PROCEEDING International Seminar

PROCEEDING
I N T E R N AT I O N A L S E M I N A R
Edited by : R. Pamekas
Widiani Purnomosari
Enfy Diana Dewi
Aldina Rani Lestari
PROCEEDING
International Seminar
“Innovation in Accelarating Infrastructure
Competitiveness and Sustainability”
November 11th, 2014, Bali, Indonesia
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PROCEEDING OF
INTERNATIONAL SEMINAR
INNOVATION IN ACCELARATING INFRASTRUCTURE
COMPETITIVENESS AND SUSTAINABILITY
ISBN-978-602-14698-9-7
Published by
Research Centre for Social Economic and Environment (RCSEE)
Research and Development Agency – Ministry of Public Works
Heritage Building 3rd floor, West Wing, Jalan Pattimura No. 20, South Jakarta
INDONESIA
December 2014
Copyright © 2014
by Research Centre for Social Economic and Environment (RCSEE)
Heritage Building 3rd floor, West Wing, Jalan Pattimura No. 20, South Jakarta
INDONESIA
Phone/Fax +62 21 72784644
Website : http://sosekling.pu.go.id
Email : [email protected]
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PREFACE
Infrastructure performance plays key role of global competitiveness. In order to assure
infrastructure performance, sustainability is a must. Some characteristics of sustainable
infrastructure are socially accepted, delivering maximum economic impact, and
environmental friendly. RCSEE, as a research centre under the Ministry of Public Works has
been establishing institutional reforms on long-term research programming, joint
collaboration and research initiatives, capacity building, and social laboratory & database
development in order to support sustainable infrastructure development through its research
projects.
In the upcoming years, a number of strategic issues on infrastructure development have been
identified to produce significant impacts to social aspects, economic benefits, and the
environment. Social conflicts frequently occurred due to the current land acquisition and
resettlement programs which predominantly focus on the physical relocation rather than
restoring the livelihoods of the displaced people, no tools/instruments available to accurately
assess economic impacts of infrastructure development, and the visible impacts of climate
change have urged government agencies, private sectors, NGOs, and community groups to
work hand-in-hand to increase local resilience by maximizing adaptive capacity on the one
hand, and improving mitigation technology, on the other.
This international seminar has attracted interest from researchers, experts, and academia from
all over the world. There are 23 manuscripts submitted to the Committee. Having been
reviewed, 9 papers will be presented at the seminar, and 7 will be displayed at poster session.
The paper included in this proceedings deal with major areas in the field of infrastructure
competitiveness and sustainability such as Conflict Resolution, Economic Impact
Assessment, and Environmental Vulnerability and Resilience.
We would like to take this opportunity to express our sincere appreciation to the members of
Technical Advisory Committee who helped review the papers and maintained high standards
for the international seminar proceedings.
December 2014
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TECHNICAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE
Chairman
Prof. (R) Dr. Ir. R. Pamekas (Indonesia)
Members
Prof (R). Dr. Simon Sembiring Brahmana (Indonesia)
Prof. (R). Dr. Effendi Pasandaran (Indonesia)
Ir. Puthut Samyahardja, CES (Indonesia)
Ir. Agus Bari S, M.Sc (Indonesia)
Dr. Andi Suriadi (Indonesia)
STEERING COMMITTEE
Chairman
Ir. Waskito Pandu, M. Sc (Head of Research And Development Agency on Ministry Public
Works)
Members
Ir. Lolly Martina M, MT (Head of Research Centre of Social Economic and Environment)
I Kadek Dian Sutrisna, Ph.D (University of Indonesia)
Ir. A. Hafid Gany
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ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
Chairman
Ir. Riana Suwardi, M.Si
Co-Chairman
Ir. M. Wahabi, M.Si.
Member
Ir. Achjat Dwiatno, M.Eng.
Dra. Retno Sinarwati, MT.
Moch. Isa Iskandar Sabana., SE., M. Si
Ni Wayan Sumila Dewi, SE
Appun Ubawaty, ST
Ir. Ridwan Marpaung, MT
Adji Krisbandono, ST., M.Sc
Aldina Rani Lestari, SIP
Sandi Previadiati, SE., ME
Zafira Nadida, ST
Novi Arteti, ST
Leni Ferilia, SE
Enfy Diana Dewi, ST., MUP
R. Sutjipta, S.Sos
Tomi Hendratno, ST
Dwi Rini Hartati, ST
Nuryadi
Rida Wiryati
Aditya Anwar, SH., MPP
Widiani Purnomosari, ST., MSE., MA
Nieke Permanik, S.Sos., MT
Nino Heri Setyoadi, S. Sos., M. S
Dicky Fransisco, SIP
Andrio Firstiana S., SE., MM
M. Andri Hakim, SE., M. Akt
Yenni Nur‟aini, SE., MT., MSc
Alia Rainy D, ST, M.Sc, M. Eng
Dimas Hastama Nugraha, ST., M. Eng
Ratih Putri R., ST
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE .......................................................................................................................................... iii
TECHNICAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE ................................................................................... iv
STEERING COMMITTEE ............................................................................................................. iv
ORGANIZING COMMITTEE ........................................................................................................ v
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................. vi
OPENING SPEECH ....................................................................................................................... viii
COMMITTEE REPORT .................................................................................................................. x
Sustainability Considerations In Accelerating Infrastructure Development: Enhancing
The Interdisciplinary Approach ..................................................................................................... 13
Public Expenditure On Climate Resilient Infrastructure: Opportunities For Innovation
And Experimentation ...................................................................................................................... 14
Community Resilience of Water Resource Crisis in Small Islands: Case Study in Solor
Island and Semau Island ................................................................................................................. 39
Conceptual Model of Green Infrastructure Implementation ...................................................... 51
Erase Vulnerability, Improve Food Security Policy in Indonesia with Innovation
Synergy.............................................................................................................................................. 59
Brubuh: A Traditional Method To Keep Environmental Sustainability In Javanese
Society ............................................................................................................................................... 68
Before-after Social Perception Differences with the Existence of Green Open Space
Conversion ........................................................................................................................................ 78
Water Pumping System (WPS) For Supporting Community Activities And
Infrastructure Sustainability .......................................................................................................... 91
Effect of Approaches for Changes of Citizen Attitude Towards Solid Waste Landfill and
Incinerators .................................................................................................................................... 100
Influence Identification Of Economy And Demographic Factors To Waste Generation
In West Java Indonesia ................................................................................................................. 112
Evaluation Of Pakerisan Watershed Characteristics In Establishing Management
Model With The Principle Of One River, One Plan, And One Management Principal
On Water Resources Protection ................................................................................................... 123
Conflict Resolution through Mediation: Case Study in a Dam and Hydropower Project ..... 138
Trans Sumatra Highway As The Economic Backbone Of Sumatra ......................................... 146
Infrastructure, Accessibility, And Kotadesasi Effects After Decentralization:
Contributions Of Cities To Rural Economic Development On Sulawesi And In Other
Island Regions Of Indonesia ......................................................................................................... 164
Rural-Urban Linkage, Rural Road, and Livelihood. ................................................................. 204
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Analyzing User Perspective For Toll Road Service Quality Improvement (Case Study
Of Surabaya Metropolitan Toll Road)......................................................................................... 218
Sustainability of Infrastructures In Urban Areas: Is Road Pricing a Stand-Alone
Policy? ............................................................................................................................................. 231
An Appraisal of Sustainable Financing of District Road Maintenance in Indonesia .............. 252
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OPENING SPEECH
By Director General of Research and Development Agency
The Ministry of Public Works and Public Housing
1. Honorable Senior Advisor for Social Culture and Community Participation, the Minister
of Public Works & Public Housing;
2. Honorable Keynote Speaker, Dr. Rico Ancog, from Environmental Science and
Management, the University of Phillipines Los Banos;
3. Honorable speakers, distinguished guests, and participants.
Assalamu‘alaikum Warahmatullahi Wabarakatuh,
Om Swastiastu
Good morning and May the Almighty God give us joy and prosperity
Excellencies, ladies and gentlemen,
I would like to warmly welcome you to “International Seminar on Innovations in
Accelerating Infrastructure Competitiveness and Sustainability” in Bali. This theme has
been selected after a series of discussions made by our seminar committee, to acknowledge
the role of sustainable infrastrucutre in accelerating national competitiveness. Global
Competitiveness Report 2013-2014, positioned Indonesia on 38th rank among 148 countries
while on 2012 ranked 50th among 144 countries. This upgrade was in line with
infrastructure rank increase from 78th to 61st rank.
The theme focuses on three sub themes: conflict resolution, economic impact assessment,
and environmental vulnerability and resilience. This reflects the fact that Indonesia‟s New
Administration under the newly elected President Joko Widodo is pushing infrastructure
development; not only to endorse economic growth, but also to give as much as benefit to
the community and and environment.
Ministry of Public Works and Public Housing has executed a lot of infrastructure
development since 40 years ago. On a number of occasions, infrastructure development
targets have been pointed out. For example: 25 dams will be developed within the next 5
years to support national food security program, the eradication of slum areas in cities by
0% in 2019, and connecting roads to deal with rural-urban linkage, and intra and interregion connectivity which specifically supports national transportation and logistics system
(SISTRANAS & SISLOGNAS). Having recognized these targets, it is then concluded that if
no innovative measures are taken into account, these may affect the social and
environmental aspects.
Social problems impeding infrastructure development frequently occur due to conflict of
stakeholders‟ interests. For example: in the current land acquisition and resettlement
programs predominantly focuses on the physical relocation rather than restoring the
livelihoods of the displaced people. We also observe that instruments to accurately assess
economic impacts of infrastructure development are limited. And last, but not least, the
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visible impacts of climate change have urged government agencies, private sectors, NGOs,
and community groups to work hand–in–hand to increase local resilience by maximizing
adaptive capacity on the one hand, and improving mitigation technology, on the other.
Excellencies, ladies and gentlemen,
I am privileged to have among us experts, researchers, and academia, from across the
spectrum. We are indebted to all speakers, presenters, and participants, who have spent a
great deal of time preparing for this event. We deeply appreciate your breaking away from
busy day-to-day schedules to participate in this seminar. However, we are confident that,
this seminar will benefit us with the exchange of knowledge and experiences.
During this seminar, we shall be looking at these and many other topical issues that relate to
infrastructure development, as well as innovative measures to accelerate its competitiveness
and sustainability. At the same time, we shall accommodate various issues which are also
closely related to infrastructure development, such as climate change, rural-urban linkages,
and how the provision of infrastructure meshes in with these.
We welcome full, free and frank exchanges in all our discussions. It is only with an open,
wholehearted approach that a meeting like this will be truly effective in enabling us to
improve our knowledge and understanding.
Finally, with saying Bismillahirrahmanirrahim, I officially open International Seminar on
Innovations in Accelerating Infrastructure Competitiveness and Sustainability. Wishing you
productive and constructive seminar discussions. Thank you.
Wassalamu‘alaikum Warahmatullahi Wabarakatuh,
Om Shanti Shanti Shanti Om
Director General of R & D Agency
Ir. Waskito Pandu, M.Sc
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COMMITTEE REPORT
Director of Research Center for Social Economic and Environment, the Ministry of
Public Works and Public Housing
1. Honorable Director General of Research and Development Agency, the Minister of Public
Works & Public Housing;
2. Honorable Senior Advisor for Social Culture and Community Participation, the Minister
of Public Works & Public Housing;
3. Honorable Keynote Speaker, Dr. Rico Ancog, from Environmental Science and
Management, the University of Phillipines Los Banos;
4. Honorable speakers, distinguished guests, and participants
Assalamu‘alaikum Warahmatullahi Wabarakatuh,
Om Swastiastu
Good morning and May the Almighty God give us joy and prosperity
Excellencies, ladies and gentlemen,
On behalf of the Organizing Committee, it is my pleasure and privilege to welcome all the
distinguished speakers, guests, and participants to this International Seminar.
I also wish to take this opportunity to welcome Dr. Rico Ancog, our Keynote Speaker from
Environmental Science and Management, the University of Phillipines Los Banos, who has
also been our partner from the International Federation of Social Science Organization
(IFSSO). We shall hear his experiences on what to consider accelerating infrastructure
development from a multidisciplinary approach.
Thus, the Seminar attempts to discuss issues, approaches, and methods that are closely linked
to infrastructure development from 3 (three) different perspectives:
1. Environmental Vulnerability and Resilience discusses how local resilience and adaptive
measures cope with climate change impacts;
2. Conflict Resolution acknowledges best practices to resolve conflicts on irrigation and
energy sector; and
3. Economic Impact Assessment explores approaches to assess rural-urban linkages, intraregion economic development, connectivity, and accessibility via road development.
Excellencies, ladies and gentlemen,
Prior to the seminar, the Steering Committee has carried out a number of preparation
activities, from announcing the call for paper to research centers, universities, and
government agencies, up to paper selection.
There are 23 manuscripts submitted to the Committee. Having been reviewed, 9 papers will
be presented at the seminar, and 7 will be displayed at poster session.
The Reviewers are selected for their scientific backgrounds and expertise, which consists of
professors and senior researchers from the Ministry of Public Works & Public Housing, the
Ministry of Agriculture, and Institute for Economic and Social Research, University of
Indonesia (LPEM UI).
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I should also inform you that around 200 experts, researchers, and academia from research
centers, universities, and government agencies have been invited to the Seminar; including
our partners from IFSSO, University of Melbourne, World Bank, the Ministry of Agriculture,
Ministry of Environment and Forestry, Agency for Assessment and Application of
Technology (BPPT), Indonesian Institute of Science (LIPI), Graduate Program of
Management of Infrastructure and Community Development, University of Gadjahmada
(PIPM UGM), LPEM UI, etc.
To conclude, I would kindly ask Director General of R & D Agency, Bapak Ir. Waskito
Pandu M.Sc. to give his opening speech and to officially open the Seminar.
I wish you a fruitful discussion on our sessions, and have a joyful stay in Bali. Thank you.
Wassalamu‘alaikum Warahmatullahi Wabarakatuh,
Om Shanti Shanti Shanti Om
Ir. Lolly Martina Martief, MT.
Director of RSCEE
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Keynote Speakers
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Sustainability Considerations In Accelerating Infrastructure
Development: Enhancing The Interdisciplinary Approach
Dr. Rico Ancog
School of Environmental Science and Management
University of the Philippines Los Baños
ABSTRACT :
Amidst the recent global financial crisis, Southeast Asian countries are projected to grow
economically competitive in terms of medium-growth rates. Indonesia and the Philippines lead
the ASEAN with a projected average annual growth rate in 2014-2018 of 6.0% and 5.8%
respectively (OECD, 2014). Strong investment to infrastracture development is viewed as one of
the factors that may drive this anticipated event. Recent history of infrastructure development,
however, describes an unsustainable growth that often emphasizes capital investments to
financial and physical structures. The principles of sustainable development— of which many of
the national policy frameworks are now grounded on— indicate that infrastructure development
needs to fully account social, economic, and environmental considerations. Aside from the
commonly perceived environmental and socioeconomic impacts, contemporary developmental
challenges necessitate an integrated framework to infrastructure development. In order to truly
operationalize an integrative analysis, the concepts, priciples, and methods from the natural,
social, and physical sciences must be maximized in addressing the inherent complexity and
uncertainty of infrastructure issues---an approach that transcends disciplinary boundaries is
conceptualized. This methodology referred to as an interdisciplinary approach seeks to
understand complexity and diversity of the system to provide pragmatic and reflexive solutions
to societal problems (www.transdisciplinarity.ch). Achieveing interdisciplinarity is difficult but
the challenge may be aided by establishing a relationship based on mutual communication of
ideas, observations, and innovations among and between bodies of knowledge including the
academe, government, non-government organizations, community, and end-users.
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Environment Vulnerability
and Resillience
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Public Expenditure On Climate Resilient Infrastructure:
Opportunities For Innovation And Experimentation
Venkatachalam Anbumozhi
Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia (ERIA), Jakarta, Indonesia
Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT :
Developing countries of the Asia-Pacific Region, as a group, are the ones most threatened by
the climate change. Although climate change will have impacts that can be positive for other
regions, the most significant impacts are
expected to be negative for the region. This is because many of these countries lie in those
regions where climate change related effects including flooding, drought, tropical cyclones, and
ecosystem destruction will be more damaging affecting the production activities within natural
resource management sectors. Furthermore, the region is more vulnerable to climate change
due to weak institutions and their ability to respond to adverse impacts is often limited. If not
addressed immediately, this has the potential to undermine economic growth
In a context common to many countries in the region, a proliferation of financing mechanisms
and various donor-government dialogues on how to address climate change had been emerging.
These discussions had often been fragmented and typically taking place amongst environment
or climate change specialists, but not yet rooted in key national debates on how the government
might best promote climate resilient development.
The Climate Public Expenditure Evaluation was done to help countries to review how their own
stated national climate change policy aims were being reflected in public expenditures more
broadly and how institutions might be adjusted to ensure that financing a response to climate
change is delivered in a coherent way across government. It was anticipated that such an
analysis would provide a useful starting point for longer term government-led multi-stakeholder
dialogue on how the government might utilize increased financing as part of the national
response to climate change. This was done for Nepal, Bangladesh, Thailand, Samoa and
Cambodia. With five countries analyzed and further such analysis already in the pipeline in
Indonesia, Timor-Leste and Viet Nam; it is an opportune moment to review this body of work
and promote learning.
In this regard, this paper provides a (i) comparative analysis of public expenditure on climate
change in five economies of Asia (ii) the adaptive capacity and institutional settings that have
emerged from the countries and (iii) the recommendations that have been made to take the work
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forward at country and regional level. Proposals are also made for potential complimentary
analysis and support that would be necessary to take the public expenditure analysis forward..
Key words: Climate change, Resilient Infrastructure, public expenditure, policy integration,
capacity building.
1.
INTRODUCTION
Developing countries of the Asia-Pacific Region, as a group, are the ones most
threatened by the climate change. Although climate change will have impacts that can
be positive for other regions, the most significant impacts are expected to be negative
for the region (ADB, 2009: ADB, 2010). This is because many of these countries lie in
those regions where climate change related effects including flooding, drought, tropical
cyclones, and ecosystem destruction will be more damaging affecting the production
activities within natural resource management sectors. Furthermore, the region is more
vulnerable to climate change due to weak institutions and their ability to respond to
adverse impacts is often limited. If not addressed immediately, this has the potential to
undermine economic growth.
Enhancing the adaptive capacity is therefore essential to reduce vulnerability to adverse
effects. Adaptive capacity building framework was scoped in COP 7 Parties
(Marrakech, 2001), in which developed and developing nations designed a roadmap for
adaptive capacity building actions. It stressed that capacity building is a country-driven
and results-oriented process that specifically addresses countries‟ needs and reflects
their national strategies for sustainable development (UNFCCC, 2001).It is also
underlined point that capacity building should be implemented in a flexible and manner
to encourage its cost-effectiveness evaluation.
However, adaptation to climate change has not yet become high priority policy issue in
most part of the Asia-Pacific, as policy makers are preoccupied with other
developmental priorities. Improbability is often cited as a reason for inaction and could
be interpreted as the case of limited knowledge on cost effective best practices.
Adaptation strategies are also largely being dealt in isolation from other developmental
issues. In order to mainstream adaptation into developmental planning, policies should
be integrated at sectoral and local levels, rather than designing separated ones. Efforts to
mainstream adaptation may find resistance, particularly in the sectors directly related to
economic and social development, as commonly there are tradeoffs between climate
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change adaptation and economic development. Resilience needs therefore to be
enhanced through building regional, national, and institutional commitment, as well as
technical and scientific capacity.
In this regard, this paper provides a (i) comparative analysis of public expenditure on
climate change in five economies of Asia (ii) the adaptive capacity and institutional
settings that have emerged from the countries and (iii) the recommendations that have
been made to take the work forward at country and regional level. Proposals are also
made for potential complimentary analysis and support that would be necessary to take
the public expenditure analysis forward.
Climate Change Vulnerability And Resilient Infrastructure
In order to design adaptive strategies, it is necessary to assess the vulnerability of sector
to climate change. Unfortunately, there is not a single universally accepted definition of
vulnerability. Several papers presented in this book describe various approaches to
vulnerability assessment and adaptive capacity. A general definition that has emerged
from regional capacity building workshops conducted by ADBI on Climate Change
Adaptation, are shown in Figure 1. This framework links human resource development
to climate through the key concept of adaptive capacity.
Climate Change
and Variability
Sensitivity
• Food
• Water
• Settlement
• Health
• Ecosystem
Exposure
Adaptative
Capacity
• Technical capacity
• Human Resources
• Economic capacity
Vulnerability and
Resilience
Coping strategy
Figure 1: Adaptative capacity conceptual framework
According to UN Conference on Environment and Development, capacity building
refers to the ability to plan, evaluate, and implement strategies and measures towards
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sustainable development, based on an understanding of environmental potentials and
limits and needs of local communities (UNCED, 1992). Thus it supports country-led
initiatives, such as national communications, national capacity self-assessments,
national adaptation programs of action, and policy gap assessments.
Adaptive capacity is the ability to adapt. It is a function of the countries‟ stock of
infrastructure, human resources, technology base, educational system, research capacity,
natural resource base, the structure of its economy, and many other determinants. But
this is key intervention point for developmental planning. Strengthening adaptive
capacity to deal with the variability of climate change induced negative impacts
comprises the sum of actions taken to change in behaviors, shift priorities, produces
necessary goods and services and to plan and respond in those ways that reduce harmful
climate change impacts or transform them into no-regret economic opportunities.
Adaptive Capacity in the region: past, present and future
Given the risks and the scale of potential impacts of climate change, serious efforts are
underway in most parts of the Asia Pacific Region. Actions are classified as structural
and non-structural measures. Structural measures (often referred as hard measures)
include physical construction of infrastructure or application of engineering techniques
to reduce the intensity of possible climate change derived hazards. Non-structural
measures (or soft measures), on the other hand, aim at changing behaviors, methods and
practices to cope with risks and impacts of climate change, Table 1 summarizes various
structural and non-structural measures of adaptation being implemented in different
countries of the Asia-Pacific region. Among these approaches, a key issue is the
identification of successful cost effective adaptation practices. First of all it is necessary
to distinguish adaptation by who is undertaking it and the interests of the diverse
stakeholders involved. It is clear that countries and communities will adapt and have
been adapting to climate change over the course of human history. Vulnerability to
climate change can act as a driver for adaptive resource management. There are various
scales and actors involved in adaptation. Some adaptation by individual communities is
undertaken in response to climate threats, often triggered by individual extreme events
(Ribot et al., 1996). Other adaptation is undertaken by governments sometimes in
anticipation of change but again, often in response to individual events.
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But these levels of decision-making are not independent – they are embedded in
planning process or social development processes that reflect the relationship between
institutes, individuals, their networks, capabilities and social capital. (Adger, 2001).
Sometimes a distinction is drawn between planned adaptation, assumed to be
undertaken by governments and autonomous adaptation by communities.
Realising that action is required to enhance the adaptive capacity of the most vulnerable
sectors, efforts should be focused on identifying generic determinants of adaptive
capacity which may vary from country to country. These determinants include the social
capital of societies, the flexibility and innovation in the institutions of government and
the private sector to grasp opportunities associated with climate change.
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Table 1. Overview of Ongoing Adaptation related Actions and Policies in Asian Plans
Country
Adaptation Actions and Policies
Bangladesh Structural: flood management schemes; irrigation schemes;
Non-structural: Climate Change Action Plan (2009-2018); established a Climate Change Cell; developed a network of 34 „focal
points‟ in various government agencies, research and other organizations; created flood-warning systems; expanding communitybased disaster preparedness; established agricultural research programs to develop saline, drought and flood-adapted high-yielding
crops.
Structural:
river
bank
modification,
crop
diversification.
Cambodia
Non-structural: released a NAPA in 2006 which identifies water management, and vulnerability assessments and adaptation
measures in coastal areas as priorities. Submitted its INC to UNFCCC in 2002. Its 2nd Socio-Economic Development Plans (SEDP
II) briefly acknowledges the negative impacts of climate change. The Royal Decree on the Creation and Designation of Protected
Areas (1993), the Law on Environmental Protection and Natural Resource Management (1996), and the Forestry Law (2002) are
relevant to environment and sustainable development but do not explicitly mention climate change.
Fiji Islands Structural: watershed management project for drought-prone sugarcane growth regions; Integrated Coastal Zone Management
Programme
Non-structural: Fiji Islands Climate Change Response report (2005); national vulnerability assessment study, community based
adaptation strategy actions (LMMA) to support the survival of local communities and protect marine resources; adaptation project
(on going) to reduce the vulnerability of the tourism industry.
Non-structural: 2007 National Development Planning Response to Climate Change (NDPRCC), 2007 NAPCC and the Climate
Indonesia
Change Roadmap (March 2010)
Structural: crop improvement, drought proofing, livelihood preservation; disaster management programs.
India
Non-structural: first NAPCC report (2008); increasing awareness and education; risk financing; health; National Environment
Policy 2006.
Kazakhstan Structural: integrated water management; community-based adaptation measures regarding rehabilitation of natural rangeland
ecosystems, stabilization of slope-wash, introduction of pasture-rotation methods and changing crop patterns, reduction of landdegradation pressures.
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Lao PDR
Malaysia
Maldives
Mongolia
Myanmar
Nepal
Non-structural: awareness raising campaigns; fostering local institutions for cooperative community management; designing
multidisciplinary pro-sustainable development policies, mainly in agriculture, forestry, fishery, and water sectors.
Structural: flood and drought mitigation programs; construction of irrigation systems.
Non-structural: NAPA Report; establishing the National Strategy Committee on Climate Change Chair; rolling out early warning
system and training; improving community-based educational campaigns; Disaster Management Strategic Plan (2003).
Structural: enlarging reservoir capacities; improving hydrological forecasting; promoting widespread use of groundwater; changing
land-use practices; developing demand-side management for water resources; creating buffer zones in agriculture and forestry
industries to minimize erosion and sedimentation; constructed the multi-purpose Smart Tunnel which is used as both a motorway
and flood-diversion channel.
Non-structural: completed its INC in 2000 and SNC is expected to be completed by this year (2010); 2009 National climate change
policy; formulating Clean Air Action Plan, establishing technical secretariat for CDM; incorporated climate change projects into the
9th Malaysia Plan; establishing an inventory of agricultural GHG emissions; conducting lifecycle assessments and renewable energy
research.
Structural: developing coastal protection of designated safer islands and the Male‟ International Airport; flood control measures.
Non-structural: Maldives Climate Change Strategy (CCS); National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA); Population and
Development Consolidation (PDC) program; carbon neutral policy; established a multidisciplinary National Climate Change
Technical Team; strengthening health care capacities; improving education and awareness.
Non-structural: National Action Programme on Climate Change (NAPCC), focusing the following sectors: pasture land, animal
husbandry, arable farming, water resources, forests and soil degradation and desertification.
Non-structural: hydrological research study and field survey of the 2008 Nargis Cyclone, including historical analysis of the
magnitude and frequency of cyclones and cyclone tracks over time.
Structural: water saving irrigation methods, upland land use changes
Non-structural: preparing a NAPA; established a Climate Change Network and establishing a Himalayan Research Center; the
Ministry of Home Affairs has drafted National Strategies for Disaster Risk Management; introduced mandatory EIA; developed a
Three-year Interim Plan (2008 to 2010) to prioritize policies and strategies related to climate change in the development agenda;
monitoring glaciers
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Pakistan
Philippines
PRC
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Structural: Water Resources Development Plan to improve flood control and protection, resource conservation cultivation, and high
efficiency irrigation systems.
Non-structural: 2000 Initial National Communication (INC) on climate change to UNFCCC; established the Presidential Taskforce
on Climate Change (PTFCC) and other task groups (fisheries, watershed protection, water recycling, rainwater conservation,
atmospheric activities, CPR economics, fossil fuels, information); progressing a Climate Change Bill for mainstreaming climate
change adaptation into all government policies and programs; established a Philippine Government-UN joint-program MDG-F 1656:
Strengthening the Philippines‟ Institutional Capacity to Adapt to Climate Change, which has already implemented 5 adaptation
demonstration projects across the country.
Structural: enhancing technology development and transfer in agriculture sector; improving livestock management; intensifying
ecological agriculture in high-intensive production areas; enhancing water resource management.
Non-structural: implementing regulations for improved agricultural production and increased agricultural ecosystem carbon storage;
developing farmland and pasture protection construction plans;
Structural: programs to improve crop and water management; distribution of flood-resistant crop varieties (2005-2008); PostTsunami Coastal Rehabilitation and Resource Management Program; improving fisheries.
Non-structural: Enhancing training capacities; implementing the Soil Conservation Act; National Rain Water Policy.
Structural: improving crop resilience, local-community water resource management and farming practices, and alternative
livelihood and tourism activities.
Non-structural: 2000 INC on climate change to UNFCCC and is currently in the middle stages of completing its Second National
Communication (SNC); launched Thailand‟s Strategic Plan on Climate Change 2008-2012; established the Project Steering
Committee (PSC); undertaking climate scenarios modeling; strengthening human resources and learning processes, social protection
systems and empowering local communities; integrating adaptation measures with natural hazard reduction and disaster prevention
programmes; established early warning and preparedness systems.
Source: ADBI, 2009; PICCAP, 2005
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An Overview of Progress in strengthening the Adaptive capacity at sectoral level
As a part of the capacity building workshops, ADBI conducted a survey to understand the
determinants of adaptive capacity of selected countries in the Asia and Pacific region, which
is discussed bellow. The survey was addressed to the participants of the ADBI workshop on
Mainstreaming Climate Change Adaptation into Development Planning held from 14-17
April, 2009. The questionnaire encompass five sections focused on awareness raising on
climate change vulnerabilities, policy endorsement, climate change impacts, operational
measures on mainstreaming adaptation, and regional cooperation. The responses appearing in
this report are not official responses, but rather the professional judgment of officials who are
directly in charge of climate change adaptation related policies/projects. Out of 22
participants, 12 (55%) responded to the survey.
Institutional awareness on the risks posed by climate change
Any operational measures to integrate adaptation that can be developed and put in place by
sectoral agencies require a certain degree of awareness of climate change and the risks it
poses to development. It is therefore of great importance that sectoral agencies conduct
awareness-raising measures on the risks posed by climate change, both internally and as part
of their interaction with its stakeholders.
The awareness-raising activities on climate change, however, vary considerably across
countries in terms of emphasis, specificity, scope, and whether they are one time or recurrent.
Almost all of the fifteen survey respondents, who are senior level policy makers, indicate that
their agency has undertaken internal awareness-raising measures on climate change. Internal
awareness-raising initiatives generally rely on a combination of written material and training
seminars, while policy dialogues are also used in conjunction with written material and
training courses to raise awareness on climate risks (Figure 2Source: ADBI 2009
Figure 2). A significant majority of respondents also report on similar measures being
undertaken in partnership with other agencies.
0%
Initiatives to raise
awareness
25%
50%
YES
75%
100%
NO
Policy dialogues
Written material
Training
courses/seminars
Other
Source: ADBI 2009
Figure 2: Initiatives to raise awareness in other sectoral agencies
The written material being used for this purpose includes publications produced by the
research community, international organizations or the agency itself. They include brochures,
flyers, posters, website contents, communication briefs, and e-mail distribution of news items
on climate change. Some agencies disseminate information on broad themes such as
sustainable development.
23
Besides written materials, a few agencies have mentioned other measures to improve the
capacity on climate change adaptation. Training courses and seminars are also used by some
agencies to raise awareness and it seems that international institutions like JICA, GTZ and
regional development banks like ADB and its institutes ADBI and regional network such as
Network of Asian River Basin Organizations (NARBO) are helping them to advance in this
area. They are conducting, training courses for planning professionals on disaster risk
reduction and climate change adaptation issues, as well as capacity building seminars for
relevant developing country government agencies and other related stakeholders (Box 1 ).
Box 1
Network of Asian River Basin Organizations (NARBO) was established in 2004 by
ADB, ADBI and Japan Water Agency. NARBO aims at strengthening the capacity and
effectiveness of River Basin Organizations (RBOs) in promoting Integrated Water
Resources management (IWRM) and improving water governance, through training and
exchange of information and experiences.
Addressing the needs of member organizations, NARBO has been organizing several
regional capacity building events, attempting at raising awareness for IWRM and
sharing good practices and lessons learnt for IWRM among RBOs. The Regional
Workshop on Developing Partnerships for Water and Climate Change Adaptation was
organized in Malaysia in 2008. The objective of the workshop was to increase
understanding of the impacts of climate change on water management and develop
partnerships for better results in climate change projections, impact assessments, and
adaptation strategies. River improvement activities to adapt the impact of climate
change and state-of-the-art forecasting rainfall systems such as down scaling model by
using Geographic Information System
(GIS) and Satellite were also shared.
ADB and ADBI also offer the
opportunity to introduce GIS and
Satellite Information System to predict
rainfall patters by organizing related
workshops.
(Source: NARBO)
Field Visit at workshop in 2008
Multi-sectoral Initiatives
Almost all of the surveyed respondents reported that their agencies include discussions on
climate change in regular policy dialogues with other sectoral authorities. The relative
emphasis joint actions depend upon several factors, including the level of sectoral interests of
policy-makers, as well as contextual issues. In general, non-structural measures of adaptation
tend to dominate in dialogues with middle income countries, while structural measures are a
priority focus in the case of the most vulnerable countries such as small island states. In
addition, several respondents have indicated that awareness in other sectors when adaptation
24
issues are included in country programming funded by external agencies. UN Agencies, for
example, support partner countries in preparing National Adaptation Programmes of Action
(NAPAs) that identify priority responses to most urgent immediate adaptation needs.
However, in terms of use of instruments such as risk-screening tools, guidelines for
mainstreaming adaptation etc, only 8% reported using the instruments developed by other
sectoral agencies/international organizations (Figure 3Source: ADBI 2009
Figure 3). The result implies that the initiatives to achieve sector-wide commitments to work
together have been taken in the absence of shared instruments.
0%
Collaborations
with other
sectoral
agencies
Use of
Instruments
developed by YES
other sectoral
agencies
25%
50%
75%
100%
YES
NO
NA
Source: ADBI 2009
Figure 3: Collaboration and use of instruments among sectoral agencies
High-level policy endorsement
There is an interdependent relationship between the degree of internal awareness amongst
agency staff of the challenges posed by climate change and the level of policy endorsement at
senior levels within the agency for the need to integrate adaptation into development
activities. On the one hand, a certain level of climate change is often a prerequisite before the
issue reaches the high-level policy agenda. On the other hand, high-level policy endorsement
of the need to take climate risks into account can, in turn, further enhance the level of
awareness across the agency and provide both the impetus and the enabling environment for
operationalizing adaptation activities. Therefore, high-level policy endorsement is an
important criterion for monitoring progress in this area.
A majority of the surveyed officials report to having such high-level policy endorsement – at
the agency/national level. There are a number of high-level national policy initiatives with
broad environmental objectives and developmental priorities. Climate change adaptation is
explicitly or implicitly contained within these broader mandates. Some countries like Peoples
Republic of China and India have their Medium-term Policy on Policies to address urgent
adaption issues. Those document outlines, among other issues, cross sectoral efforts in
dealing with adaptation challenges. With the goal to advancing the adaptation agenda,
Ministries of Environment established experts committee for (i) building and enhancing
adaptive capacity; (ii) enhancing collaboration among the sectoral agencies. As indicated in
Figure 4 such initiatives range from agreements with broader environmental and development
25
objectives, to climate change initiatives comprising both mitigation and adaptation issues, to
specific agreements aiming at integrating climate change adaptation into developmental
planning.
Internation
al
Cooperati
Awarenes
on
s
8%
8%
Disaster
17%
Overall
developm
ent
17%
Energy
8%
Agriculture
/ Food
34%
Water
8%
Source: ADBI 2009
Figure 4: Current Focus of adaptation activities
Mainstreaming climate change adaptation
Even though all the countries are well aware about the consequences of climate change, they
have limited capacity to design and implement the adaptation programs to avoid the risk of
climate change at a scale required. When inquired about priorities in mainstreaming
adaptation, respondents stressed the urgency of taking actions related to scientific and
technical skills enhancement (e.g.: analytical studies and new technologies) (24%), inventory
of baseline data (17%), increasing awareness (17%), and promoting cross-border cooperation
(17%) (Figure 5Source: ADBI 2009
Figure 5).
NA
25%
Study and
New
Technology
24%
Aw areness
17%
Crossborder
Approache
s
17%
Baseline
Data
17%
Source: ADBI 2009
Figure 5: Priorities in Mainstreaming Climate Change Adaptation
In respect to the assessment on climate change risk, 83% of the respondents had conducted
assessment on implications of climate change on their activities (e.g. country / regional /
sectoral strategies; technical co-operation, projects), 92% had conducted assessment on
26
documents (e.g. country strategies, policy, project descriptions whether they make reference
to climate change impacts and vulnerabilities), and 34% had conducted assessment on
exposure of investments (e.g. the proportion of its activities in sectors that are potentially
affected by climate change). The results as summarized in Figure 6 highlights that the current
attention of assessments are not climate change risk on financing but risk on activities and
policies. However the impact on distribution of finance in the sectors by exposure of
investment should not be underestimated.
Source: ADBI 2009
Figure 6. Trend in assessment on climate change risk
But there are few examples of integrated approach for climate change adaptation.
Environmental policy instruments for example, not specifically identify the integration of
sectoral issues –particularly– into national development planning as a priority for budgeting.
More specific avenues for policy integration include (i) integrating disaster prevention and
adaptation into all relevant developmental activities; (ii) launching a programme on
adaptation in agriculture including financial support to a research programme; (iii) providing
financial support to the least developed areas under adaptation agenda (iv) supporting the
adaptation pillar of co-benefits.
Other barriers to mainstreaming climate change adaptation are summarized in Box 2:
Box 2: Barriers to Mainstreaming
 Limited understanding of the nature and extent of risks and vulnerabilities, or
lack of credible climate information.
 Available climate information is often not directly relevant for development
related decisions.
 Lack of information on the economics of good adaptation measures, or simply
an absence of knowledge on available „no regret‟ strategies.
 Trade-off between climate and development objectives exists.
 Lack of available funds or restricted access to finance.
 Segmentation within governments, no strong supportive policies, standards,
regulations, etc.
 Differences in willingness to accept uncertainties.
27

Funding modalities are not well established. Difficult for adaptation efforts to
attract resources compared to more visible activities such as emergency
response, disaster recovery and reconstruction
(ADBI, 2009)
Strategic Approaches in Strengthening Adaptive Capacity
A country‟s ability to undertake actions to tackle climate risk is largely a function of its
adaptive capacity. Figure 7Source: Gagnon-Lebrun and Agrawala 2006
Figure 7 shows the grouping of countries in three tiers based on their adaptive capacity. To be
most effective, adaptation must proceed with specific strategies at several levels
simultaneously. Adaptation is in fundamental way inherently local- the direct impacts of
climate change are felt locally, and adaption measures must be tailored to local
circumstances. However, for these efforts to be robust they must be guided and supported by
national policies and strategies. For some countries, these, in turn, need to be facilitated
through international measures.
Source: Gagnon-Lebrun and Agrawala 2006
Figure 7: Classification of countries’ adaptative capacity
Enhancing adaptive capacity at sectoral level could involve the several stages as discussed in
chapter 1. The distinction between specific adaptations and enhanced adaptive capacity may
not be clear in the initial stages. However, effective capacity building strategies must rest on
acquiring the best available climate information on the nature and severity of likely impacts
over different timeframes in given locales, and on the cost and efficacy of possible adaptation
measure. Hence, an overriding priority is strengthening capacities in building awareness to
understand potential climate impacts and devising response strategies.
Some capacity building activities are no-regret -for instance, resources and training to
integrate adaptation considerations into development planning; expanded research into
alternative crops or cropping patterns; or the strengthening of public health systems. Here,
28
again, these are steps with multiple benefits beyond climate adaptation. Many specific
adaptations can be quite effective in reducing certain risks. For example, cyclone shelters in
Bangladesh have proven very effective in reducing loss of lives during climate induced
disasters. However, specific adaptations deliver fewer ancillary benefits. In addition, where
adaptive capacity is limited, the potential benefits of specific adaptations may be quite
limited. For example, an early warning system of limited value if the users at risk have no
economic capacity to respond. So testing of such measures through pilot programs is critical.
One indicator of successful adaptive capacity is to ensure that strategic adaptation actions are
mainstreamed in developmental planning which correspondingly advances adaptive capacity.
Collectively, these efforts must meet a wide range of interrelated needs. In considering how
best to address these needs, the sectoral planners faces a host of difficult issues stemming
from the underlying institutional contexts for adaptation decision-making and action, and
inherent limits on available resources-all compounded by politically sensitive questions of
responsibility and equity.
Actors and Stakeholders in Strengthening the Adaptive Capacity
The range of actors and their specific role in enhancing the adaptive capacity depends on the
specific context or issue being addressed. In a generic sense, however, there are many
commonalities across them. These broad groups of organizational types that will be important
to work with are:
1. Policy making agencies operating across sectors at different levels
2. Scientific and educational research institutions particularly
those with
interdisciplinary programmes
3. Private sector organizations, particularly those involved in the climate proofing
infrastructure development and services
4. Civil society and community-based organizations
5. International organizations
The above mix of actors reflects the capacities required to catalyze adaptation at scale
required to avoid climate risks in a cost –effective way. Local and regional governments are,
however, likely to be the governmental entities most directly familiar with and involved in
adaptation activities. Research and educational networks operating across and within sectors
and interdisciplinary scientific and educational organizations are essential for cross-sectoral
and international learning and to link knowledge generation with major decision-making
processes. Since much adaptation will occur in the future and also in a pro-active way,
involvement of the private sector is central to achieving impacts at scale. Finally,
international organizations that combine the flexibility required for testing of innovative
approaches with the explicit focus on vulnerable populations is critical. The specific role of
these groups could bring to a programme of adaptive capacity are discussed further below.
Policy making agencies operating across and within sectors at national, sub national
and level
National governments are the key players particularly in climate negotiations in all the
countries of the region. Within national governments there are often innovative actors at
29
multiple levels that can contribute significantly. However capacities of national governments
to play a significant role in climate change adaptation differ across the region. In addition to
national government entities that are designated as nodal points for activities related to
climate change, three types of agencies are of particular importance First, Economic Planning
Agencies could play an important role in climate change adaptation. In India, for example,
the Planning Commission has become a key player in adaptation responses and in
coordinating across different sectoral agencies. Stronger involvement of economic or
planning ministries to lead coordinated planning has been raised as a possible strategy in
some South East Asian countries. In PRC, the National Development Reform Commission,
which is already the coordinating authority and its climate mandate, plays a significant role.
Second, sector Specific Agencies, because much adaptation is likely to occur through sector
specific development processes, the agencies that are constrained specific engagement with
those systems will be of particular importance. Third, local governments play a significant
role in climate change adaptation across the region. In all areas, the factors that constrain and
enable both autonomous and planned adaptation will be heavily influenced by location
specific conditions. As a result, improving the capacity of local governments will be
particularly important.
Scientific and educational research institutions, particularly those with
multidisciplinary programs
The scientific research community in most countries across the region has primarily focusing
their efforts on climate change forecasting at national level. Quantitative modeling is an
essential tool to assess climate change impacts, estimate systems sensitivity in response to
climate change extremes, and reduce uncertainties concerning forecasts and cost-benefits of
adaptation measures (OECD, 2006). Frequently developing countries with limited scientific
capacity are compelled to apply generic and global methods, which do not necessarily fulfill
their needs. Therefore global climate models need to be downscaled, taking under
consideration regional data, increasing participation of local research centers and scientists,
and inclusion local communities‟ knowledge on local climate change events (present and
historical perspective). Inventory activities and field campaigns must be sponsored to fulfill
knowledge gaps in observing networks and data collection methodologies. Although
significant attempts have been carried out to develop methodologies and models to focus on
Asian ecosystems, this field is still under investigated and mainly focused to crops
productivity simulation as described in Anbumozhi et al. (2003) and Reddy et al. If these
models expand their evaluation spectrum to include other biophysical and non-physical
variables (social and economic impacts), they will become a reliable and accurate tool to
support decision making processes. By this end multidisciplinary teams must be formed
(Anbumozhi et al., 2001). Scientists, who measure physical impacts of climate change and
adaptation strategies, should work along with economists and social scientists, requesting the
need to include economic impacts and the perspectives of local communities. However
lacking of programming skills and insufficient expertise about prediction of climate events,
due to short term basis activities, result in untrustworthy surveys that do not support policymaker decisions
There are also regional level research networks such as START, APN and EEPSEA that
support regional level research. Organizations such as those will be among the most
30
important for implementing any research and educational programme. Building the capacity
of educational and scientific institutions will be particularly important for those (1) well
concerned with current policy environment; and (2) that produce the graduates who
ultimately populate government, national sector or policy organizations, and private business
entities. Such organizations train future generations of sector-specific and integrating
planning and economic development experts – i.e. the individuals who will ultimately
“actualize” systems. An indicative system of such capacity building programs is illustrated in
Table 2.
Table 2: CBT indicators towards climate change adaptation mainstreaming
Indicators
Internation
New
Integratio Stakeholder Disseminatio
al
knowledge n
s
n
partnership






(2) Books/Websites
(3) Decision support 
systems


















(1)
Workshops/seminars
(4) Joint cross-sectoral
actions
(5)
Guidelines/handbooks
(6) Joint studies
(7) Graduate courses


Due to the wide array of issues involved actors that need to be influenced, partnerships that
involve diverse combinations of academic, government actors, private sector and are likely to
be particular importance in supporting adaptation at national level. Where such networks as
illustrated in Figure 8 don‟t currently exist, encouraging their formation will have greater
impact than attempting to work on a one to one basis with individual organizations however
strong they may be.
31
Regional
Regional
Universities
Universities
Key Stakeholders
Private Sector
CBO
Foreign
Foreign
Universities
Universities
Matching funds
Ed
u
Pr cat
og ion
ra a l
m
Education & Science
Sectoral Agencies
Core funds
Universities
Universities
Policy Community
Disincentives
rc
Incentives
h
a
se
Re m
ic ra
em rog
d
a P
Ac
Po
lic
yD
Pr eve
og lo
ra pm
m
e
nt
Policy
PolicyResearch
Research
Institute
Institute
ag
nk
Li
ch a m
ar ogr
e
r
s
Re P
e
International
International
Organizations
Organizations
Figure 8: Cross-sectoral stakeholders’ involvement towards adaptative capacity
building
Open governance of these research and educational networks is essential – networks that
confirm to national interests or demand consistency regarding the messages they
communicate on “best practice” or the issues and approaches they treat as legitimate will not
have the intellectual dynamism required to generate the wide array of insights required to
catalyze effective strategies for climate adaptation. Such research and policy networks have
unique regional and cross-sectoral engagement capacities, are often able to identify multiple
points of entry or leverages, and are often capable of engaging in and replicating the results
from learning strategies. Strengthening such networks and the institutions that actively
engage with them is likely to have higher and more replicable returns than focusing on
individual key organizations.
32
Box 3: A reality Check on the current status of scientific Capacity for CCA
 Lack of Programming skills – most research & educational activities undertaken
are on a short term basis. Hardly long term planning is thought of to continue
develop solutions to solve the problems.
 Inadequate monitoring & evaluation – Keen on activities but not enthusiastic in
monitoring the impact of research & education.
 In adequate communication skills – For e.g., downscaling the climate forecast at
sub-regional level and communicating with decision makers.
 Lack of effective networking, experience sharing, and dissemination skills.
 Inadequate leadership, governance & management capacities – undefined roles
of team members and accountability.
 Inadequate capacities to raise adequate international resources, mobilize local
resources, manage finances and effective reporting.
(Anbumozhi, 2009)
Private Sector
The role of the private sector in promoting innovative pilot projects to strengthen the access
and delivery of climate-related information through communication strategies needs to be
further explored. The underlying systems that enable or constrain courses of action and the
choices on adaptation will rely heavily on activities that fall within the private sector
involvement of the private sector is, as a result, essential. Such involvement will flow most
naturally from research processes that lead to courses of action that reflect the core business
interests and models on which private sector activity is based (Figure 9).
• Decreased
agriculture
productivity and food
security at national
and regional level
• Increase water
stress and/or water
insecurity
• Threats to human
health
• Threats to
ecosystem services
• Potential conflicts
and political stability
• Managing and/or
mitigating risks
• Minimising operative
cost
• Building resilience to
shocks on supply
chains
• Harnessing new
markets
• Responding to
stakeholder
expectation
• Partnering
strategically with
research community
• Creating sector wide
initiatives
• Engaging in public
policy and
international advocacy
Adaptation
Challenge
Business Case
for Action
Strategies to
improve Adaptative
Capacity
Figure 9: The role of private sector in promoting adaptative capacity
Direct business interests are the core reasons why insurance and energy industries are heavily
involved in work on climate change while it has proved difficult to “involve” other private
sector actors. Identifying points of entry that respond to the inherent logic driving private
sector actors represents the core avenue for encouraging their involvement. From this
perspective perhaps the most important private sector organizations to engage with are those
involved in designing the climate proofed infrastructure and financing adaption practices.
Business incubator programs have specific experience in taking small innovative initiatives
33
and driving them to scale using appropriate operational models. They also have specific skills
in the innovation and incubations of organizations so that their products and services can be
marketed at scale.
Civil Society and Community Based Organizations
The region is rich with examples of community-led natural resource management and
development programmes (Box 4). Although not designed as climate change adaptation
initiatives, they are indicative of adaptive mechanisms that could potentially be undertaken in
drought, flood prone, coastal and mountain or upland areas. Social institutions such as
cooperatives can also play a significant role in strengthening links with markets for better
returns in small-scale enterprises.
Box 4. The mediating role of institutions in the context of climate impacts – NGOs in the Philippines
Local institutions play a key role in recovery after disasters by shaping the direction, effectiveness, and
allocation of external assistance. An example of their critical role can be found among the work of NGOs in
the Philippines. Between 1995 and 2000, more than 75 percent of the disasters and 95 percent of disasterrelated deaths in the Philippines were because of climate hazards: typhoons and tornadoes, flooding, and
landslides being the most prominent hazards.
Many development NGOs in the Philippines integrated relief and rehabilitation strategies into their action
program. These strategies include socio-economic projects to reduce local vulnerability, mediation of the
flow of government and international assistance, community-based disaster management, small scale
infrastructure development, and training for capacity building. In one interesting case, NGOs staff focused
on vulnerable communities to identify local leaders, conducted hazard and vulnerability analysis, initiated
training related to disaster management, and established village level committees to foster effective disaster
responses. Other NGOs have provided financial and technical assistance to help in community –based
disaster management activities. These examples show the critical role of local institutions in any area-based
effort to undertake adaptation measures.
(Source: Luna, E. 2001)
Bilateral and multilateral agencies support many national and international NGOs in the
region. Their work has focused on development and livelihood related initiatives particularly
linked to disaster risk reduction. Such organizations may play a particularly critical role in the
innovation and incubation of new adaptation measures, strategies and pilot initiatives to
support climate adaptation that can then be replicated at scale through private sector business
models or public sector interventions. They may also play a particularly critical role in the
development of climate related social protection initiatives that would otherwise fall below
the radar screen of national governments and do not generate the profits required to catalyze
private sector investment.
International Organizations
Effective adaptation response requires a wide array of international support. Three broad
approaches of relevance to Asia Pacific region include:
- Adaptation under the UN-mechanisms and support for proactive adaptation the
convention by facilitating comprehensive national strategies and committing reliable
funding for high-priority implementation projects.
- Integrating Adaptation capacity building programs with developmental aid Factoring
adaptation into development assistance through measures such as mandatory climate risk
assessments for projects financed by multilateral and bilateral lenders.
34
Climate “insurance” - Committing public and private funds to support climate relief or
insurance-type approaches in vulnerable countries for losses resulting from both climate
change and climate variability.
Each of these approaches, pursued independently, could contribute to national-level capacity
to reduce or cope with climate risks. Together, these three strategies also could be seen as
complementary elements of a comprehensive international effort-the first, supporting
proactive planning and high-priority implementation; the second, promoting integration with
the broader development agenda; and the third, providing a safety net to ameliorate
unavoidable impacts.
-
Opportunities for Innovation and Experimentation
There are many starting points for innovation and experimentation on the measures that can
strengthen adaptive capacity for addressing impacts of climate change. The large amount of
resources currently being used to improve the adaptive capacity is not well harmonized with
efforts to increase the country preparedness to act on climate information or adaptation
strategies. This is especially true among the most vulnerable sectors. The current emphasis on
climate prediction and risk forecasting offers the development planners the opportunity to
simultaneously embrace the recommendations of perfect information, vulnerability to hazards
and vulnerability to outcome approaches through the process of communication. Even though
they reflect very different views of political economy, the policies implied by these
approaches are neither inconsistent nor mutually exclusive.
The dissemination of predictions at sectoral and local level could be embedded in a larger
process aimed at (i) seeking to facilitate the flow of available climate information, and
identifying critical economic and social aspects of climate phenomenal that decision makers
want to have predicted with better accuracy (ii) identifying and addressing the bottlenecks in
the potential use of climate information (iii) exploring the opportunities to address to root
cause of implementing adaptation measures. This integration can lead synergies between
three policy approaches of climate information, decision capacity and financing as illustrated
in Figure 10.
Decision
Making
Capacity
Climate
Information
Regional
Cooperation
for
Integrated
Approach
Adaptation
Finance
Figure 10: An integrated approach for enhancing adaptive capacity
There is an opportunity to integrate these three approaches, bringing together all levels of
analysis in a search for short and long term risk reduction. The objective should be to foresee
35
climate related threats and reduce their negative effects, as well as to reduce the numerous
other causes that make the direct climate events as disasters. Climate predictions – when
combined with analysis of likely socio-economic costs are particularly well suited for
attracting the attention of top level policy makers who tend to be both sensitive to and to have
reason to be interested in, making decision on appropriate adaptive measure at a scale.
Participatory workshops involving planning ministries can provide an opportunity for
different sectoral agencies come together, learn the risks and benefits, identify and priorities
the actions. There are evidences that this participatory approach can lead to significantly
better decisions. Ultimately this approach could be expanded in its scope, aiming to build
country wide resilience, as well as get attention of international organizations for funding.
The synergies created by integrating the three policy streams could provide many positive
feedbacks. For example, if potential decision maker of climate information identify ways to
put that information in developing a new adaption strategy, they may become advocates for
development of climatic knowledge and add strength to efforts aimed at securing resources
for research and scientific capacity building. Public and private financiers who learn about
useful climate information and economic soundness of adaption measures may also want to
increase their access to other forms of information for their financial products, therefore
improving the overall flow of information and decision-making capacity.
To facilitate such a change, regional cooperation efforts need to be improved through the
provision of expertise in the area of climate information. Sharing country experiences will
help to build analytical, monitoring and decision making capacity. Such efforts will certainly
include long-term economic strategies such as creating regional fund for adaptive capacity
building.
2.
CONCLUSIONS
Enhancing the adaptive capacity of the Asia-pacific region is important to safeguard existing
and future development progress in the light of current climate variability, the projected
increase in extreme weather events and the development progress already being impact by
climate change. Although the sectoral and macro policies are conducive to enhance the
adaptive capacity, barriers both exist at the levels of organization and the enabling
environment. The barriers include the availability of scientific information, lack of
communication, absence of knowledge base on successful measures as well as financial
resources.
Strengthening adaptive capacity at a scale required could also prove difficult to carry out
because of direct tradeoffs in certain cases between development priorities and the actions
required to deal with climate change. In this regard, development planners need access to
credible and context specific climate information as a basis for decisions and that is linked
financing. In practice, structuring the adaptive process such that it is a series of graduated
steps is often appropriate; beginning with screening to identify exposures, sensitivities,
impacts, and adaptive capacities, followed by more detailed analyses in critical areas.
Continued budget support for scientific capacity building and implementation of pilot
projects is needed. Joint meetings with scientific and policy making community will ensure
the enhanced capacity at the national level. Further actions include the broad engagement of
stakeholders such as educational institutions, private sectors and community based
36
organizations in supporting climate change adaptation projects and promoting comprehensive
capacity building programs. Bilateral and multilateral development partners are well
positioned with finance and knowledge to play a catalytic role in strengthening adaptive
capacity of sectors. Regional cooperation has a role to play in facilitating effective sharing of
climate information, supporting institutional coordination, and moderating the required
resources for enhancing the adaptive capacity.
3.
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38
Community Resilience of Water Resource Crisis in Small Islands: Case
Study in Solor Island and Semau Island
FX. Hermawan Kusumartono1 [email protected]
NanangRianto2 [email protected]
ABSTRACT:
The global climate change have influence human life. It has a big influence to the water resource,
especially in small islands like in Nusa Tenggara Timur (NTT). Additionally since long time agothe
crisis of water resource has been felt bymany people in the small islands in NTT. The crisis of water
resource certainly hasbeen respondedby society in Solor Island and Semau Island. The responseof the
water resource crisisis the form of resilience in adaptationwhich relates to the socio-culture
characteristic of society in Solorand Semau.This paper is aimedto describe the pattern of society
resilience in Solor and Semauin Nusa Tenggara Timurfrom the crisis of water resource which focuses
on two variables: the social capital and the economic capital.Researchmethod usedwas descriptive
quantitative which supported by qualitative data.Resultindicatedthe resilience difference of water
resource crisisin the Solor Island and SemauIsland.Sustainablepattern which tends to use the social
capital in resilience from the crisis of water resource in Solor Island and the dominance of economic
capital resilience in Semau Island which is depending on the natural condition.The results showedthat
they who have thehigh social capital tends to come from the group who has the low economic capital
especially in Solor Island.
Keywords: water crisis, small island, social & economy capital, climate change
1. INTRODUCTION
The small islands which most of area is coastal area, one of the most vulnerable in the
increase of the sea surface (Mimura, 1999) as the impact of climate change. Lewis(2009)
stated that resilience has become the characteristic of small islands, which the total amount
reaches about 7 (seven) percent fromthe mainland area on this earth surface. The location is
very small that causes the whole activities is done in the small island, either because of the
external influence or internal influence of small islands system, will interact each other in that
island.One of the obvious impacts from this condition in the small islands is condition of
water resource crisis which community facescontionously. The lack of access to the drink
water and sanitation as well as the bad environment will impact the health, water avaibility
also become a very important factor to the food security.This phenomenon has been seen in
the small island in some countries SIDS (smallisland developmentstate)in the Pacificregion.
Study of vulnerability in the small islands has been done in Asia Pacific region since 1992,
but the same study is still limited in Indonesia. In the global scope and in Indonesiaitsthe
study that revealsthe specific way about the community resilience in a small island from the
condition of water resource crisis considered rare. Beller ( 1990) stated that the small islands
are uniquereviewed from the sides of bio-physic, geographic, capacity of environment or
from the demographic aspectthat dwelt in, (socio-culture). For solving the water resource
crisis, community who dwelling in a small island and already long time facing the
1
Senior researcher at Experimental Station for Social Economy and Environment on Water Resources, Research
Intitute of Social Economic and Environment, Ministry of Public Works
2
Junior researcher at Experimental Station for Social Economy and Environment on Water Resources, Research
Intitute of Social Economic and Environment, Ministry of Public Works
39
condition of water resource crisis, originally has its own adaptation. Without a good
capacity of adaptation, the community in a small island will be more vulnerable if
compared to the community in the other characteristic region considering the intervention
from third parties such as government program, or NGO also it is more difficult to reach
these regions because of the budget limitation, the remote access geographically, and so
on. But on principle they are able to struggle in all that condition until now with their own
strategy in adaptation. The way of their adaptation continues to develop along with the
dynamic of change, the pressure of physical environment on their social life. Socially the
community has a structure and a culture in their life which manages the function that they
are needed (Ritzer, 2001), These structure and culture in functional perspective will
continously evolve according to the functional change that is needed.
Better community adaptive capacity will determine their resilience in facing the condition of
water resource crisis vulnerability which they experienced. Therefor it is important to see
how the description of community resilience from the water resource crisis condition based
on the local wisdom in certain society from social capital and economic capital perspectives,.
The point that becomes the focus in this writing is to describe how the community resilience
faces the condition of water resource crisis in the small island namely in Solor Island and
SemauIsland, Nusa Tenggara Timurto see the difference between the both small islands. The
writer assumes the social capital optimalization for community resilience from the water
resource crisis tends to be higher on them whom come from the low enconomic level, or vise
versa.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
The environmental disorder mentioned by Folke(et. all:2004) and Peterson(1998) included
stochastic events such as fire burning, floods, windstorm, explosion of bugs population, and
biodiversity decrease. According to Peterson(1998), Folke et all(2004)and Holling(2004)it
happened because of there are some human activities which influence the ecosystem
resilience such as the activities of deforestation and the recognition of the exotic species of
plants and animals, exploitation of natural resources, pollution, land utilization, and the
change of antrophogenic climate so that cause displacement of regime in the ecosystem, in
the condition that is less wanted and degradedoften. Thus in the Second World Climate
Confrence1990 was declared that the climate change caused biggest impact on hydraulic
cycle and management of water resource as well as socio-enocomic system (Sadof:2009).The
biggest impact that is happened on hydraulic cycle caused the change of precipitation pattern,
acceleration of evaporation either from plants or from water resources such as rivers and
lakes that affected on the decrease of food production which is the main source of income
that rely on the water (UNDP:2008)especially for the small islands.
Regarding to the climate change on the special impact namely the climate change on
hydraulic cycle. Concept of resilience is defined from ecology point of view, according to
Folke(et. all:2004) Resilience is the ability of ecosystem to respond to the disorder by
rejecting the damage and recover quickly. Holling(1973) also defined resilience asthe
description of persistentnature system in facing the change of ecosystem variable because of
40
the natural causes or antrophogenic. Then according to Holling(1973) in Lence(2000) the
concept of its own resilience see more on how the existing disorder is soaked up by system
without changing the system form. Like the explanation of resilence and mutiple equilibrium
view by the figures Lence (2000) andWalker(2004) that measure the system resilience from
how big the system capacity to absorb the disorder and organize as well as to change the
variable also a process which control the behaviour in order toretainthe basic function,
structure, identity and input.From several definitions about the ecology resilience it can be
summarized as the capacity of ecosystem to recover from the disorder either naturally or
from human activities which appeal then absorb and also implement to controlin the form of
behaviour.
On the academic perspective according to Perman(2003)mentioned that there is the
interdependency between the ecology system and the social system which has gotten
acknowlegement since the end of 1990‟s.Then it is strengthened by Walker(2004) who stated
that to study the resilience aspect is important to see how theinteraction between people and
the ecosystem through the socio-ecology system, and the need to shift the paradigm of
maximum preservation result to manage enviromentwhich aims to develop the resilience
ecology through "resilience analysis, adaptive resources, and adaptive government”.From the
shifted resilience definition towards the social aspect defined the concept of resilience by
Manatsa(2013) whom said it is refers to one of the aspects namely the society understanding
which relies from the local knowledge about how to face the risk of information that is had.
Then stated byRoss(2008)that ecology resilience closely related to the way of society
influeces environment such as the policy decision, legislation, and management of
environment. Then Perman(2003) stated that the concept of resilience closely related to the
sustainable development, however there is a challenge that is provided by Hamilton(2010)
that on the economic aspect namely a free market with the principle of efficiency and
productivity increase will weaken the resilience because the system is allowed to depend on
the existing condition. But on the principle of Berkes and Fokle in Hamilton(2010) about the
principle “develop resilience and sustainable” is stated through consolidation with the
adaptive approach, management practice based on local knowledge and condition to learn the
institute and organization. From that definition can be stated that the economic capital is
really a resilience form but has the “dependent” characteristic with the existing condition
which is different with the social capital such as making networks which matches with the
principle of Berkes and Folke in Hamilton(2010) as the sustainable resilience in the form of
consolidation.
In the both concept of resilience forms either in the form of society resilience based on the
social capital (sustainable) or base on economic capital (dependent) that is explained on the
paragraphabove, next the writer will try to describe how the resilience base on the social and
economic capitals either in Solor Island and in Semau Island. The resilience of social capital
and economic capital are thought by the writer perhaps there is a different or variation
between each Solor Island and Semau Island eventhough there is a same problem such as the
water resource crisis in a small island.
41
This research uses a descriptive quantitative approach through the field survey by using the
technique ofstratified random samplingwhich is conducted multi-stage from the level of
subdisctrict until the level of village with a total 191 respondents from four villages (Villages
of Labelen, Tanah Wareng, PahleloandLetbaun) in two subdistricts/kecamatan namely
KecamatanSolorTimurandSemau Selatan(induk). This research is also completed by indepth
interview with some key informants and observation in the society. Indepth interview
wasconducted with the society key personsuch as the village chief and other village figures,
PNPM (Program Nasional Pemberdayaan Masyarakat/National Program for Community
Empowerment) companion,youth and woman figure. Descriptive analysis of dimension of
the social capital and economic capital used to see how the variation of the social capital and
economic capital as a part of society resilience from the water resource crisis work and also
analysis about the cross of both dimensionsthat aims to show how big and how strong the
relation and what kinds of influences that related to it.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3. 1. Economic Capital
Dimension of the economic capitalis gained bycalculate and combineindicator from the
averageexpenditures per month and thepeoples occupation which is distinguished based on
income that is earned every month matching with the existing datain every island in Solor
Island and Semau Island.
Table 1. Economic capital category in Solor and Semau
Percentage Solor Economic Semau Economic
Capital
Capital
Low
51.5%
73.3%
Medium
22.2%
17.3%
High
26.3%
9.3%
The result of the economic capital can bee seen from the table of Expenditure and Income in
society in the both islands such as the following:
Table 2. Expenditure and income rate in Solor and Semau
Percentage Society Expenditure
in Solor Island
/month
Society Expenditure
in Semau
Island/month
Income in
Solor Island
Income in
Semau Island
Low
59.6%
78.2%
62.6%
81%
High
40.4%
21.8%
37.4%
19%
It can be seen explicitly that the economic level of society from the avarege of expenditure
and income in the both islands which is different can be stated that economic level in the
society in Solor Island/month is better than Semau Island. Nevertheless if it is seen from the
42
average of expenditure and income of family in Solor Island and Semau Island it is clearly
different because the average of expenditure and income in Solor Island is lower compared to
Semau Island that isRp. 483.000,- average expenditureand the average income is Rp.
491.700,-.Meanwhile in Semau Island the average expenditure is Rp.804.000,-withthe
average income atRp. 1.212.000,-. Therefore if it is implemented the average of family
expenditure in Semau Island with the average of family expenditure in Solor Island without
distinguishing the location factor data is gained that 60.5% society in Semau Island is
classified high expenditurecategory and only 39.4% classified in the low expenditure level
inSemau. Rather different situation exist in Solor Island which74.1% society in Solor Island
classified in the high income category society andonly 25.9% classified in the low income
category. So economically it is obviousthat the expenditure and income in Semau Island
higher than Semau. Then if it is related to occupational typesthey whom classified having the
high income in Solor are civil servants/PNS(100%), fishermen (72,4%), teachers (50%)
andentrepreneurs (50%), meanwhile in Semau Island dominated by entrepreneur (100%),
PNS(50%) and farmer who are also the seaweed farmers (50%).
From the result above it can infered that the economic capital in Semau Island is better if
compared to Solor Island and can be related to society resilience in Semau Island from the
water resource crisis. Data gained from the field shows that society in Semau Island counts
on their economic capital more to solve the water resource crisis compared to society in Solor
Island. It can be proven from the pattern of society resilience in Semau Island which
generally in every village counts on the water that is collected in the Rainwater Shelter tub or
Penampungan Air Hujan (PAH). Even the PAH which belongs to every village from the aid
foundation can not fulfill the water need that is required by society in Semau Island. So many
people in Semau Island who made PAH independently with the various size which reflects
their economic capacity. The size of PAH independently measured 2.5m x 2.5m x 2.5m and
3m x 3m x 3m.Generally the cost to make the independent PAH more or less reachesRp.
15.000.000, but depend on the size of independent PAH which will be made, if it is bigger
then the cost will be greater. Facing the water resource crisis by PAH is not the only way
used by Semau people as the form of resilience based on the economic capital.They also
bought fresh water from the parties sellfresh water with averagecost about Rp.
200.000pertanks (5.000 litres) that is proven from the survey result is about 3.3% sample
stated that they buy fresh water in the dry season. The water that they were bought and
collected in the PAH could be last for 2 until 3 months. The traditionto buy this water
occurred since the last 4 until 6 years go which parallelwith income echancementin Semau
Island from the additional work as the seaweed farmer.
Different things happened in Solor Island, less amount of residents who spend the
money to buy water in the dry season because generally (73.7%) society in Solor Island use
the communal water such as public well when the dry season comes. If it is still lack of water
from the water crisis in the dry season, residents in Solor Island can ask Chief of Household
to use water from the PAH tub in the household level, and the last way if the society in Solor
Island still feel lack of water, only a few part of residents in Solor Island who strive to buy
the water through the service of resident who has the main job as a fisherman to buy fresh
water in Adonara Island especially the drinking water. The water cost range is Rp.
43
2000/jerrycan (20 litre) with the accountingRp. 1000,-forthe transport feeandRp. 1000,- for
the water cost in Adonara.
3. 2. Social Capital
Table 3. Social capital categories in Solor and Semau
Percentage
Social Capital Social Capital
Solor Island
Semau Island
Low
37.4%
42%
Medium
25.3%
35.8%
High
37.4%
22.2%
Generally the social capital exist in Solor Island werebetter than the social capital in Semau
Island although it gained balance percentage between the social capital category of low
(37.4%) and high (37.4%). There were different with social capital in Semau Island is low
(42%).This slightly diferencewere at 6.2% with the category of low social capital.
Table 4. Social capital dimensions in Solor and Semau
No. Dimension
Solor Island
Semau Island
Category
Category
Low
Medium High
Low
Medium High
1
Norm
37.4%
30.3%
32.3%
46.9%
11.1%
42%
2
Network
36.4%
29.3%
34.3%
23.5%
55.6%
21%
3
Trust
30.3%
6.1%
63.6%
34.6%
27.2%
38.3%
From the data can be seen the significantdiferencethe social capital in Solor Island was better
compared to Semau Island.The percentage difference in dimension “Trust” with high and low
category in each island, in Solor Island the difference reaches 33,3%between the high trust
percentage and the low trust percentage. Quite different things happening in Semau Island
which only have3.7% margin. The biggestdifference of percentage in Semau Island wereon
the network dimension with the percentage in category “medium” reaches 22.1% margin
between the medium social network and the low social network. It is different in SolorIsland
which the network is “low” with the percentage difference only 2.1% with high category.
Closer tendencyshowed by norm dimension which in the both islands were on the low
category but there is only the percentage difference with the same category also such as the
high norm category with the difference of percentage in Solor Island is 5.1% and 4.9% in
Semau Island.
From the comparison table about the social capital in the Solor Island and Semau Island can
be seen that social capital in Solor Island is better than the social capital in Semau Island. It
was proven that social capital in Solor emerged as the society resilience to overcome water
resource crisis..On the social norm dimension there were information about custom
normwhichobeyed and understood by the society member in Solor Island forbidden to use
44
the communal water resources if the dry season has not coming yet. This norm in Solor
Island practiced within self consciousness and manifested on the community ritual/tradition
to take care and clean the communal water resources such as public wells which willbecome
the main water resource when the dry season comes. The appearance of the norms is clarified
from the survey result which showed unwritten strong rule which manages the water use in
the society in Solor Island (79.8%), with the high obedience of society to the rule (76.8),
which the rule appeals from the parties who control the water use (67.7%), thus the
agreement appeals which is highly cherished by residents about the fresh water use in Solor
Island (57.6%).
Meanwhile in Semau Island datasurvey resulted that there were low written rule (85.2%), no
parties who control the rules (63%) nor rule about the water use, the low agreement about the
water use comunally(48.1%) because of the low written rule (46.9%). This inversely
comparisonSolor Island the writer assumes it happened probably caused by the minimum
infrastructure so that caused the low of interaction level among Semau Island the residents so
there wasno consensus which produces the norm related to the condition of water resources
crisis, although generally there was commonunderstanding of the water resource crisis in the
society in Semau Island.
However on the social network dimension related to the resilience of the water resource
crisis, if compared between Semau Island and Solor Island is more significant the percentage
difference in Semau Island but on the category “medium” (55.6%)with the percentage
difference 12.1% from the category of low social network (23.5%). Meanwhile in Solor
Island the social network tends to be low, but there is a low percentage difference about only
2.1% between the low (36.4%) and high (34.3%)social network.The low social network
happened in Solor Island can be explained with the data that no cooperation with external
parties (stakeholder) to provide the fresh water (90%), there wasno organization which
manages the fresh water (74.7%), then the minimum of cooperation in use (48.5%) and
management (45.5) of fresh water. The stakeholder is referred to the external parties except
the regional government. However datashowed that regional government has given many
aids such as giving the water resource facilities such as water pipe but now it is out of order,
water car that is also out of order, the seeking of communal water resources but it is never
success and finally giving the PAH in the household level or even in the family level that is
used by 2-5 families but the policy about PAH procurement in the family level
alsoineffective. The difference is not significant with the high social network perhaps
happened because the high maintainance of fresh water resources which is done by residents
(53.3%), the high cooperation to afford the fresh water (46.5%) and the high information
sharing each other about fresh water (41.4%) such as explained in the norm part in Solor
Island. .
It is a bit different with what happened in Semau Island which has tendency on the medium
category of social network as a resilence of water resource crisis. Then perhaps can be
explained from the field data based on the minimum infrastructure made the low intensity of
interaction which impacts to the low network in the society in Semau Island. Additionally
because there is an understanding of water resource crisis which is indeed becomes a main
45
problem in Semau Island which makes the high information related to the water resources
(59.7%) about who is the party who has water resources either the communal water resources
or buying the water. Data is gained that resident in Semau Island still take water communally
with the distance is far enough to the water resources but it is explained they who take the
water to the communal water resources as a reflection of high and medium cooperation to
afford the water (43.2%) usually is they who face the low economic condition in Semau
Island. Related to the cooperation of the fresh water use there tends to be low (40.7%) but can
not avoid that the use of PAH by residents in Semau Island can be used by the group that has
closely relations such as family.The reflection of high cooperation to maintain the water
resources (40.7%) can be explained through the tradition rule which is not allowed anybody
to use the water in the area which has the water resources.The last is the low cooperation with
external party to provide the fresh water (48.1%) and also can not deny that the cooperation
with external party is classified medium (44.4%) which is proven from the cooperation with a
foundation to provide PAH and it is given to society in Semau Island.
The last dimension is trust, which is gained the high trust in Solor Island. The high trust in
Solor Island can be explained because were clear norms or unwritten rule which contain the
consensus about the usage of fresh water, there are manager, the high obedience to the rule
related to water resources. To sum it allthere were low of suspicion to each resident in the
unefficient use of water (91.9%) and the high trust to coordinator of fresh water management
that is to every household caretaker (63.6%). It is differentwith what happened in Semau
Island because the minimum interaction among residents, so that become small probability
happened the consensus in the form of norms to be agreed from the use of fresh water and
also there is no manager or controller of the water use. Although it still tends to be low trust
among residents (55.6%), but there is the low trust to every coordinator of fresh water
management(53.1%)who is perhaps the public figure in the area that has the water resources.
3. 3. The Cross between The Economic Capital and The Social Capital in Solor Island
and Semau Island
The cross between the economic capital and the social capital in Solor Island and in Semau
Island is gained the result that the both variables have a negative relations characteristic that
is the high economic capital then the low social capital that is also vice versa what is
happened in the society in Solor Island also in Semau Island about the resilience of water
resources crisis with the weak strength (0.317) in Solor Island which is applied in the
population level meanwhile the strength of relations is very weak (0.16) happened in Semau
Island and it is not applied in the population level.
46
Table 5. Cross between Social capital dimensions and economic capital in Solor and
Semau
Social Capital
Economic Capital Solor
Island
Economic Capital Semau
Island
Low
Medium High
Low
Medium High
Low
29.4%
18.2%
69.2%
40%
46.2%
57.1%
Medium
21.6%
36.4%
23.1%
36.4%
38.5%
42.9%
High
49%
45.5%
7.7%
23.6%
15.4%
0%
Value
Approx. Sig
Value
Approx. Sig
-0.317
0.000
-0.16
0.186
Directional measuresSomers‟d
The strength which is classified stronger -although still include in the weak category-(0.317)
in Solor Island than Semau Island (0.16)nevertheless in the negative relations perhaps can be
explained from prime data which is gained in Solor Island. It is really found that the society
in Solor Island use the social capital as the resilience of water resources crisis that they
experienced.There are really unwritten values and norms about the rule that the communal
water resources namely public wells can only be used in the dry season that is showed the
reflection of the social capital as the resilience from the social norm aspect. The thing
strengthened with there routine traditional ritual of society in Solor Island which is usually
conducted once in a year before entering the month of Ramdhan such as ritual to clean and to
take care the public well. The ritual done by many people in Solor Island and become the
facility of social interaction for society in Solor Island also as an activity which is functioned
to strengthen the social values and norms related to unwritten rule about the use of water. The
form of society resilience in Solor Island from the water resources crisis which uses the social
capital is reflected from there is the “manager” of PAH tub within the community‟s social
network in the household level which PAH tub is also given to the society in Solor Island for
every 2 until 5 family which has the communal agreement and manage the PAH tube
together. This resilience of water resources crisis on the social network dimension is reflected
from the agreementwhen affording the fresh water which wasdone by residents eventhough
the amount is not many, which the residents help each other to gain the fresh water and
connecting to give information, pass by their money to buy the water in Adonara Island via
fisherman which the cost is about Rp. 2000,-/drum.Lastly, the reflection of trust dimension in
the society of Solor Island that the writer assumes the impact of “social norm” which is
strengthened from “social network” in the society of Solor Island is reflected from the prime
data that in the society of Solor Island is neverfound the indication of fresh water
“misappropriation” even by “water manager” in the household level.
From the explanation of the social capital resilience in Solor Island as the form of society
resilience from the water resource crisis is in condition on “social interaction” which makes
them become less interaction with the other party in Solor Island in facing the water resource
crisis for example because they only “buy water” by using and count on their economic
47
capital to the parties who can access and have the fresh water resource in Solor Island.
Therefore they have less knowledge how the social values and normsthat exist in the society
related to the water use, then because the less of interaction with other parties make them less
networking in the society so it has network that perhaps smaller if compared to they who use
the social capital because of the minimum of economic capital as the form of resilience from
the water resource crisis. Then because the less interaction with other party so high
possibility they recognize and know less the other party which make the lower trust and very
high the suspicion appeals to the other party.
Nevertheless the result difference of the relations strength in Semau Island where the
economic capital has a verylow relation (0.16)with the character of negative relationson
social capital that can not be applied in population. May be it can be explained because the
main resilience in the society of Semau Island much depend on the economic capital that
determines how big their access to get the water resource in the term of to fullfil the need that
can not be deniedthat they ought to “interect” to the party who has access to the water
resource so that they make the social network with the patry. With the other words the
economic capital in the society of Semau Island has a bit positive impact on the social capital
although the strength “very low” and also it is not applied in the population level. It can be
proven from the cross dimension between the expenditure with the social capital that exists in
Semau Island with the following result:
Table 6. Cross between social capital and expenditure in Semau
Dimension
ExpenditureExpenditurein Semau Island
Character and Relation Strength
Approx. Sig
Norm
0.004
0.979
Network
0.041
0.759
Trust
0.035
0.803
From the cross of expenditure dimension on the three dimensions of the social capital that
can be seen the third has positive character such as the high expenditure the high is social
norm, social network and trust but the third has the strength which is “very low” also can not
be applied in the population level or only can be applied in the “small” part in the goups level
in the society of Semau Island. This can be explained from the data that is gained from the
field that indeed in Semau Island which is generally depend on the strength of their economic
capital for example in making independent PAH with the cost which can be reached more
and less Rp. 15 millionsand can be used in the small groups based on the family relations.
From this communal use of PAH every family member also has the values and rule of water
use communally. The sample of data is the reflection from the positive relations of the
economic capital with the social network and social norm in some part of society in Semau
Island. Then from values and rules that are obeyed by evey family from the use of PAH
communally creates “trust” each other except the trust based on kinship. Nevertheless the
economic capital which is used by society in Semau Island much depends on the
environmental condition for example “seaweed farmer” who much depends on the sea
48
condition, so that if there is an environmental disorder in the sea ecosystem which causes the
“seaweed” havest fail in Semau Island has the lost potential of “resilience” ability in the
society of Semau Island from the condition of water resource crisis.
4. CONCLUSION
On the above explanation can be seen that there area differences form of society resilience
form the condition of water resource crisis between Solor Island and Semau Island. The
tendency from the existing data that there are the unwritten rule, obedience of society
members to the unwritten rule, water resource management, communal efforts of society in
maintaining and managing the public health and the strength of trust among each other in
using the fresh water that exists in Solor Island showing the tendency of society resilience in
Solor Island tends to the resilience form of the social capital with the
“sustainable”characteristic. Although it can not deny that therewas the resilience form of the
economic capital in Solor Island but tends to less done by the society in Solor Island. They
who have the high social capital come from they are classified in the low economic capital. It
also happened in Semau Island but it is a bit different with what happened in Solor Island.
In the Semau Island, an efforts to solve the water resource crisis by buying the water from the
parties who have access of the fresh water so that the tendency in PulauSemau has the
resilience of the economic capital from water resource crisis that they are experiencing. The
resilience of the economic capitalin Semau Island indeedhas positive side on the social
capital but only happened in a small part of society in the family level in the society
resilience of water resource crisis The low social capital in the Semau Island perhaps is
influenced by the minimum infrastructure in Semau Island so that make the society in Semau
Island difficult to interact each other, thus the society depend on the ability of individual
economic or evenin the group level and based on the kinship.
5. REFERENCES
Berkes, Fikret, Carl Folke and John Colding. 2008. “Navigating Social-Ecological
Systems: Building Resilience for Complexity and Change”. Cambridge University
Press
Beller, William S. and P. D‟Ayala. 1990. Sustainable Development and Environmental
Management of Small Island. Paris: UNESCO and Parthenan Publishing Group
Daeng, Hans J. 2008. Manusia, Kebudayaan dan Lingkungan Tinjauan Antropologis.
Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar.
Folke, C., Carpenter, S., Walker, B., Scheffer, M., Elmqvist, T., Gunderson, L., Holling, C.S.
2004. "Regime Shifts, Resilience, and Biodiversity in Ecosystem
Management". Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 35: hal. 557581
49
Hamilton, C. 2010. “Requiem for a Species: Why we Resist the Truth about Climate
Change”. Earthscan
Holling, C.S. 1973. "Resilience and stability of ecological systems". Annual Review of
Ecology and Systematics
Lance H. Gunderson. 2000. “Ecological Resilience--In Theory and Application”.Annual
Review of Ecology, and Systematics Vol. 31.
Lewis, James. 2009. An island characteristic: Derivated vulnerabilities to indigenous and
exogenous hazards. Shima: The International Journal of Research into Island
Cultures Vol. 3 Number 1 209.
Manatsa, Desmond. 2013. Indigenous Knowledge, Coping Strategies and Resilience to
Floods in Muzarabani, Zimbabwe. Elsevier: International Journal of Disaster Risk
Reduction.
Mimura ,Nobou. 1999. Vulnerability of island countries in the South Pacific to sea level
rise and climate change. Ibaraki: Center of Water Environtment Studies; Ibaraki
University.
Perman, R, Ma, Y, McGilvray, J and M.Common. (2003). “Natural Resource and
Environmental Economics”. Longman
Peterson, G., Allen, C.R., Holling, C.S. 1998. "Ecological Resilience, Biodiversity, and
Scale".Ecosystems 1. Hal. 6–18
Sadoff, Claudia and Mike. 2009. Water Management, Water Security and Climate Change
Adaptation: Early Impacts and Essential Responses. Global Water Partnership
Technical Committee (TEC), http://www.gwp.org/en/About-GWP/Publication
Ross, A. 2008.“Modern Interpretations of Sustainable Development”. Journal of Law and
Society 36
Tahir, Amiruddin. 2010. Formulasi Indeks Kerentanan Lingkungan Pulau-Pulau Kecil: Kasus
Pulau Kasu-Kota Batam, Pulau Barrang Lompo-Kota Makasar, dan Pulau SaonekKabupaten Raja Ampat. Institut Pertanian Bogor.
UNDP. 2008. Sisi Lain Perubahan Iklim: Mengapa Indonesia harus Beradaptasi untuk
Melindungi Rakyat Miskinnya, http://www.undp.or.id/pubs/docs
Walker, B., Holling, C. S., Carpenter, S. R., Kinzig, A. 200). "Resilience, adaptability and
transformability in social–ecological systems". Ecology and Society
50
Conceptual Model of Green Infrastructure Implementation
Sri Maryati
Research Cluster for Regional and City Infrastructure System
School of Architecture, Planning and Policy Development
Institute of Technology Bandung, INDONESIA
e-mail: [email protected]
ABSTRACT :
Urbanisation and land use conversion especially in Indonesia recently bring some consequences
related to environmental problems. In anticipating the problem, green infrastructure (GI) is one of
solution. The application of GI build resilience against the problem. There were many literatures
explaining the benefit of GI. Nevertheless the aplication of the concept still faces many problems. The
objective of this paper to develop conceptual model of GI implementation. This model can be used by
government or local government as a guidance to implement GI. The conceptual model consists of
steps along with criteria that have to be considered in developing GI. In order to come to the model,
qualitative analysis but using content analysis was used. The data consists of secondary data from
spatial planning document, research report, and best practises. The result of analysis shows that
policy, management, operational, and evaluation aspect are important in GI implementation. In
policy aspect leadership, law,and budget are important. In management aspect cooperation and
development of institution, regulation, demonstration, education, and incentives and disincentives are
needed. In operational aspect competence human resources and information system have to be
developed. In evaluation aspect, indicators have to be defined.
Keywords: Conceptual Model, Green Infrastructure, Resilience
1. INTRODUCTION
Urbanisation and land use conversion especially in Indonesia recently bring some
consequences related to environmental problems. Urbanisation has raised stormwater run-off
and flooding risk. In Cikapundung sub watershed, for example, permeable land use has
decreased in the rate of 50% between 1983-2002 (Edi, et al, 2005). The surface run off as a
result increase. The some case happens in Kabupaten Bandung. Flood disaster in Kabupaten
Bandung has high intensity. Based on spatial plan of Kabupaten Bandung, Citarum River
experienced overflow in 1931, 1945, 1977, 1982, 1986, 1998, 2005, 2010. Based on Ministry
of Forestry report related to flooding management in Jabodetabekjur, the lost caused by
flooding in 1996 and 2002 in Jakarta is around 9.8 trillion rupiahs. Nowadays always every
year overflow happen. On the other hand during dry season, dry risk increase. The problem
not only related to the fulfillment of drinking water for domestic use, but also for agriculture
and other uses.
The solution for the problem until today is still directed to development of grey
infrastructure, such as drainage. Exploration toward spatial plan of city and regency in
Citarum Hulu watershed shows that the focus of local government in flood management is
still focused in development of grey infrastructure instead of developing green infrastructure
(GI). Research related to advantages of developing green infrastructure showed that it not
only have environmental benefit, but also economic benefit. A Case Study in Lancaster
shows that the development of GI for the 25-year GI scenario will give water related benefit
(the avoided capital cost of implementing gray infrastructure is $120 million and the avoided
51
operational cost is $661,000 per year), energy related benefit ($2,368,000/year), air quality
related benefit ($1,023,000/year), and climate change benefit ($786,000/year) (EPA, 2014).
Because of the benefits, GI can increase the resilience of city and region.
There are many literature explaining the benefit of GI, but the implementation of the concept
still faces many problems. This paper will not either explore the benefits of green
infrastructure compared to grey infrastructure or how to calculate the benefit of green
infrastructure, but rather aimed to develop conceptual model of GI implementation. This
model can be used by government or local government as a guidance to implement GI. The
conceptual model consists of steps along with criteria that have to be considered in
developing GI.
Rationale for GI
There are many definitions of GI, but the widest used definition come from Benedict and Mc
Mahon. Based on Benedict and McMahon (2006), GI was defined as an interconnected
network of natural areas and other open spaces that conserves natural ecosystem values and
functions, sustain sclean air and water, and provides a wide array of benefits to people and
wildlife. NSF (2012) defined GI as natural and engineered ecological systems which integrate
with the built environment to provide the widest possible range of ecological, community,
and infrastructure services. Furthermore EPA (2013) defined GI as adaptable term used to
describe an array of products, technologies, and practices that use natural systems – or
engineered systems that mimic natural processes – to enhance overall environmental quality
and provide utility services.
Green infrastructure is the ecological framework needed for environmental, social and
economic sustainability. GI differs from conventional approaches to open space planning
because it looks at conservation values and actions in concert with land development, growth
management and built infrastructure planning (Benedict and McMahon, 2002).
Why Green Infrastructure?
The development of green infrastructure is forced by the condition of limitation of budget
from government and growing need of stormwater management. It is therefore lower cost
solutions that provide additional benefits to communities has become a critical priority. In
addition to stormwater management, green infrastructure can provide many community
benefits, including reducing energy consumption, improving air quality, providing carbon
sequestration, and increasing property values (EPA, 2014). In case of stormwater
management, benefits include better management of storm-water runoff, lowering incidents
of combined storm and sewer overflows (CSOs), water capture and conservation, flood
prevention, accommodation of natural hazards. Green infrastructure benefits generally can be
divided into five categories of environmental protection: (1) Land-value, (2) Quality of life,
(3) Public health, (4) Hazard mitigation, and (5) Regulatory compliance (EPA,
2009).Nowadays the majority of infrastructure built in Indonesia is grey infrastructure. Grey
infrastructure is network and masive construction designed for years of functionality with
high investment and maintenance cost.
52
GI can be categorized as Low Impact Development (LID). LID projects have characteristics
as follows:
1. Multifunction: can use existing element of landscape
2. Low Cost: can be functioned in the long term, without high investment, operational,
maintenance cost
3. Social and ecological benefit: can increase groundwater, influence mikro climate,
increase air quality
4. Reduce off-site management cost: the need for stormwater network decrease
5. Open space function: GI application can increase more public space without reducing
too much built up area.
Furthermore Herzog (2010) stated that GI may be a way to adapt and regenerate consolidated
urban fabric, in order to build resilience against climate change impacts and prepare for alow
carbon economy.
Status of Green Infrastructure in Indonesia: Case Studies
Tarlani (2014) explored the readiness of government in Citarum Hulu (Kabupaten Bandung)
sub watershed in implementing the GI concept. GI hs been stated in several policy
documents, suct as spatial plan, but orientation toward grey infrastructure still remain
domain. In term of budget allocation for GI, 10 out of 11 program in 2014 with the source of
funding from national level (APBN) was allocated for GI, or around 2,42% of total APBN in
Citarum Hulu Watershed. In term of provincial budget (APBD Provinsi) 9 0ut of 24 program
in Citarum Hulu was related to GI or around 34,76% of total provincial budget in Citarum
Hulu Watershed. If we look at regency budget (APBD Kabupaten), only 1 out of 8 program
related to GI with only 12,2% of regency budget for Citarum Hulu. In term of management
and operational aspects, the readiness of government is still weak.
Viriyadhika (2014) explored the potential of GI development by using case in Cikapundung
sub watershed. Based on the research, the land demand of five type of GI are as follows,
bioretention (754.41 Ha), dry pond (123.90 Ha), infiltration basin (10,630.62 Ha), porous
pavement (2,416.55 Ha), and wetland (63.04 Ha). Green infrastructure application in
Cikapundung Sub-watershed is directed on 30 districts, with the largest distributions are
located in Lembang, Cimenyan, and Parongpong District. The combination of 2 or more
green infrastructure types namely green infrastructure composite showed that Cikapundung
Sub-watershed will need 13,387.84 Ha (33% of total area) of green infrastructure. The
potential result of 33% green infrastructure application in the area of study resulted in the
declining of 20-25% surface runoff at 2-100 years rainfall period.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
The method used in order to achieve the objective is qualitative method by using content
analysis technique. The data used is secondary data from spatial planning document, research
report, and best practises. The first step of analysis was to define the framework of planning
53
system based on research report. Mell (2013) stated that in order to implement the GI,
ecological tools have to be placed within the planning process. The failure of implementation
of certain concept was caused by the disintegration of the concept into spatial planning in a
straightforward manner (Piwowarczyk et al, 2013). Furthermore Radford and James (2013)
stated that the failure in planning integration is often due to a limited understanding of
definitions and classifications and insufficient communication between practitioners, planners
and researchers. It is therefore the planning framework is important to define in the first step.
The second step was to define the instrument for each component of planning system based
on literature and best practises. This step aimed to give guideline in order to implement the
GI concept.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Framework of Planning System
GI as a component of spatial plan can be categorized as public policy. Based on Bromley
(1989), in development of public policy there are three hierarchy that have to be considered;
the first hierarchy is policy, the second one is management, and the last one is operational.
Another concept which is also considered in this paper is approach from Lorbach (2010).
Lorbach stated that there are four steps in public policy, they are strategic, tactical, and
operational, as well as, reflexive (monitoring and evaluation). Policy, in Bromley
classification can be considered as strategic level in Lorbach classification and management
as tactical. In this paper the framework from Bromley is combined with the framework from
Lorbach. The framework for the analysis of planning system is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Framework of Planning System
54
Concept and Best Practises based on the Framework
Policy Aspect
In policy aspect, leadership is an importand aspect to be considered (Gichoya, 2005; Nauman
et al, 2011). Nauman et al (2011) stated that leadership and strategy was very important in
order to apply certain concept and increase undertanding of certain concept. Furthermore
Gichoya (2005) explained that leadership aspect and readiness to accept certain concept
would produce strategic thought in long, medium, or short term. Beside leadership,
application of new concept needs formal regulation. Mnjama and Wamukoya stated that
committment of stakeholders cannot be implemented without policy and procedure. Policy
and procedure in this case was not only law product, but also regulation and control in the
law document (Naumann, et al, 2006). Last but not least in policy aspect is availability of
budget. In every development process, especially big scale development, needs financial
support from internal or external source. Time frame and financial aspect have significant
influences in determining the success of certain program (Naumann, et al, 2011). Source of
funding can be categorized as community and government. Small scale GI can be managed
by community or even individual, but for large scale GI government have to take the
responsibility.
In the US (EPA, 2010), national and federal level set up the policy directed to the application
of GI. Example of the policies are Federal Clean Water Act, Combined Sewer Overflow
(CSO) Control Policy, National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System Permit Program.
The policy become main driver for local government for applying GI concept, besided the
awareness of local government concerning the benefits of GI. Based on national and federal
policy, local government set up specific policy for their region based on local condition. For
example in Lenexa there is CSO policy in the form of on-site detention, where as in Portland,
there is a policy of infiltration practise.
Management Aspect
To realise certain program, sometimes internal source cannot fulfill all of the demand. In
other case, the success of certain program sometimes is determined by the success of
cooperation between region. In GI, certain infrastructure integrates some regions. The
success of infrastructure development in one area influences other regions or influenced by
other regions. Major aspect in regional planning is the existence of communication and
cooperation of stakeholders.
The benefits of green infrastructure can be measured at the building or site level, if spread
across many private owners, the benefits can be aggregated to an entire community, city,
county, region, or even nation. However, to achieve these benefits of scale there must be
coordinated implementation across a broader area involving multiple parties to reach certain
critical levels of participation (EPA, 2009). Consequently, community-level, rather than
individual-level implementation of green infrastructure particularly helps local governments
to achieve environmental, sustainability, and adaptation goals within their jurisdictions. The
climate adaptation benefits of green infrastructure are generally related to its ability to
moderate the expected increases in extreme precipitation or temperature.
55
Beside cooperation between stkeholders, other important things that have to be considered in
management aspect is regulation, demonstration (example of GI application), education, and
incentives and disincentives. In the US (EPA, 2010), there are so-called three steps of policy
implementation of GI. The first step is stormwater regulation and code review, the second
step is demonstration and pilots, education and outreach, and incentives. The third step is
capital and transportation project, stormwater fee, and fee discount.
Operational Aspect
Implementation of GI needs competence personal. Naumann et al (2011) stated that
competence human resources would produce strategies in their community. Alghamdi et al
(2014) stated that in governemnt body competence human resources is always needed.
Information system in GI application is also important. Alghamdi et al (2014) explained that
integration of website is important for showing the program.
In the application og GI concept probably there are three important actors involved, they are
government, developer, and community. Government role is as policy and regulation maker,
as well as supervisor, where as developer and community role is as the party who apply the
concept. Based on EPA (2010), the success story of GI application in the US is determined
by the competency and cooperation of the three actors. By this concept, the implementation
og GI is not only done by government, but developer and community also have big rule.
Reflexive (Monitoring and Evaluation)
Monitoring and evaluation is important in every step in GI implementation. The first step that
have to be done in monitoring and evaluation is to set up the indicators to measure the
success and failure of GI Implementation. Example of inicators can be explained as follows,
in Chicago the local government have set up the indicator as of 2010, nearly 600,000 trees
had been added to the City‟s Tree Canopy, and more than 4 million square feet of green roofs
had been installed on 300 buildings.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The development and implementation of GI have to be started by good policy. Good policy
needs strong leadership, accommodation of GI in law document, such as spatial document,
and availability of budget for GI. Furthermore, the development and implementation of GI
need good management aspect. Cooperation and development of institution, regulation,
demonstration, education, and incentives and disincentives are needed. The development and
implementation of GI also need operational aspect, consists of competence human resources
and information system. The last, in order to implement GI concept, the monitoring and
evaluation are needed. Indicators have to be developed in executing monitoring and
evaluation. The requirement for development and implementation of GI as an conceptual
model can be explained as the following diagram.
56
Figure 2. Conceptual Model for GI Implementation
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors thank Institute Technology Bandung for financial support of this research under
the scheme of Riset Inovasi Kelompok Keahlian 2014. The title of the research is „Model
Kebutuhan Green Infrastructure berdasarkan Rencana Pola Pemanfaatan Ruang: Implikasi
bagi Pengendalian Pemanfaatan Ruang‟.
6. REFERENCES
Alghamdi, I.A., Goodwin, R., Rampersad, G., 2014. “Organizational E-Government
Readiness: An Investigation in Saudi Arabia,” International Journal of Business and
Management; Vol. 9, No. 5; 2014- ISSN 1833-3850 E-ISSN 1833-8119
Benedict, M.A.,McMahon, E.T. 2002. E-Green Infrastructure: Smart Conservation for the
21st Century. Sprawl Watch Clearing House: Washington,D.C
Benedict, M., McMahon, E.T. 2006. Green infrastructure: Linking Landscapes and
Communities. Island Press: Washington, DC
Bromley, D. W. 1989. Economic Interests and Institutions: The Conceptual Foundations of
Public Policy, Blackwell: Oxford
Edi, T.H., Herwanto, T., Kendarto, R.D. 2005. Perubahan Bentuk Penggunaan Lahan Dan
Implikasinya Terhadap Koefisien Air Larian DAS Citarum Hulu Jawa-Barat.
Universitas Padjajaran: Bandung
EPA United States. 2010. Green Infrastructure Case Studies: Municipal Policies for
Managing Stormwater with Green Infrastructure
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EPA United States. 2013. National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System: Combined
Seweroverflows CSO Control Policy
EPA United States. 2014. The Economic Benefit of Green Infrastructure: A Case Study of
Lancaster
Foster, J., Lowe, A., Winkelman, S., 2011. The Value Of Green Infrastructure for Urban
Climate. The Center for Clean Air Policy
Gichoya, D. 2005. “Factors Affecting the Successful Implementation of ICT Projects in
Government,” The ElectronicJournal of e-Government Volume 3 Issue 4, pp 175-184.
Herzog, C.P. 2010. Green Infrastructure Infrastructure As An Strategy Strategy To Reinstate
Resilience Resilience To An Urban Watershed Watershed In Rio De Janeiro, Janeiro,
Brazil, Part 1. www.resilient-cities.iclei.org (10 October 2014)
Loorbach, D., 2010. “Transition management for sustainable development: aprescriptive,
complexity-based governance framework,” Governance 23 (1), pp.161–183.
Mell, I.C. 2013. “Can you tell a green field from a cold steel rail? Examining the „„green‟‟of
Green Infrastructure development,” Local Environment 18 (2), pp 152–166.
Mnjama, N.,Wamukoya, Js. 2006. “E-Government and Records Management: An
Assessment Tool for E-ecords Readiness in Government,” Emerald EL 25,pp. 3- 274.
National Science Foundation. 2012. Greening of Cities International Workshop on Green
Urban Infrasctructure Auckland: New Zealand. http://www.greeningofcities.org/
Naumann, S., McKenna. D. 2011. Design, Implementation And Cost Elements Of Green
Infrastucture Projects. Eco Logic: GHK
Piwowarczyk, J., Kronenberg, J., Dereniowska, M.A. 2013. “Marine Ecosystem Services In
Urban Areas: Do
the Strategic Documents of Polish Coastal Municipalities
Reflect Their Importance?,” Landsc. Urban Plan. 109(1), pp. 85-93
Radford, K.G., James, P. 2013. “Changes in the Value of Ecosystem Services along A Rural–
Urban Gradient: A Case Study of Greater Manchester, UK,” Landsc. UrbanPlan. 109
(1), pp. 117–127.
Tarlani. 2014. Kesiapan Pemerintah Dalam Penerapan Infrastruktur Hijau Sebagai
Pengendali Banjir Di Sub Das Citarum Hulu, Kabupaten Bandung. Tugas Akhir pada
Program Studi Perencanaan Wilayah dan Kota, Institut Teknologi Bandung
Viriyadhika. 2014. Potensi Pengembangan Infrastruktur Hijau Untuk Mewujudkan Sistem
Drainase Berkelanjutan, Studi Kasus : Sub Das Cikapundung). Thesis pada Program
Magister Perencanaan Wilayah dan Kota, Institut Teknologi Bandung
58
Erase Vulnerability, Improve Food Security Policy in Indonesia with
Innovation Synergy
Retta Siagian
Sekertariat Badan Penelitian dan Pengembangan Kementerian Pekerjaan Umum
Jl. Patimura no.20, Kebayoran Baru
ABSTRACT :
Food security according to law is the fulfillment of the conditions of food for households, as reflected
in the availability of sufficient food, both quantity and quality, safe, equitable and affordable. In
general the policy of food security in 2010-2014, the government puts food security as one of the
national priorities, which in conjunction with the development of food security, the government is
giving emphasis on: improving food security sub-system, sub-system of food distribution, and subsystems food consumption. The problem is, Indonesia is faced with the situation of food security
vulnerability, and is unable to meet food sufficiency when sticking to the conventional pattern, but
even though there are a lot of technological innovations, the perceived implementation is not optimal.
Study used a qualitative approach with the document study methods. The result, SRI innovations
methods that have been developed for being able to increase the production of rice on less land and
less water, can be used in conjunction with technological innovation infrastructure, implemented the
optimal procedure is coupled with innovations in the form of guidelines as community empowerment.
Concluded, the potential synergies among these innovations can strengthen food security in
Indonesia.
Keywords: Resilience, Vulnerability, Synergy, Innovation, Infrastructure
1. INTRODUCTION
Indonesia was the country self-sufficient in rice. However, mishandling of food security
policy predicates lead to loss of self-sufficiency, turning into a rice importing country. This is
unfortunate, because Indonesia's geographical position on the equator is actually considered
to be a potential for agricultural climate. Indonesia in 1990 did not make the list of the ten
countries that import rice on FAO version, but in 2000 became the country's largest rice
importer though still maintaining the order of rice producers, which means indicates a large
increase in domestic consumption (Krisnamurthi, 2003). The role of the agricultural sector is
very important from the food needs of the population must meet (Nainggolan , 2006: 78) The
government should implement food policies, which ensure food security which includes
supply, diversification, security, institutional, and food organizations. This policy is
necessary to increase food self-sufficiency (Arifin, 2004). Food security shows on three
aspects: availability, stability, Accessibility. Availability of food means that the food
distributed evenly, stability means that food is available at all times, accessibility gives an
understanding that food can be accessible to all people. (Thomson and Metz, 1997) As the
backbone of sustainable economic development, food security is not enough available all the
time, but also must have a quality food with adequate nutrients, safe for consumption. (Law
No. 7/1996 on food) Since the last few years appears seriousness of the declining ability of
Indonesia to meet food security for its people. Sourced food needs of the agricultural sector,
where the agricultural sector is expected to be able to support the development of food
security which aims to achieve food security for all households in sufficient quantity, quality
and adequate nutrition, safe to eat, equitable and affordable by every individual (Atmandt,
Media Economics and management, 2010: 53). Incessant agricultural extension in the
previous period, causing farmers know chemical fertilizers.
59
However, what happens then is, to increase grain production, farmers have become
accustomed to excessive use of chemical fertilizers, which destroy the composition of the soil
and the environment, so that the soil becomes depleted of nutrients. In addition, due to
climate change, changes in the catchment area, the availability of irrigation water is reduced
causing a conflict that threatens the water supply of rice from farmers. Due to the increasing
number of population affected the food needs improvement but is not accompanied by an
increase in rice production that draw, could potentially lead to food insecurity problems. This
drought is becoming one of the scourge that it is difficult for farmers to get a bountiful
harvest, as well as, the problem difficulty will be sufficient farmland. Therefore, an effort is
needed to address, how the efforts to be made, so that problems of food insecurity due to dry
land can be resolved. Among them there are efforts to increase the productivity of rice per
hectare with the intensification plant. However, cultivating innovation and efficient use of
water that needs to be done to replace the conventional pattern of water-intensive rice which
needs to be matched with the right infrastructure. The concept of food security according to
Law No. 7 of 1996 is, fulfillment of conditions of food for households, as reflected in the
availability of sufficient food, both quantity and quality, safe, equitable and affordable. The
concept of food security can be summarized in the aspect, food availability is sufficient
amount of food, food security is food that is free from the possibility of biological, chemical
and other objects disrupt, harm and harm to the human condition and guaranteed quality that
meets the nutrient content of the material and trading standards food and beverages. Evenness
of food: the food distribution system that supports the availability of food at all times and
evenly. Affordability of food: ease of households to obtain food at an affordable price.
(Purwaningsih, 2008).
Based on these things, then, the concept of innovation in the food security infrastructure next
conceptualized to meet the sub-system improvements in food availability, sub-system of food
distribution and sub-systems of food consumption, can be optimized with the synergy of
innovation efforts. The aim is in response to the food security policy with peeling various
innovations that can enable to be applied in line in an effort to remove food insecurity and
increase food security, which is expected to be useful to give another view on the future
development of food security policy based on the synergy of the development and utilization
of innovation .
2. MATERIAL AND METHODS
Documentary method, is one of the methods of data collection used in social research
methodology to browse historical data. (Burhan Bungin 2007). The word comes from the
Latin document that 'docere', which means teaching. Definition of the word documents are
often used by experts in two senses: first, means of written sources for the historical
information as the reciprocal of oral testimony, artifacts, relics painted. The second notion is
intended for official papers and letters such as the letter states treaty, statute, grants,
concessions, and more. Furthermore, documents in a broader understanding of each process
based on the kind of evidence that any source, whether it is to be written, oral, picture, or the
archaeological. (Louis Gottschalk,1986) If it is assumed that the document is the source of
60
data is written, it is divided into two categories: official and unofficial sources. An official
source documents created / issued by institutions / individuals on behalf Institution. Two
forms of official sources of formal and informal official sources. (E. Kosim, 1988). A
literature study by reviewing the written sources such as documents, annual reports, laws and
regulations. Written sources can be a primary or secondary source, so that the data obtained
can also be primary or secondary. This study used a qualitative approach with the method of
literature. The document is meant here is food security-related documents, such as legislation,
articles, research papers in various journals as reference material, research reports, policy
documents, guidelines. Acquisition of documents is done either through downloading
Internet data, as well as direct acquisition of data documents.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In general the policy of food security in 2010-2014, the government puts food security as one
of the national priorities, which in conjunction with the development of food security, the
government is giving emphasis on improvement: food security sub-systems, sub-systems and
sub-systems of food distribution food consumption. Development sub-system availability of
food, is directed to ensure national food security and sovereignty. Government seeks to
achieve sustainable self-sufficiency and maintain self-sufficiency for food commodities, with
inter-sector integration strategy, which is geared as a basis for addressing food insecurity
issues that still occur in parts of Indonesia. Development of food distribution, geared to
ensure the availability of national and regional food that is always in adequate condition, well
managed, which is characterized by the stability of food prices affordable consumer, and also
provide adequate income for farmers. Efforts were made, with the development of food
reserves and improved food distribution chain. The development of sub-systems food
consumption is intended to develop the quality of people's food consumption, through
diversification of food consumption, by making use of local food resources including food
safety and to improve the utilization of the wealth of biological resources.
New innovations in rice cultivation was originally introduced by Fr.Henry de Laulaníe, the
SRI, which uses organic fertilizer and water usage slightly. Furthermore, socialized by
Norman Uphoff, and became known in Indonesia in 1997 the Ministry of Public Works also
Ministry of Agriculture, through the Directorate of Technical and Research Agency, did the
introduction of SRI method or ICM (Integrated Crop Pattern) on the technical
implementation unit, to introduce how to grow planting 'macak-macak' are more waterefficient. It also involves non-governmental organizations such as Aliksa and private
companies, Medco, to introduce organic SRI. Form of activities such as socialization, plots to
irrigation officials and farmers. Innovations that have been developed in the field in the form
of rice cultivation using fertilizers and drugs made from organic, rice cultivation is gradually
reducing the use of chemical-based fertilizers, use less water and have a young plant. This
cropping innovation can save up to 40% water and production rose 2 to 4ton per ha, when
compared with the conventional pattern. With this innovation, the composition of the soil can
be improved due to the use of organic fertilizers impartial. Water saving irrigation was found
to extend IP and possible expand the area for irrigation water can be drained surface, such as,
agricultural lands in West Java that use a lot of surface water irrigation. In area-scarce
regions that tend to be dry and hard to apply surface irrigation, as there is lots of land in the
61
East Nusa Tenggara region, the use of sprinkler innovation can help to facilitate the farmers
to irrigate the fields.
SRI innovation can be applied to areas that use surface water or ground water area use. By
using SRI, then a reduction in the hours of operation for the water pump that uses ground
water. Existing constraints, the institutional weakness in maintenance operations, resulting in
the existence of technology is often not effective, can be strengthened through institutional
strengthening innovation in the development of procedures for the groups, which is applied to
the community through guidance to achieve independence. With innovation, food security
subsystem is expected to be maintained in sustainability. The government regulation on the
division of tasks between the central government, provincial government and district / city
governments, can be used to accelerate the unification of the program in accordance with the
duties and authority. The change legislation sub field of water resources and agriculture led to
the overflow of the main tasks and functions, thus, required debriefing personnel / human
resources with the material field of water resources (irrigation water saving) and the
preparation of the community in accordance with the socio-economic conditions of society,
so that the activities can run perfectly. Development of farmer groups has been the authority
in agriculture, the agricultural officers need to be equipped with the materials management of
irrigation networks (Maintenance Operations, finance, and so on) as did the Ministry of
Public Works to build Farmers Water User. Maintenance operation and implementation of
primary and secondary irrigation network, then becomes the authority and responsibility of
the central government and local governments, according to the authority, but for the
operation and maintenance of tertiary irrigation network into rights and responsibilities of
farmer water user community. (Application of Appropriate Technology Division of Public
Works).
In a sub-system of food distribution, innovation in the use of a new formula for building a
connecting road asphalt known as asbuton, a role in facilitating the creation of good roads to
transport between regions, ensuring the availability of food to support the national and
regional levels, in adequate condition. Similarly, technological innovations in the
construction of bridges and bridge frame design, allowing the opening of overland connection
between the islands, which is expected to reduce shipping cost and shorten the travel time, in
order to realize the affordability of food prices for consumers. Ease of transportation between
regions also allow for inter-regional cross of Commerce masing2 with superior products,
which can guarantee the diversity of food resources that can be obtained for each region,
which takes in food consumption system development. For areas that are often experienced
crop failures, innovations in rice varieties including on the use of SRI, allowing
improvements in land productivity. Again, one of the Government's efforts to improve the
economy of the community is to adopt Appropriate Technology in accordance with
Instruction 3 Year 2001 TTG is a technology that fits the needs of society, able to answer the
problems of the people, not to damage the environment, and can be utilized by society as
easily and generate additional value from the economic and environmental aspects. Of the
many results of the product, some products have shown good effort to meet the criteria, and
are considered suitable for use and further developed, in order to support efforts to remove
the vulnerability and create food security is improved. Some of the products related to the
62
construction of roads and bridges, can be used to improve national connectivity, which will
facilitate the distribution of food between regions, which is expected to minimize the
difficulty of certain stocks of foodstuffs that are not produced locally. While product
innovation related irrigation, can support the adequacy of water for farmers, in an effort to
increase the productivity of farmers. The following table shows the innovation of products
that can be selected to be used together depending on the situation. Similarly, the related
social innovation, is one of the efforts to improve community development, so as to create
self-sufficiency in the future.
Tabel 1. Innovative Product Output of Research And Development Agency of Public
Works (BALITBANG PU) Can Be Supporting Alternative Food Security
Output Of
Alternative Innovative Products to Support Food Security
(Written by Name of The Original)
BALITBANG PU
Prototype Alat Ekstraksi Asbuton
Daur Ulang Perkerasan Jalan Dengan Semen Ditempat
Cold Mix Recycling Foam Bitumen, CMRFBStone
Matrix/Mastic Alphat (SMA)
Aspal Porus
Teknologi Lapis Pondasi Pasir Aspal (LPPA)
Asphalt Treated Permeable Base (ATPB)
Campuran Beraspal Hangat
Pasir Tailing Untuk Bahan Jalan
Pemmanfaatan Bahan Lokal (Batu Karang dan Pasir Laut) dan
Sub Standar
Otta Seal
Campuran Beraspal Panas /Hangat Dengan Asbuton
Perkerasan Beton Semen Pracetak-Prategang
Lapisan Penetrasi Macadam Asbuton (LPMA)
Butur Seal
Asbuton Campur Panas Hampar Dingin (Cold Paving Hot Mix
Asbuton, CPHMA)
Lapis Tipis Beton Aspal (Thin Hot Mix Alphat, HMA)
Slurry Seal (Untuk Pemeliharaan Preventif)
Penambalan Dengan Bahan Tambal Siap Pakai
Beton Semprot Untuk Pelindung Lereng Batuan
63
Sistem Perkerasan Cakar Ayam Modifikasi (CAM)
Perencanaan Geometri Terowongan Jalan
Basis Data Geoteknik Jalan
Pelat Ortotropik Baja Segmental Untuk Lantai Jembatan Rangka
Baja (Prototipe :Kabupaten Bandung)
Gelagar Baja KompositDengan Sistem Flens Prategang
(Prototipe: Bekasi)
Pengembangan Jembatan Integral Penuh Gelagar Beton
(Prototipe :Sumedang)
Teknologi Jembatan Sementara Berbahan Dasar Material
Komposit
Pilar Langsing Beton Bertulang Untuk Jembatan
Pembebanan Bangunan Pelindung Pilar Jembatan
Teknologi Evaluasi Struktural Jembatan
Teknologi Pemetaan Tingkat Korosi Lingkungan Untuk
Jembatan
Audit Keselamatan Jalan (AJK)
Mobile Data Collection System (MDCS)
Model Analitis Perhitungan Temperatur Perkerasan Jalan Untuk
Penentuan Kelas Konerja Aspal
Teknologi Daur Ulang Jalan Ramah Lingkungan
System Rice Intensification (SRI)
Biggun Sprinkler
Bendungan Bawah Tanah
Bangunan Akuifer Buatan Simpanan Air Hujan (ABSAH)
Bangunan dan Pelimpah Tipe Gergaji
Bendung Karet
Lahan Basah Buatan Sebagai Teknologi Daur Ulang Air Limbah
Box Tersier Dengan Bahan Ferrocement
Jaringan Irigasi Perpipaan
Irigasi Tetes
Pintu Air Otomatis Tahan Korosi (Pertanian Daerah Pasang
64
Surut)
Pintu Sorong Tonjong Berbahan GFRC
Bangunan Pengendali Sediman
Peta Kekeringan Bulanan
Kincir Air
Mikrohidro
Sistem Polder Pengendali Banjir
SABO DAM Semen Tanah
Buku Seri Teknologi Irigasi
Pedoman Rekayasa Sosial Pembangunan Bendungan
Panduan Penyusunan Rencana Tindak Pengelolaan Situ
Instrumen Evaluasi Pendampingan Gerakan Nasional Kemitraan
Penyelamatan Air (GN-KPA)
Teknologi Pengolahan Air Gambut Individual Untuk Daerah
Rawa Pasang Surut
Source: Sorting Results from Catalog PusJatan, Catalog PusAir, Catalog PusSosekling,
Catalog Puskim
4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
In general the policy of food security in 2010-2014, the government puts food security as a
national priority. In relation to the development of food security, the government gave
emphasis on improvement: the availability of food sub-systems, sub-systems and sub-systems
of food distribution food consumption. There are many innovations that have been found in
order to answer the problem of food security. As an illustration, here shown SRI, Sprinkler,
Buton Asphalt also another innovation in the form of models and best procedures in the form
of guidelines. Innovation in technology is difficult to walk alone with optimal, if not
accompanied by a briefing for community empowerment as a potential user, thus, necessary
synergy between innovation. Similarly, between innovation stretcher, it is better to run
together and complement each other, rather than run on their own.
It is recommended to policy makers and stakeholders, so that in the handling of food
insecurity on food security policy, the results of the review of the innovation is necessary, to
see the possibility of increasing optimization, if the products of the corresponding innovation
can be applied together and raise synergies.
65
5. REFERENCES
Application of Appropriate Technology Division of Public Works. In 2005.
Bungin, M. Burhan. Qualitative Research 2008; Communication, Economics, Public Policy,
and Social Studies. Jakarta: Kencana.
Bustanul Arifin. 2004 Economic Analysis Pertanioan Indoneisa. Jakarta. Buku Kompas.
Center for Sosekling. 2011. Socioeconomic Planning Model Test applicability of Irrigation
Water In Save.
Department of Food Security Guidance Pertanian.Badan-Food Security Council. Situation
Assessment 2002 Community Food Barn in West Java and Central Java province.
Availability of Food Development Center.
Department of Agriculture (2007): Technical Guidelines for Development of Groundwater
Irrigation In, Directorate of Water Management, Directorate General of Land and
Water, Ministry of Agriculture, Jakarta.
E. Kosim. Historical Methods 1988; Principles and Processes. London: Department of
History ubuntu (for personal entertainment)
Enforcement Guidance Role of Farmer Water User Association (P3A) in Application of
Appropriate Technology (GTT) Field Irrigation. In 2009.
East Nusa Tenggara provincial government. 2010 Map Vulnerability and Food Security East.
Food Security Council, the Department of Agriculture.
Food Security Agency of West Java Province. 2013 Map of Food Security and Vulnerability
in West Java.
Food Security Council. 2010 Public Policy Food Security from 2010 to 2014.
Gede K.S Swastika. 2002 Supply and Demand Analysis of Major Agricultural Commodities
in Indonesia. Agro Economic Bulletin, Volume 2, Number 1 and 2, February 2001
Gottschalk, Louis. Understanding History 1986; A Primer of Historical Method (translation
Notosusanto Nugroho). Jakarta: UI Press.
Hastarini Dwi Atmanti. 2010 Media Economics and Management. No. 21. Vol 1 January
2010.
Herlina Roseline, Iwan Kridasantausa, Winskayati. Utilization Study of Groundwater
Irrigation In Rainfed Rice Rice SRI method Girimukti In the village, West Bandung
regency, West Java Province. Institute of Technology Bandung.Bandung
Juhendi, E. (2008): Development of Water Saving Agriculture through SRI (System of Rice
Intensification) and PET (Soil Ecology Learning), KDP Executive Training
Irrigation, Water Resources Cimanuk SNVT Implementing business-Cisanggarung,
Department of Public Works, Cirebon.
66
Kompas Dotcom. Indonesian Food Policy Wrong? Thursday, October 11, 2012.
http://nasional.kompas.com
Krisnamurthi. 2003 Diversification of Food: 40 Years Experience and Challenges ahead.
Journal of Economic Rakyat.Tahun II No. 7 October 2003.
Strengthening Farmer Water User Communities in Operation and Maintenance of Irrigation
Network. In 2005.
Strategic Plan for Food Security Agency, West Java Year 2013-2018
Sajogya. 2002 Agriculture and Poverty. People Economic Journal. Year I Number 1 March
2002.
Siswono Yudho Husodo.2003.Membangun Independence in the Field of Food: An Indoneisa
those needs. People Economic Journal. Year II, No. 6, September 2003.
Thomson and M. Metz. 1997 Implication of Economic Policy for Food Security. Training
Materials for Agricultural Planning. No. 40 FAO, Rome.
Uphoff, Norman (2007): The System of Rice Intensification: Using alternative cultural
practices to increase of rice production and profitability from existing yield
potentials, the International Rice Commission Newsletter, No. 55, Food and
Agriculture Organization, Rome
Yunastiti Purwaningsih. 2008 Journal of Development Economics. Vol 9 number 1, June
2008
67
Brubuh: A Traditional Method To Keep Environmental Sustainability In
Javanese Society
Surono
Researcher at Center for Pancasila Studies, Gadjah Mada University, Indonesia
Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT :
Brubuh is a logging method that is practiced by javenese society and used for bamboo and wood. This
tradition strongly supports environmental sustainability. Brubuh is one of alternatives to solving
environmental problems in Indonesia, and even the world. Brubuh method is based on the Javanese
calendar. Brubuh activities are usually conducted in ―mangsa tua‖ because at this time wood has
lignin content lower than other time?
With the Brubuh method, the Javanese society is able to make better quality of bamboo and wood
without using chemicals. Wood produced by this method proved to be stronger, more durable (not
easily eaten by insects, fungi, andother organisms that can damage and weathering of wood), and has
texture better than using modern methods. Brubuh method able to keep the balance of nature and
sustainable clean water.
This paper is an ethnography research. The aim of this paper is to explore and analyze how Brubuh
method become a model to keep environment sustainability? What is the meaning of Brubuh for
Javanese society? This paper based on case studies that carried out in Yogyakarta.
Keywords: Brubuh, traditional logging method, Javanese society, environmental sustainability,
Javanese Calendar System
1. INTRODUCTION
One of the environmental problems in Indonesia and even the world is environmental
destruction caused by illegal logging and forest clearance for industrial land conversion. As
we know that everyone is trying to cut down the trees as much as possible. Human greed,
which wants as to much benefit in a short time. As a result, the current Indonesian people are
bear the burden of the brutal action in nature treatment, especially forests.
Data from the Ministry of Forestry shows that Indonesia's forest decrease rate reached 0.4
million hectares/year in 2009-2011. The Hansen study found that about 0.84 hectares/year in
2012. In fact, the destruction of forests caused by to global warming, natural disasters, also
interfere with the survival of biodiversity.
Rapid destruction of forests is one of problems caused by modern models of logging. We
know that the models that have been ignore are traditional models that are full of wisdom.
Everyone is trying to cut down trees as much as possible. Human greed to benefit a lot in a
short time become the main cause. Floods, landslides, drought, famine, disease, and various
other natural disasters become a daily sight.
We have an alternative to solve that problems. We have to go back to Indonesian local
knowledge that related to the environment. To developing environmental sustainability must
be adapted local wisdom like local knowledge, and sustainable resource management
policies and practices must be tailored to the local conditions, especially in relation to
common property resources. Duffield, Gardner, Berkes and Singh in their study show that the
68
local people have sensible and meaningful indicators for a given area that cover all three
dimensions of sustainability--ecological, economic, and social (1998).
One of local knowledge is Brubuh method. A logging method that is owned by Javanese
society that strongly supports environmental sustainability. Brubuh is a logging method use
bamboo as media of transformation owned by Javanese society. This tradition strongly
supports to environmental sustainability. Brubuh method based on the Javanese calendar.
Brubuh activities usually conducted in “mangsa tua” because at this time wood have lignin
content lower than other time.
Research Question
The aim of this paper is (1) to explore and analyze how Brubuh method become a model to
keep environment sustainability? (2) What is the meaning of Brubuh for Javanese society?
2. MATERIALS AND METHOD
This paper was written based on qualitative research that relies on data collection using
participation observation and interviews. The research was conducted in Sleman,
Yogyakarta. The selection of study sites based on the writer wishes to see the variations of
the Brubuh model.
Researcher use interview dan observation method to get data of brubuh from informant.
Interview is one of main method on ethnographic and qualitative research. In the interview
process we should: listen well and respectfully, developing an ethical engagement with the
participant, acquires a self awareness of our role in the co-construction of meaning during the
interview process, be recognizant of ways in which both the ongoing relationship and the
broader social context affect the participants, recognize that dialogue is discovery and only
partial knowledge will ever be attained (Heyl, 2001).
The data collected and analyzed by descriptive qualitative method. To sharpen the analysis of
this study is also equipped with a literature review of research relevant to this theme.
3. RESULT AND DISCUSSON
A. Brubuh and Bamboo
Brubuh is a form of Javanese tradition of logging method. It derived from the
Javanese word “Brubuh” which means “totally wood/bamboo logging”. Generally the term
used when someone wants to logging of trees. In particular this term used when a person will
be felling bamboo for a lot of numbers and at certain time.
This tradition can be proposed to the world for environmental problem solving3.
Brubuh is very simple and not expensive. But, this method depend on Javanese agriculture
calendar system. This dependence cause any problems to application this method if anyone
3
Culture is human adaptation to their environment to sustain of life in accordance with the best traditions/
condition (Susanto in Roqib, 2007)
69
not have knowledge about Javanese calendar system. Because this calendar system not
written (for international understanding).
In Javanese culture, Brubuh is closely associated with bamboo logging. Using the
Brubuh method, any person required to comply with the specific rules, so it cannot be done in
any time. In general, the method Brubuh is very defined by a time of cutting/logging. The
time of logging not using AD calendar system but with Pranata Mangsa (Javanese calendar
system). Pranata Mangsa calendar system have specialized count system to implementing
for bamboo logging. If use Brubuh method we will produce good quality and durable
bamboo.
On many cases, Brubuh activity often unrelated with bamboo needs from Javanese
society. Brubuh will be done when time of Brubuh has arrived although the community are
not need of bamboo. It caused when bamboo age ready to harvest or for savings/stock.
Javanese society have no desire to arbitrarily cut down bamboo, especially (if it) will be use
as a material building. They would choose wait for time of Brubuh arrives instead to cut
down any time when time of Brubuh not yet arrive.
Using the method of Brubuh in the face of deforestation of bamboo is closely related
with the important position of bamboo in the rural communities of Javanese life. The
importance of the bamboo existence for Javanese society makes bamboo have special
handling, start from preserve, logging, to storaging. In addition, other special preservation
look when the Javanese society always give special place around their house to plant of
bamboo. Usually, bamboo tree planting at around their house and near bamboo trees created
a well to serve the needs of clean water4.
B. Brubuh Method
This method consists of time, bamboo storaging and soaking:
1.
Time of Brubuh
One of the main concepts in the Javanese society that related to their life is time.
Javanese society when doing various activities always have concept of good and bad time,
dina becik lan dina ala (according to the Javenese calendar). A good time would be the
consideration of their activities will be able to get good results. While the bad time it is
believed will be cause bad effects on they activities. The concept of good and bad time has
very detailed counts and deferent from one to another activity. Good time for an activities not
necessarily for other activities.
One of the concept of time is bad in Javanese society usually was connected with the
day of member of their family death. For example not good time is a day of grandmother/
grandfather death (in Javanese term called geblage simbah). Geblage simbah is a time not
good for hold activities related to party, such as a wedding, ceremony of thanksgiving and so
4
Young bamboo maked dishes/side dish, when semi elderly often functioned as a string (tus), when the
bamboo old age used as material of building (walls, wall-frame, fence, etc.), while the twigs and the stem are
dry and unused functioned as firewood, even now the economic value of bamboo are getting prove to materials
craft.
70
on. For example, their grandmother died on Sura, 1 (in Javanese calendar) their families are
forbidden to hold a wedding ceremony that coincides at the 1st Sura. If they interfering that
date, Javanese society believe will be happen bad effect to that family. At the others
activities, Javanese society have good and bad time too. Example, on activities of buying and
selling of cattle, Javanese also has a good and not good time. Cattle very good if buy and/ or
sell at the Kliwon or Pon days (day of Javanese calendar have five days a week: Pahing, Pon,
Wage, Kliwon, and Legi ). Activity of cattle buying and selling not good on Legi days, if
someone buying or selling cattle on Legi day, they believe meat of cattle will be sugary.
Because in Javanese term, Legi mean: sweet.
Javanese society also has a concept of good and bad time to Brubuh. Brubuh activity
have best time at mangsa kasanga (ninth season) in Javanese calendar. Mangsa kasanga if
converted in the AD calendar system coincides on the 2 – 26, March. Javanese society
believed if mangsa kasanga is the best for Brubuh activity. Mangsa kasanga has any
characteristic that are required by human being to get the good quality of the fells.
Mangsa Kasanga means the ninth of Pranata Mangsa Calendar System. To get good
understanding of Pranata Mangsa Calendar System please read the table below:
Num
Season
Date
Name
1. Kasa (kartika)
June 22-August 1
First Season
2. Karo (poso)
August 2-August 24
Second season
3. Katelu
August 25-September 17
Third season
4. Kapat (sitra)
September 18 - October 12
Fourth season
5. Kalima (manggala)
October 13 - November 8
Fifth season
6. Kanem (naya)
9 November - 21 December
Sixth season
7. Kapitu (palguna)
December 22 - February 2
Seventh Season
8. Kawolu (wasika)
February 3 - February 28
Eighth Season
9. Kasanga (jita)
March 1 - March 25
Ninth Season
10. Kasadasa (srawana) March 26-April 18
tenth season
11. Dhesta (pradawana) April 19 - May 11
eleventh season
12. Sadha (asuji)
Twelfth Season
May 12-June 21
Table: Pranata Mangsa Calendar System
In Javanese thought, mangsa have special characteristics that are not same one another.
In this chapter I will be describe about mangsa kasanga only. For other mangsa I do not give
special place ini this paper because I have limited pages. Mangsa kasanga has several
characteristics:
-
Main Mangsa: Rendheng-Pangarep-arep (rainy season-hopes)
71
-
Period: March 1 to March 25 (25 days/ other reference write March 2 to March 26)
Chandra (figuratively): Wedharing wacånå mulyå ("the rise of precious voices" means
Animals start speaking out to lure the opposite sex/ looking for couple):
Characteristics: Rice flowering; Crickets begin singing, started speaking out, cane
flowers (glagah) fall.
This is best time to do Brubuh.
Woods/ bamboos: best condition for slash, not easy to eat insect and good flexibility.
Uniquely, the Pranata Mangsa calendar system had not been written specifically in the
Javanese calendar system. So, information about pranata mangsa is not well known by
public. Even the Javanese Society was not know well about Pranata Mangsa calendar
system. Right now, Pranata Mangsa calendar system written very least it causes knowledge
about this calendar system difficult to develop and threatened to perish. At the moment, only
old people in the Javanese rural communities who know well about Pranata Mangsa
calendar system.
Pranata Mangsa calendar system is not a written calendar, Javanese society have a
unique ways to knowing exactly mangsa. Javanese society will observe the nature happens
around them to know mangsa. It is based on of the different characteristics of the one mangsa
with another. In addition, although at the moment there is a conversion system of the mangsa
to the AD calendar system, for Javanese rural peasant, especially elderly, that conversion
system was not enough to help them to finding exactly season. Javanese countryside not
accustomed to using AD calendar system as a guide to their time, they illiteracy.
In view of the Javanese society, mangsa kasanga will be come if nature is already
showing symptoms as follows: Rice flowering (ancient Javanese only plants rice once a
year); Crickets begin to appear and whittling; gangsir started speaking out, glagah flowers
fall. That‟s phenomena is a nature signs for mangsa kasangan is coming. This is best time to
do Brubuh.
At this time (mangsa kasanga) Javanese society believed that the wood/ bamboo in the
best condition for slash, not easy to eat insect, and has a good flexibility. When mangsa
kasanga is coming Javanese society usually do Brubuh together.
When Javanese society asked about, did they have a "scientific" reasons related to the
process of Brubuh? Most people do not understand the scientific reasons. Their activities
based on the belief that bamboo that logging at mangsa kasanga will not quickly decayed,
not easily eaten rodent and has good quality. It‟s like to result of Suthoni research about
bamboo, the right time to bamboo logging at the mangsa tuwa (old season, namely ninth
season, tenth season, and eleventh season)
2.
Storaging
Javanese society have special way to treat bamboo. The bamboo has been cut down are
placed in standing position (vertical). The Javanese society recognize that the model
vertically storage will be help to drying process of bamboo are more evenly distributed. The
water contained in the bamboo will go down to the base of the bamboo (butt). So, the drying
72
process of bamboos is evenly. Result for this drying process can be seen to the bamboo color
change. Bamboo become browned evenly on entire stalks of bamboo.
Javanese society usually avoid the storage model in horizontal position. This storage
model would make the process of bamboo drying unevenly. The moisture content of bamboo
will go down to the bottom of a bamboo rod, not to the butt. It was seen on the different color
of bamboo between the stem on top (has color: Brown) and the stem at the bottom
(yellowish-green). This bamboo will not well be used for a material building.
This storage model will be affect to the quality of the bamboo. Bamboo stored in
vertical position will be strong and flexibility better that stored horizontally. This bamboo
storage model used for bamboos that are not immediately used soon.
Different treatment given to bamboo that are soon to be utilized (for building
materials). First, bamboos are cut according to there quired size and then soaked in water.
Soaking must be done when the bamboo in wet conditions. Meanwhile, the dry bamboo does
not require immersion (as explained above), because if dry bamboo soaked it will be speed
up to process of bamboo decaying.
3.
Soaking
General process after the bamboo cut down is soaking. To this time, there is not has
been definite knowledge how long bamboo should be soaked to get maximum results. If
Soaking process is not on the right time the bamboo will be frangible. If soaking process
done for long time (too long) it will be rot of bamboo but if too short the process cannot
produce a good quality bamboo (The Ministry of forestry, 2012)
However, the Java society has a special technique to know when the right time to lift
the bamboo from the place of soaking. Bamboo will be stated enough for soaking process
when it has changed of smell. If bamboo had started to smell kecing (stench) it refer that
soaking for bamboo is enough. The right of bamboo soaking will be able to get the quality
and strength of bamboo for tens of years. Thus the use of bamboo will be durable and
efficient. So with this soaking model, bamboo will be sustainable in the world and it can even
have other added value.
The research conducted by Sulthoni (in Ismail, 2009), explaining that soaking the
bamboo in water will result in the occurrence of the biological process of fermentation of the
lignin contained in the bamboo. The result of this fermentation process can dissolve in the
water. In other words, the process of bamboo soaking in the water can lower the levels of
lignin, so bamboo not attacked by beetles (and rodent). The process of soaking could not
done arbitrarily. Soaking for long time will be decrease levels of lignin too drastic. Whereas,
lignin contained in the bamboo is binding between bamboo fiber, so bamboo be sturdy.
Therefore Sulthoni, recommends for bamboo soaking preservation should be carried out not
more than one month in order to decrease of the strength of bamboo is not too large.
C. Problems of Brubuh
Brubuh cannot separate from Pranata mangsa. Pranata Mangsa is one of the
guidelines that became a guiding tools for Javanese peasant society in thinking, attitude, and
73
manage the nature and agriculture system. The main roles of Pranata Mangsa is to guide
Javanese peasant to processing plants, selection the appropriate seed, benchmark of
ploughing period of rice fields, plowing, until harvest activity. Refers to meaning of the
words, Pranata Mangsa derived from Javanese language: Pranata= Period, mangsa= Season.
Pranata Mangsa is calendar system for determine how to farm in Javanese society.
Many people say that Pranata Mangsa is a myth because it is considered have not basic
scientific studies. Pranata Mangsa are considered rely solely on intuition. So, majority of
people do not acknowledge of Pranata Mangsa validity. But, if we further actual observing
to Pranata Mangsa, it is proved to be very scientific because it is based on a long observation
of character and natural behavior (Pranata Mangsa is empirical) (Sindhunata, 2008).
Evidence of Pranata Mangsa is scientific observed when it determining the beginning of
mangsa Kasa (a date on the Javenese calendar) that occur when the Sun is on the zenith of
Earth's Tropic of cancer (tropic of Cancer, June 22). While mangsa Kapitu started on
December 22, when the Sun is on the zenith tropic (the tropic of capricorn).
Pranata mangsa is known as a calendar of the agricultural system of Javanese society.
The system was standardized by Sri Susuhunan Paku Buwana VII (King of Surakarta).
Daljoeni revealed in pranata mangsa have the extraordinary relationship between aspects of
the cosmography, bioclimatogy (underlying on socio-cultural life of farming in rural
communities) (Daljdoeni, 1983). Pranata mangsa calendar system is the complex calendar
system because it can combine sky phenomena and earth. Pranata mangsa calendar system
describe the behavior of animals and plants, character of soil that is affected by temperature
changes (Sarwanto, et. al., 2010).
The Pranata mangsa calendar system also be guidelines for environment
preservation.This paper discuss how the Pranata mangsa calendar system used as a guide to
cutting down and preservation of wood, especially bamboo. This method is known as
Brubuh. So, if we want to talk about Brubuh we can not released from the Pranata mangsa
calendar system.
Brubuh is a method of bamboo logging, owned by Javanese society, it have unique
time, form, and methods. With this method (Brubuh), Javanese society getting the good
quality and durable bamboo (not easily eaten by insects, fungi, and other organisms that can
damage and weathering of wood). Bamboo harvested with Brubuh method, as a material
building, be able to survive more two generations.
In addition, the Brubuh method also proved that able to keep the balance and
sustainability of environment. Its caused the Brubuh are very closely related to the bamboo
tree. As well as, bamboo is one of the best trees are able to keep environment from
destruction. Bamboo is the largest producer of oxygen than other trees, bamboo has an
absorption of carbon is quite high, bamboo is suitable to improve the critical land too.
At the present and future, Pranata mangsa calendar system have more problems.
Modernization in agriculture system and global warming being the main reason. Pranata
mangsa calendar system is the system that depend on the nature symptom. Its will be lose
74
relevance because the nature condition is uncertainly. Besides, ambition of agricultural
industrialization that wants quick results and not harmony with Go Green program.
D. Brubuh and Environmental Sustainability
Bamboo over this admittedly able to rehabilitate critical lands, useful for soil
conservation, and able to control of erosion and landslide prone land. Bamboo is a plant that
has the speed to grow better than other plants. It will made bamboo to be leading to
deforestation process. Bamboo is also be agent of oxygen production most other than others
plant. Bamboo is also capable of absorbing carbon (CO2) are good, and certainly also the
local renewable power source with great potential both of economic, social, and environment
aspects. (Wijaya, et. al, 2004).
Study of Diniaty and Sofia (2000) found that bamboo is very beneficial in nature
conservation efforts, because bamboo is very good to withstand the erosion and
sedimentation, especially in the banks of the river. In the context of the water, bamboo is also
effective to hold the runoff water5. Bamboo also has a suppressor capabilities and produce a
lot of oxygen so it can be planted at the settlements and border highway (Diniaty and Sofia,
2000).
The model of Brubuh in the Javanese society have function to controll the Javanese
society to limit bamboo logging. With Brubuh method Javanese society only logging of
bamboo, in a lot of numbers, once for three years. It is related to bamboos age is 3.5 years
old, that could be harvested. It assumed each time of Brubuh arrives Javanese society always
logging bamboo. In fact, Javanese society not always done Brubuh in one period of the living
bamboo. Thus the presence of bamboo will be cared at least 3.5 years old.
In addition, the bamboo logging model by Javanese society not use total logging model.
Bamboo really ready to harvest only (old age) will be felled. While the bamboos that are
young age are left alive. Logging model like this certainly very consider aspects of
environmental sustainability. This corresponds to the bamboo plants sustainability that have
potential alternative solution for a number of environmental problems, especially in global
warming. If the management of bamboo is not done properly it can be impact
availability/potential depletion of bamboo plants that will potentially damage the
environment, in example erosion.
Javanese society aware that bamboo/wood have strategic position in their live, for
example as infrastructure (wells, gate, bridge, construction material/ substitute of concrete
structures) So, they felt need to keep bamboo and wood in their live. Like at many society in
the world, bamboo (especially) have vital position in their live. According to Sujarwo
5
To ensure water resiliency, those responsible for critical infrastructure must avoid, reduce, miti- gate, and
ultimately recover from the effects of natural, accidental, or malevolent incidents with minimal impact on endusers. Sustainability of water infrastructure may be achieved through effective management of assets, full-cost
pricing of services, efficient use of water, and resource protection (Santora and Wilson, 2008).
75
research, bamboo is one of most popular plants that planted by Indonesian people (2013). It is
show that bamboo have much advantages for Indonesian people live.
Finally, we need innovation to saving bamboo as a world asset to keep natural
stability. Buckingham (et.al. 2011) describe that the challenges of creating a frame for
sustainable bamboo management are significant, but given the potential of commercial
bamboo forestry to promote sustainable development, provide alternatives to timber products,
sequester carbon and restore degraded land, such an initiative could generate far reaching
benefits for humanity and the environment. To solve environmental problems have to done
by multidisciplinary background. i.e. technology, environmental, socio-cultural, political,
economic, etc. because this problem influenced by local/indigenous knowledge (Orlove and
Calton, 2010)
4. CONCLUSION
Between Brubuh-bamboo and environment have a very close linkages. Javanese
society treats bamboo/wood very “polite”. They realize that bamboo and wood play an
important role in sustaining of the environment. Javanese society created Brubuh method to
slow the rate of bamboo and wood harvesting.
With brubuh method, anyone will not be able to cut down bamboo/wood at whenever.
People were not going to cut bamboo or wood in a short period because the wood / bamboo
harvested using the brubuh method has better quality and durability if compared with other
methods.
Brubuh help to bamboo/wood life appropriate bamboo life cycle. This condition give
an opportunity to nature to repair themselves, to create environmental sustainability.
5. REFERENCES
Buckingham, Kathleen., Jepson, Paul. Wu , Liangru. Rao, I. V. Ramanuja, Jiang. Sannai.
Liese, Walter. Lou, Yiping. Fu, Maoyi Fu. 2011. The Potential Of Bamboo Is
Constrained By Outmoded Policy Frames. A Journal of the Human Environment;
July 2011, Vol. 40 Issue 5.
Daldjoeni, N.
1983. Penanggalan Pertanian Jawa Pranata mangsa :Peranan
Bioklimatologis dan Fungsi Sosio kulturalnya. Proyek Javanologi. Yogyakarta
Duffield C, Gardner J. S., Berkes F and Singh. R. B. 1998. Local Knowledge in the
Assessment of Resource Sustainability: Case studies in Himachal Pradesh, India,
and British Columbia, Canada Source: Mountain Research and Development,
Vol. 18, No. 1 (Feb., 1998), pp. 35-49 Published by: International Mountain
Society. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3673866 Accessed: 10/11/2014
Heyl, Barbara Sherman. 2001. Ethnographic Interviewing. Atkinson (ed) (et. al). Handbook
of Ethnography. SAGE Publication. London.
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Ismail, Irwan. 2009. Sifat Pengawet Air Laut Pada Bambu Ampel Menggunakan Metode
Boucherie–Morisco. Thesis. Program Pasca Sarjana Fakultas Teknik Universitas
Gadjah Mada Yogyakarta
Kementerian Kehutanan. 2012. Mau tahu tentang bambu? Badan Penyuluhan dan
Pengembangan SDM Kehutanan Pusat Penyuluhan Kehutanan.
Kementerian Perdagangan Republik Indonesia. 2011. Menggali Peluang Ekspor Untuk
Produk dari Bambu. Warta Ekspor Edisi Desember. 2011)
Orlove, Ben and Calton, Steven C. 2010. Water Sustainability: Anthropological Approaches
and Prospects. The Annual Review of Anthropology. First published online as a
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Accesed. 10/11/2014
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Source: Journal (American Water Works Association), Vol. 100, No. 12
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09/11/2014
Sarwanto, Rini Budiharti, Dyah Fitriana). 2010. Identifikasi Sains Asli (Indigenous Science)
Sistem Pranata Mangsa Melalui Kajian Etnosains. Paper of Seminar Nasional
Pendidikan Biologi .FKIP UNS. 2010
Sindhunata. 2008. Ana Dina Ana Upa, Pranata Mangsa. Bentara Budaya, Yogyakarta
Sujarwo, Wawan. 2013. “Klasifikasi KelimpahanTumbuhan di Kecamatan Kintamani Bali:
Studi Kasus Usaha Konservasi” in Jurnal Manusia dan Lingkungan vol20 No.3,
November 2013. Pusat Studi Lingkungan Hidup Universitas Gadjah Mada.
Roqib, Moh. 2007. Harmoni dalam Budaya Jawa (Dimensi Edukasi dan Keadilan Gender).
Pustaka Pelajar. Yogyakarta
Widjaja, E. A., N. W. Utami dan Saefudin. 2004. Panduan Membudidayakan Bambu
Puslitbang Biologi LIPI. Bogor.
77
Before-after Social Perception Differences with the Existence of Green
Open Space Conversion
(Case Study of Malang City)
Dimas Hastama Nugraha
Research and Development Office for Social-Economy and Environment of Human
Settlements
Research Center of Social-Economy and Environment, Ministry of Public Works
Laksda Adisucipto St.165 Yogyakarta 55281
Email : [email protected]; [email protected]
ABSTRACT :
The tendency to the decrease of Open Space quantity has occurred, particularly Green Open Space
(RTH) decreases significantly. It has been converted into urban infrastructure and new housing area.
Malang city has experiences in converting the empty plot into RTH and vice versa namely RTH into a
commercial plot The social perception study is required to discover to what extent the impact of the
land conversion in Malang City. The research method is mix methods (quantitative – qualitative). The
sampling method used in this research is proportional random-sampling. The data collection period
is in August – September 2014. The variables used consist of activity type, performer, activity scale,
misuse number, and health. The data which has been collected and analyzed is data before and after
conversion (2008 and 2013). The analysis used in this research is statistical descriptive qualitative
and Willcoxon Test. The study result suggests that for the case conversion into open space, there are
differences occurred before and after the park exist for the type variables, performer, scale, health,
happiness, sport and pyschological health. Whereas for the case of open space removal, there are
differences before and after the mall exist (park exist) for variable of sport and health activity.
Keywords : Conversion, Green open space, social, perception
1. INTRODUCTION
30% proportion mandated by the Spatial Planning Law No. 26/2007 is a minimum measure
to ensure the balance of city ecosystem, either balance of hydrology system and
microclimate. The wide target by 30% of city area can be achieved gradually through
allocation of urban land typically (Permen PU No. 5 Year 2008 regarding Guidelines of
Green Open Space Provision and Utilization at the Urban Area). However, the reality in field
suggests that the fact is contrary, the existence of RTH (Ruang Terbuka Hijau/ Green Open
Space) is far from the ideal portion, the dominant market power has changed the land
function thus the RTH existence is much more marginalized even ignored its function and
benefits. Siahaan (2010) stated that the tendency in the decrease of public space quantity,
particularly at the last 30 years, the RTH reduction is extremely significant. At the big city
such as Jakarta, Surabaya, Medan and Bandung, the RTH extension has been reduced from
35% in early 1970s to 10% at present. This also suggests that the existing Green Open Space
mostly has been converted into urban infrastructure and new housing area.
Perception study is required to discover to what extent the impact of land conversion in
Malang City. This study could also use as a consideration material for the stakeholders as the
decision maker of the conversion. This research formulated 5 major respects which
represent the social aspect in spatial use namely: type of activity, actor/performer of
activity, scale of activity, misuse number and health (happiness, sport-exercise and
78
pyschological health).
In relation with the RTH relation and social impact, the Regional Public Health Information
Paper March 2010 stated that the social aspects emerge from the RTH existence include:
1. places for people to meet and interact, thus increasing social cohesion and social
inclusion.
2. education and lifelong learning.
3. well- designed spaces can promote a sense of place and be a source of community
pride, helping to reduce crime and the fear of crime.
4. physical activity : active and healthy lifestyles.
Hellen (2003) described that the benefit and opportunity of the open space existence can be
used by someone daily, weekly or annually as the RTH character. Below are several activities
that might emerge: Children‘s Play, Passive Recreation, Active Recreation, Community
focus, Cultural focus and Open spaces as educational resources. Whereas Cattel (2006)
stated that several type of activity groups occurred at the open space involve:
1. Casual social encounters in public space:
Encounter with friends and neighbors at the housing area
a. Routine social encounters : occurred routinely
b. Serendipitous encounters : group of visitors as market
2. Organised activity in public space
a. public open-air events, distinguished into 2 namely institutionally organised
and self-organised (community‟s initiative);
b. organised recreation and pursuits (competition activity every week)
3. Spaces of no encounter
2. MATERIAL AND METHODS
Malang, as one of big city in East Java, has experiences of conversion. Malang has
experience in converting the vacant land into RTH and vice versa namely RTH into a
commercial purpose (mall). Of these experiences, the aims of this research are to perceive
how the society perception is related with before and after condition with the existence of this
conversion. The taken case study here is the P2KH Merjosari Park, City Forest and Merbabu
Park (converted into RTH or park revitalization) and Malang Olympic Garden (converted
into mall). MOG area is still part of Gajayana area which is a green open space. This MOG
case tends to have similarity with Malang Town Square case in which its construction was
violating the existing and applicable regional regulation at that time. Moreover both shopping
center becomes a real evidence on the existence of open space conversion into building.
The methodology used here is mix-method approach (quantitative-qualitative). The data
collection method is by using questionnaires. The sampling method used in this research is
proporsional random-sampling. The data collection period is August – September 2014. The
variable used here is consisted of activity type, actors, activity scale, misuse number, and
health. Analysis methods used are statistic descriptive qualitative and Wilcoxon Test.
Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test is a comparative test of 2 free samples if the data scale is ordinal,
interval or ratio but not distributed normally.
79
General Overview of Research Area
The Merjosari park is pilot park developed by the Government of Malang City in
accommodating 8 (eight) elements of Green City Development Program proclaimed by
Ministry of Public Works. The park located at Jalan Mertojoyo Selatan (South Mertojoyo
Street), Lowokwaru Subdistrict, Malang City was built over the land by 29,012 m2,
Merjosari Village.
The placement of park location is focused on the community activity center in form of
trading facility of sub district scale namely Dinoyo Market and also higher education activity
center in order it can be reached easily and used by the surrounding community and public
generally. The activities expected occurred at this park includes education tour, community
interaction center, art performances and rare plants conservation.
Figure 1. Green Park Merjosari
Source: Sanitary and Landscaping Agency of Malang city, 2013, page 63
Merbabu Park, is located in Merbabu St.Malang, east Java. This park have total area
3.942.m2. This park was built by CSR Program PT.Beiersdorf Indonesia (Nivea Cares of
Family flagship). This park have facilities mini-futsal field, jogging track, super- aging sport
facilities, children playground, and reading facility.
80
Figure 2. Merbabu Park (source : jelajahmalangku.blogspot.com)
Buring City Forest is the widest city forest in Malang City with Total Area by 80.000 m2
(Sanitary and Landscaping Agency of Malang City, 2013). The address of Buring City Forest
is Mayjen Sungkono street, Kedungkandang subdistrict, Malang City. This city forest is
located at BWK East Malang.
Figure 3. Buring City Forest
One of achievement of Buring City Forest is in 2010 its design has won third place in contest
held by the Ministry of Public Works. This city forest began its construction at late 2010 by
utilizing almost 8 hectares land. This city forest was built with total funds by Rp6.5 billion
with multi years scheme in which its Rp.2.5 billion is 2012 APBD (Regional Expenditure
Budget) (http://www.antarajatim.com/lihat/berita/76029/areal-hutan-kota-malang-diperluas) .
In addition to meet the extents of 30% RTH, the construction of this Buring City Forest RTH
81
is also expected to carry the education and recreation forest mission for the community of
Malang City.
Mall Olympic Garden (MOG) is one of shopping, fashion, entertainment area which also
known as one of biggest mall in Malang City. It stands near the famous Gajayana Sport
Center in Malang City, MOG started operating in May 2008 also reaping pros and contras
such as Matos case.
Figure 4. Mall Olympic Garden (left) and Orientation towards Gajayana Malang
Stadion(right)Source:
http://s1204.photobucket.com/user/smg820/media/project/100_9163copy.jpg.html
dan maps.google.com
3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The analysis results are as follows. For Case Study of Merjosari Park, City Forest and
Merbabu Park.
The Conversion from Non-RTH into RTH
a. Type of Activity
Table 4.1. Wilcoxon Test for Type of activity
Number of activities performed in this location after
the Park Exist – Number of activities carried out at this
location Before the Park exist
Z
-7.208 a
Asymp.Sig (2-tailed)
.000
a. Based on negative ranks
b. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test
From Wilcoxon Test , H0: there are no differences between before and after. The value
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 is less than 5%, therefore the H0 is rejected. The conclusion is,
there are differences between before and after the park exists for type of activity.
b. Actors of Activity
Table 4.2. Wilcoxon Test for Actors of activity
Number of people together visiting this location After
the Park exist – Number of person together visiting this
location Before the Park exist
Z
-7.288 a
Asymp.Sig (2-tailed)
.000
82
a. Based on negative ranks
b. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test
H0: there are no differences between before and after. The value of Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
0.000 is less than 5%, therefore H0 is rejected. The conclusion is, there are differences
between before and after the park exists.
c. Scale of Activity
83
Figure 4.1 Percentage of Residence, estimation distance and estimation of time
Of bar graph above, it appears that the respondents in Malang City who use the park is
dominated by the residents reside near the park location. Amounted to 46,9% respondents
come from the same village with the park, and if calculated with the respondents from the
same RT/RW and sub district suggests number 81.2%. This suggests that the respondents of
park user are mostly residing near the park.
Of distance and time taken with the residence also suggests the same respect. More than 90%
respondents reside 1-5 km from park with time travelled up to 20 minutes. From residence
origin, distance and time travelled of the respondents can be concluded that the park users are
the residents at the vicinity of the park. The scale of activity is residents at the vicinity of the
park (local residents).
c. Number of Misuse
Table 4.3. Wilcoxon Test for Number of misuse
There is an abuse action against this location After the
Park exist – There is an abuse action against this
location Before the Park exist
Z
-3.33 a
Asymp.Sig (2-tailed)
.739
a. Based on negative ranks
b. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test
H0: there are no differences between before and after. The value of Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
0.739 is more than 5%, therefore H0 is accepted. The conclusion is, there are no differences
between before and after the park exists.
Table 4.4. Wilcoxon Test for Level of abuse action
Security level of abuse action that ever occurred at this
location After the Park exist – Security level of abuse
action that ever occurred at this location Before the
Park exist
Z
-1.698 a
Asymp.Sig (2-tailed)
.090
a. Based on negative ranks
b. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test
H0: there are no differences between before and after. The value of Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
0.090 is more than 5%, therefore H0 is accepted. The conclusion is, there are no differences
between before and after the park exists.
e. Health
For health variable, any comfortable indicator, happiness, take exercise (sport) and
psychological health. For comfortable indicator, can be seen in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5. Wilcoxon Test for Comfortable Indicator
Feeling comfortable with this location After the Park
exist – Feeling comfortable with this location Before
the Park exist
84
Z
-4.209 a
Asymp.Sig (2-tailed)
.000
a. Based on negative ranks
b. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test
H0: there are no differences between before and after. The value of Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
0.000 is more than 5%, therefore the H0 is rejected. The conclusion is, there are differences
between before and after the park exists.
Happiness
Table 4.6. Wilcoxon Test for Happiness Indicator
Feeling happier with this location After the Park exist –
Feeling happier with this location Before the Park exist
Z
-4.939 a
Asymp.Sig (2-tailed)
.000
a. Based on negative ranks
b. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test
H0: there are no differences between before and after. The value of Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
0.000 is more than 5%, therefore the H0 is rejected. The conclusion is, there are differences
between before and after the park exists.
Take exercise (sport)
Table 4.7. Wilcoxon Test for Sport Indicator
Majority of people uses this location to exercise After
the Park exist – Majority of people uses this location to
exercise Before the Park exist
Z
-.590 a
Asymp.Sig (2-tailed)
.555
a. Based on negative ranks
b. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test
H0: there are no differences between before and after. The value of Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
0.555 is more than 5%, therefore the H0 is accepted. The conclusion is, there are no
differences between before and after the park exists.
Psychological health
This location After the Park exist affects the
psychological health – This location Before the Park
exist affects the psychological health
Z
-7.380 a
Asymp.Sig (2-tailed)
.000
a. Based on negative ranks
b. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test
H0: there are no differences between before and after. The value of Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
0.000 is less than 5%, therefore the H0 is rejected. The conclusion is, there are differences
between before and after the park exist.
85
2. Conversion from RTH into Non RTH
a. Type of activity
Table 4.8. Wilcoxon Test for Type of activity
Number of activities performed in this location After
the Mall exist – Number of activities performed in this
location Before the mall exist
Z
-2.653 a
Asymp.Sig (2-tailed)
.008
H0: there are no differences between before and after. The value of Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
0.08 is nore than 5%, therefore the H0 is accepted. The conclusion is, there are no differences
between before and after the mall exist.
b.Actors of activity
Table 4.9. Wilcoxon Test for Actors of activity
Number of people visiting this location together After
the mall exist – Number of people visiting this location
together Before the mall exist
Z
-2.21 a
Asymp.Sig (2-tailed)
.833
a. Based on negative ranks
b. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test
H0: there are no differences between before and after. The value of Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
0.833 is more than 5%, therefore the H0 is accepted. The conclusion, there are no differences
between before and after the park exist.
c. Scale of activity
86
Figure 4.2 Percentage of Residence, estimation distance and estimation of time
Of bar graph above, it appears that the respondents in Malang City who use the ex-park is
dominated by the residents in town. Amounted to 54 % respondents come from town.
Of distance and time taken with the residence also suggests the same respect. More than 90%
respondents reside 1-5 km from ex-park with time travelled up to 10-15 minutes. The scale of
activity is residents at the town.
d.Number of Missue
Table 4.10. Wilcoxon Test for Number of Missue
There are abuse action against this location After the
mall exist – There are abuse action against this
location Before the mall exist
Z
-.000a
Asymp.Sig (2-tailed)
1.000
a. Based on negative ranks
b. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test
87
H0: there are no differences between before and after. The value of Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
1.000 is more than 5%, therefore the H0 is accepted. The conclusion is, there are no
differences between before and after the mall exist.
Table 4.11. Wilcoxon Test for Level security of abuse action
The level security of abuse action that ever emerged at
this location After the mall exist – Level security of
abuse action that ever emerged at this location Before
the mall exist
Z
-.277a
Asymp.Sig (2-tailed)
.782
a. Based on negative ranks
b. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test
H0: there are no differences between before and after. The value of Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
0.782 is more than 5%, therefore H0 is accepted. The conclusion is, there are no differences
between before and after the mall exist.
e. Health Comfortable
Table 4.11. Wilcoxon Test for Comfortable Indicator
Feeling comfortable with this location After the Mall
exist – Feeling comfortable with this location Before
the Mall exist
Z
-.-1.020
Asymp.Sig (2-tailed)
.308
a. Based on negative ranks
b. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test
H0: there are no differences between before and after. The value of Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
0.308 is more than 5%, therefore the H0 is accepted. Conclusion is, there are no differences
between before and after the mall exist.
Happiness
Table 4.12. Wilcoxon Test for Happiness Indicator
Feeling happier with this location After the Mall exist –
Feeling happier with this location Before the Mall exist
Z
-.537a
Asymp.Sig (2-tailed)
.592
a. Based on negative ranks
b. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test
H0: there are no differences between before and after. The value of Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
0.592 is more than 5%, therefore H0 is accepted. Conclusion is, there are no differences
between before and after the mall exist.
Take exercise (sport)
Table 4.13. Wilcoxon Test for Sport Indicator
Majority of people use this location to exercise After
the Mall exist – Majority of people use this location to
88
exercise Before the Mall exist.
Z
-5.099a
.000
Asymp.Sig (2-tailed)
a. Based on negative ranks
b. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test
H0: there are no differences between before and after. The value of Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
0.000 is less than 5%, therefore the H0 is accepted. The conclusion is, there are differences
between before and after the mall exist.
Table 4.14. Wilcoxon Test for Psychological Health
This location After the Mall exist affects psychological
health – This location Before the Mall exist affects the
psychological health
Z
-.505a
Asymp.Sig (2-tailed)
.614
a. Based on negative ranks
b. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test
H0: there are no differences between before and after. The value of Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
0.614 is more than 5%, therefore the H0 is accepted. The conclusion is, there are no
differences between before and after the mall exists.
Results recapitulation from this study
Table 4.15. Results recapitulation from this study
Variable
Conversion from RTH Conversion from Non RTH
into Non RTH (before into RTH (before and after)
and after)
Type of Activity
No differences
Any differences
Actors of activity
No differences
Any differences
Scale of activity
Town scale
Local scale
Number of missue
No differences
No differences
Health
Happiness
No differences
Any differences
Sport
Any differences
No differences
Psychological Health
No differences
Any differences
4. CONCLUSION
 For social perception, conversion from RTH into Non RTH (before and after) have
impact to health, especially sport (take exercise). Neverthless for type of activity,
actors, happiness, and pyschological health no have impact for the case. Scale of
activity form this case is become town scale.
 For social perception, conversion from Non RTH into RTH (before and after) have
impact to health, especially sport (take exercise). Type of activity, actors, happiness,
and pyschological health also have impact for the case. Scale of activity form this
case is become local scale.
89
5. REFERENCES
Arwanda Afri.2007. Kebijakan Pemerintah Kota Malang Dalam Pembangunan Mal Olympic
Garden (MOG). Thesis, Tidak diterbitkan
Dinas Kebersihan dan Pertamanan Kota Malang .2012. Dokumen Laporan Akhir Masterplan
Ruang Terbuka Hijau Kota Malang
Regional Public Health.2010.Healthy Open Spaces: A summary of the impact of open spaces
on health and wellbeing, Regional Public Health Information Paper March 2010,
Lower Hutt.
Siahaan, James. 2010. Ruang Publik: Antara Harapan dan Kenyataan. Buletin Penataan
Ruang edisi 4c;16
Woolley, Helen.2003. Urban Open Space. USA and Canada: Spon Press
Website
Jelajahmalangku.blogspot.com diakses pada tanggal 15 September 2014
http://s1204.photobucket.com/user/smg820/media/project/100_9163copy.jpg.htmldan
maps.google.com diakses 17 september 2014
90
Water Pumping System (WPS) For Supporting Community Activities And
Infrastructure Sustainability
(Case of Baron and Ngobaran, Gunung Kidul, DIY)
Bima Setya Nugraha, SH., M.Sc(Cand).
Lana Prihanti Putri, BIB.
Management Infrastructure and Community Development
Graduate School of Gadjah Mada University
ABSTRACT :
The study was conducted in two infrastructure WPS Baron and Ngobaran. The infrastucture
development of WPS project is intended to provide access to a better clean water especially in
Gunung Kidul.
The purpose of this study was to identify the factors that lead to differences in community
development between the two places, Baron and Ngobaran area, especially in the economic aspect.
This study uses the Livelihoods Impact Assessment for assessing the diverse positive and negative
impact on both area that different types of tourism can have on people‘s asset base, portfolio of
diverse activities, specific outcomes which they seek, and their influence over organisations. The
research began with a study of the infrastructure development plan outlines WPS as an entry point for
community empowerment model analysis. Then, be assessed by the performance of the project if it
able to get a good public accessibility. A focus on livelihoods offers a useful perspective on tourism
for enhancing local benefits.
The impact of the event is to identify the response and adaptation of society and the resulting residue
associated with the sustainability of infrastructure development programs. This has implications for
policy-makers, tourism planners, communities, business and NGOs.
Key Words: water pumping system, livelihoods impact assessment or sustainable livelihoods‘
framework, in- depth interviews, focus group discussion.
1. INTRODUCTION
Water is a natural resource that has a vital function for the life of the living creatures on earth.
Water also needs to be protected in order to be beneficial for human life and other living
organisms. Therefore, water has a very strategic role and should remain available and
sustainable, so as to support of life and implementation the development in the present and in
the future. Without water, life would not be viable
The purpose of the water supply system is to provide a sufficient amount of water for the
needs of the community in accordance with the level of progress and development of an area.
The water requirement for each activity can vary among others the provision of water for
domestic needs, the needs of industry, commerce and the need for non-domestic
(Soemarwoto, 1991). To meet the need for clean water in rural areas often the community use
wells and river water around the settlement and utilize the services of the Regional Owned
Water Company. Agency is then tasked to prepare and distribute clean water to the
community as a consumer, but sometimes taps are often constrained by both technical and
cost. This is due to a lack of raw water quality, quantity, continuity and production capacity
and the high cost of piping network if necessary to go to remote areas.
91
This project pattern attachment with the concept of empowerment and community
development is very strong. In rural areas where people still embrace togetherness then an
infrastructure must also be concerned with this. This is what makes it interesting to study.
How an infrastructure that has the new technology should be able to side with local
communities to ensure public accessibility to clean water. How did the pattern of response
and participation of the community in order to achieve an appropriate infrastructure principle
of sustainable development. This study is expected to answer all questions related to this
project related to Community Development especially in economic impact. The economic
impact is supported by the baron and Ngobaran condition as a tourist area.
The tourism industry in Indonesia, especially Special Region of Yogjakarta (DIY) is growing
and therefore not only provides growth opportunities for existing tourism enterprises, but also
for the establishment of new tourism ventures, included micro small medium tourism
entreprises (MSMTE). Developing countries have diversereasons to use tourism as a strategy
towards development. Developing countries have been using tourism to generate highly
sought after foreign exchange to handle the problems of trade imbalance many of them are
facing. In macro level reasons are to achieve international status, using tourism as a
mechanism for co-integrating and unifying countries that have multi-ethnic population.
In micro level reasons, growth in the tourism industry will facilitate job creation and increase
their income, which are much needed in Indonesia. We know that in the last three decades,
Yogyakarta has grown rapidly as a tourist center and became the third most visited
destination by international travellers in Indonesia (after Jakarta and Bali).
Traditionally, Baron and Ngobaran, both have beach as tourist destination in the southern part
of the Gunung Kidul Regency, Yogyakarta. The potential tourism products of both Baron and
Ngobaran are the beach or sands and water as a tourist (domestic) destination and for
supporting tourism there are many kind of traditionally handycraft as a souvenir. On other
hand, for supporting destination, there are many stalls or kiosks which delivering traditional
foods and drink. However, Baron has a specific attraction such as under ground river
attraction (floating tires) and Ngobaran also has specific tourism attraction such as Hinduism
ritual place.
The purpose of this study was to identify the factors that lead to differ the community
development between the two places, the Baron WPS area and Ngobaran WPS area such as:
- institutional arrangements (Institutional rules, human resources, and finance),
- delivery mechanism (efficiency, effectiveness, and equity ) effects,
- response, and
- adaptation.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Population Livelihoods
Based on Gunung Kidul in figures (2013), the growth rate of the labor force and rapid
employment growth is relatively slow causing the unemployment problem in the region.
92
Unemployment in Gunung Kidul still be a problem that needs to be resolved. In this
discussion the working age population (labor force) is defined as the population aged 15
years and above. Working age population and labor Force comprising „Not Work Force‟. The
population included in the labor force is the population working or looking for work, while
the not labor force are those going to school, taking care of household or doing other
activities.
Based on Social, Manpower and Transmigration Services of Gunungkidul Regency, number
of New Registered Job Seekers 2012 in Gunungkidul Regency were 3,840 persons or 35,35
Percents increased as compared to 2011. In 2009, the agricultural sector is a sector that
absorbs most of the labor, which reached 51.76%. The open unemployment rate in 2009 was
4.81% up from the year 2008 level of 3.29%. Decrease in unemployment rate in 2008
compared to 2007 is absorbed by the industry was the processing sector, the trade, hotels and
restaurants.
Percentage of Population Aged 15 Years and Older who work less than 35 hours a week in
Gunung Kidul Year 2008 was 30.73% decline in 2009, amounted to 21.22%. While the
working population in 2009 according to the status on their own (6.48%), trying to workers
not fixed (39.10%), attempted to permanent workers (1.15%), labor / employee / employees
(24.22 %), and unpaid workers (29.06%). Based on these data, illustrates that state workers
are on their own without the help of others (independent) is relatively small compared to
workers who become non-permanent workers and workers who are not paid.
The percentage of people who are actively involved in the world of work and in need of work
can be seen from the Labor Force Participation Rate (LFPR). LFPR Gunung Kidul period
2004 to 2009 shows a decreasing trend. LFPR Gunung Kidul In 2004 was 79.85, dropped to
74.42 in 2009. LFPR are decline during this period showed a reduced number of working-age
population belonging to the labor force because they choose to continue their education, the
household, and other activities.
Largest employment in Gunung Kidul district until 2009 was dominated by the agricultural
sector (61.87%). Employment in the trade, hotels and restaurants reached 12.30%, while the
service sector and manufacturing sector respectively absorb employment for 10.06% and
3.38%.
93
Figure 1 Administrative Map of Gunung Kidul District
Source: RPJMD Gunung Kidul, 2010
Local Economy
The success of economic development of a region can be reflected from a few macro
indicators. One of the macro indicators are used to seeing the success of development is the
Gross Regional Domestic Product (GRDP). Figures GDP at current prices in 2008, Gunung
Kidul district is Rp. 5.50 trillion, which shows the increase of 12.93 percent over the previous
year. Whereas in 2009, the GDP figures at current prices stood at Rp 5.98 trillion in Gunung
Kidul district. Compared with the previous year, the GDP figures increased by 8.72 per cent
(Source: BPS district. Gunung Kidul). Based on GDP figures at constant prices in 2000, the
economy in Gunung Kidul also experienced positive growth, namely 3.07 trillion in 2008 and
3.19 trillion in 2009.
Judging from the structure of the economy, suggesting that the major contributor to the
economy in Gunung Kidul district during the period 2005 - 2009 was dominated by the
agricultural sector, followed by the services sector, trade, and manufacturing. In 2009 the
sector contributed four each at 35.82 percent, 16.954 percent, 14.87 percent and 9.18 percent.
The agricultural sector, as the largest contributor to the economy Gunung Kidul district,
apparently during the period 2005-2009, amounting contributions tend to fluctuate; 35.40
percent, 35.39 percent, 35.54 percent, 34.03 percent, 35.07 percent and 35,82 percent. Based
on the above data, if the economy grows naturally the manufacturing sector, the trade, hotels
and restaurants as well as the service sector will grow faster than the agricultural sector is
resourced-based economic.
94
Water Pumping System
The purpose of the water supply system is to provide a sufficient amount of water for the
needs of the community in accordance with the level of progress and development of an area.
The water requirement for each activity can vary among others the provision of water for
domestic needs, the needs of industry, commerce and the need for non-domestic
(Soemarwoto, 1991). To meet the need for clean water in rural areas often the community use
wells and river water around the settlement and utilize the services of the Regional Owned
Water Company. Agency is then tasked to prepare and distribute clean water to the
community as a consumer, but sometimes taps are often constrained by both technical and
cost. This is due to a lack of raw water quality, quantity, continuity and production capacity
and the high cost of piping network if necessary to go to remote areas.
a. Physical Condition
Water treatment in WPS Baron does not use chemicals to clear up but using slow sand
filtration system. WPS Baron and also be connected with the WPS Ngobaran is now serving
6,400 SR.
Availability of underground water in Gunung Kidul by RPJMD Gunung Kidul, among
others:
a. Sub System Baron with water discharge 4000 liters / sec.
b. Sub System Bribin with water discharge 800 liters / sec.
c. Sub System Seropan with water discharge 1200 liters / sec.
d. Sub System Ngobaran with water discharge 120 liters / sec.
b. Capacity
Four districts in Gunung Kidul, Yogyakarta namely Tanjungsari district, Paliyan district,
Panggang district, and Saptosari district, now enjoying piped water. Through the Water
Supply System (WPS) Baron built by the Japanese government grants valued at Rp78, 89
billion and Rp 7 billion budget DIY capable of serving 19,000 residential connections with a
capacity of 100 liters per second. The first phase of the new 7,400 house connections enjoyed
by the rate charged by Rp3.700 per cubic meter.
c. Function
Process water seepage is very high in the ground karst, resulting surface water cannot be
accommodated properly and cause an imbalance between water demand with the availability
of water (White, WB, and White, EL, 1989). Hence this imbalance causes water shortage in
the Baron and Ngobaran in Paliyan District, PAnggang District, Saptosari District,
Tanjungsari District, in Gunung Kidul regency. To overcome the water shortage was the
development of water resources (Koesnadi 2005 and Act 7, 2004), the use of underground
river. Water brought to the surface using solar power or diesel power. Then accommodated in
the main reservoir. Then divided according to the needs of some of the secondary reservoir
close to the people directly.
95
3. RESEARCH METHOD
The study was conducted in the Southern part of the Gunung Kidul regency are both running
water from two infrastructure WPS Baron and WPS Ngobaran (Paliyan District, Panggang
District, Saptosari District, Tanjungsari District). The action research began with a study of
the infrastructure development plan outlines water pumping system as an entry point for
community empowerment model analysis. After that, then be assessed by the performance of
the project if it‟s able to get a good public accessibility.
A focus on livelihoods offers a useful perspective on tourism for enhancing local benefits, for
example, maximising potential benefits for the poor. It also provides a set of tools that go
beyond the narrow assessment of local benefits focussing only on job creation and cash
income. Tourisms‟ contribution to livelihoods can be enhanced by adjusting decisions on
what is developed and how, in ways that reflect people‟s livelihood priorities.
4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
WPS Baron and Ngobaran are under the management of PDAM Gunung Kidul regency. In
the context of institutional arrangements are always required reasoning or rationalization in
relation to the provision of clean water for the community Ngobaran Baron and regulations
contained in the enterprises, whether in relation to classes of customers, each tariffs m3, or
other regulations. But actually when compared with conditions in some areas the coverage
area of PDAM Gunung Kidul Regency, their economic conditions are still under public
Wonosari or other urban areas. Therefore, the condition of Baron and Ngobaran WPS total
expenditures have more than the total revenue of the customer.
Based on interviews with the Head of Unit PDAM Baron, noted that the costs charged to the
public installation to be especially high in the amount of Rp. 1.500.000, - so that the poor
cannot pay the fee. The reason why the cost is pegged to follow the installation costs of
PDAM Tirta Handayani Gunung Kidul Regency. The fee includes the cost of procurement of
pipes and water meter. If people feel the weight they could pay the fee together with other
people thus the burden of financing can be lighter. In accordance with article www.ampl.or.id
mention that the Director General of Human Settlements Department of Public Works Budi
Yowono already tried that the banks could disburse loans. Although only hundreds of
thousands rupiah, the cost of installing the installation can be burdensome to some residents.
If that bias is realized it will increasingly make public benefit because of high installation
costs can be repaid earlier.
In addition, the system is built to distribute water piping network standard, but not matched
by the number and density of people living in areas of high, medium and lower, so the cost
becomes relatively large. In 2009, Baron and Ngobaran WPS actually can flow through
19,000 SR but only 7,400 SR can be installed. This is because the budget costs that must be
borne by the installation of PDAM is not enough when used to supplement pipeline.
Especially pipes are sized from medium-sized to large-sized. In addition, with the contour of
the area are hilly, so that if additional reservoirs and generators are built will not be optimal
96
because the population density is sparse, thus requiring a long pipeline. Currently in addition
household connection PDAM, people can rely on local government funds and the surplus
from other UPT, which are in the scope of PDAM Tirta Handayani in Gunung Kidul.
The conditions that are not optimal is also demonstrated by the equity aspect or aspects of
justice, first because of the extent of the water is not evenly distributed, especially in high
level areas caused by the rise of water pumping capabilities are limited. Then the financing
issue, subscription costs are relatively high (Rp3500 / 10m2) where the poor do not get
special treatment so that poor people cannot afford to subscribe or pay the fee. According to
Mr. Wasno, chief of RT 01, Rejosari Kemadang village, said that they rely on the generosity
of neighbors who are more capable to subscribe WPS water or some still rely on rainwater.
Although in the RT (about 20+ heads of household) that were categorized as less capable are
no more than 3-4 families. So the real condition of this WPS system still leaves the problem
of injustice, or it can be said that this program is less pro poor groups.
WPS project, both in Baron and Ngobaran is very useful by all parties. Indicated growth of
this project towards a positive direction. In the past, although most of the time used to work,
but most of the time was also used to search for water. Now they have more time which can
be used for work or add other types of work to increase the income and improve the welfare
of society. South Beach area of Gunung Kidul is mostly farmers but along with the increased
availability of water is also kind of jobs are available, for example, be a breeder. In addition it
also grows peyek craftsmen and shells craftsmen, as well as other work related directly and
indirectly to the beach attractions as tourist attraction.
This shifting or leaping has been greatly influenced by the transformation of both the
economically and socially as one of the impacts of the construction of the Baron and
Ngobaran Water Pumping System, Gunung Kidul, Yogyakarta. Transformation is commonly
supposed to be natural, that is, from an agricultural economic structure of the economy
through manufacturing, and then to a service economy (Schultz, 1976 and Joyohadikusumo,
S. 1994) by a transformation as it happens direct from the agricultural sector to services can
result in social problem. Social problem or inequality that arises is the inability of people
entering the labor market in the formal and professional tourism.
For example: there were 3000 women who originally activities everyday looking for water,
with the construction of the WPS and resulted in the availability of water, then they switch
their activities to non-formal activities provide processed foods fried (such as, jingking, small
shrimp, seaweed) and craftsmen of shells.
For the reason that they do not have the education and professional skills for entering the
labor market of tourism. Poverty analyses have shown that people‟s ability to escape from
poverty is critically dependent on their access to assets (Booth et al., 1998). Assets or capital
endowments such as: physical capital; financial assets; natural capital; social capital, and
human capital. Both quality and quantity of assets matter, along with the options to convert
assets into productive activities. They sell the product not just to Baron/Ngobaran beach, but
also to other destination such as: beach of Parang Tritis and Depok, Bantul regency,
Yogyakarta.
97
Livelihood activities: what people do? Poor people usually pursue a diverse portfolio of
activities, including on-farm activities, off-farm activities and migration. Baron and
Ngobaran Society mostly have agrarian backgrounds (95%). Additional jobs outside the
agricultural sector is sometimes considered a part-time job (moon-light) for increasing the
household income. They have to adapt to the situation for answering the challenge of social
and economic change. Outcomes: components of improved livelihoods or well-being such as,
good health, more income, reduced vulnerability, empowerment, food security, and more
sustainable use of the natural resource base. Actually, there are three outcomes: short-term,
medium-term and long-term outcome. These are what people are trying to achieve through
their activities.
Institutions, organizations and policies that affect the assets and opportunities that are
available, and their productivity such as government policy, formal organizations (farmers‟,
groups, local authority) and informal institutions, which include societal rules and norms
(market networks, billing systems, discrimination) and access to markets.
- Business Owned by Local Government: PDAM
- Neighbourhood (formal) & local authority
- Groups (informal)
- Discrimination price (household, mosque, school, business)
5. CONCLUSION
The impact of this WPS development, is the people get water at a low price and get to the
house. Respond to the existence of the community is very supportive of this project.
Community adaptation in the face of price SR connection is realized by collaboration. One
SR is used for 2 houses. A sense of belonging is realized by means of "gotong royong" to
help PDAM.
It can be concluded that the construction of WPS on Baron beach has a significant influence
on the development of public revenue, which is triggered by the development of tourism in
the region and Ngobaran, Baron. For the Baron region, with the clean water supply that never
runs out makes entrepreneurs, restaurant, stalls, toilets and other existing businesses become
more comfortable and there are significant increase in revenue. Furthermore, community and
tourists more comfortable being on the beach Baron because they can clean themselves after
playing on the beach and have a sense of security to the availability of clean freshwater.
Opportunities of this SPAM is, that the people in the district of Gunung Kidul, especially
Baron and Ngobaran can be separated from the drought that hit several regions each year.
With the availability of water all the time, economic growth can be maximized.
6. REFERENCES
Denzin, NK. 1978. The Research Act: A Theoretical Introduction in Sociological Methods.
McGraw-Hills. New York.
98
Gunung Kidul Regency in Figures, 2012 - 2013
Indonesian republican government regulations No. 16 of 2005 the development of water
supply systems
Kamulyan, B. 2003. Diktat Bahan Kuliah Kebutuhan Air, Program MPSA Jurusan Teknik
Sipil Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta
Lumintang, Onnie M, 1996, Dampak Industri Pariwisata terhadap Kehidupan Sosial Ekonomi
Masyarakat Kabupaten Daerah Tingkat II Jayapura (1962- 1994), Tesis, Universitas
Indonesia Jakarta
Miles, MB dan AM Huberman. Qualitative Data Analysis: A Sourcebook of New Methods.
SAGE. Beverly Hills.
Moleong, LJ. 1989. Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif. Remaja Rosdakarya. Bandung.
Patton, MQ. 1990. Qualitative Evaluation Methods. SAGE. Beverly Hills.
Prasetya, A.R. 2000. Kursus Singkat Sistem Sumber Daya Air dalam Otonomi Daerah, Buku
2, Fakultas Teknik Sipil, UGM, Yogyakarta
RPJMD Kabupaten Gunung Kidul 2010 - 2015 16
Sechan, E. 1977. Fundamentals of Hydrology. Geographic Published. Institude des
Kijksuriversal, Ultreech.
Sitorus, MTF. 1998. Penelitian Kualitatif: Suatu Perkenalan. Dokis. Bogor.
Strauss, Anselm; Corbin Julie.1990. Basic of Qualitative Research, Techniques and
procedures for Developing Grounded Theory. Sage Publications. International
Soemarwoto, Otto. 1991. Indonesia dalam kancah isu lingkungan global. Gramedia Pustaka
Utama, Jakarta
Taylor, SJ dan R Bogdan. 1984. Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods: The
Searchfor Meanings, Second Edition. John Wiley and Sons. Toronto.
Triyatna. 1999. Kajian Pembangunan Air Bersih Kotamadya Daerah Tingkat II Surakarta.
Tesis. Program MPKD Jurusan Arsitektur Fakultas Teknik UGM, Yogyakarta
99
Effect of Approaches for Changes of Citizen Attitude Towards Solid Waste
Landfill and Incinerators
B. Rahardyan*, and T. Matsuto**
*Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering Institut Teknologi Bandung
**Graduate Schoool of Engineering, Hokkaido University
ABSTRACT :
Citizens oppositions occurs in many cities and sometimes inhibits Solid Waste Management.
Understanding citizens‘ motivation about positive aspect of SWM facility is needed. Personal and
group motive should be explored. Survey to citizen of Kushiro City and Muroran City has been
carried out. Questions about satisfaction of information disclosure were asked. Some respondents
were surveyed before and after facility tour. Before visiting an incinerator or landfill, questionnaire
sheet was handed to every participant, and asked about concern and attitude The same questions
were asked just after the tour again. Findings about satisfaction about information disclosure
emphasized the importance of transparency in increasing acceptability of SWM facility. Transparency
especially in the early process of planning is important for increasing acceptability of SWM facility.
Delay of information disclosure can increase opposition towards facilities. Giving experience to
citizen could reduce concerns and attitudes. Provision stimulus which favors citizens may lead an
attitude changes to be favored. Therefore provision service or benefit of facility which the same as
expected by citizen will give better effect in increasing acceptability of facility.
Keywords : attitude, iformation disclosure, visiting facility, improvement
1. INTRODUCTION
Attitudes can be formed by many situations in life, and they are constantly evolving to
accommodate new information. Attitudes change when a person receives information from
others. This is known as cognitive change. The attitude is formed also through direct
experience with the attitude object-known as affective change (Traindis, 1971). In the
previous chapters, concerns and image were related to attitude to SWMF. Although people
with strong opposing attitude showed different results, or unclear relations, good correlation
were found between concerns/image and attitude. Therefore some activity to improve
concerns/image is expected to have positive effect to reduce opposition.
It can be done by risk communication with appropriate information or data on SWMF. Brief
explanation of SWMF with colored photos had no or little effect on concerns as well as
attitude. Documented form of information will be effective only when they are used
additionally in public meeting. From citizens‟ point of view, information should be disclosed
clearly in understandable way at an early stage of facility planning (Ishizaka, 2003). Citizen
was found aware of uncertainties and potential bias of information provided (Trimble,
1988). Improvement of public relation is suggested to overcome public reaction in siting
waste management facilities (Petts, 1992). Provision balance information can lead to more
deliberative responses (McComas, 1999). Some citizens were found have willingness to
spend extra time to read information and may use it when they are forming their opinions on
difficult issues such as waste management (McComas, 1999).
100
If people received unbiased information, the attitude may change from NIMBY to an attitude
of “we need waste management facilities in this country” (Trimble, 1988). Providing citizen
with relevant information in a preferred way is suggested can improve risk communication in
lowering level of concern and change attitude (Groothuis, 1997). In the case of risk
communication about space exploration, by public involvement, after receiving information
public were more supportive to the discussed program (Arvai, 2003). Recipients of
information were more certain of their opinions and generally more positive toward the waste
management option (McComas, 1999).
Experiential is one of the sources of information (Bush, 2001). Beside general information
disclosure, invitation to visit SWM facility is expected can provide citizen real references
about SWM facility. It could provide honest and clear communication which is needed for
increasing acceptability of facility (Trimble, 1988).
Empirical experience show that visiting facility was a good option for dealing with citizen
concerns. In 1995 The Delaware County Solid Waste Authority created an open-door policy
with residents, allowing them to see all reports and visit landfill facility at any time. As the
result a lot of trust has been built up between SWM authority and residents. This result is
correspond with experience of Pioneer Crossing Landfill which made open house for
community in late 2000. In by opening the landfill facility they gave the people a firsthand
opportunity to see the landfill and got most insightful comments. This activity supported
they effort in gaining landfill expansion permit (Stahl, 2003). Evaluation to visitors of
Sellafield‟s British Nuclear Fuel visitor centre proved that visiting facility could increase
relevant knowledge (Lee, 1995). Visiting SWMF can be effective to know the facility with
guidance given by operators. This is considered the most concentrated information.
Understanding citizens‟ motivation about positive aspect of SWM facility is needed. Personal
and group motive should be explored however this study only account individual motives and
take the average for describing motive of the group.
2. METHOD
Following a research about citizens perceptions (Rahardyan, 2004) a survey were conducted
to citizen of Kushiro City and Muroran City. Questions about satisfaction of information
disclosure were asked. These questions consist of two parts: release time of information
disclosure and the other is way of information disclosure. Other surveys were also carried out
before and after facility tour. Before visiting an incinerator or landfill, questionnaire sheet
was handed to every participant, and asked about concern and attitude The same questions
were asked just after the tour again.
101
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Information Disclosure and Satisfaction
Importance of issues
Weights of facility v.s. management aspect, and weights for information disclosure are shown
in Table 1 Weights given by citizens were opposite between Kushiro and Muroran, i.e.
citizen of Kushiro gave higher weight on facility aspect and timing of information disclosure.
This is possibly because the questions were asked at the stage of planning in Kushiro.
Without having actual facility operated, citizen are more concerned about pollution by the
facility, and had little idea on the method of information disclosure.
Table 1 Weight given by AHP comparison
SWM Stakeholders
Citizen
Facility Management
Siting
Operation
Muroran (69)
0.44
0.56
0.44
0.56
Kushiro (28)
0.55
0.45
0.65
0.35
Government Muroran (8)
0.57
0.43
0.45
0.55
Kushiro (13)
0.51
0.49
0.38
0.62
Expert (74)
0.46
0.54
0.46
0.54
Expert
Satisfaction towards information disclosures
Satisfaction rates concerning on information disclosure are shown in Figure 7-1. As for
timing, the rates given by experts are the ones the author expected: satisfaction rate decrease
as the timing of information release becomes late. However citizen are not satisfied even
when “information was disclosed before siting”, and there are little difference between the
three cases. This result shows the huge gap between “theory” and “reality.” The large
difference in perception between local government and citizen will lead common difficulty in
planning process of new facility. Similar difference between local government, experts, and
citizens are found for method, and there are little difference among four options.
102
5.0
5.0
3.0
Rate of Concern
1.0
-1.0
-3.0
1.0
-1.0
-3.0
Government
Muroran (9)
Government
Kushiro (15)
Expert (96)
Timing
Ellectronic
pollution
indicator
Leaflet/bulletin
Just before
construction
After siting
Before siting
-5.0
Information
desk
University
Student (43)
-5.0
-
Citizen Kushiro
(52)
University
Student (43)
Internet
homepage
Rate of Concern
3.0
Citizen Muroran
(114)
Citizen
Muroran (114)
Citizen
Kushiro (52)
Government
Muroran (9)
Government
Kushiro (15)
Expert (96)
Method
Rate of satisfaction: Strongly satisfied (5), Satisfied (3), Slightly satisfied (1), Slightly
unsatisfied (-1), Unsatisfied (-3),
Strongly unsatisfied (-5)
Figure 1 Satisfaction towards information disclosures
Correlation with attitudes towards SWM facilities
Satisfaction rates are compared by the attitude to SWMF. Opposed citizen was defined as
peoples who are strongly opposed or absolutely opposed in 5 scales. As shown in Figure 2,
their satisfaction are much lower than the other group. Figure 3 presents another view of
correlation between satisfaction and attitude for timing.
-1.0
-3.0
Electronic pollution
indicator
Information desk
Internet homepage
After siting
Before siting
Regular paper based
information
Ordinary (Incinerator) n = 110
Opposed Incinerator n = 48
-5.0
Just before construction
Satisfaction rate
1.0
Rate of satisfaction :
(5) Strongly satisfied , (3)
Satisfied, (1) Slightly satisfied,
(-1) Slightly unsatisfied, (-3)
Unsatisfied , (-5) Strongly
unsatisfied
Figure 2 Satisfaction of information disclosure from different attitudes citizens (Muroran and
Kushiro)
103
3.5
3.5
3.0
3.0
1.5
2.0
1.5
0.0
0.0
Before siting
After siting
Satisfied
Just before
constrution
Slight satisfied
n = 158
Strongly
unsatisfied
0.5
Unsatisfied
0.5
Slightly
unsatified
1.0
Slightly satisfied
1.0
n =158
a) Incinerator
Strongly
unsatisfied
2.0
2.5
Unsatisfied
2.5
Slight unsatified
Attitude value
4.0
Satisfied
Attitude value
4.0
b) Landfill
Attitude value : 0 = accept, 1 = slight oppose, 2 = oppose, 3 strongly oppose, 4 = absolutely
oppose
Figure 3 Satisfaction toward management of information disclosure and attitudes to SWM
facilities of citizen
Efect of Visiting SWM Facility
Change of concern level
In Figure 4, average rate of concerns, before and after SWMF tour, are plotted for each
group. Concern rate for every item was decreased by visiting facility. Interestingly, despite
of different level of concerns among groups before the tour, they tend to be “slightly
concerned” level after visited the facility, and the same levels were attained both for
incinerator and landfill. Only exception is the group of university students, i.e. concern
levels are higher than citizen even after the tour. This is probably due to higher level of
knowledge about problems related to solid waste management.
Nishi (25)before
Nishi (25)after
Higashi
(39)-before
Higashi
(39)-after
University
(43)-before
University
(43)-after
Fukuoka
(86)-before
Fukuoka
(86)-after
Rate of concern
3
2
1
0
Pollution Dioxin
Odor
Concern Items
Pest
a) Incinerator
View
Dest.
4
Universitybefore (43)
3
Rate of concern
4
Fukuokabefore (84)
2
Universityafter (43)
1
Fukuokaafter (84)
0
Pollution Dioxin
n = 193
Odor
Pest
Concern items
View
Dest.
n = 127
b) Landfill
104
Concern rate: Not concern at all (0), Slightly concerned (1), Concerned (2), Strongly
concerned (3), Absolutely concerned (4).
Figure 4 Rate of concern before and after visiting incinerator and landfill
To present more details of the effect of visiting facility, Figure 5 shows the shift of concern
level distribution for. In Figure 6, the change of concern levels are shown in pentagon
diagram, in which the area is diminished as concern levels are reduced. Remarkable shrink of
the pentagon are shown in all the region surveyed.
60%
60%
Before
After
Dioxin
50%
50%
40%
40%
30%
30%
20%
20%
Pest
10%
10%
View
Dest.
Pollution
Odor
0%
0%
Not
concerned
at all
Concerned
Degree of concern
Absolutely
concerned
Not
Concerned
Absolutely
concerned
concerned
at all
Degree of concern
Figure 5 Distribution of concern about SWM facility before and after visiting facilities
landfill
(Fukuoka, n = 84)
105
Higashi (n=39)
Nishi (n=25)
Pollution
4
Pollution
4
3
3
2
2
View Dest.
Dioxin
1
View Dest.
Dioxin
1
0
0
Pest
Pest
Odor
Odor
Fukuoka-Inc
(n=86)
Pollution
Before
4
University-Inc
Pollution
(n=43)
Before
4
Afer
3
3
2
View Dest.
Afer
2
Dioxin
1
View Dest.
Dioxin
1
0
0
Pest
Odor
Before
Pest
Odor
Before
Afer
Afer
Figure 6a Difference rate of concern about before and after visiting incinerator
Fukuoka-LF
(n=84)
University-LF
(n=83)
Pollution
4
3
3
2
2
View Dest.
Dioxin
1
View Dest.
0
Odor
Before
Dioxin
1
0
Pest
Pollution
4
Afer
Pest
Odor
Before
Afer
Figure 6b Difference rate of concern before and after visiting landfill
Concern rate: Not concern at all (0), Slightly concerned (1), Concerned (2), Strongly concerned
(3), Absolutely concerned (4).
106
Change of attitude
Opposition to SWMF was also decreased by visiting facility as shown in Figure 7a,
although the decrease was not so remarkable because opposition was not so strong even
before the tour. An example of distribution shift was given in Figure 7b.
3
80%
Before
Attitude value
2.5
Before
After
After
2
60%
1.5
40%
1
0.5
20%
0
Higashi
(39)
Nishi (25)
Fukuoka
(86)
Fukoka
(84)
a) Attitude value
Absolutely
opposed
Strongly
Opposed
Opposed
0 = accept, 1 = slightly opposed, 2 = opposed,
3 strongly opposed, 4 = absolutely opposed
Slightly
Opposed
Landfill
Accepted
0%
Incinerator
Attitude
(n
b) Distribution before and after visiting landfill
(Fukuoka (n = 84))
Figure 7 Attitude of citizen before and after visiting facility
In order to know how individual attitude was changed, attitude before and after visiting
facility are tabulated in Table 2, in which digits in each cell shows the number of person.
Shaded cell indicated that attitude was not changed. If people‟s attitude was improved by the
tour, he/she was counted in cells above shades, and counted in lower cell if attitude was
worsen. In Fukuoka, the ratio of strong oppose was higher than in Sapporo, but not a few
people jumped up two or three level. As a result, attitudes were converged to almost the same
level regardless of initial attitude (see Figure 7.
Relation with attribute
Respondents were grouped by age and gender, and the change of attitude were examined in
Figure 8. Both age and gender were identified as influential factor among personal attributes,
in which younger people and female showed higher concern. As seen in Figure 8, such
tendency were preserved even after visiting facility, and the difference between before and
after the tour are almost constant regardless with gender and age.
107
Table 2 Distribution of attitude change before and after visiting SWM Facilities (Higashi,
Nishi and Fukuoka)
Before visiting facility
slightly
Opposed
Strongly
opposed
opposed
1
11
1
4
Nishi (n = 23) Higashi (n=39)
Accepted
slightly opposed
Opposed
Strongly opposed
Absolutely opposed
19
Accepted
slightly opposed
Opposed
Strongly opposed
Absolutely opposed
14
Fukuoka-Inc
(n = 83)
Accepted
slightly opposed
Opposed
Strongly opposed
Absolutely opposed
23
Fukuoka-LF
(n = 79)
Accepted
slightly opposed
Opposed
Strongly opposed
Absolutely opposed
18
4
22
8
60-70s(46)before
2
20-30s (6)-after
40-50s (31)-after
1
60-70s(46)-after
Dioxin
View Dest.
Pest
Odor
Dioxin
Pollution
40-50s (31)before
3
0
a) Age
Concerned items
Concerned items
4
4
Male (37)-before
2
Male (37)-after
1
Degree of concern
3
Female (110)before
Female (110)after
3
Female (72)before
2
Male (10)-after
1
Female (72)after
Pest
View Dest.
b) Gender
Odor
0
Dioxin
View Dest.
Pest
Odor
Dioxin
Pollution
0
Concerned items
Male (10)-before
Landfill
Pollution
Incinerator
Degree of concern
1
4
1
20-30s (6)before
Landfill
60-70s (147)after
0
2
1
View Dest.
40-50s (54)-after
10
8
Pest
20-30s (6)-after
1
1
3
1
4
Degree of concern
60-70s (147)before
2
5
6
3
1
40-50s (54)before
3
1
1
19
18
3
20-30s (6)before
Incinerator
Degree of concern
4
3
Odor
4
Absolutely
opposed
1
Pollution
Incinerator
Landfill
After visiting facility
Accepted
Concerned items
Concern rate : Not concern at all (0), Slightly concerned (1), Concerned (2), Strongly
concerned (3, Absolutely concerned (4).
(Higashi, Nishi, Fukuoka, n = 143) and Landfill (Fukuoka, n = 86)
Figure 8 Concern changes of different personal attributes after visiting incinerator
108
Figure 9 Attitude changes of different personal attributes after visiting incinerator
Example of attitude change degree is depicted in Figure 9. It is found that 9% of attitude were
improved drastically while other 18% were significantly upgraded.
Influence of previous experience of visiting SWMF
Attitude was significantly improved by visiting SWMF. However, some people had already
visited SWMF before. To examine the past experience, attitude before the tour were
compared in Figure 10. It is found that citizen with experience in visiting facility are more in
favor or having lower opposition degree.
Concerns were compared in Figure 11, in which attitude after the tour were also plotted.
Concern level were slightly lower by past experience, but the effect looks smaller than ones
found in this research. It suggest that the effect of visiting SWMF will not last long, or will
reduce with time. Once again, the level after the tour were not different by past experience.
60%
60%
Visited
(83)
50%
40%
40%
See from
outside
(31)
30%
20%
%
%
Visited
(43)
50%
See from
outside
(30)
30%
20%
None (48)
Absolutely
opposed
b) Landfill
Strongly
opposed
Opposed
Accepted
a) Incinerator
Absolutely
opposed
Strongly
opposed
Opposed
0%
Slightly
opposed
0%
Accepted
10%
Slightly
opposed
None (78)
10%
Figure 7-9 Attitude distribution of citizen with different experience in visiting SWM facilities
(Fukuoka, n = 162)
109
4
From outside
(24)-before
3
None (39)-before
2
Visited (80)-after
From outside
(24)-after
1
Visited (27)before
Landfill
Degree of concern
Degree of concern
4
Visited (80)before
Incinerator
Seen from
outside (12)before
None (39)-before
3
2
Visited-after
1
Seen from
outside-after
None (39)-after
a) Incinerator (Higashi-Nishi-Fukuoka)
Pest
Odor
Pollution
View Dest.
Concerned items
None-after
0
Dioxin
View Dest.
Pest
Odor
Pollution
Dioxin
0
Concerned items
b) Landfill
(Fukuoka)
Concern rate : Not concern at all (1), Slightly concerned (2), Concerned (3), Strongly
concerned (4), Absolutely concerned (5).
Figure 10 Concern changes of different experience after visiting incinerator (Higashi, Nishi,
Fukuoka, n = 143) and Landfill (Fukuoka, n = 86)
4. CONCLUSION
Findings about satisfaction about information disclosure emphasized the importance of
transparency in increasing acceptability of SWM facility. Transparency especially in the
early process of planning is important for increasing acceptability of SWM facility. Delay of
information disclosure can increase opposition towards facilities. While maintaining recent
paper based information, improvement of communication method is important to reach the
aim of information disclosure.
Giving experience to citizen could reduce concerns and attitudes. The fact that concerns of
people with experience decreased also means that repeated active persuasive communication
could reduce concern and opposition.
Provision stimulus which favors citizens may lead an attitude changes to be favored.
Therefore provision service or benefit of facility which the same as expected by citizen will
give better effect in increasing acceptability of facility. However dealing with other concerns
is more important since provision benefit is perceived as not too important for absolutely
oppose citizen.
110
5. REFERENCE
Arvai, JL., 2003 Using risk communication to disclose the outcome of a participatory
decision-making process: effects on the perceived acceptability of risk-policy decisions,
Risk Analysis 23 (2) 281- 288
Bush, J., Moffact, S., Dunn, CE., 2001 Keeping the public informed? Public negotiation of
air quality information, Public Understanding Science 10, 213-229
Groothuis, PA., Miller, G., 1997. The role of social distrust in risk-benefit analysis: a study of
the siting of hazardous waste disposal facility, Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 15 241257
Lee, T., Balchin, N., 1995. Learning and attitude change at British nuclear fuel's Sellafield
Visitors Centre, J Environ Psychol 15 (4): 283-298
Ishizaka, K., Tanaka, M. Resolving public conflict in site selection process – a risk
communication approach, Waste management 23 385-296
McComas, KA, Scherer, CW., 1999 Providing Balance Risk Information in Survey uses as
citizen participation mechanisms, Society & Natural Resources 12 107-119
Petts, J., 1992. Incineration risk perceptions and public concerns: experience in the U.K.
improving risk communication, Waste Management & Research 10 169-182
Rahardyan,B., T.Matsuto,Y.Kakuta and N. Tanaka (2004) "Resident's Concern and Atittudes
Towards Solid Waste Management Facilities." Waste Management Journal Vol. 24. pp:
437-451)
Triandis, HC., 1971. Attitude and Attitude Change, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc142
Trimble, LC. 1988 What do citizens want in siting of waste management facilities?, Risk
Analysis, 8 (3) 375-377
111
Influence Identification Of Economy And Demographic Factors To Waste
Generation In West Java Indonesia
Alin Adlina1 and Benno Rahardyan2
Department of Environmental Engineering,
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering,Institut Teknologi Bandung,
Jalan Ganesha 10, 40132, Bandung, West Java, Indonesia
1
[email protected], [email protected]
ABSTRACT :
Society behaviors with their contemporary life style have large potential to augment the
environmental loads particularly the waste generation and discard. The factors identification related
to both loads can support the waste generation system planning. Based on the relationship of GDP
values as well the waste generation at Sukabumi Regency, Cianjur Regency, Bandung City, and
Bekasi City, shows the increase in GDP also increase the number of waste generation. Using cluster
analysis and discriminant analysis, it shows that GDP variable, consumption expenditures, and total
population give positive significant impact on the classification, the higher the variable the higher
waste generation is. Result of discriminant analysis is able to explain the variances of 85.9%
generation of cities/regencies in West Java. Cluster with high generation, has GDP of 32,999,000.00
million IDR on average, total population of 2,904,000 people, and consumption expenditure per
capita of 4,535,468.00 IDR on average. While the cluster with low waste generation, has GDP
6,685,000.00 million IDR on average, with average total population of 1,421,000 people and its
consumption expenditure per capita of 3,800,141.00 IDR.
Keywords: waste generation, GDP, consumption expenditure
1. INTRODUCTION
Developing countries have experienced the mobilization of mass population and high
urbanization level in last 50 years. With or without industrialization, the development
urbanization speed has reached 2 to 3 times faster than European countries (Kojima, 1996 :
349). The areas which experienced city‟s condition changes due to urbanization faced with
three problems i.e. poverty, high population growth, and the complication related to the
community life style. (Bai and Imura., 2000 on Yedia, 2003: 7)
Several people mentioned the influential factors of it. Contreas (2008 on Jha, 2011 : 124)
explained the city waste management system becomes a complex issue related to the changes
of people life style, high urbanization rate, and also the authority role which has not given
enough contribution. Sharholy (2007) elaborated that the raise of population, fast economic
growth and people‟s life style improvement will affect management of the waste to be
handled.
Khajuria (2010: 654) mentioned that the urbanization development rate and fast
industrialization caused waste generation in the developing countries. With the speedy
economic growth as well the life style, waste composition also estimated to be modified.
Meanwhile, looking to the reality in the developing countries, the waste collected without
categorizing and also processing facilities are limited in number, all these lead to
predicaments in the future. Burnley (2001, on Weng 2009: 1) stated the consumer behavior
112
comes from the contemporer life style has huge potential to aggravate environmental load
particularly the generation and waste discard.
Weng (2009:3) remarked according various studies knowing that the community life style
has association with the interrupted contemporary consumption pattern, which is set as one
significant factor which affect the environmental waste. By making a socio-economy model
system to manage the waste integrally and wholly, generation of waste can be estimated
according to the population economic growth and the applied policy intervention. This can
become the foundation of capacity planning from waste management facility system,
comprising the regulation ruling and the consumption pattern plan. Faramita (2007)
attempted to find that the domestic waste generation in Bandung is 10 times greater than the
waste generation value calculated from the GDP.
Weng (2009) modelledan integrated or holistic quantitative methodology for quantifying the
consumer‟s behavior and analyzing its impacts on MSW management system. Used
equations as follow:
a. Consumption forecasting model
Absolute Income Hypothesis, proposed by Keynes (1936), assumes the individual‟s
consumption level is only influenced by his/her current income level. Past consumption
pattern would not affect the current consumption behavior. Thus the relationship can be
formulated as:
Absolute Income Hypothesis:
.......................................(Equation1)
where α denotes the autonomous income, and α>0; β designates the marginal
propensity to consume (MPC), and 0< β <1; εt is the error term. (Weng, 2009)
b. MSW Discard Model
.....................................................................................(Equation4)
where
is the set of the amount of MSW fractions, Θ, in year t;
denotes the
vector of consumption variables comprising an individual‟s consumption expenditure
on a specific category or subcategory c in year t;
designates the vector of policy
variables including dummy or continuous variables; ω is the corresponding waste
conversion function.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
This study was conducted in West Java Province. It is located in the western part of the island
of Java and its capital and largest urban center is Bandung. This province consists different
type of regencies and cities. More industries are located in northern part of the province and
in Bandung areas while more agriculture activities in southern and eastern area of Bandung.
After literature review some secondary data i.e. environmental , economic and demographic
data were collected from Statistic Agency (Table 1). The province‟s population is 46.3
113
million (in 2014) and it is the most populous and most densely populated of Indonesia‟s
provinces.
Table 1.Data Type and Source
Num
1
2
Data Type
Environmental Data:

Waste Generation

Volume of Transferred solid waste
per day

Serviced level

Solid waste facility data
Source
National Statistic Bureau,
Environmental Statistic, Bandung in
Figure and other cities/ regencies
annual report, Jawa Barat in Figure
Economic data:
National Statistic Bureau, West Java
Social Economy Data, Indonesia
 Average consumption expenditure
Expenditure for Consumption,
per capita
Regional Gross Domestic Product,
 Household expenditure based on Bandung in Figure and other cities/
comodity
regencies annual report, Jawa Barat in
 Regional Gross Domestic Product Figure
based on constant price
 Economic growth rate
 Gini Ratio
3
Demography data:

Population, household number,
population density, growth rate,
population below 15 years old,
population over 65 years old,
proporsion of woman in workfare,
unemployment rate
National Statistic Bureau, West Java
Social Economy Data, West Java
Demography Profile, West Java
Regional Profile, Workfare condition
in Indonesia,
The data processed using statistic software SPSS PASW Statistic 18. Statistic methods that
can be applied for data processing are scatterplot, Box-Plot, Normality Test, Hyphotesis
Analysis ( t test orWilcoxon test), Corelation Analysis (Pearson t orSpearman Rank Test),
Regression Analysis, Discriminant Analysis, and Cluster analysis. Economical approach
using Klassen Typology Analysis.
114
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The Potentials survey conducted in West Java, has included different aspects
including the public complaints with regard the environmental disturbances such as air
pollution, water pollution and soil pollution. It is shown in Figure. 1, that number of
environmental disturbances reports as land pollution has declined by 22% since 2005. As for
the water and air pollution has decreased by 12% and 6% respectively.
Water pollution
Land pollution
Figure 1 Percentages of Region/Village Affected and Complained about Pollution in West
Java
Garbage bin to be collected
Self land filling
River
Dranage
Figure 2. Type of Waste Discard Methodin West Java
Figure 2 shows types of water discard in West Java, based on the data; waste open
burning is still high and has not decreased during the survey periods. The waste discard with
collection method is lower from 2004 to 2007, meanwhile from 2007 to 2009 is constant.
Open burning of waste might trigger another environmental problems such as air pollution,
with society‟s tendency to do open burning and the low usage of waste collection system
indicating the need of management system improvement.
Figure 3 shows that overall the trend of per capita income in some major regencies
(Kabupaten) at west Java shows a positive trend towards the generation of waste. It is shown
by the positive slope curve. Bekasi Regency, Bogor Regency, and Bandung City had the
highest per capita income among other regencies in West Java. Even so the generation of
waste is relatively constant from year to year.
115
(a) GDP (constant price)
(b) Consumption Expenditure
Figure 3. Time Series of Economic Variable Development during 2001-2009
116
Figure 4. Relationship of GDP and Waste Generation in 5 Cities/Regencies in West Java
Waste generation
On Figure 4 the relationship between GDP and waste generation atSukabumi Regency,
Cianjur Regency, Cirebon City, and Bekasi Cityat west Java haspositive trend, where
increment of GDP is linear with increment of waste generation.
Figure 5The waste generation cluster in West Java
Based on the waste data in 25 cities/Regency on 2007 at West Java, then the cities and
regencies are classified into two groups which is shown in Figure 5. Cluster classification
based on generation of cities and regencies in West Java, classified as follows:
1. Cluster 1 comprise of: Bogor Regency, Bekasi Regency, Bandung City.
117
2. Cluster 2 comprise of: Bogor Regency, Sukabumi Regency, Cianjur Regency, Garut
Regency, Tasik Regency, Ciamis Regency, Sumedang Regency, Indramayu Regency,
Subang Regency, Purwakarta Regency, Karawang Regency, Kuningan Regency,
Cirebon Regency, Majalengka Regency, Bogor City, Sukabumi City, Cirebon City,
Bekasi City, Depok City,Cimahi City,Tasik City, and Banjar City.
To understand the differences between first and second cluster, discriminant analysis
conducted towards the expenditure GDP excluding oil and gas variable based on constant
price, unemployment rate,gini ratio, population ratio of elder age of 65 years oldand higher,
population density, total population, and average education duration level. The analysis
result using canonic function i.e. 0.927 showing that there is a high correlation, with
determinant coefficient as much 0.859. It can be said, than the ninth variable able to explain
the variances of 85.9% generation of cities/regencies in West Java. While the 14.1%
explained by residual or other variable out of the model. Based on output structure matrix,
GDP variable, expenditure and total population give significant positive influence towards
the waste generation value. This tendecy is similar with condition at Moratuwa City, Srilanka
where income increased the organic and paper waste generation also increased (Bandara,
2007:38).
To predict a city or regency to be classified into any group mentioned, we can use the
following discriminant model :
..... (Equation 3)
Using Equation 3 discriminant score is computed which can classifying city or regency into
cluster on generation of waste, with the critical cutting score i.e. 0 according to centroid value
-–0,875 dan 6,414 The result of the classification is 100% actual.
Cluster 1 with higher generation, has average GDP per capita of 32,999,000 million IDR,
average expenditure for consumption from the total population reached 13,171,000 IDR per
annum and the total population in 1st cluster in average reached 2,904,000 people in other
word the consumption expenditure per capita from the total population is 4,535,468.00 IDR.
While cluster 2 with lower generation, has GDP of 6,685,000 million IDR, its consumption
expenditure from the total population reached 5,400,000 IDR per annum and the total
population of2nd cluster is 1,421,000 people or the consumption expenditure per capita in
average equals to 3,800,141.00 IDR.
Figure 6 and Table 2 show classification based on the consumption expendituregeneration quadrant, 25 cities and regencies in West Java.
118
Waste Generation
II
I
IV
III
Consumption Expenditure
Figure 6. Quadrant Classification of Relationship between Consumption Expenditure and
Waste Generation in Cities/ Regencies in West Java
Table 2.Quadrant Classification of Relationship between Consumption Expenditure and
Waste Generation in Cities/ Regencies in West Java
Quadrant
Cities/ Regencies
I
Bandung City, Bandung Regency, Bekasi Regency, Cirebon Regency, dan
Bekasi City
II
Bogor City
III
Cimahi City, Majalengka Regency, Kuningan Regency, Cirebon City,
Sukabumi City, Banjar City, Tasikmalaya City, Purwakarta Regency,
Sumedang Regency, Subang Regency, Ciamis Regency, Tasikmalaya
Regency, Cianjur Regency, Indramayu Regency, and Sukabumi Regency
IV
Garut Regency, Karawang Regency, Depok City, andBogor Regency
Based on the above classification, Quadrant I comprise of cities and regencies which have
high consumption expenditure of 11,158,000 IDR/annum on average and high waste
generation of 1,433,000 m3/annum (5 cities/regencies).Quadrant II comprise of
cities/regencies which have low expenditure consumption i.e. 3,416,000 IDR /annumon
average but have high waste generation of 764,310 m3/annum (1 city/regency). Quadrant III
is those cities/regencies which have low expenditure consumption 3,876,000 IDR on average
and low waste generation 198,900 m3/annum (15 cities/regencies). Quadrant IV is
119
Economic Growth Rate
cities/regencieswhich have high expenditure consumption of 6,332,000 IDR on averagebut
low waste generation 469,773 m3/annum (4 cities/regencies)on average.
B
A
C
D
GDP
Figure 7. Economic GrowthPattern and Structurein Cities/ Regencies in West Java
Subsequently, by using Klassen Typology analysis, the pattern pictures and area economic
growth structure can be known by finding relation between the GDP and the economic
growth from each cities compared to its referred areas. Klassen Typology analysis for
cities/regencies at West Java shown by Figure 7 and Table 3
Table 3.Economic GrowthPattern and Structurein Cities/ Regencies in West Java
Pattern
Cities/Regencies
A
Bandung City
B
Depok City
C
Bekasi City, Sukabumi City, Bandung Regency, Bogor City, Tasikmalaya
City, Indramayu Regency, Ciamis Regency, Banjar City, Cirebon Regency,
Subang Regency, Garut Regency, Sumedang Regency, Sukabumi Regency,
Majalengka Regency, Cianjur Regency, Kuningan Regency, and
Tasikmalaya Regency.
D
Bogor Regency, Karawang Regency, Cimahi City, Cirebon City, Purwakarta
Regency, dan Bekasi Regency
120
Klassen Typology Analysis classified region into 4 economic growth patterns, developed and
growing region (A), growing region (B), low economy region (C), and developed but
supressed region (D). Comparing result of Quadrant Classification and Klassen Typology
shown that some of cities/ regencies that included as developed and growing region (A) also
developed but suppressed region (D) included into Quadrant that has high waste generation.
Meanwhile some cities/regencies that included as low economy region are on Quadrant that
has low waste generation.
4. CONCLUSION
The increase in GDP also increase the number of waste generation. Using cluster analysis and
discriminant analysis, it shows that GDP variable, consumption expenditures, and total
population give positive significant impact on the classification, the higher the variable the
higher waste generation is. Result of discriminant analysis is able to explain the variances of
85.9% generation of cities/regencies in West Java. Cluster with high generation, has GDP of
32,999,000.00 million IDR on average, total population of 2,904,000 people, and
consumption expenditure per capita of 4,535,468.00 IDR on average. While the cluster with
low waste generation, has GDP 6,685,000.00 million IDR on average, with average total
population of 1,421,000 people and its consumption expenditure per capita of 3,800,141.00
IDR.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was funded by ITB Research Grant 2014.
6. REFERENCES
Bai, X danImura H. 2000.A Comparative Study of Urban Environment in East Asia: Stage
Model of Urban Environmenal Evolution. Journal of International Review for
Environmental Strategies: 1 pp 135-158 (2000)
Bandara, J. G. J. Nilanti. 2007. Relation of Waste Generation and Composition to Socioeconomic Factors: A Case Study. Journal of Environmental Monitoring Assesment 135
pp 31-39 (2007)
Faramita, Nadia. 2007. Evaluasi Aliran Material Sampah Daur Ulang (Plastik, Kertas,
Logam) Bandung City. Bandung: Laporan Tugas Akhir, Program Studi Teknik
Lingkungan, ITB.
Jha, A.K., S.K. Singh, G.P. Singh, Prabhat K. Gupta. 2011. Sustainable Municipal Solid
Waste Management in Low Income Group of Cities: A Review. Journal of International
Society for Tropical Ecology: 52(1) pp 123-131 (2011)
Khajuria A, Yamamoto Y, and Tohru Morioka. 2010. Estimation of Municipal Solid Waste
Generation and Landfill Area in Asian Developing Countries. Journal of
Environmental Biology, 31(5) pp 649-654 (2010).
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Kojima R. 1996. Introduction: Population Migration and Urbanization in Developing
Countries. Journal of The Developing Economies: 34(4) pp 349-369 (1996)
Khatib, Imad. 2011. Municipal Solid Waste Management in Developing Countries: Future
Challanges and Possible Opportunities. Croatia: Intech Europe.
Sharholy M, Ahmad K, Vaishya RC, and RD Gupto. 2007. Municipal solid waste
characteristics and management in Allahabad, India. Journal of Waste Management:
27(4) pp 490-496 (2007)
Yedia, Sudhakar. 2003. Urban Environmental Evolution: The Case of Mumbai. Kanagawa:
Institute for Global Environmental Strategy (IGES).
Yu-Chi, Weng. 2009. Estimation and Evaluation of Municipal Solid Waste Management
System by using Economic Environmental Models in Taiwan. Kyoto University:
Dissertation Department of Urban and Environmental Engineering.
122
Evaluation Of Pakerisan Watershed Characteristics In Establishing
Management Model With The Principle Of One River, One Plan, And One
Management Principal On Water Resources Protection
Deden Ismail 6, I Ketut Sumantra7, I. G Ayu Andani8, Nyoman Arya Wirawan9
Perencanaan Pembangunan Wilayah dan Pengelolaan Lingkungan (P2WL)
Universitas Mahasaraswati Denpasar
Jalan Soka No. 47 Denpasar, Bali
ABSTRACT:
Water resources management based on watersheds should be done through a spatial coherence with
the principle of "one river, one plan, one management". The initial phase which can be carried out in
water resource management is to determine the condition of water resources through monitoring
activities. Regarded with planning and watershed management of Pakerisan Watershed in Bali which
has been designated as a World Cultural Heritage, it is important to do a monitoring of
contamination level in the watershed. This study aimed to determine the damage of Pakerisan
Watershed using water quality as the main indicator. In this research, water quality examination
sample taken from Pakerisan River in the upstream, midstream, and downstream, and then analyzed
by using scoring method compare to Water Quality Standards according to Bali Governor Regulation
No. 8 of 2007. Analysis result showed that the water quality from 2012 to 2014 and from upstream to
downstream was getting worse in which the contamination was getting heavier. To protect the water
resources of Pakerisan Watershed, the watershed management preferred direction with the
involvement of communities in the watershed to participate in conservation activities; provision of
facilities and infrastructure; as well as the implementation of incentives and disincentives.
Keyword : Contamination Level, One River One Plan One Management Concept, Pakerisan
Watershed, Water Resource, Water Quality
1. INTRODUCTION
Watershed is an area of land that is collecting, storing and then drain rainwater into the sea or
a lake through a major river. It is separated from other regions by topographical separator,
thus it can be said the land area is divided into several watersheds (Indonesian Ministry of
Forestry, 2013). The main elements in a watershed is the natural resources (soil, vegetation,
and water) which is the target and the man who is the resource users. The main elements
(natural and human resources) in the watershed forming an ecosystem in which the events
that occur on an element will affect other elements (Asdak, 1995).
This area is very vulnerable for having any natural resource damage. Watershed conditions in
Bali mostly been impaired. The water flow level of the rainy season and the dry season is not
balance. At rainy season, the flow will extremely increase and cause flood and soil erosion.
While at the dry season, drought occurred. With the increasing population growth and
6
[email protected]
[email protected]
8
[email protected]
9
[email protected]
7
123
increased economic development, the allocation of water resources to fulfill the needs of a
healthy human being and support economic growth tend to cause scarcity nowadays.
In an effort to create sustainable water resources for the benefit of the people, watershed need
to be managed in a comprehensive, integrated, and environmentally friendly manner.
According to Law No. 7 of 2004 on Water Resources, water resources management is an
effort to plan, act, monitor, and evaluate the protection of water resources, efficient use of
water resources, and control the destructive force of water.
The initial phase which can be carried out in water resource management is to know the
condition of water resources through monitoring activities (Indonesia Ministry of Health,
1990). Water quality monitoring is also the implementation of the mandate of the Governor
of Bali Province No. 8 of 2007 on Water Quality Standards and Wastewater. Regarded with
planning and watershed management of Pakerisan Watershed in Bali which has been
designated as a World Cultural Heritage, it is important to do a monitoring of damage or
contamination level in the watershed of Pakerisan.
This study aimed to determine the water quality of Pakerisan Watershed and formulate
management direction of Pakerisan Watershed management based on community and in an
integrated manner for water resource protection with the principle of one river, one plan, and
one management.
Literature Review
Examination on water quality parameters, determined by scientific considerations that are
expected to provide a causal reaction to the decline in water quality and the impact for human
health. The main parameters used to test water quality are mainly water temperature,
suspended solids, pH, dissolved oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical
oxygen demand (COD), coliform, and many chemical substances, such as iron (Fe), nitrite
(NO2), nitrate (NO3), Cadmium (Cd), and metallic lead (Pb) (Effendi, 2003).
1. Temperature
The temperature of water bodies is influenced by season, location latitude, altitude
above sea level, time of day, air circulation, cloud cover, and the flow and depth of
water. Temperature changes affect the process of physics, chemistry and biology.
2. Suspended solids
Suspended solids are materials sized particles larger than 0.45 lm which are in the
water column. Suspended solid particles are formed from sediment, organic matter
(detritus composed), also phytoplankton cells and other living microorganisms.
3. pH
the pH of a solution expressed hydrogen ion concentration in the solution. The more
acidic the solution, and conversely the lower the pH. The more alkaline, the pH is
higher. Waters that have a low pH will be able to increase the toxicity of some
compounds of certain gases such as ammonia water.
4. DO
124
The level of dissolved oxygen in the water environment is a very important factor in
the quality of water. Dissolved oxygen in the water is sourced from the diffusion of
atmospheric oxygen and water results in the plant photosynthesis. Levels of dissolved
oxygen in water varies affected water temperature, altitude and water turbulence
level.
5. BOD
Biochemical oxygen dissolved is the amount of oxygen needed by micro-organisms to
decompose organic materials are easily decomposed. Organic materials are easily
decomposed generally derived from domestic waste, while difficult to unravel
generally derived from agricultural waste, mining and industry.
6. COD
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) or the oxygen demand for chemical reactions, ie
the amount of oxygen needed to perform chemical reactions. COD in general is one of
the organic parameters set beside BOD and TOC (Total Organic Carbon) or the total
amount of organic carbon.
7. Coliform
Presence of E. coli in water abundantly illustrates that the waters polluted by human
waste, which may also be accompanied by contamination of pathogenic bacteria.
Meanwhile, total coliform bacteria include all types of aerobic bacteria, facultative
anaerobic, rod shape and bacteria that can ferment lactose and produce gas
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
This research was conducted in the Pakerisan Watershed. Pakerisan Watershed is across
Gianyar and Bangli Regency. The river has a length of 36.5 km and the area of 29.875 km2.
The most upstream part of the river is located in Panelokan, Central Batur Village of Bangli
District, while its estuary is on the border between Lebih Village of Gianyar District and
Medahan Village of Blahbatuh District. The selection of study site is based on the
consideration that the Pakerisan watershed landscape has been declared as World Cultural
Heritage by UNESCO on 2012.
125
Fig. 1 Declaration of Subak Pulagan in Pakerisan Watershed as World Heritage
In this research, water sample taken from Pakerisan Watershed in the upstream, midstream,
and downstream. The sampling points are:

Upstream area: located in Manukaya Village, Sukawati District, Gianyar. Land use
around the sampling site was dry land and shrubs.

Midstream area: located in Balega Village, Blahbatuh District, Gianyar. Land use
around the sampling site are rice field.

Downstream area: located in Medahan Village, Blahbatuh District, Gianyar. Land use
around the sampling locations are rice field and low density population settlements.
126
Manukaya Village ,
Tampaksiring, Gianyar
Balega Village ,
Blahbatuh, Gianyar
Medahan Village ,
Blahbatuh, Gianyar
Fig. 2 Sampling Points
Water quality examination is done in two ways, namely the local examination (in-site) and
laboratory examination. On water quality monitoring activities, some portable equipment
should be provided in the field to conduct in-site examination. In-site examination of some
parameters can be performed directly in the body of water and do not take any sample. Water
quality parameters that are carried out by local examination include pH and dissolved oxygen
(DO). Temperature and turbidity also can be measured directly in the field. Laboratory
examination is the examination of water sample taken from the river which then conducted in
the laboratory regarding limited tools or equipment available in the field. Examination of
other parameters, such as chemistry and microbiology aspect must be done in the laboratory.
Types of water samples in water quality monitoring using instantaneous sample type (grab
sample), the sample were taken directly from the body of water. Water sampling in shallow
river does not require special any sampling tool. In this condition the sample container can
simultaneously serve to take a sample directly. As for taking samples of lake water and sea
water in the water, sampling using the Van Dorn water sampler. This sample only describe
the characteristics of the water at the time of sampling. Sampling was conducted three times
in three years sequence, in March 2012, March 2013, and July 2014.
Each water quality parameters will be analyzed by using scoring method compare to Water
Quality Standards according to Bali Governor Regulation No. 8 of 2007. This act actually the
implementation of Government Act No. 82 of 2011 about Water Contamination Control at
provincial level. The act is also in accordance with Bali Governor Regulation No. 8 of 2007
Regulation of the Minister of Health No. 416/Menkes/Per/IX/1990 on Standards for the
Quality of Clean Water and Drinking Water. Water quality standard can be seen on Table 1.
127
Table 3. Water Quality Standard
Category
No
Parameter
Unit
I
II
III
IV
1 pH
-
6-9
6-10
6-11
6-12
2 Fe
Mg / liter
0.3
-
-
-
3 NO3
Mg / liter
10
10
20
20
4 BOD
Mg / liter
2
3
6
12
5 COD
Mg / liter
10
25
50
100
6 Detergent
Mg / liter
100
200
200
-
7 DO
Mg / liter
6
4
3
1
8 Phospat
Mg / liter
0.2
0.2
1
5
9 Cadnium (Cd)
Mg / liter
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
quantity /
100 ml
500
5000
10000
10000
10 Coli form
Source: Bali Governor Regulation No. 6 of 2007
Parameters above will define the proper utility of water resource based on the classification.

Category I: This type of water can be used as drink water which can be directly
consume or need advance processing.

Category II: This type of water can be used for recreation, freshwater development,
animal husbandry, irrigation, or any other similar function.

Category III: The water can be used for freshwater development sector, animal
husbandry, irrigation, or any other similar function.

Category IV: The water can be used for irrigation, plantation, or activities which
needs this quality standard.
In determining the classification of water in the upstream, midstream, and downstream of
Pakerisan Watershed, scoring will be used for category of each parameter. Score 4 for
Category I, 3 for Category II, 2 for Category III, and 1 for Category IV. If the value of
parameters is beyond the standard, then the score is considered become „0'.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This part is discussed the result of sampling water examination of each area of Pakerisan
Watershed, in upstream, midstream, and downstream area.
128
Upstream Area of Pakerisan Watershed
Results of water quality examination in the upstream area in 2012 (Table 2) can be seen that
the pH is still possible for existence of living beings. The amount of iron (Fe) in water
indicates the water hardness. The data show that the amount in the form of Fe2+ cation are
still quite small. Nitrate amount was quite low and still at the threshold to the water quality
standard of Category I.
BOD is the amount of oxygen used by microorganisms (bacteria) to decompose organic
materials in the water. The examination results showed that the amount of BOD in the
upstream area in 2012 amounted to 5.22 mg / liter. This indicates that the BOD value is quite
large and the water is already heavily polluted. It is classified for water quality standard of
Category III. However, the amount of COD or the amount of oxygen required to oxidize
organic substances present in the water sample is quite low and still in the quality standard of
Category I. Judging from the amount of the detergent as Methylene Blue Active Substance is
still classified in the quality standard of Category I.
Phosphorus amount is a form of the element phosphorus present in the water from the rest of
the laundry detergent, animal waste, fertilizers dissolved, and others. The excessiveness of
phosphorus can lead to eutrophication. The results of examination of water sample showed
that the phosphate amount is large enough for one liter and classified to Category III. While
cadmium amount is low enough cadmium classified to Category I.
In terms of microbiological parameters, the amount of coliform in 100 ml water sample is
large enough. The presence of coliform is an indication that the river has been contained of
pathogenic microbes. If the coliform amount of is more than 200 colonies per 100 ml of
water indicates that there has been the possibility of pathogenic microorganisms in the water.
Thus, by the number of coliform amount, the water quality is classified to Category II. Based
on the examination, the average score for all parameters tested is 3.5. It means that the water
in upstream can be classified to Category I. Water in this area could be used as drink water
which can be directly consume or need advance processing.
The results test of water quality in 2013 are not much different from the results test of the in
2012. A quite different parameter for example, in 2013 it is known that nitrate is much
smaller, about 0.98 mg / liter. This is still within the limit of Category I standard quality. The
amount of the detergent was much smaller than the amount of detergent in 2012, though it is
still within the limits of Category I. The amount of cadmium and coli form is also lower.
Phosphate is also quite different from the classification of water quality standards in 2012.
Based on the results tested 2013, the amount phosphorus was smaller and can be classified as
Category I. Different water quality result between 2012 and 2013 is caused by several
factors, such as the difference condition of the river when the sample was taken. In general,
the average score of the water quality parameters in the upstream area of Pakerisan
Watershed in 2013 was much higher than in 2012. It score 4, but still classified into Category
I.
Examination results in 2014 was quite different than others. There was a striking difference
in the amount of BOD, COD, phosphate, and coliforms. BOD and COD amount in 2014 are
129
quite larger and classified into water quality standard of Category III. It means that the water
has suffered heavy pollution. Similarly, the phosphorus amount was much larger. Number of
coli form in 100 ml was significantly greater than the examinations in previous years. Thus, it
can be said that the quality of river water in the upstream area in 2014 was decline from the
previous year. It classified into Category III which means that the water in the area can only
be used for freshwater development sector, animal husbandry, irrigation, or any other similar
function.
Table 4. Scoring and Result of Water Quality Test in Upstream Area
Year
Parameter
Unit
2012 Score
2013 Score
2014 Score
pH
-
7.03
4
6.96
4
7
4
Fe
Mg / liter
0.06
4
0.0143
4
0.0702
4
NO3
Mg / liter
4.641
4
0.98
4
0.277
4
BOD
Mg / liter
5.22
2
0.92
4
10
1
COD
Mg / liter
9.63
4
3
4
78.72
1
Detergent
Mg / liter
89.55
4
<0.01
4
<0.05
4
DO
Mg / liter
6.77
4
7.52
4
6.43
4
Phospat
Mg / liter
0.679
2
0.13
4
11.859
0
Cadnium (Cd)
Mg / liter
0.002
4 <0.0001
4
Undetected
Coli form
quantity /
100 ml
1000
3
4
24000000
Average Score
3,5
Category
I
30
4
I
0
2,44
III
Midstream Area of Pakerisan Watershed
Examination of water quality in the midstream area of Pakerisan Watershed was conducted in
the village of Balega. Examination results of water quality in the middle section of the river
can be seen in Table 3. The value parameters water quality standard in the midstream area
was pretty varied compared to the examination of the water in the upstream area.
Results of the examination of the quality of the water in 2012 shows six parameters were
showed good quality, they were qualified to Category I. Although the amount of BOD were
high, 6.55 mg/liter, so it got to be classified into Category IV. The amount of the COD
belongs to Category III. Then the quantity of coliform in 100 ml was 1900 and it classified to
Category II. The phosphate amount in the water was also classified into Category II. Based
on these parameters, the average score of water quality parameters is 3.3. It was good
130
enough, it classified into Category II which means that the water can be used for recreation,
freshwater development, animal husbandry, irrigation, or any other similar function
Water quality test results in the midstream area of Pakerisan Watershed in 2013 showed that
all parameters were classified into Category I. Water quality test results in 2014 seems quite
different than the previous test. Some parameters are classified into Category IV, such as
BOD and COD. While the amount of Cadmium could not be detected. The amount of
phosphate and coliform in the water sample were extremely high that their score became 0.
The average score of all parameters was 2.44 and like the upstream, in 2014 the water was
classified into Category III.
Table 5. Scoring and Result of Water Quality Test in Midstream Area
Year
Parameter
Unit
2012 Score
2013 Score
2014 Score
pH
-
7.18
4
7.07
4
7.5
4
Fe
Mg / liter
0.04
4
0.069
4
0.2899
4
NO3
Mg / liter
5.125
4
1.27
4
0.665
4
BOD
Mg / liter
6.549
1
1.99
4
10
1
COD
Mg / liter
11.508
3
5
4
88.56
1
Detergent
Mg / liter
89.63
4
<0.01
4
<0.05
4
DO
Mg / liter
6.86
4
8.01
4
6.15
4
Phospat
Mg / liter
0.957
2
0.14
4
13.431
0
Cadnium (Cd)
Mg / liter
0.003
4
<0.0001
4
-
-
Coli form
quantity /
100 ml
1900
3
70
4
17000
0
Average Score
3,3
4
2,44
Category
II
I
III
Downstream Area of Pakerisan Watershed
Examination of the river water in the downstream area of Pakerisan Watershed was
conducted in Medahan Village. The examination results for the sample of water taken in
2012 showed the amount of BOD were quite high that it classified into Category IV. While
the COD amount containing in the water was classified into Category II. The amount of COD
and BOD have been indicating the presence of a very heavy pollution. Amount of DO, based
on water quality standard was qualified into Category II. The amount of phosphate was also
quite high that it classified into Category III. While the amount of coliform was low enough.
131
Apart from the above four parameters, other parameters were in proper amount that they were
classified into Category I. Therefore, the average score of all parameters were 3.3. Then the
water could be classified into Category II.
Examination results in 2013 showed some parameters were classified into Category III, such
as the amount of BOD and phosphate. While the value of other parameters, such as the
amount of iron, nitrates, detergents, cadmium, and coli form were in good amount. The
average score of the parameters is 3.50 so that it could be classified into Category II.
Like examination results in midstream and upstream area, some parameters were contained in
the water in excessive amount, such as phosphate and coliform in 2014. In 2014, the BOD
amount was also very high that its score became 0. The average score of all parameters was 2
and they were classified into Category III. This data indicated that there was environment
degradation
Table 6. Scoring and Result of Water Quality Test in Downstream Area
Year
Parameter
Unit
2012 Score
2013 Score
2014 Score
pH
-
7.15
4
7.14
4
7.5
4
Fe
Mg / liter
0.02
4
0.181
4
0.3179
-
NO3
Mg / liter
3.92
4
3.1
4
0.263
4
BOD
Mg / liter
6.492
1
4.06
2
14
0
COD
Mg / liter
19.203
3
11
3
59.04
1
Detergent
Mg / liter
93.56
4
0.027
4
<0.05
4
DO
Mg / liter
4.58
3
7.36
4
5.56
3
Phospat
Mg / liter
0.974
2
0.27
2
16.085
0
Cadnium (Cd)
Mg / liter
0.007
4
<0.0001
4
-
-
Coli form
quantity /
100 ml
2000
3
210
4
330000
0
Average Score
Category
3,2
II
3,5
II
2
III
After exposing the examination results of water quality in the upstream, midstream, and
downstream area of Pakerisan Watershed in the period of 2012 – 2014, then the water quality
category need to be compiled to identify the tendency of contamination or damage that
occurred in the area. Water quality classification for each area in Pakerisan Watershed can be
seen in Table 5. In the table, it can be seen that the quality of water from 2012 until 2014 and
from upstream to downstream were tend to decline.
132
Water in the upstream area were in good quality in 2012 and 2013, but decline in 2014 to
Category III. Water quality in midstream area in period 2012 – 2014 tended to be fluctuated.
In 2012, the water classified into Category II, but in 2013 the water quality improved to
Category I. It caused by the amount of BOD, COD, and phosphate were decreased. However,
in 2014 the water quality was declining into Category III.
The tendency in downstream area was similar with the upstream area. In 2012 and 2013,
water quality in downstream area were classified into Category II, but in 2014 it declined into
Category III. In 2014, the quality of water in upstream, midstream, and downstream area
were classified into Category III. It means that, nowadays, the water in Pakerisan River can
be use for freshwater development sector, animal husbandry, irrigation, or any other similar
function.
Table 7. Water Quality Classification for Each Area in Pakerisan Watershed
2012
2013
2014
Upstream
I
I
III
Midstream
II
I
III
Downstream
II
II
III
Management Strategy of Pakerisan Watershed
Based on the analysis results of the water quality in the upstream, midstream, and
downstream of Pakerisan Watershed, then integrated watershed management based on the
concept of one river, one plan, one management needed to be formulated. The presence of
contaminants in the upstream will certainly have an impact on the middle and lower parts of
the watershed.
In previous discussion, it is known that the parameters or aspects that led to the decline of
water quality in Pakerisan Watershed is the amount of BOD, COD and coliform. Source of
BOD is inundated leaves and pieces of wood in the water, plants or animals that are already
dead, animal waste, and others. The amount depends on pH, temperature, type of
microorganism and the type of inorganic and organic substances containing in the water.
Organic waste materials are generally in the form of waste that can be degraded by
microorganisms. So that when the organic waste thrown into the waters, it will raise the
population of microorganisms. In this case the BOD levels will go up. The increasing
population also contribute to the rising levels of BOD in Pakerisan Watershed. Increasing
population will increase organic waste which will be dumped into the river. Organic waste
that is dumped into the river led to a reduced number of dissolved oxygen, as most bacteria
involved in the decomposition.
Activity around the upstream area that will increase COD, the level of turbidity and coliform
amount is washing clothes with detergents. It is often carried out in the edge of river. The use
of pesticides and chemical fertilizers for food crops, using a soap or shampoo in the river, the
habit of disposing of garbage, and defecate on the river will also contaminate the river.
133
Therefore, the involvement of local communities in the conservation and management of
Pakerisan Watershed is urgently needed. This can be started with the socialization to society
by not using cleaning materials, detergents, soaps, and shampoos for any activity in the river.
Communal sanitation facility which equipped with its own dirty channels also must be built.
Fig. 3 A pile of garbage in the upstream of Pakerisan Watershed
The habit of throwing rubbish into the river must be stopped. Infrastructure development,
such as the construction of trash and garbage hauling system need to be developed. The
community needs to be involved in the activities of cleaning the river and given the
knowledge of the pollution in the river.
The use of chemical substances in agriculture food plants are also contributing to the
occurrence of pollution in Pakerisan River, especially in the upstream. The upstream area is
dominated by agricultural activities as food crops. Generally the owner of agricultural land
only manages their farm land to fulfill their daily needs, the harvest is not enough to sell
outside the region. As the region is declared as World Cultural Heritage by UNESCO,
farming activities in Pakerisan Watershed is very important to be preserved. This
preservation is carried out not only by ensuring that farming activities in the region will
sustain by simply providing fertilizer, agricultural tools, or any other aid. The preservation of
world cultural heritage would have to do with an innovation that is not only beneficial to
farmers, but also be able to support the quality of the environment.
134
Fig. 4 The Announcement of the Ban on Disposing Garbage
Source: Partami, 2012
One of those innovation which can be conducted in the area is the development of organic
farming that is environmentally friendly. Organic agricultural product also has higher value.
Organic farming, such as horticulture, can be planted with intercropping systems. This will
be increase the production of farmer. In addition, the development of compost and manure
from cattle wasted are need to be implemented to replace chemical fertilizers as well as the
development of natural pesticide.
4. CONCLUSION
Based on the exposure earlier in the results and discussion, some things can be summed up as
follows:
1. There is an environmental degradation in the area. The quality of water from 2012
until 2014 and from upstream to downstream tended to decline. Water in the upstream
area were in good quality in 2012 and 2013, but decline in 2014 to Category III.
Water quality in midstream area in period 2012 – 2014 tended to be fluctuated. In
2012, the water classified into Category II, but in 2013 the water quality improved to
Category I. It caused by the amount of BOD, COD, and phosphate were decreased.
However, in 2014 the water quality was declining into Category III.
2. It was revealed that the parameters or aspects that led to the decline of water quality
in the Pakerisan River Watershed is the value of BOD, COD, and quantity of
coliform. Strategy to alleviate this problem can be:

Development of organic agriculture

Development of a natural pesticide

Eliminate the habit of disposing of waste and the use of cleaning materials on the
river
135

Construction of communal sanitation facility which equipped with its own dirty
water channels
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study is a part of multi-years research conducted by Graduate Program of Universitas
Mahasaraswati Denpasar. Thanks to Directorate General of Higher Education (DIKTI) for
funding the research.
6. REFERENCES
Asdak, C. 1995. Hydrology and Watershed Management, Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada
University Press.
Effendi, H. 2003. Study of Water Quality for the Management of Resources and the Aquatic
Environment, Yogyakarta: Penerbit Kanisius.
Government of the Province Of Bali. The Bali Governor's Regulation No. 8 of 2007 on Water
Quality Standards and Wastewater, Bali.
Indonesian Government Act No. 82 of 2011 about Water Contamination Control
Ministry of Forestry, Directorate General of Watershed Management and Social Forestry.
2013. Regulations of Director General No: P 3/V-SET/2013 on Guidelines for the
Identification of Watershed Characteristics. Jakarta.
Ministry Of Health. 1990. Regulation of the Minister of Health No.: 416/Menkes/Per/IX/1990
on Standards for the Quality of Clean Water and Drinking Water. Jakarta.
Ministry Of Health. 1990. SK MENKES NO. 907/MENKES/SK/VII/2002 on Terms and
Monitoring the Quality of Drinking Water. Jakarta.
Partami, Kadek Dwi Ratna. 2012. Waste Management of Irrigation Channels in Subak
Pulagan Tampaksiring, Bali. Thesis. Graduate School of Regional Development
Planning and Environmental Management. Bali: Mahasaraswati University Denpasar.
136
Conflict Resolution
137
Conflict Resolution through Mediation: Case Study in a Dam and
Hydropower Project
Aries Firman
Adjunct Associate Professor – SBM ITB
Member of Dam Safety Commission – Ministry of Public Works
[email protected]
[email protected]
ABSTRACT :
Many infrastructure projects encounter various sorts of challenge during the course of
implementation despite of serious effort mobilized during the planning stage. It is sometimes
unavoidable to deal with changes of site condition not foreseeable earlier but at the end they
contribute to the success or failure of the project. Those changes could be both of technical and non
technical issues. This paper outlines the situation in a dam and hydropower project located in
Sumatera Island where the key stakeholders were in disagreement on how the project should be
completed. Even they have tried their best to achieve a kind of amicable resolution but such
mechanism failed. The next step in their mind for conflict resolution to solve the problems was
choosing mediation process and finally the results were well accepted by all parties concerned.
From the case study, there are lessons learned beneficial for other projects not only for technical
issues but also for non technical matters. The basic principles of conflict resolutions through
mediation rely heavily on the trust from the parties in disagreement and certainly also the
credibility of the mediator. Thus, it is extremely crucial to set up a rigorous mediation process so
that the project could finish smoothly in achieving its objectives.
Keywords: conflict resolution, mediation, trust, stakeholders, credibility
1. INTRODUCTION
This paper initially focuses on a dam project based on the review of secondary data and uses
it as a case study on how mediation worked well to resolve disputes. Matyas et.al. (1996)
suggested that disputes result in a substantial dilution of effort, delays, and diversion of
capital. Moreover, the author studied the possibilities to apply mediation process in other
infrastructure projects in the last decade. When conflict starts to appear in a project, the
parties should try their best to reach amicable settlement. One of the most universally
accepted references in construction contract stipulates that during the first eight weeks after
the notice of dissatisfaction, and by the agreement thereafter, the parties should attempt
amicable settlement. No method is prescribed in the clause, in order that the parties have the
greatest flexibility in the choice of procedures. Alternatives include direct negotiation,
mediation, conciliation, and other forms of Alternative Dispute Resolution (FIDIC, 1996).
2. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The Case Study
PLN (State Electricity Company) supported by ADB (Asian Development Bank) built a
project in Bengkulu province to generate 3X70 MW consisted of dam, headrace
tunnel, penstock, underground power house, tailrace tunnel and electro mechanical
equipments. The design was done by a Japanese firm that continued their services as
supervisory consultant together with local partners. As far as construction is concerned,
138
there was a consortium of Japanese and Indonesian contractors having the contract through
procurement process approved by ADB being one of the project sponsors. During site
preparation works, contractors conducted additional site investigation with result of major
discrepancies between contract document and actual conditions. One of the findings was
something relates to dam foundation as shown on figure 1:
Figure 1: Cross Section of Intake Dam Foundation
(Source: Firman, Aries, 2002)
The design of intake dam with 15.5 meter height assumed that bored piles of 100 cm
diameter on sandy clay up to 20 meter depth could withstand the upper structure.
Unfortunately, additional investigation found out that from 5 meter below ground surface
there were significant amount of strong boulders and consequently the piling works was
considerably affected. The comparison between original design features versus actual ones
can be seen in Table 1, as follows:
Table 1: Discrepancies between original assumptions versus actual features at intake
dam
Anticipated
Actual

Boulders of pyroclastic volcanic 
Numerous boulders, which were
origin mostly composed of weak, weathered composed of strong, fresh, andesitic rock.
rock.

Compressive strengths of rock

Compressive strengths of rocks less average 1.040 kg/sq.cm.
than 4 kg/sq.cm.

Using additional percussion drilled

Drilling method using chisel and hammer.
mechanical grab.

Quantity of piles, 724 piles (=5.700 
Quantity of piles, 898 piles (=8.129
m)
m)

Layer

Layer
Sand & Clay
Sand & Clay
Andesite boulder
Sand & Clay
139




Volcanic bouder
Total pile length = 5.700 m
Boulder layer length = 1.358 m
Drilling speed = 4,5 m/hour
Time = 952 hours




Alluvial boulder
Total pile length = 8.129 m
Boulder layer length = 2.951 m
Drilling speed = 1,1 m/hour
Time = 1.236 hours
(Source: Firman, Aries, 2002)
With those huge differences, the contractors submitted claim to the Engineer or supervisory
consultants by declaring that such situation was beyond the contractor‟s responsibility.
They had to this action because the contract stipulated a clause of liquidated damages (LD)
for the milestone in relation to the completion of intake dam facilities. Any delay for this
specific key date could hamper the contractors due to the big amount of LD. This dispute
about dam foundation was just one example among a long list of other items submitted by
the contractors as part of their claim package. On the other hand, the Engineer and PLN
rejected most of the claims as recorded in exchange of letters between the parties. When
the site progress reached about 60 %, they tried to resolve the conflict through amicable
discussions. However, they were still very far apart and the contractors were forced to send
a notice for arbitration as per the contract document. The arbitration process could be quite
lengthy, time consuming as well as costly and it was not favorable to any party in conflict.
For those reasons, all parties agreed to opt for mediation process by seeking support from
ADB to suggest potential candidates of mediator who could meet certain requirements.
Table 2 illustrates the selection criteria for the mediator.
Number
Table 2: Selection Criteria for Potential Mediator
Description of Criteria
1
Completely impartial (no Japanese and Indonesian)
2
Freedom from conflict of interest
3
Experience with the type of construction involved
4
Experience in hydropower project in Asia
5
Experience with interpretation of contract document
6
Experience with establishing cost appraisal
7
Fluent in English: verbal and writing
(Source : Firman, Aries, 2002)
From the data base at ADB head office, several potential candidates were contacted and
they responded by e mail to show their interests. There were 6 candidates, among them one
candidate from Germany did not respond and one candidate from UK was not
140
available during that particular point of time. Meanwhile, the parties must also agree with
the scope of mediation and in general it should comply with the following procedures:
1. Number of claims for mediation is limited to those already submitted but still in dispute
2. Each party must submit a position paper for mediator‟s review
3. Evaluation by mediator shall be based on contract & related law
4. The draft of Mediator‟s report maximum in 2 occasions before producing the final report
5. Additional data supplied to Mediator by one party shall be copied to the other party
In order to deal with all administrative works of this mediation process, the parties agreed to
establish a secretariat office at PLN head office in Jakarta. Time was of the essence because
the final decision could not be delayed further to avoid disruption of works at this civil
package (Firman, 2002). Representatives from each party joined the effort to start rapidly
with the selection process to find the most suitable mediator and produce the results shown
below:
Table 3: Result of selection process of mediator
(Note: NA= Not Available; NQ = Not Qualified; NR = No response)
(Source: Firman, Aries, 2002)
Based on the results from selection process described above, all parties agreed to appoint
AA as the mediator with a term of reference (TOR) signed prior to his service. The TOR
described step by step activities as follows:
a.
Appoint the mediator
b.
Three parties agreement
c.
Hearing session in plenary format
d.
Separate session:
The employer
The contractors
e.
Interim reports
f.
Final recommendation
The overall time frame agreed by the parties was about 15 weeks consisted of 1 week of
each mediator‟s visit and 6 weeks between each visit of initial trip, interim solution and final
recommendation at such point of time that all parties should determine their position.
The mediator finally put forward his recommendation for a global settlement
141
notwithstanding the fact that each party submitted their claims on itemized basis. An
amount of global settlement equivalent to 4.2 billion yen proposed by the mediator became
the basis of approximately one month evaluation by each party. Finally, the parties agreed to
accept the mediator‟s recommendation and they formalized it in an amendment of contract
after due consultation with ADB and the government of Indonesia. Using the similar basic
principles described above, other projects may also take the advantages by using mediation
for conflict resolution.
Mediation through Independent Panel of Experts
Another water project faced conflict between the stakeholders during operation stage but
also included expansion project to cater the need of community. Project owner threatened
the operator to terminate their contract with arguments concerning non performance or
breach of contract. On the other hand, operator argued that it happened because of things
beyond their control such as water availability and this should be taken care of by the
project owner (Firman, 2013). After the failure of direct negotiation to resolve the conflict
between the parties, finally they agreed to appoint an independent panel of experts in 2013.
This team consisted of experts from engineering, commercial, finance and legal disciplines.
They had to work in 3 months to come up with recommendations as to resolve the conflict.
The author joined the panel and came to conclusion about project stakeholder management
as an extremely crucial element in conflict resolution. This is in line with a new area of
project management introduced recently in the 5 th edition of Project Management Body of
Knowledge/ PMBOK (PMI, 2013).
Key Elements of Mediation in Infrastructure Projects
Conflict resolution has a wide range of means for the project stakeholders to choose.
Wherever possible the conflicting parties shall focus to opt for an amicable resolution as
their priority to save time, money as well as hostility. The latter could sometimes become
so important when they consider sustainability or long term relationship. In other words,
they must avoid conflict resolution with an effect of win-lose situation. Mediation process is
a non binding result oriented and therefore it depends on how all parties can take advantages
from the mediator‟s recommendation. Nevertheless, the role of a mediator is very crucial to
understand the overall context, analyze potential solutions and convince the parties that his
or her recommendations are objective, no personal conflict of interest and beneficial for the
parties in conflict. It should be noted, however, that a mediator must be excellent in his
technical skills in addition to superiority in terms of credibility and trust.
The two elements of soft skill above are compulsory and non negotiable because
impartiality of the mediator is one of the key success factor. When the parties in conflict
could not find the right person they can rely on, of course the mediation process remains
stand still. Currently, there is another project having similar conflict although the scheme
is different. This infrastructure project is fully financed by a state owned company
and therefore there is no reference to independent financing such as ADB. When conflicts
started to appear after claim submission by the contractors, the progress of site activities
142
has become slow and far below the original schedule. The main reasons for contractors to
submit claim are changes of project scope, fluctuation of currency and other unforeseeable
conditions. It is related to the basic rationale of a claim whereas one party requests fair and
reasonable treatment from other party in the contract (LPJKN, 2009). As the amicable
discussions could not yield solutions, the parties are considering the option for
mediation process. However, it is now more difficult to prepare a list of potential mediator
not because of technical skills but mostly due to the absence of respectful candidate.
Research has shown that the role of equality among project stakeholders in Indonesia
remains a myth rather than reality as regulated in the law number 18/1999 on construction
services in Indonesia (Firman, 2006). There is still big gap between the stakeholders in
perceiving project management principles based on project partnering. All stakeholders must
be involved since the beginning by the project owner to create a kind of sense of ownership
on a level playing field.
With regard to dispute involving the community, a conflict also occurred in water supply
project in the outskirt of Jakarta where local people opposed to the construction of pipe
lines around their village. The project was almost abandoned when the foreign investors
could not take any more risks related to the delay because they were unable to deal with
the solution demanded by the local people. Again in this case, the investors did not take into
account the difficulties to manage all project stakeholders, more specifically the local
community. It was quite fortunate that one officer in charge at the regency office could
find her ways to solve it. When the investors became frustrated, they reported to
regency office about the dead lock in negotiating the solution. Head of regency instructed
a lady at his office to act as a mediator knowing that she owned all the hard and soft skills
to cover both sides: community and investors. The author interviewed her during the writing
of a case study and concluded that her success in resolving the conflict was backed up by a
transparent process, her integrity and the trust plus respect from all project stakeholders
(Sulistiowaty and Firman, 2013).
3. CONCLUSION
Project stakeholders rarely prepare themselves to enter any conflict situation particularly if
the contract documents do not specifically include the complete procedures for dispute
resolution. When amicable discussion through direct negotiation fails, the relationship
between the parties become less conducive to reach a mutual agreement. The next
common alternative for them to opt for arbitration or even a court settlement will not
be favorable for the parties. In such situation, they should not act like fire fighting
brigade but on the contrary they must prepare since the beginning a contract document
contains special clauses concerning mediation process. Moreover, it should also be noted the
importance of a thorough planning stage to cover most of the sensitive issues in depth with
a realistic scope, schedule and budget rather than spending more unnecessary time
overrun and cost overrun during the construction stage. Those sensitive issues include
technical matters such as unforeseeable physical conditions, scope creeping, monetary
situations as well as social related matters such as community or stakeholders acceptance
related to the project. The latter requires specific expertise of the mediator who comprehends
143
not only local wisdom of the community but also socio-economic elements of infrastructure
projects. It is, therefore, absolutely important to set up a system of capacity building
in promoting the role of mediator to deal with conflict resolution in the growing
development of multi-disciplinary infrastructure projects.
4. REFERENCES
FIDIC, 1996, ‗Guide to the use of FIDIC Construction Contract for Design-Build and
Turnkey‘, first edition, Lausanne.
Firman, Aries, 2002, ‗The impact of unforeseeable subsurface ground condition on the
construction of an intake dam facility‘, 3rd International Conference on Dam
Engineering, Singapore.
Firman, Aries, 2006, ‗Project Management and International Construction Contract: An
Investigation into Issues and Challenges in Indonesia‘, EURAM Doctoral
Colloquium, Oslo- Norway.
Firman, Aries, 2013, „Final report: on the dispute of West Jakarta Water Project‘,
Jakarta.
LPJKN, 2009, ‗Module for project management‘, Committee on Expert Certification,
Jakarta.
Matyas, HM, Mathews, AA, Smith, RJ and Sperry, PE, 1996, ‗Construction Dispute
Review Board Manual‘, Mc Graw Hill, New York.
PMI, 2013, „A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK)‘, United
States of America.
Sulistiowaty and Firman, Aries, 2013, ‗Private Investment in Water Supply Project‘,
Indonesia Infrastructure Round Table.
144
Economic Impact Assessment
145
Trans Sumatra Highway As The Economic Backbone Of Sumatra
Raj Kannan (Director of Tusk Advisory (Tusk)) – [email protected]
Britt Doornekamp (Project Manager, Tusk) – [email protected]
Amanda Djojonegoro (Senior Associate, Tusk) – [email protected]
Renan Raimundus (Associate, Tusk)– [email protected]
ABSTRACT:
The ability of governments to attract the private sector to invest in infrastructure projects is
diminishing due to the lack of bankable projects. However, these sub-financial projects are highly
important for economic growth. Governments need to lead in providing the required funding for the
provision of infrastructure, especially for those with high economic benefit to the national economy.
However,government resources are limited. Therefore, economic assessment is needed to determine
which projects should be prioritized to receive government funding support and in what form this
funding should be provided. Trans Sumatra Highway (TSH) is an example of such a project. With an
investment value of IDR 331.69 trillion (USD 28.8 billion), TSH will connect major cities in Sumatra,
creating multiple economic benefits even though the project is currently not commercially viable.The
economic assessment of TSH shows that the highway will contribute IDR 769.52 trillion (USD 66.91
billion) to national GDP through the multiplier effect of construction. TSH is expected to create
575,083 jobs in the construction sector and even more in other sectors. The long-term economic
impact is estimated to reach up toIDR 3316.90 Trillion (USD 288.43 billion) over 20 years.
Furthermore, TSH will reduce direct logistics costs (VOC and time savings) and indirect logistics
costs by at least IDR 3,536.31 trillion (USD 307.51 billion) in 2030.Other than providing optimal
funding support, the government needs to set up funds and empowercentral coordinatingagencies
such as KPPIP10to ensure higher quality of pre-FS and project preparation.
Keywords : Economic impact assessment; Trans Sumatra Highway; infrastructure crisis;
government funding support; Tusk Advisory
1
INTRODUCTION
Development of infrastructure is immensely crucial for the growth of the national economy.
In Indonesia particularly, various bottlenecks and lack of investments have been hindering
infrastructure development in the past. The main bottlenecks and impediments include
ambiguous legal and regulatory frameworks, uncertainty in land acquisition process,lack of
long-term financing and inadequately prepared projects. In addition, Indonesia also has
unresolved issues with spatial planning requirements, delays and uncertainties in the approval
of AMDAL (environmental permit) and IPPKH (Forest Right to Use Permit),poor asset
management and lack of consequence management. On the delivery side, Indonesia also
faces issues related to weak human capital and poor institutional capacity, lack of industry
capacity and absence of community support for infrastructure projects. As the result of these
issues andimpediments, infrastructure in Indonesia has been growing rather slowly, leading to
a dire situation of insufficient infrastructure to cater for the growing population and economic
growth.
In the power sector, the geographical complexity of Indonesia with over 17,000 islands
combined with the above listed impediments have made it difficult to satisfy surging demand
for electricity, resulting in only 76% electrification rates nationally11, the lowest in ASEAN
10
Committee for Acceleration of Priority Infrastructure Delivery
Data from 2012. National electrification rate was 80.5% in 2013 (Source: State Electricity Company of Indonesia/PLN).
11
146
region, and rural electrification of only 32%. In transportation sector, railway development is
currently concentrated in Java (72%) and Sumatra islands (28%) only, leading to high
logistics costs in other islands. In the airport sector, the growth of domestic and international
flights from 71.9 million to 155.2 million passenger per annum from 2005 to 2012 has put
considerable stress on the existing airports. Moreover, lack of water supply infrastructure has
led to the availability of drinking water of only 54 m3/capita/year in Indonesia, which is
significantly lower than in Thailand, which has 1,104 m3/capita/year, and much lower than
the ideal drinking water reserve of 1,975 m3/capita/year12.
It is quite evident from the above statistics that Indonesia is inan infrastructure crisis, which
requires a holistic solution in the form of comprehensive regulatory, fiscal, and institutional
reforms, in addition to implementing a series of priority projects that will address immediate
infrastructure needs.
However, in most countries in the ASEAN region and more particularly in Indonesia, the
ability of the governments to attract the private sector to invest in infrastructure projects is
diminishing. Not necessarily due to scarcity of private sector funds but more due to the lack
of bankable projects that can be sustained purely on a user pay charges basis. In addition,
poor connectivity between infrastructure assets such as airport and ports to main economic
activity areas, leading to expensive logistics costs often discourageinvestors from investing in
infrastructure projects.
However, these sub-financial projects are highly important to sustain and enhance economic
growth and accordingly it is imperative that the government leads in providing required and
necessary funding for the provision of infrastructure, especially for those with high economic
benefit to the national economy.
The question is therefore, how will the government choose which projects to fund first from
its limited resources. In the last decade,the government‟sbudget allocation for infrastructure
has been between 3% to 7% of the State Budget (APBN). It is expected that this budget
constraint will continue in the immediate future and as such, economic impact assessmentfor
the infrastructure projects that the government will fund becomes very important component
of the decision process. Economic impact assessment is the examination of benefits and
contribution of the project to the regional and/or the national economy.
The case study that will be discussed in the paper is the proposed Trans Sumatra Highway,
which is aimed to be the economic backbone of the Island of Sumatra. All sections of Trans
SumatraHighway, which aims to connect major cities on Sumatraisland,have FIRR 13below
12%, which makes it unattractive to private investors, who usually require FIRR above 18%.
For the construction of Trans Sumatra Highway, major investment of IDR
331.69trillion(USD 28.8 Billion14) is required and the SOE assigned to construct the first four
12
Based on“Background Study of Water Resources Development for RPJMN (National Medium-Term Development Plan)
2015-2019”, Ir. M. Donny Azdan, Director of Water Resources and Irrigation, Bappenas (National Development Planning
Agency), June 2013.
13
Financial Internal Rate of Return
14
Exchange rate: USD 1 = IDR 11,500
147
sections15(PT HutamaKaryaPersero) does not have the financial capacity to finance the
construction. However, since EIRR of the first four sections is assessed to be above 20%, and
between 13.5% and 23.4% for the other sections16, this project has high economic
importance, which justifies strong governmentsupport17.
This paper provides a literature review and estimation of the impact of infrastructure
investment in general and cites the proposed Trans Sumatra Highway as a case study for
project-specific economic impact analysis, with supporting international case studies where
appropriate. This paper concludes by suggesting policy and program recommendations to
improve economic impact assessment right from the pre-FeasibilityStudies of priority
projects earmarked for government funding.
2
MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 The relationship between infrastructure investment and economic growth
Empirical research, for example from Aschauer (2000), demonstrates solid evidence for a
positive relationship between infrastructure investment and economic development.A study
of Calderón, Moral-Benito and Servén (2011) found a positive effect of public infrastructure
spendingon economic growth, and a higher marginal returnif the quantity or quality of the
infrastructure stock is lower.
Mentolio and Solé-Ollé (2009) found that investment in transportation infrastructure,
especially roads, positively affects productivity of the region. Agénor and Moreno-Dodson
(2006) and Fourie (2006) found several channels through which infrastructure development
boosts the economy: lower cost of input factors in the production process; increased labor
productivity and growth of construction and construction-related industries; and long-term
maintenance jobs. Straub (2008) found that economies of scale and scope through
infrastructure development reduce the costs of transportation, which also positively affects
economic growth.
The impact of infrastructure development on the economy can be estimated through various
methods.Firstly, through the „multiplier effect‟, which captures the direct short-term effect of
construction, through induced demand for materials, equipment, labor, etcetera. Secondly,
medium- to long-term effects are estimatedthroughoutput elasticity, which captures
broadereconomic benefits over periods of20 years, or in some cases even longer.Finally,
there may be additionalnetwork effects and industrial development effects that exceed the
scope and time span of the estimated output elasticity,which are to be consideredin the
government‟s long-term (20+ years) sustainable plans.
15
Medan-Binjai (16.8 km), Palembang-Indralaya (22 km), Pekanbaru-Dumai (126 km) and Bakauheni-TerbanggiBesar (139
km).
16
HutamaKarya estimations, 2012-2013. Note: estimations from BPJT (2012) show EIRR below 12% for several sections,
but the majority of sections has EIRR > 12%.
17
Based on PIAFF-World Bank’s Toolkit for Public-Private Partnerships in Roads & Highways, generally speaking,
projects with EIRR > 12% should be implemented by the Government, while projects with EIRR > 15%should be
prioritized.
148
2.2
Analysis of the short-termeconomic impact through multiplier effect
Government spending to boost the national economy, also known as „Keynesian Economics‘,
has been the center of modern economic policy, especially in times of crisis, such as the wake
of Great Depression, euro zone crisis, and the recent global financial crisis, where there was a
need to artificially create demand to jumpstart the economy.
The multiplier effect, the ratio of increase or change of national output to the increase of
government spending, estimates the short-term impact of infrastructure investment on
economic output.It captures the demand shock caused by construction, but does not capture
the effects of a broader range of economic activities such as improved productivity, or the
improvement of supply-side economics.
In general, the multiplier effect in developing countries and underdeveloped countries is
higher than in more developed countries due to the crowding-out effect. For example,
Aschauer (1990) used data of 50 states in the United States of America from 1965 to 1983 to
estimate that the multiplier effect of core infrastructure is 2.23, suggesting that every $1 spent
on infrastructure will generate output of $2.23.
In a more recent study, Cohen, Freiling and Robinson (2012) estimated that the multiplier
effect of infrastructure development is about 2. In developing countries, Wang and Yen
(2013) found that Chinese government spending on infrastructure has a multiplier equal to or
above 3, while in Indonesia the multiplier effect for construction of infrastructure is estimated
at 2.32 (Permana and Asmara, 2010).
Compared to other types of investment, infrastructure investment is considered to be one of
the most effective in boosting the economy, due to its high impact in stimulating economic
activities, such as increased demand for raw materials and construction equipment, unskilled
labor for physical construction and skilled labor for services (e.g. consultants and
contractors), as well as indirectly related services, such as housing for workers, food and
restaurant businesses.
Though the multiplier effect includes employment creation in terms of GDP, employment
absorption is often also estimated in terms of the number of jobs created. Especially for
infrastructure projects, as the employment absorption of the construction sector is relatively
high and investment in construction is thus considered highly suitable as a strategy to reduce
unemployment.Labor elasticity estimates are usuallyused to estimate employment created
through economic growth (in this case, the economic growth has been induced by
infrastructure investment).
2.3
Analysis of the long-term economic impact through output elasticity
In addition to the multiplier effect, medium- to long-term effects of infrastructure investment
on theeconomy are captured by the „output elasticity‘, thepercentage increase of output when
stock of infrastructure capital increases by 1%. It captures the overall productivity increase in
the economy by the provision of infrastructure.
149
Road and other transport infrastructure will increase economic productivity through greater
mobility of goods and people, which results in reduction of logistics cost, higher
employment, and other channels. Electricity, water, and other utility infrastructure
increasesproductivity through a more stable input for manufacturing and commercial
activities in general. Provision of social infrastructure, such as schools and hospitals will also
increase productivity through a higher human capital. These effects of infrastructure
provision are captured by the ―shift supply curve to the right‖, thus increasing output
permanently.
Theoretically, infrastructure investments increase growth by preventing diminishing returns
to scale of private sector capital, raising marginal product of private capital, and raising the
rate of output growth (Fedderke, Perkins, Luiz, 2006).
Many studies have estimated the effect of infrastructure investment to the country‟s national
productivity and output. Most of the studies are based on growth theory, utilizing a
production function in which output is a function of labor, capital, and rate of technological
progress, adjusting for stock of infrastructure capital in a country.
Though various estimation methods have been used, such as Ordinary Least Square (OLS)
and Vector Auto Regression (VAR), the results consistently show that infrastructure capital
investment leads to higher productivity of economy. Aschauer (1989) estimated that the
output elasticity of core infrastructure in the United States is 0.24, far higher than other types
of government expenditure such as public office buildings, fire stations, etc. Easterly and
Rebelo (1993) estimated an output elasticity of 0.16 for transport and communication
infrastructure in developed countries.
More recent studies by Calderón, Moral-Benito, Servén (2011) estimated the output elasticity
of infrastructure ranging from 0.07 to 0.1 using the historical data of 88 countries. Studies in
developing countries have estimated even higher output elasticity of infrastructure
investment, such as 0.4 to 0.5 in India (Sahoo and Dash, 2009), 0.26 to 0.3 in South Asia
(Sahoo and Dash, 2012), and 0.27 to 0.35 in China (Sahoo, Dash, Nataraj, 2010). The higher
output elasticity in developing countries is due to higher marginal effect associated with a
relatively low stock of infrastructure capital.
The collective term‗Network connectivity‘is often used to describe a set of effects responsible
for a large portion of the output elasticity which manifests through many channels, such as
accessibility to other infrastructure, increased mobility of people and goods, increased export
and import and land value creation. Other factors that play a role are economies of scale and
scope, and positive spillovers from region-to-region and sector-to-sector, resulting into
increased productivity. Furthermore, reduction of logistics costs, vehicle operating cost and
time saving are significant factors in boosting the economy.
150
3
CASE STUDY: TRANS SUMATRA HIGHWAY
3.1 Background on Trans Sumatra Highway
Trans Sumatra Highway is a planned 2,608-km toll road consisting of 23 segments crossing
Sumatra Island from North to South18. The main corridor spans 1,813 km and the supporting
corridors 795 km. Trans Sumatra Highway will connect the 7 main hubs in the region, which
are Medan (with Port and Industrial Area Kuala Tanjung), Pekanbaru, Jambi, Palembang
(TanjungApiApi Port), Lampung, Serang (Krakatau Steel) and Jakarta19.
The total cost of the project is IDR 331.69 Trillion (USD 28.8 Billion) and the project has a
construction period of 10 to 12 years. Phase I consists of 4 sections20 and is planned to be
constructed between 2014 and 2018. Phase 2 consists of 6 sections and planned to be
constructed between 2016 and 2020, and finally, Phase 3 consists of 13 sections, which are
planned to be constructed between 2019 and 2025.
In the past, several sections were tendered as PPP, butdue to lowtraffic demand estimations,
they were not financially attractive to the private sector (FIRR < 18%). As the alternative
solution, the development of Phase Ihas recently been assigned to wholly-state-owned
enterprise PT HutamaKarya (Persero)21. The decision was based on the fact that the project is
crucial for Sumatra, as the second largest GDP contributor of Indonesia 22, and assignment to
a SOE was considered the most feasible way to accelerate the project.
However,PT HutamaKarya (Persero) does not have the financial capacity to fully fund the
construction of Phase 1. In order to strengthen PT HutamaKarya‟s capital structure, the
Government could contribute to the development through equity injection. Additionally, the
Government would need to provide Government guarantees for the required loan, since the
project is still not considered financially viable and investors may not be willing to provide
loan with sensible interest due to high risk. Finally, as regulated in Government Regulation
No. 45 of 2005 on State-Owned Enterprises, the Government shall provide compensation,
including margin, for developing a non-financially-viable project.The following sub-sections
provide economic impact assessment of Trans Sumatra Highway,which supports the
justification of Government funding for the project.
3.2
The multiplier effect of Trans Sumatra Highway construction
Using Permana and Asmara‟s estimate (2010) for Indonesia, a multiplier of 2.32,
construction of the Trans Sumatra highway with an investment value of IDR 331.69 trillion
(USD 28.8 billion), is estimated to contribute IDR 769.52 trillion (USD 66.91 billion) to
national GDP (in total during the construction period). It will mostly contribute to Sumatra‟s
Gross Regional Domestic Product (GRDP), as construction of the highway will require
18
Map of Trans Sumatra Highway: see Appendix.
Jakarta will particularly benefit if Sunda Strait Bridge project proceeds.
20
Medan-Binjai (16.8 km), Palembang-Indralaya (22 km), Pekanbaru-Dumai (126 km) and Bakauheni-TerbanggiBesar (139
km).
21
Presidential Regulation („PerPres‟) Number 100 of 2014 on Acceleration of Toll Road Development in Sumatra was
signed by the President on the 17th of September 2014 and promulgated by the Minister of Law and Human Rights on the
18th of September 2014.
22
Sumatra is the second GDP contribution with a contribution of 23.8%, compared to Java with 58%, based on data from the
Central Statistics Agency of Indonesia/BPS (2013).
19
151
mostly local resources. Construction materials, such as asphalt, cement and concrete, will be
provided locally and especially unskilled labor will be sourced from the surrounding areas.
Toll road construction will also stimulate the Sumatra‟s economy indirectly through the
demand for housing and daily needs of workers.
In terms of employment creation, based on data from Tadjoeddinand Chowdhury (2012), the
elasticity of employment in Indonesia for the construction sector is 0.563. Assuming the
construction takes 10 years, construction of Trans Sumatra is estimated to absorb 575,083
workers during the construction period23.
3.3
Long-term economic impact of Trans Sumatra Highway
In addition to the short-term impact, Trans Sumatra Highway is expected to have many
longer-term benefits. For example, the first phase will provide connectivity to strategic ports,
such as Bakauheni port, Belawan port, KualaTanjung port.In the context of MP3EI, Trans
Sumatra Highway construction will have a significant impact on the economic development
of the regions and industries that have been identified, including SEZ MangkeSei, Industrial
Zone Dumai, SEZ TanjungApi-Api, SEZ MuaraEnim and the National Strategic Area of
Sunda Strait.
Assuming thatoutput elasticity ranges from 0.26 to 0.524, the investment of IDR 331.69
trillion (USD 28.8 billion) would generate IDR 1,724.79 trillion to IDR 3,316.90 trillion
(USD 149.98 – 288.43 billion)over 20 years25.
3.4
Reduction of logistics costs
3.4.1 Direct logistics costs
The two most important factors of a project‟s EIRR26 are the Vehicle Operating Cost (VOC)
and value of time savings, which are the direct logistics cost.
Vehicle operating costs are all costs associated with the operation of the vehicle under normal
conditions, including consumption of fuel, lubricants, tires, spare parts and maintenance,
depreciation, and insurance. These factors are estimated based on the type of vehicle (class IV27) and converted into dollars per 1,000 km. The most prevalent methods of PCI (1990) and
LAPI-ITB (1997) were used for analysis.
Table 8 Vehicle Operating Cost for Arterial and Toll Roads
Distance
arterial road
VOC arterial road
in IDR/km
Distance toll
road in km
VOC toll road in
IDR/km
23
Calculation: GDP growth increase from Trans Sumatra construction x labor force x elasticity = 0.85% x 120,172,003 x
0.563 = 575,083 workers Labor force and GDP data are retrieved from Central Statistics Agency of Indonesia/BPS (August
2013).
24
Based on literature review from developing countries in Section 2.
25
Calculation: IDR 331.69 trillion (USD 28.8 billion) x 0.26 x 20 years = IDR 1,724.79 trillion (USD 149.98 billion) over
20 years, IDR 331.69 Trillion x 0.5 x 20 years = IDR. 3,316.90 trillion (USD 288.43 billion) over 20 years.
26
EIRR is the Economic Internal Rate of Return, which is the rate of return at which the present value of economic costs
equals the present value of economic benefits.
27
Class I: sedan, jeep, pick up car, small truck, and bus; Class II: two wheelset truck; Class III: three wheelset truck; Class
IV: four wheelset truck; Class V: five wheelset truck
152
in km
(USD/km)
(USD/km)
Class I
3,475.4
1,242 (0.11 USD)
2,608
902 (0.08 USD)
Class II
3,475.4
4,036 (0.35 USD)
2,608
2,193 (0.19 USD)
Class III
3,475.4
4,422 (0.39 USD)
2,608
2,367 (0.21 USD)
Class IV
3,475.4
5,715 (0.50 USD)
2,608
3,276 (0.29 USD)
Class V
3,475.4
7,257 (0.63 USD)
2,608
4,240 (0.37 USD)
Source: Feasibility Study of Medan-Binjai (HutamaKarya), 2012-2013 and own calculations
The total annual VOC is the sum of the VOCs of each vehicle type multiplied by the Average
Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) for each type of vehicle, multiplied by 365 days. The total
VOC reduction as a result of toll road development is equal to the difference between the
total VOC of toll road users and the total VOC when these users would have used the arterial
road. As shown in the table below, the reduction of VOC increases over time due to
increasing traffic demand. The estimated VOC savings are IDR 23.36 trillion (USD 2.03
billion) in 2025 and IDR 33.32 trillion (USD 2.90 billion) in 2030.
Table 9 VOC Reduction in 2025 and 2030 (at constant prices)
Total VOC Arterial Road in IDR trillion
(USD Billion)
2025
2030
42.82 (USD 3.72)
60.95 (USD 5.30)
19.46 (USD 1.69)
27.63 (USD 2.40)
23.36 (USD 2.03)
33.32 (USD 2.90)
Total VOC Toll Road in IDR trillion
(USDbillion)
Total VOC in IDR trillion (USDbillion)
Source: Own estimations
The second most prevalent factor of EIRR, which is also covered by the output elasticity, is
the value of time savings. Since Trans Sumatra Highway will shorten travel distances and
increase the average travel speed, travel times will be reduced. The value of travel time
saving is based on Gross Regional Domestic Product (GRDP) of the region in which the road
will be constructed.
Table 10 Time Value based on GRDP
Time Value in IDR/hour (USD/hour)
Class I
13,783 (USD 1.20)
Class II
28,187.37 (USD 2.28)
Class III
31,355.89 (USD 2.73)
Class IV
31,355.89 (USD 2.73)
Class V
31,355.89 (USD 2.73)
153
Source: Feasibility Study of Medan-Binjai (HutamaKarya), 2012-2013 and Central Statistics
Agency of Indonesia/BPS (2013)
The total value of travel time savings is equal to the annual time savings in hours per vehicle
multiplied by the (monetary) value of time, multiplied by the AADT. As shown in the table
below, the value of travel time savings increases over time, due to increases in traffic
demand. Due to economic growth, it is also likely that the value of time will further increase
over time, which has not been taken into account in this assessment (Thus, even higher values
of travel time savings can be expected).
Table 11 Present Value of Time Savings in 2025 and 2030 (at constant prices)
2025
Value of time savings per day in
IDR billion (USD million)
Value of time savings per year in
IDR billion (USD million)
20.24 (USD 1.76)
2030
28.75 (USD 2.50)
7,387.06 (USD 642.35) 10,494.78 (USD 912.59)
Source: Own estimations
Additionally, similar projects in other countries have shownexceedingly successful outcomes.
For example, the North-South Expressway (NSE) in Malaysia is a toll road of approximately
870 km in Malaysia Peninsula, from Thailand to Singapore borders. The toll road passes the
states of Johor, Malacca, Negeri Sembilan, Selangor, Perak, Penang and Kedah, covering up
to 81% of the population which generate 89% of GDP of Malaysia Peninsula. This toll road
has successfully reduced travel time by 50% and perceived cost (vehicles operating cost and
time saving cost) by 25% compared to using the old route over the same distance.
India‟s National Highway Development Project (NHDP) Phase I, a 5,846-km toll road
connecting the four metropolitan cities of India28, has an expected annual growth of
passenger traffic of 12 to 15% and the expected growth of cargo traffic is 15% to 18%,
enabling further GDP growth. Morover, Ghani, Goswami and Kerr (2012) found a positive
impact of NHDP Phase I on the organization and performance of manufacturing. Entry rates
in the manufacturing sector have increased in a radius of 10 km from the network, but not in
areas further away. Labor productivity and total factor productivity have increased in the
same area, and also not further away. Both NSE (Malaysia) and NHDP (India) have
demonstrated huge economic benefits, especially through the development of industrial zones
along the corridor.
3.4.2 Indirect logistics costs
Besides direct logistics costs, such as vehicle operating cost and value of time, there
are indirect logistics cost that highly exceed the direct costs.
Logistics costs in Indonesia are relatively high compared to its neighbouring countries,
accounting for 27% of GDP compared to only 20% in Thailand and 13% in Malaysia.
Developed countries such as the USA, Japan and Singapore have significantly lower logistics
28
New Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, and Chennai (Golden Quadrilateral)
154
cost, accounting for only 8 to 10.6% of GDP, providing huge competitive advantages to their
economies. (Bahagia et al, 2013).
The Indonesian Government recently began to take real efforts in increasing its international
competitiveness through reduction of logistics costs. Realistically, a reduction of 17% (from
27% to only 10% of GDP) would be achievable by 2030 if major infrastructures such as
Trans Sumatra Highway are being constructed. Based on this 17% reduction, the contribution
of Trans Sumatra Highway‟s has been estimated below.
Indonesian GDP was IDR 9,985 trillion (USD 868.26 billion) in 2013. Based on a
conservative scenario, assuming inflation of 6% and economic growth of 7.15%, Indonesian
GDP will be IDR 86,983 trillion (USD 7.56 trillion) in 2030. This also complies with
MP3EI‟s GDP target of USD 4 to 4.5 trillion by 2025.
Figure 11 GDP Projection 2014-2030
Source: Projection based on data from the Central Statistics Agency of Indonesia/BPS
Sumatra‟s share of GDP was 23.81% in 2013, and considering its continuous growth in GDP
contribution over the past 13 years, its share in 2030would be 27.68% in “business as usual”
case. However, since the new Government under President Jokowi is expected to take strong
efforts to increase the share of the second largest GDP contributor, the share of Sumatra‟s
GDP is expectedto reach 35% by 2030.
Another important factor to be taken into account is the proportion of logistics costs related to
road transportation. Land transportation accounts for 72.21% of the transportation costs,
while transportation costs account for 46.25% of logistics costs. The other logistics costs
consist of 36.38% inventory cost and 17.36% administration cost (Bahagia et al, 2013).
Inventory and administration costs are assumed to be reduced as a result of the construction
of any type of infrastructure, with a contribution of 65% of road transportation in the case of
Sumatra, as Trans Sumatra Highway will become Sumatra‟s backbone and most important
infrastructure project in terms of connectivity between industrial and residential zones, ports,
airports and other infrastructures.
Based on the assumptions above, shares of logistics cost can be estimated as follows:
155
Logistics Costs related to Road Transportation = Share of Land Transportation +
Share of Inventory Cost Related to Road + Share of Administration Cost Related to
Road = (0.4625 x 0.7221) + (0.3638 x 0.65) + (0.1736 x 0.65) = 0.6832
TSH’s Share in Logistics Cost = Sumatra‟s GDP Share x Logistics Costs related to
Road Transportation = 0.35 x 0.6564 = 0.2391
Finally, these will be used to estimate logistics cost reduction due to TSH:
Logistics Cost Reduction due to TSH in 2030 = GDP in 2030 x (Reduction of
Logistics Cost x TSH‟s Share in Logistics Costs) = IDR 86,983 trillion x 0.17 x
0.2391 = IDR 3,536.31 trillion (USD 307.51 billion29).
Hence, logistics cost reduction due to Trans Sumatra Highway in 2030 is estimated to be IDR
3,536.31 trillion (USD 307.51 billion), or, in terms of GDP, the reduction is 4.07% of GDP in
2030. This is considered to be a major contribution, particularly because it highly exceeds its
initial investment cost of IDR 331.69 trillion (USD 28.8 billion).
4
RESULT AND DISCUSSION :ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT AS FUNDING
DECISION-MAKING TOOL
4.1
Government funding for infrastructure provision
Theoretically, government intervention is imperative in the presence of externality. The term
„externality‟, first mentioned by Pigou (1920) in The Economics of Welfare, expresses a
condition of divergence between private and social costs and benefits, and the need for the
Government to correct the condition if social benefits outweighs private benefits. For
instance, through public goods provision, where the Government needs to provide funding or
subsidy to optimize the provision.
After Pigou‟s publication, there have been several prominent studies in the field of
externality and social costs/benefits, including Ellis and Fellner (1943), Scitovsky (1954),
Buchanan and Stubblebine (1962), and more recent studies such as Canning (1999), who
explores the social rate of return of infrastructure investment. Moreover, many studies related
to the effect of government contribution through public expenditure in the provision of public
goods have been conducted. For instance, a study by Aschauer (1989) found that core
infrastructure, such as roads, highways, airports, mass transit and water systems, has higher
explanatory power on economic growth than other types of public expenditure. Easterly and
Rebelo (1993) found that public expenditure in transport and communication as core
infrastructure is consistently correlated with growth.
Considering the situation in Indonesia, with itssignificant lack of infrastructure and many
large-scale greenfield infrastructure projects that are not commercially viable (low FIRR),
and given the government‟s responsibility as public goods provider,it is hard to argue the
need for government spending on infrastructure projects such as Trans Sumatra.
Moreover, other countries have clearly proven that government support, especially in the
initial phase of large infrastructure projects, is the key to economic the project‟s success. For
29
As in previous sections, exchange rate is USD 1 = IDR 11,500.
156
example, the North-South Expressway in Malaysia had traffic demand below the threshold to
make the project commercially attractive in the first place. Therefore, the Government of
Malaysia (GoM) provided substantial support with a loan ofUSD 634 million and soft loan
facilities (Fisher and Babbar, 1996).
The support package from the governmentincluded loans for unprofitable sections of the
expressway, a traffic revenue guarantee to provide financial support if toll revenue would not
reach a certain level and external risks agreements to reduce exchange rate risk (Kuranami et
al, 1999). Moreover, a 6% toll increment was secured. However, within 10 years of
operation, the road turned out to be highly profitable, so that the traffic revenue guarantee has
never been called and the 6% toll increment was not needed. Today, the NSE generates RM 1
billion (~USD 306 million) in surplus revenue every year and more importantly, 27% of
Malaysia‟s GDP is generated along the 900km corridor of the NSE.
4.2
Economic assessment to select projects with high economic benefits
The Government of Indonesia needs to choose which project to support, because it
ispractically not possiblefor the government to fund every single infrastructure project, due to
budgetary constraints and public debt limitation. As an illustration, Figure 12below shows the
gap between required infrastructure investment and available funding from government
budget in 2015-2019 based on the background study for RPJMN 2015-2019. In order for the
country to develop and reach middle-income standard by 2020, massive infrastructure
investment of 5,619 Trillion IDR is needed. However, the available funding for infrastructure
from government is estimated to be only 1,370 Trillion IDR for the next 5 years, leaving
funding gap of 4,249 Trillion IDR.
Figure 12: Infrastructure Funding Gap 2015-2019 (IDR trillion)
4,249
5,619
Funding gap
Funding needed for
infrastructure
1,370
baseline
Available government
funding
Source: Background study for RPJMN 2015-2019, BAPPENAS
The shortage of government budget to infrastructure investment requires the government to
choose projects to fund. To choose which projects to fund, economic impact analysis plays a
crucial role. Each infrastructure project has its unique economic costs and benefits and the
higher the benefits of a project compared to its cost, the higher the economic return on
157
investment (EIRR). These projects with higher EIRR should be the ones the government
prioritize for government funding.
In Indonesia, economic assessment is part of the Pre-Feasibilty Study conducted by the GCA
or project owner, as stated in Bappenas Regulation No. 6 of 2012 on the Procedures to
Develop Infrastructure Project Planning (for PPP Projects).Bappenas Regulation No. 3/2012
on General Guidelines of Implementation of cooperation between the government and
business entities in provision of infrastructure provides more details on the substance of the
economic study: Social Cost Benefit Analysis should ensure social benefit and economic
sustainability; cost ratio with/without the project; economic benefit is the conversion of the
financial price into an economic (shadow) price for each input and output based on
appropriate economic conversion factors and EIRR/ENPV needs to be estimated using
economic and social discount rate; sensitivity analysis is required.
However, the regulatory framework is not sufficient to guarantee high quality, while it is of
high importance that economic analysis is done properly and accurately.The reason why
extensive economic impact analysis often does not happen in Indonesia is funding limitations
and human resources capacity, resulting in delay and higher probability of making the
suboptimal decisions.
For example, Trans Sumatra Highway project encountered difficulties in convincing
stakeholders of its high economic benefits and the need to accelerate its development.
Though FIRR is below the required level to attract investors due to low traffic estimations,
economic justification should be sufficient to convince stakeholders, as EIRR for first four
sections arebetween 21.2% to 23.4%.
Moreover, small projects identified in Bappenas‟ PPP book, suchas Lamongan Water Supply
and East Agam Waste Management, with investment values below US$ 50 million, do not
have proper Pre-FS studies, making it difficult for government to justify providing
government support.
The above cases are not stand-alone cases. Many MP3EI projects do not yet have appropriate
Pre-Feasibility studies and the Government thus cannot assess the importance of the project
and the most suitable funding scheme.
5
CONCLUSION
5.1 Alternative funding scheme to enhance infrastructure delivery
This paper has demonstrated that government funding support is needed for projects with
high economic benefits. In addition, it is highly important that the government optimally
structures its funding to benefit both public sector and private sector.
Under the current system, the available funding schemes are limited and usually Presidential
Decrees for State Capital Investments (Penyertaan Modal Negara/PMN)are required, which
have the disadvantage that the government needs to fully pay upfront. Moreover,issuance of a
Presidential Decree is time-consuming, which has already caused project delay in many
cases, for example in the case of Trans Sumatra Highway.
158
It is thus imperative that the government allows and encourages the use of alternative funding
schemes, such as“Performance Based Annuity Scheme” (PBAS). PBAS is a public private
partnership scheme in which the concessionaire earns a sum of money from the government,
either semi-annually or through an agreed specified periodic term, through “annuity
payments” during concession period. The payment is given only after the concessionaire
delivers the completed asset as agreed in the contract terms.
PBAS providesmultiple benefits to the government. Firstly, it eliminates completion risk
because the payment to concessionaire is conditional on the completion of the
asset.Secondly, it eliminates the budget overrun risk, since the payment is done incrementally
over a long period of time instead of the traditional lump sum payment for construction.
Government can also manage to fund more projects because the investment cost is spread
over multiple years. Thirdly, it improves the quality of operation and maintenance through
“Performance Based” scheme, which will minimize the O&M risk. PBAS also provides
certainty to private sector through payment guarantee, thus increasing the bankability of the
project and reducing funding cost.
In order to enable PBAS, government needs to provide strong commitment, especially in
multiyear-budget contracts within the Ministry of Finance. Currently, the Ministry of Finance
accommodates multiyearbudget contracts of 5 years. Due to the nature of infrastructure
concession which can span as long as 50 years, PBAS requires longer budget commitment
from government to work optimally.The Ministry of Finance needs a regulatory reform to
allow for longer multiyear-budget contracts.
5.2. Institutional Reforms to improve the quality of Pre-Feasibility Studies
Understanding the importance of the quality of Pre-Feasibility studies (Pre-FS), in
particularincluded economic assessment,the Government of Indonesia should utilize the
Committee for Acceleration of Priority Infrastructure Delivery (Komite Percepatan
Penyediaan Infrastruktur Prioritas/ KPPIP)30.
KPPIP‟s involvement in infrastructure projects begins from the early stage of PreFSscreening via one of its members, Bappenas. Directly from this stage, high quality and
standardized Pre-FS studiesshould be ensured as it would highly contribute to the quality of
priority project selection.
Therefore, KPPIP would develop Pre-FS guidelines to encourage high quality and
standardized Pre-FS development, applicable to all project owners. Included in the Pre-FS
requirements are economic and financial analysis, which are crucial for KPPIP to determine
appropriate funding schemes and sources as well as inclusion of a project on the priority
list.Important is that KPPIP will be managed by private sector resources in order to ensure
that its members have the required knowledge and technical skills.
30
KPPIP has been established recently, with the ratification of Presidential Regulation No. 75/2014 on the Acceleration of
Priority Infrastructure Delivery. It includes members from Coordinating Ministry of Economic Affairs, Ministry of Finance,
Ministry of National Planning (Bappenas) and the National Land Agency (BadanPertanahan Negara/BPN). KPPIP has the
power to coordinate and make crucial decisions in infrastructure provisions.
159
Of the IDR 80 billion (USD 6.96 million) budget allocated for KPPIP, roughly 50% (IDR 40
billion/USD 3.48 million) would be allocated for pre-FS review and re-do.KPPIP would take
a similar role as the India Infrastructure Project Development Fund (IIPDF), which has been
established by the Government of India to provide financial assistance for major
infrastructure projects. IIPDF has the purpose to finance the cost of project development,
such as Feasibility Studies, financial structuring and consultancy services31.
However, in the long run, KPPIP should be transformed into an “Infrastructure Crisis
Management Agency” (ICMA) which would be responsible for delivering priority
infrastructure projects. ICMA would be a limited lifespan company, with a maximum
lifespan of 10 years, established via parliamentary approval with similar powers to IBRA32. It
should have a mandate to coordinate the delivery of projects that are considered and selected
as priority for the nation, which would logically consists of high economic impact projects.
Therefore, ICMA would need to have the power to coordinate multiple ministeries and
agencies related to the projects and would ideally play a role in solving conflicting national,
regional and local laws related to the projects.
There is also a need to establish a Joint Government Industry Panel on Infrastructure as a
consultative body to ICMA onthe identification of priority projects. Various industries
involved in this Panel would attract stronger buy-in from all sectors and reduce controversies
in priority project selections.
In addition, the PPP unit under the Ministry of Finance, which is planned to be established in
2015, would need to play a role in improving the quality of Pre-FS for PPP projects as they
would need to assess them to decide on the optimal funding support.
6
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7
APPENDIX: MAP OF TRANS SUMATRA HIGHWAY
Banda Aceh
Batam
Medan
Batu Ampar
Binjai
Hang Nadim
Dumai
Sibolga
Pekan Baru
Padang
Jambi
Indralaya
Palembang
Kayu Agung
PHASE 1
Bengkulu
PHASE 2
PHASE 3
Bandar Lampung
Terbanggi besar
Bakauheni
Source: PT HutamaKarya (Persero), 2013
163
Infrastructure, Accessibility, And Kotadesasi Effects After
Decentralization: Contributions Of Cities To Rural Economic Development
On Sulawesi And In Other Island Regions Of Indonesia
Jennifer Day, Faculty of Architecture, Building, and Planning, The University of Melbourne
[email protected]
ABSTRACT :
If the Government of Indonesia is going to achieve its national priority of moving toward spatial
equity among the seven island regions, it is critical that the drivers of rural development be better
understood. The motivation for this paper is to deepen the evidence base for understanding the
contributions of urban agglomerations in Indonesia to national prosperity, and to understand the
extent to which Indonesia‘s cities create opportunities and prosperity for the populations in their
rural hinterlands. I examine the characteristics of cities that create and constrain growth in
Indonesia‘s rural regions, with a particular focus on the Sulawesi Island Region. I improve on the
literature in three significant ways: by integrating spatial urban-to-rural spillover effects – that is, the
effects that cities have on their rural neighbors; by including disaggregated spatial spillover effects
for infrastructure, accessibility, capital, and human capital; and by creating indicators that represent
cities and their hinterlands along a continuum of urbanization, rather than as a dichotomy. Major
findings include that cities on Sulawesi are not as economically integrated with their rural neighbors
in terms of growth; that the returns to education, roads, and electricity reliability on Sulawesi are
more pronounced than in other island regions; and that Sulawesi‘s infrastructure spending – though
critical – may be a challenge to mobilize.
Keywords: Indonesia, Sulawesi, infrastructure, spillovers, growth
1. INTRODUCTION
The motivation for this paper is to deepen the evidence base for understanding the
contributions of urban agglomerations in Indonesia, to national prosperity. In recent work,
The World Bank(2012)has argued that Indonesia could more effectively leverage
urbanization for economic growth. Cities in Indonesia, the report says, do not create the
same economic benefits for the country‟s people as effectively as do cities in peer countries
such as China, India, Vietnam, and Thailand.
As with any country where there is significant regional variation, some of Indonesia‟s
metropolitan areas have performed better than others at leveraging their populations,
endowments, and resources for economic gain. Further, the extent to which Indonesia‟s
cities create opportunities and prosperity for the populations in their rural hinterlands, also
varies significantly by region. With this backdrop, in this paper, I examine the characteristics
of cities that create and constrain growth in Indonesia‟s rural regions. I take a particular
focus on the Sulawesi Island Region.
Indonesia is an archipelagic nation composed of around 17-18,000 islands (CIA, 2013)33,
often divided into seven island regions. This paper focuses on Sulawesi, though it also
provides context for an analysis of Sulawesi by examining the country as a whole. I focus on
33
There is some disagreement over the count of islands among sources. The CIA Factbook, cited above, estimates the
number to be closer to 17,000. Several online resources and a few academic publications reference a 2002 survey by LAPAN
(LembagaPenerbagan Dan AntariksaNasional, National Institute of Aeronautics and Space of Indonesia) which counts the
number of islands at 19,307. I am inclined to trust the Indonesian estimates but cannot locate this resource to cite it. Since the
number of islands is not of material significance to this work, I merely note the discrepancy.
164
Sulawesi for a number of reasons. As of 2010, Sulawesi was one of the least urbanized
regions of Indonesia, with about one third of the population living in cities. The only lessurbanized region in the country is Eastern Indonesia, wherein 30 percent of the population
resides in urban regions. From this low base of urbanization, Sulawesi‟s cities are growing
fast – among the fastest in Indonesia (The World Bank, 2013).
This combined low urbanized population and fast urbanization rate creates challenges
particular to this type of urbanization process. Access to water, sanitation, electricity, and
roads on Sulawesi are sub-par by national standards, sitting just below the national averages
on each measure. Infrastructure spending is also low by national standards, as is the
provincial government‟s capacity to raise funds for infrastructure(The World Bank, 2013). In
short, Sulawesi is a part of Indonesia where urbanization and infrastructure provision lags
behind, and thus, where infrastructure and urban planning can still be crafted to create the
broadest possible benefit to the most people.
International evidence strongly suggests that infrastructure development is crucial for
economic development. If the Government of Indonesia is going to achieve its national
priority ofmoving toward spatial equity among the seven island regions(Bappenas, 2011),
then more information is needed about the forces that drive growth in strategic locations such
as Sulawesi. Since the national decentralization process began in 1999, much of the
responsibility for local development in strategic growth corridors has moved to provincial
and district governments. Since these governments often lack critical capacities such as to
borrow significant funds for infrastructure development (The World Bank, 2013), some of
the responsibility for funding infrastructure may fall back to the national government. Thus,
economic development on Sulawesi of both local and national strategic concern.
This work I present in this paper is significant for a number of reasons. First, it is significant
in the methodological concerns it adds to the body of knowledge about growth and
infrastructure in Indonesia. Previous studies of Indonesia in general have found a
disappointing lack of significance in growth models, particularly for longer analysis periods,
e.g., McCulloch and Sjahrir(2008). I incorporate spatial analysis methods that improve the
models‟ predictive capacity significantly, and that also go beyond the standard dichotomous
urban-rural classifications to create a more-nuanced picture of urbanization and its impacts.
Second, this paper focuses particularly on urban-to-rural spillover effects, examining the
impacts that cities have on their rural neighbors. Third, I focus on a neglected but important
region of Indonesia – one which has the chance to preclude the pitfalls of unplanned
urbanization and inadequate infrastructure provision that plague the national capital, Jakarta.
Toward this end, the objectives of this paper is as follows:



To provide a statistical description of infrastructure stocks and/or access to infrastructure
in Sulawesi as compared to other island regions: Sumatra, Kalimantan, Java/Bali, and
Eastern Indonesia;
To assess the impacts of infrastructure stocks/access to infrastructure on economic growth
(and other relevant outcomes) in Sulawesi and the rest of Indonesia; and
To examine the (positive or negative) infrastructure and/or economic growth spillover
effects from major urban areas in Sulawesi to the rest of the island.
165
2. BACKGROUND
This paper pays attention to infrastructure and economic geography linking the growth of
cities to the prosperity of their rural hinterlands.As an analytical device, I use spillover effects
and spatial statistics, capitalizing on theory that calls for nuanced considerations to help us
make appropriate and useful distinctions between urban and rural places. This literature
review provides a background to inform the forthcoming analysis. I begin with a discussion
of how economic geography is theorized and operationalized to understand the drivers of
growth. Then, I review the evidence on spillover effects. Finally, I take up the issue of the
ethics of creating knowledge around the urban-rural distinction, and examine the nuance that
the desakotaframework allows us to bring to the research.
2.1. Leveraging Cities for Growth
At least since the 1890s or so (Marshall, 1890), urban analysts have concerned themselves
with understanding the impacts of spatially-agglomerated people and economic activity – of
cities. Today, as Asia‟s mega-urban regions grow to populations counted in the tens of
millions, and as population urbanizes at rates never before encountered in human history,
these questions are no less relevant than they were in Marshall‟s time. This paper is about
the impacts that urban agglomerations have on their hinterlands. It is about relationships
between population agglomeration and the presence of natural endowments, assembly of
human capital, and amassing of public goods.
The importance of urban regions to national growth is widely acknowledged.However,
despite the rich tradition of research in the field, there is little collective agreement regarding
the relative importance of the processes underlying those benefits of agglomeration (Glaeser
and Gottlieb, 2009), or the magnitude of those benefits. As the theory goes, cities are born
out of some combination of geographic advantages. Cronon(1991) calls this the “first
nature” of geography. From inception, cities grow and shrink – both in population and
economic terms – based on a number of factors. These underlying factors that drive the
process of agglomeration are the subject of decades of study. Cronon(1991) attributes
agglomeration to continued human investment toward the amassing of public goods in the
city. This assembly of public goods, Cronon calls the “second nature” of geography. Using
Chicago as an example, he cites major human investments such as a dredged harbor, a canal
system, or a marketplace, as the fuel for agglomeration. Krugman (Krugman, 1991b,
Krugman, 1991a) usesdifferent language, but stresses the impact of transportation costs on
agglomeration, as well as stressing the importance of returns to scale from population
agglomeration. Davis and Henderson (2003) find that, among other factors, investment in
inter-regional infrastructure and increased fiscal decentralization are causally liked to the
movement of urban concentration from primate to non-primate cities.
Other analysts attribute part of the agglomeration process to heightened levels of knowledge
exchange and knowledge spillovers that urban areas provide. From the pioneering
contributions of Marshall (1890), Jacobs (1969), Romer(1986) and Lucas (1988), a broad
literature has evolved that examines the positive externalities resulting from the
agglomeration of knowledge and human capital. This early work did not consider the
166
underlying processes by which knowledge was transferred between actors in urban
agglomerations. More recent and more sophisticated analyses examine these underlying
processes. For instance, Berliantet al(2006) posit that agents engage in knowledge transfer
by seeking matches (i.e, other agents possessing a similar type and level of knowledge),
thereby improving production efficiency.Glaeser and Mare (Glaeser and Mare, 2001) observe
the wage premium among American cities and attempt to explain it in a study of inter-urban
migrant wage patterns. They conclude that a significant portion of the wage premium stays
with workers after they leave cities. This, they conclude, is evidence that “cities speed the
accumulation of human capital.”
Equally impressive literatures exist, however, that address agglomeration from an industrial
perspective – that is, that define agglomeration based on the clustering of industry rather than
people; for instance: (Krugman, 1991b, Krugman, 1991a, Krugman, 2007, Fujita and
Krugman, 1995, Barro and Sala-i-Martin, 1991a, Beardsell and Henderson, 1999, Ellison and
Glaeser, 1997, Ellison and Glaeser, 1999, Mukkala, 2003). In Indonesia, Deichmannet
al(2005) study the propensity of manufacturing firms to locate off-Java, and conclude that
even large infrastructure improvements would have little effect on firms‟ preferences for
settlement on Java. McCulloch and Sjahrir(2008) conclude that nearness to economically
growing regions is a significant indicator of a district‟s economic performance. Fan and
Scott (Fan and Scott, 2003) find evidence of heightened productivity attributable to industrial
agglomeration in China. Glaeser and Gottleib(2009) discuss industrial clustering, but assert
that the major agglomerative benefit in modern cities is the role of density in speeding the
flow of ideas.
The contents of this section establish the importance of paying attention to cities in analysis
of economic development – and in particular, to their industrial composition, natural and
infrastructure endowments, ongoing investment in infrastructure, and human capital
accumulation. The next sections establish the influences that spatial proximity can have on
growth, which is another particular focus of this study.
2.2. Spillover Effects
Neighbors can influence each other in myriad ways, with effects spilling across borders and
jurisdictions. Spillovers can occur from conflicts(Murdoch, 2002, Vothknecht and Sumarto,
2011), innovation and technology (Paci and Pigliaru, 2001, Bottazzi and Peri, 2003, Ciccone,
1996), and as I will demonstrate in the remainder of this section, economic productivity and
growth, and infrastructure. Furthermore, studies of the influence of neighbors can occur with
many types of jurisdictions as the unit of analysis, from nations and super-national regions
like the European Union, to sub-national jurisdictions like Indonesian Districts and Sri
Lankan Divisional Secretariat areas. In this section, Ireview the empirical evidence for
spatial spillover effects measured at sub-national spatial units, since this is the scale with
which Iam concerned in Indonesia. I focus particularly on spillovers related to infrastructure
and growth, and where possible, I draw on the evidence for spillovers occurring from urban
to rural regions.
Recent work in Indonesia (Day and Ellis, 2013, Day and Lewis, 2013) suggests that
accounting for spillovers can increase the explanatory power of previous studies on growth in
167
the country. A recent report by the World Bank (2012) concludes that the country has not
leveraged its cities for economic development as efficiently as peer countries, but is not able
to be definitive about the processes underlying this lagging economic development. Growth
models attempting to sort out the underlying factors with sub-national analysis have failed to
return conclusive results, e.g., (McCulloch and Sjahrir, 2008). A few studies have focused on
spatial effects in sub-national growth models for Indonesia – namely,(Day and Ellis, 2012a,
Day and Ellis, 2012b, Day and Ellis, 2013, Day and Lewis, 2013, McCulloch and Sjahrir,
2008, Rumayya et al., 2005)Though the study is generally inconclusive, one important
relationship that McCulloch and Sjahrirdo identify is that nearness to a growing region has
enhanced economic growth and convergence. In a study of regional GDP (Gross Regional
Domestic Product, GRDP) in the East Java province of Indonesia between 1983 and 2002,
Wardaya grouped administrative districts into rich and poor “clubs,” and studied the
convergence of spillover effects. The major finding from this research (that districts in poor
clubs diverged faster than rich ones) was not spillover-related. However, they found
spillover effects to be significant. In a number of sector-specific and general economic panel
growth models for data spanning from 1993 to 2007, Day and Ellis (2013a, b) conclude that
spatial effects are among the most significant in predicting economic growth. All of these
studies focus on the economic characteristics of neighbors, and fail to differentiate other
important spillover effects such as public capital, human capital, and infrastructure.
Day and Lewis (2013)improve on these studies by examining differentiated growth spillover
effects for Indonesian districts. They examine differentiated effects for infrastructure,
industrial composition, capital, and human capital factors; however, their study does not
address the effects of cities on rural neighbors. Day and Ellis (Day and Ellis, 2013) take on
the spillovers of cities onto rural neighbors in Indonesia, but again do not address the
differentiated spillover effects of infrastructure, public capital, and human capital. As Day
and Ellis (2013) and Day and Lewis (2013) demonstrate, accounting for the effects of
neighbors in predictive models of growth, improves the models‟ predictive power.
Outside of Indonesia, few studies examine either differentiated spillover effects or urban-torural spillovers. Those studies that address spillovers tend to focus on a particular area. For
instance, some studies examine value-added effects, e.g., Magalhaeset al (2000)in Brazilian
states in a panel dataset spanning 1975 to 1995; Ying (2003)in a study of neighbor effects in
Chinese regions from 1978 to 1998. Other studies examine spillover effects of infrastructure
improvements. Lall (2007) examines spatial spillover effects from road and communications
infrastructure in Indian states; and Perret (2011)considers the effects of power and water
infrastructure, and road infrastructure, on value added growth in the Russian Federation.
Both studies find significant effects.
2.3.
Kotadesasi Geography
This study includes in its scope, the effects of urban places on growth in rural ones. Since the
1950s at least, the urban-rural divide has been the subject of sustained debate in development.
Kuznets (1955) and later Williamson (1965) posit that extreme levels of income inequality
will be generally present only in the initial stages of development. As a country‟s national
income rises, resources and wealth will be spread over increasing parts of the territory. The
168
sentiment that “a rising tide lifts all boats” finds its way into more-current publications, such
as the World Development Report 2009, published by the World Bank (The World Bank,
2009).
In the modern, connected world, it is perhaps misguided to regard urban and rural as distinct.
As Douglass (1998) points out, for households and individuals in rural areas, daily life
involves both urban and rural elements. People who farm or engage in rural industry often
travel to cities to access markets, shopping, healthcare, and other urban services. Rural-urban
migrants often do not stay in the city the entire year, and move between their home villages
and urban areas following harvests and seasonal work.
Of further concern in studies of urbanization and urban-to-rural spillovers is that cities and
their hinterlands often conform more to a continuum than to a dichotomy. McGee (1969)
describes this pattern of urbanization askotadesasi, often shortened to desakota(McGee,
1969).The term is derived from the Indonesian words for city (kota), village (desa), and
Dutch-derived si (from ti, process). A kotadesasiurban region contains a core city,
metropolitan suburban areas, and hinterlands that are more or less urban based on factors
such as population density, livelihoods, interconnectedness, and spatial proximity. For
McGee, describing Southeast Asia along an urban-rural dichotomy is not useful or accurate.
The intensity of urbanization in Indonesia generates a need to allow for this complexity to be
reflected in analysis. The techniques I use to operationalize spillover effects in this paper, as
described in Section 3, reflect the nuance of McGee‟s definition.
The nuanced treatment of urban and rural that I use in this paper addresses, somewhat, the
debate that Douglass and McGee raise over the usefulness and ethical consequences of
distinguishing urban and rural people for analysis. The structure of the query – with a focus
on cities and their benefits to rural neighbors – also allows us to avoid engaging in another
major dilemma of analysts working in this area. Urban bias refers to a perceived or real
skew of economic policies are often seen to be benefitting urban areas disproportionately
over rural ones(Lipton, 1977, Lu and Chen, 2006). In Indonesia, Soemarwoto (1979)argues
that there is an exploitative relationship between the cities and their hinterlands. He cites as
evidence, the higher incidence of poverty in rural areas. The study described in this paper, by
recognizing the extent to which different factors influence growth in urban and rural areas,
allows for an exploration of the contributions of urban regions to improving growth outcomes
for rural places. In this way, the study allows us to comment on strategies that can help to
lessen urban bias if it exists.
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1. Data, Variables, and Spatial Units
All data come from various surveys and censuses conducted by Indonesia‟s Central Bureau
of Statistics (BPS) and the Ministry of Finance. GRDP per capita and other monetary values
are given in real 2000 Indonesian Rupiah (IDR). The spatial unit of analysis is Indonesian
local-government districts. In 1999, Indonesia began its “Big Bang” decentralization
process, transferring some spending and government functions to local (i.e., district)
169
governments. There were 298 administrative local-government districts before the process
began, including six in the Jakarta metropolitan area. By 2010, there were 491 districts. In
order to compare the same spatial units over time, I collapse district data to pre-Big Bang
configuration (298 districts). This study spans the post-Decentralization period of 2001 to
2010.
The analysis includes data for all districts for which there were data available. Subsequent
analyses will segregate spillover effects on rural areas, and analyze the effects of urban
spillovers on other urban and rural regions. As specified in the equations above, I use
indicators of population and workforce, land, labor, capital, and infrastructure. In particular,
I are interested in testing whether economic spillover effects are responsible for any part of
the growth and productivity in Indonesian districts, both for the overall economy and for
manufacturing industries, which are notably dependent on infrastructure provision.
To reflect the availability of land available for economic development, I employ as an
indicator, the reported unused land area for villages in the district. This comes from the
Village Potential Survey (PotensialDesa, or Podes), which was conducted in years 2003,
2005, and 2008 of the study period. Intermediate years were interpolated linearly. As
indicators of the size of the labor force and the capacity of that labor force to generate
economic activity, I use working age population and mean years of schooling. These data
come from the annual National Socioeconomic Survey (Susenas). Following theory that
distinguishes the attractive powers of some infrastructure (power, water, etc.) and centrifugal
features of other infrastructure (roads), I develop two indicators of a district‟s infrastructure.
The first of these infrastructure variables reflects the percent of manufacturing electricity
purchased from the national electric company, PLN. This data comes from the annual Large
and Medium-Scale Manufacturing Survey, or StatistikIndustri(SI).
The second is the
proportion of villages served by an asphalt or gravel road (from Susenas). Data on capital
owned by manufacturing firms also comes from the SI data.
As indicators of capital availability and effectiveness, I include capital owned and capital
investment by medium and large manufacturing firms. The data for this indicator also comes
from the StatistikIndustri. I acknowledge that electricity and capital data gathered from
manufacturing firms (the SI data) are non-ideal for measuring whole-economy growth.
However, I view them as suitable proxies in the absence of other data sources on these
attributes of districts, in light of evidence pointing to industry as the largest sectoral
beneficiary of public infrastructure provision compared with other economic sectors (HoltzEakin and Lovely, 1996, Moreno et al., 1997).
3.2.
Urban-to-Rural Effects
Herein, I refer to the latter of these effects (urban neighbors‟ effects) as urban-to-rural
spillover effects. These model results, then, show patterns and trends for rural regions; each
observation included in the estimation of the models is for a rural district. Districts were
classified as urban or rural based on Uchida and Nelson‟s (UCHIDA and NELSON,
2008)Agglomeration Index, and detailed in the World Bank report on Indonesia, titled, “The
Rise of Metropolitan Regions: Towards Inclusive and Sustainable Regional Development”
(The World Bank, 2012). This process is further detailed by Day et al. (2014). To
170
summarize very briefly, these authors contend that metropolitan definitions in Indonesia and
other developing countries, lags behind the pace of urbanization. They propose a framework
for identifying urban regions that recognizes places as urban based on density and proximity
requirements, rather than on government classification. This process results in a much larger
proportion of Indonesia being classified as urban for analysis purposes, than if government
classifications for districts were used. Figures 1 and 2 map the urban regions as defined by
the Agglomeration Index (blue) and government designations (black), for Western and
Eastern Indonesia.
Urban regions are considered in this analysis, only in their contribution to spillover effects in
rural areas. The converse relationship, rural-to-urban spillover effects, were not computed
here. Neither were the contributions of rural neighbors‟ to other districts, included here.
3.3.
Econometric Models
Econometric models were developed that test the relationships between economic growth and
various demographic, capital and infrastructure indicators, and particularly the urban-to-rural
spillover effects of these indicators. I use the modified Durbin-Watson framework proposed
by Day and Lewis (2012), where the final model to be estimated is:
N
N
j=1
j=1
(gy )i,t = a (I - lWt,gy )S + b ln(y0 )i,t + d å (Wy0 ) ln(y0 )i,t + l å (Wgy )t (gy ) j,t +
g1 (Land0 )i,t + g 2 (Labor0 )i,t + g 3 (Capital0 )i,t + g 4 (Infrastructure0 )i,t +
N
N
t 1 å (WLand )t (Land0 ) + t 2 å (WLabor )t (Labor0 ) j,t +
j=1
j=1
N
N
j=1
j=1
+t 3 å (WCapital )t (Capital0 ) j,t + t 4 å (WInfrastructure )t (Infrastructure0 ) j,t + vi,t
(1)
171
Figure 1. Urban Agglomerations, Western Indonesia
Figure 2. Urban Agglomerations, Eastern Indonesia
172
Where gy is growth in a variable of interest, e.g., GRDP per capita, i is a district, j refers to
all other districts that could influence i, and w is a weight matrix given by a gravity formula:
W ij =
(ATTRACTION j )
eg
(SEPARATION ij )
where g represents a modeler-defined impedance value (presumed here to be 1). I choose the
gravity method for development of W, reasoning that spillover effects for a given district in
Indonesia would be influenced by not only the magnitude of the effect elsewhere, but also the
economic distance – i.e., functional separation between two places as reflected by economic
factors (The World Bank, 2009) – between that district and its neighbors. As a measure of
separation, I use road travel time, generated from road network data and presumed travel
speeds in ArcGIS. Attraction is proxied by district population. This approach is superior to a
distance or adjacency-based approach in that it does not assume symmetric and reciprocal
spillover effects between two regions. Rather, this approach allows for uneven effects
between districts (Perret, 2011).I note that I have removed self-influence from each of the
terms in the equations, so the results shown do not include a district‟s own self-influence on
spillover effects acting upon it.
I also use a local Moran‟s I statistic to illustrate spillover effects descriptively (Moran‟s I
statistics are not used in the econometric models). Moran‟s I can also be computed locally,
for individual districts. In this context, the Moran‟s I statistic provides a measure of spillover
effects between districts. The formula for the local Moran‟s I is:
Ii =
N(xi - x)
N
å(x - x)
i
i=1
N
å w (x
ij
j
-x)
2 j=1
(1)
Where x is a variable of interest, e.g., GRDP per capita, i is a district, j refers to all other
districts that could influence i, and w is a weight matrix.
A negative Moran‟s I implies that a district‟s performance on measure x is inversely
associated with its neighbors‟ performance – i.e., negative spillover effects are present. A
positive Moran‟s I implies that a district‟s performance on metric x is directly associated with
its neighbors‟ performance – i.e., positive spillover effects. My weight matrix in computing
the Moran‟s I is the same as the weight matrix used in the econometric modeling, which
appears earlier in this section. It is important to take note of one critical aspect of the weight
matrix: namely, that the weights used in both the econometric models and the Moran‟s I are
based on the population of nearby metropolitan areas and the distance of the district from
them. This is how I integrate desakota considerations into the metrics and models.
In this study, I compute the Moran‟s I for rural districts only, using the spillover effects from
urban areas only. This means that a negative Moran‟s I can be interpreted as follows: rural
areas with better accessibility to larger cities (measured by the weight matrix) grow more
slowly than those with worse accessibility. A positive Moran‟s I means that better spatial
accessibility to cities is associated with higher growth for those rural regions.
173
4.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1. Description of infrastructure stocks and/or access
In access to services for the population, Sulawesi varies in its relative performance among the
regions depending on the type of service. Figures 3, 5, and 6 show the proportion of
households that have access to electricity, sanitation, and clean water between 2001 and
2010. In each of the figures, urban and rural households are presented separately, and in
addition, the ratio of urban coverage to rural coverage is also presented for each service, to
reflect the amount of urban/rural disparity that exists in service provision.
Electricity access appears to be the most widespread of all services. Figure 3 shows that of
the five studies island regions, the lowest penetration are in urban areas is in Eastern
Indonesia, which had well in excess of 80 percent coverage in 2010. Rural areas in Eastern
Indonesia had the lowest electricity penetration rates with around 60 percent in 2001.
Electricity coverage rates rose during the study period in all island regions, and the urban-torural coverage ratio declined. This indicates that rural areas are catching up to urban areas in
electricity coverage. Figure 3 also indicates that, for electricity access, Sulawesi is about
average among the regions. In both urban and rural districts, it ranks above or on par with
Eastern Indonesia and Sumatra, and below Java and Kalimantan. It is generally on par with
Kalimantan and Sumatra in urban/rural disparity, though it is behind Java on this measure.
For verification purposes, I also proxy electricity reliability using the SI data on electricity
that manufacturing firms self-generated in the period between 2000 and 2009. Figure 4 plots
this proxy of electricity reliability for urban and rural areas, as well as the urban-rural ratio.
The main lessons from this figure at that all of the regions seem to experience erratic rather
than trending behavior, and there appears to be no apparent trend toward convergence within
any of the regions. The differences between Figure 3 and Figure 4 highlight the significant
possibility of generating different outcomes when using different metrics. I consider this
further in the model specification below.
Sanitation penetration rates (Figure 5) and water penetration rates (Figure 6) are generally
lower than electricity rates for all island regions, but an albeit slow convergence trend
appears to hold in sanitation access as well. Sulawesi lags behind much of the rest of the
nation with regards to sanitation access, but it‟s urban and rural penetration rates rose in the
study period, and the urban-to-rural ratios fell. Access to water is improving in all regions,
with urban areas outpacing rural areas such that convergence is not yet apparent.
In terms of roads, Sulawesi performs well relative to regions other than Java. Figure 7 shows
Sulawesi‟s linear kilometer of good roads per square kilometer of land area, and all roads per
square kilometer, respectively. Part (a) of the figure gives urban road coverage,part (b) gives
rural coverage, and (c) givesthe ratio of urban to rural coverage. For overall roads coverage,
Sulawesi ranks above or on par with the four non-Java regions for both good roads and all
roads coverage. It maintains that ranking for rural road coverage, but falls in rank to third for
urban “good” road coverage and second for all roads coverage. It is noteworthy that urban
road kilometers per land area, and rural roads to a far lesser extent, increased markedly
between 2005 and 2006. For urban roads, it is this 2005-2006 interval when road coverage in
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Sulawesi surpassed most other regions. Before 2005, Sulawesi‟s road coverage performance
was poor relative to other regions (though it performed ahead of Eastern Indonesia).
Figure 8 gives roads data in a different format, providing a measure of the proportion of
households with access to sealed roads using the Podes data. The Podes data corroborates the
road-coverage data, with Sulawesi performing ahead of all regions except Java in rural areas,
and Kalimantan in urban areas. Interestingly, the Podes roads indicator does not show the
same dramatic increase as does the area coverage data. This implies that new or improved
roads may not have provided increased access for people proportional to the increase in
coverage of the land area. Neither Figure 7 nor figure 8 show any evidence of convergence
between roads coverage for urban and rural areas. Quite the contrary, urban road building
appears to be significantly outpacing rural road building.
In summary, Sulawesi is performing at around the average of the five island regions with
respect to electricity (urban and rural), urban sanitation, and urban road provision. It
performs above average for water (urban and rural) and rural road provision. It lags behind
in rural sanitation provision. With regards to convergence on Sulawesi between urban and
rural areas, there is some evidence that there is movement toward conversion in electricity
and sanitation provision, but in other areas, there is stagnation or divergence.
In the next sections, I explore how this infrastructure investment has translated into economic
growth. These sections examine the impacts of infrastructure stocks, and access to
infrastructure, on economic growth on Sulawesi compared with the rest of Indonesia. I
further examine spillover effects from infrastructure and economic growth spillovers from
major urban areas in Sulawesi to the rest of the island, compared with national urban-toruralspillover effects (described in the next paragraph). First, in this section I examine
spillovers and growth effects of particular infrastructure indicators, using cross-tabulations
and summary statistics. In Section 5.3, I model the relationships between infrastructure and
economic growth using linear fixed effects models. Importantly, I note that the purpose of
this analysis is to examine urban contributions to rural growth on Sulawesi. Given this, the
results presented here reflect impacts of own-district and urban neighbors‟ infrastructure and
other variables on growth in rural regions.
175
0
0
0
2009
0.1
2008
0.2
2007
0.3
2006
0.4
2005
0.5
2004
0.6
0.8
0.6
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
(b) Rural
2003
0.8
2002
0.8
2001
0.6
Ra o of Urban to Rural
Propor ons of Households with
Electricity Access
0.8
2001
0.7
Ra o of Urban/Rural Self-Generated
Electricity
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
1
2000
0.1
2009
0.2
2008
0.3
2007
0.5
2006
0.4
2005
0.7
2004
1
0.4
2003
0.6
2010
0.6
2002
0.8
2009
0.8
2001
0.9
Propor on of Manufacturing Energy
that is Firm Self-Generated, Rural
Districts
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
Propor on of Households
with Electricity Access
1
2000
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
0.4
2001
2000
Propor onof Manufacturing Energy
that is Firm Self-Generated, Urban
Districts
(a) Urban
(c) Urban/Rural
2
1.8
Sumatra
1.6
Kalimantan
1.4
Java
1.2
Sulawesi
Eastern Indonesia
1
Figure 3. Proportion of Households with Electricity Access, 2001-10
1.4
1.2
1
Sumatra
Kalimantan
0.4
Java
Sulawesi
0.2
Eastern Indonesia
Figure 4. Manufacturing Energy that is Firm Self-Produced, by District, 2000-2009
176
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.6
1
2010
0.6
2009
0.7
2008
0.7
2007
0.8
2006
0.8
2005
(b) Rural
2004
0.9
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
(b) Rural
2003
0.9
2002
(a) Urban
0.4
2001
0.3
Ra o of Urban to Rural
Propor on of Households with
Sanita on Access
0.3
2010
0.4
2009
0.4
2008
0.5
2007
0.5
2006
0.6
2002
(a) Urban
2005
0.6
2004
0.7
2003
0.7
2002
0.8
2001
0.8
2001
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
Propor on of Households
with Sanita on Access
0.9
Ra o of Urban to Rural
Propor on of Households with Wter
Access
0.5
2001
2002
Propor on of Households
with Water Access
0.9
1.6
(c) Urban/Rural
1.4
1.2
Sumatra
1
Kalimantan
Java
0.8
Sulawesi
0.6
Eastern Indonesia
Figure 5. Proportion of Households with Sanitation Access, 2001-10
(c) Urban/Rural
3
2.6
2.8
2.4
Sumatra
2.2
2
Kalimantan
1.8
Java
1.6
Sulawesi
1.4
Eastern Indonesia
1.2
Figur
Figure 6. Proportion of Households with Access to Water, 2001-10
177
2008
2005
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
-1
(b) Rural
1
45
0.9
40
0.1
5
0
0
2009
2008
2007
0.05
2006
0.1
2005
0.15
2004
0.2
2003
0.25
2002
0.3
2001
29
2000
0.35
Ra on Urban/Rural Roads
per Square Kilometer
34
1999
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
0.4
2008
0.6
2004
(b) Rural
2005
0.7
0.8
Ra o Urban/Rural
Villages with Asphalt Road
(a) Urban
2008
0.8
0
2003
0.05
2002
0.1
2001
0.15
2000
0.2
1999
0.25
Rural Roads per Square Kilometer
0.3
2005
0.9
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
0.35
2003
1
Propor onof Rural Villages with Access
to an Asphalt Road
0
2003
0
1999
Urban Roads per Square Kilometer
0.4
2003
Propor onof Urban Villages with Access
to an Asphalt Road
(a) Urban
(c) Urban/Rural
24
Sumatra
19
Kalimantan
14
Java
9
Sulawesi
4
Eastern Indonesia
Figure 7.“Good” Roads per Land Area, 2001-10
(c) Urban/Rural
35
30
Sumatra
25
Kalimantan
20
Java
15
Sulawesi
10
Eastern Indonesia
Figure 8. Villages with Access to an Asphalt Road, 2003, 2005, and 2008
178
4.2. Moran’s I: Growth Spillovers
Figure 9 shows the average Moran‟s I for Indonesia‟s rural regions for the year 2001
to 2010. The Moran‟s statistic is an indicator of the economic benefits or contribution
a rural district shares with nearby urban districts. I note that the Moran‟s I statistic is
weighted by district population to reflect the importance of more-populated areas.
Because of the extreme performance of Java, some trends in other districts were
masked (Figure 9b). Thus, I include a graph without Java (Figure 8a) to make the
trends in other regions appear more clearly.
Most significantly, Figure 8a illustrates that spillover benefits of rural areas from
urban areas has declined on Java (Figure 9b) and Sumatra (Figure 8a) over the
decade. These overall trends indicate that, when spillovers are undifferentiated into
constituent effects and are instead measured by a gross indicator of economic activity
(GRDP), the cities on Indonesia‟s two most populated islands cannot be said to be
generating a trend of growth in their hinterlands. We note that the econometric
models in Table 3 and 4, presented in Section 5.3, suggest that Java and Sumatra are
doing better than Sulawesi at generating prosperity in their neighbors, but this does
not necessarily mean that they are doing well.
The Moran‟s I is computed based on GRDP per capita, not percent growth. This
means that actual levels of GRDP in rural districts that have stronger neighbour
relationships with cities on Java and Sumatra are growing more slowly in absolute
terms, than rural districts with weaker relationships. In short, cities on Java and
Sumatra are not driving growth for their rural neighbors, and in actuality, are
detracting from it.On Kalimantan, the trend was reversed, at least up until 2009. This
implies a strengthening of the importance of cities in rural development on
Kalimantan.
On Sulawesi and in Eastern Indonesia, small but consistent decline in the Moran‟s I is
apparent. Whereas there is a significant decline of the influence of cities on rural
growth on Java and Sumatra and significant strengthening of the role of cities on
Kalimantan, there has been relative stagnation and decline in Sulawesi and Eastern
Indonesia. This trend suggests that cities on Sulawesi and in Eastern Indonesia are
not benefitting their rural hinterlands. Taken together, all of these findings are
disconcerting. If cities are the most efficient engines of growth (as we established in
Section 2), and if cities receive the lion‟s share of infrastructure development (as we
demonstrated in Section 4), and furthermore and if cities are not performing this
function for their rural hinterlands, then how will populations in rural regions benefit
from urbanization? In Section 5.3, we address this question in more detail by
examining the constituent aspects of cities and their impacts on rural districts. We
find that there are some specific urban investments that can be more or less fruitful for
rural neighbors.
4.3. Infrastructure-Growth Relationships
As the literature review demonstrates, there is strong evidence that good connectivity
and infrastructure are linked. Typically, the literature has not distinguished between
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connectivity and public utilities in urban and rural regions. This section explores
those links.
Figure 10 plots 2010 road coverage against GRDP per capita for rural areas
throughout Indonesia and Sulawesi. Plots are also given for roads classified as
“Good,” and total road kilometres regardless of classification. The major lesson from
these graphs is that, for rural districts throughout Indonesia and also on Sulawesi,
(a) Without Java
(b) With Java
Figure 9. Moran’s I for Five Regions, 2010
there is not a direct relationship between connectivity, measured by road density, and
economic development level. It is important to note that these graphs do not control
for other potentially-causal factors such as human capital and proximity to cities. We
do that in the modelling. However, these trends are illustrative in that they defy
typical ideas that better roads facilitate economic development.
The expected trend does hold generally, when the analysis includes urban regions.
Figure 11 shows the same plots, but this time, cities are included. When cities‟
effects on growth are factored in, the relationship with road density and reverses,
showing consistantly-positive associations across road type and geography. This
highlights the need to consider urban and rural areas separately in growth analysis,
which our econometric estimations do.
Another type of effect occurs when we look at growth instead of GRDP per capita
levels. Figure 12 shows the relationship between roads coverage and growth between
2001 and 2010, for all of Indonesia, across four scenarios: for both good roads and
overall roads, and for all districts and only rural districts. Figure 13 shows the same
associations for Sulawesi. As these two graphs illustrate, the relationship of
significance in the growth scenario is not in the urban-rural distinction, as in Figures
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10 and 11. Rather, the significant relationship is in the geography. For all of
Indonesia, regardless of road type or whether cities are included or excluded, there is
a positive association between roads and growth. Places that had a higher road
coverage in 2001 grew faster in the subsequent nine years (Figure 12). For Sulawesi,
road coverage is not associated with growth. The main take away is this: while some
rural regions in Indonesia may be benefitting from road development, on Sulawesi,
neither rural districts – nor cities – benefit by having more roads contained within
them, in terms of growth. As we will see in the next section, this finding holds in the
econometric models, but there is a significant twist: road connectivity in neighboring
cities is profoundly supportive of growth in rural districts. This implies that the
spatial models, considering spiller effects, are significant improvements to non-spatial
estimations.
I also examine the relationships between manufacturing energy and industry
economic productivity. Figure 14 shows the relationship between manufacturing
value-added per worker (i.e., worker productivity), and the proportion of energy that
manufacturing firms self-generate (rather than purchase from PLN, the national
electricity company), in 2009. We use this as a measure of the reliability of the
electricity grid. The top row of figures shows these relationships for all districts,
urban districts, and rural districts in Indonesia. The bottom row of figures shows the
same, but for districts on Sulawesi only.
The major take-away from this graph is that there is no apparent relationship between
electricity reliability and growth in manufacturing in Indonesia or Sulawesi,
regardless of whether rural areas are considered separately or with cities. In the next
section, we consider whether spatial factors play a role in the impact of the electricity
supply. The econometric models support the pattern that these graphs suggest: in
Indonesia and on Sulawesi, reliable electricity – either in the district or in its urban
neighbors – is not a significant factor driving growth.
4.4.
Econometric Estimations
Equation 1 (above) is used in the final specifications. From this model, I develop four
estimations of own-district and spillover effects on growth. First, I examine annual
GRDP per capita growth effects in all-Indonesia versus Sulawesi (Table 1) and
annual manufacturing productivity growth effects in all-Indonesia versus Sulawesi
(Table 2). For comparison purposes, the models are estimated without spillover
effects and with spillover effects, and the results are presented side-by-side. The third
and fourth models further disaggregate the spillover effects by region (Sulawesi
versus Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan, and Eastern Indonesia) so that Sulawesi‟s
performance can be compared to those in other regions.
Multiple estimation methods were attempted, including estimation with fixed effects
and with random effects, and (to control for potential endogeneity) two-stage least
squares (2SLS) and generalized method of moments (GMM). The instrumentalvariables estimations produced results that were qualitatively similar to the fixed
effects and OLS estimations. This is possibly due to a lack of good instruments,
181
andpossibly due to the models being properly specified and estimated with the models
that do not control for endogeneity.
Figure 10. Road Coverage versus GRDP per capita, 2010
182
Figure 11.Total Road Coverage versus GRDP per capita, 2010
183
Figure 12. Roads Coverage versus GRDP per capita Growth, Indonesia, 20012010
184
Figure 13. Roads Coverage versus GRDP per capita Growth, Sulawesi, 2001-2010
185
600,000
400,000
200,000
0
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
y=
- 401954x + 137511
R² = 0.11316
300,000
250,000
200,000
150,000
100,000
50,000
0
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
Propor on of Manufacturing Electricity that is
Firm Self-Generated, Sulawesi Districts, 2009
Manufacturing Value Added per Employee,
Sulawesi Urban Districts, 2009
Manufacturing Value Added per
Employee, Sulawesi, 2009
350,000
420900x2
800,000
600,000
400,000
200,000
0
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
1,200,000
1,000,000
Propor on of Manufacturing Energy that is
Firm Self-Generated, Indonesia Urban Districts, 2009
Propor on of Manufacturing Energy that is
Firm Self-Generated, Indonesia Districts, 2009
400,000
y = 197999x2 + 20941x + 116361
R² = 0.13384
1,000,000
Manufacturing Value Added per Employee,
Indonesia Rural Districts, 2009
800,000
1,200,000
400,000
y = 485975x2 - 514538x + 168405
R² = 0.16601
350,000
300,000
250,000
200,000
150,000
100,000
50,000
0
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
Manufacturing Value Added per Employee,
Sulawesi Rural Districts, 2009
y = 197999x2 + 20941x + 116361
R² = 0.13384
1,000,000
Manufacturing Value Added per Employee,
Indonesia Urban Districts, 2009
Manufacturing Value Added per Employee,
Indonesia Districts, 2009
1,200,000
Propor on of Manufacturing Electricity that is
Firm Self-Generated, Sulawesi Urban Districts, 2009
y = 366637x2 - 154478x + 129444
R² = 0.15228
800,000
600,000
400,000
200,000
0
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
Propor on of Manufacturing Energy that is
Firm Self-Generated, Indonesia Rural Districts, 2009
400,000
350,000
y = 726243x2 - 411736x + 96962
R² = 0.60285
300,000
250,000
200,000
150,000
100,000
50,000
0
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
Propor on of Manufacturing Energy that is
Firm Self-Generated, Sulawesi Rural Districts, 2009
Figure 14. Manufacturing Energy Relationship to Manufacturing Productivity, 2009
186
To decide between fixed and random effects (FE and RE) estimations in Models 1
through 4, Hausman tests were run on each pair of corresponding FE and RE
equations. The Hausman test provides a hypothesis test where the null hypothesis is
that the FE model is efficient and consistent under the tested hypothesis. The
Hausman tests indicate that fixed effects estimation should be used. In choosing fixed
effects models, I follow other notable authors that control for area-specific factors but
do not consider endogenous relationships in estimating spillover effects (Garcia-Mila
et al., 1996, Perret, 2011, Holtz-Eakin, 1994).
I note that accounting for spillover effects improves model fit in all cases, as indicated
by the R-squared value. Here, I have used the adjusted R-squared to avoid the
upward influence of more variables on the standard R-squared value. Also, for many
of the coefficients – and particularly in the models in Tables 1 and 2 – accounting for
spillover effects unmasks some effects that are masked in the non-spillovers models.
For instance, in Table 1, the own-district effect of GRDP per capita on growth,
increases from -0.075 (Model 3) to -3.22 (Model 4), when spillovers are accounted
for. In other variables, e.g., working-age population (Table 1), the spillover model
exposes an effect on the variable that was entirely masked (i.e., showed no
significance) in the non-spillover model.
Tables 1 and 2 offer some policy insights specific to Sulawesi, relative to the national
conditions. Perhaps most striking about the comparisons in Tables 1 and 2, is the
effect that urban productivity growth (both in terms of GRDP and manufacturing
value added growth, per capita) has on Sulawesi relative to the other island regions
examined here. On Sulawesi, the urban-to-rural spillover effects of urban productivity
on rural districts is dramatically larger (in the negative direction) than national trends.
In Table 1, GRDP growthper capita is nearly a full order of magnitude higher than
the national trend, with a one-percent increase in urban neighbors‟ productivity being
associated with a 3.246 percent decrease in the district‟s own GRDP per capita. In
manufacturing, the difference in trends between all of Indonesia and Sulawesi are
even more pronounced. In Table 2, a one-percent increase in urban neighbors‟
productivity is associated with a 63.840 percent decrease in manufacturing
productivity in Sulawesi‟s rural districts, as opposed to no effect in the national
model. This implies that rural areas on Sulawesi lose even more of their productivity
to citiesthan in the country at-large – i.e., that cities on Sulawesi are not as
economically integrated with their rural neighbors, or if they are, this integration
detracts from rural areas‟ growth even more on Sulawesi than it does on average for
the country. The implications for this finding are profound. If national policy seeks
to leverage urban wealth to generate returns for rural areas, these policies are failing
on Sulawesi.
Next, the returns to education, roads, and electricity reliability on Sulawesi are more
pronounced than in other island regions. Model 4 on Table 1 indicates that a onepercent increase in education achieved by adults on Sulawesi, increases GRDP per
capita growth by 0.370 percent (over an increase of 0.97 percent nationally) and there
187
is a further urban-to-rural spillover effect of education on Sulawesi (where there is not
in the national model, Model 2). This implies that education policies in urban areas
on Sulawesi, and own-district increases in education outcomes, both improve GRDP
per capita growth faster than the national average. The same trends hold for roads.
Whereas Table 1 shows no roads effect in the national models (Models 1 and 2),
growth on Sulawesi is responsive to the increased roads per kilometer of land area.
Furthermore, urban-to-rural contributions to growth are improved when urban
neighbors have more-dense road coverage..
The spillover effects of education and roads coverage are even more pronounced for
manufacturing productivity, shown in Table 2. Own-district effect of mean years of
education for adults, is positive (as opposed to being negative in the national model)
and much higher, showing a 7.409 increase in manufacturing productivity associated
with a one-percent increase in education outcomes. For roads, urban-to-rural
spillovers are high and in favor of rural districts on Sulawesi, compared with national
trends. When urban neighbors have one-percent better roads, rural manufacturing
productivity increases by a whopping 29 percent. This is likely a function of multiple
factors related to good roads, including access to higher-end markets (wealthier urban
areas command more goods and higher prices), port access, and more manufacturing
firms being willing to locate near better roads. As I discussed in the previous section,
this finding that urban neighbors‟ road coverage significantly affects growth for rural
districts, implies that the spatial models, considering spiller effects, are significant
improvements to non-spatial estimations. Spatial effects should probably included as
standard effects in future growth models for Indonesia
Regarding electricity, Sulawesi‟s rural regions‟ responsiveness to unreliable energy is
twice the national trend (Table 2), albeit both the national and Sulawesi effects are
quite small. Neither model shows significance on spillover effects. Also, urban-torural spillovers from new capital investment (as indicated by loan interest
repayments) are higher on Sulawesi than nationally, which indicates that capital
invested in cities on Sulawesi enriches rural areas at a higher rate compared with the
rest of the country.
On other variables, Sulawesi‟s trending away from national averages is alarming
rather than encouraging. In Table 2, Model 2 indicates that higher existing urban
capital stocks help own-district performance and also spill over positively into rural
areas. However, no such trend appears on Sulawesi.
Tables 3 and 4show national models with and without spillovers, with interaction
terms indicating the island region.GRDP growthper capita is the dependent variable
in Table 3, and worker productivity (value added per worker) growth is the dependent
variable in Table 4. The suppressed category for all interaction terms is Sulawesi.
The purpose of this model setup is to compare the urban-to-rural spillover effects of
Sulawesi with other island regions. I note that Model 1 in Table 3 is identical to
Model 1 in Table 1, and similarly, Model 1 in Table 4 is identical to Model 1 in Table
2. I reproduce Model 1 in these tables for comparison purposes.
188
The advantage of this model specification is that I can compare spillover performance
of districts on Sulawesi with districts in other island regions. Here, a negative
coefficient on the spillover effect implies that the effect of that variable on that region
is smaller than the effect experienced on Sulawesi; a positive coefficient implies that
the effect is larger for the specified region than for Sulawesi. For instance, in Table 3,
spillover effects of GRDP growthper capita on Kalimantan are 0.184 percent lower
than the same type of effect of Sulawesi.
Unfortunately, this effect is one of the few variables on which Sulawesi outperforms
other regions. For economic and demographic variables, spillover effects on Sulawesi
underperform those of other regions. ForGRDP per capita level and growth,
population, working-age population, and schooling, Sulawesi outperforms any region
only once, in Table 4, for population spillover effects on Java.
For infrastructure and capital variables, Sulawesi‟s performance does not lag behind
other regions, as demonstrably as in its demographic and growth spillover
characteristics. In fact, for effects of roads, electricity, capital stock, and capital
investment spillovers, it performs on par or ahead of all regions except for capital
stock effects on manufacturing value added on Sumatra, and capital investment
effects on manufacturing value added in Eastern Indonesia (both in Table 4).
5. CONCLUSION
Sulawesi shows some troubling trends in terms of infrastructure stocks and their
relationships to growth. Despite being ahead of most regions in terms of
infrastructure stocks (particularly roads, electricity, and water), Sulawesi performs
merely on par with most other regions in terms of the effects of that infrastructure on
growth.Convergence between urban and rural regions is occurring for some services
(electricity and sanitation) but not others (water and roads). This implies that Sulawesi
could be more effectively leveraging its urban infrastructure stocks for economic gain
in rural regions. As The World Bank (2013) notes, it is critical that funding for
infrastructure development on Sulawesi be mobilized. The region will struggle to
assemble these resources, as it lags behind the national average in spending,
fundraising, and borrowing capacity. National intervention may be required on a
limited basis to facilitate borrowing or investment through public private partnerships
(PPPs). Sulawesi‟s position as a fast-urbanizing Island Region presents opportunities
for the Government of Indonesia and the local provincial and district governments in
the region, to initiate productive urbanization processes. Appropriate investment in
infrastructure will be critical in this process.
On Sulawesi and nationally, spatial effects improve growth models of urban-to-rural
growth effects.Paying attention to what urban neighbors are doing can also help in
rural development. This study provides an initial framework, examining prosperity
through the coarsest of sub-national indicators: GRDP. Future studies need to go far
beyond considering GRDP. As Sen (1999)and Nussbaum (2011)describe,just
189
societies facilitate not only the growth of national accounts, but also the real
capabilities that growth creates for people. In the area of urban development, it is
important that we begin paying attention to the opportunities that cities create for rural
people in terms of livelihoods, education, and health. Since cities are rural regions are
so profoundly interconnected and becoming even more so, thecapacity of cities to
generate rural prosperity is worthy of attention in policy development and academic
study.
190
Table 1. Fixed-Effects Models of Urban-to-Rural Spillover Effects on GRDP
per capita, 2001-2010, Nationally and for Sulawesi
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Annual
Annual
Annual
Annual
GRDP per GRDP per GRDP per GRDP per
capita
capita
capita
capita
VARIABLES1
growth
growth
growth
growth
(gy),
(gy),
(gy),
(gy),
Indonesia Indonesia Sulawesi
Sulawesi
No
No
Spillover
Spillover
Model type
spillover
spillover
effects
effects
effects
effects
GRDP per capita at the -0.229*** -0.296***
-0.075*** -0.322***
beginning of each growth
period (t=0)
(0.000)
(0.000)
(0.000)
(0.000)
Spillover effects of GRDP per
-0.381***
-3.246***
capita (t=0)
(0.000)
(0.000)
0.029***
0.029***
Spillover effects of GRDP per
capita growth (gy)
(0.000)
(0.001)
-0.161*** -0.133***
0.010
-0.048
Population
(0.000)
(0.000)
(0.865)
(0.684)
0.404***
-0.287
Spillover effects of population
(0.000)
(0.396)
Working-age population (aged -0.017
0.061**
-0.035
0.117
15-64 years)
(0.443)
(0.017)
(0.299)
(0.148)
Spillover effects of working0.295***
0.776**
age population
(0.002)
(0.033)
0.097***
0.030
0.195***
0.370***
Average years of schooling
(0.003)
(0.427)
(0.002)
(0.000)
0.016
0.184*
Spillover effects of average
years of schooling
(0.561)
(0.053)
Roads (roads classified as 0.004
0.002
0.012*
0.017***
"good," per land area of the
district)
(0.205)
(0.459)
(0.084)
(0.007)
-0.008
0.889***
Spillover effects of Roads
(0.297)
(0.000)
Electricity (percent firm self0.000042*
generated)
-0.0001*
*
-0.00015
-0.0001**
(0.057)
(0.044)
(0.106)
(0.037)
-0.014*
-0.006
Spillover effects of electricity
(0.056)
(0.425)
191
Capital stock
0.001***
(0.000)
0.000*
(0.069)
0.012***
(0.000)
0.000
(0.169)
-0.003***
(0.000)
-7.574***
(0.000)
1,510
0.895
182
0.001***
(0.000)
0.000
(0.218)
0.014
(0.755)
-0.000
(0.818)
-0.001
(0.122)
3.818
(0.380)
253
0.952
29
Spillover effects of capital
stock
Capital
investment
(loan -0.002***
-0.001***
interest repayments)
(0.000)
(0.005)
Spillover effects of capital
investment
2.379***
0.076
Constant
(0.000)
(0.904)
Observations
1,596
261
R-squared (adjusted)
0.845
0.938
Number of id_292
182
29
pval in parentheses
*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, *
p<0.1
1
All variables (dependent and independent) are log-transformed using natural
logarithms, except one given in percent terms. This is: Electricity (given as the selfgenerated electricity as a percent of the total consumed by manufacturing firms).
Table 2. Fixed-Effects Models of Urban-to-Rural Spillover Effects
Productivity, 2001-2010, Nationally and for Sulawesi
(1)
(2)
(3)
Manuf. VA Manuf. VA Manuf. VA
productivity productivity productivity
VARIABLES1
growth (gy), growth (gy), growth (gy),
Indonesia
Indonesia
Sulawesi
No spillover Spillover
No spillover
Model type
effects
effects
effects
Manufacturing productivity at -0.494***
-0.529***
-0.540***
the beginning of each growth
period (t=0)
(0.000)
(0.000)
(0.000)
Spillover
effects
of
-0.547
manufacturing productivity(t=0)
(0.553)
0.247**
Spillover effects of GRDP per
capita growth (gy)
(0.012)
2.564***
0.823
4.857**
Population
(0.001)
(0.406)
(0.034)
-0.208
Spillover effects of population
(0.914)
Working-age population (aged 0.221
0.314
-0.279
15-64 years)
(0.619)
(0.629)
(0.810)
Spillover effects of working-age
0.626
on Worker
(4)
Manuf. VA
productivity
growth (gy),
Sulawesi
Spillover
effects
-0.667***
(0.000)
-63.840**
(0.011)
0.208
(0.595)
5.225
(0.321)
-0.978
(0.943)
1.972
(0.576)
12.147
192
population
Average years of schooling
-1.611**
(0.019)
Spillover effects of average years
of schooling
Roads (roads classified as 0.067
"good," per land area of the
district)
(0.256)
Spillover effects of Roads
Electricity (percent firm self- -0.003***
generated)
(0.004)
Spillover effects of electricity
Capital stock
Spillover effects of capital stock
0.018***
(0.000)
(0.797)
-0.846
(0.345)
-0.556
(0.489)
0.018
(0.757)
0.279
(0.169)
-0.002*
(0.079)
-0.038
(0.826)
0.010***
(0.001)
0.244***
(0.000)
-0.011
(0.185)
-0.023***
(0.005)
-10.912
(0.748)
1,244
0.531
178
-0.156
(0.945)
-0.297
(0.209)
-0.006**
(0.046)
0.006
(0.447)
(0.463)
7.409*
(0.083)
4.095
(0.353)
0.027
(0.914)
29.753***
(0.000)
-0.003
(0.493)
0.012
(0.968)
-0.010
(0.329)
-0.108
(0.949)
-0.014
(0.521)
0.050*
(0.066)
-42.961
(0.827)
215
0.491
29
Capital investment (loan interest -0.029***
-0.018
repayments)
(0.000)
(0.295)
Spillover effects of capital
investment
-23.899**
-49.828*
Constant
(0.013)
(0.060)
Observations
1,311
223
R-squared (adjusted)
0.489
0.380
Number of id_292
178
29
pval in parentheses
*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1
1
All variables (dependent and independent) are log-transformed using natural logarithms,
except one given in percent terms. This is: Electricity (given as the self-generated electricity as
a percent of the total consumed by manufacturing firms).
193
Table 3. Fixed Effects Models of Urban Spillover Effects on Rural Areas, GRDP per capita Growth, 2001-2010, with
Disaggregated Spillover Effects
(1),
(2),
Model
(1)
(2)
Model, continued
continued
continued
Annual
Annual
Annual
Annual
GRDP per GRDP per
GRDP per GRDP per
capita
capita
capita
capita
VARIABLES1
VARIABLES1, continued
growth
growth
growth
growth
(gy),
(gy),
(gy),
(gy),
Indonesia
Indonesia
Indonesia
Indonesia
No
No
Spillover
Spillover
Model type
spillover
Model type
spillover
effects
effects
effects
effects
GRDP per capita at the -0.229***
-0.237***
Roads (roads classified as 0.004
0.002
beginning of each growth period
"good," per land area of the
(t=0)
(0.000)
(0.000)
district)
(0.205)
(0.480)
Spillover effects of GRDP per
-0.184*
Spillover effects of Roads,
-0.009
2
capita (t=0), Kalimantan
(0.082)
Sumatra
(0.605)
Spillover effects of GRDP per
0.340***
Spillover effects of Roads,
-0.165
capita (t=0), Sumatra
(0.000)
Kalimantan
(0.494)
Spillover effects of GRDP per
0.107
-0.039
Spillover effects of Roads, Java
capita (t=0), Java
(0.156)
(0.299)
0.125**
-0.374***
Spillover effects of GRDP per
Spillover effects of Roads,
capita (t=0), Eastern Indonesia
Eastern Indonesia
(0.046)
(0.001)
Spillover effects of GRDP per
0.054***
Electricity (percent firm self- -0.000*
-0.000**
194
capita growth (gy), Sumatra
Spillover effects of GRDP per
capita growth (gy), Kalimantan
Spillover effects of GRDP per
capita growth (gy), Java
Spillover effects of GRDP per
capita growth (gy), Eastern
Indonesia
Population
(0.000)
0.003
(0.563)
0.020***
(0.009)
0.058***
-0.161***
(0.000)
Spillover effects of population,
Sumatra
Spillover effects of population,
Kalimantan
Spillover effects of population,
Java
Spillover effects of population,
Eastern Indonesia
Working-age population (aged -0.017
15-64 years)
(0.443)
Spillover effects of working-age
population, Sumatra
Spillover effects of working-age
population, Kalimantan
Spillover effects of working-age
(0.000)
-0.134***
(0.003)
0.516
(0.188)
0.617**
(0.033)
-0.381
(0.157)
1.041***
(0.008)
0.019
(0.518)
0.577*
(0.076)
0.776***
(0.007)
0.048
generated)
(0.057)
Spillover effects of electricity,
Sumatra
Spillover effects of electricity,
Kalimantan
Spillover effects of electricity,
Java
Spillover effects of electricity,
Eastern Indonesia
Capital stock
0.001***
(0.000)
Spillover effects of capital stock,
Sumatra
Spillover effects of capital stock,
Kalimantan
Spillover effects of capital stock,
Java
Spillover effects of capital stock,
Eastern Indonesia
Capital investment (loan interest -0.002***
repayments)
(0.000)
Spillover effects of capital
investment, Sumatra
Spillover effects of capital
(0.038)
-0.009
(0.648)
-0.042
(0.106)
-0.045*
(0.094)
-0.019
(0.445)
0.000
(0.179)
0.006
(0.371)
-0.036
(0.433)
0.010
(0.186)
-0.017
(0.742)
-0.001***
(0.001)
-0.000
(0.829)
0.000
195
population, Java
Spillover effects of working-age
population, Eastern Indonesia
Average years of schooling
0.097***
(0.003)
(0.803)
0.111
(0.748)
0.144***
(0.000)
-0.118
(0.434)
0.083
(0.282)
-0.208
(0.416)
0.084**
(0.016)
investment, Kalimantan
Spillover effects of capital
investment, Java
Spillover effects of capital
investment, Eastern Indonesia
(0.675)
-0.002**
(0.018)
-0.001
(0.487)
-5.537***
(0.004)
1,510
0.887
182
0.00
Fixed
2.379***
Spillover effects of average years
Constant
of schooling, Sumatra
(0.000)
Spillover effects of average years
Observations
1,596
of schooling, Kalimantan
R-squared (adjusted)
0.845
Number of id_292
182
Spillover effects of average years
of schooling, Java
Hausman Test p-value
0.00
Fixed/Random Effects
Fixed
Spillover effects of average years
of schooling, Eastern Indonesia
pval in parentheses
*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1
1
All variables (dependent and independent) are log-transformed using natural logarithms, except one given in percent terms. This is:
Electricity (given as the self-generated electricity as a percent of the total consumed by manufacturing firms).
2
Sulawesi is the suppressed category for all interaction variables
Table 4. Fixed Effects Models of Urban Spillover Effects on Rural Areas, Worker Productivity Growth, 2001-2010, with
Disaggregated Spillover Effects
(1),
(2),
Model
(1)
(2)
Model, continued
continued
continued
VARIABLES1
Manuf. VA Manuf. VA
productivity productivity
VARIABLES1, continued
Manuf. VA Manuf. VA
productivity productivity
196
growth (gy)
No
Model type
spillover
effects
Worker productivity at the 0.506***
beginning of each growth period
(t=0)
(0.000)
Spillover effects of worker
productivity(t=0), Kalimantan
Spillover effects of worker
productivity(t=0), Sumatra
Spillover effects of worker
productivity(t=0), Java
Spillover effects of worker
productivity
(t=0),
Eastern
Indonesia
Spillover effects of worker
productivity
growth
(gy),
Sumatra
Spillover effects of worker
productivity
growth
(gy),
Kalimantan
Spillover effects of worker
productivity growth (gy), Java
growth (gy)
Spillover
effects
0.434***
(0.000)
-3.161
(0.323)
2.794**
(0.039)
3.877*
(0.058)
4.506**
(0.016)
0.505
(0.111)
-0.285
(0.553)
0.084
(0.599)
growth (gy)
No
Model type
spillover
effects
Roads (roads classified as 0.067
"good," per land area of the
district)
(0.256)
Spillover effects of Roads,
Sumatra
Spillover effects of Roads,
Kalimantan
Spillover effects of Roads, Java
Spillover effects
Eastern Indonesia
of
Roads,
Electricity (percent firm selfgenerated)
Spillover effects of electricity,
Sumatra
Spillover effects of electricity,
Kalimantan
-0.003***
(0.004)
growth (gy)
Spillover
effects
-0.017
(0.778)
-0.200
(0.657)
5.953
(0.287)
0.137
(0.867)
-0.598
(0.807)
-0.004***
(0.003)
-0.247
(0.627)
-0.881
(0.139)
197
Spillover effects of worker
productivity growth (gy), Eastern
Indonesia
Population
-0.155
2.564***
(0.001)
Spillover effects of population,
Sumatra
Spillover effects of population,
Kalimantan
Spillover effects of population,
Java
Spillover effects of population,
Eastern Indonesia
Working-age population (aged 0.221
15-64 years)
(0.619)
Spillover effects of working-age
population, Sumatra
Spillover effects of working-age
population, Kalimantan
Spillover effects of working-age
population, Java
Spillover effects of working-age
population, Eastern Indonesia
-1.611**
Average years of schooling
(0.019)
(0.658)
1.429
(0.203)
3.045
(0.758)
15.833**
(0.015)
-13.864*
(0.057)
-17.963
(0.123)
0.216
(0.742)
5.595
(0.438)
-2.744
(0.674)
0.747
(0.869)
20.292**
(0.039)
-0.364
(0.680)
-1.583***
Spillover effects of electricity,
Java
Spillover effects of electricity,
Eastern Indonesia
Capital stock
0.018***
(0.000)
Spillover effects of capital stock,
Sumatra
Spillover effects of capital stock,
Kalimantan
Spillover effects of capital stock,
Java
Spillover effects of capital stock,
Eastern Indonesia
Capital investment (loan interest -0.029***
repayments)
(0.000)
Spillover effects of capital
investment, Sumatra
Spillover effects of capital
investment, Kalimantan
Spillover effects of capital
investment, Java
Spillover effects of capital
investment, Eastern Indonesia
(0.006)
-0.474
(0.502)
0.010***
(0.003)
0.282*
(0.066)
-0.695
(0.480)
0.203
(0.198)
-2.110**
(0.048)
-0.024***
(0.001)
-0.039
(0.151)
-0.001
(0.938)
-0.011
(0.618)
0.041**
(0.028)
198
-3.056
-23.899**
7.786
Spillover effects of average years
Constant
of schooling, Sumatra
(0.442)
(0.013)
(0.890)
Spillover effects of average years
3.424**
Observations
1,311
1,244
of schooling, Kalimantan
(0.042)
R-squared (adjusted)
0.489
0.555
-5.810
Number of id_292
178
178
Spillover effects of average years
of schooling, Java
(0.277)
Hausman Test p-value
0.00
0.00
-1.143
Fixed/Random Effects
Fixed
Fixed
Spillover effects of average years
of schooling, Eastern Indonesia
(0.280)
pval in parentheses
*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1
1
All variables (dependent and independent) are log-transformed using natural logarithms, except one given in percent terms. This is:
Electricity (given as the self-generated electricity as a percent of the total consumed by manufacturing firms).
2
Sulawesi is the suppressed category for all interaction variables
199
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Rural-Urban Linkage, Rural Road, and Livelihood.
A Case Of Talun Kenas Village, North Sumatra, Indonesia
Salmina Wati Ginting
Department of Architecture University of Sumatera Utara
Jl. Dr Mansyur Kampus USU Padang Bulan, Medan, Indonesia 20155
Email: [email protected], [email protected]
ABSTRACT:
Rural-urban linkages include ‗spatial‘ linkages - flows of people, of goods, of money and other
interactions between urban and rural areas. This paper aims to explore flow of people and flow of
goods in and around Talun Kenas village North Sumatra Indonesia. Research was carried out as a
‗case study methodology‘ based on a questionnaires survey, an in-depth interviews with key
informants, and a descriptive-qualitative analysis of commodity collecting and distributing of palm
oil, the most important cash product in the area . These flows are analyzed using function of rural
road as one of important aspects in rural-urban linkages. This paper shows there are two different
rural roads as access for people and goods. The development of rural roads do not significantly affect
rural‘s livelihood as rural roads only benefit big enterprises.
Keywords: rural-urban linkage, rural roads, livelihood
1.
INTRODUCTION
Rondinelli (1985) classified typology of rural-urban linkages (RUL) as (1) physical linkages
such as transport links and ecology dependence; (2) economic linkages such as pattern of
flow of goods and capital; (3) population movement linkages that include migration patterns
and travel patterns; (4) technology linkages such as the use of telecommunications services,
provision of electricity, and the distribution network of irrigation networks; (5) social
linkages such as patterns of social interaction and familial; (6) services providing linkages
include road and transportation networks, financial institutions, education, training, and
health services; (7) organizational linkages such as administrative, political and structural
relationships which include administration, budget funding, and decision-making procedures.
Furthermore Tacoli (1998) wrote that flowing is one of the main concern in RUL which
includes flows of people, flow of goods, and flows of wastes, such as sewage, pollutants,
etc.). Tacoli pays attention on small and intermediate towns existed between rural and urban
that plays an important role in rural-urban relations. One important note is it is time to
consider and discuss rural and urban area together as an integrated entity rather than as
separate parts.
Rural-urban linkages wherever point it is being viewed is related to infrastructure, one of
which is roads. As Braun (2007) stressed infrastructure is an intermediary bridge between
rural and urban, between agriculture and other sectors. Development of roads, especially rural
roads, whether its quantity or quality will reduce time and cost. Good roads also affect the
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activities of economic sectors such as selling and buying things, banking, credits, market,
price, etc.
Whether it is widely assumed that roads are important in improving the quality of life, it
cannot be decided on what conditions and how the mechanism of development of village
roads benefit all communities, the poor and non-poor (Hettige, 2006). Many cases show the
development of rural roads would make villagers lose their main livelihoods and become
poorer. This for example happens in agriculture remote villages where collection and
distribution of agricultural produce rely on human wages. Development of new roads
replaces porters into vehicles. Only rich farmers who could afford buying vehicles or a
transportation entrepreneur benefit from the development of new roads.
Especially for agricultural area, Braun wrote the importance of road infrastructure plan that is
integrated with the management of agricultural. "Roads should not be planned and evaluated
in isolation from agricultural investments-the road might lead to nowhere and vice versa"
(p.17).
Rural-urban linkages and the role of roads is considered successful if local villagers residing
along the roads benefits by improving quality of life and better income. This paper will look
at how the role and function of road in term of flow of people and goods. Schematic
conceptual thinking is organized as follows:
Figure 13 Conceptual Thinking
2.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This paper is designed as a case study research. As other research methods, the method uses a
case study to empirically investigate things by following a coherent scientific procedures,
ranging from data collection, data recording, analysis of the data all of which can be either
quantitative or qualitative (Owusu, 2005). Yin (2003) wrote a case study research needs to be
done in situations where researchers want to find answers to the question "how" and "why",
or in situations where researcher has very little control over the research object, or when the
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research focus is on contemporary phenomenon of contextual . One of the important points of
this method is the importance of obtaining and analyzing information from informants
(research informants). According to Yin, the truth is relative and highly dependent on the
perspective of each person.
Case study research has been classified in various typologies. The research we did refer to
Yin (1998) which divides a case study into three categories: explanatory, exploratory, and
descriptive. We use a descriptive method that is "based on descriptive questions, though in
reality it is selective based on study objectives".
Case study research specifically chose the location (site) and also special informants who are
expected to bring a better understanding of the framework of the research conducted. In this
case, location must have "goods" such as agricultural commodities, industrial goods, or
natural resources to see the "flow of goods" as one of the two selected variables (other is flow
of people). Proximity also affects the selection of site because linkages between rural and
urban areas are generally divided between "less than 50/60 kilometers" and "more than 50/60
kilometers". This comes from some previous studies showing a striking character of the
linkages in different proximity (see for example Sugiana, 2005, for cases in Java and Van
Leeuwen, 2010, for case in Europe).
Research was conducted in Talun Kenas village, Kecamatan STM Hilir (district), Kabupaten
Deli Serdang (region), North Sumatra province. STM Hilir district is one of the largest palm
oil producers in North Sumatra province. Talun Kenas village is the capital of STM Hilir
district where most work as farmers (palm oil, cocoa, bananas). The village has four hamlets
and is known since the late 1990s as a collecting place from surrounding plantations.
Nowadays there are seven large palm oil warehouses (gudang kelapa sawit) which holds up
to 700 tons of palm oil every day. The activities take place every day involving hundreds of
local wages who work as administrators, the weighing, loading crews, drivers, helpers,
finance desks, and else. One of the largest warehouses has 22 big trucks and dozens of
workers with a capacity of approximately 100 tons of palm oil per day.
The population of Talun Kenas village is 2,681 with 669 households, while the number of
STM Hilir district population is 31,547 with 11,000 households. As the capital district, Talun
Kenas village provides facilities including one Junior High School and one Senior High
School, both are private and not government owned. It has three doctors and one midwife,
one mosque, one smaller mosque called Surau, six churches, as well as one market that only
open once in a week on Saturday. Talun Kenas village is around 35 kilometers to Medan, the
province‟s capital, which can be easily reached in less than one hour. Access from village
into Medan is generally through a small town called Deli Tua. It enters Medan through Titi
Kuning area also known as Jalan Brigjend Katamso (Brigjend Katamso Road).
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Figure 14 Research Site
Our teams spread 75 questionnaires to households of Talun Kenas village over the age of 21
years and asked questions that can describe the flow of people and goods (in this case palm
oil agricultural produce). Questions were classified into four groups: (1) livelihood
(job/profession) and diversification of livelihood; (2) the management and trade of
agricultural products; (3) The most frequently visited places within one month and for what
purposes; and (4) the response to Medan: how often and for what purposes people go to
Medan. We also conduct in-depth interviews with selected key informants to get more
detailed information. Respondent‟s profile is presented in Table 12 below.
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Table 12 Respondent’s Profile
3.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
1. Flow of People
Field observations and the results of questionnaires show that flow of people going from
Talun Kenas village to Medan through Jalan Besar Deli Tua which passes a small town called
Deli Tua. The small town has population of 5.091 inhabitants. Deli Tua has a long history
well known since the 16th century as part of a tobacco plantation owned by Dutch
government. Deli Tua becomes an intermediate between Talun Kenas village and Medan. As
Tacoli (1998) stated rural-urban linkage is always associated with role and function of small
town or medium-sized town located between the village and the larger city.
One of the most popular location is Deli Tua market which is open daily and located right on
Besar Deli Tua Road. This market is center of buying and selling for most residents in
surrounding areas including the Talun Kenas villagers. Road from Talun Kenas village to
Medan passing through Deli Tua is illustrated in Figure 15 below. Deli Tua is an
intermediary place where Talun Kenas villagers fulfill their needs without spending more
energy, time, and expensive transportation costs to reach Medan.
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Figure 15 Deli Tua-between Talun Kenas and Medan
Most of Talun Kenas villagers fulfill their needs outside of village by visiting Deli Tua, not
Medan or other town. The reason for traveling outside the village is presented in Table 2 and
Table 3 below.
Table 13 Place/Town Most Visited in Last One Month
Other: Binjai, Tanjung Morawa, Perbaungan
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Table 14 Reasons to Travel to Most Frequently Visited Place/Town
Agriculture stuff: buy fertilizer, seed, or farm equipments
Table 13 shows the flow of people out of Talun Kenas village is mostly to Deli Tua. People
accessed Deli Tua and Medan through Besar Deli Tua Road as shown in Figure 4 above. This
road is not the only one access to Medan. People could reach it by other route via Tanjung
Morawa (see section 2 Flow of Goods).
Table 14 shows 44 percent of respondents answered "shop" when visiting Deli Tua and only
18.5 percent go for working and studying. Shopping is major reason for buying stuff for
stall/store, fashion shopping, food cullinary, and buy electronic stuffs like television or
mobile phone. Deli Tua also provides educational facilities, especially high school because of
the lack of schools in Talun Kenas village. Table 13 and Table 14 prove Talun Kenas village
as STM Hilir district‟s capital could not function as service provider.
In Table 4 our team asked respondents what they do when visiting Medan? Approximately
20 percent of respondents answered they rarely go to Medan and some of them said never go
to Medan in last one month. It is noted that 27 respondents or 36 percent are farmers. Thirty
eight respondents or 51 percent said the reason going to Medan is "shopping" and "pleasure"
and only 5 percent go for routine work.
An in-depth interviews showed that most of Talun Kenas villagers, especially those with a
vehicle and are not farmers often travel to Medan to shopping and entertainment centers
such as cafe, karaoke and discos. Some young males attend universities in Medan and
traveling commute by motorcycle.
Another traveler to Medan are banana traders who sell their crops directly to consumers in
Medan and do not sell it to agents or middlemen. People who work as farmers generally do
not often visit Medan and just go no further than Deli Tua.
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Table 15 What to do when visiting Medan?
Other: health facilities, taking palm oil to plants, educational facilities, etc.
Table 16 How Many Times Visiting Medan in Last One Month?
No.
Frequently
Amount (N)
Percent (%)
1
Once = 1
15
20
2
Twice = 2
12
16
3
Three Times = 3
2
2.5
4.
Four Times = 4
4
5
5.
Five Times = 5
2
2.5
6.
>5
8
11
7
Not Exactly
17
23
8
NA (Never)
15
20
Total
75
100
2. Flow of Goods
STM Hilir district and STM Hulu district is the largest producer of palm oil in Deli Serdang
region. Based on Deli Serdang Regency in Figures, Central Bureau of Statistics 2013, STM
Hilir district produces about 55,000 tons of palm oil per hectare and 656 tons of rubber per
hectare. Dusun 4 Kampung Dalam which is one of hamlet in Talun Kenas village built seven
warehouses for collecting palm oil. The warehouses are owned by businessmen who have
factories scattered in Medan, Perbaungan, Kisaran, and Tebing Tinggi. Total TBS (Tandan
Buah Segar = fresh fruit bunches) collected in all warehouses is approximately 700 tons per
day.
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Table 17 Agricultural Production In STM Hilir District
Source: Deli Serdang Regency in Figures, Central Bureau of Statistics, 2013
Warehouses are the most visited place when selling palm oil. Some farmers sell to agents or
middlemen who go directly to farms. These agents provide a small truck to transport palm oil
into warehouses at Dusun 4 Kampung Dalam.
Based on respondent‟s profile in Tabel 1, our team asked 47 respondents who own
agricultural land Where to sell crops? Respondent‟s answers are presented in Table 7 below.
Table 18 Sale Location of Agricultural Products
Cocoa and banana farmers do not sale their agricultural products to warehouses. They carried
crops to the one and only market in Talun Kenas village or bring them to Tanjung Morawa or
Medan. Some farmers sell to agents or middlemen who set up temporary stalls on the
roadside near market. This usually happens every Saturday when villagers from upland
district come to market.
Figure 16 Agent or Middleman Buying Cocoa From Farmers
Rich banana farmers who own large agriculture land sell bananas directly to buyers in
Jakarta. It takes two days trip with a truck. Farmers do not sell to middlemen or wholesalers
due to more profitable price.
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Another interesting point about flow of goods and palm oil warehouses is their route which is
not used for flow of people. Road from Dusun 4 Kampung Dusun into Medan was a small
non-asphalt rural road but was developed in 1996 when one or two first warehouses was
built. This road does not pass through Deli Tua but Tanjung Morawa. The distance from
Talun Kenas village to Tanjung Morawa is approximately 19.2 kilometers. By looking at the
schematic map below it can be seen that route for the flow of goods is different compare to
road for flow of people.
A Titi Kuning (Medan), B Deli Tua, C Talun Kenas, D Tanjung Morawa, E Perbaungan, F
Tebing Tinggi
Figure 17 Roads for Flow of People (C-B-A) and Flow of Goods (C-D-E-F)
Due to high activities along Jalan Talun Kenas-Tanjung Morawa, the road is broken and
hollow. When the dry season comes, dust and dirty would be a daily disturbingii. It can be
said that villagers who live along the road do not obtain any benefit from the economic
activities at warehouses except that quality of environment is getting worse from day to day.
Talun Kenas village serves as producer or provider of palm oil natural resources as well as
collector (or: collecting and distributing place) for other towns. Several studies showed ruralurban linkage is not always mutually beneficial for both towns. Mwaura (2004) researches in
Thika village in Ndakaini region functioned as water supplier for entire Nairobi gained
nothing but exploitation. Villagers remain in poverty including residents who live along road
connecting Thika and Nairobi. Nairobi River has been polluted due to the activity of major
surrounding cities.
There is always a question: Why palm oil farmers do not sell directly to the plants or factories
outside Talun Kenas village if there is a good road network and the price offered is obviously
better? An in-depth interviews conducted by the research team with one of the residents who
in the 1990s worked as an middleman, said selling directly to the factory is very difficult. Mr.
Mustafa who now works as a religion teacher said all warehouses in Talun Kenas village
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freeing farmers to sell products to anyone: agents or middlemen, warehouses, or directly to
plants. But selling outside village means hiring trucks and passing through a number of
procedures which is complicated and time wasting.
First, Mr. Mustafa said, farmers who want to bring crops directly to the factory must take
care of some sort of letter of permission from SPSI (Serikat Pekerja Seluruh Indonesia =
Indonesian Workers Union) and pay some money. Mr. Mustafa sold palm oil by transporting
to Perbaungan faced barriers and constraints such as the dismissal of many posts asking for
money.
Second, before reaching Perbaungan, a number of police officers detained truck, investigated
driver and helper for documents. All documents are fine but Mr. Mustafa had to spend about
four million rupiah to remove the truck and bailed the driver and helper. It took at least 2-3
days.
That experience makes Mr. Mustafa chose to sell his crops at warehouses in Talun Kenas
village instead of losing material and time. Besides, continued Mr Mustafa, all warehouses
established a relatively competitive prices. Terms and conditions is generally very easy.
Warehouses in Talun Kenas village accept a poor quality of TBS (Tandan Buah Segar = fresh
fruit bunches) e.g small size crops with lower price that would not be accepted in big plants
or factories. The plants will reject them.
There is one important thing that makes almost all of farmers sell their agricultural products
at warehouses. Farmers who need cash immediately borrow from warehouse owners with
guarantee of payment from their crops. This debt can grow bigger vastly and accumulate so
farmers tied down to the warehouse owner and causes heavier debt. This weak bargaining
position is another reason why farmers sell their crops at warehouses inside the village rather
than sell it directly to the factory.
The situation is quite different from coffee farmers in Tanggamus, Lampung, which is one of
the largest coffee producer in Lampung Province. Linkage between coffee farmers was
limited and barred by the role of middlemen so that farmers could not directly access buyers.
When KPELiii came then farmers can finally deal with first circle buyers. They can even be
able to sell directly to large coffee mills such as PT Neslte Indonesia, Pabrik Kopi Diamond,
hotels, and restaurants. Better bargaining position has increased selling price by 300 percent
and significantly improve farmer‟s quality of life, economically and socially (Tarigan, 2005).
Development of rural roads around plantations has NOT entirely given positive impact to
villagers. When rural roads were poor, land owner hire wages for labour, men and women.
They harvested and transported crops outside plantation by putting load on shoulder or using
a non-motor vehicle called gerobak. Rural road development has changed transportation
mode from human labour into trucks or pickups. Porters lose their jobs.
Similar situation occurs in rubber plantation in Bengkulu where villagers once important
porters. Since the village was built and rural roads were developed, only rich farmers and big
transport providers are taking advantage while the porter lost their jobs (Hettige, 2006).
Transport provider, according to Hettige, take advantage from all situations: a bad or good
rural roads. If roads are poor then competition is relatively weak, they monopolize and dictate
214
lower price and service. If rural roads are good, they controlled almost all lines of
transportation mode ranging from transporting agricultural products, renting a vehicle for
traveling and monopolize public transportation.
4.
CONCLUSION
Land owner is not really a farmer. One of the most crucial seeing rural-urban linkage analysis
is changes of livelihoods. As Tacoli (2002, p.5) wrote ―.....the best understanding of the
importance of rural-urban linkages and of their significance for economic, social and
cultural change in low-income nations comes from detailed analysis of the livelihood
strategies of poor and non-poor groups‖. The statement comes in line with our in-depth
interviewed with Kepala Dusun 4 Kampung Dalam (head of hamlet) Mr. Sadakata Ginting,
showed that generally population of Talun Kenas village work as farmers and own small or
large agricultural land, but it should be noted that only few rely on land for their economic
livelihood. ―Nowadays, when big palm oil warehouses are built here since late of 1990s,
most of us work as driver, helper, administrator or wages for them, said Mr. Ginting. We do
own land but agriculture is a heavy-expensive process before you could earn money, he
added. Fertilizer and seed should be bought in Deli Tua and cost a lot‖. Mr. Ginting plants
corn (2 acres), palm oil (10 acres), and cocoa (5 acres) also works at palm oil warehouse
(gudang kelapa sawit) near his home to increase income.
There are two different route for flow of people and flow of goods. Flow of people
concentrates on Jalan Besar Deli Tua. Talun Kenas villagers fulfill all their need at this small
town including buying agricultural stuff and access for educational services. Villagers,
especially work as farmers rarely visit Medan even road is in a good condition and will spend
less than one hour to reach. Deli Tua, for most of villagers is a place for shopping, working,
pleasure, and studying.
The flow of goods takes place on Jalan Talun Kenas-Tanjung Morawa. Along of this road has
built seven big palm oil warehouses have been built with up to 700 tons fresh palm oil
bunches collected per day. This road leads to Tanjung Morawa, Perbaungan, Tebing Tinggi,
and Kisaran where several palm oil plants and factories are located. The bustling- transporttrading activities along the road does not significance affect villagers‟ economic of life except
that some people got jobs there. Farmers do not use this road to directly sell crops at plants or
factories outside village even at a better price. This road gives advantage to warehouses
owners and transportation providers only.
Rural roads development is NOT a guarantee for a better life of the villagers. In area where
harvesting and transporting crops is done by human labor, trucks and pickups motor replace
mankind thereby making porters lose their source of income.
Since rural roads do not effectively increase economic life of poor villagers, we suggest a
livelihood diversification which is related to palm oil product as main commodity e.g. home
and mid-class industry using less qualified fresh bunches designed as marketable things. Or,
development of tourism area due to potential forest and plantations and conservation area at
district‟s upland. This is not a hard dream because good roads are already there.
215
5.
REFERENCES
Braun. Joachim von. 2007. “Rural-Urban Linkages for Growth, Employment, and Poverty
Reduction”. Ethiopian Economic Association Fifth International Conference on the
Ethiopian Economy. Keynote. United Nations Conference Center: Addis Ababa
Hettige. Hemamala. 2006. When Do Rural Roads Benefit The Poor and How? Asian
Development Bank: Philippines
Leeuwen. Eveline S. van. 2010. Urban-Rural Interactions. Towns as Focus Points in Rural
Development. Springer-Verlag: Berlin Heidelberg
Owusu. George. 2005. “The role of District Capitals in Regional Development: Linking small
Towns, Rural-Urban Linkages and Decentralisation in Ghana”. International
Development Planning Review, 27. pp. 59-90.
Rondinelli. A. Dennis. 1985. Applied Methods of Regional Analysis: The Spatial Dimensions
of Development Policy. West-view Press: Boulder and London
Sugiana. Kawik. 2001. Programmed Performance Evaluation Report: Poverty Alleviation
through Rural Urban Linkages, UNDP: Jakarta
Sugiana. Kawik. 2005. “Keterkaitan Desa Kota di Indonesia”, in Budhy T. Soegijoko, et al.
Bunga Rampai Pembangunan Kota Indonesia dalam Abad 21. Yayasan Soegijanto
Soegojoko and URDI: Jakarta
Tacoli. Cecilia. 1998. “Rural-Urban Interactions: A guide to the Literature”. Environment
and Urbanization 10. pp. 147-166.
Tacoli. Cecilia. 2002. Changing Rural-Urban Interactions in Sub-Saharan Africa and Their
Impact on Livelihoods: A Summary. IIED: London.
Tarigan. Antonius. 2005. “Kabupaten Tanggamus: Pengembangan Ekonomi Lokal”, in
Budhy T. Soegijoko, et al. Bunga Rampai Pembangunan Kota Indonesia dalam Abad
21. Yayasan Soegijanto Soegojoko and URDI: Jakarta
Yin. Robert K. 1998. “The Abridged Version of Case Study Research: Design and Method”.
Bickman, L. and Rog, D.J. (eds.). Applied Social Research Methods. Sage
Publications: London. pp. 229-259.
Yin. Robert K. 1994. Case Study Research: Design and Methods (Second Edition). Sage
Publications: London
Badan Pusat Statistik. 2013. Kecamatan STM Hilir dalam Angka. BPS: Medan
Badan Pusat Statistik. 2013. Kabupaten Deli Serdang dalam Angka. BPS: Medan
http://www.pemkomedan.go.id/selayang_sejarah.php, downloaded on October 2, 2014
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216
KPEL or Kemitraan bagi Pembangunan Ekonomi Lokal = Partnership for Local Economic
Development, is an approach stimulating economic activity through public-private
partnerships between governmental and privates, thereby building the linkage between
economic actors with the market. Began in 1999 with the name Parul = Poverty Alleviation
thru Rural Urban Linkage, since 2001 renamed KPEL and has reached 18 districts across
Indonesia, a collaboration between UNDP, UN Habitat, and Bappenas. Visit
www.kpel.or.id for more info on KPEL
217
Analyzing User Perspective For Toll Road Service Quality Improvement
(Case Study Of Surabaya Metropolitan Toll Road)
Herry T. Zuna and Argasadha Retapradana
Directorate General of Highways, Ministry of Public Works
Pattimura No 20, Kebayoran Baru - Jakarta
Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT :
Toll road user expectation on the quality of service as part of sustainable development will have to be
determined by the government as regulator. Normally, there are two main indicators considered to
measure toll road performance, namely, physical condition and travel time which related to traffic
flow. Even not yet defined as an important factor for toll road performance, user‘s perspective has
been widely involved as a measure and tool to improve service quality in many sector. In this article,
authors try to analyze toll road service attributes priority along with the strategy for toll road
operator in order to enhance its quality and regain users satisfaction. Using Importance Performance
Analysis, authors reveal 14 attributes which should be prioritized,. Nine of them need significant
improvement to achieve users expectation, namely smoothness of road surface condition, no traffic
congestion, riding safety, toll gate facilities, fast response of emergency unit, availability of
emergency unit, ease to get emergency unit, accident handling, and road maintenance .
Keywords: toll road, performance, service quality, user perspective, importance performance analysis
1.
INTRODUCTION
Mobility is fundamental for the economic growth, especially in developing countries. Every
economic activity involves both human trips and freight movement. Most of mobility in
developing country, specifically Indonesia, highly depends on road infrastructure. This
means, road infrastructure has a significant impact on development of a country, specifically
on the nation‟s competitiveness (Basri, 2008). Along with the growth of population and
economy, trips generated on road continue to grow and it is necessary to increase road
capacity to support movement and economic activity.
Surabaya, the second biggest city in Indonesia, has become one of the busiest cities in
Southeast Asia, and is still continue to grow. With lack of adequate public transportation,
citizens of Surabaya Metropolitan use private vehicles to take a trip especially for business
trip. The number of private vehicles operating in Surabaya has already reached 3 million
units, with 500.000 of them are private cars (Government of Surabaya, 2013). Moreover,
Surabaya is the node of logistic activities in East Java, as the existing of International Port of
Tanjung Perak. In order to increase capacity of the existing roads, the Government of
Indonesia have built 4 toll roads in Surabaya Metropolitan Area. These toll roads connect
Surabaya to other surrounding cities and transportation outlets (Juanda International Airport
and Tanjung Perak Seaport). Not only do these toll roads give alternative for route selection,
they also support logistic activities so freight transport can easily reach the port.
Toll road is a part of highway network for which a fee (or toll) is assessed for passage
(Government of Indonesia, 2005) and is managed by the Ministry of Public Works. Toll
roads provide altenative for travellers as well as providing better service than non-toll roads.
Better service in this case, mostly refers to shorter travel time, by which using toll roads
travellers can easily reach their destinations faster than using non-toll roads because normally
218
toll roads allow faster travel speed. Benefit in term of reduced travel time considers as the
main function and the most important service attributed to toll roads (Susilowati &
Somenahalli, 2008; Senbil & Kitamura, 2004). In addition, toll roads also offer comfortable
journey (Basri, 2008). Furthermore, the outcome of toll road development is to reduce traffic
density on non-toll roads, as it gives more route choices for road users. However,
Choocharukul et al (2004) have proved that traffic density is not the single measurement for
road performance, road users also concern with other attributes.
In order to maintain quality of toll road, Ministry of Public Work (2005) has issued Minimum
Service Standard which regulated on Ministry of Public Work Regulation No. 392 Year
2005. This regulation sets the quality of 6 service substances, namely road surface condition,
average travel speed, accessibility, mobility, safety and emergency unit. These indicators
have been set to protect toll road users from any risk such as accident (OECD, 2001).
Moreover, these indicators also function to assure implememtation of the customers rights
which have been set by the Government of Indonesia (1999) on Undang-Undang Republik
Indonesia No. 8 Year 1999. Hartanto and Susilo (2001) stated 5 main indicators mostly used
by Government to measure road performance, namely International Roughness Index Value
(IRI), Bridge Condition Mark Value (BCM), Net Present Value (NPV), Vehicle Operational
Cost (VOC), and average travel speed. Although the standard has to be accommodated by
three stakeholders, namely regulator, operator and customers, mostly the measurement is on
the operator orientation, which has very limited involvement of customer perspective. In
contrast, some countries such as India, Uganda, United Kingdom, Finland, have involved
user satisfaction survey as a tool and an indicator to measure road performance (National
Highways Authority of India, 2006; Crossroads, 2012; Government of Karnataka, 2004;
Ramdas et al, 2007, OECD, 2001).
Involvement of customers in service providing process, known as service co-creation.
Customer are involved and inseparable in the value-creating process as a co-creator role, so
they play can assist provider to set a standard of a service they should perceive (Gronroos,
2011). Perception of the customers defines level of service quality (Cronin and Taylor,
1994). The main function of defining service quality level is to reach customer satisfaction.
Customer satisfaction is defined as how the users feel after receiving a service, by comparing
performance of a service with their expectation before receiving the service (Kotler, 1995).
As the main function of toll road is to provide a better service than non-toll road, it's
supposed to give better satisfaction level to road users compared when they use non-toll road.
The theory of customer satisfaction has led into paradigm of disconfirmation. Theory of
disconfirmation stated by measuring the gap between perceived service and expected service
(Zeithaml, 1990). There are three types of disconfirmation. First, positive disconfirmation,
which occurs when the level of perceived service is better than expected. Second, negative
disconfirmation, which occurs when the level of perceived service is less than expected.
Third, zero disconfirmation, which occurs when the level of perceived service is equal to
expected level.
219
Figure 1. Delivering results (Anton and Perouhoff, 2002)
Disconfirmation theory was occurred because there is a gap between customer and operator.
The process of service delivery mainly involving two main stakeholders, namely operator and
customer. Interaction between both of them create a loop of service quality, which define
service level of each stakeholder for measuring service quality.
Figure 2. Service quality loop (European Committee for Standardisation, 2002)
The gap may occur on many circumstances. Zeithaml et al (1990) have reveal 5 gaps which
may occur on service delivery process. The gap may occur on internal process in the firm,
such as gap between service standard and service delivery, or even costumers
misinterpretation or misunderstanding prior to service deliverance, which influence the
service perceived by customer. On the other hand, gap may occur on customer viewpoint.
Service quality received by customer did not meet their expectation. Generally, researchers
focus on the gap on customer viewpoint, which mean the gap of service quality expected and
service quality perceived. This gap considered as the basic disconfirmation / gap which can
be revealed, after this gap has been discovered, operator should analyze which system has
gone wrong.
220
Figure 3 Service gap diagram (Zeithaml, 1990)
In the case of toll road provision in many country, including Indonesia, government take part
on this sector as a regulator, which have influenced on service quality targeted by operator as
the standard have been set on government rules as mention above. Different with other
service sector, as an infrastructure, toll road have no competitive market. National
Government is the only stakeholder authorize to provide this service, with the support of
private party as operator. Monopoly situation of toll road provision have made the service
quality based on customers perspective never considered as important, resulting
dissatisfaction of toll road service.
According to the description above, to maintain customers satisfaction is the main objective
of service provision. Therefore, studies about service quality of toll road based on user
perception is necessary to be conducted, as has been done on other sector such as public
transport, airline, education, hospital (Randheer et al, 2012; Aydin & Yildrim, 2012; Ahklagi
et al, 2012; Purcarea et al, 2013). The main objectives of this paper are to:
1. Propose service quality attributes of toll road which need to be prioritized based on
importance level.
2. Evaluate toll road service attributes performance based on user satisfaction level.
3. Propose strategy on service quality improvement to enhance customers
satisfaction.
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2.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This research was conducted in Surabaya Metropolitan Area, part of Gerbangkertasusila
Megapolitan. Five toll road sections operating in this metropolitan area are discussed in this
article:





Surabaya-Madura toll road
Surabaya-Gempol toll road
Surabaya-Gresik toll road
Surabaya-Mojokerto toll road
Waru-Juanda International Airport toll road
This research used BPJT's primary data collected in December 2013. In order to obtain users
perception data, 300 questionnaires were distributed for these 5 toll roads with different
number of questionnaires for each toll road depending on its traffic density.
Questionnaire was designed to contain questions about respondent characteristics, travel
characteristics, and quality of toll road service attributes. For quality of service section,
respondents were asked to give their perception about the importance level and evaluate the
performance of each toll road attributes, using 5-point linkert scale as shown in the following:
1 = not important/not satisfied
2 = less important/less satisfied
3 = fair important/enough satisfied
4 = important/satisfied
5 = very important/very satisfied
There are many ways to evaluate service quality level, including Importance-Performance
Analysis suggested by Martilla and James (1977). IPA is one of popular tools which allows
service provider to better understand their customers, so they can perform the proper service
to their customers. IPA forms a matrix using importance level and performance level of
service quality. IPA matrix is divided by importance mean value and performance mean
value into 4 quadrant, which are generally:




Quadrant 1: high importance – high performance, called “maintain performance”
Quadrant 2: high importance – low performance, called “focus for improvement”
Quadrant 3: low importance – low performance, called “low priority”
Quadrant 4: low importance – high performanc, called “reduce wasted performance”
Using this quadrant, firm can use the strategy effectively and efficiently to improve their
overall performance level. This analysis shows that not all attributes should be improved,
because some attributes have little influence on user satisfaction such as attributes on
quadrant 3 and 4. It gives recommendation on which attributes should be on priority for
improvement and which should be on waiting list or not be improved at all.
222
with
= mean of performance value
= mean of importance value
K = number of attributes
Figure 4. Matrix of Importance- Performance (Martilla and James, 1977)
3.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The discussion in this paper is divided into two categories. First, discussion on respondent
characteristics along with trips characteristics. Second, discussion on importance and
performance level of each service attributes using Importance Performance Analysis.
The respondent data collected from questionnaire is presented on Table 1 as the basic
information of respondents. From the table below, it shows that most of the respondents work
as driver and that the toll fee was paid by their boss/firm which explains even that their
income is less than Rp 5 millions per month, increase of travel cost is not of their concern.
223
Table 1. Respondent Characteristics
Age
Under 25
25-34
37%
35-44
41%
45-54
23%
55+
Education
Job
Monthly Salary
3%
6%
Junior high school or less
34%
High school
47%
Higher education
19%
Driver
68%
Non professional
12%
Expert and professional
20%
Less than 5 millions Rupiah
93%
5 millions – 10 millions Rupiah
6%
More than 10 millions Rupiah
1%
Table 2 shows trip characteristic of the respondent. Most of vehicles operated on this toll road
is passenger vehicles, with a small portion of freight vehicles. Most of the respondents use
toll road for business / work trips on daily basis. From discussion above, it can be said that
trips generated on this toll road are describing urban activity, with some portion of logistic
activity because the existence of seaport.
The data also shown that most of the respondents think that by using toll road they can reach
their destination faster than using non-toll roads. This can be evident of many researches
which stated that reduced travel time is one of the main benefit and attractions of toll road of
which function is to facilitate trips (Senbil and Kitamura, 2004). While travel time is very
dependent on level of service or traffic density, still road users seem to expect toll road as a
solution to get out of traffic congestion. With the minimum travel speed of 60 km/hour
(Government of Indonesia, 2005), toll road is supposed to give benefit in term of shorter
travel time compared to non-toll road.
224
Table 2. Trip Characteristics
Type of vehicle
Frequency of usage
Trip purpose
Reason of usage
Passenger
83%
Freight
17%
4 times a week or more
50%
2-3 times a week
30%
1 time a week or less
20%
Work/business
86%
Leisure
13%
Others
1%
Travel time saving
91%
Safety benefit
3%
Comfort benefit
7%
Other reason
2%
Table 3 shows the importance and performance value for each attributes. Based on customers
perception, all attributes have high value of importance level. The lowest is call center service
with value of 4.04, and the highest is road comfort with value of 4.91. This mean, all
attributes have importance value more than 4, which is considered as important.
Next, customers evaluate service quality based on their perspectives. The highest
performance value is honest toll gate operators, with value of 3.81, while the lowest
performance value is ornaments, with value of 2.84. With the average performance value is
3.43, service quality of toll road delivered with fair performance.
However, even only few attributes served along with disappointment, all of them cannot
maintain expectation level from customers. All attributes show negative gap value. With the
highest gap value is “no traffic congestion” attributes, with gap of -1.7. It is contrast with the
statement before said that travel time benefit was the main reason of using toll road.
225
Table 3. Importance Performance Gap Value of Toll Road Attributes
No Attributes
Importance Performance
Gap
1 road comfort
4.91
3.61
-1.3
2 smoothness of road surface
4.68
3.42
-1.26
3 road marking
4.32
3.48
-0.84
4 road lighting
4.61
3.29
-1.32
5 road sign
4.51
3.74
-0.77
6 ornaments
4.09
2.87
-1.22
7 tree
4.14
2.94
-1.2
8 emergency lane
4.42
3.27
-1.15
9 road cleanliness
4.5
3.74
-0.76
10 no traffic congestion
4.88
3.18
-1.7
11 riding safety
4.85
3.36
-1.49
12 sight distance
4.39
3.67
-0.72
13 toll gates facilities
4.55
3.35
-1.2
14 Call center service
4.04
3.41
-0.63
15 information display
4.14
3.63
-0.51
16 fast response of emergency unit
4.56
3.31
-1.25
17 availability of emergency unit
4.62
3.27
-1.35
18 ease to get emergency unit
4.66
3.3
-1.36
19 accident handling
4.73
3.38
-1.35
20 road maintenance
4.69
3.41
-1.28
4.2
3.65
-0.55
22 security from crime
4.54
3.47
-1.07
23 friendly toll gates operator
4.37
3.69
-0.68
24 honest toll gates operator
4.44
3.81
-0.63
25 toll gates operator performance
4.56
3.55
-1.01
4.49
3.43
21 accuracy of information
Grand Mean
Based on table 3 and discussion above, IPA matrix was formed. However, the strategy
for each quadrant should be re-defined, since there are unique characteristics revealed from
the discussion of IPA result. There are 2 conditions which caused this step needs to be done.
First, mean of importance value is of 4.49 with no attributes have importance value below 4,
226
which mean every attributes considered as important even plotted on quadrant below .
Second, The gap between performance value and importance value is negative, so that even
plotted above , the performance of the attributes still not yet satisfy customers. Because of
this 2 reasons, IPA matrix strategy can be defined as follows:
Figure 5. IPA matrix strategy for this case
IPA Matrix was formed based on table 3. IPA matrix devides 4 quadrants using x-axis
with value of 4.49 and y-axis with value of 3.43. IPA matrix can be seen on figure 6.
Figure 6. IPA Matrix of Surabaya Toll Roads
Figure 6 illustrated plotting of service quality attributes based on customer perception. The
matrix shows 5 attributes plotted on quadrant 1, namely (1) road comfort, (5) road sign, (22)
227
security from crime, and (25) toll gates operator performance. These attributes have very high
importance value and good performance, but not yet reach customer expectation.
There are 9 attributes plotted on quadrant 2, namely (2) smoothness of road surface, (10) no
traffic congestion, (11) riding safety, (13) toll gate facilities, (16) fast response of emergency
unit, (17) availability of emergency unit, (18) ease to get emergency unit, (19) accident
handling, and (20) road maintenance. These attributes have very high importance but still
aren't delivered with satisfied performance, so they need great improvement.
With the importance value below (standard of importance), quadrant 3 and 4 are considered
less important, but the quality still need to be improved. Quadrant 3 contain 5 attributes,
namely (4) road lighting, (6) ornaments, (7) tree, (8) emergency lane, (14) call center service.
While quadrant 4 contain 6 attributes, namely (3) road marking, (12) sight distance, (15)
information display, (21) accuracy of information, (23) friendly toll gates operator, and (24)
honest toll gates operator. As stated before, both of quadrant 3 and 4 are still need to be
improved, because still considered as important, though operator need to concern on quadrant
1 and 2 first. Five attributes on quadrant 3 need significant improvement later, while in
contrast, 6 attributes on quadrant 4 only need slight improvement.
Table 4. Attributes grouping based on IPA matrix
Quadrant 1
Quadrant 2
Quadrant 3
Quadrant 4

road comfort
 smoothness of road
surface
 road
lighting

road marking

road sign
 no traffic congestion
 ornaments

sight distance

road cleanliness
 riding safety
 tree

information display

security from
crime
 toll gates facilities
 emergency
lane

accuracy of
information

toll gates
operator
performance
 fast response of
emergency unit
 Call center
service

friendly toll gates
operator

honest toll gates
operator
 availability of emergency
unit
 easy to get emergency unit
 accident handling
 road maintenance
4.
CONCLUSION
Based on discussion, IPA technique is useful to give recommendation on service quality
improvement. However, the strategy provided by IPA Matrix should be re-defined based on
result of the survey. The strategy can be different with certain circumstances.
The analysis reveal 14 attributes with high level of expectations, with 5 of them on quadrant
1 only need slight improvement to attain customer satisfaction, while 9 others need great
228
improvement to reach user expectation. The operator of toll road in Surabaya still need to
enhance the quality of other attributes, if the ideal condition of priority attributes have been
met. The strategy can be an effort to improve service and competitiveness of toll roads, also
to maintain customer satisfaction. To obtain more recommendation from customers, it is
necessary to ask open question to obtain more wide answer and recommendation.
In the next research, author will analyze toll road service quality attribute from operator
perspective and government perspective. Comparison between three stakeholders will be
analyzed to see the coherence of toll road attributes. In the end of the research,
comprehensive service attributes can be proposed.
5.
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Sustainability of Infrastructures In Urban Areas: Is Road Pricing a StandAlone Policy?
Muhammad Nanang Prayudyantoa, Ofyar Z. Taminb, R. Driejanac, Dailumamid
a
GIZ-SUTIP Senior Advisor, Jakarta; Email: [email protected]
b
Post Graduate School of Department of Civil Engineering, Institute Technology Bandung
(ITB), Bandung;Email: [email protected]
c
Post Graduate School of Department of Environment, Institute Technology Bandung (ITB),
Bandung, Indonesia; Email: [email protected]
d
Deputy Director for Land Transport, The National Development Planning (Bappenas);
Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT :
There have been intensive discussions about sustainable transportation in Indonesia. In tune with the
issue of climate change and the decline in the ability of providing fuel, this paper is intended to look
at the perspective of sustainable infrastructure development from the stand point of air emissions and
energy consumption. Data is built from early studies in Jakarta with a quick look at the components
of BRT mass transit, parking management and traffic restrictions based on the imposition of charging
private vehicles. Paper uses a tiered transport models: an alternative filtering stage, stage 4 step
transportation model, the financial evaluation stage, the environment and mobility. Conclusion drawn
is that the frenzied application of road pricing will not be able to run itself but must be shared with
the role of rapid acceleration BRT mass transit services and restrictions on private vehicle parking
spaces in the town center.
Keywords: sustainable transport, road pricing, parking, public transport.
1. INTRODUCTION
The option to put the transportation demand management strategies (TDM) for specific city is
a difficult choice, requiring in-depth study, the focused evaluation and clear policies and
strong direction. To control a very large number of vehicles where public transport is very
limited and shortage of available land, is part of the dynamics of TDM policies in some sort
of metropolitan like Jakarta. Jakarta has set a policy framework for transportation services in
the medium term Macro Transportation Pattern (PTM) based on the development of mass
public transport, restrictions on private vehicles as well as the intensification of urban rail
transport services.
1.1 The Jakarta BRT
In Jakarta, the first 12.9 km initial closed system BRT (BRT) corridor began operating on
January 15, 2004, which starts from Blok M bus terminal and ends at Kota Station (from
north to south on the main road corridors) operated by Trans Jakarta company. The Jakarta
city government provided all the initial construction costs for the infrastructure and the buses.
In the first year of operation (2004), 15.9 million passengers travelled by this system
(approximately 44,000 passengers per day or 3,600 persons/hour/two directions).
231
The average BRT load factor during the week is 91% and during the weekend is 75%, with
the highest load factor during the evening peak on weekdays, up to 143% (BP Trans Jakarta
BRT, 2005).The completionof 15corridors are expected to be finished by the year of 2015,
while by the end of 2010 only 10 corridors are already in place.
BRT is a stage to be developed withrail-based mass transit systems. Modernization of railway
transport commuter train improvement starts with Jabotabek railway and forwarded by rail to
the airport and widening lanes from jakarta to Cikarang, western part of Jakarta.
1.2 The Jakarta Road Pricing
To tackle congestion in Jakarta, since 1992 has begun steps to limit the number of passengers
of private vehicles on the main corridor, with a"3 in 1" which means the minimum number of
passengers in the vehicle were 3 people. This step was also intended to demonstrate to the
world when the on going summit of non-aligned countries, that Jakarta was not as severe as
expected so that the meeting can be arranged with more timely. Early results of 3 months
after the policy was imposed showed a decrease of 24 percent in the number of private cars
entering the zone, and dramatic increases (over 150 percent) in the average travel speed by
private cars.
Road Pricing as one of the Travel Demand Management strategies has been reformulated due
to the high traffic growth rebound after the national economic crisis during 1998-2000. A
study by Bappenas-JICA (2004) recommended this issue.The City Administration proposed
to replace the 3-in-1 policy with an area pricing scheme (or a"sticker" scheme) to take place
in a similar area. The scheme sounds much like the Singapore Area Licensing Scheme. Cars
will need to buy and display stickers to enter the area in peak hours (7.30 - 9.30 am and 5.00
– 7.00 pm).
Opposition politicians and a major consumer‟s organization have come out against the
scheme.They said, among other things, that the system would discriminate against the poor.
On the other hand, Jakarta's Governor argued that the scheme would hurt only the rich who
are the ones who drive cars. But the opposition leader also argued that public transport was
insufficient, saidthat more buses should be put onto the road before the scheme is
implemented. However, in the popular mind at least, the scheme has not been considered a
success. Traffic growth between 1992 and 1997 was very high so much of the benefit was
probably overwhelmed by the increasing traffic. In addition, a practice emerged of youths
offering to ride as passengers for a small fee (“jockeys”) to allow drivers to meet the
occupancy requirement. This also undermined the image of the scheme (although it
demonstrated some willingness to pay on parts of thedrivers).
The policy of traffic restraint in Jakarta was enacted in the Structure Plan since 1985 and then
berevised in the Art. 6/99. The area of restraint divided Jakartainto4 categories, as shown in
Figure 1. In 2004, the National Planning Bureau (Bappenas) supported by JICA
recommended the development restraint areato accommodatethe pressure of activity in the
southern part of the city (Fig.1, left).
232
75% RESTRAINT
MODE SPLIT= 85:15
50% RESTRAINT
MODE SPLIT= 70:30
25% RESTRAINT
MODE SPLIT= 60:40
10% RESTRAINT
MODE SPLIT= 50:50
Source: Local Govt Regulation Art. 6/99
on Jakarta Structure Plan
Source: Bappenas-JICA (2004)
Figure 1. Government policy for traffic restraint in Jakarta
1.3 Jakarta Parking Management
Parking management is an important component of TDM is to reduce the use of private
vehicles. Maximum parking is an attempt to limit the number of parking spaces and parking
payment rates based on the time, especially in the downtown area where the pressure is very
high private vehicle.
Criticism of parking services become a pressing issue in the city of Jakarta due to poor
parking arrangement shave resulted in the high number of violations of parking and parking
revenue leakage.Currently car pays IDR 2,000/first hour and motor cycle IDR 1,000 makes
Jakarta the second cheapest city in terms of parking fares (Jakarta Post, 2010). A
transportation observer proposed a zoning system for parking to discourage on-street parking
by proposingthatthe CBD to have a parking fee five times higher than the out skirt zones.
1.4 Study Objectives
This study is intended to examine whether the road pricing in Jakarta on 6 percent area will
have an impact on macro travelling as has been experienced by Singapore and other
countries.Questions out of the research are: can Jakarta Road Pricing substantially reduce fuel
consumption and emission, and is asingly road pricing method enough.
2. METHOD
The model of research is firstly understanding the travel pattern model, followed
bytheestimation of O-D estimation data, and finally with the assignment model.
233
2.1 Jakarta Activity Based Travel Pattern
The model comprising Daily Activity Pattern, Time of Day, Mode-Distribution and SubWork based Tour (Yagi, 2006). Nested Logit and Multinomial Logit Model are used to
analyze the O-D on mode, time and level of income.
2.1.1 Upper-tier alternatives
Marginal choice probabilities for Out of Home (upper tier) DAP is presented by the equation
of:
(1)
(2)
is the probability of having a home DAP;
of-home DAP;
is the probability of having an out-
is the individual‟s utility for the home DAP;
for the out-of-home DAP;
the logsum parameter for
is the individual‟s utility
is the logsum variable for the out-of-home DAP nest;
is
.
(3)
is the individual‟s utility for the DAP consisting of primary tour pattern p and secondary
tour pattern s;
is the logsum variable calculated from the lower TOD choice utilities for
primary tour pattern p.
2.1.2 Lower-tier alternatives:
(4)
is the probability of having a DAP consisting of primary tour pattern p and
secondary tour pattern s, conditional onthechoice of the out-of-home DAPs.
2.1.3 Time of day model
TOD choice isamultinomial logit model with 15 alternatives, and it is estimated separately for
each purpose (i.e., work, school, maintenance, and discretionary). The marginal choice
probabilities in the TOD choice are given by:
(5)
234
is the probability of having TOD combination (i.e., start of the tour and start of the
returning segment of the tour) t, conditional on activity pattern a (i.e., primary tour pattern p
or secondary tour pattern s).
2.2 Matrix Estimation from Traffic Counts Model
Tamin (1988)hasdeveloped an estimation method Maximum-Likelihood Estimation Method
(ML) using equation below to maximize:
(6)
subject to
(7)
Tamin (1998) provides are search for public transport O-D estimation by calibrating a trip
distribution – mode choice (TDMC) model from passenger counts with a case in Bandung.
The research combined a family of aggregate model and a family of mode choice logit model
from traffic (passenger) counts and other low cost data.Tamin (2001) also provides an
estimation of best number of sample for accurate estimation for O-D matrix, using
approaches of (i) proportion factor of trip interchanges for each link, (ii) independence and
inconsistencies conditions, and (iii) physical link condition. The research recommended the
proportion of count sample of about 3.6% fromthetotal traffic count data.
2.3 Model for Pricing Assignment
Small and Ibanez (1998) determined the sevenbasic forms of congestion pricing. The need for
methods which consider congestion effects to be used in urban and other heavily loaded
networks is well recognized (Tamin, 1998).Some approachesthathave been developed to
include congestion effects in route choice models and equilibrium assignment seem to be the
preferred technique on practical and theoretical grounds. This type of assignment technique is
consistent with Wardrop‟s equilibrium principle which can be expressed in terms of
themathematical program.
2.4 Model for Traffic Assignment
- Objective Function:
(8)
- Subject to
(9)
(10)
(11)
Where:
Z(x)
:
objective function to be optimized, as total travel time in the entire
road network as function of vehicle flow, x on each link (hour)
235
:
travel time on link a as function of vehicle flow on link a (hour)
:
vehicle flow on link a (vehicle/hour)
:
vehicle flow on path k connecting origin r and destination s
(vehicle/hour)
:
total vehicle flow connecting origin r and destination s (vehicle/hour)
:
coincidence matrix denoting vehicle flow on link a of path k
connecting origin r and destination s (not unit)
2.5 Model for Estimation of Fuel Consumption and Emission Loading
Although the model for fuel consumption and emission loading have been developed in
Indonesia, Netcen formulas (2003) based on the research in the TRL (UK), is selected
duetothe availability for different car cylinder capacity and type of fuel. For this analysis, we
select the model for car capacity of more thanor equalto1,500 cc gasolinefuelled cars.
CO Emission:
(12)
NOx Emission:
(13)
HC Emission:
(14)
PM 10 Emission:
(15)
Where v= speed of vehicle on link (km/h)
2.6 TDM Strategy Evaluation
Fergusson (2000) divided the effects of TDM strategies in the surrounding region (site), the
corridor and the wider area (regional). Each is shownwiththe target to be achieved and
changes in parameters that would occur (Table 1).
Table 1 TDM evaluation objectives
PERFORMANCE
MEASURES
CORRIDOR
CHANGES
Vehicle Trips
Reduce
Person Trips
Constant
TARGET
DATA
Δ # vehicle
DO,RP
trips
Δ # person
DO,RP
trips
METHOD
MODEL
Vehicle
Count
Vehicle
Count
Trip
Generation
Trip
Generation
236
Vehicle Miles
of Travel
Vehicle Hours
of Travel
Reduce
Δ # VMT
RP
Survey
Reduce
Δ # VHT
DO,RP
Survey
Level of Service
Increase
Traffic Delay
Reduce
Δ level of
DO
service
Δ # hours of
DO
delay
Trip
Distribution
Route
Assignment
Model
Network
Model
Network
Model
Projection
Model
Emission
REGIONAL
Fuel Consumption
Reduce
Car Emission
Reduce
Δ gallons of
Model
gasoline
Δ pounds of
Model
pollutions
Source: Ferguson (2000)
Remarks:
SOV= single occupant vehicle
P/V= persons per vehicle
VMT=vehicle miles of travel
DO= direct observation
PMT=person miles of travel
RP= revealed preference
VHT= vehicle hours of travel
SP= stated preference
2.7 Alternative Strategies
TDM strategy model is to provide a numerical output of each selected alternative in detail
which can bedefinedfor purposes of transportation and environmental modelling. The
strategy includes (i) providing“push” effect by road pricing, (ii) parking control, (iii) public
transport as a network developmentbasis.
a. Congestion Pricing (CP) Quantities PricingStrategy; three alternatives are assumed to
be IDR 5,500, IDR 16,500 and IDR 27,500. Time entry, is in the morning (07:00 to
10:00) and in the afternoon (16:30 to 19:00).CP collectionModel isusingaFully
Electronic system with Smart Card, so as not to disruptthetraffic due to queue
blocking.
b. Control Strategies; parking is fully regulated by law so that the location within the
parking area, until the second tariff is imposed in a KP, are three times higher, or
IDR 4,000 and IDR 6,000 for the first hour, and with the addition of IDR 2,000 for the
next hour. Parking outside the KP is reduced, i.e., the current fixed rate of IDR 2000
per hour to IDR 1000 per hour with the addition of IDR 1000 for the next hour.
c. Public Transport Development Strategy.
The development of public transportation system is carried out in theBRT package
policy (8 corridors).
2.8 Alternative Scenarios
In conducting analysis ofthealternative selection process:
237
 The analysis was conducted in a range of planning in 2010 and 2020.
 44alternatives including single, dual and triple combinations alternative strategies are
made for thesocalled “long-list”.
 The selected alternative scenarios are chosen fromthelist to become the so called
“short list”, using BRT as the basic scenario and parking and road pricing as the other
mainstream strategies. This then called as „dual strategies”.
 The analysis was carried out on the single and dual strategy.Thesingle strategy, with
each set ofa stand-alone alternativeon the basis of thesameroad network and public
transport network. The alternativewas taken from T3 (three times the unit pricing road
pricing, IDR 16,500), and P2 (additional parking fee of IDR 2,000).
 Dual strategy, by setting a combination of strategies, by selecting a combination a
combined strategy. The strategy chosen was a combination of:
1. T1P2 (the unitpriceis a one-time road pricing (IDR 5,500) and additional parking
fee of IDR 2,000).
2. T3P2 (three times the unitprice ofroad pricing (IDR 16,500) and additional
parking fee of IDR 2,000).
3. T5P2 (five times the unitpriceof road pricing (IDR 27,500) and additional parking
fee of IDR 2,000).
4. T3P4 (three times the unit price ofroad pricing (IDR 16,500) and additional
parking fee of IDR 4,000).
3.1 Model Calibration
Surveys conducted by Bappenas-JICA (2004) indicate that private cars are mostly used by
higher income groups (see Figure 2). Interestingly, for the lowest income group the share of
non-motorized transport is as high as 60 percent. This might also imply that the existing
public transport services are economically difficult for the lowest income group. Therefore,
provision of transport means for the poor is one of the important issues to tackle.
Figure 2. Modal shares by households‟income
238
Stratified JABODETABEK trip purposes forecasted for 2020 as shown in Table 1, which shows
the high trip growth by 2.41% (Bappenas-JICA, 2004). Most of higher proportion of
tripsareoriginated from the hinterland, i.e., commuter trips. The destination of most trips is not
very muchchanged since 1985, i.e. in the city nucleus of trip attraction, around SudirmanThamrin. This causes the traffic congestion during morning peak hours (inbound traffic) and
evening peaks (outbound). The important area is then considered as the pricing area for TDM
assessment.
Table 2. Annual trip growth estimation
Growth Rate Growth Rate
Trip Purpose
2002
2010
2020
2002-2010
2010-2020
HBW
10,548
13,255
14,341
2.90%
0.79%
HBS
10,188
10,443
10,985
0.31%
0.51%
HBO
12,742
16,620
18,444
3.38%
1.05%
NHBB
865
1,143
1,450
3.54%
2.41%
NHBO
2,368
3,767
5,174
5.97%
3.22%
Average Growth Rate
2.41%
The profile of hourly traffic fluctuation as shown in Figure 3 is also convincing the traffic stress
(high V/C) during morning and evening period.
Figure 3. Hourly fluctuation by purpose
The area of pricing located in the Jakarta CBD occupying the area of about 16 km2, is modelled
using Emme/2 computer package. The area is defined by a penalty time value as the Willingness
To Pay (WTP scenario) for the traffic entering the road boundaries.
City dwellers, and the trip matrix are obtained based on Bodetabek household interviews (Home
Interview Survey, HIS) in 2002. The survey data processing is developed by Yagi (2006).
Figure 4 describes the activity-based model structure for the Greater Jakarta area.
239
Figure 4. Structure of activity-based model for Greater Jakarta
(Source: Yagi 2006)
Mode split for low, medium, and high income levels is forecasted as in Table 3. The significant
private cars reduction is estimated when the BRT and road pricing are implemented.
Table 3. Utility function by income level
Income
Beta
C
Gen Time
Utility
Prob. Car
Low
0.031367
2.28757
13.47
2.71
6%
Med
0.031367
1.24977
13.47
1.67
16%
High
0.031367
-0.03471
13.47
0.39
40%
Assignment also indicates the improvement of travel speed using the BRT and non-BRT
corridors after the scheme is implemented. BRT traffic performance is depicted in Table 4.
Table 4. Evaluation atthe BRT network
BRT
Speed
Distance
Time
Bus Fare
Corridor
(km/h)
(1-way)
(hrs)
(IDR)
Blok M- Kota
15.6
13.76
0.88
3,500
PuloGadung- Harmoni
14.0
12.40
0.89
3,500
Kalideres- Harmoni
15.2
13.79
0.91
3,500
PulogadungDukuhAtas
20.3
25.45
1.25
3,500
240
The model estimates that the time saving due to BRT operation is 10.94 minutes for average OD pairs. Road pricing is assessed with the minimum level of income as Willingness to Pay
(WTP) of IDR 5,500. In order to optimize mode shift from private car users, additional parking
charging is addedon top of the current price, i.e., IDR 2, 000. This is shown in table 5.
Table 5. Probability of choice
Income
Utility
Prob Car
Low
2.72
6%
Med
1.68
16%
High
0.83
30%
The average level of privatecarusers for all parts of social stratification is about 17%, which
shows a reduction from the previous (BRT) of 5%. In total, it can reduce 29% from the
previous mode shift, as shown in table 6.
Table 6. Reduction of private cars
Income
Prob Car
Delta Prob cars
Prob Cars
Low
9%
3%
33%
Med
22%
7%
29%
High
40%
10%
24%
3.2 Model Validation
Model validation process is to compare the model to the results of the traffic numeration
survey estimates, so that there are small differences that can be tolerated.Traffic count
locations and travel speed through out the Greater Jakarta area were randomly
selected(Figure 5). Surveys were conducted in 2007 and 2008.The validated models were for
the planning condition in 2008.In this model validation processing stage, it was using the
"macros" that exist in the software used(EMME).
241
Figure 5. Traffic Counting for Model Validation
Having observed the travel characteristics data in 2008, the model is validated by comparing the
assigned flows to traffic volumes, as shown in Figure 6, where the deviation is limited to 10%
(as shown by green line) and 20% (red line).
8000
7500
7000
6500
6000
5500
5000
Model
4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5500
6000
6500
7000
7500
8000
Survai
Observasi
+10%
-10%
20%
-20%
0
Figure 6 Comparison between the survey and the model
Using these parameters, an assessment has been made to estimate the probability of level of
trips, the percentage of public transport users, with various TDM strategies. With the current
assumption of pessimistic level of public transport trips of 30%, then thefull BRT is assigned
that will produce level of demandlevel increases to 57.6%. Following this, road pricing on
top of thefull BRT will significantly produce demand increases to 65.4%, and the parking
management will finally produce public transport demand to 71.5% cumulatively as shown in
Fig.7.
242
Probability Level
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
with
Parking& Road Pricing & Full BRT
0.6
with
Road Pricing & Full BRT
Car
0.5
(Existing)
with
Full BRT
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
different of travel time
with car (min)
-150
-100
0
-50
0
50
100
150
Figure 7. Modal Split Estimation for Various TDM Strategies
The network performance shows thesignificantimprovement using TDM and BRT scenario.
The benefit rises both in the TDM area and outside TDM area as well, as shown in Table 7.
Table 7. Performance with and without TDM
Scenario
Area
Veh-Km
Veh-Hr
Speed (km/h)
11,494,152
8,590,830
27.70
258,368
17,771
44.06
10,525,409
6,789,561
29.07
TDM Area
165,010
5,576
47.12
Greater
Jakarta
968,743
1,801,269
1
TDM Area
93,358
12,195
3
Greater
Jakarta
8.43%
20.97%
4.95%
TDM Area
36.13%
68.62%
6.95%
Do Nothing Greater
2020
Jakarta
TDM Area
TDM
BRT2020
Impact
+ Greater
Jakarta
Table 7 shows that the benefit at Greater Jakarta can be measured from the reduction of
vehicle-kms at 8.43%, and subsequently 20.97% vehicle-hours reduction and 4.95% of speed
243
increment. In the TDM area the benefit of reduction in vehicles-km is 36.13%, and 68.62%
for vehicles-hours reduction and 6.95% for speed increment respectively.
For the purposes of model development, Jabodetabek is zoned by zoning analysis that
dividesthe area into 4 sections, as can be seen in Figure 8.
3
0
2
1
2
4
Figure 8. Zoning area : TDM area (1), Inner Tollroad (2), Outer Tollroad (3)
Having observed the travel characteristics data in 2008, the model is validated by comparing the
assigned flows to traffic volumes where the deviation is limited to 10% - 20%.
3. ESTIMATION RESULTS
3.1 Improvement of Speed
Having implemented the TDM scenario, the impact of traffic volume and speed in the TDM
area and its surroundings were explored. The benefit of theTDM scenario is obvious as
reflected by reducing the amount of traffic volume in the TDM area and increasing its travel
speed, as shown in Figure 9.
244
Figure 9. Impactson volume (left) and speed (right)
Note: Red (left picture) means volume reduces, Green (right picture) means speed increases
4.2 Scenario 1
The scenario 1 assumes the condition whereby all private vehicles entering theTDM
areaischarged by IDR 5,500, whereas, withinthe area,the parking rates are subject to
additional fee of IDR 4,000. In order to differentiate the impact, the study area isdivided
intoregion 0 (Greater Jakarta), 1 (TDM Area), 2 (TDM Area- Inner Tollway) and 3 (Inner
Tollway- Outer Tollway). Results of analysis are presented in Table 8.
Table 8. TDM performances intheyear 2020 scenario
Average Speed
Region
Vehicle-km Vehicle-hours
(km / h)
Greater Jakarta
5,889,691
4,892,691
5.27
TDM Area
165.010
5.576
47.10
TDM Area-Inner Tollway 1,477,600
273.340
37.10
Inner Limit-JORR
1,617,954
4.25
2,993,108
4.3 Scenario 2
The scenario 2 assumes the condition whereby all private vehicles entering the TDM area is
charged by IDR 16 500,whereas, within the area,the parking rates are subject to additional fee
of IDR 4,000.The analysisis done in the region 0 (Greater Jakarta), 1 (TDM region), 2 (Inner
Limit-TDM) and 3 (Inner Limit-JORR). Results of analysis are presented in Table 9.
Table 9. TDM performances in scenario 2 year 2020
245
Region
Vehiclekm
Vehiclehours
Greater Jakarta
5,889,708 4,811,684 4.27
TDM
114.732
Inner Limit-TDM
1,546,768 279.467
Inner Limit-JORR
3,001,692 1,608,017 3.25
3.482
Average
Speed (Km/h)
47.8
36.6
By zoning the area of analysis, figure 10 shows the comparison of demand of traffic in the
area, where in the TDM area, the most congested area,it caters2% of the total movement. In
the TDM and IRR (inner ring road) the trafficis 17%even thoughthe area isonly 6%.
Figure 10. Percentage of traffic volume by zone
4.4 Scenario 3
The scenario 3 assumes the condition whereby all private vehicles entering theTDM area is
charged by IDR 27 500, whereas, within the area, the parking rates are subject to additional
cost of IDR 4,000. The analysis is done in the region 0 (Greater Jakarta), 1(TDM region), 2
(TDM Area- Inner Tollway) and3 (Inner Limit-JORR). Results of analysis are presented
in Table 10.
Table 10. TDM performances of scenario 3
Region
Vehicle-km
Vehiclehours
Average
(Km/h)
Greater Jakarta
5,820,981
4,821,359
7.22
TDM
114.282
3.463
38.5
TDM Area- Inner
1,536,339
Tollway
280.384
34.1
Inner Limit-JORR
1,599,458
1.25
2,971,318
Speed
246
4.5 Scenario 4
The scenario 4assumes the condition whereby all private vehicles entering theTDM area is
charged by IDR16 500,whereas, within the area, the parking rates are subject to additional
cost of IDR8,000. The analysis is done in the region 0 (Greater Jakarta), 1(TDM Area), 2
(TDM Area- Inner Tollway)and 3 (Inner Limit-JORR). Results of analysis are presented
in Table 11.
Table 11. TDM performances in scenario 4
Region
Vehicle-km
Vehicle-hours
Average Speed
(Km/h)
Greater Jakarta
5,812,936
4,790,922
7.22
TDM Area
111.201
3.410
38.7
TDM Area- Inner
1,531,096
Tollway
279.058
34.1
Inner Limit-JORR 2,963,805
1,593,442
1.25
4.5 Impact on Air Emissions
The estimated quantities of air emissions are taken into account in the analysis of gasesthat
include CO, NOx, HC and PM-10. Comparison between scenario 1 and 2 for area
classification and pollutant types during 2020 is shown in Table 12.
Table 12. Impact of emissions impact
Scenari
o
Region
Greater Jakarta
TDM Area
Inner Limit-JORR
TDM
Toll
Area-
CO
emissions
NOx
emissions
HC
emissions
PM-10
emissions
(Tonnes)
(Tonnes)
(Tonnes)
(Tonnes)
1
69.322
94
4.330
88
2
67.855
94
4.241
87
1
399
7
22
1
2
250
3
11
0
1
12.914
76
851
16
2
12.851
75
846
16
1
4.279
40
275
5
2
4.224
40
273
5
Inner
247
4.6 Impact on Fuel Consumption
Fuel consumption (kilo liter) due to the implementation of combination ofstrategies for
scenarios 1 and 2 are presented in Table 13.
Table 13. Impact on fuel consumptions of scenarios 1 and 2
Scenario
2020
Scenario
2020
Impact
Greater Jakarta
290.330
284.214
2.11
TDM
2.055
1.346
34.50
Inner Limit-JORR
55.334
55.076
0.47
Toll Inner Limit-TDM
19.307
19.027
1.45
Region
(%)
4.7 Performance Evaluation in the TDM Area
A review onthe performance of transportation-based on the traffic performance, environment
impact and financing viability, which are combined using weighing factor for Jakarta
(Bappenas-JICA, 2004)- is calculated and finally presented as scenario 3 (T3P2) resulting in
the highest rank as in Figure 11.
T3P4
STRATEGI MKT
T5P2
T3P2
T1P2
T3
P2
-
10.00
SKOR
LALU LINTAS
20.00
30.00
40.00
SKOR
LINGKUNGAN
50.00
60.00
SKOR
FINANSIAL
Figure 11.Weighing Factor and Combined Evaluation
5.
INNOVATION FOR INDONESIA’S ROAD PRICING
In order to provide the implementation more reasonable in teh context of Urban Transport in
Indonesia, some innovations measures are presented here for the paper discussions. sinec
efficient pricing can reduce congestion and help achieve other planning objectives, the
pricing strategies considered here are the development of road pricing learned from
248
successfull or fail experience in the developed contries, such as parking pricing, higher fuel
taxes, and distance-based fees that may be easier to implement and provide greater impact in
the total benefits.
a. Variation of Pricing based on the Income Level
The criticism that Road Pricing is only benefit for the rich people should be treated
differently. Consider that road user income are not at one band of income, the system
should provide with the mechanism that road pricing are different for different income
level. The smart card has been proved to alleviate the social income level, since the
national program called “Kartu Pintar” or “Kartu Sehat” which defines only the dedicated
low income level for direct and indirect subsidy.
The idea is, the pricing should be sensitive to the income level, is theb not a new idea, it is
just a combination of Road Pricing and “Kartu Pintar”.
b. Variation of Pricing based on the Traffic Congestion Level
The experience of Stockholm since 2006, has charged a tax for driving vehicle into our
out of its central area during weekdays. After a sixth month trail it was approved by a
referendum. The tax varies, with higher rates during peak hours and no charge evenings
nightsand no charge evenings, nights and weekends. Vehicles entering the charge area are
recorded electronically and sent a bill at the end of each month. Funds are used to
improve local roads.
c. Ear Marked the Revenues for Public Mass Transit Improvement
The intention of road pricing to improve modal shift to public transport cannot be
automatically set up, unless there is a system that provide “push” for private car to
understand their tax to be ear marked. Based on Government Regulation 32/2011 on the
Traffic Management, Transport Impact Control (TIC) and Travel Demand Management
(TDM), revenues from pricing should be ear marked for 2 purposes: (i) improvement of
traffic management and (ii) improvement of quality of public transport.
d. Better Public Transport to Reduce Pricing
Pricing travel impacts and consumercosts (loss of consumer surplus) are significantly
affected by the quality oftransport options. If alternatives are inferior a relatively high
price isneeded to reduce vehicle trafficneeded to reduce vehicle traffic volumes and
congestion delays. Ifalternatives are convenient, comfortable and affordable a
smallercomfortable and affordable, a smallerprice is needed to reduce automobile travel
demand and consumers areless harmed (VTPI, 2011).
The experience from implementation in many cities, that high quality public transit
servicesignificantly reduces the price (road toll or parking fee) required to achieve a
givenparking fee) required to achieve a givenreduction vehicle travel, a reflection of the
smaller incremental cost to travelers (i.e., lessloss of consumer surplus) when they shift
from driving to high quality public transport.
249
5. CONCLUSION
Road pricing will not be optimal if treated as a single solution, but rather an additional policy
if mass transit was developed as a foundation. However, BRT as a basic strategy should be
placed on the first bottom, than pricing and parking management. The test parameters are
from technical effects of vehicle-km, vehicle-hours, and average travel speed, pollutant
effects by looking at the impact of HC, PM10, CO and NOx, and the effects of vehicle fuel
consumption, as well as the effect of investment costs. Starting from the very few area, which
is only 6%, the impact will produce significant improvement, such asvehicle-km, vehicle-hrs,
fuel consumption and emission levels. The validation process has revealedthe 10%difference
betweenthe model and thecounts. The analysispoints outthat Jakarta road pricing should be
combined withtheintegrated parking management for middle technology implementation.
Aspredicted,the impact using the combined strategy will provide fuel consumption reduction
of 2.14% in Jakarta city-wide, emission loading isalsoreduced by 97 tonnes of NOx and
67,855 tonnes of CO.However this is nota guarantee that this policy could be implemented if
the social impact is not considered.
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An Appraisal of Sustainable Financing of District Road Maintenance in
Indonesia
Max Antameng PH.D MA
(Regulatory and Institutional Specialist Cardno Emerging Market)
[email protected]; 087877242867
DR. IR. Slamet Moelyono M.Sc
(Deputy Director of Region II DG Highways Indonesia) [email protected];
ABSTRACT:
The role of District road in Indonesia consider significant for the regional development and economic
growth. Since 80% of the transportation using road. The District road accounted around 80% of the
total road in Indonesia, and their condition status now is around 50% stable (good and fair), and
50% remaining bad condition, it means around half of the movement experiences expensive
transportation costs.
The Government has introduced the availability of Road Preservation fund thru Law on Traffic and
Transportation, to implement this need implementation regulation which cover the detail of the road
preservation mechanism. Implementing another charges to the road user, will be difficult since the
government just increase the fuel tariff, and can be additional burden to the road users which
politically sure not attractive
Appraisal District road maintenance in Indonesia will explore the real issues of district road in
Indonesia, and at the same time to show and analyze the best possible international experiences to be
adapted in the case of Indonesia to accelerate growth in the region and support national growth.
This paper will demonstrate the issues of district road maintenance, the progress on preparing
Preservation Fund and other possibilities to accelerate recovery of District Road in Indonesia thru
the road performance appraisal, which now being pilot in NTB Provinces
Keywords: Road Preservation Fund, PRIM, District Road, Performance, Road Tariff
1. INTRODUCTION
District road provide vital links to services and employment for communities, access to
markets and the transport of goods. Their quality, in terms of providing reliable and efficient
access, can also significantly affect socio-economic Consequently, the Directorate General of
Highways (DGH) has been given national responsibility for the provision of leadership and
support to district road agencies to help improve management of regional roads, which has
been defined as the third important mission of DGH in its 2010-2014 strategic plan (Renstra).
District roads constitute the majority of roads in Indonesia. At least 80% of roads in
Indonesia are a district road. The district road conditions are worse than the provincial road
with much less than the national road. As shown below:
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Table 19 matrix on Road condition in Indonesia, sources: World Bank 2012
it was shown from the diagram above that district road which constitutes 80% of the total
road, with the significant value (10.1% of GDP), has only 43% of stable road (good + Fair
Condition)
Without proper maintenance, it will increase the transportation costs and this will hampered
the economic growth of a region thru the decrease in competition of the region compared to
other region. Proper road maintenance will prevent the road deteriorate further, and will
maintain the level of travel time in some extend.
In connection with the financing district, predicted up to this time, the average district can
only meet 50% of the financing of maintenance needed funds. In addition, there are costs for
local roads in several sources as shown in the diagram below:
Diagram 1 Financing Road in Indonesia, writers: 2014
Although the sources of financing still consist of a variety of sources, the total needs of the
district can be met only about 50%. In addition to this, the amount of funding the district
roads is very low (approximately Rp. 10 million per km) compared with the national road
costs about Rp. 50 million per km. Even for the 2015-2019 Strategic Plan, submitted
253
proposals for financing DGH routine maintenance is Rp. 110 million per km.
In addition to funding limitations mentioned above, there are also issues relating to nonfinancial, such as professional capability in the district in the implementation of the road, the
road not including the main sequence in the political aspect, so there is no direct link between
the performance of regents with street performance.
Based on Indii study (2014), Special grants, Dana Alokasi Khusus (DAK), already finance LG
expenditures on infrastructure projects that align with national priorities. DAK accounts for
7% of inter-government transfers. (Dana Alokasi Umum, or DAU, is much larger at 63%, but
it mainly pays for salaries.) For roads, DAK is used for heavy maintenance, rehabilitation and
upgrading (it‟s limited to capital works); Rp 30 trillion was allocated in 2010-2014.
Guidelines are issued by DGH, but output verification is weak. The World Bank (WB) has
been helping strengthen the link between disbursement and output performance, with sample
verification by BPKP, the State Finance and Development Supervisory Board, but PRIM-like
technical verification is still missing.
To solve this chronic problems, several alternative available to be implement, the option are:
1. From political point of view, local road lack of political visibility on top of limited
funding levels, because of lack of “political visibility”. In Political point of view, to
put Road Maintenance as element of political performance, and for that reasons, in the
political aspect, Road Maintenance will be priority.
2. Extension of PRIM (Provincial Road Improvement and Maintenance in NTB) to the
other provinces before its implementation to the whole nation
3. Continue the preparation of Preservation Fund Unit, which now have to start with
preparation of Government Regulation on Road Preservation Fund.
4. Continue from point 3. Setting up independent appraisal of local government to
facilitate local government on setting up competitiveness rating of each local authority
as part of continuous improvement in the local authority. This unit, will help point 1,2
and 3 above. Last but not least, to continue and follow up Preservation fund whereby
the local road maintenance will be finance thru the Road Tariff (Road Fund) which is
adaptable to Indonesia.
2. MATERIALS AND METHOD
The methodology of this paper consists of desktop study, largely and basically based on the
Ph.D theses 2002 on institutional Framework for financing district road in Indonesia, and the
latest progress (come from several result of the formal discussion when the government start
the preparation of setting up Road Preservation Fund as a Government Initiative, Indonesian
Infrastructure Initiative Study on Performance approach for Maintenance which is now
underway in Provinces in NTB and combining the soul of Road Fund with the result of PRIM
as the way to conclude this paper.
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Jean Paul Rodrigue et al (2013) explain clearly the important of transportation from
economic point of view. He mention that The economic importance of the transportation
industry can be assessed from a macroeconomic and microeconomic perspective:
1. At the macroeconomic level (the importance of transportation for a whole economy),
transportation and the mobility it confers are linked to a level of output, employment
and income within a national economy.
2. At the microeconomic level (the importance of transportation for specific parts of the
econonomy) transportation is linked to producer, consumer and production costs. The
Importance of specific transport activities and infrastructure can thus be assessed for
each sector of the economy. Transportation accounts on average between 10% and
15% of household expenditures while it accounts around 4% of the costs of each unit
of output in manufacturing. Dr. jean Paul rodrigue et al (2013) Infrastructure transport
may affect directly and indirectl
Despite the significant role of Road sector in the development, poverty reduction and level of
competitiveness of the region. The current condition of the district road still relatively poor
compared with provincial and national Road. The keyword here is existing inventory/road
and lead to the road condition, and road condition has to be link with Road Maintenance
The Purpose of Road maintenance is to ensure that the road does not fail before its design life
(Robinson 1988, Robinson et al, 1998). Here maintenance reduces the rate of road
deterioration; it lowers the costs of rate of road deterioration; it lowers the cost of operating
vehicles and keeps the road open on a continuous basis. Ideally, all maintenance should be
preventive and designed to take action before failure occurs. In this case, proper and adequate
maintenance could postpone road deterioration. Government agencies do not appear to
appreciate the importance of road maintenance. New Road are politically more attractive as
vote winners than undertaking road maintenance.
The cost of neglecting road maintenance Canning and Fay 1993), who conclude that the
effect of inadequate and unreliable infrastructure cripples the ability of countries to engage in
international trade, even traditional export commodities. G Yamfi (1992) and Faiz (1988)
found that each dollar which is not allocated to road maintenance can cause vehile operating
costs to increase by $.2 - $.3. In most cases, on an annual basis, each dollar expended for
routine and periodic maintenance saves at least $. !.4 in vehicle operating costs. The cost of
neglecting road maintenance can be seen in africa, where most roads are poorly managed
and badly maintained. Heggie (1994) and (1995) mentions that it would take nearly $ 43
billion to fully restore all roads classified as being in poor condition (requiring immediate
rehabilitation and reconstruction). An ezample, road neglect in Ghana. Hana had a good road
network before 1970, but due to serious neglect, by 1984 about 60% of main paving had
failed, and a futher 27% were in danger of failure. Important section of the network had
become almost impassable; access to some of the interior of the country was curtailed.
Transport cost increased by about 50% on main roads, and by more than 100% on rural roads.
Poor-quality construction and little maintenance. Budgets go to visible projects but
maintenance is neglected, hastening deterioration and requiring expensive rehabilitation or
reconstruction. Projects are not always chosen with a long-term view of the network in
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mind. Connectivity is sometimes weak. Work is poorly supervised. Local government (LG)
agencies have limited capacity. Corruption is not uncommon.
There are few incentives to do better. Agencies are not held accountable for the functioning
or condition of their networks. Nor are they pressured by public scrutiny to set the right
priorities and produce better outcomes. There is no check on whether they deliver value-formoney, nor sanction if they don‟t. Road conditions are not reliably monitored. Users‟ costs
are higher than they need be, undermining social and economic development efforts.
Indii study on Local Road Found (2011) based on their findings in several provinces and
kabupaten, they come to the conclusion that Road maintenance in Indonesia is significantly
under-resourced at the provincial and kabupaten levels; furthermore the ability of the relevant
agencies to objectively identify road maintenance needs, plan and then program works is
limited.
The Planning, Programming and Budgeting Procedures (PPBP) technical assistance within
the Eastern Indonesia Road Transport Project (EIRTP 1) reported that the current data
collection process for both provincial and kabupaten roads mainly comprises surveys for road
inventory and condition, while maintenance works carried out were more likely to be based
on political decisions rather than on the data collected.
Of the few studies that concluded, for the district, some of the issues encountered in the
district are as follows: 1. lack of professional ability of employees to perform their duties or
stakeholder 2 there is no agreement or consensus on the importance of road maintenance
districts as supporting economic growth region / regions. 3. no link between the financing
needs of the community road maintenance.
Issues on Road
Maintenance
Lack of engineering
capacity
Lack of political
visibility
Issues of financing
capacity
Unit preservation
Fund
Unit on LOCAL Govertment
Assessment including Road
sector performance and
competitiveness
Replication of PRIM
solution
Diagram
Diagram 2 Issues on road maintenance and the available solution to be sustanaible, writers 2014
2 shows that the three issues can be approach thru available alternative solutions
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3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
There are at least three available solutions which is each of them can be support to optimize
the result of the solution, there are: (1) replicating the PRIM Project in NTB extended to the
other places; (2) Prepare Government Regulation on Road Preservation Fund and (3) setting
up independent body/unit to assess the level of competitiveness of the District government or
to replicate what has been done by WEF (World Economic Forum) to assess and issued
annual report on the level of competitiveness in District government, whereby one of the
element to be assess is the district road. The detail of the solution will be as follows:
a. Replicating the PRIM (Provincial road Improvement Project) in NTB extended to
the other places (district or province)
Project PRIM is now piloting in NTB start from July 2013 up to June 2015, and hopefully
(depends on the level of successfulness of the program) it will continue up to 2018. The
incentive mechanism in this project is related to the level of success of the local authority.
The Grant is come from the Australian Government and the organization of the grant can be
seen below:
Diagram 3 organization of Australian and Indonesian Grant for PRIM, sources: Indii
2012
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This grant will be end on June 2015, and if the result of the pilot project is encouraging than
there will be extension of the program to complete the pilot project in NTB up to 2018. The
incentive given to NTB provinces around 40%, but the NTB government has to pay all the
work done 100%, and proposed the reimbursable cost to AUSAID./GOI If the Team on
behalf of GOI/AUSAID agreed that the work done on line with the Specification has already
been agreed, then the AUSAID thru the Ministry of Finance will reimbursed maximum 140%
out of the total expenditures.
There is a possibility that central government instead of Government Australia, will extend
the grant into District Government, and at the end it will be implemented to the whole
country.
b. Prepare Government Regulation on Road Preservation Fund
Law no. 22/2009 about traffic and road transport mentioning that the financing of road
preservation can be done through the levy-funded road users. coupled with the assertion that
the Road agency is responsible for road damage. This has to be followed up by preparing
Government Regulation on Road Preservation Fund. The Government regulation has to
include the following:
(1) Sources of funds: road retribution from road user will be taken together when the road
user purchase fuel in the pump.
(2) Managing Road funds: Unit of Preservation Fund will be the unit who are responsible
in management of road preservation
(3) Road Fund Unit will be located in the central (Jakarta)
(4) SOP in tariff collection and distribution
(5) Control mechanism
(6) Accounting system
(7) Member of the unit
(8) Unit Preservation fund member
From the experiences, the time needed for preparing Government regulation until the
regulation issued by government will be around 1 up to 2 years, and also has to be accepted
by all the relevant ministries including Ministry Of Finance.
c. Setting up independent body/unit to assess and facilitating the competitiveness of
the district
The aim to set up the independent body/unit to assess 330 district government and 33
regional government and act like World Economic Forum to launch the competitiveness
index of kabupatens and provinces. Of course for the kick off need government initiation and
facilitation to setup this unit. This is elite unit which will continuously watch the 9 pillars
which driving productivity and competitiveness (WEF 2009) as follows:
1. Institution: the system of rules that shapes incentives and defines the way economic
agents interact in an economy
2. Infrastructure: Measuring the quality and extensiveness of roads, railroads,, air
transport and telecommunications, as well as the efficiency of port and electricity
supply
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3. Macro economic Stability: captures of data indicators government budget balance and
debt, inflation, the interest rate spread, national savings rate.
4. Health and primary education: capture basic health standards and the quantity, quality
of primary education
5. Higher education and training: measures enrollment levels at the secondary and
tertiary levels; quality of higher education and the extent of vocational and on the job
training
6. Good Market efficiency : comprise two sub pillars, analyzing respectively the extent
to which government interventions create distortions (including thru agricultural
policies, anti monopoly policies, taxation, and red tape) and the intensity of
competition, as well a the quality of demand conditions (including customer
orientation and buyer sophistication)
7. Technological readiness: measures the extent to which countries leverage
technologies and knowledge available in the country irrespective of their origin, with
a special emphasis on ICT penetration and usage
8. Business sophistication: measures micro economic factors that are particularly
important for firms and countries high on the value chain and close to the
technological frontier included: the quantity and quality of suppliers, the presence of
deep and efficient cluster, well developed production processes, the nature of a firm‟s
competitive advantage.
9. Innovation: represents the main source of competitive advantage for countries as they
approach the technological frontier.
This unit can be done separately from the government, or have to be franchise of the
international WEF, which may be done in this instance, or totally different and independent
unit. This unit can also as a facilitating team for selecting the pilot project for preservation
fund or extension pilot project for PRIM, of course the assessment base on the DPEF (District
Provinces Economic Forum of Indonesia).
4. CONCLUSION
Financing district road need political interference thru high level commitment in the district
level. The output of the road performance has to be included in the performance contract of
Bupati (head of district) and as well facilitation from central government should also in place.
There are several way to deal with district road issues, such as (providing that the political
view on the road has changes to put road as one of the parameter of performance):
1. extension of PRIM model with central government grant
2. continue to prepare Government Regulation on Road Preservation Fund, which has
been introduced thru the Law No. 22/2009 Road traffic and Transportation
3. setting up the independent unit/body act as World Economic Forum to do appraisal to
330 district/urban and 33 provinces and also help to prepare point 1 and point 2
above.
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5. REFERENCES
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