Writing Research Papers

http:!/www.simpson.edu/academics/Hawley/Research.htlTIl
~riting ResearchPapers
Writing Research Papers
rite Howle}'Academic
Re.'illllrceCenter
Different Tvpes of
Collc!!e Writinl!
Prewritin!! Techniaues
and the Basic
Components of an
Essav
Writinl! Research
Papers
Common Sentence
Problems
Common Punctuation
Problems
More Common
Writing: Problems
Conclusion
Doing Research
Throughout your college career, you will probably be asked to write
several research papers. Before we discuss research papers, it is
helpful to distinguish betweeIuesearch papers and documented
essays.
In research papers students search for and use outside sources to
support their main argument. These sources are cited within the paper,
and publication information about each source or reference is
included at the end of the paper in a works cited page (or
bibliography).
In documented essays a student uses quotes from one or more sources
that he or she has read for a class. As with research papers, these
sources are cited within the paper, and publication information about
each source is included at the end of the paper in a works cited page.
The sources used in both research papers and documented essays
could be either primary (the original work) or secondary (a
commentary or criticism of an original work).
How is the process of writing a research paper different from
writing any other paper?
The main difference is that for a research paper you must seek and
gather information from outside sources. You must rely on more than
your personal experiences and opinions for support. However, you will
not simply be regurgitating the informationyou find in an organized
manner. You will be expected to take the process one step funher and
make judgments about the information you find.
The process for writing a research paper can be broken down into four
manageable phases.
Phase 1: Searching for a Topic and for Sources
1,
Arriving at a topic can be a difficult process, if the choice is left to you.
Since you will be putting much effort and time into this paper, choose a
topic that interests you. Once you pick a topic that interests you, more
often than not, you will have to do some preliminary research before
you decide on a specific topic. For example. you need to find out:
1. what the scope of the subject is
2. what information-isavailable (ask the librarian about an interlibrary
loan if Simpson's library does not contain the information you need)
3. whether you can find the information in the required time, and
4. whether the time required to explore the subject adequately and write
your paper corresponds to the time you have.
In addition to choosing a topic that interests you and finding out which
...'
http://www.simpson.edu/academics/Hawley/Research.h
I
Phase 4: Preparing the Final Draft
Following the correct structural format, prepare the list of works cited
(or bibliography), showing all the sources that contributed information
to the paper (books, periodicals, interviews, television productions,
etc.). The format of your bibliography will depend upon which form of
citation you are required to use (MLA, APA, or Turabian). You also
need to make sure that you are citing information within your paper
correctly. If you are unsure about which form of citation is required for
your paper, ask your professor. For more information about these
different citation methods, pick up the free handouts available at the
Hawley Academic Resource Center or downstairs in Dunn Library.
Note: After you have looked over your paper for mechanical errors and
.
createda workscitedpage, it is oftena goodideato maketwo copies
of your paper, one for your professors and one for yourself. This will
safeguard you in case of accidental loss. You may also want to save
your paper on more than one disk to safeguard against computer viruses
or crashes.
Citing Sources
Once students have chosen a topic for a research paper, have researched
their topic, and have begun writing, their next concern is often how to
cite the information that they want to use within their paper. The most
important thing to remember about citing sources is that you must give
credit to the sources you are using whether you are taking the
information word-for-word (a direct quote) or just paraphrasing
(putting the information in your own words for an indirect quote). You
also need to provide the proper citation when you are summarizing
information from an outside source (stating in your own words
information from a source briefly but concisely).
Another important part of citing sources is to be aware of when you are
over-using outside information in your writing. For example, some
students write papers in which almost every sentence is a direct or an
indirect quote. There is nothing in a paper like this that is contributed
by the student. The point of a research paper is not just to provide a lot
of information through outside sources, but to analyze that information
and comment upon it. You need to include your own opinions,
observations, and analysis in your research papers; otherwise, there
would be no point in someone reading your paper - he or she couldjust
go to your outside sources and get the same information.
To stop yourself from over-using outside sources, keep this simple rule
of thumb in mind: For every line of a direct or indirect quote that you
use, have at least one line of your own commentary or analysis
regarding that quote. For example, if you have a quote that is three
lines long, have at leastthree lines of your own writing in which you
comment on that quote. This way the reader knows (A) that you
understand what the quote means and (B) that you are using the quote
for a reason, not just to take up space.
MLA Style Documentation
The MLA, or Modem Language Association, style of citing sources
within a paper is used primarily by writers in the humanities (English,
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ics/Haw ley/Research.
end of your paper on a separate page or in footnotes at the bottom of
the page within your paper.
Although the endnotes or footnotes in your paper contain all of the
publication infonnation necessary to verify or retrieve your citation,
you may also include a bibliography (an alphabetized list of sources
used) at the end of your paper. Ask your professor if he or she would
like both endnotes or footnotes and a bibliography if you are unsure
about whether to include one with your paper. If you do include a
bibliography with your paper, it will differ from your endnotes or
footnotes in three ways; the authors' names are inverted (the last name
of the author is first, followed by the first name), the elements of
entries are separated by periods, and the first line of each entry is flush
with the left margin, with subsequent lines indented five spaces. For
more information about using the Turabian style of documentation to
cite sources within a paper and about creating endnotes, footnotes, and
a bibliography, pick up the free Turabian handout at the Hawley
Academic Resource Center or downstairs in Dunn Library. This
handout is also available through the Hawley web site (go to Simpson's
homepage and click on "Academics").For information that is not
included in this handout, call Allison Witt, Director of the Hawley
Academic Resource Center, at 961-1524, or stop by Hawley and check
out A Manual for Writers, by Kate L. Turabian.
Plagiarism
Definition: Plagiarism is the intentional or unintentional use of other
people's ideas without giving them proper credit. It is academic theft.
Examples of plagiarism:
1. Using another person's exact words without using quotation marks
and the proper citation (a footnote or parenthetical citation, depending
on the form preferred by the professor).
2. Using another person's ideas, even if not their exact words, without
providing a citation.
3. Using all or parts of another student's paper without providing proper
citations.
4. Rewriting passages with only the most minor of changes and passing
them off as original or merely paraphrasedthoughts.
5. Citing quotes or paraphrases from made-up sources (technically not
plagiarism, but still dishonest).
How to avoid plagiarism:
1. When you borrow someone's exact words:
Put any word-for-word quotes in quotation marks, and provide a proper
citation, either a parenthetical note, an endnote, or a footnote whichever your professor prefers.
2. \Vhenyou borrow someone's ideas but put them in your own words:
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date), you do not need to cite it. Some people say that if you see the
same idea in three or more sources it's common knowledge. However,
if you use an author's exact wording or individual twist on common
knowledge, you should cite it anyway. The common knowledge
exception is always a judgment call, so--when in doubt--ask your
professor or cite it anyway.
Q: What ifI found a new idea)n two different sources?
A: If you use; e;xact words,
you :should cite; only that source.
If you
paraphrase a combination of both, you can include both in the citation.
Q: What in got the idea from a lecture, interview, TV show, or
record (or some other unpublished source)?
A: You need to give credit to others even if their idea has never
appeared in written form. The documentationhandouts or handbooks
available at the Hawley Academic Resource Center explain how to cite
these sources correctly. Also remember that if you were able to record
an exact quote, put it in quotation marks.
Note: While citing sources can seem confusing, keep this simple
rule of thumb in mind: When in doubt, cite the information
anyway! It is much better to overcite information within a paper
than to not provide citations for information when you should
have.
Back to the Hawley Guide to Writinl! Homepa!!e
Back to the Hawlev Academic Resource Center Home~e
A ~tyk
CJUIJC
- M. Plonsky, Ph.D.
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
http:llwww.uwsp.cdu/psych!apa4b.hlm
-
2 Examole W;:J"sto Present Results
3 Example Reference Section
4 Example Table
5 Example Figure CaPtions Pa!!e
-
Scientific research is a public venture. Therefore, one ofthe essential skills of the scientist is to be able
to communicate ideas and research results effectively. This hypertext guide is an attempt to make the
style of writing used in the field of psychology clear to you. It summarizes a lot of the material available
in the Publication Manual of the American Psvcholo!!ical Association (4-th edition) (1995) and is
oriented toward undergraduate students. For example, it includes numerous hints to avoid common
mistakesstudentsmake.Notethe examplesappearin a teletypefontto distinguishthem fromthe
normal text. Finally, the document is organized in an outline format for at least two reasons. First, it
should make it easier for students to quickly locate the information they seek. Second, it should make it
easier for an instructor to grade students papers. In most cases, the student can simply be referred to the
outline item that addresses the problem rather than writing the comment repeatedly on multiple papers.
I. General Topics
A. Typing
1. Your papers must be typed.
2. Set the typewriter or word processor to double space and keep it there throughout the
entire manuscript.
3. Use one inch margins on the left, right, top, and bottom of the page. These margins
are wide in order to leave room for reviewer's comments.
4. Use normal paragraphs in which the first line is indented five characters for all
paragraphs in the manuscript except the abstract, block quotes, titles and headings,
subheadings, table titles, notes, and figure captions.
5. Use
. a 12 point font. In other words,
. there should be 10 typed characters per inch.
6. Smg1e space after sentence termmators c .I.e., "0'>"1'
., ., . ) .
7. Capitalize the first letter following a colon if the clause following the colon is a
complete sentence.
8. If you are using a word processor, make sure the text is left aligned and not justified.
With left aligned text, the left margin forms a straight line and the right margin is
ragged. With justified text both the left and right margins form a straight line.
9. Do not hyphenate (split) words at the end of a line.
10. Finally,just staple or clip the finished product (do not bother with fancy folders, etc.).
B. Writing in General
1. You must use complete sentences.
2. The first sentence of a paragraph must be independent (able to stand on its own). For
example consider While c::,.ese studies are important, there is... This
sentence would be correct in the middle of a paragraph, but as the first sentence, it
should more appropriately read, 'ijhile scud:..es of the effects of whateveron
whateverelse are i~Dorcant,there is...
3. Try notto use slang(e.g.: ...pm:a damper on...).
4. Do not use contractions. That is, instead of it's, use.:..tis.
5. If you are doubtful about the spelling of a word, do not guess. Look up the correct
spelling in an appropriate reference source.
6. Proofread the copy that you submit and do correct minor typographical errors,
formatting, spelling, or even the wording, with a pencil. These corrections are
inevitable and will communicatethat you are serious about your work.
e. Style Details in General
1. Study this handout. When in doubt about a detail, check with the Publication Manual
of the APA.
2. Assume you are \\-Titingthe paper for submission to a scientificjournal.
3. A lot of the fonnatting details can be learned by carefully modeling another APA
journalarticle.It wouldbe a goodideato acquirea fewfairlyrecentarticles.because
the format was revised in 1995. Try the Psychological Record or Tb~ Bulletin of the
~PA Style Guidt:
- M. Plonsky, Ph.D.
http://www.uwsp.edu/psych/apa4b.h
2. There are numerous ways to formally cite a reference in the text. Examples include
Some fact
(last name, year).,
Last name
(year) noted that.. .,or In
<year>, <last name> reported that...Formoreideas,pay closeattentionto
the articles you read.
3. The first time the reference is cited in the text, spell out all of the authors last names.
For example, Miller,
Rosellini,
and Seligman
(1975) suggested that...
With articles that have three or more authors use the Latin abbreviation for "and
others"whenthe referenceis citeda ~econd(or third)time.Forexample,Miller
al.
(1975) suggested
that...Or...
some fact
ec:
(Miller et al., 1975).
4. If the citation is in parentheses and you need to use the word "and", use the
ampersand('&')instead.Forexample,some (e.g.,Estes & Skinner,1940)
that..., as compared to Estes and Skinner (1940) have
suggested.
. . Notealsothat the oppositeappliesas well,thatis, if the citationis not
have suggested
in parentheses, you must use the word "and".
5. Multiple citations in parentheses are placed alphabetically and are separated by a
semicolon and a space. For example, Some fact (Carlson,
1972; Moon, 1968;
Partin,
1980).
6. If you cite something second hand, you must make it clear (e.g., Some fact (Smith,
as cited in Jones, Year)). Notethat in this example,onlythe Jonesreference
would be placed in the reference section.
G. Quotations
1. Youmustgivepagenumbersfor directquotes.Forexample,Smith (1978)noted
that
"~he world is round"
(p. 1).
2. Three or fourquotesin a 10pagepaper is aboutthe upperlimit.
3. Display a quotation of more than 40 words as free-standingblock of text indented 5
spaces from the left margin (doubles spaced as usual). Omit the quotation marks and
include the page number in parentheses after the last period. Also, if the quotation is
more than one paragraph, indent the first line of the second and any additional
paragraphs 5 spaces.
II. Research Reports
The order of the sections of the manuscript are as follows:
A. Title Page
1. See an example title page.
2. The manuscript page header is the first thing that appears on the title page. It consists
of the first two or three words of the title and is followed by the page number. It is
used by the editors and reviewers to identify the pages of the manuscript. It is placed
in the upper right hand comer of all pages of the manuscript (except for any figures).
Thus, the manuscriptpage header should appear as the fust line of the title page, right
justified with the number 'I' either double spaced below it or 5 spaces to the the right
of it. If you are using a word processor, you can have it put this manuscript page
header on all pages automatically.
3. The running head comes next and is no more than 50 characters (including
punctuation and spaces).It typically consists of a couple of key words from the title.
Type this running head flush left and in all capital letters. For exaInple, Running
head:
;I.BORTrONATTITUDES IN COLLEGE STUDENTS(note that the 'R' in running is
capitalized, but the 'h' in head is not).
4. Choosing a title. The title should summarize the main idea of the paper in 10-12
words. A good recipe to work with when reporting the results of an experiment is
(Dependent Va=~able) as a Function of (Independent Variable) or The
Effec~s
of (Independent Variable)
on
(Dependent Variable).
With other
types of research you should try to include the variables of interest in the title (and be
carefulnotto implycausality).Also,it is a goodideato includethe speciesif you're
working with animals or some details about the type of population if you're working
with humans.
5. When typing the title, center it on the page and capitalize only the first letter of
importDntwords. On the next double spaced line is the author's name and on the next
.
APA Styli: Guide
- M. Plol1sky.Ph.D.
http:.'/www.uwsp.cdu/psychiapa-tb
as an appendix).
SubiectslParticipants
7. This section is labeled as subjects or participants depending on whether animals or
humans are used in the study. If animals are used, use the term subjects. Ifhumans are
used,use the termparticipants.
.
8. Do not purposely start a new page for this section. Type the appropriate title for this
subsection flush with the left margin and underline it. On the next line, begin typing
normal paragraphs.
9. Indicate who participated in the study, how many, and how were they selected.
10. Include any details which are relevant to the study (e.g., gender, age, ethnicity, strain,
weight, etc.).
11. If the subjects were human, what type of reward or motivation was used to encourage
them to participate?
Apparatus
12. Do notpurposelystarta new pageforthis section.Typethe wordApparatus
flush
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
with the left margin and underline it. On the next line, begin typing normal
paragraphs.
Describe what materials were used and how they functioned in the study.
If you use a piece of equipment, you must give the model number, company, and state
where the company resides (as a two-letter abbreviation).
You must give the dimensions (and perhaps other descriptive details) of any
important items used in the study.
Standard equipment such as furniture, stopwatches, pencils and paper, can usually be
mentioned without providing a lot of details. In fact, you may often simply mention
these items in passing as part of the procedure.
Be careful not to describe procedures in this section. You should make clear what
purpose the apparatus served, but do not give a lot of details on the use of the
apparatus at this point. One hint in this regard is to avoid using action verbs in this
section.
Desi!!n
18. Do notpurposelystarta newpage forthis section.Typethe word Designflushwith
the left margin and underline it. On the next line, begin typing normal paragraphs.
19. Describe the design and clearly spell out the independent and dependent variables.
Indicate what the levels of the independent variables were, and whether the factor(s)
were repeated, matched, or independent.
20. Describe how the subjects were assigned to groups.
21. Describe any controlprocedures used.
Procedure
22. Do notpurposelystarta newpage forthis section.Typethe word Procedureflush
23.
24.
25.
26.
with the left margin and underline it. On the next line, begin typing normal
paragraphs.
Carefully summarizeeach step in the execution of the study.
Indicate what a typical test, trial, or session involved.
Describe any phases that the study had or any instructionsthat the subjects received.
\\ l1en referring to groups. try to use descriptive labels. For example, instead of saying
Group lor the e~:pe=:.::-,entalgroup, you might say the drugged group.
Another technique in this regard is to use abbreviationsthat emphasize meaning. For
example, There were t~ree
groups,
including,
the centrol
group
received 0 mg/kg or ~orphine
(MO), a low dose group receiving
or morphine (Ml), a~d a high dose group receiving
4 rng/kgor
(M4) .
which
1 mg/kg
morphine
E. Results
1. Do not purposely start a new page for this section. Simply center the word Resul ts
and continue typing on the very next double-spaced line (i.e., do not insert any extra
...'
hnp://www. uwsp.cduJpsych/apa4 b.h till
:\PA StylI: GuidI.:- tv\. Plonsky, Ph.D.
respect to the original research question.
3. Start off with a brief, non-technical summary of the results. In other words, tell the
reader about the main findings without using statistical terminology.
4. Then go on to discuss the implications of the results. In other words, whatever was
found needs to be discussed.
5. It is also important to discuss how the results relate to the literature you cited in the
introduction. In other words, emphasize any theoretical consequences of the results.
6. You might (or might not) also mention any limitations of the study and any
suggestions for future research in this section.
7. Finally, you need an ending paragraph in which you make a final summary statement
of the conclusions you have drawn.
8. Thus, this section should contain an absolute minimum of three paragraphs: the
non-technical summary, discussion of the results and their implications, and the
concluding paragraph.
G. References
1. Starton a newpage.Centerthe word Referencesat the top. As usual,doublespace.
2. AllYcitations made in the manuscript must be presented in this section and vice versa.
That is, if something is not cited in the text, then it should not appear in this section.
In still other words, this is not a bibliography.
3. In anyof the previoussections,wheneveryou saysomethinglike studies have
shown you mustprovidea citation.This sectiontellsthe readerwheretheycan find
these citations.
4. This section is alphabetized by last name (of the fust author involved in the study).
5. Normal paragraphs (Le., five-space indented) are employed for each reference.
6. For each author, give the last name followed by a comma and the first (and middle)
initials followed by periods.
7. Separate multiple authors with commas and the last author with the ampersand C&')
rather than the word "and".
8. After the author(s) comes the year (in parentheses and followed by a period).
9. For a journal reference, underline the title of the journal, volume number and adjacent
punctuation marks with a single unbroken line. Note that issue numbers are typically
not included. Also, capitalize the important words of thejournal title.
10. For a book reference,just underline the title. Only capitalize the first word of the title.
Do includethe city, state (as a two-letter abbreviation without periods), and the
publisher's name.
11. See the example reference section. It provides several types of references, including:
Single and multiple author,journal articles, book, and book chapter, web page, as
well as a government document.
H. Other Sections
1. After the above sections come any tables, the page(s) with the figure captions, and
finally any figures, respectively. Each belongs on a separate page (multiple figure
captions can appear on one page however).
2. Tables and the figure captions page have a manuscript page header and page number
just like all the other typed pages. Note that figures are not typed, and so do not have
a manuscript page header and page number.
3. Tables and figures should be able to stand alone (i.e., you should not have to read the
manuscript to be able to understand a table or figure). A big help in this regard is the
table title or the figure caption. Use these wisely to explain what is going on in the
table or figure. In other words, do not be afraid to be a little bit verbose in your table
titles and figure captions.
4. Tables and figures should nor duplicate the same information. Likewise, you should
not repeat the data point values in a table or figure in the text of the manuscript.
,5. Tables and figures are more expensive to include in the manuscript than text.
Therefore. if you include one, it should include a reasonable number of data points
(unless it illustrates a particularly complex result). In other words, if you only have a
few data points to present, do it in the text of the manuscript rather than in a table or
figure.
08[]
-\PA Srylc'GuiJc - 1\1.Plonsky, Ph.D.
hltp://www.uwsp.edu/psych/apa-tb.hrl11
and is important because it lets the reader know the directions that the paper will take.
B. Body
1. If you use headings, the primary main heading levels should be treated like the main
heading of a research report, that is, type the main heading using upper and lower
case, and center it horizontally on the page. Second level headings are flush left and
underlined. Third level headings (if necessary) are indented like the normal
paragraphs that they start off. Thus, the words of the third level heading lead off the
paragraph, are separated from it by a period, and are underlined (including the
period). The rest of the paragraph follows the period.
2. This section should present the relevant literature and ideas.
3. Often the instructor will set a minimum number of references that are required. These
references will be listed in the reference sectionand are cited using a particular style
which you can see most clearly in the literature you are reading for your review.
4. A common mistake that students often make is to organize the paper around the
specific references they are using (even using the reference titles as the main headings
of the manuscript). The paper should be organized around the relevant phenomenon
or theory and not by the specific referencesthat one uses in the paper.
S. This section can be lengthy (depending upon how much material is presented).
6. You might try to identify relations, contradictions,gaps, and inconsistencies in the
literature.
7. You might suggest possible solutions to any problem(s) identified.
8. You might suggest future directions for research to take.
C. Conclusions
1. Finally, you need an ending section, in which, you summarize the main points you
have made.
Appendix 1 - Example Title Page (below)
A~titudes
Towards Abortic~
1
Runni~g
head: ABORTION
ATTITUCES
Attitudes
Towards
College
Mark
Plonsky
~f Wisconsin
fulfillment
STUDENTS
Abortion
in Midwestern
University
In partial
IN COLLEGE
-
Students
Stevens Point
of the requirements
Instructor's
Date
Name
for PSY389
".
APA Style Guide - M. Plonsky, Ph.D.
http://www.uwsp.edu/psych/apa4b.htn
Appendix 3 - Example ReferenceSection (below)
manuscript
page header
page number
References
Anisman, H., Remington, G., & Sklar,
Effec~s
of inescapable
performance:
shock
Catecholaminergic
of response
initiation
Psychopharmacoloqy,
6)(1),
and cholinergic
2, pp.
mediation
Depression: Clinical,
aspects.
New York: Hoeber.
(1979). A critiqueof animal analogues
of alcoholism. In E. Majchrowicz
Biochemistrv
escape
107-124.
and theoretical
Cicero, T. J.
on subsequent
and maintenance.
Beck, A. T. (1967).
experimental
L. S. (1979).
and otarmacolo£y
&
E. P. Noble (Eds.),
of ethanol
(Volume
New York: Plenum Press.
31-59).
Dorworth, T. R., & Overmier, J. B.
helplessness":
The therapeutic
effects
(1977).
On "learned
of electroconvulsive
shocks. Physioloqical Psvchology, 5, 355-358.
Plonsky,
writing
M.
guide
(1998). Psychology
(Version 3). Retrieved
with style: A hypertext
from the Web 9/1/98.
http://www.uwsp.edu/psych/apa4b.h~m
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
(1971). Alcoho~
Government
-
~nd cteal~h. Washington,
Printing
Office.
Appendix 4 Example Table (below)
DC: U.S.
PA Style Guide - M. Plonsky. Ph.D.
http://www.uwsp.edu/psych/apa4b.htm
manuscript
page header
page number
Figure Captions
Figure
1. .Mean activity
counts
as a function
of maternal
diet and age of the rat at the time of testing.
Figure
2. Number of people arrested
as related
to the day of the week.
'PJ,~.
Version 1 of this document went online 8/96.
Copyright ~ 1996-2000 by M. Plonsky
http://www.uwsp.edu/psych/apa4b.htm
2080:93 since 9/1/98.
Comments? l1lo[ollskv("duH'sfJ.edli.
for drunken
driving
Peer review at its best can screenout investigationsthat are poorly conceived,poorly designed,
poorly executed, trivial, marginal, or uninterpretable; it improves the quality of individual
manuscripts. steers research results to appropriatejournals. and helps people who are not experts
to decide what to believe.
Basilar & Patteson
DEFICIENCIES OF DESIGN
Overall
Inadequately derIDed
Inadequately controlled
Inadequate to answer the research
question
Important measurementsneglected
Unimportant outcome measures
Biases
Selection bias
'.
Interventionbias
Nonrespondent bias
Diagnostic suspicion bias
Exposure bias
Recall bias
Contamination bias
Withdrawal bias
Compliance bias
Measurement bias
Attention bias
DEFI CIEN CIES IN
PRESENTATION
Rationale confused, contradictory
Important work by others ignored
Failure to explicate experimentaldesign
Inadequate or inappropriate presentation
of data
Essential data omitted or ignored
Inappropriate manipulation of data
Poorly written; excessivejargon
Excessive zeal and self-promotion
Boring
DEFICIENCIES IN
INTERPRET ATION
Data too preliminary
Data inconclusive
Conclusions unsupported by data
Unconvincingevidence of cause and effect
R~ults statisticallysignificantbut clinically
irrelevant
Resu~~not generalizable
Excessive bias in interpretation
Insufficient recognition of previous resear,=h
Economic consequences ignored or
overinterpreted
DEFICIENCIES IN IMPORTANCE
Results unoriginal, predictable, or trivial
Issue outdated or no longer relevant
Results of narrow interest, highly
specialized
Risk factors of marginal importance
Few or no clinical implications
DEFICIENCES IN REPORTING
Lack of explicit approval from an
institutional review board