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U
CARIBBEAnTROPICALSTORMS
Ecological Implications
for Pre-Hispanic
and Contemporary
Maya Subsistence
on the Yucatan Peninsula
HermanW.Konrad
ABSTRACT
The ecological stress factor of hurricanes is examined as a
dimensionofpre-HispanicMayaadaptationtoatropicalforest
habitat in the Yucatan peninsula. Pre-Hispanic, colonial and
contemporarytextsaswellasclimaticdatafromtheCaribbean
regionsupportthethesisthatthehurricanewasanintegralfeature
ofthepre-HispanicMayacosmologyandecologicalparadigm.The
authorarguesthatdestructionofforestsbytropicalstormsand
subsequentsuccessioncyclesmimicnotonlyswidden—"slashand-burn"— agriculture, but also slower, natural succession
cycles. With varying degrees of success, flora and fauna adapt
toperiodic,radicalecosystemdisruptioninthemostfrequently
hard-hitareas.Whilenotignoringmorewidely-discussedissues
surrounding the longevity and decline of pre-Hispanic Maya
civilization, such as political development, settlement patterns,
migration,demographicstability,warfareandtrade,theauthor
suggests that effective adaptation to the ecological effects of
tropical storms helped determine the success of pre-Hispanic
Mayasubsistencestrategies.
número 224
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Herman W. Konrad.university
ofCalgary.
Email:[email protected]
Primer trimestre de 2003
•
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HermanW.Konrad
RESuMEn
Losefectosecológicoscausadosporloshuracanesseanalizanenelcontextode
laadaptacióndelosmayasprehispánicosalaselvadelapenínsuladeYucatán.
Textos prehispánicos, coloniales y contemporáneos, así como información
climáticasobreelCaribeengeneral,apoyanlahipótesisdequeelhuracánera
unelementocentralenlacosmovisiónyelparadigmaecológicoprehispánico.El
autorargumentaqueladestruccióndelaselvacausadaportormentastropicales,
ylosciclosdesucesiónquesiguen,seasemejannosóloalaagriculturaderoza,
odetumba-roza-quema,sinotambiénalosciclosdesucesiónnaturales,que
sonmáslentosypredecibles.Condistintosnivelesdefortuna,laflorayfauna
delaregiónseadaptanalosefectosradicalesecosistémicosenlaspartesmás
frecuentementeafectadas.Mientrasquelasmásdiscutidascausasdeldeclive
delacivilizaciónmayaprehispánicaserefierenafactorespolíticos,patrones
demográficos,guerraycomercio,esteautorsugierequelaadaptaciónefectivaa
losefectosecológicosdelastormentastropicalesrepercutióeneléxitoofracaso
delasestrategiasdesubsistenciaenestaregión.
SantaClara.
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Revista de la Universidad aUtónoma de YUcatán
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EcologicalImplicationsforPre-HispanicandContemporaryMayaSubsistenceontheYucatanPeninsula
InTRODuCTIOn
The mystery of how pre-Hispanic
Mayaconstructedandmaintainedmonumentalarchitecture,greatcities,and
asophisticatedcivilizationinatropical
foresthabitathaspuzzledscholarssinceBernalDiazandtheSpaniards'first
descriptionsofMayacitiesintheearly
16thcentury.WhereasSpanishclerics,
suchasBishopLanda,wereinclinedto
seeinMayacivilizationadivineplan
somehow corrupted by evil forces,
modemresearchershavemadegreat
stridesinprobingMayascience,social
organization, and economic activity
Butasnewdiscoverieshelptoanswer
oldquestions,theyraisenewones,as
well.RecentresearchaboutSouthern
Lowland Maya cities such as Calakmul,nakbéandElMirador,forexample,suggeststhatcurrentchronologies
identifying Formative, Classic and
Postclassicperiodizationmaynolongerbeaccurate(Folan,1990;Hansen,
1991).Thediscoveryofmonumental
architectureandassociatedlarge-scale
populationssuggeststhattropicalforestadaptationbytheMayawasmore
successful,andextendedoverlonger
timeperiods,thanpreviouslythought
(Hansen, 1991). Such archaeological
evidence,however,isinsufficientfor
a reconstruction of past conditions,
forthenaturalhabitathasundergone
manytransformationsandtheremainingphysicalevidenceislargelymineral—stoneandceramic—ratherthan
the vegetable and animal materials
whichmightseveralMayameansof
subsistence.Thispapersetsaside,for
themoment,thequestionofarchaeological remains to examine tropical
stormsasonefactorofecologicalstress
on the tropical forest habitat. using
contemporary and historiographic
datafromboththeYucatanpeninsula
andtheCaribbeanareaasawhole,it
suggests an additional dimension to
reconstructionsofpre-HispanicMaya
subsistencestrategies.Myobjectiveis
nottoprovidedefinitiveanswers,but
rathertobeginframinganimportant
question which has received inadequateconsideration.
Despiteagreatdealofattentionto
subsistence strategies, the question
of ecological paradigms employed
by the Maya has been for the most
partbypassedbyrecentpublications
(Adams,1977;AndrewsandSabloff,
1986;Ashmore,1981;ChaseandRice,
1985; Culbert, 1973; De Montmollin,
1985; Flannery; 1982; Friedel and
Sabloff,1984;Hammond,1977;HammondandWilley,1979;Harrisonand
Turner,1978;Turner,1983;Turnerand
Harrison,1983;WilleyandMathews,
1985).Theearlierworksponsoredby
theCarnegieInstitutionofWashington (CIW) and headed by Sylvanus
Morley focused primarily on maize
agriculture. It has been greatly expandedbycurrentresearchshowing
thatavarietyofstrategieswereinvolved, including raised field intensive
agriculture, homegarden plots, root
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HermanW.Konrad
and/or tree farming, aquaculture,
silviculture (harvesting of forest products),andswidden,orslash-and-bum
agriculture.Modemscholars,however,
have failed to come to any consensus
regarding actual productivity, habitat
carryingcapacity,ordemography.Research spearheaded byArturo Gómez
Pompaemphasizingsilvicultureoptions
provideskeyinsights.Incontrasttoarchaeologicalevidencebasedlargelyon
mineralremains,Pompa'sworkfocuses
onthefloraoftheregionaltropicalforest
habitatwhicheitherdirectlyorindirectly
becamethebasisforMayasubsistence.
Hissummaryofsilviculturetechniques
provides a useful basis for identifying
thebasicecologicalparadigmemployed
bypre-HispanicMaya(1987,6).Theconclusionofthispaperwillrefertothese
silviculturetechniques,amongothers,as
elementsthathelpedtoalleviatetheecologicalstresscausedbytropicalstorms.
Climatologists refer to tropical
stormsas"seasonaltropicaldisturbances",weatherpatternswhichnormally
originateovertheAtlanticOceanand
frequentlyaffecttheYucatanpeninsula.Themaximumexpressionofsuch
storms is the hurricane, an intense
systemwithcounter-clockwisewinds
ofatleast118.5kilometresperhour.
Winds may reach up to 300 kilometersperhour,andspeedsof150-240
kilometersperhourarecommonfor
hurricanes striking coastlines. Hurricanes also bring high water levels
(storm surges), exceptionally heavy
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rainfall, and after the following dry
season, extensive forest fires.As recently demonstrated by Hurricane
Gilbert(September1988)andthe1995
hurricanes,theseaccom-panyingphenomenahaveasignificant,destructive
impactonhabitat.ThisiswhatIrefer
toastheecologicalstressfactor.
Formal classification of tropical
stormsisbasedonwindspeed.Atropicaldepression(asystemwithwindsof
lessthan62.9kilometersperhour)may
escalate into a tropical storm (speeds
between62.9and118.5kilometersper
hour),orreachhurricaneforce(greater
than118.5kilometersperhour).Hurricanesarenowfurtherclassifiedinterms
ofafive-scalesystem,referringtowind
intensityanddestructivepotential.HurricaneGilbertwasaCategory5storm.
Bothtropicalstormsandhurricanescan
have significant ecological impact. In
thispaper,Iwillnotalwaysdistinguish
between them for the period prior to
1899, however, as insufficient data on
particularstormsandstandardizationof
classificationsystemshadnotyetbeen
establishedH(neumannet al.,1985,5).
Theimpactofrecenttropicalstorms
can be quite accurately measured.A
disproportionateamountofthiswork
hasbeendoneinareaswheretheu.S.
nationalOceanicandAtmosphereAdministration(nOAA)hasmajorreportingresponsibility.Therefore,whilea
greatdealofinformationisavailable
ontropicalstormsthathaveaffected
themainlandoroffshoreu.S.A.,there
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ismuchlessdataaboutstormsaffectingMexico.SincetheCaribbeancoasts
ofMexicohaveuntilonlyrecentlyhad
major populations reporting on such
phenomena,informationhereiseven
morescattered.Becausethesestorms
alsoaffecttheCaribbeanIslands,one
musttakethisareaasawholeinorder
togetamorecomprehensivepicture
offrequenciesandimpactinthepost
conquestperiod.
THEHISTORICALRECORD
Pre-HispanicrecordsleftbytheMaya
providecluesbutfewspecificdetails
ontropicalstormsaffectingtheYucatan peninsula.Aztec myth identifies
the hurricane as the origin of one of
four worlds that were created and
destroyed prior to the one existing
at the time of Spanish conquest.According to the Maya Popul Vuh, the
secondworldwasdestroyedbyrains
andfloods.AndasThompsonhasindicated,mostMayaareashavemyths
identifyinggreatstormsasdestroyers
of past epochs (1957,399-417). While
flooddestructioniscommonincreationaccountsworldwide,thereismore
concreteevidencefromMayasources
whichsuggeststhattherewasindeed
large-scale destruction caused by
stormsandflooding.Lacombe(1988)
argues that the numerous referencestoraingodsintheMayacodices
(Dresden, Madrid, Paris)referprimarily
to hurricanes. Taking his argument
one step further, he sees references
toclimaticcyclesinthesesourcesas
convincing evidence that the Maya
notonlyrecordedtropicalstorms,but
hadalsodevisedamethodofpredictingfuturestorms.Inviewofwhatis
presentlyknownaboutthefrequency
ofhurricanes,theLacombehypothesislackscredibility;althoughitdoes
reinforce the more tenable position
thattheancientMayawereseriously
affectedbyhurricanesandattempted
torecordthem.
Both conquest-period European
andpost-conquestMayawritingssuch
astheChilam BalamandtheRitual of
the BacabsconfirmspecificMayarecordingoftropicalstorms.Landa(1986,
19)reportsinformationhegotdirectly
fromtheMayaabout"ahurricaneof
thefourwinds",whichstrucktheYucatanpeninsulain1464,asfollows:
One night a wind came that
grewintoagreathurricanethat
overthrew all large trees, destroying tall houses and every
sortofgame…Thepeoplewere
crippledbytheblowsfromthe
wood… and so the land lost
the name it formerly bore, the
land of deer and turkeys, and
remainedtreeless,sothattoday
allthoseyoungtreeswhichhave
grownupintheirplacehavethe
sameheight,andlookingdown
from higher points it appears
thatthiswholepartoftheforest
hasbeencuttothesameheight.
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HermanW.Konrad
Although we do not know which
part of the peninsula was involved,
the impact described conforms significantlytowhatiscurrentlyknown
aboutamaximumhurricaneforce.In
theLandaaccountitbecameahistorical reference point, a practice also
common in the Maya Chilam Balam,
which use famine, war and drought
to mark historical periods. Information aboutactualstormsstriking the
Yucatanpeninsuladuringthecolonial
era,however,isunevenandsporadic.
FortheCaribbeanareaasawhole
thecolonialrecordismuchbetter.Columbuslearnedabouttropicalstorms
on his second voyage (1493-1495),
andhisfirstsettlementofIsabellawas
struckinJuneof1494andOctoberof
1495(Millas,1968,xii-xiii).Fernandez
deOviedoyValdésdescribestwohurricanesthatstrucktheislandofHispaniolaonAugust3rd,1508andJuly
29th,1509withparticularlyimpressive
impact on tropical forests (1944, I,
300-305).Healsoreferstohighwater
levels, great rains, high seas and the
destructionofships,buildings,crops
andanimals(1944,I,300-304).
The Caribbean history of tropical
storms has received considerable attentionfromtwoCubanwriters:José
CarlosMillas(1968),whoprovidesa
chronologyofhurricanesfrom1492till
1800,andFernandoOrtiz(1947),who
examinesthemythologyandsymbolismofhurricanes.Ortiz'sanalysisof
CaribbeanandMesoamericanicono-
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graphyledhimtotheconclusionthat
theGodofStorms,orHuracán,whose
indigenous names are Guabancex,
Maboya, and Jurakan, was the most
important deity in the pre-Hispanic
CaribbeanIslands.Hefurtherargues
that iconography showing circular
and cross-like forms can be related
to tropical storm deities throughout
Mesoamerica.
Millas,whowasdirectorofCuba's
nationalObservatoryofMeteorology
formanyyears,statesthat"thereisno
knowncycleforseverehurricanesin
anyoneregion",althoughinCuba,for
example,itwasthoughtthateveryfiftyyearsaveryseverehurricanewould
strike the island (1968, xvii). For the
western Caribbean Millas identified
45hurricanesforthe16thcentury,64
forthe17thcentury,and136forthe
18thcentury(7-23).
AlisonReading'srecentworkcoveringfrom1500tothepresentlocates
the greatest number of hurricanes
between1871andthe1980's,although,
she adds, this may be "entirely a
functionoftheimprovingqualityof
data"(1990,372).Herdataforearlier
centuriesindicateslowlevelsofhurricaneactivityintheYucatanpeninsula
inthe1500to1800period,increased
activityinthexIxcentury,andextensiveactivityinthe20thcentury(373).
According to her data the areas of
mostfrequentimpactduringthecolonialperiodweretheLesserAntilles,
Cuba and Jamaica, Hispaniola and
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Puerto Rico. Yet for the more recent
period the Yucatán-Belize area has
as high frequency rates as the other
Caribbean islands. It is important to
notethattheCaribbeanIslandswere
continually occupied by Europeans,
whiletheeasternYucatanpeninsula
did not have a European, colonial
populationreportingorrecordingtropicalstorms.Datafrom1871onward,
however,isavailableinequalmeasure
forallareas.
Tropicalstorms,1871-1990
Annual charts for the 1871-1990 periodidentifystorm-tracklocationand
intensity.Thisallowsforamoresystematicanalysisofthelast120years
oftropicalstormactivityaffectingthe
Yucatan peninsula. When compared
withCubaandJamaica,thepeninsula
wasonlyslightly]affectedbystorms
(106)thanCuba(120),andconsiderablymorethanJamaica(40).
Identifyingareascrossedbystorm
tracksoverthe120yearpenasshown
by the annual northAtlantic HurricaneTrackingCh~(nAHTC),wecan
constructasynchronicviewofpeninsularimpThisisillustratedbelowin
Map no.1, showing the number of
cyclonicdisturbancesaffectingspecificareasmarkedonthemap.Theto
within the circles indicate totals for
each area, showing greatest impact
along the eastern coasts and in the
north.Thesepatternshavethenbeen
divided into zones which reflect the
directionalnatureofpassstormsand
their concentrations (Map no. 2).
Mostofthestormsapproachthepeninsula~fromthesoutheast,crossing
in a northwesterly direction, while
some,likeGilbert,crossinanalmost
east-v~ direction. Since landfall (the
moment when the hurricane strikes
la eliminates the warm ocean water,
or energy source of a cyclone, there
is a significant reduction of velocity
andintensitywhenstormscrossland.
WhenenteringtheYucatanpeninsula,
HurricaneGilbert,example,had300320kilometer-per-hourwinds,which
hadfallentoabout155kilometersper
hourbythetimeitleftthepeninsula
entered the Gulf of Mexico (n0AA
data).Suchenergylossreduceshurricanestotropicalstorms.SouthofBelizeCity,majorstorms01diequickly
after encountering the mountainous
terraininthatportionofthepeninsula.
Mosttropical-storm-intensitycyclones
becometropicaldepressions(i.e.wind
velocity of less than 62.9 kilometers
perhour)whencrossingthepeninsula
andarenolongerconsideredsignificantdestructivefactors.Suchvelocity
reductionisclearlyshowninMapno.
1,andisparticularlyrelevantforthe
southernportionofthepeninsula.
Therearetwogeneralpatternsrelatedtodistributionandfrequency:one
showingdecreasingfrequenciesalong
an east-west axis and two showing
decreasingfrequenciesalonganorthsouthaxis.Theimpactzonesshownin
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HermanW.Konrad
Map.no.1
Peninsular cyclonic impact, 1871-1990
(numberofimpactsinspecificareas)
RMC,1(1996),98-134
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Mapno.2provideapeninsularoverviewofa120-yearperiod,indicating
differences in frequency throughout
thepeninsula.
Inadditiontosynchronicdifferences
inoccurrence,distributionandfrequency;considerablediachronicfluctuation
has been noted for cyclonic activity
throughouttheCaribbeanareaasawhole(Reading1990)aswellasfornorth
Americatropicalcyclones(nOAA).
CyclonefrequencyintheCaribbean
increased from the 1870's up to the
firstdecadeofthe20thcentury~and
decreased between 1910 and 1930.
This was followed by a dramatic
increase, in the 1930's and 1940's, a
subsequent decrease in the 1960's
and 1970's, and a slight increase in
the1980's(Reading,1990).Whenonly
storms reaching hurricane velocity
aretakenintoconsideration,thereis
arelativelyconstantnumberofabout
40hurricanesperdecade(369).Ifwe
donotisolatehurricanesfromtropical
storms, the Caribbean pattern holds
trueintheYucatanpeninsulaaswell.
Theeasternandnorthernareasofthe
peninsulaaremorefrequentlyhitby
tropicalstorms,adia–chronicpattern
alsoconsistentwiththe120-yearsynchronicoverview.
Seasonal occurrence is another
important variable. In recent times
theofficialhurricaneseasonbeginsin
Juneandterminatesattheendofnovember(n0AA),coincidingwiththe
growthandmaturationperiodofmost
subsistencecrops.Thisseasonabilityis
directlyrelatedtooceanwatertemperatures,thenattheirannualwarmest,
allowing weather systems crossing
theAtlantic to develop into tropical
storms. And although such storms
mayoccurasearlyasJuneandJuly,
andaslateasnovember,moststrike
in August, September and October
(77.04%). Cyclonic storms are most
likelytostriketheYucatanpeninsula
inSeptember(roughly40percent).
The impact of cyclones is further
influencedbyshort-termfrequencyfactors.Insomeyearstherearenoneandin
otherstheremaybemany.Accordingto
neumannetal.(1989),inalmosthalfthe
yearsbetween1871and1989,therewas
nocyclonicimpact.Ontheotherhand,
92 of the 106 registered cyclones took
placein63ofthesesame118years.
Storm data from the recent past
indicatesthatthegeographiclocation
and size of the Yucatan peninsula
make it perhaps the greatest continental mainland area of cyclonic
impact in the Western Hemisphere.
Andalthoughfromtheearlycolonial
reportsandMayadocumentswehave
scatteredreferencesthatsimilarphenomenaoccurredinthepre-Hispanic
epoch, we do not have confirmed,
substantiveevidencedirectlyapplicableto,forexample,theClassicMaya
period. Indirect evidence, however,
does provide useful directions for
further investigation. These are directlyrelatedtoclimaticfactors,such
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HermanW.Konrad
Map.no.2
Peninsular cyclonic impact, 1871-1990
Zone
no.ofimpacts
Frecuaryclassification
I
25plus
Extreme
II
20-24
Verysignificant
III
15-19
Significant
IV
10-14
Moderable
V
5-9
Rare
VI
1-4
Insignificant
RMC,1(1996),98-130
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as warmth of oceans and long-term
temperaturefluctuations.Recentglobal warming trends associated with
the'greenhouseeffect'havebeenused
—after Hurricane Gilbert, for example—topredictincreasingnumbersof
Category5hurricanesifthiswarming
trendcontinues.AsReadingindicates,
"sea-surfacetemperatureisoneofthe
cardinal factors controlling cyclone
development"(1990,375).AndWalsh
(1977),takingashisreferencethe16501975 period, has noted a correlation
betweenincreasedcyclonefrequency
and mean sea-surface temperatures
overtheAtlantic.Reading(375)alsorelatesfrequencytotropicallakelevels,
glacialsurgesandretreats,andElniño
phenomena.Long-termweatherpatternsthusbecomeanimportantclue
forreconstructingcyclonicactivityin
theFormative,ClassicandPostclassic
Maya eras. In view of the recently
reported evidence mentioned at the
beginning of this paper, this would
be the period from roughly 1800 BC
until 1500 AD, encompassing three
millennia.
According to climatic evidence,
high cyclone frequency would fall
inperiodsofwarmerweather.Folan
(1985) and collaborators (Folan et.
al., 1982; 1983; 1984) have suggested
thatthegreatestMayaexpansionand
developmentoccurredduringperiods
characterized by humid/cool conditions, or periods of glacial surges,
while long-term warm/dry periods
related to glacial retreat correspond
to periods of Maya disruption and
contraction. Cyclone activity would
havein-creasedpreciselyduringthese
periodsofwarmertemperatures.
Although far from definitive, the
available data on cyclone activity
affecting the Yucatan peninsula in
post-colonial and recent times does
allow for suggestive projections for
earlier periods. Recent data shows
clearpatternsoffrequency,seasonability,andimpactzones,andsuggests
thatsimilarpatternsoccurredinpreHispanic periods. A more detailed
analysis of the ecological impact of
storms on a tropical forest habitat
might help interpret what these
projections imply in reinterpreting
pre-HispanicMayaadaptationtothe
tropicalforesthabitat.
THEECOLOGICALIMPACT
OFTROPICALSTORMS
Contemporary Maya in eastern Yucatanhavethefollowingexplanation
ofthehurricane(Konrad,1985,321):
[A]hurricaneisactuallyabattle
between good and evil chacs
or raingods. The offshore or
approaching weather systems
represents the evil chac (the
destroyer ) with malevolent
intentions on man and his environment, who is confronted
bythegoodchac(theprotector)
with benevolent intentions on
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HermanW.Konrad
manandhisenvironment.The
physical manifestations of the
hurricane,particularlythehigh
velocitywinds,areby-products
(thesoundandfury)ofatitanic
cosmicbattlebetweentheforces
of good and evil. The intense
rains are the by-product of the
energy expended, the 'sweat
ofthegods'asitwere,andthe
relativedegreesofhavoc(storm
surge,floods;destructionofsettlements,crops,floraandfauna)
becomeanindicationoftheevil
chac's success while positive
aspects(survivalofnaturaland
humanenvironments,increased
rainfallinareasperipheraltothe
center of storm activities) are
associated with the good chac.
And post-hurricane dry spells
or seasons occur because the
goodchac,havingexpendedso
muchforceincelestialcombat,
mayrequirealengthyperiodof
recuperation.
Thisseeminglymythicversiondoes
representaratherfactualdescription
ofrealimpactphenomena,whichcan
bedevastatingatpointofimpact,yet
providecrop-savingrainsatconsiderabledistancesfromthestormcenter,
ifthestormoccursduringashort-term
dryspell.TheMayaarealsotechnically correct in locating the activity in
thesky,forthisiswhere,ataltitudes
of up to 4000 meters, the main force
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ofsuchstormsisexpended.Duringa
24-hourperiod,aCategory4hurricane
expendsenergyequivalenttotheheat
energy released from 400 twentymegatonhydrogenbombs(Jennings,
1970,59). The impact felt at ground
levelisonlyaminimalfractionofthe
storm'sforce.
Onehurricaneby-productnotmentionedinthecitedMayaexplanation
isforestfires.Peninsularexperiencein
thiscenturydemonstratesthatmajor
hurricanesareinvariablyfollowed,in
subsequentdryseasons,bylarge-scale
forestfiresinareasadjacenttocoastal
pointsofimpact.IntheJulyfollowing
HurricaneGilbert(1988),roughly160
000 hectares of forest were burned
despite all efforts to contain and extinguishfires.
Ecological impact can be divided
intofourmaincategories:
1) stormsurgedamagealongcoastlines,
2) wind destruction, affecting flora,
faunaandhumansettlements,
3) highwaterlevelsandfloodingactivityresultingfromextremerainfall,
whichhasbeenrecordedashighas
107cmina24-hourperiod(Hebert,
1980)and
4) post-hurricane forest fires. The
following sections of the paper
present a more comprehensive
pictureofecologicalimpactbased
on selected storms affecting the
peninsulainthepastcentury.
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1916storms
Twohurricanesstruckthepeninsula's
eastcoastin1916,thefirstonSeptember1,atPayoObispo(nowChetumal)
and the second, on October 15, at
whatwasthentheimportantportof
Vigía Chico. The impact of the first
hurricane'sstormsurgewasdescribed
laterbyGann(1924,22-23)asfollows:
the"hurricaneandtidalwavesimply
wiped out houses and shipping and
tore great gullies through the site
occupied by the town [xcalac]". His
descriptionofthesecondwasthatit
"destroyedmostoftheeastcoast[of
thepeninsula]settlements.VigíaChico,onceaflourishingport,[was]now
adepressingdumpofruinedhouses,
wharfandrollingstock"(27).Mérida
newspapersreportedseriousdamage
toforestsandbuildings,aparalysisof
forestry activities (chide collection),
and destruction of the area between
Bacalar and Santa Cruz, now Felipe
Carrillo Puerto (Voz de la Revolución,
1916/11/08).TheMexicanFederalGovernmenthadonly1occupiedthispart
ofthepeninsulain1901andhadmade
great infrastructural investments
alongthecoaststostimulateandimplement ambitious forestry projects.
Mostofthat15-yearinvestmentwas
wiped out by the 1916 storms. Forestry was paralyzed, and the Vigía
Chicoandxcalacthereafterremained
insignificant, commercial activities
movingtoalternativelocationsinthe
ensuingyears.
Early1930storms
The 1930's were particularly active
stormyears.Onehurricaneandthree
tropicalstormscrossedthepeninsula
in1931,twotropicalstormsin1932,
andin1933twohurricanesandthree
tropicalstormshitthepeninsula—a
total of three hurricanes and eight
tropicalstormsinathree-yearperiod.
Virtually all areas of the peninsula
wereaffected,andtherewereadditionalstormsin1934and1936.Archaeologists with the Carnegie research
teams working out of the Chichén
Itzásitegavegraphicreportsonforest
firesafterthe1937fieldworkseason.
Heretheydescribetheregionbetween
Dzitnup,justwestofValladolid,and
Cobá— though similar conditions
werereportedontheCaribbeancoast:
For the last six years, possibly
longer,annualdry-seasonfires
have swept through... In some
sections, not a living plant remainedfromtheformerforest,
only fallen trees and standing
skeletons. not only has the
forest been killed, but the destructionofthehumusandroots
byfirehasresultedincomplete
erosionofthethinmantleofsoil
into underground crevices to
leavebarrenstretchesofwhite
pittedlimestone[CIWYearbook,
no.27,938,146-147].
One 1931 storm passed directly
over Belize City on September 10,
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causinglarge-scaledestruction.Atimpactwindspeed was 211.2 kilometers
per hour; its storm surge destroyed a
largepartofthetownandsweptdebris
and boats in the Belize River mouth
ashore.Thestormtookfifteenhundred
lives, seriously damaged or destroyed
themajorityofthesettlements'wooden
buildings,andcauseddrasticdeclinein
mahoganyandcedarextraction.Chicle
productiondropped90%intheseason
followingthehurricane(WnRC,Record
Group59,Fileno.248).
1933stormshadaverymixedimpact.ThetropicalstormofMay14-19
skirtedtheentirenorthernperimeter
ofthepeninsula.Comingasitdidat
the beginning of the rainy season, it
would have provided desired moisture for recently-planted crops and
those planted immediately after the
storm. The July 13-19 storm, which
passedonaeast-westdirectionacross
thepeninsula,wouldhaveinundated
youngplants,butinareaslessaffected,
would have had a beneficial effects.
Well-advanced maize crops would
havealsobenefitedfromtheSeptember10-15storm.Buttheheavyrains
produced by this storm, which was
quicklyfollowedbythehurricaneof
September.16-24,wouldhavealready
softened rooted plants, assisting the
followinghurricanetoflattenanddestroymostoftheyear'smaize.Whatthe
1933stormsillustrateisthatpositive
ornegativeeffectsdependonwhere
andwhenthehurricanehits,andon
112
•
thestatusofgroundcrops.Toframe
thisinMayainterpretativeidiom,the
evilchac'ssuccesses,inlateSeptember,
would have largely wiped out the
goodchac'searliersuccesses.
1955storms
The two hurricanes crossing the peninsulainSeptemberof1955virtually
destroyed Chetumal, then a town
of5000inhabitants.Itwasfromthe
ruins of the town that the modern
city of Chetumal was reconstructed.
In the Belize town of Corozal (2 000
inhabitants) 90% of the homes were
destroyed.Thefirst,HurricaneHilda
(September10-19),crossedthepeninsulaonaslightlynorth-of-westtrajectory,enteringlandSeptember16atthe
BayofAscenciónandexitingroughly
atthemid-pointbetweenCelestúnand
Sisal.Twelvedayslater,onSeptember
21,HurricaneJanetbegancrossingthe
peninsulaonasimilartrajectoryenteringattheBayofChetumalSeptember
28andexitingjustsouthofChampotón,CampecheonSeptember29.Both
weremajorstorms,HildaCategory2
andJanetCategory4.
Extensive newspaper accounts
allowforareconstructionofthescope
and intensity of these storms, both
on urban and rural areas. Hilda had
a rather narrow band of Category 2
hurricane-intensitywindwithafortykilometer diameter and Category 1
wind velocities over a much wider
radius. Janet, on the other hand, re-
U
presentedaCategory4stormwitha
130-kilometerdiameterandCategory
1hurricane-intensitygustsextending
as far as 400 kilometers north and
160 kilometers south of the eye of
thestorm.Thus,thetwostormswere
felt in varying degrees of intensity
acrossvirtuallytheentirepeninsula.
Although both storms decreased in
intensitywhilecrossingthepeninsula,
Hilda produced crop losses of up to
95% as far as 200 kilometers inland
nearinthetownofTeabo,80%losses
upto250kilometersinland,and5060% losses on the eastern portion of
thepeninsula.Janethadanevenmore
violentimpactonareasfurthersouth
andinareasalreadyaffectedbyHilda.
Property damage in the narrow
pathofHildawasintensive.Itleftno
buildingstandinginVigíaChicoand
theBayofAscenciónwas"fullofgreat
treetrunks,deadbirds,coconutpalms
andmangrovesandrefuseofallkinds,
makingnavigationdifficult";itsstorm
surgewasfourmetershighandwaters
reachedfourkilometersinland.Felipe
CarrilloPuertolosthousesandtrees,
andcommunicationsystemswereinterrupted.Regionalforestryworkers
weretrapped,unabletoreturntosettlementsafterthemassivedestruction
totheforestandtheconsequentblockageofroadsandtrails.InPetobuildingsweredamagedandlargetrees
uprooted;Yaxcabálostagreatnumber
ofhouses,stonewallsandtrees,andin
thetownofMuna,houses,windmills,
andtreesweredestroyed(Diario de Yucatan,September18).Alongthenorth
coastatTelchacPuertothehurricane
hitcoconutplantationshard,andon
theeastcoasttownofSisal,didsignificantdamagetohouses,treesandboats.
Thedetailedinventoriesofdestruction
from some forty different locations
presentpictureofextremecrop,fruit
tree,andarchitecturaldamage.Lossof
life,however,wasrestrictedtotheeast
coastwithareported11deathsatVigía
Chicoandafewinlandcasualties.
Janet took many more lives than
Hilda.QuintanaRoohadanestimated
500deaths,Belize16,andCampeche
also reported several deaths. In the
week following Janet's passage the
majorityofChetumal'ssurvivinginhabitantswereevacuatedtoMérida.
WhileweknowthatJanetpasseddirectlyoverthemostheavilyforested
states,QuintanaRooandCampeche,
andleftabroadpathofuprootedor
denudedtrees,norealisticinformation
regarding impact on forest fauna is
availableforthisstorm.
1988storms
The most significant storm in 1988
wastheCategory5HurricaneGilbert,
whose winds officially reached 300
kilometersperhour.ForthisstormI
haveusednOAAdata,mediareports
and interviews as well as personal
surveys conducted along the east
coastofQuintanaRoo,theinteriorof
Yucatanandalongitsnortherncoast.
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HermanW.Konrad
Gilbertpassedrelativelyclosetothe
peninsula's northern extremity over
whatisperhapsitsleast-forestedarea.
Iwillthereforediscussimpactonthe
coastalandinteriorpeninsula.
The nOAA rates Gilbert the most
intensestormofthecentury,making
their calculations according to wind
velocity and a record low, air pressurereadingforAtlanticstorms:885
millibars, reported in the eye of the
hurricane,betweenSwarmIslandand
theYucatánpeninsula.Gilbert'swinds
moved counter clockwise around
a 60-kilometer-wide circle and had
thedestructiveforceofatornado.As
it approached the peninsula its eye
narrowedconsiderablyandanouter
ring—asecondeyewall—formed160
kilometers from the center, packing
winds of 200 kilometers per hour.
It struck in two stages, between the
islandsofCozumelandIslaMujeres:
firsttheouterringofCategory3winds
andtwohourslatertheverynarrow
circleofwhatwerebythenCategory
5 winds.As it crossed the peninsula
theoutereyewallcontractedwhilethe
inner eyewall collapsed. By the time
thestormleftthepeninsula,12hours
later,windshadfallento155kilometersperhour.Satelliteimagesrevealed
a600-kilometerdiameteratlandfallon
September 14, and as Gilbert passed
overlandthesystemcoveredtheentirepeninsula.Itsaccompanyingstorm
surge, topped off by wind-driven
waves, had notable coastal impact
114
•
from Vigía Chico on the Caribbean
sidetotheCityofCampecheonthe
GulfCoast.Gilbertwasconsidereda
'dry'hurricane,however,forrainfall
accompanyingthestormwasamere
8-10centimeters.
Gilbert damaged and destroyed
buildings within 50 meters of the
shoreline, from Playa del Carmen to
Campeche.ThesmallMayatempleon
the southern tip of Isla Mujeres was
leftapileofrubble.Themainfloors
ofhotelsalongbeachesatCancunand
onIslaMujereswereguttedandbeach
houses all along the northern coast
suffered serious damage. Cancun
beacheswereconvertedto'hurricane
beaches', sandless and limestonestrewn, while beaches peripheral to
the main impact zone were severely
eroded.Themangrovegrowthsalong
the east coast were swamped with
water and stripped of leaves. Reefs
neartheQuintanaRoocoastlineswere
also extensively affected. Along the
northerncoast,wherecoastalsandbars
are backed by ciénegas, or salt-water
swamps,overadozennewchannels
betweenseaandciénegawereformed.
Two large ships 60-80 meters long
were deposited against beach buildings in Cancun and Progreso, and
innumerablesmallercraftwereleftat
considerabledistancesinland.
Impactoncoastalflora,fauna,and
constructions was extreme along a
100-meter-widebandofthecoastline.
north coast saltbeds were seriously
U
affected and many years of natural
beach-forming deposit eliminated.
Shoreline vegetation, mostly mangrove,sufferedintensedamage.Seabottom sand disturbance affected
marine species inhabiting shallow
coastal waters inside of the reefs
along Quintana Roo coasts. Over a
yearlatermangrovegrowthwasonly
beginningtoshowinitialsignsofrecovery at Puerto Morelos arid Playa
del Carmen. Even two years after
the storm, there were large patches
of permanent damage to northern,
ciénega-associatedtreespeciesasfar
as500metersinland.
Inland impact on forest growth
was also massive. Extensive human
activity over the past century and
previousstormshadalreadyvirtually
wiped out primary forest, although
therearemanyindividualspeciesof
greater age. Mature trees are most
vulnerabletotheimpactofhighvelocitywindsandarethemostlikely
tobeuprooted,astheywereinboth
settled and uninhabited areas. Two
keyfactorsinmature-treevulnerabilityaretheirbulkandrigidity.Extensivemoisturesoftensorweakensroot
systemsbelowtheground,andwhen
large trees are uprooted they bring
surrounding younger trees down
along with them. In this sense we
have an intensification of the forest
patch-clearingsformedundernormal
circumstancesoftropicalsuccession
patterns in primary forests. More
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HermanW.Konrad
importantintermsofecologicalimpact,however,istheeffectoncanopy
structure.
Gilbert'seffectonstandingtreesis
clearly visible along a 200 kilometer
north-southstretchofcoastalQuintanaRoo.nearthecenterofthestorm
pathmoststandingtreeslostvirtually
allsecondarybranchesandmanyprimarybranches.Thiscanopystructure
damageexposesthecomplex,layered
flora, even if it remains standing, to
openareaconditions.Thelossofforest
canopyhasverysignificantecological
implications.notonlyisthedebrison
theforestfloor(treetrunks,branches
vines, and leaves) subject to a more
rapid drying-out process, causing
forestfires,butthewholesuccession
process is affected. The hurricane's
impact on forests becomes a natural
large-scale version of the swidden
cycle’spreparationforplanting.And,
asmaizegrowersintheChumponarea
told me, after major tropical storms
destroyedregionalforests,theforest
Maya’s traditional response was to
plant extensively where their chacs
hadclearedtheforests.
Gilbert drastically reduced bird,
animal and other populations. The
loss of forest vegetation, the stripping of tree fruits, leaves and other
sources of nourishment also created
asubsistencecrisisformanyspecies.
Following heavy casualities, many
of the remaining flamingo flock at
the Rio Colorado breeding grounds
116
•
migrated to an area near uaymitún
wherethestormhadenhancedgrowth
of the birds' food sources. Turkeys,
pheasants, monkeys, regional feline
species, and deer ventured into human settlements in search of food.
Abnormalinfestationsofparrotswere
alsoreportedraidingfruit-producing
zonesalongthenorthernslopesofthe
Puuchills(Oxkutzcab,Ticul,Tekax),
areaslessaffectedbythestorm.The
after-effects of Gilbert demonstrate
howdramaticallyahurricanemayalterthesubsistencepatternsofregional
fauna.
STORMSAnDECOLOGICAL
STRESS
If we take storm patterns as seen in
recent times as probable patterns in
the past, then post-conquest data is
sufficiently strong to allow for the
hypothesis that what we have seen
ofecologicalstresscausedbytropical
storms applies not only to the contemporary Yucatan, but also to the
entire period of Maya occupation of
thepeninsula.
Despite the paucity of botanical,
geographical and zoological studies
from the Yucatan peninsula, certain
trends in short- and long-term consequences of cyclonic disturbances
can be gleaned from historical and
contemporary data already identified here and from studies in other
cyclone-proneareassuchasnorthern
Australia(HopkinsandGraham,1987;
U
Stockerandunwin,1989;Webb,1958).
Post-Gilbert research, ongoing and
projected,mayalterthepatternsidentified below, thus they are tentative
ratherthandefinitive.
1)Offshore
(Reefandshallowwater)
Reefstructuresmaybeseverelydamaged and shallow-water sea-bottoms
seriously disturbed. Resident flora
andfaunaareeitherdamagedordestroyed. Marine zoologists at Puerto
Morelos suggest that conches and
mollusks suffer high mortality rates.
Lobsterreproductionratestwoyears
after Gilbert had reached roughly
50%ofpre-hurricanereproductionin
someareas.Foodsourcesforsurviving
shallow-waterspeciesoffaunasuffer
short-termdegradation.Thusrecovery
of normal ecological balance among
flora and fauna requires time. This
givestheadvantagetospeciesbetter
adapted to severe environmental
stress.Theshort-termimplicationsfor
foodresourcesinthishabitatwouldbe
considerable.
2)Shorelines
Storm-surge and wave action cause
seriouserosion.uptoacenturyand
inthecaseofaCategory5hurricane
severalcenturies,ofnormalshoreline
depositsareeliminatedinamatterof
hoursandaredepositedintheseaor
asnewbeaches.Shorelinevegetation
suffersextremedisturbanceanddes-
tructionandstormactivityintroduces
speciesfromotherecologicalniches.
Hardy colonizing species of flora
have reproductive and dominance
advantages over more delicate species.Shorelinespeciesofflorawitha
lifespangreaterthanroughlytwenty
years,orsubjecttoatleastonehurricane,wouldneedtoadapttocyclonic
interventions.
3)Ciénegas
Suchsalt-watermarshesandlakesborderingmuchoftheYucatanpeninsula
areseverelyaffectedbystorm-surge,
wind and wave action. Mangrove
speciesarevirtuallydefoliated,with
considerablelimbandstembreakage
and uprooting. Two years after Gilbert,largepatchesofdeadmangrove
remained.Thestorm-surgefloodstheseareaswithseawaterandonentry
and retreat closes existing channels
to the ocean and opens others. This
significantly alters species compositionwithinthecienegas,atleastinthe
shortterm,especiallyasbirdnesting
and marine reproduction cycles are
interrupted.Alteredecologicalconditionsforcesomewaterfowlspeciesto
relocatebreedinggrounds;thesame
is probably true for sea-turtles and
marinereptiles.
Since ciénega coastal habitat is
subjecttoextensiveandperiodicdisturbance,itmustbecharacterizedas
aconstantlyshiftingecologicalniche.
Forhumanpopulationsdependingon
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HermanW.Konrad
subsistenceresourcesfromtheseareas,
pastandpresent,thisrequiresaccess
toalternativeresources.Cyclonesmay
periodicallyeliminatecertainfloraand
fauna species on low-relief offshore
islandsandkeys,resultinginrecolonizationandminimaldependenceon
long-termevolutionaryadaptations.
4)Coastalforests
Publishedresearchoncyclonicimpact
innorthwesternAustraliabyHopkins
andGraham(1987,25)ledtotheconclusionthat"cycloneshavemoulded
the structures of the rain forests in
thearea".TogetherwithWebb'swork
(1958,220-228),theirresearchidentifiesextremedefoliationoftreesabove
threemeters,universalcrowndamage
to canopy and subcanopy trees, and
stembreakageoruprootingof10-80%
oflargertrees.Thisrepresentsanaccuratedescriptionofthecoastalimpact
zoneaffectedbyHurricaneGilbertand
the other storms mentioned earlier
in this paper. Since, as indicated by
Beadle and Costin (1952), "freedom
from gross disturbance for a period
oftimelongerthanthelifespanofthe
longest-livedindividualsisnecessary
for a community to reach maturity"
(Webb,1958,227),thecapacityofcoastalforeststoreachaclimaxormature
state is negligible. Webb concludes
that "Present observations in north
Queensland suggest that cyclones
are a potent ecological factor which
regularly upsets forest equilibrium,
118
•
withfar-reachingconsequencesforthe
regeneration,suppression,andreproductionofspecies"(1958,227).There
areasyetnobotanicalstudiesdirectly
related to cyc1ones in the affected
coastalforestsoftheYucatanpeninsula, but the information available
fromareassuchasnorthQueensland
providesvaluablereferencesandguides.Evidenceavailabletomewould
indicate that parallel processes have
andatetakingplaceonthepeninsula, and that generally, in peninsular
areas affected by cyclones, we must
abandonthenotionofclimaxforests
achieving and maintaining stability
overlongperiodsoftime(Mapno.2,
ZonesI-IV).
5)Inlandforests
These would include forests beyond
30-50 kilometers from peninsular
coasts. These forests, although they
sufferlesserdegreesofdefoliation,do
sufferconsiderablecrowndamageto
canopy and subcanopy trees and, in
the case of mature trees, uprooting.
The forest understory is thus left
exposed to intense sunlight. Forest
gapsgreatlyincreasebothinsizeand
number.Theforest-gapregeneration
process (from previously dormant
seeds,rootanddamaged-stemsprouts
andgap-colonizingspecies)thenplays
animportantroleintheforestsuccessionprocess.TheAustralianresearch
describes an unusual post-cyclone
flowering among smaller tree and
U
shrub species and particularly vines
(HopkinsandGraham,1987).Boththe
intensive rains accompanying cyclones,andchangingintensitiesoflight,
act as trigger mechanisms affecting
the flowering and fruiting of forest
species.Ontheotherhand,pollination
and seed dispersal patterns are altered,exposednewleavesandsprouts
aresubjecttoinsectattacks,anddamagedtreesarevulnerabletoparasites.
Inviewofthevirtuallycertainforest
firesthatfollowhurricanes,manyof
the immediate recuperative responsesarebutshort-term,givingaclear
advantagetolight-andfire-resistant
speciesinthelonger-termsuccession
patterns. This produces unexpected
forest species compositions.Australian research has led researchers to
suggest that "unexplained examples
of…unusuallocalabundanceofparticularspecies"intropicalforestsare
directlylinkedtocyclonicdisturbance
(HopkinsandGraham,1987,29).High
concentrationsofvariouspalmspecies
andtheAchraszapota,aswellasother
treesinQuintanaRooandBelizemay
wellbeaby-productofpost-cyclone
successionpatterns.
For the Yucatan peninsula as a
whole,thegradualincreaseinforest
heightfromnorthtosouthhasbeen
attributed primarily to differing rainfallandmoisturelevels.Whilenot
denyingthisfactor,Iwouldsuggest
thatpersistent,periodiccyclonicdisturbancehasalsoconstitutedaforma-
tivefactor;wecanseethattheimpact
zonesidentifiedinMap2correlatenot
only with rainfall levels but also with
degreesofcyclonicimpact.Thetropical
forestofthepeninsulamaytoacertain
extentoweitscompositiontothemoldinginfluencesofthe'evilchacs'.
6)Soilsandforestfloors
The virtual absence of forest-floor
soils and the abundance of broken
limestone debris characterizes much
of northern Quintana Roo. Three
cyclone-relatedfactorscanbeidentifiedwhichwouldaffectsoilformation
processes,andaddtolong-recognized
soil generation limitations within
canopy-closedtropicalforests.These
wouldbetheintenseheatofforestfires,theleachinganderosioncausedby
cyclone-generatedrains,andexcessive
exposure to sunlight. under normal
conditionsthedeathofterminalage
trees, when they fall of their own
accountorassistedbystrongwinds,
causesacertaindegreeofuprooting
andbreaking-upofsurfacelimestone.
Cyclonic winds, on the other hand,
uproot a greater number of mature
trees with firm root structures, and
intensify the breaking-up of forestfloorsurfaces.Tropicalforestsacquire
an almostrubble-strewn appearance
of limestone debris, with subsurface
crevices and uneven surfaces that
becomecatchmentbasinsforexisting
soils.Forestsacquireawidelyvaried
localizeddistributionofplantenergy
número 224
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HermanW.Konrad
SantaClara.
120
•
reservoirs, enriching heterogeneity
and diversity for flora and fauna reproductionandsustenance.
Backyardplots(solares)ofYucatecanpeasantmaizegrowerstodayshow
ahighlysophisticatedexploitationof
preciselysuchvariednicheopportunities.ThatMayaagriculturalistsinthe
distant past recognized such potentials,utilizedthem,andpassedthem
ontosucceedinggenerations,isentirelyconsistentwiththeirbasicstrategy
ofdiversityinagrarianandsilviculture
subsistence practices. Periodic cyclones, I would argue, provided them
with large-scale natural laboratories
in which they could experiment and
refinetheirknowledgeoftheirhabitat
anditsresourcepotentials.
7)Fauna
Cyclonicdisturbanceinvariablyaffected insect, bird and animal life in
tropical forests. The instability of
canopy-level environments would
suggestasomewhatdifferentsequence of evolutionary processes than
found,forexampleinthemorestable
Amazonian tropical forests (Balée
1991; Caufield, 1985). Fauna species
occupyingtheunderstoryandforest
floors would possess evolutionary
and adaptive responses to periodic
and dramatic short-term alteration
of natural habitats. Those species
capableofregionalmigration,either
fromareasdevastatedbycyclonesor
toareaswithpost-cyclonesuccession
habitats,wouldhavebetterchancesof
U
reproductivesuccessandspeciesdomination.Post-Gilbertbirdandanimal
migrations to less affected zones or
eventourbancentersinsearchoffood,
providecontemporaryexamplesofregionalmigratorypatterns.Long-term
gradual ecological transformations
also have important implications. In
addition to seasonal and long-term
ecologicaltransformations,theregionalfauna,inordertoensuresurvival
andreproductivecapacities,alsohad
tocontendwiththemoredramaticand
disturbing repercussions of cyclonic
impact—fire,floodandfiercewinds.
ETHnOECOLOGICAL
IMPLICATIOnS
AnDPRE-HISPAnIC
SuBSISTEnCESTRATEGIES
Despite the great advances made in
recent research concerning the preHispanic Maya occupation of the
Yucatanpeninsula,thereseemstobe
anoverridingconcernwithalimited
set of environmental restraints and
opportunities. The current debates
about carrying capacities, agricultural systems, population densities,
externalandinternaltradingpatterns,
disease,classfactionalism,andexternalconquestsdonotsufficientlytake
into account the nature of tropical
forests.Thephysicalevidenceofpast
Maya civilizations is still, in large
part, circumscribed by the tropical
forests. How the Maya handled, or
mishandled, this natural garden of
biodiversityremainsopentospeculation.Isuspectthattheirknowledgeof
theirenvironmentwasmorecomplex
and sophisticated than is currently
recognized,thattheirsuccesseswere
linked to such knowledge, and that
theirfailuresweretheresultofignoring or miscalculating the dynamics
ofitscomposition,successionpatterns
andcyclonicinterruptions.
In a previous article I suggested
thathurricanescouldbeseenas'triggermechanisms'forsettlementpatterns,subsistencepatterns,migrations
and demographic stability warfare,
andtrade(Konrad,1985).Theseelementsarisefrequentlyindiscussions
of the rise and fall of classic Maya
civilizations.Although I do not rule
outfactorsmentionsinthelistabove,
IamchieflyconcernedwithMayastrategies of coping with environmental
restraintsandopportunities.
SinceMayacivilizationdeveloped
and flourished in essentially inland
centers,thesouthernlowlandsrepresenting perhaps the most important
nucleus, understanding their dependence on tropical forests becomes
paramount. The tropical forest is
highly complex in its multi-layeredlayered structure, succession cycles,
and energy recycling processes. It
harborsanextremelydiverserangeof
flora and fauna. Tropical storms not
onlyalterthecomplexityordiversity
ofhabitat,theyalsoalter(manytimes
accelerating) the timing and rhythm
número 224
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HermanW.Konrad
of existing life cycles and succession
patternsamongbothfloraandfauna.
The Maya choice of the tropical
forest, represented by the ceiba, as
their paradigm of the center of the
worldandthesourceofsustenancea
logical understanding of succession
dynamics.Expertshaveacceptedfor
some time that swidden systems in
manywaysmimicnaturalsuccession
cycles of tropical forest processes.
Whatmaywellisthefactthatslashand-bum agriculture replicates, in a
very direct manner, the impact that
tropical storms have on peninsular
tropical forests, that is, the felling of
theforest,forestfires,andsuccession.
Humaninterventioncomesintoplay
inofgroundortreecropsusefultohumans.Thehurricanepresentedinducedsuccessioncyclesonafargreater
scale than possible with slash-andburnmethods.Andanalreadyfragile
tropical forest ecosystem subject to
unpredictable,periodicinterventions
fromnaturalcauseswouldhavenecessitatedadelicatebalanceofuseversus
preservation.
Reliance on narroe strategies like
swiddenagriculture,treeorrootcrops
would have been a poor choice for
the pre-Hispanic Maya. These could
not sustain high population levels
over extended periods, nor provide
a necessary surplus buffer against
uncontrollablenaturaleventssuchas
drought, cyclones, or flora diseases.
Reliance on the broadest possible
122
•
strategies,however,wouldrepresenta
goodchoicewithahigherprobability
for long-term subsistence. Thus the
picture of broad-based agricultural
strategiesemerges:swiddenagriculture,terraces,raisedfields,hydraulic
systems,intensiveagriculturesimilar
tochinampas,andhomegardenplots
(GómezPompa,1985,5-6).Although
not employed at the same time or
place, these techniques would have
allowedtheMayatominimizedamageto,yetutilizethebenefitsfromthe
tropicalforest.
A broad strategy would also include a wide range of silviculture
techniques.Thisiswheretheresearch
andinsightsofArturoGómezPompa
(1971,1985)andothersworkingwith
silviculture aspects take on special
significance (Alcorn, 1984; Barrera
Marínet.Al.,1976,and1977;Gómez
Pompa et al., 1972, 1982, 1984, 1987;
Flores,1983).GómezPompaidentifies
a wide range of silviculture techniquespracticedbytheMaya,pastand
present(1985,6).Hisview,thatMaya
silviculture consisted of a series of
activities of protection, cultivation,
selection, and introduction of trees
in their milpas, fallows, plantations,
natural forests, houses, living fences, cenotes, and urban centers" (7)
provides additional detail about the
diversity of subsistence techniques.
Recentstudiesbasedoncontemporary
indigenous knowledge of ethnobotany clearly point to retention and
U
maintenanceofamostcomprehensive
tropicalforestnomenclature(Alcorn,
1984;BarreraMarín,BarreraVasquez
andLopezFranco,1976).Moreimportantly,theMayautilizedthemajority
ofidentifiedspecies.TheancientMaya
understoodboththecomplexityand
diversity of tropical forest habitats,
andtheirsocietalsuccessesandfailuresshouldnotbedivorcedfromthis
understanding.
Although tropical storms could
be realistically anticipated, the time,
location and impact of any specific
storm could not be predicted by the
Maya.Ifknowledgeofcyclonicinterventionsinfluencedlocationofmajor
settlements, then settlement patterns
wouldberelatedtotheimpactzones
identifiedinMapno.2.Studyingthis
Map, we find that the greater concentration of classic period sites are
locatedinareasleastaffectedbymajor
tropical storms.Avoiding coastlines,
particularlyalongtheCaribbeanside
ofthepeninsula,wouldhavebeenan
ecologicallysoundstrategy(Anthony
Andrews, personal communication).
Tulum,theobviousexception,isatan
elevationabovestormsurgelevels.
Measurestakentominimizeadverseeffectsmusthavebecomeanintegralpartofbasicecologicalstrategies.
InzonesI-Illtheprominenceofhouses
withroundedwallsandroofswould
beapositiveadaptationasthesestructuresresisthighwindsbetterthando
thosewithsquarewallsorroofs.The
massive stone and masonry temple
and elite-sector resident buildings
found in all major sites reflect not
only societal stratification but also
buildings capable of withstanding
windpressuresofCategory5storms.
Low stone fences around residences
orfields,however,wouldbevirtually
uselessaswindbreaksagainsthurricaneforcestorms.
Cyclonicstressonhabitat,besides
shaping fundamental subsistence
strategies,undoubtedlyhadimplicationsforsocial,politicalandeconomic
affairs. The absence of sustained,
centralized, peninsula-dominating
political and economic systems, in
contrast to highland developments,
maywellreflecttheneedformobility
andflexibilitywithinalargerhabitat
subject to high degrees of ecological
stress.Shiftsinlociofregionalcenters
of influence, and the rise and fall of
specificdynasties,maywellhavebeen
influencedbythesuccessesofthe'evil
chacs'.Flexibilityandmobilityofflora
andfaunawerealsofactorstobetaken
into consideration in Maya adaptive
processes.
Theobjectiveofthispaperhasbeen
tointroduceratherthanresolvequestionsaboutcyclonichabitatinterventions,ecologicalstress,andMayasubsistencestrategies.Ifourknowledgeof
thecontemporaryYucatanpeninsula's
tropical forest habitat is still rather
limited,itismorelimitedstillabout
thepre-Hispanicperiod.Information
número 224
•
•
123
HermanW.Konrad
fromcontemporarytimescanprovide
definitive answers for contemporary
questions;forthemoredistantpastit
merelyhelpstoframequestionsuseful
forfurtherinvestigation.
ACKnOWLEDGEMEnTS
Fundingfortheresearchonwhichthisarticle
isbasedwasprovidedbytheSocialSciences
andHumanitiesResearchCouncilofCanada
(SSHRCC).Dr.AnthonyAndrews,Dr.Mario
Aliphat,Dr.DeniseBrown,Dr.WilliamFolan,
Dr.Arturo Gomez Pompa, Dr.Andrew Graham, Dr. Elizabeth Graham and Candelaria
Arceohaveprovideddata,insightsandassistanceincarryingouttheresearch.
ARCHIVALSOuRCES
AGn Archivo General de la nacion,
MexicoCity
AGnF
Fomento
AGnG
Gobernacion
AGnP
Presidentes
AEC ArchivodelEstadodeCampeche,
Campeche
AEY Archivo del Estado de Yucatan,
Merida
CIWY CarnegieInstitutionofWashington,
Yearbooks
InIBT InstitutonacionaldeInvestigacionesdeBosquesTropicales,Mexico
City
nARA
national Archives and Records
Administration,Washington,D.C.
PRO Public Records Office, Kew Gardens,u.K.
SRE SecretariadeRelacionesExteriores,
MexicoCity
SREAH ArchivoHistorico
WnRC
WashingtonnationalRecordsCenter,Suitland,Maryland
DdY Diario de Yucatan,Merida
ndY Novedades de Yucatan,Merida
RM Revista de Merida,Merida
RP Razon del Pueblo,Merida
nOAAu.S.nationalOceanicandAtmosphere
Administration
nHC national Hurricane Center, Coral
Gables
nHRL
nationalHurricaneResearchLaboratory,CoralGables
124
•
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CIR-Sociales - Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán

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