research was more applicable. Moreover, PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 78 the writer suggested that coding made the data grouping process easier. In the following part, the writer provides table 3.1. It is the blueprint of table for research instrument employed in this study. Table 3.1: Blueprint of Research Instrument Table Title: No Sentences Slang Characteristics Word-Formation Processes Meaning Code for morphological process: CW A AA C B GW PN Brw IC Spl R TP : Coined Word : Acronyms :Alphabetical Abbreviation : Clipping : Blending : Generified Word : Proper Noun : Borrowing : Internal Change : Suppletions : Reduplication : Tone Placement Inf Clt BF O CPS ME Brd N SD RV Cmp Aff : Inflection : Cliticization : Back-Formation : Onomatopoeia : Change in the Part of Speech : Metaphorical Extension : Broadening : Narrowing : Semantic Drift : Reversal : Compounding : Affixation Code for slang criterion: 1: Its presence will markedly lower the dignity of formal or serious speech or writing. 2: to imply the user's special familiarity either with the referent or with that less statusful or less responsible class of people who have such special familiarity and use the term. 3: Tabooed term in ordinary discourse with persons of higher social status or greater responsibility 4a: to place of the well-known conventional synonym to protect the user from the discomfort caused by the conventional item 4b: to place of the well-known conventional synonym to protect the user from the discomfort or annoyance of further elaboration. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 79 Another table was also provided by the researcher to record the distribution of word formation in slang words. The writer made a table with twenty four types of word formation process that were mentioned in the theoretical description parts. By employing this table, the writer could see the most and the least frequent word-formation processes in slang used in The Inbetweeners TV series. In addition, the table had a function to help the writer to see the types of word-formation processes that were not found in The Inbetweeners television series. In the following part, the writer provides table 3.2, which is the blueprint to record the word-formation distribution. Table 3.2: The Blueprint Record of Slang Word-Formation Distribution Word-Formation Processes Occurrences Word-Formation Processes Coined Word Tone Placement Acronyms Cliticization Alphabetical Abbreviation Back-Formation Clipping Onomatopoeia Blending Change in the Part of Speech Generified Word Metaphorical Extension Proper Noun Broadening Borrowing Narrowing Inflection Semantic Drift Internal Change Reversal Suppletions Compounding Reduplication Affixation Occurrences PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 80 After the writer examined the data and grouped the slang words based on the type of word-formation process by using table 3.1, the writer recorded the distribution word-formation process in table 3.2. The number of occurrences of those word-formation processes that were found in The Inbetweeners television series could be seen clearly in the table 3.2. D. Data Analysis Technique To analyze the data, the write employed Data Analysis Spiral suggested by Creswell in 1998 (as cited in Leedy and Ormrod, 2005). Moreover, he reveals the cycle implements four actions, namely: organizing the data, examining the data, classifying and analyzing the data, and making the conclusion according to the finding. 1. Organizing the Data For the very first step, all the transcripts were read thoroughly in order to find the words which were possible to be considered as slang. During the process of data organization, the researcher designed some tables as the research instruments. The table form had been displayed in table 3.1 and 3.2. The first table noted the sentences, slang word, slang‟s characteristics, morphological process, and meaning. The data were broken into six tables based on the TV series episodes. The second table helped the writer to record the distribution of slang word-formation processes . PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 81 2. Examining In this process, the sentences in the script were examined thoroughly. The researcher analyzed the transcript to find sentences containing with slang by using slang characteristics that were proposed by Dumas and Lighter (1978). The researcher also attached the code number of slang characteristics which were suitable to the context and put the sentences into the table which is exemplified by table 3.1. For example, the writer would fill the table with code 1 and 3. It meant that the slang word suitable to the first and third criteria which were revealed by Dumas and Lighter (1978). Thus, the slang lowered the standard and serious speech also performs taboo term in front of people with higher responsibility. However, if the slang word labeled by code 2 and 4b, it meant that the word functioned to imply the user's special familiarity either with the referent or with that less statusful or less responsible class of people who have such special familiarity. In addition, the word was tagged as 4b if it is used to place the wellknown conventional synonym to protect the user from the discomfort or annoyance of further elaboration. This process aimed to make sure that the selected words were classified into slang word. Moreover, the writer hoped it would obtain same perception among the readers and the writer towards the selected slang. The example of examining stage is presented in the table 3.3. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 82 Table 3.3: Example of Data Organization Title: First Day No Sentences Slang Characteristics 1 What a tosser! Tosser 1,3,4b Morphological Process Meaning The sentence in the table 3.3 is tagged with 1, 3, 4b. It means that the sentence has three criteria of slang. First, the presence of the word tosser in the table 3.3 will markedly lower the dignity of a formal or serious speech or writing. Second, the slang in that sentence is the tabooed term in ordinary discourse with persons of higher social status or greater responsibility. Third, it is used to place of the well-known conventional synonym to protect the user from the discomfort or annoyance of further elaboration. 3. Classifying and Analyzing the Data After examining the data, the writer started to classify and analyze the data. All of slang words discovered in the transcript were classified and analyzed according to the twenty six word-formations processes. Those were proposed by Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, Harnish (2010) and O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, Rees-Miller (2010). The writer used a protocol that is exemplified by table 3.1 in classifying and analyzing process. The writer gave the code to label the wordformation process in the selected slang words and noted the code in the protocol. For instances, code “R” was used for reduplicative slang, “O” to mark the onomatopoeic slang, “SD” was the code for slang which applied the semantic drift process, “CPS” as the code for slang words that changed the part of speech, and PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 83 “ME” for slang that was applied metaphorical extension process. Then, after classified the word formation process, the writer noted the meaning of the slang word. To find out the meaning of the selected slang, the writer consulted the meaning to Dictionary of Contemporary Slang London (2007), The Concise New Patridge Dictionary of Slang (2007), The Concise New Patridge Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English, Oxford Dictionary of Slang (1998), A Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English: Colloquialisms and Catch Phrases, Fossilised Jokes and Puns, General Nicknames, Vulgarisms, and Such Americanisms As Have Been Naturalised 8th ed., Dictionary of Contemporary Slang (2007), and, Cambridge Advance Learners‟ Dictionary 3rd edition. The writer chose those dictionaries because they were accessible and published by reliable publishers. In the table 3.4, the writer presents the example of the data classification and analysis process and the use of protocol that was applied in this research. The slang word in the table 3.4 is labeled as “Aff”. It means that the slang word has an affixation process. Table 3.4: Example of Data Classification Title: First Day No 1 Sentences What a tosser! Slang Tosser Characteristics 1,3,4B Word-Formation Aff Meaning an idle, worthless and/or foolish person. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 84 After all of the words had been analyzed holistically and the part of characteristics and word-formations table process had been filled, the writer recorded the distribution of slang word formation by noted the amount words which experienced word-formation processes. It recorded in the second blueprint. Table 3.5 exemplified the application of table 3.2 which was supposed to record the word-formation distribution Table 3.5: The Example of Slang Word-Formation Distribution Recording Word-Formation Processes Coined Word Occurrences Occurrences 20 words Word-Formation Processes Tone Placement Acronyms 3 words Cliticization N/A Alphabetical Abbreviation N/A Back-Formation 1 word Clipping 16 words Onomatopoeia 6 words Blending 7 words 1 word Generified Word 3 words Change in the Part of Speech Metaphorical Extension 2 words Proper Noun 1 word Broadening 4 words Borrowing N/A Narrowing 1 word Inflection 2 words Semantic Drift 12 words Internal Change N/A Reversal N/A Suppletions N/A Compounding 15 words Reduplication 8 words Affixation 20 words N/A PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 85 4. Concluding According to the Finding In this stage, the writer made a conclusion about the finding of morphology analysis. This step also determined the distribution of wordformation processes in The Inbetweeners TV series. E. Research Procedure To conduct the study, the researcher had several procedures. They were described as in the following. 1. Identifying the Topic to be Studied First, the topic of the study was identified. The writer chose to organize the study in English word-formation process. The topic focused on the wordformation process in English Slang which occured in the first season of The Inbetweeners television series. 2. Formulating Research Problem After identifying the topic, the writer formulated two research problems. First, the writer proposed “What types of word-formation that is used to form English slang in The Inbetweeners television series?” The second research question was “What is the distribution of the word-formation in English Slang found in The Inbetweeners television series?” PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 86 3. Conducting a Library Study The writer conducted a library study to answer those research problems. The writer read the related and supported theories, namely: sociolinguistics, language variation, language change, slang, and word-formation. In this process, the writer used the theories about slang characteristics from Dumas and Lighter (1978) and the theories related to word-formation process from Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, Harnish (2010) and O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, Rees-Miller (2010). 4. Designing Research Protocol In this step, the researcher designed the research protocol that would help the writer to elicit and analyze the data. Table 3.1 was one of the examples of research protocol that was created in this study. Then, the writer designed another table to help the researcher in answering the second research problem. It is exemplified by table 3.2. The table functioned to display the distribution of wordformation in the slang in The Inbetweeners television series. 5. Collecting and Classifying the Data In this process, the writer collected the data by the protocol which is table 3.1. The writer gave codes of slang characteristics to make sure the selected words were slang. Next, the writer analyzed the word-formation process. In addition, the writer noted the distribution of word formation processes that were found in table 3.2. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 87 6. Reporting and Concluding The last step of this research was making a report and drawing conclusions. The writer made a report and give explanation of the applied wordformation processes that were found. Then, the writer drew conclusions according to the finding. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI CHAPTER IV RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION Chapter IV describes the analysis of this study. This chapter aims to discuss the finding of this study on the word-formation processes of English slang that occur in The Inbetweeners television series. The writer focused on the all episodes of season one. The findings and discussion of this study are based on the word-formation processes theories which are written in the chapter II. This chapter is divided into two parts. The first part is the answer of the first research question “What types of word-formation are used to form English slang in The Inbetweeners television series?” Furthermore, the second part is the answer of the second research question “What is the distribution of the wordformation in English Slang found in The Inbetweeners television series?” A. Word-Formation Processes are Used to Form English Slang in “The Inbetweeners Word-formation is a process of forming new words (Radford, Atkinson, Britain, Clahsen &Spencer, 1999). The processes are classified into 24 types. Moreover, those types were grouped into four groups, namely: neologism or word modification, changing the meaning of the words or meaning modification, derivation, and inflection (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer &Harnish, 2010). The writer analyzed 149 sentences to find the attached English slang words. The writer analyzed 150 English slang words to elaborate the word88 PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 89 formation processes within those slang words. In this study, the writer discovered 19 types of word-formation processes, namely: six coined word, twelve clipped words, two blended words, four proper noun, four cases of borrowing, two phenomena of internal change, one word of suppletions, two words of reduplication, two words with cliticization, two cases of onomatopoeia, six words with change in the part of speech processes, twenty eight phenomena of metaphorical extension, a broadened word, eleven words with semantic drift process, one case of reversal, thirty nine compounded words, thirty affixation phenomena, twelve words with inflection suffixes, and one word with backformation process. 1. Neologism Neologism or word modification is a processes to create new word (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, 2010). It involves fifteen types of processes. They are coined words, acronym, alphabetic abbreviation, clipping, blends, generified words, proper nouns, borrowing, internal change, suppletions, reduplication, tone placement, cliticization, back-formation, and onomatopoeia. The writer did not find all of the word modification processes. There were only eleven processes out of fifteen that were applied to form slang words in The Inbetweeners. a. Coined Word Coining new word is the process of creating new word from new sounds to describe new meanings (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, 2010). The PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 90 writer found six coined slang in The Inbetweeners television series. Those coined words were used by William McKenzie, Neil Sutherland, also Jay Cartwright. They were the male teenager characters whose age were sixteen years old. Table 4.1 presents the finding related to the coined slang words which were applied in the sentences by The Inbetweeners characters. Table 4.1: Coined Word in English Slang Sentences Slang Meanings Please don‟t have a wank over my mom. wank masturbation Oh my God! Check out the Juggasaurus Rex! juggasaurus rex a woman with really big breasts I've just seen the clunge head towards Nemesis. clunge a female genitals / female as sex object Wank, juggasaurus rex, and clunge were classified as coined word because those words were created from merely new sounds to depict new meanings. This idea was on a par with Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010 who state that new words are coined by inventing new sound and pairing it with new meaning. The writer believed it because each sound representing particular meaning did not indicate any word-formation process, such as affixation, derivation, inflection, borrowing, blending, clipping and meaning modification or changing the meaning of the words. Thus, the writer classified those words as coined word. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 91 b. Clipping Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2011) define clipping as “the deletion of some part of a longer word to give a shorter word with the same meaning” (p.573). Clipping process is exemplified by sist from sister, lab from laboratory, dad from daddy, and mom, from mother. Clipping can be classified into four categories, namely: back-clipping, fore-clipping, compound-clipping, and other marginal cases of clipping, such as: spelling change and back-fore-clipping (Mattiello, 2008). The writer found several clipped slang in the characters of The Inbetweeners utterances. Almost all of the clipped slang was used by the male teenagers except grass, which was said by Mr. Gilbert, the head of six of the Rudge Park Comprehensive School. The examples of clipped slang words and their application in the sentences were represented in the table 4.2. Table 4.2: Clipping in the Slang Word and Its Applications in Sentences Sentences Slang Origins Meaning pikey turnpike a vagrant Everyone knows, you spaz! spaz spastic Stupid I called shotgun. shotgun ride shotgun to ride in the front passenger chair Sorry, McKenzie, you're about to grass, are you? grass super grass to inform I'm gonna go check out the clunge mags. clunge mags clunge magazine a porno magazine Do you want me to be called pikey by my mates? PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 92 The words in the table 4.2 were considered applying clipping process. It could be seen from the deleted syllables in those words. Thus, the writer analysis towards those slang words were in par with Katamba‟s (1994) suggestions which states that word may be built by clipping the syllables in the polysyllabic word and make it in to one or two syllabic words. As stated by O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, and Rees-Miller (2010), clipping is the process of shortening a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllable Though those words were all shortened, they were different. One of the examples was spaz, which was showed that clipping could be applied by omitting the last syllable in the non-compound word. Meanwhile, pikey, shotgun, grass, and clunge mags indicated that shortening was also possible to be employed in compound words by deleting the first base and the last syllable of second base. This analysis was in line with Mattiello (2008), who revealed that clipping can be applied by cutting the first syllable and the last syllable in the compound and noncompound word. Therefore, they also could be classified into front clipping, back clipping, and compound clipping, which are proposed by Mattielo (2008). Front clipping example was represented by pikey because its first word was deleted. Meanwhile, back-compound was presented by spaz because its last syllable was cut. Moreover, compound clipping was exemplified by grass, shotgun, and clunge mags since they were formed from clipped compound words. The writer discovered the spelling change in the word spaz. The last syllable of spastic was deleted. Then, s was changed into z. This is in par with Mattiello (2008) who reveals clipping can change the words spelling. This PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 93 phenomenon also occurred in slang word clunge mags. The letter a in the second syllable and the last syllable in the word magazine were dismissed. Then, the letter z in the second syllable was changed into s. c. Blend Blend is defined as a process of joining chunks of two existed words to form new vocabularies (Katamba, 1994). For examples, blends are applied in brunch from breakfast and lunch, fantabulous from fantastic and fabulous, also smog which is formed from smoke and fog. In The Inbetweeners, the writer discovered two blended words which were applied by Jay Cartwright and William McKenzie in their utterances, the main characters of The Inbetweeners television series. Table 4.3 presents slang words that were built by blending and their application in the sentences. Table 4.3: Blend in Slang and Its Applications Sentences Slang Origins Meanings A bender never tells! bender bend over a homosexual Oh. You like my lip wouldn‟t you? Right round your bell-end, if Mr Chippy doesn't get there first. What's he going to knock up? A closet for you to hide in, you bumder?” bumder bummer and bender a homosexual The writer saw that bender and bummer were created by unifying the two parts from the originated words. Thus, the writer concluded those words corresponded to the theory which is revealed by Katamba (1994). PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 94 Though both of them were regarded as blend, both of those words were not in par with O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, and Rees-Miller (2010) who state that blending process involves non-morphemic parts from the first part of one and final part of other. The writer considered that only bumder that followed the mentioned statement of O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, and Rees-Miller (2010) because bumder was created from the first part “bum” from bummer and the last chunks “der” from bender. Meanwhile, bender was formed from the whole part of first base “bend” and “-er” as the last chunk of “over”. Bend was not a nonmorphemic part but it is a word with one syllable. Therefore, the writer believed that they were distinct. On the second thought writer still believed that bender was a blended word forming two parts of two existing words. d. Proper Noun Proper noun or eponym is word-formation process using name of a person to form new words (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, 2010). Eponym phenomena were also found in the formation of English slang. The writer discovered four eponyms were applied by the main characters. The slang words Prince Harry, Fanny, and johny were applied by Jay Cartwright, the boy who often used slang in his utterances. Meanwhile, Russel Brand was used by William in the sentence “It‟s funny, you never get any girls around here, yet away on caravan club you‟re like some sort of gypsy Russel Brand.” Table 4.4 showed the examples of proper noun. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 95 Table 4.4: Proper Noun in English Slang Proper Noun Prince Harry Fanny Russel Brand johnny Originate The name of royal British family member Meaning a drunken fool Frances „Fanny‟ Hill.” a vagina An English celebrity An endearment terms of common English name „John‟ a fool a condom The data showed that those words were built from well-known names in United Kingdom. Those names were chosen to describe words which were related to the particular quality. Generally, the qualities were depicted by the name (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, 2010) Proper noun was exemplified by the use of Prince Harry to denote „a drunken fool‟. Prince Hary is the name of a British royal family who captured being wild and drunk in a party by journalists. It was applied in the Jay Cartwright‟s sentence “Oh, Look out! Prince Harry‟s has a few drink now he thinks he‟s hard.” The sentence was found in the scene when Jay, Will, Neil and Simon skipped the school to drink alcoholic drink in the second episode. The word fanny which meant „a vagina‟ or „a woman as sex object‟ also could be claimed as an example of eponym because it originated from Frances “Fanny” Hill the female main character of a popular pornographic novel. Fanny was a pet name of Frances Hill a woman who was addicted to sex and became a prostitute to get a pleasure. Besides, some men characters took a granted from her sexual obsession to get satisfaction. The writer believed that fanny was used to PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 96 denote „a woman as the sex object‟ because, in the novel, Fanny was a sex object for several men characters. However, it was used to represent „a vagina‟ because the writer saw Fanny Hill was the sex icon for women. It was just the same as vagina, which was the females‟ sex symbol. The writer also found johnny as an eponym. It is an endearment term from a common male name in England. At first, johnny was from John, a slang term to denote „a penis‟ or „man‟. Now, it is used to denote „a condom‟. The writer saw that johnny denoted „a condom‟ because it is a thing that was usually used by john or a man. In addition, Russel Brand was an eponym from the name of notorious British celebrity. His name was used to denote „a fool person‟, because of his obnoxious characteristics. Thus, it could be conclude that those words were proper noun because they follow the eponym features that was mentioned by Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) e. Borrowing Borrowing is a process of loaning word from another language to create new vocabulary (Fromkin, Rodman & Hyams, 2007). The writer believed that English slang might be created by borrowing words from another language. The evidence was that the writer discovered some slang words originating from some other languages were mostly applied by the male adolescent characters. The writer found it was used by William McKenzie in episode four. He used booze in his sentence “As expected, the kitchen was a booze-freeze zone”. Another borrowing PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 97 slang was also found in Jay Cartwright‟s utterance. In the fifth episodes, Jay said “Bluewater's not chavvy, It‟s quality”. In addition, the process was found in the word tits, which was used by Jay Cartwright. The word tits was applied in the sentence “Oi! He wants to suck your Carli's tits!” Table 4.5 listed the borrowing process which was found by the writer in The Inbetweeners which was used by the teenage characters. Table 4.5: Borrowing Process in English Slang Slang Words Meaning Origins Languages booze alcohol drink bousen Middle English busen Middle Dutch and Flemish tits breast tet- various of Old Germanic language and late Latin Dialect chavvy having quality of lower-class chavi Roman The words in table 4.5 show the borrowing process that was applied in The Inbetweeners television series. To make sure those words were loaned from another language, the writer consulted to several dictionaries. According to Thorne (2007), booze was originated from Middle English. Moreover, it was from root word bus- in Middle Dutch and Flemish languages. Thorne (2007) also reveals that tit was created from tet- as the member of various Old Germanic language and late Latin Dialect. Based on Dazel and Victor (2007), chavvy was a loan word from Romany to denote an adjective which showed having quality of lower- class. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 98 f. Internal Change Internal change is defined as the switching of non-morphemic part to indicate a grammatical contrast (O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff & Rees-Miller, 2010). In Standard English, internal change is generally used to show the grammatical changing, such as the changing from present tense pattern into the past one. It happens without changing the meaning of the word. Besides, this process happens in the formation of slang word but it may not indicate the grammar contrast. The writer discovered the internal change processes in slang were applied by the teenage character in The Inbetweeners. For example, the slang existed when Neil Sutherland‟s said “My dad‟s not bent!” The other internal change process in The Inbetweeners was presented in the table 4.6. Table 4.6: Internal Change In English Slang Slang Word Origins Meaning bent bend homosexual Slung one up sling engaged to sexual encounter by hitting the sexual partner hardly In standard English, word „bent‟ is a past form of „bend‟. Meanwhile, in English slang, bent did not indicate past tense of „bend‟. However, it still created different meaning. In English slang, bend means „a spree‟ and bent denotes „a homosexual‟. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 99 The same process was applied in slung one up which was found in a sentence “I've slung one up her a few times myself”. The sentence was uttered by Jay Cartwright, a sixteen year old boy, when he boasted that he had sex with a girl from the caravan club. The words slung one up denoted a past form of „to engage to a sexual encounter by hitting the sexual partner hardly‟. In this case, the writer found the indication of grammar change from present pattern to past. At first, slung was formed from „sling‟. Thus, the writer concluded that slang internal change could create new meaning or only indicate grammar contrasts. g. Suppletion Suppletion is a process of changing the word with an entirely new word to indicate the grammar contrast (Katamba, 1994). Suppletion usually occurs in Standard English. However, the writer believed that it might happen in English because English slang is a variant of English. Therefore, it follows the nature of English. Table 4.7 presented the suppletion in slang that is found in The Inbetweeners. Table 4.7: Suppletion in English Slang Slang Origin Word function Meaning bought Buy Indicating past tense to accept a fiction as truth‟ In The Inbetweeners television series, the writer discovered suppletion process in the word bought. The word was found in the second episode when PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 100 Simon Cooper lied to Mr. Gilbert that William McKenzie and he could not go to school because of food poisoning. In fact, they skipped the class. Simon Cooper used the slang with suppletion process in his sentence “I thought he bought it”. That slang word was a past form of buy which had a significance „to accept a fiction as truth‟. It was clearly seen that buy changed into bought which changed the whole word. In addition, bought indicated past tense pattern. h. Reduplicative Katamba (1994) states that reduplication occurs by repeating two words in parts or entirely. Reduplicative words aim to mark grammatical or semantic contrast (O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff & Rees-Miller, 2010). It can be applied to both standard English or slang. Barbaressi classified reduplicative slang words into four types, namely: ablaut, rhyming reduplicative, reduplicative rhyming compound and exact reduplicative (as cited in Matiello, 2008). The examples of reduplicative process were presented in the table 4.8. Table 4.8: The Example of Reduplicative Slang Slang shit fit fatty boom-boom Type of Reduplicative reduplicative compound exact reduplcative rhyming Meaning a bout of anger or intense irritation‟ a very fat person The writer discovered reduplication process occurred in English slang. It was used by Jay‟s father in the sentence “Make one little joke and he has a shit PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 101 fit!” The writer claimed that it happened in shit fit which denoted „a bout of anger or intense irritation‟. That conclusion was drawn based on the characteristics attached in that word. The clearest feature was that it was created from two existed words and both of them were not the head of the laid word. In addition, those bases had the same rhyme. It also did not have metaphorical meaning that usually existed in the exocentric compound. Therefore, the analysis towards the word shit fit was in par with the characteristics of reduplicative rhyming compound characteristics proposed by Barbaressi (as cited in Mattielo, 2008). It also was not in line with Mattiello‟s (2008) statement that exocentric compound contain metaphorical meaning. Reduplication was also discovered in the compound word fatty boomboom. It was found by the writer in the Jay Cartwright‟s sentences “Don't worry, I'll distract fatty Boom Boom with the buffet”. The word was a composite between fatty and reduplicative word boom-boom. The writer concluded boomboom applied reduplication process because it repeated boom entirely and exactly the same. Hence, the writer classified boom-boom as an exact reduplication. i. Cliticization Clitics are morphemes which cannot stand alone as independent words because of the phonological reason (O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff & Rees-Miller, 2010). They are bound morphemes which are attached in the end of the words but they are not included into affixes (Katamba, 1994). Katamba (1994) reveals, clitics are applied in English to present the syntactic rule. Katamba (1994) groups PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 102 clitics into class I clitics and class II clitics. Class I clitics constis of –„s and the second class consists of „-m, -„re, -„s, -„ll, -d, and -„ve. The writer found some cliticization cases in slang that were uttered by the character in The Inbetweeners English slang. It was applied by William McKenzie in the first episode and by Jay Cartwright in the fourth edition. The examples of cliticizations in slang in The Inbetweeners television series are noted in the table 4.9. Table 4.9: Cliticization in English Slang Slang Words Type of clitics Function And the really good news is I'm now on the school nutter's "To Stab" list, 'if he doesn't shag my mum first. nutter‟s „s possessive genitive Oh, Look out! Prince Harry‟s has a few drinks now he thinks he‟s hard. Prince Harry‟s „s auxiliary verbs Sentences The writer believed cliticization still could be applied in English slang because slang was the variation of English. However, slang could not be followed by class II clitics, such as: -m, -„re, -„ll, -d, and -„ve. According to Katamba (1994) they were only attached to pronoun, like: I, you, we, they, he, she , it. Echoing Katamba‟s (1994) statement it was impossible to attach auxiliary verb clitics to English slang word because of the phonological reason. In the case of English slang word, the writer believed cliticization only occurred by combining the slang word with –„s because of the phonological PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 103 reason. The combination with other types of clitics was impossible in slang words. In addition, clitics –„s was only attached to slang which performed as noun or an agentive noun. The writer was also sure that clitics –„s in standard English had the same function in English slang. If –„s was applied in those variation of English, it indicated the grammar contrast. When –„s followed agentive noun, it was used to be genitive or auxiliary verb (Katamba, 1994). j. Back-Formation According to Bauer (1988), process of deleting “an actual or supposed affixes in the previously existed words is called back-formation (cited in Mattiello, 2008). Mattiello (2008) states that back-formation changes the lexical category. She suggests that verbs can be created from nouns and noun is formed by back-forming adjectives. Back-formation could be applied in standard English and English slang. The example of back-formation in slang was shown in the table 4.10. Table 4.10: Back-Formation in Slang Slang Origin chav Chavvy Meaning an underclass adolescent The writer discovered slang back-formation process applied by Jay Cartwright, the boy who liked to use slang in the fourth episode. The word chav was in Jay‟s sentence “You know how much I love chavs.” At first, chav was PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 104 originated from chavvy which denoted an adjective „having quality or acting of underclass adolescents‟. Then, suffix –y was omitted. Therefore, its lexical category shifted into a noun with a sense „an underclass adolescent‟. k. Onomatopoeia According to Katamba (1994), onomatopoeia is the use of sound to reflect some aspects which are represented. It is the word-formation process which using particular sound symbolizing the words. Onomatopoeia is exemplified by puff and boom. Puff is a sound to symbolize the air flow or the activity of smoking a cigarette. Meanwhile, boom is the onomatopoeia which depicts the sound of explosion. The phenomenon of onomatopoeia also happens in the English slang. The example of onomatopoeic slang presented in table 4.11. Table 4.11: The Example of Onomatopoeia in Slang Slang Meaning Onomatopoeic Sound boobs breasts the sound of baby suckling its mother breast fatty boom-boom a fat person a big rumble sound. The writer found the case in the boobs referring to „breasts‟. Thorne (2007) states that boobs are originated from the sound of baby suckling its mother breast for the breast feeding. It happens because the onomatopoeic word was close to the sound related to an activity of suckling breasts. Thus, the writer drew a conclusion that boobs were created from the onomatopoeia. The onomatopoeic PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 105 slang boobs was found in episode three. It is said by Neil in the sentence “Sometimes on the rides, their boobs pop out” The same process was discovered in Jay‟s utterances. The slang word fatty boom-boom, which denoted „a fat person‟, was found in the sentence “Don't worry, I'll distract fatty Boom Boom with the buffet.”. The word was a combination of fatty and an onomatopoeic word boom-boom. The onomatopoeia symbolized a big rumble sound. The writer viewed boom was identic to a big hollow sound when a giant walked. Giant was a metaphor of fat people because they share the same physical characteristics. Thus, the writer concluded that sound could be equalized to a sound of a fat person moving. Then, it could be said that the onomatopoeia became a symbol of a fat person. 2. Changing the Meaning of the Words Modifying the meaning or changing the meaning of the words can be other alternatives to form new word (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, 2010). In this process, new meaning is associated to the words that exist before. There are six processes of meaning modification. However, the writer only found five processes that were used to build slang in the first session of The Inbetweeners television series. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 106 a. Change the Part of Speech Change the part of speech or conversion is the process of replacing the words‟ lexical category. This process occurs without suffixation process. Mattiello (2008) names conversion as zero-derivation, zero-affixation, or functional shift. Some examples of English conversions drink, love, answer, and empty. The conversion from a verb to a noun was exemplified by drink, love, and answer words. In standard English, they can act as a verb or a noun without the addition of suffixes. Empty is one of the examples of converting an adjective to form a verb. Conversion process in slang was also discovered by the writer in The Inbetweeners. The example of conversion was it was found in the sentence “Ok, that‟s enough Simon. I know you‟re bullshitting me.” uttered by Mr. Gilbert. The writer depicted the finding of conversions in table 4.12. Table 4.12: Conversion in English Slang Slang Word Part of Speech Meaning Part of speech Meaning Chavvy noun a child adjective having a quality of an under-class Spunk noun cement verb to ejaculate Bullshit noun a lie Verb to tell a lie Wank verb to masturbate noun masturbation Ride verb to sit on and control a vehicle for travelling noun a sex partner Pork Noun food from meat of pig verb to engage in sexual intercourse PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 107 In The Inbetweneers, the conversion process in slang follows the nature of standard English conversion. From the table above, the writer concluded that nouns were attained by converting the verbs, as in the wank, and ride. Conversely, slang is also obtained by changing a noun into a verb, as exemplified by spunk, bullshit, and pork. The writer also saw that slang adjective was possible to create by conversion process of noun into adjective. From those analyses, the writer claimed that they were in a par with Marchand (1966) and Mattiello (2008). Marchand (1966) suggests supported idea which states, conversion can from verbs to noun and the opposite. Besides, the slang adjectives can be obtained by converting nouns (as cited by Mattiello, 2008). b. Metaphorical Extension Metaphorical extension is a process of creating new words by modifying the meaning of existing words (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, 2010). Even though the metaphorical extension changes the meaning of the words, it still holds the meaning or the sense that is almost close. The metaphorical extension is exemplified by word spit. It refers to the activity „to force out the content of the mouth‟ such as saliva or food. However, it is also possible to denote the act of forcing out to say something. The following sentences show the metaphorical extension of spit and its use. (1) Grandma spits her dinner because it tastes horrible. (2) Oh, come on. Spit it out, Bill! Tell me everything now! PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 108 The employment of spit in those different sentences shows the distinction in terms of meaning. However, it shares the almost the same sense. Moreover, it is related to the mouth and activity of forcing out something. Metaphorical extension exists in the English slang word-formation. The writer classified them into four groups. Each group captured the similar part and the closeness between the actual meaning and the extended meaning. Therefore, the writer divided those words based on the similarity of shape, function, characteristics, and activities. Table 4.13 shows the classification according to the shape which is used by the William McKenzie and Jay Cartwright. Table 4.13: Metaphorical Extension in English Slang Slang Words Actual Meanings Extended Meanings Ooh, I‟m Mr. Gilbert. I‟m such a big, huge, massive freak! And I just love to suck the headmaster‟s balls! balls an object with sphere object testicles Right, vodka, whisky, and a load of creme de menthe.When she sees you after this, she'll be frothing at the gash.” gash a long deep cut in the skin a vagina Sentences The writer associated the words in the table 4.9 into Metaphorical Extension because the writer concluded that they had the similarities in term of shape. The process of extending the meaning occurred in the ball. The conclusion was taken based on the shape resemblance between „ball‟ and „testicles‟. Both of them had a round and sphere shape. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 109 The writer also claimed that meaning extension was applied in the word gash to build slang word. In standard English, gash denotes „a long deep cut in the skin‟. Since, it was considered to have the same shape with a vagina the meaning of gash was then expanded. It was used to denote the female genital. In addition to the metaphorical extension based on the shape, the writer found that it also might be happened by pairing the function of the object. The writer discovered it was applied in the jug which was used by Jay Cartwright. He used it in the sentence “How is Will getting off with Charlotte Big Jugs brilliant news?” The sentence was found in the fourth episode. By analyzing the meaning of jug in standard form and slang, the writer jumped into the conclusion that jug denoting „a container to hold a liquid such tea and milk‟. The writer saw that it shared a resemblance with jug meaning breasts. Both of them had the same function, which was as storage of milk. As stated previously, slang had a possibility to be formed by metaphorical extension which shared the similarities and closeness between the actual meaning in standard English and the new one which was laid in the slang. The writer believed that the similarity in terms of characteristics also underlie the slang metaphorical extension process. The writer found this phenomenon in The Inbetweeners. For example, the word animal, which was applied in the Jay Cartwright‟s sentence “Listen to me, that bird Becky's an animal”. It was found in episode five. The case of this typical metaphorical extension in The Inbetweeners was presented in the table 4.14. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 110 Table 4.14: Metaphorical Extension in Slang Slang Words stud animal Wet Actual Meaning Extended Meaning a male horse kept for breeding a sexually active, potent male. powerful, living things but not include as human or plants someone who is wild in bed covered in water or another liquid sexually aroused (for women) The writer found stud had a close meaning to the promiscuous man. In standard English, stud means „a male horse kept for breeding‟ and it denotes a promiscuous man. Based on the writer‟s analysis, both meaning shared almost the same senses. They were male who had a lot of sexual partners and ready to engage in a sexual intercourse. In addition, men were also symbolized by horses because of the virility. The same case also occurred in the word animal. In English slang, someone who is wild in bed was defined as animal. It was because the wilderness of that person was comparable to the wild animal or it could be said that the person acted like an animal. Another phenomenon of slang was discovered in the word wet as well. It applied in the episode four by Jay Cartwright in his sentence “When Carli finds out, she's going to be two things - jealous and wet, because now she'll know you're a stud”. In slang, wet gained meaning „desiring sexual gratification”. This lexical was only applied for women. Therefore, it could be said that women produced sexual liquid when they were sexually aroused. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 111 Metaphorical extension was presented in the word finger that applied in the sentence “I fingered a bird” that was said by Neil Sutherland. The writer found that the meaning of finger in slang had a close sense with the actual meaning. In the standard English, finger had a significance „to touch something with finger‟. It was activities of using finger to do something. The writer viewed that the actual meaning was resemblance to the new meaning. In slang, it meant doing a sexual activity by using finger. Thus, because of the similarity, the writer concluded that the phenomenon was metaphorical extension. c. Broadening Broadening is a process of expanding the meaning of words which are usually used to denote a specific thing. According to Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010), broadening is a process of creating new meaning in existed word by expanding the actual meaning. The example of broadening is represented by picture. Before it has a meaning to all kind of image, picture only meant „a painted representation‟ (Fromkin, , Rodman & Hyams, 2011). This process was found in the English slang as well. The phenomenon of broadening was depicted in table 4.15. Table 4.15: Broadening in English slang Slang Previous Meaning Actual Meaning mental a patient of asylum all people with insensible behavior or people who act like a crazy person PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 112 The writer found the example of broadening in mental. Once, it was used to call the patient of a mental hospital. However, nowadays, the vocabulary is applied to call everybody who acts like a crazy person. It was claimed as a broadening process because mental was not to describe a particular person occupying an asylum anymore. Now, it refers to a broader scope. In addition, it denotes all people with insensible behavior. Thus, the writer claimed that mental applied the broadening process. d. Semantic Drift Semantic drift or meaning shift is defined as a process of changing the previous meaning of existed words into the recent meaning (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish 2010). Semantic drift in slang is exemplified by words which noted in the table 4.16. Table 4.16: Semantic Drift in English Slang Slang Words Previous Meaning Twat a female genitals Prick a male genitals Knob a male genitals Recent Meaning a foolish, obnoxious person a fool a fool, contemptible person The writer claimed the words in table were semantic drift. The previous meanings of those words were not used by speakers anymore. Their meaning shifted into a new meaning which was commonly used. The example of semantic drift was laid in the word twat. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 113 The word twat was found in the first episode of The Inbetweeners. It was used by William McKenzie in the sentence “What a first day. I'm such a twat“. At the beginning, the twat entered the language on 1656 (Dalzell &Victor, 2007). It denoted „a female genitals‟. These days, the speakers do not apply the words with the previous meaning. Now, the speakers use the actual meaning of twat which presents „a fool, obnoxious person‟. The same phenomenon occurred in the prick and knob as well. Before the meanings changed into „a fool person‟, in 15th centuries, they signified „a male genitals‟. Recently, their ancient significances were never existed again. Thus, based on the writer‟s analysis and the statement of Dalzell and Victor (2007), the writer concluded that the words applied semantic drift process. e. Reversal Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) define reversal as the process of reversing the meaning of the words into either positive or negative. The writer discovered the occurrence of reversal in English slang. The example of reversal was presented in the table 4.17. Table 4.17: Reversal in English Slang Slang Word Previous Meaning Actual Meaning wicked bad good The process of reversal was represented by wicked. The writer found it in the sixth episode. It was applied in the Jay Cartwright‟s sentence “Yeah, under my PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 114 supervision and that was a wicked party” which was in the sixth episode. Once, wicked was an adjective to describe bad things or people. Recently, the meaning of wicked reversed to denote something which was really great. Since the writer noticed that the word‟s meaning turned into positive sense from the negative one, the writer concluded the word-formation of wicked was reversal. 3. Derivational Morphology According to Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010), derivational morphology can be defined as an addition of other existed words or affixes to existing words. Their idea is supported by Katamba (1994) who reveals that “-derivation is motivated by the desire to create new lexical items using preexisting morphemes and words” (p.41). Derivation has a function to form words with clear semantic context (Fromkin, Rodman & Hyams, 2011). It may be concluded that derivation creates new words with new senses by attaching derivational affixes or existing words. In this class, there are two processes, namely compounding and affixation. The writer discovered two processes of derivational morphology in slang words which were applied in the first season of The Inbetweeners TV series, namely: compounding and affixation. a. Compounding Compounding is a word process of combining the individual existing words into one compound word (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish 2010). Mattiello (2008) states that compounding may be implemented by joining the individual word from any lexical words categories. According to the possession of PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 115 head, compound words were grouped into two parts, namely: endocentric compound and exocentric compound. Katamba (1994) reveals endocentric compound is a compound word with semantic head. It means, the compound word‟s meaning still has a relation with the second base of compound word. The examples of slang endocentric compound are described in the table 4.18 below. Table 4.18: Endocentric Compound in Slang Slang Words Head Meaning cock-seekers seeker women who like to find a man as the sex object bumhole hole an anus Mr. Chippy chippy „prostitute‟ a male prostitute booze-freeze-zone zone a place where alcoholic drink is stored fatty boom-boom fatty fat person The writer concluded those words as endocentric compound. It could be concluded by the meanings that were still related to the head in the right base. As exemplified the word cock-seekers. It was said by Jay Cartwright in the sentence “I hope they're cock-seekers too” in the third episode The word was created from „cock‟ and „seekers‟ as the head. Cock was a slang word denoting „penis‟. Meanwhile, seeker was an agentive noun conveying the meaning of „people who seek something‟. Those combinations created the PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 116 meaning „people who seek a penis or in another word „women who look for a man as the sex object‟. The phenomenon was applied in bumhole as well, which was found in the Simon Copper‟s sentence “He touched us here, and here. And here. The bumhole.” Its meaning still corresponded with the head. The unifying of bum and hole conveyed a meaning of „the type hole‟. The exact meaning was “the excrement hole on the buttocks”. In general, the head of endocetric types was in the right side of compound word for examples bumhole, cockseeker, and booze-freeze-zone. Dominantly, English endocentric compound followed the Righthand Head Rule. However, the rule was not applied in all slang endocentric compound. The writer discovered an endocentric compound might be created with the left head. This phenomenon happened in fatty boom-boom which implies „a fat people‟. Its meaning was obtained from fatty as the first base. The onomatopoeia of blasting in the second based did not represents any meaning. The writer claimed it as the complementary to give an effect of jocularity in the lay-word. Though the word did not followed the endocentric compound regular rule and the right based was not the head, the writer still assumed it as the endocentric compound. It was because the sense of that compound word still corresponded to the one of compound bases. The writer believed boom-boom did not affect the significance to the compound word at all. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 117 Exocentric compounds were also found in slang word-formation process. This compounding type does not share the same nature with endocentric compound. Exocentric compound is a kind of a compound word without semantic head. Thus, the meaning in exocentric compound does not correspond to the head. As presented in pickpocket. The word, which was the combination of pick and pocket, did not have any correlation to the head which supposed to be in the right base of the compound word. Its meaning did not mean the type of pocket. However, it described the type of a thief who steals a wallet from someone‟s pocket. The writer summed up the slang exocentric compound in The Inbetweeners in table 4.19 Table 4.19: Exocentric Compounnd in English Slang Sentences Slang Words Meaning Simon, I've had enough of dickheads today. Dickhead stupid person Hang on, you haven‟t actually got a stalk on? stalk-on an erection Yeah, alright, Made a few cock-ups.. cocks up mistakes Listen, lard-arse. There will be food lard-arse fat person I've slung one up her a few times myself. slung one up did sexual activity by hitting the partner really hard Table 4.19 presents the head of the compound words do not affect the meaning. Therefore, the writer classified them into exocentric compound. For an example, exocentric compound was applied in dickhead word. The combination between dick and head does not signify a type of head but it means „a stupid PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 118 person‟. Its relation between the bases and the meaning proved that there is no correlation between the compound bases and the meaning. The example of exocentric compound was found in cocks up word. Through table 4.19, it was clearly seen that its sense „mistakes‟ was not influenced by its head of compound word. The same phenomena also occurred in lard-arse, which was found in Jay‟s sentence in the episode six. The combination of lard means „pigs‟ fat‟ and arse „buttocks‟ did not create a meaning of „buttocks which are full of pigs‟ fat‟. However, the compound word lard-arse was used to denote „a fat person‟. Moreover, another slang exocentric compound word was exemplified by the application of word sling up one by Jay Cartwright in the episode five, which meant „engage to sexual encounter. The writer viewed all of the bases of that exocentric compound did not engage in the process of the meaning formation at all. b. Affixation Affixation is a process of affix attachment to root a word. This process is divided into three processes, namely: prefixation, infixation, and suffixation. The classification of affixation is based on the position of affixes. If the affix is attached precede of the root words, it is called prefix. Meanwhile, if it is attached between of the root words, the affix is classified as infix. Affix that is combined to the end of the root words is called suffix. The writer only found the phenomena of suffixation in this study. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 119 Suffixation is defined as a process of attachment of affixes that go after the stem ( Katamba, 1994). Predominantly, standard English shares the same suffixes with English slang. Suffix –ed, -er, -ing, -able, -y, -ness, -ly, -fy, -ish, -less and – ful can be discovered in slang and standard variation. However, there are some suffixes which are only applied in the English slang, namely –ette, -ock, -dom, -o,erro, and –ster (Mattiello, 2008). After analyzed the all the slang word in the whole of episodes of the first season, the writer found that not all of the standard English and English slang suffixes were applied to form slang words. The writer only found six suffixes out of twenty one. The slang words in the research object only applied –er, -y/-ie, ed, -o, -ock, -ing in their word building processes. Therefore, the writer classified the suffixation processes based on the type of suffixes that applied. a. Suffix -er Suffix –er has a function to form nouns. According to Mattiello (2008), -er creates agent-noun form verbs. It gives a meaning of “a man who does whatever the verbs means” (Katamba, 1994, p. 44). Mattiello (2008) also adds that suffix – er has functions to „designate people according to their profession‟ when it is attached to nouns. In addition, it forms the meaning of „the native of...‟ when it is attached to a name of place (e.g. highlander). The –er ending is possible to create the jocular sounds as well. The suffix does not change the meaning. It just make the funny effect to the sound for the slang words. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 120 In The Inbetweeners, the writer discovered some slang words with suffix – er that were used by the male teenage characters in their utterances. The phenomena of the –er suffixation with several function in were showed in the table 4.20. Table 4.20: Suffix –er in English Slang Slang Words Roots Meaning wanker wank a mastubator tosser toss a mastubator cock –seeker seek a woman who looks for a male sexual partner nutter nut a crazy person spacker spaz stupid (It forms from spastic) boner bone an erection Based on the table 4.20, it could be seen that suffix –er in word wanker ,that was use by Jay in the sentence “What, for a wank? You wanker”, changed the verbs into nouns. The root word wank which meant „to masturbate‟ shifted into „the mastubator‟ after they were attached by –er. The same phenomenon was also found in the word tosser. Actually, tosser meant „a maturbator. However, it was used to denote „a fool‟ by William McKenzie in The Inbetweeners. The same feature also found in cock-seeker. The second base of cock-seeker was created from a verb „to seek‟. Then, after it was followed by suffix –er, its meaning changed into „someone who seeks‟. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 121 The different case of –er suffixation was discovered in the nutter. In this case, affix –er did not attach to verbs like the previous slang words. However, it was combined with nut which had a function as an adjective. Though had a different combination, affix –er in nutter still created a noun with significance „a crazy person‟. The writer concluded, suffix –er might create the sense of „someone who is adjective‟ if it was combined to adjectives. As exemplified by nutter, affix –er conveyed „someone who is nut or crazy‟. The phenomenon of -er suffixation in slang word spacker and boner had different function with others. The writer regarded –er in spacker and boner created a jocularity. It could be conclude from their lexical categories which were not change. The lexical category of spacker, which was an adjective, was still consistent even after the suffixation. Suffix –er which created jocularity also found in boner because the lexical category change process was not discovered in it. b. Suffix –y/ -ie Suffix –y or –ie were common English suffixes. They are applied both in standard English and slang. In English slang, the suffixes form the pet terms and created the jocularity sense (Mattiello, 2008). Besides, Mattiello (2008) reveals that they are able to form sarcasm or irony, describe people based on their activity, interests, and occupation. Moreover, according to Mattiello (2008), suffix –y and –ie also indicate people or things having a quality showing when it is combined with adjectives. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 122 The writer identified the occurrence of suffix –y in the English slang wordformation processes. It was applied in words pussy, johnny, fatty boom-boom, blowy, pikey and punky by the main characters of The Inbetweeners . In order to make the review easier, they were described in table 4.21 Table 4.21: Suffix –y or –ie in English Slang Sentences Slang Words Meanings There's a whole world of pussy out there. pussy a vagina Oh. He‟s also buying a jumbo pack of ribbed johnnies johnny a condom Don't worry, I'll distract fatty Boom Boom with the buffet. fatty a fat person She gave me a hand job, not a blowy blowy a fellatio No, I wasn‟t. I got wedgie a couple of times. But that was just a fad wedgie a form of bullying by pulling someone‟s underwear as high as possible and cause the pain in the butt Do you want me to be called pikey by my mates? pikey a vagrant Some sort of punky redhead. punky a person following punk lifestyle The writer believed that suffix –y in those words performed as the maker of jocularity except punky and fatty. Suffix –y in punky formed a meaning „a person who followed a lifestyle. Meanwhile, in fatty, suffix –y created a sense of a person who is fat. The writer concluded it based on the root words and the resulting meaning. Suffix –y in forms sarcasm or irony sense. It happens if only it was combined by root words which corresponded to race, one with unapproved PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 123 lifestyle, and physical defection (Mattiello, 2008). Mattiello (2008) exemplified the harsh sense from suffix –y in the word chinky which was racist and impolite to denote „ a chinese man‟. Moreover, sarcastic sense by the addition of –y was able to be found in druggie (denote someone who follow drug user‟s lifestyle) and wheelie (wheelchair users).The writer did not see any root words were related to race, unapproved lifestyle, and physical defection in the findings. In addition, the meaning of the discovered words did not describe types of people based on race, habits, and disabilities.The writer found –y which designated people based on their occupation and interest. The phenomenon occurred in punky. The combination between punk and –y formed significances „a person who follows punk life style‟ or „one who really like punk music‟. It was used by Neil Sutherland in the fifth episodes. c. Suffix –ed Suffix –ed commonly is used to create deverbal or denominal adjectives (Mattiello, 2008). It means that adjectives formed by combining verbs or nouns with –ed. In English slang, the writer found the use of affix –ed to form adjective. The phenomena were summed up in table 4.22. Table 4.22: Suffix –ed in English Slang Slang Words Root words Meaning knackered Knack Tired wasted Waste Drunk PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 124 This phenomenon appeared in knackered. Knackered belonged to deverbal adjective slang. Therefore, it came from knacker as a verb which meant „to slaughter horses‟. The addition between knacker and –ed built an adjective which meant „tired. The word was found in the Simon‟s sentence “Might not go to this thing tonight. I‟m pretty knackered.” The same process was also found in wasted that was used by Jay. It was created from waste which was a verb and suffix –ed. The combination created a meaning „drunk‟. The writer discovered suffixation –ed was combined to a noun as well. A denominal adjective was found in the wicked. At once, the word originated from wick meaning „a part of candle which is used to receive the flame from matches‟. After the suffixation process its meaning became „really bad‟ but then its meaning shifted into „really good‟. d. Suffix –o Suffix –o is often applied in the slang word. It is not used in the standard English. The –o ending has two functions. According to Mattielo (2008), suffix o aims to make non-personal nouns into personal nouns. She also states that suffix -o changes adjectives into nouns. In addition, suffix –o was able to create nouns from verbs (Mattiello, 2008). The writer found the use of suffix –o in the slang in the utterances of The Inbetweeners characters. Mostly, it was applied by the male characters. However, it also found in the teenage female characters. The examples PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 125 of the application of suffix –o in slang words and their implementation in the characters utterances were represented in table 4.23. Table 4.23: Suffix –o in English Slang Sentences Slang Words Root Words Meaning In a caravan, like a gypo? If my mum told me we were going caravanning, I'd call Childline gypo gypsy gypsy Did someone dare you to be the world's biggest saddo saddo sad a sad person Please be lesbo. lesbo lesbian a lesbian You're more likely to get somewhere with a fatso, cos they're grateful for the attention. fatso fat a fat person Suffix –o in saddo and fatso caused adjectives changed into nouns. Through table 4.23 it could be seen that sad as an adjectives changed into noun which denoted „a sad person‟. This also occurred in fatso. The attachment of suffix –o to the adjective fat shifted its lexical category. It changed from adjective to noun. Another function of suffix –o was also discovered in lesbo and gypo. Previously, those words were created from lesbian and gypsy. Before the suffix – o was inserted, the last chunk of those words were clipped. The writer found that suffix –o which was attached to them did not change non-personal noun into personal noun, adjective into noun, or verbs into noun. Thus, the writer concluded suffix –o in gypo and lesbo create jocularity. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 126 e. Suffix –ock Suffix –ock is only found in the slang British English (Matiello, 2008). It was not applied in Standard English. According to Mattiello (2008), suffix –ock creates nouns. Mattiello(2008) reveals the –ock suffixation occurs in bollock. It was built from ball and suffix –ock. Then, it had a spelling changing from „a‟ became „o‟. Thus, the writer believed bollock, which was applied in the sentence “Well, I'd give a left bollock for 'em” By Jay Cartwright in the fourth episode of The Inbetweeners, was the result of the –ock suffixation because it was in par with the statement of Mattiello (2008). f. Suffix –ing Suffix –ing is a common suffix which is applied in English. It is used both in standard English and English slang (Mattiello, 2008). The writer found slang words which were added with suffix –ing. Table 4.24 summed up the use of suffix –ing in English slang that was found in The Inbetweeners. Table 4.24: Suffix –ing in English Slang Slang Root Words Meanings brown-nosing brown-nose flattering frothing Froth a state of sexually aroused overflowing wetness in the vagina by The used of suffix –ing in brown-nosing aimed to form a noun from the verbs. The word was originated from brown-nose denoting „to flatter‟. Suffix –ing PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 127 here changed the lexical category from verb to noun, thus, the meaning switched into „flattering‟. It was found in the Simon‟s sentence “Being scared of teachers and brown-nosing everyone's parents is just an act, isn‟t it?” The same process was also applied in frothing. It was found in the Jay Cartwright‟s utterances in the sentence “Right, vodka, whisky, and a load of creme de menthe. When she sees you after this, she'll be frothing at the gash.” The word froth literally denoting „to make a liquid produce bubble‟ changed into “a process of producing bubble in a liquid‟. In slang, the sense became „a state of sexually aroused by overflowing wetness in the vagina”. 4. Inflection Katamba(1994) defines inflection as a morpheme that ensure the word follows the suitable grammatical context. Generally, it engages the some affixes, namely: -er,-s, -ed, and –ing to indicate grammar contrast. Suffix –er is usually applied in monosyllabic adjectives to form degree of comparison. Suffix –s indicate plurality when it is attached to nouns but when it follows verbs it indicates simple present. The –ed ending indicate past pattern. In addition, the other feature of inflectional suffixes is it does not change words‟ lexical category. Inflection was not only discovered in standard English. Besides, it could be applied in English slang because, as a variation of English, slang was still following the nature of English in terms of grammatical aspects. The writer found the inflectional processes occurred in the slang words which were used by the PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 128 characters of The Inbetweeners. The processes engaged inflectional suffix –s, -ed, and –ing. The examples of inflection were noted in table 4.25. Table 4.25: Inflection in English Slang Slang words Parts of Speech Inflexional Suffixes Function How is will getting off with Charlotte Big Jugs brilliant news? jugs noun -s plural Ooh, I‟m Mr. Gilbert. I‟m such a big, huge, massive freak! And I just love to suck the headmaster‟s balls! balls noun -s plural fingered verbs -ed past tense bullshiting verbs -ing present continuous Sentences I fingered a bird. Ok, that‟s enough Simon. I know you‟re bullshitting me. Through table 4.25, it could be concluded that English slang words applied inflectional suffix. The use of suffix –s in the word jugs and balls showed that those words indicated plurality. Suffix –ed which was adapted in word fingered presented past form. Meanwhile, -ing that was found in the word bullshitting performed the indication of present continuous tense. The writer concluded it based on the findings that were not revealed the change of part of speech in those words. B. The Distribution of Word-Formation Processes After scrutinized the data thoroughly, the writer concluded that not all of English word-formation processes were applied to English slang in the entire PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 129 episodes in the first season of The Inbetweeners television series. The writer only found nineteen types of word formation processes out of twenty four processes that revealed by Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) and O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, and Rees-Miller (2010). The discovered process was coined word, clipping, blend, proper noun, borrowing, internal change, suppletions, reduplication, cliticization, onomatopoeia, change in the part of speech, metaphorical extension, broadening, semantic drift, reversal, compounding, affixation, and inflection, back-formation. The writer did not found four types of word-formation processes, namely acronym, abbreviation, generified-word, and narrowing, in the whole episodes of the first season of The Inbetweeners television series. 1. The Most Frequent Word-Formation Process Among the discovered word-formation processes which were applied in slang words in the first season of The Inbetweeners, the writer found compounding was the most frequent. The writer summed up, there were 39 compounding process within. They were included endocentric compound and exocentric compound. The writer claimed the occurrences of compounding were discovered frequently because words were formed easily through the compounding process rather than by other morphological processes. Many new lexical could enter the language just by combined words with any existed words. Then, the combinations PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 130 were able to build new sense. Besides, the new combinations could express the old sense in the new and various way as well. Compounding process was able to build many words with numbers of variation. This did not only occur in standard English but also in English slang. It is exemplified by the combinations of head and other words. The word head could be formed a meaning „a stupid person‟. It could be attached by „dick‟ so it became dickhead either it could be combined with mutton, as in „muttonhead‟ to denote „a stupid person‟‟. It also followed „block‟ to create blockhead or „bone‟ to form „bonehead‟ with the same meaning. In addition, a sense of „a stupid person‟ was also found in word butterhead formed from „butter‟ and „head‟. Thus, through the instances which were mentioned above, it could be concluded that the same sense might be built by various words combination. 2. The Undiscovered Word-Formation Processes The writer analyzed there were four types of word-formation process that were not found in slang words in the first season of The Inbetweeners television series. The writer‟s finding claimed, acronym, alphabetical abbreviation, generified word, narrowing, were not discovered. a. Acronym Acronym is the use of the the first letters of a sequence of words to spell a new word (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, 2010). It can be said that acronym is an abbreviation which can be read like an usual word. It is a common PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 131 word-formation process in Standard English or English slang. Acronym is exemplified by AIDS which stands of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. The example also lays in word UNESCO originating from United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. The phenomenon of acronym was not applied to form English slang in first season of The Inbetweeners television series. However, it did not mean slang words could not be created from acronym. Some slang words absolutely were able to be formed by acronym. It was exemplified by MILF that is created from „Mother I Love to Fuck‟. The acronym denoted to „a very sexy mother‟. It was also applied in a military slang, FUBAR: „Fucked Up Beyond All Recognition‟ (Matiello, 2007). The writer concluded acronym was not discovered because acronym-based-slang was not employed by the characters of The Inbetweeners. b. Alphabetic Abbreviation Alphabetic abbreviation is a word formation process by using abbreviations but each letter is pronounced separately (Katamba, 1994). According Mattiello(2008), this process can be applied to form English slang. For example it occurs in WTF: „What the Fuck‟. It is also exemplified by WTH which is formed from „What the Hell‟. Moreover, Mattiello(2008) reveals alphabetic Abbreviation is instantiated by SOB which stands from „Son of a Bitch‟. Although alphabetic Abbreviation was proven formed slang words, the writer still did not discovered the process was applied to create slang words in The Inbetweeners. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 132 The writer concluded, it occurred because the characters did not use any abbreviation slang. c. Generified Word Generified word is a word-formation process by using specific brand name of product as names (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, 2010). Through this process, new lexical can enter to Standard English. The example of generified word in English is laid on klenex. At first, it is a popular brand of tissue but now klenex is used widely to denote tissue. The writer did not find the application of generified word to English slang in “The Inbetweeners”. However, the writer was sure generification process existed to build English slang. For example, it was exemplified by a name of Area in United Kingdom, East ham. It is a slang word which means „nearly mad‟. Edinburgh fringe was the example of generified word as well. It was a compound word from fringe and Edinburgh. The second base, Edinburgh, was a name capital city of Scotland. It was rhyming slang for minge which is applied to denote „a female pubic hair‟. d. Narrowing Narrowing is defined as a process of taking a more restricted meaning than before (Radford, Atkinson, Britain, Clahsen & Spencer, 2009). It is exemplified by meat which was used to call „any solid consumable food‟ (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, 2010). Now, its meaning is narrowing and only it is only used to denote „an edible animals‟ solid flesh‟. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 133 In first season of The Inbetweeners television series, the writer did not find narrowing phenomena that form English slang. However, the writer believed it might occur in English slang because English slang follows the standard English word-formation process. Since the limited sources, the writer could not mention the examples of narrowing process in slang. e. Tone placement Tone placement is a process of using pitch to create a new meaning in a particular word. According to O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, and Rees-Miller (2010), tone placement only occurs in the language which pitch affects the meaning of the words. Since, the meaning in English was not affected by pitch, tone placement occurrences did not exist in English slang. It is only applied in tonal language, such as Thai and Burmese. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS The fifth chapter describes the conclusion of the study on English slang word-formation in the first season of The Inbetweeners. This chapter also presents the implication of this study and provides any possible suggestions for students, future researchers, and English teachers. A. Conclusions This study aims at answering two research questions related to wordformation processes in English slang which are discovered in the first session of The Inbetweeners television series. The first research question is “what types of word-formation are used to form English slang words in first session of The Inbetweeners television series?” The second research question is “what is the distribution of word-formation in English Slang discovered in the first session of The Inbetweeners television series?” To answer those questions, the writer conducted document analysis study on a British sitcom series entitled The Inbewteeners. Through the study, the writer draws conclusions that English slang in The Inbetweeners television series had 19 types of word formation, namely: coined word, clipping, blending, proper noun, borrowing, internal change, suppletions, 134 PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 135 reduplication, cliticization, onomatopoeia, change in the part of speech, metaphorical extension, broadening, semantics drift, reversal, compounding, affixation, and inflection, back-formation. The writer found compounding processes were the most used word formation process to form slang word in the first session of The Inbetweeners. It occurred in 39 words. Meanwhile, coined words occurred on six slang words. Clippings found twelve times. Blending happened two times. Proper noun was used in the four slang words. Borrowing process in slang occurred four times. Inflection was discovered twelve times. There were two slang words using internal change. Reduplication, cliticization, and onomatopoeia occurred two times each. Broadening, reversal, and back-formation happened one time. Conversion processes were found in six slang words. Metaphorical extension was used in 28 words. Semantic drift occurred eleven times. Suffixation was used thirty times. However, the writer did not discover the acronym, abbreviation, generified-word, narrowing, and tone placement processes occurred in the slang words that were attend by the characters in the first season of The Inbetweeners. B. Implications The writer realized that this study was beneficial for educational field. The study on English slang word formation helped the English learners to obtain a familiar material to study morphology apart from morphology of standard English. It provides examples of word-formation process in English. Thus, word- PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 136 formation process would be easier to be elaborated. It helped the teacher to give brief explanation on the word-formation as well. Furthermore, the writer believes this study helps the students to have indepth understanding towards slang and language variation. It may lead to the learners‟ understanding on the appropriate vocabularies which can be applied in the formal situation either in the informal situation. In addition, the English as the second language learners are able to enrich their knowledge about slang vocabulary because slang was not studied further in the formal English language education. Thus, the writer believed it would help the learners to be aware of their English utterances and they could adjust their vocabulary according to their interlocutors. C. Suggestion The writer proposes some suggestions after conducting the study on slang word-formation processes in the first season of a television series entitled The Inbetweeners. The suggestions are addressed to English learners and future researcher. 1. Suggestion for English Learners The writer suggests English learners to attain deeper knowledge on slang and other English variation. The writer believes, the learners are able to apply the right English vocabulary based on the situation and the interlocutors by having a good understanding in language variation. This also helps to develop learners‟ PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 137 communication ability in English. Moreover, it assists the learners in recognizing the context in order to be able to apply English appropriately. 2. Suggestions for Future Researchers The writer suggests the future researchers to conduct a research on sociolinguistics aspect on British slang if they are interested in British slang. However, if they are fascinated on the other English slang phenomena, it is possible for them to organize the study on Black English. They may analyze the morphological process and sociolinguistics feature of Black English. Besides, the writer suggests the future researchers to organize the research on adolescents‟ speech. It may be conducted by using The Inbetweeners television series or movies as the research subjects because there are a lot of interactions among adolescents. Thus, the writer believes that it provides sufficient data. 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An introduction to language (7th Ed). Boston: Thomson Heinle Fromkin, V., Rodman, R. & Hyams, N. (2011). An introduction to language (9th Ed). Boston: Wadsworth Cengage Learning Holliday, A. (2002). Doing and writing qualitative research. London: Sage Publications Holmes, J. (2001). An introduction to sociolinguistics (2nd Ed). Essex: Pearson Education Limited Kachru, B. B. (Ed). (1992). The other tongue English across cultures (2nd ed.). Urbana: The Board of Trustee the University of Illinois. Katamba, F. (2004). English words. London: Routledge Keller, R. (1994). On language change: The invisible hand in language. London: Routledge Kratz, H. (1964). What is college slang? [Electronic version]. American Speech, 39 (3). Durham: Duke University Press Leedy, P. D. & Ormrod, J. E. (2005). Practical research: Planning and design (8th ed). New Jersey: Pearson Education International Lighter, J. E. (2001). The cambridge history of the english language (Alego, J., Ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Litosseliti L. (Ed). (2010), Research method in linguistics. London: Continuum Mattiello, E. (2008). An introduction to English slang: A description of its morphology, semantic, and sociology. Milano: Polimetrica International Scientific Publisher. Merriam, S.B. (2002). Qualitative research in practice: Example for discussion and analysis. San Fransisco: Josey-Bass Publisher Mihalicek, V. & Wilson, C. (2001). Language files: Materials for an introduction to language and linguistics (11th ed.). Colombus: Ohio State University Miles, M. & Huberman, M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publication Inc. Monaghan, L., Goodman, J. E. & Robinson, J. M. (2012). A cultural approach to interpersonal communication ( 2nd ed.). West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell Napoli, D. J. (1996). Linguistics. New York City: Oxford University Press PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 140 O‟Grady, W., Archibald, J., Arronof, M. & Rees-Miller, J. (2010) . Contemporary linguistics: An introduction (6th Ed). Boston: Bed ford/ St. Martin‟s Plag, I. (2002). Word formation process in English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Radford, A., Atkinson, M. , Britain, D., Clahsen, H. & Spencer, A.(2009) Linguistics: An introduction (2nd ed.). (2009). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Thorne, T. (2007). Dictionary of contemporary slang. London: A & C Black Publishers Ltd The Inbetweeners Episodes Script N/A First Day. Retrieved October 30, 2014, from http://www.springfieldspringfield.co.uk/view_episode_scripts.php?tvshow=the-inbetweeners&episode=s01e01 The Inbetweeners Episodes Script N/A Bunk Off. Retrieved October 30, 2014, from http://www.springfieldspringfield.co.uk/view_episode_scripts.php?tvshow=the-inbetweeners&episode=s01e02 The Inbetweeners Episodes Script N/A Thorpe Park Retrieved October 30, 2014, from http://www.springfieldspringfield.co.uk/view_episode_scripts.php?tvshow=the-inbetweeners&episode=s01e03 The Inbetweeners Episodes Script N/A Girlfriend Retrieved October 30, 2014, from http://www.springfieldspringfield.co.uk/view_episode_scripts.php?tvshow=the-inbetweeners&episode=s01e04 The Inbetweeners Episodes Script N/A Caravan Club Retrieved October 30, 2014, from http://www.springfieldspringfield.co.uk/view_episode_scripts.php?tvshow=the-inbetweeners&episode=s01e05 The Inbetweeners Episodes Script N/A Xmas Party Retrieved October 30, 2014, from http://www.springfieldspringfield.co.uk/view_episode_scripts.php?tvshow=the-inbetweeners&episode=s01e06 Van Herk, G. (2012). What is sociolinguistics?.West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell Verghese, Paul C. (1989). Teaching English as a second language. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 141 APPENDICES PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI APPENDIX 1: English Slang Word-Formation in Season 1 Episode 1 The Inbetweeners Title: First Day NO SENTENCES SLANG CHARACTERISTICS nutter 1, 4a, 4b CODE OF MORPHOLOGICAL PROCESS Aff wanker 1, 4a, 4b Aff, SD 3. What a tosser! tosser 4a, 4b Aff, SD 4. Ooh, I‟m Mr. Gilbert. I‟m such a big, huge, massive freak! And I just love to suck the headmaster‟s balls! 5. You can see groom his rather natty badge , this is your new class mate, Will 6. His shoes are clumpy. His hair‟s a bit gay balls 1, 4a, 4b ME, Inf natty 1, 4a, 4b Aff Stylish or smart ( comes from neat) Clumpy 1, 4a, 4b Aff Heavy and inelegant 1. I‟d be taken out of private education and forced to go to a normal school. Well, this is nice. Where the school nutter would then take a bit of a dislike to me 2. Oh, my mistake! He‟s a wanker 142 MEANING Crazy person an inconsequential, feeble, self-indulgent or otherwise offensive person. The term of abuse or disapproval (derived from a masturbator) Synonym with wanker (derived from masturbator) Testicles PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 7. Nice badge, dickhead 8. I‟m Will, I‟ve got a spacker badge 9. Briefcase wanker!” Dickhead spacker 1, 4a, 3 1, 4a, 4b Cmp Aff, C wanker 1, 4a, 3 Aff 10. Look, while you‟ve spent the summer stalking Carli, I‟ve been porking loads of vag. 11. What a spastic badge! Porking 2, 3, 4a, 4b CPS vag spastic 2, 3, 4a 4b 3, 4a, 4b C ME 12. Might not go to this thing tonight. I‟m pretty knackered. 13. He‟s just spend the last weeks wanking three times a day. 14. Are you mental? knackered 2, 4a, 4b SD, Aff wanking 2, 3, 4a, 4b I mental 1, 4a, 4b Brd fit 1, 4a ME Hard-on 2,3, 4a, 4b Cmp Wanks cock Shitting himself 2,3, 4a 4b, 2, 3, 4a, 4b 4a, 4b CW, Inf ME Cmp 15. She‟s so fit! 16. Did you get a hard-on cos the pretty girl spoke to you?” 17. I‟ve had 210 wanks and my cock‟s like a pepeperami. 18. Yeah, gay clubs! He‟s just 143 idiot It comes from spastic. It means stupid. (offensive) an inconsequential, feeble, self-indulgent or otherwise offensive person. The term of abuse or disapproval. To engage in sexual intercourse vagina A clumsy, unfortunate, feeble, foolish or unpopular individual. Tired. Derived from to slaughter a horse To masturbate Crazy, It was used specifically to mental patient Hot / fashionable/ attractive Erection (synonym with boner) To masturbate Penis embarass PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. shitting himself that he won‟t get served. He‟s got a boner! Don‟t look left, Simon. There‟s a girl with a knee-length skirt on. You might just spunk in your pants.” Can you fuck off? Hang on, you haven‟t actually got a stalk on? No, I wasn‟t. I got wedgie a couple of times. But that was just a fad.” 24. Do you want me to be called pikey by my mates? 25. we don‟t need a plan. We go in there, buy some drinks and then wait for the gash to form a queue.” 26. We‟re just the hardcore 27. Yeah. Bit pissed. Been to the Black Bull first just to sharpen up.” 28. Look, I've spent all night trying to buy one drink so I can take part in this poxy school boner spunk 3, 4a, 4b 2, 3, 4a, 4b Aff CPS An erection To ejaculate. Derived from cement Fuck off Stalk on 1,3, 4a 2, 3, 4a, 4b Cmp Cmp Go away Erection wedgie 1, 4a Aff pikey 1, 4a, 4b C, Aff gash 2, 4a, 4b ME Comes from wedgie/ wedgy Bully by pulling someone underwear as high as possible and cause the pain in the butt (Kipfer, Chapman, 2007) Vagrant ( from turnpike pike) Women. ( it from ver „ to make a deep cut.” hardcore 2, 4a, 4b Cmp pissed 4a, 4b Aff excessive, outrageous, relentless. extreme Drunk poxy 2, 4a, 4b Aff Very bad 144 PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI tradition, so I'd like four plnts of lager, please!” 29. Look at that bumfluff! 30. Er, nah. I said I'd look after supergrass here. I'd better not leave him on his own, just in case. ” 31. What a first day. I'm such a twat 32. And the really good news is I'm now on the school nutter's "To Stab" list, 'if he doesn't shag my mum first. bumfluff 1, 4a, 4b Cmp supergrass 2, 4a, 4b, Cmp twat 3, 2, 4a CW, SD Nutter‟s 1, 4a, 4b Clt 145 light facial hair on a pubescent boy. Usually a term of mild derision, especially referring to a youth‟s first attempts to grow a moustache or beard. Informer a foolish or obnoxious person. Crazy person PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI APPENDIX 2: English Slang Word-Formation in Season 1 Episode 2 The Inbetweeners Title: Bunk Off NO SCENTENCES 1. SLANG Characteristics CODE OF MORPHOLOGICAL PROCESS CW Juggasaurus Rex 2, 3 Bunk off 2, 4a, 4b Cmp Bunking off 2, 4a. 4b Inf Bought 2, 4a, 4b Spl Buy 2,4a, 4b ME Shit your pants 1, 4a Cmp Bullshitting 1, 4a, 4b Cmp, CPS, Inf MEANING 2. Oh my God! Check out the Juggasaurus Rex! We can't bunk off tomorrow now 1. We‟re bunking off! 2. I thought he bought it 3. In what way did he buy it? 4. A sign that you've shit your pants 5. Ok, that‟s enough Simon. I know you‟re bullshitting me. 6. Please don‟t have a wank over my mom. Wank 2, 3, 4a, 4b CPS Masturbation 7. So with our terrible alibi in place, 'phase two of the plan was how to get some booze. Booze 2, 4a, 4b Brw Alcohol. The word originated in Middle English as bousen, from the 146 Refer to a woman with really big breasts to play truant or absent oneself. Skip the class to accept a fiction as truth ( past) to accept a fiction as truth to be overcome with fear or panic Lying PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 8. What a bell-end 9. Oi! He wants to suck your Carli's tits! 10. It's what benders drink. 11. My dad's not bent.” 12. Oh, Look out! Prince Harry‟s has a few drink now he thinks he‟s hard. 13. We could get hold of some birds.” 14. Sometimes I get them to strum themselves while I watch. 15. In a caravan, like a gypo? If my mum told me we were going caravanning, I'd call Childline 16. Actually, it's a well-known fact that the Caravan Club is like a sex club all over Europe, which is why I've lost my cherry and none of you sad acts have. Middle Dutch and Flemish busen, a word based on the root bus-, meaning „swelling‟. a stupid and/or obnoxious person. Breast. From tet Bell-end 1, 3, 4a Cmp Tits 3, 4a, 4b Brw Benders 1, 4a, 4b B Bent 1, 4a, 4b IC Prince Harry‟s 2, 4a, 4b PN, Clt Homosexuals form bend over Sexually deviant, homosexuals A drunken fool Birds 2, 4a. 4b ME Girls as sex object Strum 2,4a,4b ME Gypo 1, 4a C, Aff To masturbate derived from „strum off‟ up and down stroking guitar strings Gypsies ( influenced by Egyptian) Cherry 4a, 4b ME 147 virginity PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 17. I could have got laid loads of times 18. Being scared of teachers and brown-nosing everyone's parents is just an act, isn‟t it?” 19. I don‟t brown-nose everyone 20. Carll's fanny on your face On your face Carll's fanny on your face!” 21. Oh, I‟m sorry my manner. Piss off please!” 22. Oh. You like my lip wouldn‟t 23. you? right round your bell-end, if Mr Chippy doesn't get there first. 24. What's he going to knock up? A 25. closet for you to hide in, you bumder?” 26. Yeah, I reckon if you put a kiss, she'll definitely suck you off. 27. Did someone dare you to be the Got laid 3, 4a, 4b Cmp Brown-nosing 2, 4a Cmp, Aff Brown-nose Fanny 2, 4A 2, 3, 4a Cmp PN, Piss-off 1, 3 Cmp Bell-end Mr Chippy 1, 3 1, 3 Cmp Cmp Knock up Bumder 1, 3 1, 3 Cmp B Suck off 3, 4a Cmp Tip of penis Male professional prostitute Impregnate It comes from bummer and bender To perform fellatio Saddo 2, 4a Aff a pitiable, 148 To have sex Flattering To flatter It is worth noting that John Cleland‟s The Memoirs of Fanny Hill features a sexually active heroine; Possibly from combinatiom with the vulvic symbolism of a fanlight (a loosely triangular opening). Go away PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI world's biggest saddo? 28. Yes, it's because you're wasted. Like Pete Doherty, innit? Wasted 2,4a, 4b Aff 29. Right, vodka, whisky, and a load of creme de menthe. When she sees you after this, 30. she'll be frothing at the gash.” Frothing 2,4a,4b ME Gash 2,4a,4b ME Spaz 2, 3 C Bumhole 1,3, Cmp Paedo Knob 2, 4a, 4b 2, 4a C, SD 31. Everyone knows, you spaz! 32. He touched us here, and here. And here. The bumhole.” 33. What a knob! Oi, my dad's not a paedo. 149 contemptible or unfortunate individual. intoxicated by drugs (or, occasionally, alcohol),. Sexually aroused by overflowing wetness in the vagina vagina Spastic, stupid Anus Pedophile a fool, contemptible person. Derived from penis PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI APPENDIX 3: English Slang Word-Formation in Season 1 Episode 3 The Inbetweeners Title: Thorpe Park NO 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. SCENTENCES Si, it's me , nan. She wants to know if you want some help parking. You lucky git. There's a whole world of pussy out there. Why's he paying for rent boys? Surely he'll want you to get sucked off by a little lovely on the teacup ride? Sometimes on the rides, their boobs pop out. 7. 8. It looks like a paedo's car! I called shotgun. 9. Aye, aye! Up ahead, a car full of muff! Don't be such a pussy! 10. SLANG Characteristics Nan 2, 4a, 4b CODE OF MORPHOLOGICAL PROCESS CW Git 2,4a, 4b C Pussy 2, 3, 4a,4b Aff Rent boys Sucked off 3, 4a 2, 3, 4a Cmp Cmp, Inf Boobs 3, 4a O Paedo Shotgun 2,4a 2, 4a, 4b C C Muff 2, 3, 4a, 4b ME Pussy 1, 4a,1 Aff 150 MEANING grandmother An idiot. It is derived from beget Women viewed as sex object A young male protitute Breast. Onomatopoeia of baby suckling mother‟s breasts Pedophile To ride in the front passenger seat of a Car (Kipfer and Chapman, 2007) originated: ride shotgun Women as sex object A weak, harmless male. A timid person PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Oh, you dickhead. Well, I'd give a left bollock for 'em. I've just passed my test and I'm not gonna crash cos you twats can't wait two minutes. I can't believe you lost the muff, you bell-end. dickhead bollock 3, 4a 3, 4a Cmp Aff A fool, an idiot Testicle twats 2, 3, 4a CW, SD Muff Bell-end 2, 4a, 4b 3, 4a ME Cmp, ME 'We may have lost the…hmmmm… tits, 'but the roller coaster was still in our sights. They're bonkers. tits 3, 4a Brw a foolish or obnoxious person. Earlier sense: vagina Female as sex object a stupid and/or obnoxious person. Breast. From tet bonkers 3, 4a Aff Clunge 4a, 4b CW Cock-seekers 3, 4a, 4b Cmp Shotgun 2, 4a, 4b C Plum 3, 4a, 4b SD arseholes 1, 3 Cmp, SD 19. ' I've just seen the clunge head towards Nemesis. I hope they're cock-seekers too. 20. No, you can't shotgun this. 21. Shut up, you plum, and get on the ride. I'll just get on and sit at the front next to these inconsiderate arseholes. 22. 151 Crazy. It may originate from bang Female genital or girl as sex object Women who like to find a man as the sex subject Ride car in the front passenger chair A foolish person from earlier sense testicle an extremely unpleasant person, PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI APPENDIX 4: English Slang Word-Formation in Season 1 Episode 4 “The Inbetweeners “ Title: Girlfriend NO 1. Like porn star tits and she's a slag. Slag 2, 3, 4a, 4b CODE OF MORPHOLOGICAL PROCESS ME 2. She once munched off the whole rugby team. Munched off 2, 4a, 4b Cmp, 3. 4. 5. What, for a wank? You wanker. 3, 4a 3, 4a 2, 4a, 4b CW Aff Cmp 6. How is will getting off with Charlotte Big Jugs brilliant news? Because he's a nutter and we should warn Will. A midweek wank? A bender never tells. Wank wanker Boozefreeze zone Jugs 2, 3, 4a ME Breasts Nutter Wank bender 2, 4a 3, 4a 2, 4a, 4b Aff CW B Hook up Pulled 3, 4a, 4b 2, 4a, 4b Cmp ME An insane person To masturbate Male homosexual ( bend over) To have sex To flirt Bird 2, 4a, 4b ME Girl as an sex object Geeks 1, 2, 4a, 4b CW Freak 7. 8. 9. SCENTENCES As expected, the kitchen was a booze-freeze zone. 10. She said we should hook up soon. 11. Look, Will Wlll, yeah, has pulled Charlotte Hinchcliffe 12. Getting off with some bird, one of the upstairs rooms - underneath the coats. 13. Pulling me at a party of geeks was one thing, 'but how would she treat me at school? SLANG CHARACTERIS TICS 152 MEANING A Woman with a lot of sexual partner Had sex with more than one partner at once or perfom To masturbate A Masturbator A Place where alcoholic drink is stored PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 14. All right, stud. Stud 2, 4a 153 ME a sexually active, powerful, potent male. PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI APPENDIX 5: English Slang Word-Formation in Season 1 Episode 5 The Inbetweeners Title: Caravan Party No Sentences Slang Characteristic 1. He says no-one's allowed to touch me. The prick. Prick 2, 4a, 4b Word-Formation Processes Brw, ME, SD, 2. You know how much I love chavs. Chavs 2, 4a, 4b BF 3. Bluewater's not chavvy. Chavvy 2, 4a Brw, CPS 4. 5. It's quality. It‟s funny, you never get any girls around here, yet away on caravan club you‟re like some sort of Quality Russel Brand 2, 4a, 4b 2, 4a, 4b ME PN 154 Meaning A fool Earlier sense a male genital, prikke (middle English), prica ( old English) a vulgar person, representative of the working class or underclass. any member of a subcultural urban adolescent group that dresses and acts older than their years. From earlier word in Roman chavi a child; occasionally used, in a derogatory sense, for a man. (adj)Showing quality of chav Good A foolish person PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 6. gypsy Russel Brand Oh. He‟s also buying a jumbo pack of ribbed johnnies 7. 8. I'll be up to my nuts in some guts, shagging those two sisters from Caravan Club. 9. Sorry, McKenzie, you're about to grass, are you? 10. If by some miracle, Caravan Club was full of girls, then we might get laid, but if it was full of weird old people and chavs, which it would be, then Jay would never live it down, so with high hopes, we hit the open road in Simon's shitty little yellow car. How many times did you have to suck off the instructor?! I'm gonna go check out the clunge mags. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. I'm a poofter. Please be lesbo. I told you there was fit birds, and there's plenty more where they came from. I've slung one up her a few times myself. 18. My dad's not bent. Johnnies 2, 4a, 4b Aff, PN Nuts Up to my nuts in some guts Grass 3, 4a 3, 4a, 4b ME, Inf Cmp 1, 4a C Get laid 1, 4a Cmp Condoms. From endearment terms of English common name “John” Testicles Up to one‟s nuts in some guts. It means having a really hard sex To inform. Origin: supergrass To have sex Shitty 1, 4a Aff Poor quality Suck off 3, 4a, 4b Cmp To perform fellatio Clunge mags Poofter Lesbo Fit bird 3, 4a, 4b Cmp, C 3, 4a, 4b 3, 4a, 4b 2, 4a, 4b Aff Aff Cmp Slung one up 2, 4a, 4b Cmp, IC Bent 1, 4a, 4b IC 155 Porn magazine Male homosexual Lesbian Attractive female Engage to sexual encounter by hitting the sexual partner hardly Sexually deviant homosexual PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 19. Listen to me, that bird Becky's an animal. 20. 21. When Carli finds out, she's going to be two things - jealous and wet, because now she'll know you're a stud. 22. Your ride for the evening is here. 23. Don't worry, I'll distract fatty Boom Boom with the buffet. 24. 25. 28. Oh, just taking the piss. If I was as bad with the ladies as you, I'd have moved on to the fatties months ago. Where is she now, then? Cleaning up her beaver for you? You're more likely to get somewhere with a fatso, cos they're grateful for the attention. Make one little joke and he has a shit fit! 29. Neil, did you wet yourself in my new car? 30. 31. 32. Some sort of punky redhead. Because you have spunked on my seats! It's your spunk! 26. 27. Animal 2, 4a, 4b ME Wet 3, 4a, 4b ME Stud 2, 4a, 4b ME Ride 2, 4a, 4b CPS, ME Fatty boomboom Piss Fatties 2, 4a,4b Cmp, O, R 2,4a, 4b 4a, 4b ME Aff Alcoholic drink Fat person Beaver 3, 4a, 4b ME A Female genital Fatso 2, 4a, 4b Aff Fat person Shit fit 2, 4a, 4b R Wet 3, 4a, 4b ME Punky Spunked Spunk 4a, 4b 3, 4a, 4b 3, 4a, 4b Aff CPS, Inf SD 156 Someone who is wild in bed. Sexually aroused ( for women) a sexually active, powerful, potent male. sex partner. This is a later derivation of the (now less common) verb form of the word. Fat person a bout of anger or intense irritation, Sexually aroused term form woman Punk To ejaculate Cement. It was BI. From spongia PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 33. Some of it could be her juice. Juice 3, 4a, 4b 157 C Sexual secretion derived from love juice PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI APPENDIX 6: English Slang Word-Formation in Season 1 Episode 6 The Inbetweeners Title: X-mas Party No Scentences 1. That sounded just a little bit rapey. rapey 4a, 4b Aff 2. Listen, lard-arse. There will be food. so shut the fuck up so we can get this over with! What we want is a big mucky disco and a piss-up. Yeah, under my supervision and that was a wicked party. Prom night had arrived, 'and as I watched my crack team setting things up, 'it's fair to say I was shitting myself. Your cock, it looks so tiny. 'Despite being organised by my team of geeks, 'it actually looked like people were enjoying the party. Please don't fuck it up. Lard-arse 3, 4a, 4b Cmp To describe sentences overly explicit in sexual nature fat Piss-up 4a, 4b Cmp drunk Wicked 4a, 4b Rv good Crack team 1, 4a, 4b Cmp Highly special team Cock Geeks 2, 3 4a, 4b ME CW Male vital organ Freak people Fuck up 4a, 4b Cmp Make something in a mess 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Slang Characteristics 158 Code Of Morphological Process Meaning PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 'the problem with drinking for Dutch courage 'is the next level of drunk up from that is Dutch dickhead. Yeah, alright, Made a few cockups. I left them just as they were gonna start drinking beer - out of each other's bum cracks. I just need to say that Um Simon, I've had enough of dickheads today. Don't be a tit. Guess who just got a blowy behind the decks? She gave me a hand job, not a blowy. Dutch dickhead 1, 4a, 4b Cmp A fool act because because of a drink taken Cock-ups 3, 4a, 4b Cmp Bum cracks 4a, 4b Cmp Mistakes, blunders or shambles a very narrow space between parts of bottoms dickheads 1, 2 Cmp A fool, an idiot tit blowy 3, 4a, 4b SD Aff A fool Action of fellatio Hand job 3, 4a, 4b Cmp Well, that's handy, cos they've got no interest in you. I fingered a bird. handy 3, 4a, 4b ME an act of manual sexual stimulation, usually masturbation of a male by a female. dishonest fingered 3, 4a, 4b ME, Inf All right, sick-boy boner? You've got balloons, you're already one up on any event the school's ever had before. Just relax. boner balloon 1, 3 1, 4a, 4b Aff ME 159 to sexually stimulate (vaginally or anally) with the finger(s) an erection. a boastful or loudmouthed individual PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI 20. 21. 22. I understand how you feel, you know. Back in a mo. Oh, that dick It's already come down from a blow job. mo 4a,4b C Moment dick Blow job 2, 3 3, 4a, 4 SD Cmp Stupid man Action of fellatio 160 PLAGIAT PLAGIATMERUPAKAN MERUPAKANTINDAKAN TINDAKANTIDAK TIDAKTERPUJI TERPUJI APPENDIX 7: The Distributions of English Slang Word-Formation in the First Season of The Inbetweeners Word-Formation Processes Occurrences Word-Formation Processes Occurrences Coined Word 6 words Tone Placement n/a Acronyms n/a Cliticization 2 words Alphabetical Abbreviation n/a Back-Formation 1 word Clipping 12 words Onomatopoeia 2 word Blending 2 words Change in the Part of Speech 6 words Generified Word n/a Metaphorical Extension 28 words Proper Noun 4 words Broadening 1 word Borrowing 4 words Narrowing n/a Inflection 12 words Semantic Drift 11 words Internal Change 2 words Reversal 1 words Suppletions 1 word Compounding 39 words Reduplication 2 words Affixation 30 words 161
