Trade and Politics: Ashkelon`s Balancing Act in the
Transcription
Trade and Politics: Ashkelon`s Balancing Act in the
Trade and Politics: Ashkelon's Balancing Act in the Seventh Century B. C. E. Author(s): Daniel M. Master Reviewed work(s): Source: Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, No. 330 (May, 2003), pp. 47-64 Published by: The American Schools of Oriental Research Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1357839 . Accessed: 31/05/2012 12:18 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. The American Schools of Oriental Research is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. http://www.jstor.org Trade and Act Politics: in the Ashkelon's Seventh Century Balancing B.C.E. DANIELM. MASTER Department of Biblical and Theological Studies, Archaeology, and World Religions Wheaton College 501 College Avenue Wheaton, IL 60187 [email protected] RecentexcavationsbytheLeonLevyExpeditiontoAshkelonhaveuncovereda wealth of new information regarding ancient life in the southern Levant. Perhaps no era has beenas successfullyilluminatedas the seventhcenturyB.C.E.where,as a majorMediterraneanportandfortifiedcity on the routebetweenAssyriaandEgypt,Ashkelonhad a role in both the militaryand economicchanges that swept throughthe southern Levant. This study examines the nature of Ashkelon's political connections to the mil- itarypowerof the Neo-Assyrianempireandpresentsnew evidencethatoutlinesAshkelon's tradingconnectionswith Phoenicia as a majorfactor behindthe economic growth of Ashkelon in the seventh century B.C.E.Specifically, the petrographic exami- nationof Ashkelon'spotteryrevealslittleconnectionwiththeAssyrianprovincialsystemand considerableinteractionwiththe Phoenicianmaritimeeconomy. INTRODUCTION1 aritimetradebeganat Ashkelonat least as early as the fourth millennium B.C.E.,and the emergence of the route between Egypt and the Levantine coast in the Early Bronze Age caused Ashkelon to thrive (Stager 1992: 40). After a hiatus at the end of the third millennium, large-scale sea trade between Byblos and Egypt resumed in the Middle Bronze Age, and Ashkelon began to prosper once again (Cohen 2002). Although Ashkelon could offer neither the timbers required by Egypt nor the luxury goods desired by Canaanitesto the north, the wine and olive oil productionof the southernLevant allowed Ashkelon to become an importantwaystation 1This paper is a distillation and revision of conclusions reached in my recent doctoral dissertation (Master 2001). That project was completed with generous funding from the Leon Levy Expedition to Ashkelon and generous intellectual support from Lawrence E. Stager, David Mitten, and J. David Schloen. In addition, Yuval Goren and Sy Gitin were instrumentalin the revision of the original conclusions. All errors in this paper are solely the responsibility of the author. 47 in trading cycles ultimately driven by larger international demands. Although maritime trade was Ashkelon's raison d'etre, the city was not merely an isolated port (fig. 1). With few geographic impediments, land routes radiatedfrom Ashkelon to all points east. While the coastal highway, the primaryinternationalroute, ran just east of Ashkelon, David Dorsey's work identified as many as seven local land routes that stopped in Ashkelon (Dorsey 1991: 59-66, 189-96). Some of the routes, perhaps most of them, were a consequence of Ashkelon's role as an outlet to the sea (Fargo 1979: 90-92, 238-41; Stager 2001), but the abundance of land routes suggests that Ashkelon could also be considered an importantpart of the inland economy as well. Obviously, any major maritime outlet lies at the intersection of land and sea, two very different geographic environments, but the cultural impact of this geographic truism is often overlooked. According to EdwardWhiting Fox's work on Frenchhistory, these differences in coastal and inland geography produce fundamentallydifferenteconomic and social worlds. Fox's summaryof inland economies is quite helpful: BASOR 330 DANIEL MASTER 48 j / • ,. SX, ? ::•. . -_Y,,' * T. Meiad' Hashavyahu Gezer. 0Jerusalem Ashdod Ashkelon Gaza - Beth-shemeshW Er atm ..•.•Bethlehem *4 ,. .. V,, N Tel-Hesi .. .... . Lachiix, , Hlebron .1, . BeitMirsim T.Jemmeh T. Haror. T eshSharia ' SAW T. N s IV T•s-Saba O B.IBLICAL .-, U3ACKGROUNDS . ,N . Fig. 1. Mapof Ashkelonand its neighbors(courtesyof James Monson,BiblicalBackgrounds). If the perimeterof the village fieldsordinarilydid notexceedthedistancea farmercouldwalkto work each day,the marketradiusof the towndid not exceed the distancethe villagers could move their produce.Andforpracticalpurposes,thisestablished anotherfundamental geographiclimit.In sucha simthe principalcommoditieswere food, ple society, fuel, andbuildingmaterials.All werebulkyanddifficultto move;even themoresophisticated products suchas crockery,primitivetools,andsimpletextiles did not lend themselvesreadilyto exchangeover largeareas.(1971:24) While 15th-century France and the Bronze and Iron Age Levant are not completely analogous, Fox's description still applies. Ancient transportationsystems, limited to donkey caravan, were too inefficient to engage in substantial movement of bulk commodities. The increased price resulting from moving bulk goods a few weeks' journey down the road rarely compensated for the effort of the journey (for a broader application of this pattern to the entire ancient Near East, see Schloen 2001: 101-3). In contrast, maritime traders utilized vastly more efficient means. Fox again provides an excellent summary: Waterand land, in the formof riversand seas, or plains andmountains,each providesdifferentpossibilities for, and obstaclesto, both transportand travel.Until the recenthistoricalpast, man could moveon landonlyby foot,on thebackof ananimal, or in a vehicledrawnby one or moreanimals.Over water,he hadthechoiceof someformof raftorboat propelledby rivercurrent,oars,or wind.... Merely to move acrosswater,exceptin the most primitive fashion,involvedconsiderableinvestmentin ships, not to mentionthe cost of a crew. Once in operation,however,watertransportprovideda relatively cheapandeasy meansof movinggoodsin quantity, thusradicallyalteringthe geographiclimitationson economicproductivityandsocial organization.The 2003 TRADE AND POLITICS resultwas a commercial,as distinguishedfromagricultural,society.(1971:34) If Fox is correct, different potentials of land and sea trade allowed for differing rates of economic expansion and produced fundamentally different economic goals. In an ancient agriculturaleconomy, the productioncycle was linked to periodic harvests, and the possibility for expansion was limited by the carrying capacities of the land. Rapid expansion could be accomplished only through the conquest of more land. In sharpcontrast,maritimetradersneeded open markets and peaceful relationships to succeed in their trading ventures. In the seventh century B.C.E.,Ashkelon participated in both the inland and maritimespheres. Assyrian texts record the military expansion of an inland empire that dramatically reoriented Ashkelon's political world. Recent excavations of the Leon Levy Expedition to Ashkelon have uncovered the maritime component which continued to drive Ashkelon's economy. ASHKELON'S POLITICAL WORLD Along with the rest of the southernLevant, Ashkelon was caught between the empire-buildingregions of Egypt and Mesopotamia. Since Ashkelon is on the southerncoast, Egypt was its dominantoverlord,ally, and trading partner throughout most of the Bronze and Iron Ages. The western expansion of the NeoAssyrian empire at the end of the eighth century B.C.E., however, produced a dramatic change in the balance of power, which presentedthe inhabitantsof Ashkelon with a new reality. The Assyrian texts recount a campaign against Philistia in 734 by Tiglath-Pileser III (Tadmor 1994: 234; Blakely and Hardin 2002: 41-43) and followup attacks in the succeeding years which completely overwhelmed Aram, Israel, and Philistia. The Assyrians turned Philistine cities like Ashkelon into vassal states and required them to swear an oath of loyalty and to provide various forms of tribute (Machinist 1992: 70; Parker 2001: 250). While the requirements placed on vassal states caused repeated revolts throughout the Assyrian empire, the revolts were constrained somewhat by the harsh Assyrian response to such defiance (Parker 2001: 259-61). Typically, the Assyrians reconquered the territory, deported the populace, and removed any vestige of political autonomy from the offenders. Already in 49 the late eighth century, the Assyrians responded to Israelite revolts by conquering all Israelite cities and killing or deporting all the Israelites (Tappy 2001: 558-74) and countered Judahite disloyalty by progressively conquering their lowland cities (Blakely and Hardin 2002). In Philistia, however, when Ashkelon and its king Mitinti revolted against TiglathPileser III, the Assyrian reconquest resulted only in the installation of a new king (Tadmor 1994: 83). Sargon II dealt in a similar way with a Philistine revolt under Hanunu of Gaza in 720 and only temporarily removed the sovereignty of Ashdod following a revolt in 712 (Oppenheim 1969: 283-84).2 In 701, Sennacherib faced a revolt of the entire populace of Ekron as well as of Hezekiah of Judah and Sidqia of Ashkelon. In the case of the Judahites, Sennacherib massively depopulated the Judahitecountryside and claimed more than 200,000 people as booty (Oppenheim 1969: 287; references to secondary literature in Blakely and Hardin2002: 52). Yet, in the case of Philistine towns like Ashkelon that participated in the same revolt, Sennacherib simply changed the leadership. The Assyrians devastated the Judahites, but expanded the territory of rebellious Philistine cities. During the reigns of Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal, the Assyrians developed a somewhat more benign relationship with their Philistine vassal states. Although Esarhaddon's campaigns against Egypt required him to pass through Philistia, his official records do not mention the cities of this region, perhaps evidence that the Philistines remained loyal (Tadmor 1966: 98-99). Ashkelon is briefly mentioned in the form of a query to the deity Shamash in which the king asks if anyone will attackhis army as he camps at Ashkelon (Tadmor 1966: 100). While this evidence may indicate nothing more than Ashkelon's use as a staging camp for the Egyptian campaign in 671, the text mentions Ashkelon as the object of the expedition, and some have argued that Ashkelon revolted yet again (Elat 1978: 33-34, n. 91). Whatever the short-termconnotations of Esarhaddon'sdivination, a later tribute list specifically names Ashkelon as a loyal vassal of the Assyrian empire (Oppenheim 1969: 291). Records from the reign of Ashurbanipalalso list the Philistine kings among the faithful vassals who facilitated campaigns 2Tadmorargues for a dual government with a provincial governor and a king (Tadmor 1966: 95). 50 DANIEL MASTER against Egypt. From the political and military perspective, the texts make it clear that Assyria was the dominant force in the region from 734 until the middle of the seventh century but that they allowed the cities of Philistia to remain vassal states despite repeated rebellions. The reason for the special treatment of the Philistine cities is not clear. In the history of Assyrian westward expansion, several other cities within the Assyrian empire were given similar leeway. Carchemish, for instance, was allowed to retain its independence far longer than were the other states of North Syria (Grayson 1995: 964; Frankenstein 1979: 272), and Tyre remained independent while nearby inland kingdoms were devastated. Like the Philistine cities, Tyre revolted several times. Yet, though Tyre was punished with heavy tribute, it was not converted into a province (Markoe 2000: 39-43, 46-47). The Tyrians,however, were highly successful Mediterraneanmerchants, and, unlike land-based empires, their maritime empire around the Mediterranean could not be so easily controlled. Even the Assyrians were far-sighted enough to see that a vibrant Tyre was more valuable than an empty province (Oded 1974). The same mercantile justification has been extended to Philistia. Moshe Elat argued that Ashkelon's role in Mediterranean trade allowed it to avoid provincialization and deportation (Elat 1978: 33-34). The tributelists from Ashkelon describe it as a plentiful source for highly prized Egyptian imports (Elat 1978: 30-31; also Eph'al 1984: 87, n. 267), and Jeremiah's description of the close relationship between Ashkelon and Tyre may hint at further mercantile prowess (Jer 47:4). The Assyrian interest in extracting tribute from the economy of Philistia is visible from the very beginning. When Tiglath-Pileser III conquered Gaza, he set up a karum or marketplace at the "city of the Brook of Egypt" (Ephcal1984: 101-8; Tadmor1994: 140-41, 178-79). The same sort of arrangementis visible at Tyre, where a quay served as a sort of maritime karum (Elat 1978: 27). How exactly the Assyrians forced trading to occur in the locale they specified is not clear unless, as at Tyre, they targeted maritime transit points (Elat 1978: 27). In the NimrudPrism, Sargon II also records opening a karumon the same Brook of Egypt in orderto enable Egyptian and Assyrian trade (Tadmor 1958: 34). The Assyrian interest in extracting revenue from internationaltrade does not account for the simulta- BASOR 330 neous growth of the land-locked site of Philistine Ekron. While it is possible to see a broad "Philistine policy" in which Ekron would have received special treatmentbecause of its association with the ports of Ashkelon or Gaza, such an extension of protection would be unique in the Assyrian practice. Of the many vibrant Phoenician territories, for instance, only the island of Tyre survived the Assyrian onslaughts. Both S. Gitin and N. Nalaman argue that more far-sighted Assyrian economic interests are behind Ekron's expansion (Gitin 1995: 61-63). They argue that the Assyrians destroyed those places in the southern Levant that had a "poor economic potential" (Nalaman 1993: 106). In reference to lower Galilee, Gitin follows Na'aman in writing, "The Assyrians did not repopulate this area with deportees from other regions since, apparently, it was neither suitable for producing raw materials and surpluses, nor was it strategically located on one of the major trade routes" (1997: 82). While it is certain that the Assyrians destroyed many places, it is not clear that they contemplated the preservationof agriculturallybased economies. Gitin asserts that Ekron was "targetedfor growth" (1997: 84) by the Assyrians. Such economic investment would be unique in the history of Assyrian westward expansion. In contrast to this proposed Philistine policy, Assyrian texts elsewhere boast of the devastation of other orchards and groves of equal economic potential to those aroundEkron (Tadmor1994: 79, 163; Schloen 2001: 147, n. 18). In North Syria, for instance, surely an economically viable region, the Assyrian kings showed almost no respect for the economic potential of any area, and in those areas where they did allow the economy to continue (Carchemish in the ninth century and Tyre in the eighth), they maintaineda handsoff policy and allowed the cities to continue their earlier practices. In general, the economic consequences of contact with the Assyrian empire were disastrous. I. M. Diakonoff summarizes Assyrian policy in North Syria by describing a land that was "laid totally waste,"a "vast but economically ruined" Assyrian province (1969: 29). The only examples of "development"under the Assyrians were the repopulations of areas that had already been completely devastated (Pedfrkovi 1987: 175). Given this apparentlack of interest on the part of the Assyrians in economic investment, others have explained Ashkelon continued independence as a 2003 TRADE AND POLITICS result of Assyrian military concerns. Tadmorargues that the Philistine cities were seen as a buffer between Egypt and Assyria. The Assyrians gave territory to each of the cities, creating a balance of power among them so that no one city could become dominant (Tadmor1966: 97). As Benedikt Otzen pointed out, the treatment of Ashkelon might find parallels with the vassal states of Judah and the Transjordanian states, which were similarly never incorporated into the empire (Otzen 1979: 256).3 Archaeologically, the building projects of the Assyrians point to military rather than economic concerns (Blakely and Hardin 2002: 44). Already in his excavations in the 1930s, Flinders Petrie uncovered Assyrian architecturalelements at Tell Abu Salima (Petrie and Ellis 1937: 6, pls. 2, 10, 31). Based on its location, R. Reich argued that this may be the site of the karum established by the Assyrian kings. While that designation is unlikely, Petrie did find an Assyrian-style military fortress (Reich 1984). Even more substantialAssyrian remains were uncovered at Tell Jemmeh, including a large vaulted building containing a large quantity of Assyrian Palace Ware. The excavator is surely correct in suggesting that "the typical Assyrian building plan, the style of vaulting and the great quantity of palace ware suggest that the building was built by Assyrians as the residence of the Assyrian king, military governor, or other ranking official" (Van Beek 1993: 672). Finds from Tell esh-Sharia show a similar pattern.StratumVI is a military outpost full of distinctively Assyrian material culture, including multiple Assyrian Palace Ware bowls and a crescent-shaped bronze Assyrian military standard(Oren 1993: 1333). Tell Jemmeh and Tell esh-Sharia have more Assyrian-style artifacts than do all the cities of Philistia. In addition, the architectureuncovered at all three sites has a similar administrative-militaryfunction. The impression generated by the Assyrian architecturalremains is that their primaryconcern was with securing passage for military campaigns. While this level of control would have allowed the Assyrians to influence the economic life of the surrounding 3There are some importantnuances to these situations. First, the repeated revolts of Philistia do not seem to be a problem in the Transjordanianstates, so the relationshipbetween Assyria and its vassal states in Transjordanmay be more benign. Also, Gitin has pointed out that these states could equally well be an example of the development of a peripheralarea, exactly along the lines he constructs for Ekron (Gitin 1997). 51 regions, their primary concern appears to have been political and military. Eliezer Oren's excavations at the coastal site of Ruqueish, a site 10 km west of Tell Jemmeh, illustrate the nature of Assyrian involvement. Oren describes the material culture as heavily influenced by Phoenicia, but also containing Cypriote, Greek, and Egyptian finds (Oren et al. 1986). This small trading site took part in the maritime trade between Egypt and Philistia and was ideally suited to engage in caravan trade across the Sinai. Ruqueish is exactly the type of site that could have been forcibly opened to Assyrian intervention and taxation, and Oren has argued that this site might just be the sealed karum opened by Sargon. Still, little in the material culture repertoirehas any connection with Assyria. Assyria profited by leaving Ruqueish more or less alone, apartfrom occasional tribute (see Eph'al 1984: 10111). If the archaeological pattern of Assyrian military emphasis is indicative of their overall policy, it is reasonable to follow Tadmor in asserting that Gaza and Ashkelon were left as a buffer against Egyptian incursions (Tadmor 1966) and that Ekron, as specifically articulated by Sennacherib, was left to oppose Hezekiah's surviving Judahites (Oppenheim 1969: 287-88). Assyrian military and political objectives dominated the settlement patterns of the seventh-century Levant, and, consequently, the study of ancient Assyrian imperial intentions has dominated scholarly reconstructions of seventh-century Philistia. While Assyrian military goals may explain why Ashkelon's inhabitants avoided destruction and deportation, it appears to leave open the question of why Ashkelon's economy actually flourished in the time of Assyrian domination. ASHKELON'S ECONOMIC WORLD While Ashkelon's geographic position in the southern Levant meant that its political world was shaped by Neo-Assyrian conquest, its economy was influenced by a different dynamic. To uncover this economic world, the Leon Levy Expedition to Ashkelon, led by Lawrence Stager, excavated a seventhcentury marketand a seventh-centurywinery (Stager 1996a; 1996b) and has processed over 130,000 pottery fragmentsfrom the seventh-centurystratum.The dominance of commercial jars in the assemblage hints that the winery and marketare particularlywell suited to answering questions of trade and economy 52 DANIEL MASTER Seventh-Century Ceramics at Ashkelon BASOR 330 Petrographic Category to Nearest Percent tabric CookingPots 3% StorageJars 50% Bowls. Chalices. Kraters 30% Lovsland us Negev LoessCypru (.P Terra 3 Rossa ?........S... . Sr Svri (iGreek "0 , ........... .,, ., Etgy .Pt , Phoenician Jars.Juglets Bottles,and Lamps 17% 5%.. Shephelah Loess ? 94% Brown/Red " Alluvial Soil ('oastalLoess 211% Fig. 2. Vessel types at Ashkelon:A roughbreakdownof frequencyusing rimfractionmeasurements(courtesyof J. DavidSchloen,LeonLevyExpedition to Ashkelon). Provenience Breakdown to Nearest Percent (fig. 2). It is striking, however, to note the absence of objects that might show an economic connection with the Assyrians. In orderto refine the understandingof Ashkelon's seventh-centurytrade,a comprehensive petrographic analysis has been carried out over the last several years. Beginning in the summerof 1998, a set of 186 ceramic samples was gathered for petrographicexamination.4All of the samples came from seventhcentury layers and features sealed by the thick debris of Nebuchadnezzar's destruction, assuring that each fragment predated December, 604 B.C.E. (Stager 1996a). The petrographic sample was based on extensive stylistic sorting done by J. David Schloen (Stager and Schloen in press). From the types designated by Schloen's team, petrographicsamples were 4This study is fundamentally different from most previous petrographicanalyses, both in the numberof samples used and in the manner in which the petrographicconclusions drive the categorization and statistical analysis. In most other studies, just a few odd sherds are selected for analysis, and the results are not systematically integrated into the overall analysis. The recent work on Beersheba, for instance, only tested a very limited set of vessels for analysis and did not utilize even those limited petrographic results to reinterpretthe presumed, and in some cases demonstrably incorrect, stylistic categories (Singer-Avitz 1999). In the Beersheba study, "Edomite" vessels were made with Shephelah clays (Singer-Avitz 1999: 34), and "Coastal" vessels were made with Judaean clays (Singer-Avitz 1999: 22). The petrographic work in the Beersheba study is excellent, but it was not used in the final categorization or in the final analysis. Similarly, the recent publication of Batash included some petrographic descriptions of fabric types, but petrographicanalysis was only performed on scattered fabric types and cannot be integratedinto the larger statistical analyses of the pottery (Mazar and Panitz-Cohen 2001: 15-22). In both cases, Yuval Goren's accuratepetrographic work has not been put to any substantialuse. In contrast, our petrographic analysis covers a wide range of types and is the direct basis for determining the provenience of vessel types. NegeC 3% Phoenicia shephelah7 Aegean CyprusiN.Syria ( 1% Nile I.ocal 7Q Fig. 3. Breakdownof the ceramics at Ashkelon.These results are a combinationof petrographicsamplingand stylistic analysis (using rim fractionmeasurements)to presentestimatesof the overallfrequencyof localand importedwaresat Ashkelon. taken which spanned the range of forms and contained multiple samples of common ware types. The samples were then tested using the petrographictechniques described by Ian Whitbread (1995) and indexed with the results of Yuval Goren (1995; 1996; personal communication).The technical petrographic assessments (Master 2001) were further refined using reference material from the eighth- and seventhcentury Ashdod kilns and the author's extensive collection of thin sections from seventh-century Ekron.5 The petrographic results were then correlated with sherd and rim fraction counts to provide an overall view of pottery provenience at the site. Figure 3 shows a summary of these results by soil type and by geographic region, and figure 4 shows representative photomicrographsof these fabrics. SThe samples from Ashdod were analyzed with the permission of Trude Dothan and the Israel Antiquities Authority. The samples from Ekron are part of an ongoing joint research project between the author and Sy Gitin. TRADE AND POLITICS 2003 CoastalAlluvialSoil CoastalLoess ShephelahLoess Negev Loess ShephelahTerraRossa Cooking Pot Fabric CommonCeramic Fabrics in the Seventh Centuryat Ashkelon All Photomicrographs in Cross-Polarized Light 500 Microns Fig. 4. Photomicrographsof Ashkelon's ceramic fabrics. PhoenicianCoastal Fabric 53 54 DANIELMASTER BASOR330 2 13 5 7 4 6 8 1- 50.58 L262 (13) 2- 50.49 L418 (6) 3- 50.48 L453 (2) 4- 50.59 L449 (16) 5- 50.58 L318 (53) 10cmm 6- 50.48 L439 (19) 7- 50.49 L453 (38) 8- 50.48 L393 (16) Fig. 5. Typical ceramics made from local alluvial clays (drawings courtesy of Leon Levy Expeditionto Ashkelon). CLAY TYPES Brown/RedAlluvial Soil, Coastal Inclusions. The most common clay at Ashkelon is an isotropic, noncarbonaticclay with a brown to black core and black to red fabric on the edges. While the pottery-making process obscures the parent soil to some extent, it is likely from a dark brown grumusol (brown xererts [Brady and Weil 2002: 100-102]). These samples are dominated by coarse, sand-sized, roundedquartz fragments (beach sand), accompanied by smaller an- gular fragments of silt-sized quartz and a variety of birefringent accessory minerals.6 This local fabric, in addition to being the most common at Ashkelon (fig. 5), is also found at Ashdod in pottery taken 6These accessory minerals (amphiboles, pyroxenes, feldspars) have been described in detail by Nachmias (1969), who saw some geographic significance to their distribution.In the Ashkelon thin sections, these fragments were too small to identify precisely enough to allow use of Nachmias's more nuanced geographic conclusions. 2003 TRADE AND POLITICS 55 while this soil is typical of the highlands (Goren, Kamaiski, and Kletter 1996), an unpublished study Loess Soil. This highly carbonatic soil has been of the petrographyof the LMLKjars and clay samstudied extensively by Goren and others (Goren pling of the Lachish and Tel Socho areas revealed 1995: 301-2; 1996: 54; Levy and Goldberg 1987; that this clay type was also alluvially transported Melson and Van Beek 1992). While this type is throughout at least the eastern Shephelah (Goren, found throughout the Negev and southern Sheph- personal communication). The terra rossa clay matrix is mixed with inclusions of windblown coastal elah, Goren has demonstrated that the provenience can be refined through a description of the inclu- sand, Eocene chalks, and cherts. The triangulation sions. In the Ashkelon assemblage, three inclusion of the parent soil and the inclusions point to clay suites were defined. Coastal Loess is the most com- sources in the Shephelah (Goren in Mazar and mon loessial soil (fig. 6.1-4), and the inclusions in Panitz-Cohen 2001: 19). the clay match Goren's "coastal matrix" (Goren in Cooking-Pot Fabric. This fabric is probably a Mazar and Panitz-Cohen 2001: 18; Goren, Finkel- subset of the brown/red alluvial soils that characstein, and Na aman in press), including beach sand terize much of the local pottery at Ashkelon. The and abundant heavy minerals. An Ashdod waster cooking-pot fabric is orange in color, has coastal in(Dothan 1971: pl. 39.5) that was analyzed as part clusions (beach sand and accessory minerals), and is of the reference collection also falls into this cate- characterized by a large number of parallel cracks gory. Shephelah Loess has the same carbonatic soil surrounding the inclusions. It is important to note but is dominated by the chalk and chert inclusions that while this is probably a subset of the common typical of the southern Shephelah (fig. 6:5-6; Goren local fabric, its transformation into a cooking pot 1996: 54). Negev Loess is a broader category, and (fig. 6:10) and subsequentrepeatedheating and coolthe Ashkelon samples may reflect several clay ing have dramatically changed its petrographic,and sources (note the variability in Goren's "western possibly chemical, properties. Negev cluster" in Gilead and Goren 1989: 8, fig. 2). InternationalImports.Phoenicianclays were charThe inclusion suite consists of the angular quartz acterized by biomicritic sand in a highly calcareous fragmentstypical of loessial parent soils and argillaceous rock fragments of unknown composition. The orange clay matrix. The presence of Amphiroaalgae vessels in this category (fig. 6:7-9) are either Assyr- among other microfossils points to a provenience ian bottles or have the white-green fabric typical of on the coast of northernIsrael or southern Lebanon Iron II ceramics of the Negev (repeatedmention and (Sivan 1996; Buchbinder 1975; Group B: Rendzina references in Freud 1999), suggesting a provenience soil or alluvial clay with coastal bioclasts, chalk, and in the northwesternNegev. No clear match for this chert, in Goren and Cohen-Weinbergerin press). The North Syrian/Cypriote clay types were found in a clay type has been found in the reference material that was examined, and so no precise provenience is numberof forms that are stylistically from the northeast Mediterranean(fig. 7), including basket-handled possible. amphorae (Lehmann 1996: Taf. 72.421b/1; GunTerraRossa. Several samples in this study conneweg and Perlman 1991), mortaria (Blakely and tained clays derived from the terrarossa soils typical Bennett 1989: 56; Blakely, Brinkman, and Vitaliano of the highlands (fig. 6:11-12). Gorenhas shown that 1992), and North Syrian cooking pots (Lehmann 1996: Taf. 83.440/1). Several categories of Greek 7At Ekron, this soil is accompanied by Eocene chalks and pottery were identified (Master 2001) according to cherts. If this is the same as Fabric Group lb at Batash, it is dethe types established by Whitbread (1995). Ashscribed as a Hamra(Rhodoxeralf) by Goren (in Mazar and PanitzCohen 2001: 16), but this connection is tentative. Goren further kelon has almost all the forms illustrated by Alexargues, following the finds at the Revadim Quarry(Marderet al. ander Fantalkin for Mezad Hashavyahu (Fantalkin 1999), that Hamraoutcrops might have been exposed near Ekron. 2001), although as a much smaller percentage of the It must be noted, however, that the soil deposited above the Hamra overall assemblage. Egyptian clays were recognizcontained Lower Palaeolithic artifacts(Marderet al. 1999: 28-29) able to the naked eye as the "Nile C" fabric of the showing that it has been some time since the Hamra was exVienna system (Nordstrom and Bourriau 1993: 170, posed in this specific area;Goren's general observation, however, 2:f, The i), and thin-section analysis confirmed this still be delineation of Hamra-based and correct. may clays pl. Grumusol-basedclays in this region requires further study. assessment. from Iron II kiln loci (Dothan 1971: pls. 41.9, 11; 43.3).7 56 DANIEL MASTER 1 BASOR 330 2 6 3 7 4 8 i 5 9 10cm 10 - 12 1- 50.58 L262 (22) 2- 50.58 L439 (18) 5- 50.48 L405 (4) 6- 50.58 LF 252 (3) 9- 50.49 L453 (37) 10- 50.58 L262 (9) 3- 50.48 L453 (59) 4- 50.49 L452 (14) 7- 38.64 L785 (6) 8- 50.58 L262 (23) 11- 50.48 L453 (116) 12- 50.48 L453 (112) Fig. 6. Typicalceramics made from Coastal Loess (1-4), Shephelah Loess (5-6), Negev Loess (7-9), Cooking Pot Fabric (10), and TerraRossa (11-12) (drawingscourtesy of Leon Levy Expeditionto Ashkelon). Nothing arrived directly from the highlands around Samaria or Jerusalem. In political terms, Ashkelon The petrographicexamination illuminates the ac- imported nothing from the Assyrian provinces, near tive trade routes surrounding Ashkelon. Using the or far. Some imports probably came from Assyrian petrographic results, and speaking in the broadest centers such as Tell Jemmeh, but Ashkelon was not sense, patterns of presence versus absence emerge heavily integrated into any Assyrian provincial network. Were it not for the overwhelming textual evi(fig. 8). Several well-known trade routes are not visible dence demonstrating the dominance of Assyrian in the Ashkelon assemblage. Nothing arrived from military power, there would be little if any evidence the northern extension of the coastal highway, that a Mesopotamian empire.was in control of the nothing from Megiddo nor from the Jezreel Valley. region of Philistia. DISCUSSION 2003 57 TRADE AND POLITICS 1 2 3 4 1- 50.67 L61 (2) 10cm 2-50.58L318(50) 3- 50.58 L318 (49) 4- 50.49 L418 (8) Fig. 7. Typicalceramics made from North Syrian and Cypriote clays (drawings courtesy of Leon Levy Expeditionto Ashkelon). The trade routes that are visible in Ashkelon's ceramic assemblage paint an interesting picture of the local economy. As is true at most sites with premodern transportation systems, local ceramic production is dominant. In this case, "local" must be defined according to a relatively broad region including Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ashdod, since it is not possible to distinguish petrographicallyamong these cities. To the east, Ashkelon's exclusive trading partners are found in the Shephelah and northwest Negev, while to the west, Ashkelon was heavily invested in the Mediterraneaneconomy of the Phoenicians. The active trade routes provide insight into the economic ratherthan the political world of Ashkelon. Just as in the third and second millennia, the first millennium emergence of Ashkelon appears to be linked to the sea. In the eastern Mediterranean,the dominant maritime powers of the first half of the first millennium were the Phoenician cities. During this period, merchants from Tyre and Sidon expanded into Cyprus and North Syria and later into the Aegean, North Africa, and beyond (Markoe 2000: 30-31, 37-39, 170-86). Beyond this expansion of traditionaltrade, however, the Phoenician ports began to transport commodities that they neither produced nor consumed. Their new commercial economy was wholly reliant on their role as intermediaries between producers and consumers. There was very little to export that was not imported, no homegrown material resource. The Phoenicians' role as middlemen allowed them to create a flexible and lucrative commercial economy that used treaties with established powers and beachheads on distant seashores to move goods anywhere in the Mediterranean (Bartoloni 1997a). As Fox suggests, such merchants could make a fortune faster than even the most industrious farmer. 58 DANIEL MASTER BASOR 330 Limitsof LocalTrade * T. Mezad Hashavyahlu; z m na . ., 'Beth-shemesh ALLUVIAL SOIL " 2 "SHEPHELAH -TERRA ROSSA# :: -----.-.-- . .,. .. Ashdod Ashkelon er• 4,1 S'Hebron " f......... / " . "<.. za'- SHEPHELAH LOESS ' "-"• ' NEGEVLOESS T;Beit T. Jemm eh i/,R, Haror Har T. esh . ', .K -Sharia, .'.T. ..~~ B ... - , ....,, "\ .... . ,. - N, ., Mirsim 4v -•,, a- a T- .,dsSaba _,? "'7;I?E--'-..... Hebron -m . "....."" c C,.,,., -.." :" . .•..-..,,x." , ", •.; . "_..... ... ,5 , ,, Fig. 8. Summary map of petrographicproveniences (base map courtesy of James Monson, BiblicalBackgrounds). The archaeological record at Ashkelon reveals that these same Phoenicians were heavily involved in Ashkelon's seventh-century economy. Ashkelon importedtwo majortypes of vessels (fig. 9) thathighlight the nature of the Phoenician economy. Most Phoenician vessels found at Ashkelon are storejars. While petrographyshows thatthe "Phoenician"storejars were constructed on the Phoenician coast, the jars could easily have been carryingcargo from other places in the Mediterranean. Two recently discovered eighth-centuryPhoenician8ships off the coast of Ashkelon each carried almost 400 wine amphorae made on the Phoenician coast, even though the Phoe8The issues surroundingPhoenician shipping are more fully addressed in the recent article cited here (Ballard et al. 2002). The 59 TRADE AND POLITICS 2003 2 3 6 5 4 1- 50.49 L453 (18) 2- 50.58 L262 (20) 3- 50.49 L451 (32) 4- 50.48 L453 (118) 10cm 5- 50.58L262 (8) 6- 50.58 L262 (7) Fig. 9. Typicalceramics made from Phoenician clays (drawings courtesy of Leon Levy Expeditionto Ashkelon). nicians themselves did not produce wine (Ballard et al. 2002). This commercial economy is described by Ezekiel (27:19) who records that the Phoenicians of the sixth century imported large pithoi of wine from Helbon and Izalla and then rebottled and exported this wine to points throughout the Mediterranean (Diakonoff 1992). It appearsthat the contents of the seventh-century"Phoenician"jars at Ashkelon could have been imported from anywhere in the northeast Mediterranean. The other notable imports from Phoenicia are Phoenician Fine Warebowls and platters,red slipped and highly polished. This ceramic type is a common markerof Phoenician trade throughoutthe Mediterranean (Bartoloni 1997b: 562-63), but, again, characteristic of new Phoenician commercial economy, no distinctive Phoenician natural resource was necessary for constructing this pottery. The key ingredients were the knowledge of how to levigate the clay, two ships, Tanit and Elissa, carry Phoenician-madecargo containers, Phoenician-made galley instruments, Phoenician religious objects, and cargo matching Sidonian ships described in the bills of lading deciphered by Yardeni (1994). These two ships are the best examples of Iron Age Phoenician shipping yet discovered. attach the slip, polish the vessel, and fire the finished product. Knowledge of these ingredients may have been somewhat restricted, but petrographic examinationrevealed that by the seventh centurythe potters of Ashkelon had learned how to make "Phoenician Fine Ware" pieces which were (and are) indistinguishable with the naked eye from the true Phoenician imports. Equally as important, Phoenician traders also received Ashkelon's goods and distributed them throughout their networks to the west, to Cyprus, Carthage, and even Spain (Niemeyer and Schubart 1975: Taf. 18.631). A Phoenician shipwreck discovered in 1993 off the coast of Spain contained both the red-slipped platters and bowls of the Phoenicians and the typical ovoid storejars of Ashkelon and Ekron. The ovoid storejar was the most frequently occurringimported storejartype in the Spanish shipwreck assemblage (Negueruela et al. 1995: 193, fig. 5). The Phoenicians transported and sold the olive oil of Ekron and the wine of Ashkelon throughoutthe entire Mediterranean. The Phoenicians nicely reflect Fox's ancient commercial economy. In the maritime world, a much larger distance did not requirea great increase in cost DANIEL MASTER 60 of transportation.The goods were loaded; the wind did the work. Phoenician connections around the Mediterranean gave them access to exponentially greater profits, and, just as in earlier periods, all of Philistia benefited from this trade. The Phoenicians not only sold a substantial number of goods at Ashkelon, but their maritime connections were also capable of consuming as much wine and olive oil as the southern Levant could produce. The combination of a vibrant Phoenician economy and Ashkelon's close relationship to that economy leads us to argue that Ashkelon's economic expansion in the seventh century was closely tied to its participation in Phoenician maritime exchange, providing further support for the long-term correlationbetween maritimetrade and Ashkelon's economic power. CONCLUSION Ashkelon's position on the southern Levantine coast thrust it into the center of many of the key commercial and political events of the seventh century. The seventh century was a time of extreme dislocation, as Mesopotamian armies destroyed or relocated whole states and Phoenician merchants changed the economy of the Mediterranean. Ashkelon participated in both of these processes simultaneously, in the end failing to understand the intentions of Babylon. But before its destruction, Ashkelon was a dynamic player in the trading world of the seventh century. Politically, Ashkelon was caught between Assyria and Egypt, and the life of the city was gambled on every political move. But the very geographic position that created such tension seems to have kept Assyria from destroying this rebellious border city. Assyrian "generosity"meant that Ashkelon survived unscathed while other cities were devastated. Ashkelon was economically successful first and foremost because the Assyrians left it alone. More than that, while Assyrian styles may have influenced the pottery forms, the Assyrian empire had little visible trade with Ashkelon. Economically, the age-old links to the sea enriched Ashkelon as the Phoenicians sought new products and new markets. The Phoenician commercial economy in the Iron Age was ahead of its time, with innovations in distributionand transportationunsurpassed until the early Roman emperors pacified the Mediterranean(Ballard et al. 2002), and Ashkelon BASOR 330 flourished as a meeting point for imports and exports from both the land and sea. The Phoenician pottery at Ashkelon highlights the role of the Phoenicians as experts in understandingthe productsand marketsof coastal cities. Syrian wines in Phoenician bottles and other imports transshipped from Cyprus and North Syria all added diversity to the ceramic repertoireat Ashkelon. Fartherto the east, Ashkelon's connections with the inland cities demonstratesome of the constraints of a land-based economy. If there were commodities that were traded between inland kingdoms such as Judah and the port of Ashkelon, the ceramic trade was not direct. In all probability, "down-the-line trade" (Renfrew 1975) was taking place, mediated by the cities of the Shephelah. While there may have been a whole host of perishable products in perishable containers, this trade is hidden from archaeological investigation. Conversely, some evidence of direct trade from Ashkelon may be visible in the highland distributionof coastal productssuch as East Greek Pottery (Stem 2001: 214, 216) or Mediterranean foodstuffs (Lernau and Lernau 1992: 132-35), but inland exports from Ashkelon probably moved east in stages as well. All of the international connections at Ashkelon are overshadowed in the ceramic record by the local production. Even in this most commercial of southern Levantine cities, local pottery productionwas the norm. In some cases, production in the southern Levant mimicked imported styles. The Assyrian bowls and bottles made south of Ashkelon replicate styles from the Assyrian heartland, and locally made fine ware platterscopy Phoenician textures. But the sheer weight of ceramics strongly inhibited their transport over long distances. The combination of text and petrographyat Ashkelon reveals several types of routes superimposed on one another, each corresponding to a separate sphere of society. The Assyrian texts describe the movements of armies down the north-south coastal highway. While this route was the most important route in the country militarily, from the petrographic perspective, the perspective of ceramic trade, it brought nothing to Ashkelon. The economic routes, those used for the transportof goods for trade, radiated east from the sea. Even along these land routes, the limits of land transportforced goods to move in steps, from the hill country to the Shephelah, and from the Shephelah to the coast until they 2003 TRADE AND POLITICS arrived at the Mediterranean superhighway where they were efficiently transportedthroughoutthe maritime world. 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