Teglasi (1998) - University of Utah
Transcription
Teglasi (1998) - University of Utah
/tt^r- ¿'o School Psycholo gt Revíew 1998, Vol. 27, No. 4, pp. 564-585 Temperament Constructs and Measures Hedwig Teglasi University of Maryland ,i.ir Abstract: The documented importance oftemperament in explaining individual variability in development and adjustm_ent continues to spur interest in research even as contrasting theoretical perspectives are being debated. This review examines umesolved conceptua'í issues in the measurement, of temperament. Despite many psychometric problems and conceptual shortcomings of measures derived from various perspectives thai are available to-assess temperament, the constructs themselves have important implications for the practice ofpsychology. Temperament is an active area of research with demonshated relevance for the ment¿l health construct validity (Goldsmith, Reiser-Danner, field. Even as currently and incompletely conceptualized, temperament has demonstrated utility to explain behavioral individuality as well as to predict the development of mental health disorders (e.g., Carey, 1986; Guerin, Gotffried & Thomas, 1997; Matheny, 1989; Maziade, Cote, Boutin, & Thivierge, 1989; Rutter, l9B7), particularly in combination with other risk factors (e.g., Sanson, Oberklaid, Pedlow, & Prior, 1991). ln addition, temperament has been identified as contributing to resilience and resourcefulness in the face of adversity (e.g., Grizenko & Fisher, 1992; Gunnar, 1995; Smith & Prior, 1995). Accurate measurement of temperament constructs is needed to design appropriate school, community, and home-based programs and/or interventions. Within the field of temperament investigation, the many choices of dimensions identified as separate elements, how they should be combined, and their proper measurement given these choices constitute a continuing debate. Many shortcomings of available instruments have been documented including inconsistent stability, low interrater reliability, and questions about & Briggs, 1991; Hubert, Wachs, Peters-Martin, & Gandour, 1982;Kagan, 1998; Rothbart & Bates, 1 998; Slabach, Mono\il, & Wachs, 1991 Windle, ; 1988). This review highlights the unresolved conceptual issues and problems with measure- ment. Limitations in conceptualization and measurement must be taken into account by practitioners when applying existing knowledge to practice. General Approaches to MeasurÍng Temperament Three techniques for measuring behavioral manifestations of temperament are question- naires, laboratory, or natwalistic observations and interviews. Questionnaire procedures are the most commonly used to assess temperament because the method is relatively inexpensive and easy to use. Parents ofyoung children are considered to be good informants due to their vested interest in closely observing their child and their ability to report on subtle variation on many aspecti of behavior not amenable to assessment in the Iaboratory. On the other hand, parent questionnaires have been criticized for observer bias and The author wishes to thank Roy P. Martin for comments on a draft of this article. all_corespondence conceming this artic.le to Hedwig Teglasi, 3214 Benjanin Bldg., University Maryland, College Park, MD 20742. E-mail: [email protected]¿.èdu.f_ddrgss copyright 1998 by the National Association of school psychologists, ISSN 0z'lg-601s 564 of Temperament Constructs inaccuracy in recollections, observations, or interpretations. Although some have found adequate correspondence between maternal ratings of temperament and laboratory observations (e.g., Matheny, Wilson, & Nuss, 1984), Iow that temperament constructs as assessed with agreement (in the .20 to .40 range) between parent report and standard laboratory observations has been more typical (e.g., Bomstein, Gaughran, & Seg¡ri, 1991). These discrepancies are atlributed frequently to inadequacy ofparent report (Kagan, least in part, the intrinsic child characteristics. 1998; Seifer, Sameroffl, Barrett, & Krafchuk, 1994). Possible reasons for the inadequacy of parent report have been suggested as follows (Kagan, 1998; Sameroff, Seifer, & Elias, 1982; Seifer et al., 1994; Vaughn, Bradley, Joffe, Seifer, 1987). & Barglow, 1. Parents may be systematically biased about the behavior of their own children. In an effort to present a picture oftheir child that is consistent with their preconceptions (schema), parents may magniff some characteristics and minimize others. " 565 2. Parents do not possess a normative base to use as a reference point in evaluating their child's behavior. 3. Parents may be so responsive to their child's temperamental individuality that their ratings do not reflect their child's typical behavior in a less protected setting. 4. Parents may differ in how they interpret specific items. 5. Shortcomings of questionnaire measurement techniques may preclude the demonstration of their validity. For example, Kagan (1998) noted that parent ratings of a child's fearful disposition cannot distinguish between fearful tendencies that are rooted in biology from those that were acquired without biological bias. The fallacy of automatically assuming that professional observations are superior to parent ratings has been discussed (Carey, 1983). Evidence of validity and reliability of observational techniques should be as stringent as for rating scales (Rothbart & Bates, 1998). It may be ftÍtful to view parental reports as qualitatively different from observer perceptions and to document their validity separately from observer ratings. When mothers and observers reported on infants' behavior during a specified time period, agreement was moderate. Agreement declined when mothers' ratings of infants' typicalbehaviot were compared with what observers reported during a specified time period (Bornstein et al., 1991). Bates and Bayles (1984) have suggested maternal ratings have three components: objective, subjective, and error. They concluded that measurement of temperament was not dominated by subjective factors and did tap, at The best source of information about temperament may depend upon various considerations such as the particular temperament dimension to be studied and age ofthe child. For example, the contrived and unfamiliar laboratory encounter (or visit to the dentist) may be wellsuited for the purpose of studying aspects of the child's reactions to novelty. In contrast, parent reports may be dominated by observations in the familiar home setting. Laboratory or home observations are feasible at younger ages. However, when children are older, it is difficult for those who are not typically involved with the child to observe a full range of spontaneous behavior. The frequent overlap between ratings of temperament and problematic behaviors found in the literature has sparked questions about the construct validity of temperament measures. Specifi cally, the high conelations found between measures of temperament and behavior problems could be taken as evidence that they are not conceptually distinct. This conceptual distinction was elegantly demonstrated by data showing that subsequent to intervention there are changes in maternal ratings of behavior problems but not in ratings of temperament (Sheeber, 1995). Neither questionnaires nor laboratory observations provide information about continuities or discontinuities ofbehavior unless they are repeated with the passage of time. While such repeated sampling of behavioral style is a good research strategy, it is less useful to the clinician evaluating a child's temperament. A structured interview formatprovides the flexibility to gather historical data to trace the manner in which the same temperament characteristic is expressed at various ages. Furthermore, historical information can reveal reactions shaped by other factors that override temperament. For example, during a structured temperament interview, a mother reported to the authorthat her 7-year-old daughter who had always been cheerful and easy going had become init¿ble and destructive during the past six months. The child's increasing difficulties with peer interactions and performance demands in school seemed to contribute to this shift. Another distinct advantage of the interview ii ii s66 School Psychologt Review,1998, Vol.27, No.4 format is that informants can be asked about the circumstances in which a temperament trait is manifested. Various informants such as parents and teachers may elicit different behaviors and may focus on different types of situations. Poor agreement among raters of questionnaire measures is often ascribed to such contextual differences in perceptions of various informants about the child. The interview technique may be i", : j\: :l ii: helpful in reconciling the discrepancies typically found in the literature. Structured temperament interviews are not frequently used in research probably because they are labor intensive. However, due to their potential benefit for clinical use, the.re is a need to develop reliable standard interviews that are suitable for various ages. The documented applicability of the temperament construct to a variety of developmental and mental health issues and the increasing use of temperament scales call for research to elaborate and refine conceptualization and to design improved measures. In the meantime, currently available scales can be helpful tools if used flexibly in conjunction with other sowces of information. Methods and Constructs Researchers agree on basic definitional properties oftemperament (see Teglasi, this issue) but differin their focus on specific constructs and research methodologies. It has been suggested that the method of measurement is an integral part of the construct which, therefore, should be defined in construct-method units (Kagan, I 988). The close tie between the measurement procedures selected to study temperament and the constructs that emerge raises the possibility that questionnaire and laboratory procedures do not measure the same phenomena (Kagan, 1994). Consider parent report versus a laboratory observation of an infant's level of initability. A laboratory observation of dishess or initability would present a series of aversive stimuli and would evaluate the degree, latency, and duration ofthe response. In contrast, parent ratings seek information about frequency or likelihood ofthe infant to show distress under specified circumstances such as limit¿tions or unexpected stimuli. These two approaches may not assess the same aspects of the irritability construct. Apart from the question of reliability (e.g., parent bias or typicality of child's behavior during the observation), differences in the source and type ofdata (such as parent or teacher description, self-report laboratory or naturalistic observation, physiological indices) as well as the method of data aggregation used (e.g., conceptual, factor analytic) influences the basic terminologies and their classification into categories. Thus, discrepancies between methods cannot be attributed to the shortcomings of any particular measurement mode but must be understood as representing different facets of the construct. Even within a single approach to measurement such as the questionnaire, the meaning of the construct depends on the informant and the specific way in which the instrument defines the temperament dimensions measured. Constructs in Rating Scale Measrxes This section reviews three approaches to developing questionnaire measures of temperament. New York Longitudinal Study.In the wellknown New York Longitudinal study (NYLS), Thomas and Chess (1977) used parents' descriptions of their infants as the primary basis for proposing nine dimensions of temperament (see the article authored by Carey in this issue for a description of these dimensions). It is therefore not surprising that the dimensions and items represented focus on concerns that are salient to early caregiving and mirror the language used by parents. Soothability (distractibility from a distressed state), for instance, is an æpect ofinfant temperament that affects interaction with caregivers. The ease with which parents can comfort their infant influences their sense of competence regarding parenting skills (Komer, lg7l).Thomas and Chess (1977) developedtwo separate measures (The Parent Temperament Questionnaire [PTQ] and Teacher Temperament Questionnaire [TTQ]) to assess the nine dimensions in children between the ages of 3 and 7. Subsequently, fow scales to assess temperament at various ages were developed by William Carey, in accordance with the nine dimensional conceptualization of a pediatrician and his colleagues Chess and Thomas. 'Windle and Lerner (1986) used the nine dimensional constructs as a starting point to develop an age continuous measure (ranging from preschool to college) with a common factor structure across the age span. The authors note that retaining the same wording (except forpronoun) permits the scale to address Temperament Constructs 567 development of self-regulation occurs with the developmental questions. Bates, Freeland, and Lounsbury 0979) developed the Infant Characteristics Questionnaire (ICQ) by applying the passage of time through the interactions among maturation, experience, and higher level cognitive temperament is the frequent and intense expression of negative affect. Others such as Bohlin, Hagekull, and Lindhagen (1981) in Sweden developed infant temperament scales based on the NYLS conceptualization. Specific components ofthese broad concepts are identifi ed as homogeneous subscales permitting a highly differentiated assessment of broad components. For example, positive or negative NYLS conceptualization toward the goal of identifying diffi cult characteristics in infants. They suggested that the core of the difficult Emotionality, Activity, and Sociabil¡ty. Buss and Plomin (1975,1984) set out to explain the constitutional substrates of developrnental individuality. Therefore, they focus on temperament dimensions with aheritable basis that appear early in life and suggest dimensions of emotionality, activity, and sociability (EAS). According to this formulation, traits that have a biological basis but are programmed to emerge later in life are excluded. In constructing their scale, Buss and Plomin used a combination of factor analysis and theoretical conceptualization. They'viewed temperament traits as multidimensional. For instance, Emotionaliry included general negative afÏect and specific elements such as fear and anger. Actívityincorporated elements such as vigor and tempo. Sociability included tendencies of gregariousness and preferences to be with others. Impulsivity (which was subsequently dropped due to insufficient evidence for heritability) included components such as inhibitory control, decision time, sensationseeking, and persistence. Rowe and Plomin (1977) combined 54 items from the nine NYLS dimensions with 20 items from the EASI (an earlier version of the EAS which included Impul sivity). The result ing 7 4 -item Chil dren' s Colorado Temperament Inventory (CCTI) included six factors: Sociability, Activity, Emotionality, Attention Span-Persistence, Reaction to Food, and Soothability. Reactivity and Self-Regulation. Rothbart and Derryberry's (1981) model posits reactivity and self-regulation as key components of temperament (see Rothbart & Jones, this issue). Both are functions of neurobiological processes. Reactivity refers to the arousability of motor, affective, and sensory response systems. Selfregulation is the attempt to modulate (increase or decrease) reactivity through the processes of attentional focusing and inhibitory control. The and emotional processes. Scales developed by Rothbart and her colleagues have employed a framework that defines aspects of reactivity and self-regulation as dimensions of temperament. emotional reactivity is broken down into components such as sadness, fear, distress to limitation, initability, smiling, and laughter as well asjoyto low intensity stimuli. Likewise, selÊ regulatory mechanisms have been parsed into components of attention, activity, behavioral inhibition, and inhibitory control. Shelau (1983) proposed a similar distinction between reactivity in terms of arousal of the Central Nervous System (CNS) and actívity to moderate that arousal. He and his colleagues conceptualized temperament within the Neo-Pavlovian tradition on the basis of three hypothetical properties of the nervous system: strength of excitation, strength of inhibition, and mobility (ability to prioritize excitability and inhibition in a particular context or adaptive fl exibility). Each theoretical perspective on temperament provides insight about the role of temperament in development and a framework for its measure- ment. However, the field lacks a clearly articulated structure to assess the complex relationships of various dimensions of temperament that have implications for adjustment. Many temperament measures currently used are based in whole or part on the nine dimensions derived from the NYLS (Thomas & Chess, 1977). Factor analytic studies have shown that these temperament dimensions, though used in currently popular instruments, overlap (e.g., McClowry, Hegvik, & Teglasi, 1993); items constituting these nine dimensions generate five to seven factors based on parent ratings, and three factors with teacher ratings (for a review, see Martin, Wisenbaker, & Huttunen, 1994). These findings are often used to justify the construction of scales with fewer dimensions. Scales based on item level factor analyses of the nine dimensions are exemplified by the Temperament Assessment Battery for Children (TABC; Martin, 1988) and its subsequent revision (TABC-R; Martin & Bridger, unpublished manuscript) as well as by the School Age Temperament Inventory (SATI; McClowry, T\ff\ s68 Irî4ft\ School Psychologt Review,1998, 1995). Likewise, using factor analysis, Keogh, Pullis and Cadwell (1982) developed the short form of the TTQ. The use of factor analytic techniques to eliminate potentially useful dimensions is a source of debate within the temperament field (Carey & McDevitt, 1995). Carey and his colleagues have argued for measures to keep concepts like adaptability because of their importance to parents, teachers, and educators, even if these constructs do not retain their distinctiveness in factor analytic studies. The matter of retaining dimensions on questionnaire measures should not rest exclusively with factor analysis but also consider the relationships of those dimensions with external criteria and theoretical constructs. Nevertheless, factor analysis is a useful technique to examine constructs and suggest avenues for further study. For instance, the finding that the distractibility factorbreaks into two components during infancy suggests that these two dimensions are worthy of study (Rothbart & Mauro, 1990) rather than concluding that distractibility is not reliably measured and dropping it from the scale. The language of scales that are named according to theory or factor structures have scientific appeal. Yet, their translation into terms that match the client's concerns is a challenge for the practitioner. Understanding the basic constructs permits the professional to move between scientific terminology and the experience of clients. The pervasive influence of concepts and measures derived from the framework proposed by Thomas and Chess may be credited to its clinical origins. Various temperament questionnaires developed from the perspectives described are listed in Appendix A. Conceptual Issues in Measurement Definitions of constructs connect abstract ideas called latent-traits that cannot be seen directly to specific observable responses (e.g., Cronbach & Meehl, 1955; Murphy & Shofer, 1988). Basically, constructs name ideas such as temperament dimensions and define various observable manifestations. A broader construct such as negative emotionality may be defined in terms of specific subconstructs such as initability or fear. In turn, each subcomponent is defined in terms of specific observable manifestations such as crying or fussing. Further specification would Vol.27, No.4 identiff the eliciting conditions such as crying to noise or restraint. Thus, the construct permits understanding of various behaviors that are similar in some way. If constructs cannot be directly seen, then they must be ínfened from observable data. Therefore,limitations in the data restrict the scope of the constructs, and flaws in the constructs constrain the data sought. Researchers working with different assumptions and drawing inferences from different types and sources of information will understandably develop different constructs. Having defined relevant constructs, one obvious question is whether items on rating scales that measure constructs should ask raters to respond to qpecifc behaviors or global cltaracteristics (e.g.,traits, concepts). A global item would ask respondents to rate a child's persistence. A highly specific item would ask if the child completes a particular task under certain conditions. It is important to note that a child can be persistent yet fail to complete tasks because of tendencies to be perfectionistic, difficulty understanding what is required, or inflexible (perseverative) strategies. Such conceptual distinctions are usually not considered in scale construction, and the professional must bring this understanding to the evaluation. There are relative advantages and disadvantages to global and specific items. Kagan (1998) argues for increasing specificity of items by indicating the eliciting conditions for responses. Accordingly, an infant's crying should be coded as "crying to noises, restraint, novelty, or pain." Likewise, smiling should be coded more specifically as "smiling to a face, a mobile, a completed goal related action, tickling or the violation of an expectation norm." (p. 206). Ratings of such specific everyday behaviors appear less subject to rater bias than general judgments about temperament dimensions. Yet, global ratings of temperament (e.g., easy or difficult temperament) appear to be as good or better than profiles based on more specific behavioral ratings in predicting other indices of behavioral adjustment or maladjustment (Sanson et al., 1991). Furthermore, when global ratings are requested in addition to the specific behavioral ratings, these ratings do not coincide with the expected profiles drawn from responses to the specific behaviors (Carey & McDevitt, 1978;, Sanson, Prior, Garino, Oberklaid, & Sewell, 1987). It is possible that global ratings implicate a broad range of variables including some that Temperament Constructs are not incorporated in the temperament measure that may influence reports of adjustment. Progress in science depends on the refinement of constructs and theirmeasures. Optimally, 1981; Strelau, 1983; Zuckerman, 1979,1994). Theories focusing on arousal regulation imply situation-specificity because situations and tasks have different stimulative value, and individuals there would be a match between naturally vary in their reactions to various levels and types occurring levels of a construct with data produced by measurement devices. Conceptual clarity and the link between measures and constructs is key of stimulation. to the continued refinement of questionnaire measures. Considerations that are important to the development and use of temperament scales are reviewed next. Situational Specifi citY Although there is a diversity of opinion on ' s69 A construct such as threshold of sensitivity may be specific to a particular sensory modality (visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, tactile) and class of physical or social stimuli. Incorporating such distinctions by defining subdimensions of this construct according to the specific situation and sensory modality permits linkages between measures and theories involving arousal regula- tion or stimulus seeking that may relate to different biological subsystems. Even if we the matter (see Kohnstamm, 1986), the dominant concluded that aggregating across situations is view is that temperament is cross-situationally consistent (Strelau & Eysenck, 1987). This position is reflected in most temperament questionnaires that minimize the impact of situationally specific variables by aggregating the best index of temperament, the applicability ofthe constructs would still require us to explore systematic variations in situations. Eliasz (1990) items that sample a broad range of situations (e.g., Buss & Plomin, 1984; Carey & McDevitt,1978; Martin, 1988; Windle & Lemer, 1986). Classical test theory teaches that aggregation increases validity because multiple items reveal behavioral consistency in a systematic way, whereas measurement error will be random across items (Rushton, Jackson, & Pannonen, 1981). Despite conceptions of temperament that insist on generality across types ofresponses and situations, there is increasing evidence for behavioral style being dependent on context. Goldsmith and Campos (1990) found negligible correlations between parameters of intensity, duration, and latency across responses to different laboratory situations. Thus, infants could not be generally classified as intense or slow to respond without reference to the type and context of the response. Goldsmith and Campos concluded that "the view of temperament that our results support is not the outmoded view of temperament as present at birth, rigidly stable across time and invariant across situations." (r. 1961). Instead, these authors see temperament as comprised of behavioral tendencies that are moderated by situations, occasions, and other dispositions. Situational-specificity is compatible with notions of activation, reactivity, and optimum arousal that have a key role in various theories of temperament and in biologically rooted conceptions of personality (e.g., Buss & Plomin, 1984; Mehrabian,l9TT; Rothbart & Derryberry, argued that the "continuity of behavior within well-defined classes of situations enables adequate prediction of behavior despite the existence of cross-situational differences" (p. 290). Even so, prediction is elusive because individuals can behave in ways that override their temperament grain. Item level factor analyses also are informa- tive with respect to the situation-specificity question. Rothbart and Mauro (1990) found two distress related factors, one being general irritability or distress-proneness and the other concerning fearful responses to novelty. The novel situation frequently emerges as an elicitor (and defining component) of some temperament traits (see Henderson & Fox, this issue). The social-nonsocial context also is pertinent. Goldsmith and Rothbart (1991) report that when they attempted to construct a general fearfulness scale in the TBAQ, their efforts resulted in a more narrowly conceptualized "social fearfulness" scale because items concerning fearful reactions to animals, loud sounds, the dark, and so on failed to correlate with other more social fear items. The question is not whether diffe¡ences exist across situations but how to view these differences so that they strengthen rather than dilute the temperament concept. Situation-specific discrepancies can be treated as indices of fundamental differences in temperament deflrned as process or style of interacting with specific types of stimuli. For instance, the temperament concept oflow threshold refers to sensitivity to weak stimuli. However, rather than considering School Psychologt Review,1998, Vol. 27, No. 4 570 sensitivity as general, it may be more fruitful to characterize individual differences in sensitivity by stimulus-specific patterns. The more global question of how sensitive isthe individual can be clarified by patterns showing precisely how the individual is sensitive. Documentation of situation-specifi c profiles is important to understanding the nature of the situations or environments to which the individual reacts in adaptive ormaladaptive ways as well as to underst¿nding the constructs themselves. Some biologically based temperament models explain differential sensitivity to stimuli signalling rewards and punishments. For example, Gray (1971, l99l) postulates a balance between positive and negative motivational systems. The "behavioral inhibition system" is responsive to negative stimuli in contrast to the "behavioral activation system" which is reactive to positive signals. Table 1 shows ways that situational factors might be conceptualized in relation to temperament constructs. developed in relation to specified stimuli or contexts. Likewise, tendencies to approach or withdraw can be considered in reference to various degrees ofnovelty orrisk as well as other aspects of stimuli, situations, persons, and activities. 2. By focusing on trait-situation units, temperament is a starting point for understanding situational specificity in the development of complex units of personality. For instance, the behavior of an inhibited child in an unfamiliar situation can be understood by considering other units of functioning related to that situation such as adaptability, information processing, coping skills, motivation to remain in that situation. 3. Situation-specific definitions have the potential to increase rapprochement between laboratory and questionnaire methodologies because contrived laboratory situations are highly specific. Prototypical situations could be systematically related across measures to dimensions of temperament. In spite of the emphasis given to cross- 4. Situational-specificity is, in fact, con- situational consistency in conceptualization and sistent with current conceptualizations but has not measurement, there are many advantages to differentiating broader temperament variables into situation-specific as well as stimulus and task related subdimensions. Clinically useful terms often been made explicit and certainly has not been systematically incorporated into questionnaire temperament measures. 5. Situation-specific properties of temperament permit the drawing of linkages to theories involving arousal regulation or stimulus seeking that may relate to different biological subsystems. In summary, temperament is expected to be can remain more general for meaningful communication, but are more precisely articulated through their situationally defined components: 1. Individual profiles for a temperament dimension such as reactivitv threshold could be stable across functionally similar classes of situations. By the same token, some traits may Table I Multiple Ways to Conceptualize Situational Factors Eliciting Context Stimuli or circumstances that evoke particular responses such as social, group, one-to-one, or specific task, learning, or performance conditions. Parameters of each eliciting event might be extent of novelty, ambiguity, risk, complexity, variation, potential for threat or reward, predictability. Demand Processes required to adjust to various contexts such as concentration, persistence, spontaneity, or specified self-regulatory skills (e.g., arousal regulation, emotional attunement, or information processing). Subjectìve Context Subjective states that influence processes previously described may include style of reaction according to level of interest or mood (e.g., persistence when interested in a task or intensity of reaction when anw). Temperament Constructs be more general than others such as tendencies to experience optimism or positive emotions in contrãst to negative reactions. The practitioner must be awarè of refinements in conceptualization even ifthey are not yet incorporated into measures. Furthermore, the specific measure chosen mustmeetthe purpose and its nature must be understood bY the user. Discrete Versus Multi-ComPonent TemPerament Dimensions Broad conceptual groupings such as reactivity and self-regulation can be operationalized in multiple \ilays. An individual's reactive processes have many possible components (somatic, autonomic, neuroendocrine, õognitive, verbal, motoric, emotional). Reactive emotional processes can be organized into the two broad categories of positive and negative reactivity (Rothbart, 1989)' Reactivity can be further rèfined by speciff ing the stimuli that elicit the reaction (e.g., sight, sound). These stimuli have aspects that are objective (intensity) and subjective (perceived meaning, positive or negätive evaluation and expectations¿bout their ocõunence). In such amanner, general constnrcts can be parsed according to specific parameters' Foì Strelau (1983), reactivity has two ow int e ns e a st ímulu s interacting components -h must be tõ evoke a reaction and the intensity of the reaction itself. Tfueshold of responsiveness ofThomas and Chess (1977) touches on reactivity as does Buss and Plomin's (1934) definition of emotionality. The dimension of reactivity is theoretically central to a variety of temperament constructs luch as negative emotionality and adaptability. Other traits viewed by some as temperamental, such as extraversion-introvetsion, sensation-seeking, difierential sensitivity to rewards and punishments and behavioral inhibition also involve differential thresholds for responding. The separate dimensions and their contributiõns to broader constructs need to be sorted out. The broader emotional construct ofnegative affect is supported by the frequent co-occulrence of anxiety ãnd depression (Brady & Kendall, 1992; Watson & Clark, 1984)' Negative affectivity (Watson & Clark, 1984) in general has been conceptualized as a temperamental sensitivity to nêgative stimuli. Those who are high on negative iffectivity tend to experience abroad range of negative moods including fear, sadness, 571 and anger. Furthermore, emotions are associatively linked so that one type of negative affect suclr-as anger is likely to trigger others. Negative emotionaf reactivity has been emphasized in temperament research but has been viewed as being too broad a construct (Kohnstamm' 1986) that should be split into components such as anger, fear, or distress as well as consideration of intensity of expression, threshold of response to particuiar stimuli (noise), anq th9 specifltc coiditions (fatigued, hungry). Fear itself may best be described ai a family of emotions that has several distinct members (Kagan, Lgg4).Rothbart ( I 98 1) difierentiates negative emotio¡ali{.d*ing ihe first year into components of fear, distress, and soothability. In the development oftheir Early Adolescent Questionnaire (EATQ)' Capaldi and Rothbart (1992) decomposed negative emotionality iìto fêar, initãbility, shyness, and sadness. The quality of mood dimension of the nine dimensional scheme ofThomas and Chess (1977) places negative and positive mood quality at õpposite ends ofthe same continuum. However, sùôtr a polarized view of positive and ne-gative affect iiinaccurate. Literature on ratings of mood suggests that it is best conceptualized as a bidimensional construct in adults (e.g., Watson, Clark, & Carey, 1988) and child¡en (e'g., King' Ollendick, & Gullone, 1 99 1) with separate factors for positive and negative emotionality. Future research is needed to clarify the relationships among specific emotions (e.g., anger, feaÍ, irritability) to each other and to more broadly defined emotional constructs such as positive or negative emotional reactivitY. Like other broad temperament constructs' self-regulation has been conceptualized to include multipìe components (Rothbart & D-errybery' 198ti nothAârt *. Posner, 1985). Generally, individuals who vary inresponsiveness to specific stimuli also vary in their preference for seeking or avoiding such stimuli (self-regulation)' Therefore, réactivity sets the demands for selfregulatory activities. Important que-stions for teñrperament theorists pertain to how selfreguiation of basic temperamental reactions (i'e, arõusal, attention, activity, emotion, behavior) interplays with experience and with.other p.rsónai attributes such as cognition in the ãevelopment of b¡oader aspects of self-regulation associãted with personality (i.e. long term internally organized standards). The planning, -term self-regulation is used in reference to School Psycholog Review, 1998, Vol. 572 27,No.4 temperament as well as higher order personality other factors by combining with intensity, mood, f'unctions. Approach-withdrawal is commonly or reactivity factors (Prior, Sanson, Carroll, & acknowledged Oberklaid, 1989; Rothbart, 1989). Therefore, its role as a separate factor and as a contributing aspect of broader factors must be examined. Moreover, different facets ofthe activity constnrct can be conceptually distinguished such as regulation of activity, preferences for engaging in particular activities and amount of motoric movement. These multiple aspects ofactivity are exemplified by choices of sedentary or active pursuits and capacity to gear activity to various situational demands. Thus, a motorically active child can prefer to be outdoors and to run at every opportunity but might remain seated during dinner or handle long car rides. On the other hand many hyperactive children may sit in front of the TV or computer for extended periods of time. A mechanical device registering amount of motion without a context could not distinguish between such children without disaggregating data from different situations. The different fãcets of the activity construct need to be considered in the development and interpretation of measures. Attentional orienting has been decomposed into three component operations (Posner, Inhoff, Friedrich, & Cohen, 1987): disengage, shift, and engage. Separating these operations permits scientific inquiry to delineate which components are temperamental and to ascertain which operations are involved in attentional biases such as those related to anxiety or to other emotional states. For instance, the difficulty with disengaging from negative ruminations may represent a different problem than inability to engage one's attention on tasks. It is important to note that assessing such distinctions is probably beyond the scope of questionnaire measures alone, requiring additional information from a combination of performance tasks. as a temperamental dimension that serves self-regulatory functions (e.g., seeking or avoiding excitement or stimulation). However, the focus of approach-avoidance activities (and hence self-regulatory orientation) varies as a function of the organization of personality (Higgins, 1997). The complexity of the selfregulation construct raises questions about multiple conceptualizations of self-regulation (a) as a separate dimension oftemperament, (b) as a factor related to each temperament dimension, and (c) as a complex mechanism incorporating several dimensions. Other temperament dimensions, for example "adaptability," may consist of many interrelated facets and, as such, are better understood as multidimensional. Items assigned to the adaptability dimension despite adequate internal consistency tend to disperse across factors rather than cluster together (McClowry, Hegvik, & Teglasi, 1993). Windle (1988) argued that coefficient alpha is not sufficient to demonstrate unidimensionality of items assigned to a temperament dimension. The causes for a child's poor adaptability may include various emotional and cognitive components. Thus, adaptability is a broad term that needs to be redefined relative to age and situational context. In their Dimensions of Temperament Scale Revised (DOTS-R), Windle and Lerner (1986) substituted flexibilityrigidity for the adaptability dimension because the former is more specific than the latter. Subsequently, they found that the DOTS-R can be represented by two strong factors of Adaptability and Activity (Talwar, Schwab, & Lerner, 1989). Broad terms are useful in that they organize concepts. They provide a conceptual framework to systematize awide range of data according to specific reactions to specific stimulus classes, but they are not measured directly. To increase conceptual clarity and practical utility, the relationships of broad factors to those that are more specifrcally defined and the connections among these components (e.g., various types of negative emotions) must be more precisely delineated. Multiple Facets of Discrete DÍmensions A temperament construct such as level of activity is usually thought of as a single temperament dimension. However, in some factor analytic studies, activity disperses into several Poor psychometric properties of dimensions such as threshold, intensity, and distractibility may be attributed to a lack of conceptual purity and item heterogeneity (Scheier, Casten, & Fullard, 1995). The parsing and refinement of specific temperament dimensions will permit more precise theoretical understanding of multiple facets of specific constructs and for tying together cohesive patterns that coordinate biological models and behavioral evidence. Age Appropriateness of Measures One problem in the assessment of tempera- 573 Temperament Constructs groups have ment is that measures for older age tã*péru*inì oT been either upward .*t.niion, orinfants_anã scales derived from "bñ;,ion, toddlers or based on biological models private aspects of behavior become more ãiffli."ri"å¿ and events within and outside the pãiron become reconciled' An emotionally in1.nr" child-mav be trained to refrain from to crying, screaming, ór fretting. Wft,jnr.*pã.ámentis defined as the surfacepattern ofbehaviJr it is easy to see how trrese mänirestations *our,i change with age. A temperament dimen.ion as negative emotionality is-not synonyrno.r, patterns-oi any one behavior but iiinfened from beiraviors. Maturation and rearning u, Construction of scales for *tJh;;; may not Urñä- ã*áti*"f outbursts' but such training resard to development. During infuncy, feelings' the of intensity r"f.' "dut' the actual viõral indices of negative emotionality -uy older children must be t,i.f, îirü *ril u, p*¿it*d on an understanding thattemperament at various äimensions are expressed differently a trait are defining ugtt {9 tft"1 somé behaviors years' The or months early nãt evident during the -"effortful control" is temperament ouäliw of evidentinpreschoorersbutnotinfants(Rothbart' i98Ð',À iurther consideration is the impact of changeincircu*rtun.ärin.on¡u*tiõnwithmoîä strategies and environmental conditions learnêd complexperceptions"fJi;¡h;i,andthewårld ln ¡etravio.atitvl.. tndiuiduals learn to moderate alter the behavioral expression or t"-p.ruåäït. aspects trt! *ntt¡9io" oîintense affect and salient Eaton (1995) noted thJ;;;;rritv ot rón.tu:"ö with change novelty of situations such as individual differences in developmentaiìrai developments matures' child Oi'mension' fãt ãipetitnte' As the iectories within u,r,niäru*.ntai interplav with emotions and area cognitivã in-'the t!ù;; uecåääil; f"";tui .r instance, ct (sroufe, schork, Motti, in relative r"urruinãrr îiin ùrriñi"ral stvle '¿ren older, but individuality enåìftãt iawrosti, & LaFreniere' 1984)' and these remains a meaningfuicãnsideration. traþctories reason to examine developmental õUr"*J ,t'f" U.tä"iói4 that the possibility diffðrent inuotu" might ages different one another' is reciprocally.influence - 'Þnysiótogical changes o.f maturation in ui the quality as alter pro..üti, con¡unótion with experienies traits' temperament to weli as the numbèr of ( 99 l provide which was noted by Eaton with regard the ) a:t cótosmittr and Rorhbart is first seen which level activitv r*t"prr.ot months may be related ,o n"gäìiJ" is then indexed in a observable activity rever. Activity differencJs 1 seven without locomotion and emotionality, but other processes may U"'màrã varietyof ag".'u¡ntopd-1111?t^:":l as crawling relevant at older ages. ot *ãttinf'. Manifestations of activity level Goldsmith and Rothbart (1991) proposed ãÀntinu.to".rtangewellbeyondthepreschoolage three principles wiih regard to "on.tr,í.iüË mature' (i*ài"" I Eatãn' 1995)' As children developmenturryr"nrìiì*a-siãsm"ntor"*pätà: to the (central t*ry:^t::,of seif-re*ulation by Rothbart ment: (a) behavloraiäunift'tution' of ætpãtaproposed conception of temperamént mental dispositions change during development; refined' and hËr colleazutt) btto*ei inõreasingly ft) the elicitors of temperãment relat:d.be.ltaviors The'efo'e'dirãensíonssuchasself-regulationthat òhange with development; and (c) i"di;il;l Ot¡fitntlv to various ages of children need differences in the expression of t.','p"ruriJii ennlV investi eätion (Prior, 1992)' i" fùrtrt"r dispositions can be ;îäñffi;å"*lät,n.* Appropriaiebehavioral manifestations ofthe of the temperam"nr r.iutãã trait, úy ttre stfength expected to change ír,"r. pri"ãiprã. underSÅngiemperament are(1977) the trait or some ;;ñ;ü. indicatedthat rtä"""vJ ;ith;é". íhomäs and chess temperament arricurated uv colisåiir,-un¿ no*ru"ri trait ol¿.rìri* ,h.:ìdh";i"r"l criteria for any to be sysrematically applied tochilar.n I threeyears.Developmentalvariationinthemustnecessarilychangewithtimeasthechild's functioning develops and evolves' fä"i p-tytftofogical elicitors oftemperamËntal responses such., 'Wí'æt9{"t¡tsconsistentwiththepassageoftime or pleasure fras U."n-r'tiåi.¿'in tf," "d;;;; il ü._gii+itional identiry of the characteristic'" thrõugh conrrived raboratory situations. ItJriö levels of (p, tl?) As Kagan (199-8) noted' high ut ruí.iãgît 'l prototypicat ,ituutioîî,-iriú.v "*ir,, ìåìqtiútv-i1l1¡:':,1*'::Ttl"""1i"iff:i:lt:* '"-unîun¡iur.ìnto to be remain **i;in::ri:t#åä;ed timid and subdued behaviors as behav iorat styre determined. appears to be *or. ,o,*tiãio *." year' Kagan suggested that a infunrc and todO-íers during the second the more-abstract term is needed to describe thãn to older children. Beyond certain ugr.,-ò;ã temperament qualitv that connects initabilitv cannot assume puïrit d;;ãÀ the first vearïitt' ti*iditv in the second simply by observing uätrà"ìãî"irrvl;. ."rt.#;¿;Ëäääiî"ãiiiié. ä"ã 574 School Psychologt Review, T998, Vol.27, year (perhaps ease of arousability to negative stimuli). Most temperament scales designed for different age groups vary items according to age appropriateness of the behavior. One exception is the DOTS-R, which identifìed age-continuous dimensions and items. Assessment techniques need to accommodate the child's behavioral repertoire, but at the same time retain the same underlying temperament construct. Temperament Traits as Continuous or Categorical No.4 endorsed (e.g., Jackson, 197 O).Dropping extreme behaviors from temperament rating scales precludes finding qualitatively distinct subgroups that are rare in a population. Moreover, the application of factor anal¡ic techniques to a truncated item pool restricts the concepts that emerge. Again, the "blending" of methods and constructs must be understood so that data and conceptualizations are meaningful for practice. Interplay of Temperaments Temperament comes into play differently The continuum-category dichotomy has implications for the assessment of temperament. The continuum approach assumes that extremes of normal variation can be defined in terms of the number ofitems endorsed on a scale, whereas the category approach would seek qualitatively distinct features of behaviors. The contrast between conceptualizing temperament athibutes as continuous or discrete also applies at the biological level. Kagan (1994) reasoned that the continuum approach would apply to the inhibition-disinhibition trait if it could be demonstrated that brain physiology varied only in the degree ofarousal ofneural processes rather than being qualitatively different. Accordingly, distinct biological patterns mapping onto specific behavioral processes should be a basis for the distinction. Another aspect of the continuum category distinction involves the consideration that extreme placement on two or more tempera- mental dimensions that are continuous may constitute a distinct category. Stern, Arcus, Kagan, Rubin, and Snidman (1995) demonstrated a model for treatment of data that combines measures on a continuum with categorical profiles determined according to an a priori theory. This procedure can be useful by permitting the detection of qualitatively different groups and as a tool for refining theory. Theultimate purpose for engaging in debates such as the continuum category question is to develop constructs and measures that faithfully reflectphenomena as they occur in nature. When contrasting various perspectives, it is important to acknowledge the quirks of statistical conventions that limit the applicability of the data. For instance, norm-referenced questionnaires are generally designed to maximize variability among individuals, and this goal can be accomplishedby eliminating items that are infrequently according to specific contexts partly because different demands of situations applyto different temperament attributes and partly because of prior experience. Moreover, responses in a given context involve the reciprocal influence of multiple attributes. For example, social approach is generally seen as a favorable trait, linked with positive emotion (Sanson, Smart, Prior, Oberklaid, & Pedlow, 1994). However, if social approach is coupled with high activity and high distractibility, the child's overtures may be inept (mistimed, intrusive, or inappropriate). Indeed peer rejected children are described as making frequent social approaches that are rebuffed (Asher & Coie, 1990). The difficult constellation of temperament characteristics identified by Thomas, Chess, and Birch (1968) has been a popular and useful concept in the temperament literature (Prior, 1992). Thomas et al. designated five of their identified temperamental dimensions as belonging to the difficult cluster: low approach (initial aversion), slow adaptability (to change), inegular biological rh¡hmicity, high intensity in emotional expression, and frequent negative mood. The notion of one constellation of temperaments representing the difficult child may be useful for the early years when caregiving is the dominant concern. However, later in development there may be a multiplicity of patterns that relate to various types of problems in various settings. Among a normal sample of children aged 8 to 12,parent reported problem behaviors causing "friction" in the household grouped into five distinct factors and were predicted by different combinations of the nine NYLS temperament dimensions (Teglasi & MacMahon, 1990). Low persistence was a prominent source of difficulty for school aged children. Furthermore, this temperament dimen- siofi was associated with different types of 575 Temperament Constructs problem behaviors in conjunction with other iemperament traits. For example, a set of temperament dimensions including low persisténce, high intensity, and low adaptability predicted scores on the Low Self-Direction Factor ôf ttre problem behavior scale. Low ratings on temperamental persistence was also a predictor of the Apathy Factor of the problem-behavior scale but in concert with avoidance and negative mood. Future studies need to clarify implications of temperament dimensions singly and in combination on the development of problematic behaviors and adjustment problems at various ages. Some aspects of temperament such as distractibility have vastly different impli cations for adjustment during infancy (as it contributes to soóthability) versus the school years (as it disrupts persistence). Additionally, with increasing áge, the regulation and organization of developments in the cognitive areas as they interplay with emotions and with behavioral style. A conceptual understanding of the meaning of a temperament trait such as shyness for a given indfvidual must incorporate components in the behavioral, cognitive, affective, and selfregulative domains as they reciprocally influence A shy child may choose not to withdraw from certain situations but may one another. manifest feelings of timidity through general demeanor, verbal expressiveness, and selfevaluation. Various elements of emotion, cognition, and behavior may define individual profiles within the shyness dimension' Table 2 shows selected examples of how temperament dimensions can be elaborated and refined. Age-Appropriate Measures behavior exerts greater influence on adjustment. Specific suggestions for designing agemeasures follow from this review. appropriate -1. Refine response parameters to reflect the Relinement of Measures greater complexity and differentiation of behavior with development. Commonly assessed response in laboratory studies with young ðhildren have been duration, latency, and Clarifying Dimensions parameters When a dimension is identified asbelonging to the temperament rubric, it may be clarified in light of considerations described previously: (a) situation-specific refinements of temperament dimensions to reflect variability in their expres- intensity. However, other parameters that tap self- sion in different situational contexts; (b) identification of multiple facets of specific dimensions by parsing constructs such as activity level, distractibility, or fear into multiple components; (c) separating global and specif,rc components ofbroader temperament dimensions such as negative affect or self-regulation. As children mature, self-regulation becomes more complex, functioning as a higher-order variable that may differentially influence specific dimensions of temperament. Self-regulation can, therefore, be defined in ways specific to each temperament dimension, but can also be designated as a separate, more global dimension; and (d) designating aspects of behavior, cognition, and emotion as components of temperament dimensions that influence one another. Just as a coin cannot be fully described without including both sides, a more complete understanding of a given temperament dimension requires detailing its place within the functional whole. Therefore, in applying temperament constructs, the practitioner must consider regulative aspects of behavior might entail modulation, organization, or attunement to context. 2. Relate temperament to the organization of the subjective world by systematically exploring how developmental change in the situational elicitors correspond to changes in the meaning of stimuli. Children with similar temperamental tendenciesto be irritable may vary in the type ofprovocation thattriggers reactions. Some may react to isolated events (e'g., not getting a promised treat), whereas others may iespond to perceived violation ofprinciple (a rule seems unfair). 3. Trace the expression of identified traits such as irritability at various ages. Distractibility is apotentially useful dimension thathas notbeen age appropriately refined and measured beyond the early years. 4. Examine how temperament components interplay differently at different ages. Affective, cognitive, behavioral, and self-regulative components of behavior may differ in salience and ease of measurement at various ages. 5. Identify key situational elements and types ofelicitors across the age span for specific têmperament attributes. Expectations and tasks 576 School Psychologt Review,1998, Vol.27, No.4 Table 2 Selected Examples of How Temperament Dimensions Can be Elaborated and Refined I. Situation-SpecificRefinements A. 1. Distractibility by Extraneous Stímuli 2. 3. Type and intensity of external stimuli Distraction by external stimuli when engrossed in selected activity Distraction by external stimuli when working on assigned school related tasks B. Duration of Attention 1. Conversation (peers, adults) 2. Structured seat work (school, home) 3. Self-selectedactivity 4. Assigned task or chore II. Identifying Multiple Facets of a Dimension A. Distractibility 1. 2. 3. By extraneous stimuli By less relevant stimuli but pertinent to the task or situation By unrelated ideas or thoughts (internal stimuli) B. Activity Level 1. How active? How energetic? 2. 3. 4. 5. How is it expressed and in what circumstances (e.g., motoric, verbal)? How well-controlled or modulated to circumstances? How pu¡poseful? What activities are selected, if given a choice? III. Self-Regulation Delineated as a Component of Specific Dimensions and as a Broader Construct A. l. 2. 3. B. 1. 2. Self-Regulatory Aspects of Emotion (lemperament) Maintaining emotional arousal or intensity within the range that permits adaptive cognitive, emotional, and behavioral functioning Appropriateness of emotion to eliciting event Consistency of emotional responses Broader Aspects of Self-Regulation (Personality) Extent to which behavior is governed by rules versus immediate extemal consequences Degree to which behaviors, thoughts, or emotional expressions are systematic, organized, or planful versus haphazard, unmodulated, or undirected Temperament Constructs 577 Table 2 (continued) Selected Examples of IIow Temperament Dimensions Can be Elaborated and Refined Affective, Cognitive, Behavioral, and Self-Regulatory Components of Specific Temperament Dimensions IV. A. Attention l. 2. 3. 4. Cognitive--dishactibility or tendency for attention to be pulled by external or internal stimuli or by details within the task. Awareness is dominated by the most salient stimulus versus selective and flexible attentional focus and shift (resulting in active, planful, systematic processing of information). Behavioral-actions may be inconsistent and subject to current stimulus or environmental conditions. Difficuþ with persistence, task completion, rule-governed behavior, or meeting standards Emotional-¡ange and quality of interest; tendency to overreact to events considered in isolation rather than in context Self-regulatory--degree to which cognitive, affective, and behavioral components are coordinated and expressed in organized, systematic, and self-directed responses B. Actívity l. 2. 3. 4. Cognitive-tempo of thinking, alertness to environmental detail, speed of processing Behavioral-motoric expression (constantly moving, restless), pace and amount of action, and of verbiage Affective-intensity, energy, vigor, or immediacy in the expression of affect Self-regulatory--difficulty with focusing attention on most important points, modulating attention (disengãging, shifting, engaging), and active strategic use of attention. Regulation ofmovement, verbalization, affective state, and information processing to the demands of the situation (e.g., classroom, library, plaYground) C. Emotionality l. Cognitive-monitoring and evaluating emotions, discerning the source of affect (differentiating internal and external), understanding rules and boundaries for emotional expressions. Less conscious cognitive processes such as affective tone of thoughts and memories or mental sets that have developed through affective-cognitive processes (e.g., selective attention to affectcongruent information) applied to the interpretation of prior experience Behãvioral--overt (verbal-non-verbal) expressions ofaffect; patterns ofapproach-avoidance related to affective response to situations Affective-subjectively experienced feelings Self-regulatory---enhancing, inhibiting, or maintaining emotional arousal within boundaries that permit the experience of comfort without sacrificing efficiency or flexibility in meeting the affective, cognitive, and behavioral demands of the situation 2. 3. 4. vary with age and call into play different ferences which should be systematically incorcomponentslf t.mp.raments, singly, or in porated into assessment approaches. combination. 6. Place greater emphasis on choices preferences in the measurement of temperament *ith otdrt children. The self-regulative and aspect of temperament is frequently eipressed in pre- Connecting Measures to Constructs The central tenets of temperament theory promote the view of human behavior as the 578 School Psychologt Review, product of biological, psychological, and social factors. The assessment of stylistic characteristics of individuality such as being energetic, outgoing, or sociable as being typical oftemperament (Buss & Plomin, 1984; Thomas & Chess, 1977) provides an important starting point. The extension ofthe concept ofbehavioral style from infancy to childhood and adolescence must account for the greater complexity of behavior. One way to approach this challenge is to identifli central processes such as arousability (Strelau, 1994) and relate the construct to various ways of assessing temperament that include physiological, behavioral, and psychological components. In doing so, it is important to keep in mind situational specificity and implications of measures for different age groups. I998,Vol. 27, No. 4 temperamental style (how) and its impact on the content (what) and purpose (why) of behavior. Table 3 illustrates how the construct of distractibility, defined in terms of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral styles might be linked to the content ofbehavior. It standsto reason that the style of thinking and producing ideas and the specific content of awareness are interdependent in cohesive ways. A distractible child whose attention is drawn by certain types ofhivial detail will come to view experiences in aparticular light (e.g., awareness dominated by the here and now) so that the content of thoughts and framework for interpreting events will reflect that style. The temperament view of self-regulation refers to the basic processes or behavioral styles involved in optimizing stimulation, alertness, and affective Another way to extend the usefulness of arousal. Preferences for specific activities to temperament constructs to understanding children at various ages is to clarify relationships between regulate affect, however, can be characterized as content. Though not studied under the tempera- Table 3 Examples of Linking Specific Components of Temperamental Style and Content Individual's Distractibilitv A. Style l. Ideational style How the individual generates and organizes ideas in relation to external input (e.g., daydreaming and distraction by one's thoughts; preoccupation with immediate rewards; linear or associative thinking style; changing interest or focus with most salient external stimulation). 2. Behavioral style Responsiveness to noises or stimulation such as being drawn away from goal directed tasks or activities by impinging stimuli. 3. Emotional style How emotions are evoked or changed in response to immediate stimuli or more complex considerations such as intentions or long term implications (e.g., being distracted from one's distress by a pleasing diversion versus needing to address its source). B. Content 1. Mastery of social skills High distractibility may interfere with competency to follow conversation or to focus on and respond to the main ideas of a social exchange (or class discussion). This process would not only disrupt the acquisition of social skills but also their application when distracted. 2. Self-direction Tendencies to react to immediate stimulation may hamper engagement in purposeful actions aimed at long term goals, or ideals. The individual may be more vulnerable to peer pressure and may have difficulty keeping commitments when wrapped up in the concern of the moment. Extreme distractibility may even interfere with the formulation of long{erm intentions. Temperament Constructs ment rubric, the style of making choices such as being deliberate or haphazard is distinct from, yet related to the type of choice. The lihks between style and content ofbehavior across age goups helps clarifu the mechanisms by which temperament infl uences devel opment. Items on current temperament scales tapping s79 Cooper, 1993). Certain temperament profiles may contribute to "friction" in the home (Teglasi & MacMahon, 1990) or difficulties in school (Martin, 1988; Martin et al., 1994). Carey (this issue) provides guidelines for differentiating between adjustment problems due to extremes temperament and a diagnosable disorder. of specific behaviors have been written without An individual's temperament profile oper- determining how extreme the behavior to be rated is on the construct being measured. Behavioral ates within the context of a functionally whole person. Therefore, temperament scales cannot be used as "add ons." Rather, temperament concepts examples should be defined in terms of their position in reference to the continuum of the construct in question. For example, a specific behavior relating to level of activity such as "my child runs rather than walks" should be identifiable in terms ofits extremity on that dimension. More systematic work is needed to assure that items assigned to represent temperament dimensions relate clearly and specifically to identifi ed constructs and subconstructs. Furthermore, the equivalence of specific items across ages and contexts need to be addressed. Application of Temperament Constructs to Practice Temperament constructs provide the psychologist with a framework to organize information from various sources and perspectives. School psychologists have the flexibility to obtain information about temperament in multiple ways. In addition to using temperament questionnaires, they can capitalize on opporfunities to observe behavioral styles of children and youth in various naturalistic settings such as the classroom, cafeteria, or playground. Further opportunities to observe temperamental individuality arise during the course of evaluations, play observations, and therapeutic interactions. Incorporating temperament theory into frameworks for practice influences the professional's approach to assessment, intervention, and consultation. Assessment. The type of information sought to explain the behaviors orphenomena of concern depends on the professional's framework. A framework that incorporates temperament enables the practitioner to recognize and explain syndromes representing extremes of the normal continuum such as negative emotional reactivity that do not meet diagnostic criteria such as for depression but may represent high levels distress (e.g., Goodyer, Ashby, Altham, Yize, of & must be applied systematically to the entire assessment process. For instance, given that prior experience interplays with temperament, their joint contributions must be considered when obtaining a developmental history. Westen (1998) described a functional assessment of personality as evaluating how "the individual tends to function cognitively, affectively and behaviorally under certain conditions relevant to psychological and social adaptation" (p. ll8). This definition can be taken a step further by identifu ingthefunction ormeaning of the behavior forthe individual. Identif,;ing th efunction of a maladaptive behavior for the child would consider its possible temperamental roots and other reasons why the behavior overrides the typical expectations ofthe context (classroom, home, peer group). Thus, a functional assessment of behavior in a particular environment differentiates among responses to inappropriate contingencies, temperamentally based reactions, learned maladaptive coping styles to manage temperamental reactions, difficulty handling the imposed challenges, and deliberate attempts to manipulate others. Accordingly, withdrawal behaviors may serve the function of coping with reactivity to novel situations (see Henderson & Fox, this issue) and/or avoiding situations or tasks that are uncomfortable for other reasons such as being boring or difficult to understand. Understanding temperamental roots ofbehavior enables a functional assessment that explains patterns of behavior or performance in terms of the interplay between intrinsic qualities (temperament), personality (learned coping, goals), and demands of tasks and situations as well as contingencies. Variation in performance across activities would be viewed ín terms ofthe underlying processes (e.g., attention, emotional regulation, cognitive process) that link relevant personal characteristics and functional demands of specific tasks or situations. Accordingly, prediction from one task or situation to another would be based on similaritv of functional demands. s80 School Psychologt Review,1998, Programming and intervention. The range of adjustment problems that can be addressed, the types ofpopulations to be served, and the mechanisms of change invoked depend on the professional's framework. Equipped with understandings that acknowledge multiple pathways to normal development and to the manifestation of dysfunction, the school psychologist can serve the broad anay ofstudents and pursue systematic approaches to programs that promote optimal development, prevent the escalation ofrisk factors, and intervene in the face of clinically significant distress or impairments (see McClowry, this issue). Awareness of the possibility of the development of dysfunction with improperhandling of some temperamentally prompted behaviors permits the school psychologist to provide a broad range of preventive services. Additionally, temperament concepts have implications for educatiõn and soc ialization of children because they are pertinent to the development of important personality variables such as empathy (Eisenberg, Wentzel, & Harris, this issue), conscience (Kochanska, 1993, 1995), and schema (Teglasi & Epstein, this issue). The key to using temperament constructs to intervene stems from the professional's understanding of its contribution to the developmental process and to the vicious cycles thatperpetuate maladaptive responses, thereby disrupting long term adjustment. ConsultatÍon. What professionals communicate to parents, teachers, and other caregivers depends on their framework for understanding the child and the presenting concerns. The notion of temperament as mediating the goodness-of-fit between the person and the environment elaborates the interactionist viewpoint that assumes that individuals influence their environment as well as being shaped by them (Bandura, 1986). In consulting with caregivers, noting the contribution of factors intrinsic to the child has a profound influence on the working relationship between consultant and consultee (see Carey, this issue; McClowry, this issue). First, an understanding of the child's individuality avoids blaming the caregiver and permits the separation of caregiver's intent from the impact on the child. Second, an understanding ofthe child's temperament likewise avoids blaming the child. A parent or teacher may realize that the child does not deliberately intend to be annoying but has Vol.27, No.4 difficulty adapting to change or inhibiting the expression of negative affect. Third, acknowledging that some temperament characteristics are challenging for caregivers normalizes some of the frustrations experienced in caring for the child. At the same time, caregivers can be encouraged to recognize their own responses that promote maladaptive cycles and to substitute alternative strategies. Because children and caregivers have unique temperaments, sometimes an insight into each can clarify the reciprocal impact of one on the other. The following vignette demonstrates how an understanding of temperament can enhance the professional's work (even without formal measurement): parents sought an evaluation of their 4-ll2 year old son because of daily temper tantrums. A careful interview revealed that the tantrums occurred when the child was called to the dinner table. At this time, the child was typically engrossed in an activity (usually building with blocks) that he did not want to leave. Because the interview did not raise any red flags signalling more serious issues, the psychologist asked the parents to consider the possibility that the child was expressing his temperamental persistence and intense negative reaction to being interrupted. Before embarking on a comprehensive evaluation, the parents agreed to try a strategy based on an understanding oftheir son's temperament. Ratherthan expecting him to come to dinner at a moment's notice, the plan was to permit him to disengage gradually f¡om his activity by giving two reminders separated by five minutes. As ananged, the parents called one week later and reported that their son was no longer having tantrums. This example is atypical in the ease of its resolution. However, it does demonstrate the value of incorporating temperament constructs into the professional's framework for practice. Such awareness of temperamental individuality permits the professional to guide caregivers, teachers, and parents tolyard more responsive and constructive engagement with the child. In sum, practitioners who understand temperament constructs can evaluate temperament informally and use available temperament rating scales flexibly. More importantly, temperament constructs enrich frameworks that guide practice. 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Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Zuckerman, M. (1994). Behavioral expressions and biological bases of sensation seekíng. New York: 1 342. Strelau, J., Angleitner, 4., Bantelmann, J., & Ruch, W. (1990). The Strelau Temperament Inventory-Revised: Theoretical considerations and scale development. European Journal of Personality, 4,209-235. Strelau, J., & Eysenck, H. J. (Eds.). (1981). Personality dímensions and arousal. New York: Plenum. Talwar, R., Schwab, J., & Lemer, R. M. (1989). Cited in Stoneman, 2, &Brody, G. H. (1993). Sibling temperaments, conflict, warmth, and role asymmetry. Chíld Development, 64, 17 86-1800. Teglasi, H., & MacMahon, B. H. (1990). Temperament and common problem-behaviors of children. Journal Applíed Developmental Psychologt, I Thomas, Washingfon, DC: American Psychological Association. Windle, M. (1988). Psychometric strategies of measures of temperament: A methodological critique. International Journal of Behavioral Development, I I, 17 l-201. Windle, M., & Lerner, R. M. (1986). Reassessing the dimensions oftemperamental individuality across the life span: The Revised Dimensíons of Temperament Survey (DOTS-R). -Iou rnal of A do le s c ent Re s e arch, I, 213 -230. Worobey, J., & Blajda,V. M. (1989). Temperamental ratings at 2 weeks, 2 months, and I year: Differential stability of activity and emotionality. Developmental Psychologt, Cambridge University Press. ment, 18,407-423. Strelau, J. diagnosis: Two processes or one? In J. W. Banon (Ed.), Making diagnosis meaningful (pp. l l l-137). 4., & l, of 331 -349. Appendix A Description of Temperament Measures Child Temperament Questionnaire (CTQ) Authors: Thomas & Chess, 1977 This 72-item parent report questionnaire designed for the 3- to 7-year-old age range covers the nine dimensions derived from parent observation of infants. Revised Infant Temperament Questionnaire (RITQ) Authors: Carey & McDevin, 1978 This measure contains 95 items to be completed by parents based on the nine dimensions of Thomas and Chess (1977). Toddler Temperament Scale (TTS) Authors: Fullard, McDevitt, & Carey, 1984 This 97-item parent report measure was designed to assess nine dimensions of temperament (Thomas & Chess, 1977) in l- to 3-year-old children. Chess, S. (1977). Temperament and development. New York: Bnrnner/Mazel. Thomas,4., Chess, S., & Birch, H. G. (1968). Temperament Behavioral Style Questionnaire (BSQ) Autho¡s: McDevitt & Carey, 1978 and behavíor disorders in children. New York: New York University Press. Thompson, R. 4., & Lamb, M. E. (1984). Continuity and This I O0-item questionnaire was designed to assess the change in socioemotional development during the second year. In R. M. Emde & R. J. Harmon (Eds.),Continuities and discontínuilies in developnezt. New Yo¡k: Plenum. Vaughn, 8., Bradley, C. F., Joffe, L. S., Seifer, R., & Barglow, P. (1987). Matemal characteristics measured prenatally predict ratings of temperamental "difficulty" on the Carey Infant Temperament Questionnaire. Developmental Psychologt, 23, 152-161. Watson, D., & Clarlq L. A. (1984). Negative aflectivity: The disposition to experience negative emotional states. Psychological Bulletin, 96, 465-490. Iüatson, D., Clark, L. 4., & Carey, G. (1988). Positive and negative affectivity and their relation to anxiety and nine temperament dimensions proposed by Thomas and Chess (1977) from parent report with children ages 3 to 7. Middle Childhood Temperament Questionnaire (MCTQ) Authors: Hegvik, McDevitt, & Carey, 1982 This 99-item parental rating scale for children between 8 and l2 is based on the nine dimensions model of Thomas and Chess, 1977. Factor anal¡ic studies found support for fewer than nine factors (e.g., McClowry, Hegviþ & Teglasi, 1993). Infant Characteristics Questionnaire (lCQ) Authors: Bates, Freeland, & Lounsbury, 1979 (See also Bates & Bayles, 1984). This 32-item factor analytically derived scale designed to study correlates of r-'...,.:-ì-'{lliL-:'"---.'..''.-j':',..--,'.:l';-''.:.i...',-" 584 School Psychologt Review, 1998, Vol. difücult infant temperament includes the following sur¡lmary scores for infants being Fussy-Difficult, Unadaptable, Persistent, Unsociable. Diffi cultness has at its-core the frequent and intense expression ofnegative affect. Dimensions of Temperament Suwey-Revised (DOTS-R) Authors: Windle & Lemer, 1986 This 54-item questionnaire to assess age continuous asFects of temperament from early childhood to young adulthood extends and refines the nine dimensional model originally proposed by Thomas and Chess, 1977. Ratings can be provided by parent, teacher, and self. Teacher Temperament Questionnaire- Short Form (TTe) Authors: Keogh, Pullis, & Cadwell, 1982 This 23-item short form was designed on the basis of factor analysis of the 64-item Teacher Temperament Questionnaire of Thomas and Chess (1977). The itcms represented eight of the nine NYLS dimensions and clustered into three factors: Task Orientation, personalSocial Flexibilit¡r, and Reactivify. Temperament Assessment Battery for Children-Revised (TABC-R) Authors: Martin & Bridger (Unpublished manuscript) The parent and teacher versions ofthe TABC-R is designed for use within the age range of 3 to 7 year-s. Both forms are designed to assess 4 temperament characteristics: Negative Emotionaiity, Inhibition, Activity Level, Task Persistence. The parent fo¡m consists of 37 items, and the teacher form consists of 27 items. School-Age Temperament Inventory (SAT! Author: McClowry, 1995 A 38-item parent report measure for children ages 8 to 1 1 years. A 4-factor conceptualization for the instrument was developed based on a review of the literature. Items were designed to sample the following four dimensions: Approach-Withdrawal, Task Persistence, Negative Reactivity, Energy. Emotionaliry, Activity and Sociabiliry (EAS) Authors: Buss & Plomin, 1984 The scale has published reliability and validity data at all ages throughout childhood and adolescence (e.g., Gibbs, \9eves, & Cunningham, 1987, Plomin & Dunn, 1986). Th¡ee forms are available for completion by parent, teache¡ or subject (child/adolescent). All three forms consist of20 items. Shyness which is not considered a temperament but a derivative of sociability also is assessed with this measure. Colorado Childhood Temperament Inventory (CCTI) Authors: Rowe & Plomin, 1977 Combines the Thomas and Chess (1977) temperament characteristics with EASI dimensions of temperament identified by Buss and Plomin (1975). The I, impulsivity di_mension, was subsequently dropped in the development of the EAS. The six factors comprising the CCTI arê Sociability, Emotionality, Activity, Attention SpanPersistence, Soothability, Reaction to Food. Infant Behavior Questioruraire (IBQ) Author: Rothbart, 1981 This 96-item measure was designed for 3- to l2-month-old 27,No.4 children but has been used in research with children ranging in age from two weeks to l9-ll? months (Thompson & Lamb, 1984; Worobey & Blajda 1989). scores are available on six subscales: Activity, Distress to Limits, Fear, Du¡ation of Orienting, Smiling and Laughter, Soothability. !**uty Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire (TBAe) Author: Goldsmith, 1996 (See Goldsmith & Rorhbarr, 1991; Goldsmith, Elliotl & Jaco, 1986) Scales are Activity Level, Anger proneness, Social Fear, Pleasure, Interest-Persistence. Although scales are somewhat similar to those of the IBe, the items were not upward extensions but were chosen for ageappropriateness. Ratings can be provided by parents and teachers. Children's Behavior Questionnaire (CBe) Authors: Rothbart, Ahadi, & Hershey, 1994 This instrument is a caregiver measure developed for chjldren between the ages of3 and 7. The foilôwing subscales are included: Activity Level, Anger/Frustration, App:oach-Anticipation, Attentional Focusing, DiscomforÇ Falling Reactivity-Soorhability, Fear, High Intensity Pleasure, Impulsivity, Inhibitory Control, Low Intensity Pleasure, Perceptual Sensitivity, Sadness, Shyness, Smiling and Laughter. Early Adolescent Temperament Questionnaire (EATe) Authors: Capaldi & Rothbart, 1992 This 92-item measure includes scales that incorporate the dimensional structure proposed by Derryberry & Rothbart (1988) for adult temperament characteristics. The scales are Sensitivit5r, Autonomic Reactivity, Motor Activation, Fear, Initability, Shyness, Sadness, High and Low Intensity Pleasure, Activity Level, Attentional Control. Three conceptual groupings emerged tbrough factor analysis by the authors conesponding to negaiive aspects of temperament, positive aspects of temperamenr, behavioral inhibition. ll Reactivity Rating Scale (RRS) Authors: Friedensberg & Strelau, 1982 Three adulrrepof versions are available for the following ag€ grcups: preschoolers, elementary, and secondar¡r school students. The 9-item scales assess general concepts on continua and are based on the two overarching dimensíons of temperament (reactivity and activity) posited by Shelau. Stn¡chue of Temperament Questionnaire (STe) Author: Rusalov, 1989 The instrument has eight independent scales based on factor analysis and a social desirability scale. The STe is a 105-item scale for adult selÊreport developed on the basis of neurophysiologically grounded theory. Scales operationalize neurophysiological states. Subsequent studies (e.g., Dumenci, 1996) confirmed three factors which are similar to domains included in other temperament inventories: Activity, Emotionality, Communicativeness. Pavlovian Temperament Survey @TS) (American English version) Authors: Newberry, Clarþ Crawford, Stelau, Angleitner, Jones, & Eliasz,1997 Temperament Constructs The PTS was derived from the Shelau Temperamental Inventory (STI; Strelau & Angleitner, 1994; Strelau, Angleitner, Bantelmann, & Ruch, 1990). This self report inventory for adults contained 66 items tapping dimensions of Strength of Excitation, Strength of Inhibition, Mobility of Nervous System Process. Each scale contains situation- and/or response-speciflrc factors' 585 General factors were found for shength of excitation and mobility. The Pavlovian tradition has conceptual links to research employing concepts ofcentral nervous system arousal (e.g., Strelau, 1983; Eysencþ 1967; Gray,1982). These concepts are also linked to aspects oftemperament represented on scales developed in the US (e.g., those developed by Rothbart and colleagues, 1994). Hedwig Teglasi, PhD, is an Associate Professor and Co-director of the School Psychology Program of the Counseling and Personnel Services Department, University of Maryland, College Park. Among her research interests is a focus on various units of assessment for understanding personality such as temperamentprocesses and analysis ofnanative. Teglasi also is interested inthe application ofpersonality theory to principles and programs for prevention and intervention services'