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JapaneseVisual Grammar Reference Sheets
JAPANESE PRONOUNCIATION JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM Syllables Syllables in Japanese are very regular. Unlike English, there is no stress on any particular syllable of a word. Each syllable is also given equal time to pronounce, including double consonants, individual vowels, and ん. sai ee sah nah nande nah nakatta dey kah to~ Toukyou Keep in mind that because Japanese is spoken quickly, emphasizing each syllable would sound strange. Instead, focus on the time given to each syllable. The language should sound like a steady flow. n t~ ~oh ~ta kyoh~ kiite kee~ ~ee tey kitte kee t~ ~tey ~oh Vowels Vowels can act inconsistently in English, but vowels in Japanese are simple and predictable. Japanese vowels never form diphthongs (combined vowels that form a new sound, like “ai” in “rain”), but remain distinct sounds. There are also “long vowels,” which are when a single vowel sound is held for two intervals. a ah, like in “raw” aoi ah-oh-ee i ee, like in “bee” iie ee~ee-ay u oo, like in “moo” uu (long u) e eh, like in “meh” or ey, like in “hey”* ee or ei (long e) o oh, like in “bow” oo or ou (long o) oo~oo e~ey o~oh ん Although it is typically translated as “n” in romaji, ん sounds like an “m” when followed by “m,” “p,” or “b.” Also remember that the ん sound is held for the same time as any other syllable, which results in a slight pause after the ん. NOTES * For double consonants, treat it like one long sound. Start the beginning of the sound at the end of the preceding syllable, hold silently for an interval, then finish with the next syllable. * The vowel “e” can vary slightly in sound. When at the end of a word or followed by a vowel, it sounds harder, like “ey” in “hey.” * Some syllables tend to have a weak vowel sound. * * * For example, “shita” → “shh-tah”, “desu” → “deh-ss” “f” sounds more like an “h” in Japanese. Try to say “fu” without touching your teeth to your lips. “r” is softer in Japanese. Try to say “ru” by flicking your tongue, not pursing your lips. Tip: Try clapping your hands at even intervals or using a metronome to help you practice your timing. JAPANESE WRITING: HIRAGANA JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM ﾞﾞ ﾞ ﾟﾞ A KA SA TA NA HA MA YA RA ﾞﾞ ﾞ ﾟﾞ WA KYA SHA CHA NYA HYA MYA RYA あ か さ た な は ま や ら わ きゃ しゃ ちゃ にゃ ひゃ みゃ りゃ I KI SHI CHI NI HI MI RI い き し ち に ひ み U KU SU TSU NU FU MU YU り RU KYU SHU CHU NYU う く す つ ぬ ふ む ゆ る きゅ しゅ ちゅ にゅ ひゅ みゅ りゅ え け せ て ね へ め E KE SE TE NE HE ME れ RE MYU RYU DAKUTEN k s * tsu → dzu g z* t h shi → ji d* b KO SO TO NO HO MO YO RO WO KYO SHO CHO ﾟ ﾞ HYU O ん N NYO HYO MYO RYO お こ そ と の ほ も よ ろ を きょ しょ ちょ にょ ひょ みょ りょ HANDAKUTEN h p chi → ji * “j” syllables other than ji (じ) combine “ji” and small “y” kana. For example, “ja”: じゃ * A small tsu (っ) represents a double consonant. For example, かった means “katta.” * A long dash (一) represents a long or double vowel, meaning hold the vowel sound for two intervals. JAPANESE WRITING: KATAKANA JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM ﾞﾞ ﾞ ﾟﾞ ア カ サ タ ナ ハ マ や ラ ワ キャ シャ チャ ニャ ヒャ ミャ リャ A KA SA TA NA HA MA YA RA ﾞﾞ ﾞ ﾟﾞ WA KYA SHA CHA NYA HYA MYA RYA ィ き シ チ ニ ヒ み I KI SHI CHI NI HI MI リ RI U KU SU TSU NU FU MU YU RU KYU SHU CHU ﾞ NYU HYU MYU RYU DAKUTEN k s * tsu → dzu * * * * g z* t h shi → ji d* b chi → ji ウ ク ス ツ ヌ フ ム ュ ル キュ シュ チュ ニュ ヒュ ミュ リュ え ケ セ テ ネ へ メ E KE SE TE NE HE ME O KO SO TO NO HO MO YO レ RE RO WO KYO SHO CHO NYO ﾟ N ン HYO MYO RYO オ コ ソ ト ノ ホ モ ヨ ロ ヲ キョ ショ チョ ニョ ヒョ ミョ リョ HANDAKUTEN h p The “v” sound doesn’t occur naturally in Japanese, so it is often substituted with “b” or represented as a dakuten form of “u”: ヴ. Other syllables that don’t occur naturally in Japanese are often formed by using a small version of a vowel. For example, “fu+small o” makes “fo”: フォ. Simularly, ヴぁ makes “va” A small tsu (ッ) represents a double consonant. For example, カッタ means “katta.” A long dash (一) represents a long or double vowel, meaning hold the vowel sound for two intervals. JAPANESE VERBS: INTRODUCTION JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM Godan Verbs Ichidan Verbs Irregular Verbs Meaning “five stage,” for each vowel stage, and the most common type of verb. They are mostly regular, aside from three special classes: iku/yuku, -aru verbs, and colloquial -u verbs. Ichidan verbs consist only of verbs that end in -eru or -iru, but not all -eru or -iru verbs are ichidan. The only way to tell is by memorization. There are dew irregular verbs in Japanese, including the “copulas,” da and desu, and the verbs suru and kuru, as well as verbs that use suru as their root. aruku kau kasu to walk to buy to lend taberu to eat suru oboeru to remember benkyou suru to study chuumon suru to order deru to leave mastu to wait kariru yomu to read miru kudasaru iru to give (honorific) to borrow to need iru I E O TE kuru to be able da to be, to exist to come ~to be desu ~to be (polite) Conjugate each form starting from the dictionary (”u”) form. -[vowel]+u -[v]+wa -tsu -ta -u -a -tsu -chi -su -shi -u -i -ru¹ -i -tsu -te -u -e -tsu -tou -u -ou -ku² -ite -ku² -ita -gu -ide -gu -ida -u³/-tsu/-ru -tte -u³/-tsu/-ru -tta -su -shite -su -shita -bu/-nu/-mu to worry Conjugations Godan A shimpai suru to see dekiru to do -nde Suru/Kuru Ichidan A I E O TE TA TA -ru ー -ru ー -ru -re -ru -you -ru -te -ru -ta -bu/-nu/-mu -nda A I E O TE TA suru shi kuru ko suru shi kuru ki suru sure kuru kure suru shiyou kuru koyou suru shite kuru kite suru shita kuru kita ¹ Only for the five “honorific” aru verbs: kudasaru, nasaru, gozaru, irassharu, and ossharu ² iku 行く → itte / itta | yuku 行く yutte / yutta ³ In some dialects, -u → -uta/ute or -ota/ote JAPANESE VERBS: VOWEL FORMS JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM irrealis-mizenkei A Form aruka kawa -nai² -nakatta I Form continuative-ren’youkei -masu -mashita U Form terminal-shuushikei plain negative command -ba kae kase mate hypothetical/provisional conditional -ba ii² arukou [base] regret (”would’ve been good if”) kaou kasou volitional (”let’s...”) to omou¹ think about doing to suru¹ try to do / be about to do matou do while doing [verb] miru suru present relative clause no/koto nominalization tabere -ru³ [base] ki hard / easy to do + [noun] -nai² optative (”would be good if”) -ba yokatta taberu koto ni suru¹ assumptive conditional shi desiderative (”want to do”) -nagara [verb] matsu must do decide to do mire kuru sure U Form E Form polite past kasu not have done when [clause] mi -nikui² / -yasui² plain present nara negative command tabe -tai² ko attributive-rentaikei [base] aruke hypothetical-kateikei machi polite negative (past) kau shi [nai to/nakereba] [naranai/ikenai] polite present aruku O Form kashi -masen (deshita) mi -zu (ni) [clause] negative condition kai tabe -naide negative past -nakereba na mata negative present aruki volitional-ikoukei kasa kure potential/ability (godan only) no potential/ability (godan only) impolite command (generally godan only) tabeyou miyou shiyou koyou NOTES ¹ verb that can be conjugated ² adjectival verb (i-adjective) that can be conjugated ³ forms new ichidan verb that can be conjugated JAPANESE VERBS: TE, TA, PASSIVE, AND CAUSITIVE JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM Te Form -ku -ite -gu -ide -u/-tsu/-ru -tte -su -shite -bu/-nu/-mu -nde [base] ichidan -ru -te iru¹ iku itte kuru¹ suru shite oku¹ kuru kite shimau¹ -ku -ita -gu -ida -u/-tsu/-ru -tta -su -shita -bu/-nu/-mu -nda [base] perfective (~simple past) -ri [...-ri] suru³ ichidan -ru -ta bakari to have recently done koto (ga) aru¹ iku itta -ra suru shita to shitara/suru¹ kuru kita toki The participle is a verb form that modifies the noun, verb, or noun or verb clause. In Japanese, it is commonly used for continous actions, to make requests, answer questions, and link a series of actions performed in order. the participle command/answer/linking continous action (”i” often omitted) perfect continuous action accidentally/unexpectedly conditional (“tara” form) suppositional “when [clause happened]...” Causative Tense Subject causes indirect object to act. godan a form +reru² godan a form +seru² ichidan a form +rareru² ichidan a form +saseru² suru sareru² suru saseru² kuru a form +rareru² kuru a form +saseru² causative a form +rareru² Passive-Causative passive perfect continous iku¹ future continous mo ii to try doing and “see” “may” (”may I?”/”you may”) The perfective aspect doesn’t exist in English, but it is simple enough to compare it to our simple past tense. It is an action that has been completed in full. the perfective Passive Tense Subject becomes the direct object. request aru¹ miru¹ to plan to do Ta Form kudasai -rou to have experienced past subjunctive (”probably”) to shite mo tokoro list general actions “even if...” to have just done NOTES ¹ verb that can be conjugated ² forms a new ichidan verb that can be conjugated ³ each clause uses the -ri conjugation, but the tense for every clause is determined by suru, which comes at the very end JAPANESE VERBS: COMPOUND, DA, AND DESU JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM Compound Verbs Most V+V compound verbs are formed by using the i-form of the topic verb and conjugating the phrasal verb, similar to using helping verbs with the infinitive in English, where the “helping verb” comes second. Other V+V compound verbs use the linking form (te-form) for the first verb to link two actions taken together. N+V compound verbs use “suru” for the phrasal verb. Some use the object particle (を), some don’t. [verb, i-form]+hajimeru [verb, i-form]+oeru to begin to do to finish doing [verb, te-form]+miru [verb, te-form]+shimau [verb, i-form]+sugiru to overdo motteiku [verb, i-form]+naosu to redo mottekuru [verb, i-form]+tsudzukeru to continue doing to try doing and “see” to do accidentally to take (to have + to go) to bring (to have + to come) benkyou suru to study (study/research + to do) Da and Desu ー The Copula? Whether you want to call da/desu copulas, auxillary verbs, or whatever, it does not explain when and how to use them. Instead, consider them contextual markers for tense and politeness and follow these simple rules: must use¹ can use² when there is not already a predicate verb or adjectival verb in the clause to provide tense/politeness when it will add context of tense, politeness or meaning to a clause, if the main verb cannot do it itself cannot use³ when it would not add context of tense, politeness, or meaning, or it would disagree with the main verb ¹ For example, to say you are happy, you must use a form of da/desu with the noun “shiawase.” In this sense, it is a copula. ² For example, since “taberu” has the polite form “tabemashita,” you CANNOT say “taberu desu.” However, you can say “tabetai desu.” ³ For example, you cannot say “tabemasen datta,” because “tabemasen” is polite. The past form must be “tabemasen deshita.” Da (Plain) present da negative past Desu (Polite) present de (waは) /ja nai datta volitional te-Form conditional negative past past negative de (waは) /ja nakatta darou desu deshita past negative volitional de te-Form nara/naraba attributive/prenominal no/na de (waは) /ja arimasen conditional de (waは) /ja arimasen deshita deshou de arimashite de areba attributive/prenominal desu JAPANESE “ADJECTIVES”: INTRODUCTION JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM The Japanese language does not have “adjectives” from a linguistical sense. Instead, it uses verbs and nouns to describe objects. When used prenominally, they form a relative—or adjectival—clause; and when used as a predicate, they are used inflected or paired with a form of da/desu to create a state-of-being (stative) sentence. attributive/prenominal i-Adjectives kawaii neko (cat that is cute) verb terminal/predicate Neko ga kawaii. (The cat is cute.) na-Adjectives noun A very common type of “adjective.” They always end in い in their character form. They are considered a special type of verb because they include state-of-being and are conjugated directly, often similarly to verbs. Another common type of “adjective,” formed simply by adding a conjugation of da or desu after the noun. The “na” only refers to their prenominal present form; they have no visual way to distinguish them. f-Adjectives no-Adjectives verb f-adjectives are the continuous or perfective form of a normal verb, used to modify a noun. Prenominally, they are considered a relative clause, like “city that froze,” and not “frozen city,” meaning they can be used in advanced ways, such as “the city that was frozen by a storm.” The other type of adjectival noun. There is no outright way to distinguish na- and no-adjectives, but personal qualities are usually na-adjectives, while unsubjective attributes are commonly no-adjectives, like “next” or “my,” or even “apple tart” and “German dog.” WHAT TYPE? ends in “ii” ends in “ei” it’s an i-adjective it’s not an i-adjective ends in “[consonant]+i” it’s not an i-adjective probably an i-adjective¹ physical attribute conceptual attribute unsubjective attribute probably a na-adjective probably a no-adjective NOTES ¹ A notable exception to this is color. The most * primary colors (red, blue, yellow, black, white) have both i-adj and no-adj forms. Secondary, tertiary, tints, and shades are strictly no-adjs. The only “irregular” verb is “ii” (”good”). In all forms other than present, its stem reverts to its true form, “yoi.” noun COMPARISONS A>B [clause A] hou ga [clause B] yori [adj] B>A [clause A] yori [clause B] hou ga [adj] ↑ “[B] yori” or “[B] no hou ga” can be dropped if clear from context. Must use attributive form (”na”/”no”). degree [clause] hodo [adj] ↑ For example, to say someone is “so tall that [clause]” or “not tall enough to [clause]” superlative ichiban [adj] superlative mottomo [adj] ↑ Both forms can be used before the terminal/predicate or attributive/prenominal form. more than anyone more than anything [noun] wa は dare yori [adj] [noun] wa は nani yori [adj] ↑ “dare” must be used for animate objects, while “nani” is used for inantimate objects. “same exact” [A] wa は [B] to onaji “as much as [noun]” “different” [noun] to onaji gurai [adj] [A] wa は [B] to chigau JAPANESE “ADJECTIVES”: CONJUGATION JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM hayai 早い early | stem: haya attributive present terminal present negative hayai hayaku nai irrealis (a-form) hayaku haya¹ continuative (i-form) adverb hayaku [verb] conditonal hayakereba past (ta-form) hayakatta volitional (o-form) hayaku shiyou neg. conditonal past negative hayaku nakatta participle (te-form) hayakute noun terminal present negative benri de(waは)² nai past negative benri datta benri de(wa)² nakatta okoru 怒る to get angry attributive perfect okotta [noun] attributive continuous terminal present negative past negative the adjectival noun irrealis (a-form) benri de continuative (i-form) benri adverb benri ni [verb] conditonal benri nara/dattara volitional (o-form) benri de arou neg. conditonal participle (te-form) benri de noun f-adjectives are really just the perfect or continuous form of a verb, used as a relative clause to describe a noun. benri de nakereba [base] f-Adjectives the adjectival clause okotte iru [n] okotte iru okotte inai past (ta-form) na-Adjectives benri na [noun] benri da past (ta-form) hayaku nakereba hayasa (”speed”) na-adjectives are nouns used to describe attributes by using a form of the verb da (plain) or desu (polite). attributive present okotte ita okotte inakatta NOTES ² * the adjectival verb hayai [noun] benri 便利 useful ¹ i-Adjectives i-adjectives are like special verbs, which include tense (and thus must not use the plain verb da). The i-form of adjectives that end in “nai” appends “sa.” Ex. “nai” → “nasa” ”ja” is a colloquial form of “de(waは)” Aside from present or polite forms, each form may be used as either the predicate (terminal) or the prenominal (attributive) form. present okotte imasu negative past okotte imasen okotte imashita past negative okotte imasen deshita no-adjectives are a class that include possessive, “type,” numeral, demonstrative, and interrogative adjectives. possessive: my watashi no “type”: Japanese nihon no numeral: two numeral: many ni [counter] no oku no “adverb”/te form okotte [verb] no-Adjectives the other adjectival noun distributive: another betsu no demonstrative: this kono interrogative: what nani no JAPANESE ADVERBS JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM Manner Adverbs Manner adverbs (how an action is performed) are usually derived from adjectival verbs and nouns. For i-adjs, the adjective is inflected to the adjectival form. For na- and no-adjs, use the particle, “ni.” i-adj i → ku na/no-adj ureshii (”delightful”) na/no → ni ureshiku (”delightfully”) ketteiteki na (”~decisive”) ketteiteki ni (”decisively”) Locational Adverbs Locational adverbs (where an action is done) usually use a noun, followed a location particle like “ni” or “de.” koko ni / soko ni here / there chikaku ni / tooku ni nearby / distantly Toukyou no kita 10 mairu ni tsukue no shita ni 10 miles north of Tokyo underneath the desk (”at the desk’s bottom”) Time/Frequency/Degree Adverbs Time/frequency adverbs (when or how often an action is done) and degree adverbs (to what degree an action is done) usually use a “true” adverb. Time adverbs usually go towards the beginning of the clause. ima now mainichi taitei hotondo every day zenzen usually amari almost/barely not at all (neg. tense) not very much (neg. tense) NOTES * Generally, adverbs can be placed anywhere. Time adverbs usually come near the beginning, while other types * go near the verb. The adverb applys to the next verb in the sentence. Some adverbs can only be used with negative conjugations. For example, while “zenzen” might be translated as meaning “entirely,” the clause “zenzen tabetakunai” would be translated as “I don’t want to eat at all.” Kanjiru & Omou While “feeling” something in English uses adjectives, Japanese uses manner adverbs with “kanjiru” or “omou.” To mention what makes you feel that way, use the direct object particle “o” を. sabishiku kanjiru/omou feel lonely sore o を shiawase ni kanjiru/omou feel happy about that Suru & Naru Using a manner adverb directly before “suru” can imply causitive tense. In other words, the subject causes the direct object to become [adjective]. Using “naru” can imply that the subject became [adjective]. yowaku suru turn down (”make weak”) hazukashiku suru kirei ni suru embarrass or make shy clean (”make pretty/clean”) atsuku naru become hot tomodachi ni naru suki ni naranai become friends cannot like (”will not become likable”) JAPANESE NOUNS: PRONOUNS JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM Interrogative Pronouns Interrogatives are “question words” like who, what, when, where, and how. These are a few common examples. what nani what time who dare how (manner) whose why dare no nanji nanide / douyatte / dou how much (cost) naze / doushite / nande How many... ikura how many (general) where doko / dochira how much/far when itsu how long (”until when”) ikutsu doregurai (n) / donogurai (a) itsu made people nan nin times nan kai years nan nen years old vague nan sai nan [counter] Demonstrative Pronouns Demonstratives are words that refer to something by proximity. These are a few common examples. ko- (close to speaker) so- (close to listener) a- (far) do- (interrogative) pronoun kore (this) sore (that) are (that over there) dore (which?) determiner kono (this...) sono (that...) ano (that...over there) dono (which...?) adjective konna (like this) sonna (like that) anna (like that) donna (how/what?) place koko (here) soko (there) sasoko (over there) doko (where?) direction kocchi (this way) socchi (that way) acchi (over that way) docchi (which way?) manner kou (this manner) so (that manner) aa (that manner) dou (how?) Indefinite Pronouns Indefinite pronouns refer to one or more unspecified people or things. These are a few common examples. nani (-thing) dare (-one) doko (-where) itsu (-time) ka (some-) nani ka dare ka doko ka itsu ka mo (every-) nani mo (rarely used) dare mo doko mo itsu mo mo ... nai (no-) nani mo ... nai dare mo ... nai doko mo ... nai itsu mo ... nai demo (any-) nan de mo dare de mo doko de mo itsu de mo These suffixes (or rather particles) are not limited to these examples. For example, “nan nin ka” means “some people.” JAPANESE NUMBERS: BASICS JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM Basic Numbers juu man Similar to “hundred” and “thousand,” each place value up to the millions has a key word. 2 百万 6 1 十万 万 hyaku man However, this system is not as simple as it seems because many sounds are contracted depending on the values. For example, 800 is condensed from “hachi hyaku” to “happyaku.” roku bun no yon 六分の四 11.36 8 4 千 1 百 2 十 hyaku Together: 二百万 六十万 一万 八千 四百 十 二 “Ichi” (1) is only used in the 1s place and the 10,000s (”man”) place. Ordinals Use “ten” 点, meaning “dot.” Say it like “A of B parts.” juu man Decimals Fractions 4 6 sen “me” 目 indicates a place in a series. juu ichi ten san roku 十一点山ろく 3rd thing mitsu me 5th person go nin me 三つ目 五人目 Measurements Units always come after the number. To give height/length/etc, use a noun, like “nagasa” (length). When describing distance away from something or somewhere, you can use the verb “hanareru” (to be apart). Shinchou wa 203 senchi¹ da. Taijuu² wa 60 kiro desu. (My) height is 203 cm. (My) weight is 60 kilo(grams). Eki wa 2 mairu hanarete iru. The station is 2 miles away. Machi wa koko kara nan kiro hanarete imasu ka? Takasa¹ 605 fi-to no biru Kore wa omosa² ga 4 kiro da. nagasa roku inchi no sakana a 605-foot tall building Its weight is 4 kilo(grams). a 6-inch long fish How many kilo(meters) away is the town from here? ¹ “shinchou” is used to measure the height of a living being, while “takasa” is used for the height of an object. ² “taijuu” is used to measure the weight of a living being, while “omosa” is used for the weight of an object. Time & Dates Use “ji” (時) after the hour and “fun” (分) after the minutes. “han” (half 半) is often used for half-past an hour. 4:30 yo (not yon) ji han 11:00 juu ichi ji 7:15 nana ji juu go fun 9:40 ku³ ji yon fun Years/months use the standard counting system, followed by “nen”/“gatsu” (年/月). Days 1-10, 14, 20, and 24 use a different reading system, followed by the reading “ka” (日). All other dates use the reading “nichi” (日). 1/1 ichi gatsu tsuitachi 2/2 ni gatsu futsuka 3/3 san gatsu mikka 4/4 shi gatsu yokka 5/5 go gatsu itsuka 6/6 roku gatsu muika 7/7 shichi gatsu nanoka 8/8 hachi gatsu youka 9/9 ku gatsu kokonoka 10/10 5/24 go gatsu ni juu yokka 1996年 2/12 juu gatsu touka ni gatsu juu ni nichi sen kyuu hyaku kyuu juu roku nen 11/14 3/21 juu ichi gatsu juu yokka san gatsu juu ichi nichi 2014年3月4日 12/20 juu ni gatsu hatsuka 9/30 ku³ gatsu san juu nichi ni sen juu yon nen san gatsu juu yokka ³ “kyu” tends to change to the shortened “ku” for time, months, and days. JAPANESE NUMBERS: COUNTING JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM Counters Counters are used when counting objects, definite or indefinite. Think of “loaves” in “some/2 loaves of bread.” Contrary to belief, counters are not used for every noun, but they are more common in Japanese than English. The proper counter varies based on the object, and some objects can use different counters. Common counters: general counter tsu¹ ri / nin² 人 people (ex. boys) kan 間 time (often omitted)³ months⁴ kagetsu (kan) ヶ月(間) small animals hiki 匹 long, cylindrical large animals tou 頭 flat, thin books, magazines satsu 冊 vehicles, machines dai 台 hon 本 mai 枚 small, compact liquid (ex. drinks) ko 個 hai 杯 Counting Objects Most counters can be used in two ways. The first is preferred unless referring to people, using -tsu, or emphasizing quantity. [object] [number] Hon ni juu yon o satsu katta. aoi no kami ni mai [counter] [number] [counter] no Hitotsu¹ no shitsumon ga arimasu. (I) bought 24 books. Futari² no ane ga imasu. two pieces of blue paper [object] I have one question. (I) have two older sisters. ¹ “tsu” uses the traditional Japanese counting system, which is much different from the modern system. ² When counting people, 1 and 2 are “hitori” and “futari,” while all other numbers use the modern counting system with “nin.” Counting Time When counting time, the order is different than counting objects. Counting days uses the calendar-day system. [number] Go ji kan kore o sagashita. [object] (I) looked for five hours. Konojo wa ni nen kan nana kagetsu⁴ atte inai. [counter] Mikka kan mae ni itta. (I) went three days ago. I haven’t seen her in two years and seven months. ³ When counting time, “kan” can be omitted except in the case of hours. ⁴ The word“kagetsu” combines the counter and object into one word, and “kan” is almost always omitted. Approximations ni juu go nin gurai ni ijou, juu ika around 25 people not less than 2, not greater than 10 suu hyaku hiki no inu several hundred dogs shi, go nin no gakusei 4 or 5 students Occurances and Frequency The noun “kai” 回 is to count the number of times of an event. Along with “ni,” it can convey frequency. Ni, san kai sushi o tabeta. kotoshi de rokkai me I’ve eaten sushi 2 or 3 times. sixth time this year Nen ni san kai koko ni iku. san kagetsu ni ikkai I go three times a year. once every three months JAPANESE PARTICLES: INTRODUCTION JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM Particles are special parts of speech that modify or mark the noun, verb, or clause that comes before it. Often, they will behave like English prepositions, conjunctions, or adverbs, but they play a heavier role than just that. There are six central types of particles, with different uses. Knowing each type can help you understand its complete and proper use within a sentence. Many particles belong to multiple categories, but by recognizing the part of speech they follow, it can become much easier to discern which meaning they take. Case Markers Parallel Markers Identifies the role of a noun in a clause. They always follow a noun. Identifies the relationship between two or more nouns. They always follow a noun. ga Subject marker o を¹ ni Direct object marker Indirect object marker e へ¹ Direction marker no Possession marker to “and” (exhaustive) ya “and” (inexhaustive) na do “etc.” Binding Particles Adverbial Particles Identifies the topic and its context in the sentence. They generally follow a noun. Modifies a clause to operate like an adverb for the independent clause. They may follow a noun or a clause. wa は¹ mo Topic marker bakari Agreement marker made “only,” “just” “up until”, “as far as” koso Emphasis marker dake “as (much as)” shika “only”, “just” hodo “to the extent of” Conjunctive Particles Sentence-Ending Particles Identifies the relationship between two clauses. They always follow a clause. Provides additional context to the sentence, like emotion. Despite the name, some can follow internal clauses. kara “because” ka Uncertainty marker Tag question marker to “if” ne ga “although” ka na NOTES keredomo “but” yo “I wonder” Assertive final particle (masculine) ¹ Based on old kana roots, some particles are pronounced differently than they are written. * Particles always come after the word or clause that is being modified. * These lists only provide a very small handful of examples for each category. JAPANESE PARTICLES: CASE & BINDING JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM Case Markers - The Basics Case markers indicate the role of a noun. Ever wonder why “I” changes to “me” when you’re the object of a sentence? Because it is a different “case.” These changes are much more simple in Japanese, where you only need to mark the noun with a particle based on its role. These are some of the most common case particles: ga subject/actor performer of the action ni indirect object recipient (inc. place) of the action direct object object being acted upon de instrument means by which the action occurs participent of the action yori oを to accomplice ga¹ Watashi ga¹ Kare kare kanojo ni ni eigo de zenryoku tegami comparison o kaita. nagurareta.² de object compared against subject I wrote him a letter in English. He was hit by her with all (her) force. ¹ “ga” vs “wa”: Using “ga” suggests that there is emphasis on the subject (”it wasn’t her, it was ME.”). More on “wa” below. ² Like English, when using passive form, the subject is the recipient of the action while the indirect object is the actor. * Unlike English, stating subject/object is not required. Objects are usually left out if they are obvious, especially “I” and “you.” * You cannot have more than one “ga” or “o” per clause. In order to avoid repeating particles, look into using “lists.” Case Markers - Location & Time Location and time share similarities, and are marked by case markers that indicate whether they are starting points, general points, or ending points. Note that ORIGIN, DESTINATION, and LIMIT can also be people. ACTION ORIGIN (”from”/”since”) [place] [time] DESTINATION (”to”) [place] LOCATION (”at”/”in”) kara de/ni³ [place] [time] made ni LIMIT (”until”) [place] [time] TIME (”at”/”on”) [time] ni³/e へ REQUIREMENT (”by”) ni made ³ “ni” can only be used for location when the verb itself involves a location as being the recipient of the action. Binding Particles Unlike case markers, binding particles actually give a meaning to the word it modifies. If used on the actor or direct object of the action, they replace “ga” and “o.” Otherwise, if the object has a particle, it comes afterwards. wa は mo ~“about” “also” sae (mo) sura⁵ shika⁵ ”even” “not even” “anything but” Kare wa Watashi wa Nihongo de sae Neko Sore sura wa About him, (his) Japanese is very good.³ nihongo ga umai. nihon ni mo kore o ginei dekiru. suki ja nai. nihon itta koto aru. I have also been to Japan.⁴ He can even recite it in Japanese. He doesn’t even like cats. de shika okorenai. It can’t happen anywhere but Japan. ³ “wa” and “ga” together: His Japanese is the subject, not “him,” but “kare wa” establishes whose Japanese we are talking about. ⁴ “mo” is modifying “nihon ni,” not “watashi,” so it means “in addition to another place,” not “in addition to another person.” ⁵ Must be used with a negatively conjugated verb. * Binding particles cannot be used on interrogative pronouns, like “dare” or “nani.” JAPANESE PARTICLES: を, に, & CAUSITIVE CASING JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM The Complexity of「を」 Direct objects for Japanese verbs do not always translate as such in English. You will need to learn that certain verbs can be transitive in Japanese, especially when English equivalent would use prepositions. sagasu to look (for) Watashi no matsu to wait (for) Kare deru kanjiru to leave (location) neko oを oを Sore sagashite ita. ichi nichi juu matte imashita. San jikan mae ni to feel (about) oを ginkou oを deta. dou kanjimashita ka? I was looking for my cat. She waited for him all day. He left the bank about three hours ago. How do you feel about it? The Complexity of「に」 Likewise, indirect objects are not always how we see them in English. Especially when dealing with location. It is not a true location/destination marker: it can only be used if the location itself can “receive” the action. This chart shows which particle can be used with each type of action. “Ni” tends to be preferred when possible. ni movement verb ”to” locational verb ”at”/”in” other action verbs ”at”/”in” transferal verbs ”to” indirect “-” indirect ”for” indirect object de eへ location Mise ni iku.¹ destination Mise e aruku. made limit Mise made aruku. Koko ni aru.² Gakkou de taberu. Neko o kare ni ageta. Neko o kare e ageta. Tomodachi ni au. Anata ni ii. ¹ “ni” can only be used with some movement verbs. For example: “iku” and “tobu” can accept it, but “aruku” and “hashiru” cannot. ² “Locational verbs” are verbs that inherently involve the subject attaching to a location. For example, “to be,” “to hide,” “to enter.” Case Markers - Causitive Tense English does not have causitive tense, but it is a simple concept. Someone or something is forcing someone or something else to perform the action. The subject is always the person causing the force. Kanojo ni kare to ikaseru. I will have her go with him. Most of the time, the person being forced to perform is selected with the indirect object particle, “ni.” Kanojo oを mise ni kare to ikaseru. I will have her go with him to the store. However, you can also use the direct object particle “o,” particularly when you have already have an indirect object. This does not mean you cannot use two “ni” particles, but it sounds better not to repeat them so close. Kanojo ni kare oを mise eへ okuraseru. I will have her escort him to the store. Remember that you cannot repeat “o,” so it is good to be familiar with the above chart in order to avoid repeating the “ni” particle so many times. JAPANESE PARTICLES: PARALLEL, の, & POSTPOSITIONS JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM Parallel Markers - Lists EXHAUSTIVE LIST (’and”) 1 Parallel markers are case markers that link nouns together. Most of them are used to construct lists. Formally, they must follow each noun except the last. [particle] 1 2 ka 3 ka [particle] Give it to Sakura and Shirou. Basu ka karuma de ikou. INEXHAUSTIVE LIST (’and such...etc”) Let’s go by bus or car. Ringo ya nashi ga oishii. 3 to ALTERNATIVE LIST (”or”) THESE ARE NOT USED TO LIST CLAUSES OR VERBS. Sakura to Shirou ni agete. 2 to 1 Apples and pears and such are tasty. 2 ya 3 ya [particle] Possession & Nominalization 「の」 There are two “no” particles. First is generally called the possessive case. Like other parallel markers, it connects two nouns. Sometimes it is translated as “of,” since it is also used to turn some nouns into adjectives.; however, this is not very accurate (”sukoshi no jikan” cannot be translated as “hours of few”). watashitachi no neko our cat daidokoro no nagashidai kare to kanojo no kawaisa his and her cuteness nihon no denwabangou ni juu san sai no musume 23-year-old daughter ooku no nihonjin kitchen sink Japanese phone number many Japanese people The second “no” nominalizes a verb or clause. Remember that it will need to be followed by a particle. THESE ARE NOT USED TO LIST MULTIPLE VERBS OR CLAUSES. Watashi wa tomodachi to gakkou ni aruku Kore o kiru Kare wa no wa hisashiburi da. engi o suru no no ga suki desu. I like walking to school with my friends. It’s been a while since I’ve worn this. (“About wearing this, it’s been a while.”) tokui de nai. He is not good at acting. (”About him, (his) acting is not good.”) Postpositional Phrases Postpositions (equivalent to English prepositions) use a noun + the possessive particle “no” + locational noun. As a noun, each of these must be followed by a particle. ue above/on shita below/under Watashi no kasa wa Kare o Kanojo ga Kore wa eki inside soto outside reizouko to kabe no soto ki naka mae ushiro no aida de¹ matte kudasai. no ushiro watashi no tsukue ni¹ aru. behind aida mawari space between around My umbrella is between the fridge and the wall. Please wait for him outside the station. ni kakurete iru no o mita. no ue (in) front ni oite kudasai. I saw her hiding behind the tree. Please put it on (top of) my desk. ¹ “ni” vs “de”: Typically, “de” is used for the location of an action, but when the verb is stative and inherently involves attaching to a location, the location is the recipient of the action, and thus uses the i.o. particle “ni.” Examples include “to be,” “to live,” and “to enter.” JAPANESE SENTENCES: CLAUSES & RELATIVE CLAUSES JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM Clauses A clause is the simplest unit that can express something. The only required piece of a clause in Japanese is a predicating verb, which always comes at the end of the clause. The order of everything else is flexible, but the general order is: [time adverbs] + [topics] + [subject] + [everything else] + [predicating verb]. Sentences can have multiple clauses, which can be within or next to other clauses. The order of clauses is also flexible as long as subordinate clauses come before the related independent clause. [topic] + wa は [subject] + ga SUBORDINATE CLAUSES [direct object] + o を A subordinate (dependent) clause provides the independent (main) clause with additional information. They never use polite tense. There are three kinds: [indirect object] + ni + [verb] [location] + de · Relative (Adjectival) Clauses describe nouns · Adverbial Clauses describe actions (why/when/etc) · Noun Clauses are used as a noun [adverb] ... Relative (Adjectival) Clauses Also known as “adjectival clause,” these are subordinate clauses that describe a noun. In English, they use pronouns, like “that” or the “wh-words.” In Japanese, they are formed by putting the clause before the noun. As such, you must use the prenominal/attributive form of a verb. Kare ga mottekita ringo wa oishii. The apples that he brought were delicious. The clause “kare ga mottekita” is being used to describe “ringo” Senshuu kyuukou datta Boku wa jugyou kare ni tegami o kaita ni itta. kodomo I went to the class that was canceled last week. o sagashite iru. I am looking for the child who wrote him a letter. * Relative clauses sometimes use “no” instead of “ga” for the actor of the clause. This puts less emphasis on the actor as a whole. Relative clauses can also use general nouns, like “person” or “thing.” Common nouns to use include: koto¹ “thing (that)” mono “object (that)” hito² “person (who)” basho² toki² ryuu² “place (where”) “time (when)” “reason (why)” Kare no ringo o tabeta koto o shitte iru. Kare wa motometa mono o eta. Sono hon o kaita hito o aitai. He got what he asked for. I want to meet the person who wrote this book. Kinou tabeta basho ga suki desu. Toukyou ni itta toki o kangaeta. Eranda ryuu wa akiraka desu. I know (the thing) that he ate the apple. I like the place where I ate today. I thought about the time when I went to Tokyo. The reason why (I) chose (it) is obvious. ¹ In English, it is more natural to use noun clauses, which are covered in another section, but Japanese often prefers to use of true nouns over noun clauses. However, you cannot use “koto” for quotes or thoughts. ² These are not used when the object is unknown or vague. For subordinate interrogatives, see the Noun Clause section. * You must use the prenominal/attributive form before each of these words. This means using plain tense, and “na” instead of “da.” JAPANESE SENTENCES: QUESTIONS & ANSWERS JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM Question Markers Japanese does not use intonation or rearrange sentence structure to form a question. Instead, questions are clauses or sentences that are “marked” by particles like “ka” and “ne.” ka uncertainty prt. Kyou hirugohan o mou tabeta desu ka? ne tag question prt. Kare wa nihongo o yoku hanasu, ne? Did you already eat lunch today? He speaks Japanaese well, doesn’t he? Invitations In order to be polite, invitations (and even non-invitations) often use volitional or negative forms. volitional negative [o-form] | [i-form]+mashou [a-form]+nai | [i-form]+masen Ashita kaerou ka? Shall we return home tomorrow? Issho ni gohan o tabemasen ka? Won’t you eat with me? Nounal Interrogatives: Who? What? Where? To ask a question with a nounal interrogative, pop the word right where the answer would go. dare who Dare ga sono hon o kaita ka? nani what Nani o tabetai desu ka? doko where Kare ga doko ni iku hazu desu ka? dochira which Dochira o jushoushita ka? Who wrote this book? What do you want to eat? Where is he supposed to go? Which one did you win? Adverbial Interrogatives: When? Why? How? To ask an adverbial question, place the adverb anywhere before the verb. itsu/nanji when/what time naze/nande/doushite dou/donoyouni why how Kare wa itsu kaeru ka? When will he get back? Naze kanajo wa gakkou ni ikanakatta ka? Kore o donoyouni tsukau ka? Why didn’t she go to school? How do you use this? Answering Questions In Japanese, it is common to answer with the predicate, but not any of the objects, even with transitive verbs. Kare ni banana o watashita? Did (you) give him the banana? Hai, okotte iru desu. Yes, (he) is angry. Bobbu ni? Iie, watasanakatta. Kare wa okotte iru? To Bob? No, (I) didn’t give (him) (the banana). Is he angry? JAPANESE SENTENCES: CONJUNCTIVE SENTENCES JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM NOTES Coordinating Phrases ¹ In coordinating sentences, each clause holds equal weight. [clause A] and [clause B] [clause A, te-form] [clause B]¹ [clause A] but [clause B] [clause A] ke(re)do(mo)² [clause B]³ [clause A], so [clause B] [clause A] kara⁴ [clause B]³ ² ³ The last clause’s verb denotes tense and politeness for the entire sentence. Keredomo > keredo/kedomo > kedo in terms of politeness; verbs should reflect politeness used. Both clauses should be conjugated for tense and politeness. Subordinating Phrases (Adverbial Clauses) Some of the most common subordinate sentences, where “clause B” is the subordinate clause. [clause A] because [clause B] [clause B] kara/no de⁴ [clause A] [clause A] when [clause B] [clause B] aida ni⁴/uchi ni⁴ ⁵ [c. A] [clause A] while [clause B] [clause B, i-form] nagara [clause A] [clause A] after [clause B] [clause B, ta-form] ato ni⁴ [clause A] [clause A] before [clause B] 5 [clause B, u-form] mae ni⁴ [c. A] [clause A] since (time) [clause B] [clause A] until [clause B] 4 These forms either use the particle “no” or [clause B] toki ni⁴ [clause A] [clause A] while [clause B] [clause B, te-form] kara [c. A] * [clause B, u-form] made [clause A] [clause A], therefore [clause B] NOTES a noun followed by the particle “ni.” In these cases, clause B must use prenominal /attributive form (using “da”instead of “na”). Further, you must use plain tense. Use “nagara” if the subject of both clauses is the same. If clause B is negative, “uchi ni” means “[clause A] before [the positive of clause B].” As subordinate clauses, the first clause should not use polite tense. [clause A] no dakara⁴ [clause B] Other Conjunctive Phrases [clause] tame ni [clause] no ni [clause] kagiri [noun] ni tsuite [noun] niyotte [A] ka [B] “in order to” “despite” “as long as” “about” “by means of” “either, or” [A] de mo [B] Dakara [clause] Shikamo [clause] Soshite [clause] “even if” “therefore” “moreover” “and”/”then” yoriyoi yomu tame ni benkyoushite iru studying in order to read better Isogashii no ni kare wa made itte kimashita. Watashi wa ikite iru kagiri hataraku. I will work as long as I live. nihongo o hanasu koto ni tsuite no hon katsu koto niyotte uru Despite being busy, he still went. book about speaking Japanese obtain by winning Ie ni aruite ka koko de matte. Walk home or wait here. Shigoto wa taihen de mo tanoshii. Abunai! Dakara sugoku nayamu. Shikamo shiken de isogashii. Even if work is tough, it is fun. It’s dangerous! So, I’m really worried. Moreover, I’m busy with the exam. Soshite watashi wa asagohan o tabeta. And then I ate breakfast. JAPANESE SENTENCES: IRREALIS MOODS JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM Imperative While there is a grammatical imperative form (meireikei), it is considered rude and rarely used outside of TV. polite [i-form]+na(sai) O-yasumi nasai. plain [te-form]+(kudasai) Tasukete! Isoide kudasai! impolite [meireikei form] plain neg. [a-form]+naide impolite neg. [u-form]+na Te o agero! Good night (”rest”). Help! Please hurry! Put your hands up! Shimpai shinaide (kudasai). Kore o taberu na! (Please) Don’t worry. Don’t eat that! Potential Potential forms conjugate like any ichidan verb. For suru verbs, use the ichidan verb dekiru, “to be able.” godan [e-form]+ru ichidan/kuru [a-form]+rareru Kare wa zenzen piano o hikenai desu. Yoku neraremashita. He can’t play the piano at all. I was able to sleep well. Conditional As most of the conditional forms have general, interchangeable uses, below are merely their key divergences. The first clause is the condition, and thus uses the listed form, while the second clause is the result. provisional mood; focuses on necessary condition; not used to command, permit or suggest¹ -ba verbs neg. -tara [a-form]+nakereba i-adj neg. [stem]+kereba [stem]+ku nakereba nouns neg. [noun] de areba [noun] de nakereba subjunctive mood, perfective tense; focuses on result; can show intent, relative past, and correlation verbs neg. baai [ta-form]+ra [a-form]+nakattara i-adj neg. [stem]+kattara [stem]+ku nakattara nouns neg. [noun] dattara [noun] de nakattara hypothetical mood; noun meaning “case,” literally, “in the case that...” verbs to [e-form]+ba [u-form] baai i-adj [present] baai nouns [noun] na/no² baai implicative mood; used for expected, definite, habitual, correlative, or natural results; result is present tense verbs nara i-adj [present] to nouns [noun] da to assumptive mood; used when the condition is “known” or likely, but not when result is natural or obvious verbs moshi [u-form] to [u-form] nara i-adj [present] nara nouns [noun] nara for emphasis; must be used at the beginning of the clause, and in conjunction with another conditional form ¹ -ba form can be used for suggestions only when the condition is an i-adj, the verb is aru or iru, or the condition is negative. ² Use “na” for na-adjectives and general nouns, and “no” for no-adjectives. * These forms can be translated as “When B, A,” “If B, then A will occur,” or “If B, then A would occur” depending on context/tense. JAPANESE SENTENCES: NOUN CLAUSES JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM The Subordinator “that” 「と」 The particle “to” is used very similarly to our word “that” when used to turn a clause into a noun. Below are common verbs to use with “to,” but the translations are more literal than natural. to iu¹ to say Kanojo wa kare ga isogashii to itta. She said that he is busy. “to” denotes that “kare ga isogashii” is the object that was said to omou to think Hana wa kirei da to omowanai ka? Don’t you think the flowers are pretty? to kanjiru to feel Nihongo o hanasu koto wa tanoshii to kanjiru. to shinjiru to believe Jijitsu de aru to shinjimasu. to shiru to know to wakaru I believe that it is true. Watashi wa jibun ga muchi da to shitte iru. to realize I feel that speaking Japanese is fun. Mita totanni sugi kare da to watakatta. I know that I am ignorant. The moment I saw (him), I knew that it is him. ¹ “to iu” is often abbreviated to “tte,” which is also commonly used to emphasize words, similar to the expression, “[...], you say?” * You must use the predicate/terminal form before the particle “to.” This means using “da” instead of “na.” * Use the o を particle when dealing with direct objects or relative clauses, and not noun clauses, ex. ”I know the reason...”. Subordinate Interrogative Clauses 「か」 The “ka” particle is not just used to ask questions, but shows that a clause is unknown or uncertain, even within a declarative sentence. If the noun clause starts with a “wh” word or “if,” you should use “ka” instead of “to.” Doko ni iru ka shitte iru. I know where (he) is. Itsu iku beki ka shirinai. I don’t know when (I) should go. Watashi wa kare ga oyogeru ka mitakatta. I wanted to see if he could swim. Raishuu karera wa ikitai ka to omoimasu. (I) think that they want to go next week (but I am not sure). * You must use the predicate/terminal form before the particle “ka.” This means using “da” instead of “na.” Nominalized Clauses 「の」 You should already know that the nominalization particle “no” turns clauses into nouns, but it can be used with “da/desu” to nominalize entire clauses. This essentially turns actions into statements, and is identical to our use of noun clauses and the verb “to be.” For example: “Here is where [I put my watch]” vs. “I put my watch here.” This is often used to provide explanation, but it is also makes questions sound more polite. no/n (da) Ashita watashi wa ikitakunai no ja nai. no/n (desu) Mou kirei na² no desu. no/n (desu) (ka) Dou kore wa yatte mitsuketa no desu ka? no/n de Osokatta n de, sensei ga okotte ita. It’s not that I don’t want to go tomorrow. It is that it is already clean.³ How is it that you found this? It is that I was late, and the teacher was mad.³ ² You must use the prenominal/attributive form of a verb before the particle “no.” This means using plain form, and “na” instead of “da” ³ Because the nominalization often implies explanation, this structure is usually translated as “because.” So the more natural translations would be “Because it is already clean.” and “The teacher was mad because I was late.” * Note that in casual speech, “no” is often abbreviated to “n” and “da/desu” and/or “ka” may be left out. JAPANESE EXPRESSIONS: EXPANDING ON QUALITIES JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM Observations & Similes - “like” 「よう」 The noun “you,” means something like “form.” As a noun, you must use prenominal/attributive form before it. you da observation ¹ Karera wa konai you da. you na adjectival Kuiiru you na manazashi de jitto mita. you ni adverbial Kare wa watashi o minakatta you ni furumatta. no you ni simile Chou no you ni tobitai. Seems like they aren’t coming tonight. (I) watched with a devouring gaze. He acted like he didn’t see me! I want to fly like a butterfly. ¹ This is not used when something literally has a certain appearance. For example, to say “looks sad,” use “kanashiku mieru.” Comparisons - “-er, than” 「より・ほう」 The case marker “yori” and the noun “hou” are commonly used to compare the quality of nouns or clauses against each other. “hou” represents the side of the subject, while “yori” represents the “challenger.” Ikou yori iu hou ga yasashii. Easier said than done. (”Compared to doing, saying is easy.”) Watashi wa suugaku yori sono hou ga rikai shiyasui desu. That’s easier for me to understand than math. Both “yori” or “hou” may be left out. Also, “yori” can be used without a noun to give a general meaning. Hayaku okiru hou ga zutto ii. Mizu yori karui mono wa uku. You really should wake up early. (”It is much better to wake up early.”) Anything lighter than water floats. (“A thing that is lighter than water floats.”) Yuki wa Taro yori mo hayaku hashiru. Yuki runs faster than even Taro too. Watashi wa itsu ka yori tsuyoku naru. I will get stronger some day. Degree - “enough/so” 「ほど」 When you want to elaborate the extent or degree of a quality, you can use the adverbial particle, “hodo.” Note how the positivity of the clauses reflects in the naturalized English translation. [+] hodo [+] ~“enough” Tenjou ni tegatodoku hodo segatakai. He’s tall enough to reach the ceiling. [+] hodo [-] ~“not enough” Tenjou ni tegatodoku hodo segatakanatta. [-] hodo [+] ~“so” Nikugan dewa mienai hodo chiisai. [-] hodo [-] ~“not so” Sore o shiranai hodo baka de wa nai. He’s not tall enough to reach the ceiling. It is so small that you cannot see it with the naked eye. He’s not so stupid that he doesn’t know that. “too” 「過ぎる」 Use the continuative form of verbs and adj. verbs followed by the verb “sugiru” to say something is “too much.” Kare wa segatakai sugite, kono heya de wa massugu ni tatenai. He is too tall, he can’t stand up straight in this room.
