The Rise of the Picnic Hamper - Oxford Symposium on Food

Transcription

The Rise of the Picnic Hamper: Its Pleasurable and
Macabre Uses in Nineteenth-Century Britain
Diana Noyce
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Figure 1: Nineteenth century wicker picnic basket with cutlery, crockery, drink bottles
and tin containers for prepared meals, butter, salt and pepper.
Abstract: Throughout history, sharing food and drink has been regarded as a means of
achieving some level of communion with our fellow companions. The picnic, a pleasurable
excursion at which a meal is eaten outdoors (al fresco or en plein air), ideally taking place in
a picturesque setting, was a new form of sharing food. ‘The development of a new form of
food sharing is a momentous event in the history of a society’, says writer Andrew Hubbell,
Draft Version: Not for Citation or Attribution
The Rise of the Picnic Hamper
‘because it suggests that people are redefining how they identify themselves as individuals
and as part of a community’.
The picnic, as we know it today evolved from the second decade of the nineteenth
century onwards and played a significant role in the social life of the burgeoning British
urban middle-class. The rise of the picnic hamper followed the elevation of the picnic
itself as an acceptable fixture of the social calendar. This paper demonstrates how human
societies engage through material objects, in this case the picnic hamper and its contents,
with the physical world—it reveals people routinely use food to express relationships
amongst themselves and their environment whether it be in a picturesque landscape, while
travelling, at a sporting event or in a war zone.
The Rat brought the boat alongside the bank, made her fast, helped awkward Mole
safely ashore, and swung out the luncheon basket. The Mole begged to be allowed to
unpack it all by himself…. [He] took out all the mysterious packets one by one and
arranged their contents, gasping ‘Oh my! Oh my!’ at each fresh revelation.
The Wind in the Willows, (1908)
Introduction
Contemporary literary and visual arts are engaging sources to trace the rise of the picnic
hamper, a basket intended to hold and transport food and tableware for a picnic meal
that today is standard equipment at many picnics. The quote from Kenneth Graham’s
enchanting tale The Wind in the Willows reflected the British love of picnics.1 Writer
Georgina Battiscombe claims in English Picnics that, ‘although no climate in the world
is less propitious to picnics that the climate of England’, picnics became quintessentially
an English way of outdoor dining.2 The pleasurable excursion at which a meal is eaten
outdoors (al fresco or en plein air), ideally taking place in a picturesque landscape, was a
new way of sharing food. It became an acceptable fixture of the social calendar for Britain’s
burgeoning middle-class from the second decade of the nineteenth century, and with it
rose the use of the picnic hamper.
A picnic, according to the Macquarie Dictionary, is ‘an outing or excursion, typically
one in which those taking part carry food with them and share a meal in the open air.’
Although people have always eaten outdoors, it was not for the same reason or in the same
way as we know it today. Medieval hunting feasts, or Renaissance style country banquets,
for example, required hundreds of servants to carry, prepare and serve elaborate feasts. Field
labourers also ate outside, but their meals were usually brought to them, and they ate during
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a work break, not for pleasure. The idea of tramping out into the country to share a meal
while enjoying the scenery was neither possible nor desirable for these early al fresco diners.
So how did this new form of sharing food originate? According to Colin Spencer in
British Food, picnics came into being as meal times shifted, with the midday dinner moving
into the evening, and a light luncheon replacing it in the daytime. In Jane Austen’s time
(1775–1817) breakfast, usually taken around ten in the morning was followed by dinner at
half past three in 1798; at four in 1805, occasionally at five; never before five by 1808, and
in fashionable households at six thirty. As the gap between breakfast and dinner widened
and the pangs of hunger were felt between meals cold meats, pickles, cakes and jellies were
laid out on the sideboard, which evolved into luncheon, now a proper meal taken in the
middle of the day.3 The cold collation of portable sideboard dishes could also be packed into
a picnic hamper and eaten in the great outdoors.
In tandem with this development, the Romantics, an artistic, literary, and intellectual
movement that began at the end of the eighteenth century, made nature fashionable.
Previously there was a prevailing distaste for nature in her wilder aspects, at least by those
calling themselves civilised. Mountains and moors were regarded as places of interest
but not of beauty.4 The Romantics held that society had become fragmented as a result
of the French Revolution (1789–1799), industrialism, urbanism, secularisation and the
Napoleonic wars (1803–1815).5 Civilisation was corruption, and man had to return to
nature, implored the Romantic philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778).6 A close
connection with nature was mentally and morally healthy, and to eat outdoors, ‘liberated
the soul’, said Rousseau.7
The works of key figures in literature such as Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1875–1912), Sir
Walter Scott (1771–1832) and William Wordsworth (1770–1850), and in the visual arts,
the landscape paintings of John Constable (1776–1837) and Joseph Turner (1775–1851) for
example, encouraged the enjoyment of picturesque settings and vistas in the countryside.
Written at the close of the Napoleonic wars, William Wordsworth published in 1814,
his epic poem ‘The Excursion’.8 In the poem Wordsworth reflects on the fragmentation
of society and the disunity brought about by the French Revolution and industrialism.
Instead of articulating solutions that he believes will reunify British society, the poem
concludes with a description of a small community taking a pleasure excursion to a remote
spot in the country in order to share a rustic meal. The writer Andrew Hubbell interpreted
this ‘picnic’ as Wordsworth offering ‘a new custom for creating the bonds of identity
within a community and between the community and the land’.9 Indeed, after the French
Revolution, royal parks became open to the public for the first time and communal picnics,
known as fêtes champêtres, became a popular activity amongst the newly enfranchised
citizens. The British sometimes referred to a picnic as a fête.
Battiscombe states, that before the Romantics made nature au courant, ‘no one connected
the idea of pleasure with the notion of a meal eaten anywhere but under a roof ’.10 The term
‘picnic’, which entered the English language in the second half of the eighteenth century, is
derived from the French ‘pique-nique’, and originally referred to a meal eaten indoors where
each person either paid a share of the cost or contributed to the meal. The short lived Picnic
Society, formed in March 1802 (and ending in 1803), patronised by ‘persons of fashion’
including the Prince of Wales and his mistress, Mrs Fitzherbert, was an event held indoors,
but a decade later the word ‘picnic’ was used only in the sense of a meal eaten outdoors.11
Pleasure
The occasion of the outdoor picnic began to appear in the narratives of nineteenth
century novelists such as Jane Austen. In Jane Austen’s Emma (1816) an excursion is
proposed to picnic at the picturesque Box Hill which, to this day, is a popular picnic spot.
Austen employs the picnic to bring into play conflict in relationships with the possibility of
a resolution, as well as the enticing prospect of unchaperoned flirtation.
But plans go awry, and in the event there are two excursions, one to Donwell Abbey
to take advantage of the strawberries there, and the Box Hill excursion taking place the
following day. There is a debate as to whether the lunch should be taken in or out of
doors. One of Austen’s characters, Mr Knightly, was reluctant to eat outdoors, preferring
instead to have a table spread in the dining room.12 His disinclination perhaps suggests
the transition from indoor dining to outdoor dining was in its infancy. Moreover, to the
modern reader, Austen’s picnic was a rather formal occasion—a cold collation of pigeon
pies, cold lamb and gathered strawberries, eaten at a table with servants in attendance. Still,
what was formal then made a trestle-table in the open countryside seem exhilaratingly
abandoned. By the Victorian period (1837-1901), however, outdoor excursions to picnic
had become de rigueur, and picnickers were happy to sit on a picnic cloth spread on the
ground to eat their repast from a hamper.
Whether with family members, a group of friends or just an intimate romantic outdoor
meal for two, fresh air and natural beauty, adventure, no cooking, no tables and chairs,
and despite the constraints of Victorian attire, the freedom to lounge about on a blanket
eating cold food with their hands from a wicker basket, was a thrilling reversal of Victorian
societal rules and structure.13 With the sky as their roof and the ground as their table as
far as the Victorians were concerned eating a meal in the great outdoors amongst beautiful
scenery, confirmed that surely God was the consummate architect.
Sporting picnics became the acme of fashion, from cricket teas to boating suppers. By
mid-century, innumerable societies including architectural, archaeological, ecclesiastical
and temperance, held annual picnics. Picnics had become such a national pastime among
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the urban middle-class, that Mrs. Beeton, the Victorian arbiter of middle-class tastes and
manners, thought it necessary to include in her Book of Household Management published
in 1861, a Bill of Fare, as well as a list of ‘things not to be forgotten’ to be packed in hampers.
The collation of cold suggestions suitable for a genteel outdoor meal included cold joints
of roast beef, boiled beef, ribs of lamb, shoulders of lamb, roast fowls, roast ducks, ham,
tongue, veal and ham pies, pigeon pies, lobster, collared calf ’s head, lettuces, baskets of salad
and cucumbers.
As well, stewed fruit well sweetened, and put in glass bottles well corked, plain pastry
biscuits to eat with the stewed fruit, fruit turnovers, cheesecake, cold cabinet puddings in
moulds, blancmanges in moulds, jam puffs, cold plum pudding (this must be good), fresh
fruit, plain biscuits, cheese, butter (this includes butter for tea), bread, bread rolls, plum
cakes, pound cakes, sponge cakes, a tin of mixed biscuits, and tea. Coffee was thought not
suitable for a picnic, being difficult to make.
‘Things not to be forgotten’ at a picnic included a stick of horseradish, a bottle of mince
sauce well corked, a bottle of salad dressing, a bottle of vinegar, mustard, pepper and salt,
good oil, and pounded sugar. Of course plates, tumblers, wine glasses, knives, forks, and
spoons, and corkscrews were not to be forgotten; as also teacups and saucers, teapots, lump
sugar and milk.
Beverages should include ale packed in hampers; ginger beer, soda water and lemonade,
sherry, claret, champagne, and any other light wine that might be preferred, as well as
brandy.14
The picnic baskets or hampers ranged from a simple open wicker basket as depicted
in Édouard Manet’s 1862 controversial painting, Le déjeuner sur l’ herbe (The Luncheon
on the Grass), to one consisting of a single large storage space, usually with a handle and
flaps that opened at both ends on the top. More elaborate baskets were made of wood and
wicker and boasted lids with intricate metal hinges, hook clasps and handles with clips
on the inside to hold plates, utensils, and a large picnic cloth. The latter baskets often bore
their owners initials either inscribed, embossed or embroidered. Picnic hampers were also
made of leather. Towards the end of the 19th century the motor car began traversing the
British countryside and in 1901, British luxury-goods retailers like Asprey began stocking
hampers filled with tableware for motorists to take on country drives. The travel outfitter
G.W. Scott & Sons made picnic hampers complete with copper kettle and burner.
Commercial picnic hampers were popular amongst the upper echelons of British society.
The purveyor Fortnum & Mason were the first to provide ready-made hampers, a service
available to this day. The classic wicker basket embossed with the now famous F&M logo
was developed in the 1740s to meet the demands of well-heeled travellers journeying by
coach to their country estates to see their families and friends, or to ‘take the waters’ in Bath.
The hampers held delicacies such as game pies, fresh bread, West Country butter, scotched
eggs, cheese, hothouse fruit and rich fruit cake, with mineral water, small beer and hock to
drink.15 By the time of the Great Exhibition in 1851, ready-to-eat dishes were all the rage.
An 1849 Fortnum & Mason catalogue reveals the purveyor provided an enormous range
of luxury tinned and prepared foods for the traveller, hunting parties and those attending
sporting events—ragout of veal, Bombay mangoes, bottled and green truffles, lobster and
wild duck which required no cutting, as well as wines and spirits to name a few.16
In the Victorian era, the ‘London Season’ held in the summer months consisted of as
many outdoor cultural events as indoor—Harrow and Eton cricket match, Henley Regatta,
Cowes Regatta, the Epsom Derby—and Fortnum & Mason supplied picnic hampers for
the spectators on these occasions. Derby Day was a particularly important day in the
calendar, with carriages queuing from four in the morning to pick up the Fortnum’s picnic
basket. Charles Dickens wrote in Harper’s New Monthly Magazine of the Epsom Derby
in August 1851; ‘Look where I will.... I see Fortnum & Mason. And now, Heavens! all the
hampers fly wide open and the green downs burst into a blossom of lobster salad!’17
Beginning in September, the ‘hunting season’ followed the ‘London Season’. From
the hunting feast of Tudor and Stuart times descended the shooting luncheon. It was an
opportunity to see and be seen by the elite of the society and perhaps to have a new outfit
made for the occasion. Charles Dickens in Pickwick Papers, published in 1836-7, poked
gentle fun at a shooting luncheon when the picnic hamper was unpacked for Mr Pickwick:
‘Weal pie,’ said Mr Weller, soliloquising, as he arranged the eatables on the grass.
‘Wery good thing is weal pie, when you know the lady as made it, and is quite sure it
an’t kittens...Tongue; well that’s a wery good thing when it an’t a woman’s. Bread –
knuckle o’ham, reg’lar picter – cold beef in slices, wery good. What’s in them stone
jars, young touch-and-go?’
‘Beer in this one,’ replied the boy, taking from his shoulder a couple of large stone
bottles, fastened together by a leathern strap - ‘cold punch in t’other.’18
Picnic baskets also became the traveller’s companion. Paradoxically, although the
Romantic Movement opposed industrialism, and at the same time encouraged people to get
out into the country, this was not possible until industrialisation brought about improved
roads and convenient transportation. The railway, an essentially British invention, burst
upon the English country side in the 1840s providing inexpensive and rapid transportation
for the multitudes. The nineteenth century revolution in transport what’s more produced
faster steamships, which dramatically cut travel time and costs. This had a major impact
on the development of travel and tourism. Travel for pleasure became a possibility for a far
greater number of people.
For the rail journey, reasonably priced picnic hampers made in both wicker and tin
could be purchased at the railway station containing a ready-made picnic meal and cutlery
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(and then returned afterward). For those travelling further afield say to the Continent for
a month long Grand Tour the picnic basket along with a guide book, an umbrella and a
hat box to conceal the chamber pot, made up the accoutrements of the ‘pleasure’ tourist.19
If the Victorians enjoyed the pleasures of picnicking at outdoor events during the
‘London season’, and at peaceful idyllic settings or while travelling, they were not averse to
extending their cultural pursuits not only on foreign shores, but to a war zone.
Macabre: A Taste for War
188
Human beings have always possessed a morbid curiosity. The Romans staged fights between
individuals and wild animals to entertain the public at sites like the Coliseum; crowds
flocked to public hangings during the medieval period; and the guillotine provided endless
entertainment for the proletariat during the French Revolution. The Victorians were no
exception.
Through a sense of social engagement and to see their countrymen in action, British
tourist ventured to the battle fields of the Crimean peninsula in the Black Sea where the
British were engaged in a war along with the French against the Russians. The Crimean
War (1854-1856) was the first major war from which photographs and newspaper reportage
hit the breakfast tables and parlours of the Victorian middle class and well-to-do. The
new ‘media coverage’ revealed the realities of war which piqued the public’s interest and
motivated the war tourist to see for themselves firsthand the horrors of war, as well as to
take the opportunity to extend the ‘London Season’ on foreign shores.
The first tourist ship to the Crimea, the iron paddle steamer, City of Glasgow left
London a month before Christmas in 1854 with 100 tourists on aboard. By spring, tourists
(accompanied by their servants) began to arrive in the Crimea by the shipload on private
yachts and on steamers. Tourists (both male and female), were able to take advantage of
the £5 a head packaged tour on offer in the British press by the shipping firm Inman for
a fortnight’s travel and accommodation, including visits to Constantinople and to the
battlefields.20
The arrival of tourists started a burst of social and military activity behind the lines.
The Crimean war not only became a military campaign but a culinary campaign. The
British, that is, the upper echelons of British society, were intent on recreating their cultural
pursuits on Russian soil. ‘Picnics were the order of the day’, wrote Captain Robert Portal
to his sister. Lazy picnics were taken on Crimea’s craggy coast with its spectacular views
of clear blue sea. The women wearing the new crinoline fashion, along with the men, also
made inland excursions to picnic amid the bleached bones of the fallen in the valley of
the Light Brigade’s fateful charge, a battle immortalised by the poet Alfred Tennyson
(1809–1892). A favourite picnic spot was the monastery of St George, five miles (8 km)
from Balaclava, and tourists didn’t mind climbing over rocks and patches of marshland,
intersected by narrow paths covered with vines and shrubs to reach it. Coastal trips by
yacht within gunshot distance of the Russians, band concerts and cavalry reviews, and
many ‘capital dinners’ were put on for the benefit of the tourists, delighted as the men were
to have the pleasure of their company.21
In their urge to recreate English society in the Crimea, for the British officer class so far
from home, spring in the Crimea took on an air of normality with the resumption of the
traditional sports of racing, hunting (not the traditional fox, but feral dogs that roamed the
Crimea) and cricket matches. ‘Can this be a journal of a campaign? I think I must change
its name to a new edition of the Racing Calender’, wrote Fanny Duberly in March 1855.22
Fanny, who had followed her paymaster husband Captain Henry Duberly to the Crimea,
was anticipating the start of the racing season. She thought it ‘wonderful, that men who
have been starved with cold and hunger, drowned in rain and mud, wounded in action, and
torn with sickness’, should, in the first warm, balmy days of spring, be eager for ‘the sport
of kings’, ‘a national English sport on Russian territory’.23 Along with the men, the women
attended the race meetings complete with parasols, opera glasses and picnic baskets. ‘The
Russians must certainly think us an odd race of people’, observed George Cavendish Taylor,
‘to carry all our national institutions about and establish them wherever we go’.24Thus, the
Crimea became a hermetically sealed part of old England and by the spring of 1855 it was
transformed into one great country club to which the war was increasingly an adjunct.25
Picnic hampers were brought over from London purchased at Fortnum & Mason, or
provisions for a picnic could be procured from the sutler town of Kadikoi (a sutler was
generally a female who was an independent, usually small-time trader whose job it was to
sell provisions to military personnel). The German purveyor Oppenheims, ‘the Rothschild
of the provision market’, who had been provisioning armies since the 1700s, had opened up
on a half-acre site in the sutlers’ town where the best champagne, hock, claret and bottled
beer, as well as every kind of cured and potted meat, pickles, preserves and hams, French
chocolate, roasted coffee, and tins of Albert biscuits could be purchased for a picnic. At
Kadikoi, Oppenheims monopolised trade and were so successful that they later were
allowed to build a second outlet at the 4th Division camp near the observation point at
Cathcart’s Hill.26 However, they soon found some competition. Tourists’ numbers had as
the war progressed, increased to such an extent that Fortnum & Mason set up shop too in
the Crimea. Now picnic hampers could be bought on the spot, they no longer needed to be
brought over from London.
The appetite for witnessing war at first hand meant the highlight of the Crimean
excursions was to see the army in action. A visit to the sites of the battles of Alma, Balaklava
and Inkerman, and then thrill to the live action of the soon to be renewed vigour of the
bombardment of Sebastopol was very much part of the tourist itinerary. Impelled by
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curiosity, the cultural pursuit of visiting battlefields was established many years before
during the Napoleonic wars when the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 was observed from a safe
distance by a few male members of the British nobility replete with a Fortnum & Mason
picnic hamper.27 The Crimean theatre of war, however, became a macabre spectator-sport—
the common soldiers were the players watched by an audience of ladies and gentlemen from
the British middle and upper classes—the tourist.
Tourists could be seen with telescopes of all sizes roaming about the countryside with
picnic basket in hand jostling for the best view of the ‘killing fields’. The tourists settled
down in the hope of enjoying a sight that would justify the cost and trouble of their journey.
What time was the curtain likely to rise? They looked at their watches. And they looked at
their picnic baskets that each little party was going to open between the intervals of battle,
and if a stray shot or two from the Russians went in their direction, the visitors accepted
the risk as part of the entertainment.28 And as time wore on, while many were dying every
hour in the trenches and British artillerymen were being hurled high into the air by massive
explosions, ‘their bodies appearing in the distance like birds on the wing’, the presence of
shiploads of tourists increased.29
The third bombardment of Sebastopol, which took place on 8 June, saw a large crowd
of spectators gather to catch the view of the massacre of 6,000 British and allied troops.30
Another bombardment took place on 18 June at Cathcart’s Hill. Tourists hauling picnic
baskets arrived just before dawn and sat all day long in the heat to watch 3,500 French
soldiers killed and 1,500 British cut to shreds in a hail of grapeshot and bullets, and ‘the
ladies thoroughly enjoyed the fun’, wrote Captain Portal.31 And it wasn’t just the British
who enjoyed a good battle while picnicking.
Across the Atlantic, some hundreds of American Civil War tourists made a seven hour
carriage ride for a weekend excursion to watch about 50,000 soldiers take part in the First
Battle of Bull Run fought on 21 July 1861 in Prince William County, Virginia, near the
city of Manassas. Expecting an easy Union victory, the wealthy elite of nearby Washington,
including congressmen and their families, had come to picnic and watch the battle. The
tourists made pies and packed lunches into picnic baskets. Arriving in the evening the
tourists set up camp and rose at dawn to ready themselves for the impending battle. As
the cannons began to roar so did the crowd. Charging to the valley of death as Tennyson
noted in the Crimean war, boys bled and husbands struggled to hold in their insides
from grapeshot wounds while the war tourists picnicked and 4,700 lives were lost. The
Confederates though, overtook the Union Army. Hoping for a hot meal and a comfortable
bed the tourists turned for home to begin work again on the Monday. However, the roads
back to Washington became clogged with the retreating Union army and panicked civilians
attempting to flee in their carriages.32
In conclusion, picnics were a new way of sharing food and it redefined how people
engaged with each other and their environment. Thus, picnics and the picnic hamper
came to play a significant role in the social life of the British in the nineteenth century,
at least for the upper echelons of society. However, picnics are not unique to the British;
today people from all cultures and all classes of society enjoy a picnic. Nevertheless, the
British model provides compelling insight into how human societies engage through
material objects, in this case the picnic hamper and its contents, with the physical world—
it demonstrates people routinely use food to express relationships amongst themselves and
their environment whether it be in a picturesque setting, while travelling, at a sporting
event or perched on a hill above the scene of a forthcoming battle.
191
Figure 2: A picnic party attended by a servant is perched on the hills above the scene of a
forthcoming battle during the Crimean War. Artist C. L. Doughty, c. 1971.33
Notes
192
1. Kenneth Grahame. The Wind in the Willows. (London: Vintage, 2012), 11.
2. Georgina Battiscombe. English Picnics. (London: Harvell Press, 1949), 1.
3. Colin Spencer. British Food: An Extraordinary Thousand Years of History. (New York: Columbia
University Press, 2002), 256.
4. Battiscombe, 63.
5. Andrew Hubbell. ‘I picnic lonely as a cloud’. Times Higher Education. 7 March 2003. <http://www.
timeshighereducation.co.uk/175225.article>, accessed April, 2013.
6. Maxine Feifer. Going Places: The Ways of the Tourist from Imperial Rome to the Present Day. (London:
Macmillan, 1985), 139.
7. Solomon H. Katz. Encyclopedia of Food and Culture. (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2003), 68.
8. William Wordsworth. ‘The Excursion’. The Complete Poetical Works. (London: Macmillan and Co.,
1888); Bartleby.com, 1999. <www.bartleby.com/145/>. Accessed April 2013.
9. Hubbell.
10. Battiscombe, 3.
11. Kate Crookenden, Caroline Worlledge and Margaret Wiles. The National Trust Book of Picnics.
(London: National Trust, 1993), 13-14.
12. Jane Austen. Emma. (London: Penguin Classics, 1996), 330-352.
13. Margaret Visser. The Rituals of Dinner. (Great Britain: Viking, 1992), 150-151.
14. Nicola Humble, (ed). Mrs Beeton’s Book of Household Management. (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2000), 391.
15. Fortnum & Mason. The History of the Hamper. <http://www.fortnumandmason.
com/c-385-the-history-of-the-hamper-fortnum-and-mason.aspx>, accessed January, 2013.
16. Fortnum & Mason & Co. Preserved Provisions for Pleasure Yachts, Cabin Stores, The East and West
Indies and General Sea and Family Use. (London: Fortnum & Mason, 1849), 1-10.
17. Charles Dickens. “Race Horses and Horse Races”. Harper’s New Monthly Magazine, Vol. 3, No. 15,
August, pp329-334. Henry Mills Alden, Frederick Lewis Allen (Eds) (New York: Harper & Brothers,
1852), 333.
18. Charles Dickens. The Pickwick Papers. (London: Penguin Classics, 1999), 252.
19. Feifer, 172.
20. Piers Compton. Colonel’s Lady and Camp Follower. (London: Robert Hale, 1970), 137.
21. Ibid. 158-161.
22. Francis Isabella Duberly. Journal Kept During the Russian War, From the Departure of the Army from
England in April 1854, to the Fall of Sebastopol. (London: Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans,
1856), 177.
23. Ibid. 171-173.
24. Helen Rappaport. No Place for Ladies: the Untold Story of Women in the Crimean War. (Great Britain:
Aurum Press, 2007), 197-198.
25. Ibid, 190.
26. Ibid, 185-186
27. Annabel Venning. Following the Drum: The lives of Army wives and daughters, past and present.
(London: Headline Book Publishing, 2005), 186.
28. Compton, 91,166.
29. Rapapport, 204.
30. Ibid, 205.
31. Compton, 166.
32. Bowers, Andy. 2011. “The First Civil War Tourists”. Slate. Podcast by Nate DiMeo. <http://www.slate.
com/articles/podcasts/podcasts/2011/08/the_first_civil_war_tourists.html> accessed January, 2013.
33. Look and Learn. 2007. Wives in the Crimean War. <http://www.lookandlearn.com/history-images/
A005332/Wives-in-the-Crimean-War> accessed January, 2013.

The Rise of the Picnic Hamper - Oxford Symposium on Food

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