Theatre of ancient Greece

Theatre of ancient Greece
1
Theatre of ancient Greece
The theatre of Ancient Greece, or ancient Greek
drama, is a theatrical culture that flourished in ancient
Greece between 550 BC and 220 BC. The city-state of
Athens, which became a significant cultural, political
and military power during this period, was its centre,
where it was institutionalized as part of a festival called
the Dionysia, which honored the god Dionysus.
Tragedy (late 6th century BC), comedy (486 BC), and
the satyr play were the three dramatic genres to emerge
there. Athens exported the festival to its numerous
colonies and allies in order to promote a common
cultural identity. Western theatre originated in Athens
and its drama has had a significant and sustained
impact on Western culture as a whole.
Etymology
Theatre mask, 1st century BC
The word τραγῳδία (tragoidia), from which the word
"tragedy" is derived, is a portmanteau of two Greek words: τράγος (tragos) or "goat" and ᾠδή (ode) meaning
"song", from ἀείδειν (aeidein), "to sing".[1] This etymology indicates a link with the practices of the ancient
Dionysian cults. It is impossible, however, to know with certainty how these fertility rituals became the basis for
tragedy and comedy. [2]
Origins
Martin Litchfield West speculates that early studies in Greek religion and theatre, which are inter-related, especially
the Orphic Mysteries, was heavily influenced by Central Asian shamanistic practices. A large number of Orphic
graffiti unearthed in Olbia seems to testify that the colony was one major point of contact.[3] Eli Rozik[4] points out
that the shaman, as such, is seen as a prototypical actor influencing the rituals of early Greek theatre.[5]
Greek tragedy as we know it was
created in Athens some years before
532 BC, when Thespis was the earliest
recorded actor. Being a winner of the
first theatrical contest held at Athens,
he was the exarchon, or leader,[6] of
the dithyrambs performed in and
Panoramic view of the theatre at Epidaurus.
around Attica, especially at the rural
Dionysia. By Thespis' time the dithyramb had evolved far away from its cult roots. Under the influence of heroic
epic, Doric choral lyric and the innovations of the poet Arion, it had become a narrative, ballad-like genre. Because
of these, Thespis is often called the "Father of Tragedy"; however, his importance is disputed, and Thespis is
sometimes listed as late as 16th in the chronological order of Greek tragedians; the statesman Solon, for example, is
credited with creating poems in which characters speak with their own voice, and spoken performances of Homer's
epics by rhapsodes were popular in festivals prior to 534 BC.[7] Thus, Thespis's true contribution to drama is unclear
at best, but his name has been immortalized as a common term for performer—a "thespian."
Theatre of ancient Greece
The dramatic performances were important to the Athenians – this is made clear by the creation of a tragedy
competition and festival in the City Dionysia. This was organized possibly to foster loyalty among the tribes of
Attica (recently created by Cleisthenes). The festival was created roughly around 508 BC. While no drama texts exist
from the sixth century BC, we do know the names of three competitors besides Thespis: Choerilus, Pratinas, and
Phrynichus. Each is credited with different innovations in the field.
More is known about Phrynichus. He won his first competition between 511 BC and 508 BC. He produced tragedies
on themes and subjects later exploited in the golden age such as the Danaids, Phoenician Women and Alcestis. He
was the first poet we know of to use a historical subject – his Fall of Miletus, produced in 493-2, chronicled the fate
of the town of Miletus after it was conquered by the Persians. Herodotus reports that "the Athenians made clear their
deep grief for the taking of Miletus in many ways, but especially in this: when Phrynichus wrote a play entitled “The
Fall of Miletus” and produced it, the whole theatre fell to weeping; they fined Phrynichus a thousand drachmas for
bringing to mind a calamity that affected them so personally, and forbade the performance of that play forever."[8]
He is also thought to be the first to use female characters (though not female performers).[9]
Until the Hellenistic period, all tragedies were unique pieces written in honor of Dionysus and played only once, so
that today we primarily have the pieces that were still remembered well enough to have been repeated when the
repetition of old tragedies became fashionable (the accidents of survival, as well as the subjective tastes of the
Hellenistic librarians later in Greek history, also played a role in what survived from this period).
New inventions during the Classical Period
After the Great Destruction of Athens by the Persian Empire in 480 BC, the town and acropolis were rebuilt, and
theatre became formalized and an even more major part of Athenian culture and civic pride. This century is normally
regarded as the Golden Age of Greek drama. The centre-piece of the annual Dionysia, which took place once in
winter and once in spring, was a competition between three tragic playwrights at the Theatre of Dionysus. Each
submitted three tragedies, plus a satyr play (a comic, burlesque version of a mythological subject). Beginning in a
first competition in 486 BC, each playwright also submitted a comedy.[10] Aristotle claimed that Aeschylus added
the second actor, and that Sophocles introduced the third. Apparently the Greek playwrights never used more than
three actors based on what is known about Greek theatre.[11]
Tragedy and comedy were viewed as completely separate genres, and no plays ever merged aspects of the two. Satyr
plays dealt with the mythological subject matter of the tragedies, but in a purely comedic manner. However, as they
were written over a century after the Athenian Golden Age, it is not known whether dramatists such as Sophocles
and Euripides would have thought about their plays in the same terms.
Hellenistic period
The power of Athens declined following its defeat in the Peloponnesian War against the Spartans. From that time on,
the theater started performing old tragedies again. Although its theatrical traditions seem to have lost their vitality,
Greek theater continued into the Hellenistic period (the period following Alexander the Great's conquests in the
fourth century BC). However, the primary Hellenistic theatrical form was not tragedy but 'New Comedy', comic
episodes about the lives of ordinary citizens. The only extant playwright from the period is Menander. One of New
Comedy's most important contributions was its influence on Roman comedy, an influence that can be seen in the
surviving works of Plautus and Terence.
2
Theatre of ancient Greece
3
Characteristics of the buildings
The plays had a chorus from 12 to
15[12] people, who performed the plays
in verse accompanied by music,
beginning in the morning and lasting
until the evening. The performance
space was a simple circular space, the
orchestra, where the chorus danced
and sang. The orchestra, which had an
average diameter of 78 feet, was
situated on a flattened terrace at the
foot of a hill, the slope of which
produced a natural theatron, literally
"watching place". Later, the term
"theater" came to be applied to the
whole area of theatron, orchestra, and
skené. The choregos was the head
chorus member who could enter the
story as a character able to interact
with the characters of a play.
The Ancient Theatre of Delphi.
The theaters were originally built on a
very large scale to accommodate the
large number of people on stage, as
well as the large number of people in
the audience, up to fourteen thousand.
Mathematics played a large role in the
construction of these theaters, as their
designers had to be able to create
acoustics in them such that the actors'
voices could be heard throughout the
theater, including the very top row of
seats. The Greeks' understanding of
acoustics compares very favorably
with the current state of the art, as even
with the invention of microphones,
A drawing of an ancient theater. Terms are in Greek language and Latin letters.
there are very few modern large
theaters that have truly good acoustics.
The first seats in Greek theaters (other than just sitting on the ground) were wooden, but around 499 BC the practice
of inlaying stone blocks into the side of the hill to create permanent, stable seating became more common. They
were called the "prohedria" and reserved for priests and a few most respected citizens.
In 465 BC, the playwrights began using a backdrop or scenic wall, which hung or stood behind the orchestra, which
also served as an area where actors could change their costumes. It was known as the skênê (from which the word
"scene" derives). The death of a character was always heard behind the skênê, for it was considered inappropriate to
show a killing in view of the audience. In 425 BC a stone scene wall, called a paraskenia, became a common
supplement to skênê in the theaters. A paraskenia was a long wall with projecting sides, which may have had
Theatre of ancient Greece
doorways for entrances and exits. Just behind the paraskenia was the proskenion. The proskenion ("in front of the
scene") was beautiful, and was similar to the modern day proscenium.
Greek theaters also had tall arched entrances called parodoi or eisodoi, through which actors and chorus members
entered and exited the orchestra. By the end of the 5th century BC, around the time of the Peloponnesian War, the
skênê, the back wall, was two stories high. The upper story was called the episkenion. Some theaters also had a
raised speaking place on the orchestra called the logeion.
Scenic elements
There were several scenic elements commonly used in Greek theater:
•
•
•
•
•
•
mechane, a crane that gave the impression of a flying actor (thus, deus ex machina).
ekkyklêma, a wheeled platform often used to bring dead characters into view for the audience
trap doors, or similar openings in the ground to lift people onto the stage
Pinakes, pictures hung to create scenery
Thyromata, more complex pictures built into the second-level scene (3rd level from ground)
Phallic props were used for satyr plays, symbolizing fertility in honor of Dionysus.
Masks
Masks and ritual
The Ancient Greek term for a mask is prosopon (lit.,
"face"),[13] and was a significant element in the
worship of Dionysus at Athens, likely used in
ceremonial rites and celebrations. Most of the evidence
comes from only a few vase paintings of the 5th
century BC, such as one showing a mask of the god
suspended from a tree with decorated robe hanging
below it and dancing and the Pronomos vase,[14] which
depicts actors preparing for a Satyr play.[15] No
physical evidence remains available to us, as the masks
were made of organic materials and not considered
Tragic Comic Masks Hadrian's Villa mosaic.
permanent objects, ultimately being dedicated to the
altar of Dionysus after performances. Nevertheless, the
mask is known to have been used since the time of Aeschylus and considered to be one of the iconic conventions of
classical Greek theater.[16]
Masks were also made for members of the chorus, who play some part in the action and provide a commentary on
the events in which they are caught up. Although there are twelve or fifteen members of the tragic chorus, they all
wear the same mask because they are considered to be representing one character.
Mask details
Illustrations of theatrical masks from 5th century display helmet-like masks, covering the entire face and head, with
holes for the eyes and a small aperture for the mouth, as well as an integrated wig. It is interesting to note that these
paintings never show actual masks on the actors in performance; they are most often shown being handled by the
actors before or after a performance, that liminal space between the audience and the stage, between myth and
reality.[15] This demonstrates the way in which the mask was to ‘melt’ into the face and allow the actor to vanish into
the role.[17] Effectively, the mask transformed the actor as much as memorization of the text. Therefore, performance
in ancient Greece did not distinguish the masked actor from the theatrical character.
4
Theatre of ancient Greece
5
The mask-makers were called skeuopoios or “maker of the properties,”
thus suggesting that their role encompassed multiple duties and tasks.
The masks were most likely made out of light weight, organic
materials like stiffened linen, leather, wood, or cork, with the wig
consisting of human or animal hair.[18] Due to the visual restrictions
imposed by these masks, it was imperative that the actors hear in order
to co-orientate and balance themselves. Thus, it is believed that the
ears were covered by substantial amounts of hair and not the
helmet-mask itself. The mouth opening was relatively small,
preventing the mouth to be seen during performances. Vervain and
Wiles posit that this small size discourages the idea that the mask
functioned as a megaphone, as originally presented in the 1960s.[15]
Greek mask-maker, Thanos Vovolis, suggests that the mask serves as a
resonator for the head, thus enhancing vocal acoustics and altering its
quality. This leads to increased energy and presence, allowing for the
more complete metamorphosis of the actor into his character.[19]
Bronze statue of a Greek actor. The half-mask
over the eyes and nose identifies the figure as an
actor. He wears a man's conical cap but female
garments, following the Greek custom of men
playing the roles of women. 150-100 BCE.
Mask functions
In a large open-air theater, like the Theater of Dionysus in Athens, the
classical masks were able to bring the characters' face closer to the
audience, especially since they had intensely exaggerated facial
features and expressions.[19] They enabled an actor to appear and
reappear in several different roles, thus preventing the audience from identifying the actor to one specific character.
Their variations help the audience to distinguish sex, age, and social status, in addition to revealing a change in a
particular character’s appearance, e.g. Oedipus after blinding himself [20] Unique masks were also created for
specific characters and events in a play, such as The Furies in Aeschylus’ Eumenides and Pentheus and Cadmus in
Euripides’ The Bacchae. Worn by the chorus, the masks created a sense of unity and uniformity, while representing a
multi-voiced persona or single organism and simultaneously encouraged interdependency and a heightened
sensitivity between each individual of the group. Greek theatre has many unique conventions. Only 2-3 actors were
allowed on the stage at one time, which meant that masks provided an efficient solution to quick transitions from one
character to another. Masks were a great way of playing female characters since only male actors were allowed.
Other costume details
The actors in these plays that had tragic roles wore boots called cothurni that elevated them above the other actors.
The actors with comedic roles only wore a thin soled shoe called a sock. For this reason, dramatic art is sometimes
alluded to as “Sock and Buskin.”
When playing female roles, the male actors donned a “prosterneda” (a wooden structure in front of the chest, to
imitate female breasts) and “progastreda” in front of the belly.
Melpomene is the muse of tragedy and is often depicted holding the tragic mask and wearing cothurni. Thalia is the
muse of comedy and is similarly associated with the mask of comedy and the comedic "socks".
Theatre of ancient Greece
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
Merriam-Webster definition of tragedy (http:/ / m-w. com/ dictionary/ tragedy)
William Ridgeway, Origin of Tragedy with Special Reference to the Greek Tragedians, p. 83
M.L. West, The Orphic Poems, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983. ISBN 0-19-814854-2. Cf. p.146.
Dr. Eli Rozik page (http:/ / www. tau. ac. il/ ~rozik/ abs. html) – Tel Aviv University
Rozik, Eli, The roots of theatre: rethinking ritual and other theories of origin (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=aGG40fhg6usC&
printsec=frontcover), Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2002. ISBN 0-87745-817-0. Cf. especially Chapter 4: The Shamanistic Source.
[6] Aristotle, Poetics
[7] Brockett, Oscar G. "History of the Theatre". Allyn and Bacon, 2000. Pp. 16–17
[8] Herodotus, Histories, 6/21 (http:/ / perseus. uchicago. edu/ hopper/ text. jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0126:book=6:chapter=21)
[9] Brockett, Oscar G. "History of the Theatre". Allyn and Bacon, 1999. USA. p.17
[10] Paul Kuritz, The making of theatre history, Englewood Cliffs 1988, p.21
[11] Kuritz, p. 24
[12] Paper on the Athens Theater (http:/ / content. grin. com/ data/ 7/ 27040. pdf)
[13] Liddell & Scott via Perseus @ UChicago (http:/ / perseus. uchicago. edu/ cgi-bin/ philologic/ getobject. pl?c. 62:2:190. LSJ)
[14] Tufts.edu (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ image?lookup=1993. 01. 0669)
[15] Vervain, Chris and David Wiles, “The Masks of Greek Tragedy as Point of Departure for Modern Performance.” New Theater Quarterly 67,
Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 2004. p.255
[16] Varakis, Angie. “Research on the Ancient Mask,” Didaskalia, Vol. 6.1 Spring 2000, Didaskalia.net (http:/ / www. didaskalia. net/ issues/
vol6no1/ varakis. html)
[17] Vervain, Chris and David Wiles, “The Masks of Greek Tragedy as Point of Departure for Modern Performance.” New Theater Quarterly 67,
Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 2004. p.256
[18] Brooke, Iris. “Costume in Greek Classical Drama.” Methuen, London: 1962. p.76
[19] Vovolis, Thanos and Giorgos Zamboulakis. “The Acoustical Mask of Greek Tragedy.” Didaskalia Vol. 7.1 Didaskalia.net (http:/ / www.
didaskalia. net/ issues/ vol7no1/ vovolis_zamboulakis. html)
[20] Brockett, Oscar G. and Robert Ball. “The Essential Theater.” 7th Ed. Harcourt Brace, Orlando: 2000. p.70].
Additional Literature
• Brockett, Oscar G. and Robert Ball. The Essential Theatre. 7th Ed. Harcourt Brace, Orlando: 2000
• Brooke, Iris. Costume in Greek Classical Drama. Methuen, London: 1962
• Buckham, Philip Wentworth, Theatre of the Greeks (http://books.google.com/books?id=IjAZAAAAYAAJ&
printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Theatre+of+the+Greeks), London 1827.
• Davidson, J.A., Literature and Literacy in Ancient Greece, Part 1, Phoenix, 16, 1962, pp. 141–56.
• ibid., Peisistratus and Homer, TAPA, 86, 1955, pp. 1–21.
• Easterling, P.E. (editor) (1997). The Cambridge Companion to Greek Tragedy (http://books.google.com/
books?id=Fy4iSjY2VTYC&printsec=frontcover). Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0-521-41245-5.
• Easterling, Patricia Elizabeth; Hall, Edith (eds.), Greek and Roman Actors: Aspects of an Ancient Profession
(http://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=0521651409), Cambridge University Press, 2002.
ISBN 0-521-65140-9
• Else, Gerald P.
• Aristotle's Poetics: The Argument, Cambridge, MA 1967.
• The Origins and Early Forms of Greek Tragedy, Cambridge, MA 1965.
• The Origins of ΤΡΑΓΩΙΔΙΑ, Hermes 85, 1957, pp. 17–46.
• Flickinger, Roy Caston, The Greek theater and its drama (http://books.google.com/
books?id=Cqaw6MwOX7AC&printsec=frontcover), Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1918
• Freund, Philip, The Birth of Theatre, London: Peter Owen, 2003. ISBN 0-7206-1170-9
• Haigh, A.E., The Attic Theatre, 1907.
• Harsh, Philip Whaley, A handbook of Classical Drama, Stanford University, California, Stanford University
Press; London, H. Milford, Oxford University Press, 1944.
• Lesky, A. Greek Tragedy, trans. H.A., Frankfurt, London and New York 1965.
6
Theatre of ancient Greece
• Ley, Graham. A Short Introduction to the Ancient Greek Theatre. University of Chicago, Chicago: 2006
• Loscalzo, D. Il pubblico a teatro nella Grecia antica, Roma 2008
• McDonald, Marianne, Walton, J. Michael (editors), The Cambridge companion to Greek and Roman theatre,
Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007. ISBN 0-521-83456-2
• Moulton, Richard Green, The ancient classical drama; a study in literary evolution intended for readers in
English and in the original, Oxford, The Clarendon Press, 1890.
• Padilla, Mark William (editor), "Rites of Passage in Ancient Greece: Literature, Religion, Society" (http://books.
google.com/books?id=-0JVScga2oYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=rites+of+passage+in+ancient+greece),
Bucknell University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8387-5418-X
• Pickard-Cambridge, Sir Arthur Wallace
• Dithyramb, Tragedy, and Comedy , Oxford 1927.
• The Theatre of Dionysus in Athens, Oxford 1946.
• The Dramatic Festivals of Athens, Oxford 1953.
• Rabinowitz, Nancy Sorkin (2008). Greek Tragedy. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers.
ISBN 978-1-4051-2160-6.
• Ridgeway, William, Origin of Tragedy with Special Reference to the Greek Tragedians, 1910.
• Riu, Xavier, Dionysism and Comedy, 1999. review (http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/bmcr/2000/2000-06-13.html)
• Ross, Stewart. Greek Theatre. Wayland Press, Hove: 1996
• Rozik, Eli, The roots of theatre: rethinking ritual and other theories of origin (http://books.google.com/
books?id=aGG40fhg6usC&printsec=frontcover), Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2002. ISBN
0-87745-817-0
• Schlegel, August Wilhelm, Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature (http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/7148),
Geneva 1809.
• Sommerstein, Alan H., Greek Drama and Dramatists (http://books.google.com/books?id=GDtcVHeBO_4C&
printsec=frontcover&dq=greek+drama+and+dramatists), Routledge, 2002.
• Sourvinou-Inwood, Christiane, Tragedy and Athenian Religion, Oxford:University Press 2003.
• Varakis, Angie. “Research on the Ancient Mask” (http://www.didaskalia.net/issues/vol6no1/varakis.html),
Didaskalia, Vol. 6.1 Spring 2004, .
• Vervain, Chris and David Wiles, The Masks of Greek Tragedy as Point of Departure for Modern Performance.
New Theatre Quarterly 67, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 2004.
• Vovolis, Thanos and Giorgos Zamboulakis. The Acoustical Mask of Greak Tragedy (http://www.didaskalia.net/
issues/vol7no1/vovolis_zamboulakis.html), Didaskalia Vol. 7.1.
• Wiles, David. Greek Theatre Performance: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 2000
• ibid. The Masks of Menander: Sign and Meaning in Greek and Roman Performance, Cambridge, 1991.
• ibid. Mask and Performance in Greek Tragedy: from ancient festival to modern experimentation, Cambridge,
1997.
• Wise, Jennifer, Dionysus Writes: The Invention of Theatre in Ancient Greece, Ithaca 1998. review (http://www.
utpjournals.com/product/utq/691/writers34.html)
• Zimmerman, B., Greek Tragedy: An Introduction, trans. T. Marier, Baltimore 1991.
7
Theatre of ancient Greece
External links
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•
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Ancient Greek theatre history and articles (http://www.theatrehistory.com/ancient/greek.html)
Drama lesson 1: The ancient Greek theatre (http://www.iolani.org/usacad_eng_eng10dterms_cw9404.htm)
Ancient Greek Theatre (http://www.greektheatre.gr/)
The Ancient Theatre Archive, Greek and Roman theatre architecture (http://www.whitman.edu/theatre/
theatretour/home.htm) – Dr. Thomas G. Hines, Department of Theatre, Whitman College
Greek and Roman theatre glossary (http://www.whitman.edu/theatre/theatretour/glossary/glossary.htm)
Illustrated Greek Theater (http://people.hsc.edu/drjclassics/lectures/theater/ancient_greek_theater.shtm) –
Dr. Janice Siegel, Department of Classics, Hampden-Sydney College, Virginia
Searchable database of monologues for actors from Ancient Greek Theatre (http://www.actorama.com/
monologues/ancient-greek-plays.html)
Logeion: A Journal of Ancient Theatre with free access which publishes original scholarly articles including its
reception in modern theatre, literature, cinema and the other art forms and media, as well as its relation to the
theatre of other periods and geographical regions. (http://www.logeion.upatras.gr)
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Mask youngster Louvre S3044.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mask_youngster_Louvre_S3044.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Jastrow
File:2007-05-10 Epidauros, Greece 5.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2007-05-10_Epidauros,_Greece_5.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Contributors: Hansueli Krapf
File:Delphi Composite.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Delphi_Composite.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Original
uploader was Leonidtsvetkov at en.wikipedia
File:GriechTheater2.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GriechTheater2.PNG License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors:
Flammingo
File:TragicComicMasksHadriansVillamosaic.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TragicComicMasksHadriansVillamosaic.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution
2.0 Contributors: Agamemnus, Bibi Saint-Pol, EDUCA33E, Fagairolles 34, FlickreviewR, G.dallorto, Jastrow, MECU, Mac9, Saperaud, 1 anonymous edits
File:Greek - Actor - Walters 541067.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Greek_-_Actor_-_Walters_541067.jpg License: unknown Contributors: -
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