Human-Horse Apprenticeship, Tattoos, and Time in the Pazyryk World

Society & Animals 21 (2013) 178-193
brill.com/soan
Inked: Human-Horse Apprenticeship, Tattoos,
and Time in the Pazyryk World
Gala Argent
Eastern Kentucky University
[email protected]
Abstract
Prior interpretations of the tattoos of nonhuman animals etched upon the preserved human
bodies from the Pazyryk archaeological culture of Inner Asia have focused on solely humangenerated meanings. This article utilizes an ethnoarchaeological approach to reassess these tattoos, by analogizing the nature and possibilities of human-ridden horse intersubjectivities in the
present with those of the past. As enlightened by people who live with horses, including the
author, the process of learning to ride can be seen as an interspecies apprenticeship process,
where both humans and horses pass along social knowledge as thoughtful actors with defined
roles. From this perspective, the horse tattoos are presented as polysemic materializations of the
bonds between particular Pazyryk horses and people, of blended identities, and of cosmological
values related to time, memory, and belonging. The article concludes that exploring smaller-scale
human-nonhuman animal interactions in the present allows for fresh interpretations of similar
interactions in the past and provides a means for archaeology to move beyond the objectification
of animals as sets of resources or symbols.
Keywords
animal agency, social knowledge, identity, apprenticeship, meaning, riding horses, animals in
archaeology, human-animal relationships, tattoos, Pazyryk, Iron Age
No one can teach riding so well as a horse.
—C. S. Lewis
We come to feel towards great horses like we feel towards great people; we wish they
could live forever.
—George B. Hatley (Haddle, 1975, p. 12)
It is difficult to include “real” nonhuman animals in archaeological studies as
anything other than objects, for the main reason that approaches which take
nonhuman animal agency as a starting point are still rare in that discipline.
Animals, themselves, are not seen as actors in dynamic cultural processes,
because culture is conceived as a human-only endeavor, enacted upon animals
without any perceived reciprocal meanings they might possibly contribute.
© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2013
DOI: 10.1163/15685306-12341301
G. Argent / Society & Animals 21 (2013) 178-193
179
Furthermore, the conventional view is broad in scale, with animals considered
at the species level; they are sets, not individuals. Archaeological studies
approaching horses through this lens are interesting, valuable, and have added
much to the understanding of the human use of horses in past societies (e.g.,
Anthony, 2007; Levine, Renfrew, & Boyle, 2003; Olsen, Grant, Choyke, &
Bartosiewicz, 2006). However, this view is often at odds with the experiences
of those who relate with actual equine individuals, myself included (e.g.,
Acton, 2010; Argent, 2012; Birke, Bryld, & Lykke, 2004; Brandt, 2004;
Game, 2001; Sharpe, 2005).
As this special issue shows, there is interest in addressing animals in fresh
ways in archaeological studies. Yet much archaeological research seems stymied
by a lack of theory and methodology through which to approach animals as
beings with agential qualities. This is further complicated by the over-emphasis in many social archaeologies (and the broader academy) on issues of power,
hierarchy, and manipulation in human-animal interactions, where animals
are exploited as parts of human economic strategies (e.g., Drews, 2004,
pp. 74-80; Dietz, 2003; Ingold, 1994; Tuan, 1984). The unspoken assumption is that humans use; animals are used. This focus misses the fact that both
humans and other social animals also engage cooperatively, empathically, and
pro-socially with other beings (see Balcombe, 2009; Decety & Ickes, 2009;
Keltner, Marsh, & Smith, 2010; Knapp & Vangelisti, 2005; Smuts, 2008; de
Waal, 2009). These points combine to suggest that an approach which considers animals as “minded and self-aware participants in collective action with
their human associates” (Sanders, 2007, p. 330)—and that such action can be
mutually cooperative rather than unilaterally exploitive—might provide fresh
interpretations of past communities which lived with animals.
I use such an approach here to reinterpret meanings of the horses tattooed
upon the human bodies from the Pazyryk archaeological culture, a community that lived with, rode with, and buried their dead with horses some
2,500 years ago. To do this, rather than turn to the literature on meanings
associated with tattoos, I instead explore how these people for whom horses
were so crucial might have interacted with their horses. I begin with some
questions: How does a human learn to ride a horse, and how does a horse
learn to be ridden? What types of relationships can develop when humans
interact with horses in this way? With these considerations in place, I explore
how this type of embodied partnership might have been materialized in the
Pazyryk horse tattoos, and what the tattoos might reveal about the place and
impacts of horses embedded within this community’s conceptions of life and
the afterlife.
180
G. Argent / Society & Animals 21 (2013) 178-193
Interspecies Apprenticeship in the Practice of Riding
Those who ride horses more than casually understand that the process is not
unidirectional, with the rider demanding an action and the horse compliantly
submitting. Rather, riding is a “joint action” (Sanders, 2007) between rider
and horse, where both must move in synchrony together, anticipating and
predicting the other’s actions in order to remain safe. For both it is a sharing
of space, time, rhythms, and patterns through various relational modalities—
physiological, phenomenological, psychological, and interpersonal (Argent,
2012; Evans & Franklin, 2009). Learning to move together harmoniously in
these various ways takes many years of constant practice for both humans and
horses.1 The method of social learning most often used for this is best described
as “apprenticeship” (cf. Podhajsky, 1968/1997, p. 4). In this process, the
nascent rider works with a more skilled rider (or trainer)—who at one point
was a nascent rider who worked with a more skilled rider to learn the embodied, primarily nonverbal, “language” shared with horses (Argent, 2012; Birke
et al., 2004; Brandt, 2004; Game, 2001).2
However, it is not only within the human that this knowledge resides. There
is an axiom in the horse world: “Green horse, seasoned rider; green rider, seasoned horse” (cf. Dorrance & Desmond, 1999, p. 16). This means that an
unschooled horse should be brought to the process of riding by an experienced
human who can do so effectively, without causing either physical or psychological damage to the horse. Conversely, a new rider is usually “taught the
ropes” by a patient, honest, usually older, horse. Across Euro-American equestrian disciplines today, these horses are termed “schoolmasters” or “school
horses.” These veteran riding horses “fill in for a person who lacks experience”
(Dorrance & Desmond, 1999, p. 16).
Schoolmasters both teach their students and keep them safe. Because horses
are all individuals, each brings unique techniques to this work. As noted about
one schoolmaster, “She would never spook or buck, although she would play
tricks on beginner riders, such as walking around in circles, refusing to trot, or
walking back to the mounting block and stopping!” (Sanger, 2010, p. 1). The
message from the horse in this instance is clear: “I know how this is supposed
to go, and you’re not getting it right. Once you figure it out, we’ll do it your
way. In the meantime, I’ll keep letting you know you’re not there yet in ways
that will challenge you but not hurt you.”
Horses are predisposed to be caring teachers. They understand the concepts
of belonging and watching out for each other, and they can bestow
such concern on humans, choosing to bond deeply with particular people
(Argent, 2010, 2012; van Dierendonck & Goodwin, 2006; Sigurjónsdóttir,
G. Argent / Society & Animals 21 (2013) 178-193
181
Dierendock, & Thórhallsdóttir, 2002). In the wild, the equine father, mothers, and elder siblings contribute to teaching foals social skills and norms of
appropriate behavior within a sophisticated care system which includes complex, contextual roles (Boyd & Keiper, 2005, pp. 55-56; Fey, 2005, p. 83;
Morris, 1988, p. 49). In a similar fashion, schoolmasters tend their human
charges and teach them not only the physical aspects of riding—how to balance, turn, stop, and go—but also the shared social norms necessary for members of the two species to get along. Still, not all horses can, or decide to, act
out the role of schoolmaster. As sociologist Acton (2010) noted of her time
learning foxhunting from a schoolmaster, termed a “made hunter” within that
subculture, “only a certain type of horse can take on the onerous responsibility
of an untutored human” (p. 82). Good schoolmasters have the knowledge, the
constitution, and—important to an understanding of equine agency in this
process—the willingness to care for and teach humans. They must choose to
take on this role.
Recognizing schoolmasters as the special and patient teachers they are demonstrates that riding is not a linear, one-sided phenomenon in which humans
solely act upon horses. Instead it is a co-constructed, contextual web of interchanges and understandings in which thoughtful human and horse beings act
out complex, mutually understood meanings about individuals, actions, roles,
and norms through caring and interdependent dealings with each other. It is
not only the human who creates and replicates this shared culture. Through
the process of apprenticeship, riding culture is passed along not (only) from
human teachers to students but also in an unending chain from horse to rider
to horse to rider, with one (horse or human) teaching the other (horse or
human).
This is not to say that all human cultures, subcultures, or individuals engage
with horses through the type of relationship I have described or that issues of
power, domination, and disagreement are always absent. Horses have been
and still are misunderstood, exploited, and abused. Instead I argue that the
potentials of the human-horse relationship I have elucidated transcend those
commonly permissible in many academic constructs. A crucial point to this
discussion is that horses treated violently may react in kind (McGreevy &
McLean, 2005, p. 203) and certainly will not learn to be good teachers (Podhajsky, 1968/1997, p. 12). When schooled and treated respectfully, horses will
use their minds, bodies, and agency to look out for their riders “with willing
cooperation and an absolute devotion” (Podhajsky, 1968/1997, p. 3), and this
cannot be forced, bullied, or imposed. Therefore, there is a built-in motivator
to approach horses cooperatively, because doing so perpetuates a culture of
mutual interspecific care.
182
G. Argent / Society & Animals 21 (2013) 178-193
It would be dangerous and illogical for humans not to avail themselves of
these benevolent equine actors to teach them to ride, and cross-cultural references suggest that the concern horses can bestow upon humans in this way
transcends cultural distinctions (e.g., Acton, 2010; Cohen, 1998, p. 24; Ewers,
1955, p. 66; Podhajsky, 1968/1997, pp. 45-67; Morris, 1988, p. 83; Sanger,
2010). With these points in mind, I suggest that the potential for these interspecies, pro-social connections are archetypical and pan-cultural, and they
were present at the time the Pazyryk tattoos were inked. While certainly both
humans and horses have changed since then, it is likely that similar social traits
which enable both humans and horses to engage as teachers and learners in the
pro-social ways I have described were present some 2,500 years ago as now. If
this is the case, how might these notions of horses as teachers and the cocreated culture of riding have factored into interspecies social realities—and
have been materialized—in Pazyryk society?
The Pazyryk Horse Tattoos
The Iron Age burials of the Pazyryk archaeological culture (c. 5th through
3rd centuries BCE) are situated in the remote Altai Mountains where presentday Southern Siberia, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and China touch. The pastoral
economy of the Pazyryk community consisted of hunting, gathering, fishing,
and livestock herding, and we can assume horses were used to help accomplish
all of these activities. The Pazyryk people lived with and on their horses, who
were crucial to every aspect of their lives and livelihoods. The perceived value of
horses carried over into death, and they appear in spectacular ways in Pazyryk
funerary materials. Within most human burial mounds, entire horses were
sacrificed and buried with the Pazyryk men and women. These horses were
interred with their saddles, bridles, and/or bits, and in some burials they also
wore intricately detailed costumes with artfully crafted adornments (Argent,
2010). Some horses also wore elaborate headdresses adorned with horns of
ibex (Capra siberica siberica), an indigenous, large mountain goat (Fig. 1).
In many of the burials organic material, including the bodies and clothing
of humans and horses, were preserved when subsequent looting allowed water
into the graves and it froze into permafrost. Furthermore, in some instances
the bodies of the deceased humans also had been preserved by embalming; the
organs and flesh had been removed, but the bones and skin remained. Tattoos
are visible on many of these preserved bodies, male and female. The tattoos
feature animals, including birds, argali, fish, deer, and felines, as well as plant
motifs (Fig. 2). Many of the animal motifs appear only once, like the fish on
the leg of the man in Figure 2A, and others appear multiple times but with no
G. Argent / Society & Animals 21 (2013) 178-193
183
Figure 1. Reconstruction of the Berel 11 burial mound
(after Samashev et al., 2000, p. 13).
discernible regularities. For one particular animal, however, there appears to
be a specific pattern to the images and their placement. Space does not permit
a full analysis of all the various tattooed animal images, but I will focus attention upon this patterning of tattooed forms I argue represent horse bodies;
those circled in Figure 2.
There are three identifiable types of horse bodies—all twisted in the
“Scythian Animal Style” S-shaped reverse spiral, a typical motif in Iron Age
Inner Asia. The horses all are similarly drawn, all are in profile, with hindquarters facing upwards, and all are placed in similar positions on the various bodies. Moving up the arms, the first type of horse is on the lower arms of various
mummies are conveyed naturally and unadorned and are rather roughly executed (Fig. 3, top left). The second type of horse is on the middle arms. These
184
G. Argent / Society & Animals 21 (2013) 178-193
Figure 2. Horse tattoos on three Pazyryk bodies (after Vitebsky, 2005, p. 10). (A) Man
from Pazyryk 2; (B) Woman from Ak-Alakha 3-1; (C) Man from Verh-Kaldzhin 2-1.
horses are larger and have more detail to them, particularly on the forequarters
(Fig. 3, top right). The third type of horse is tattooed on the shoulders (Fig. 3,
bottom). They are the largest, with the back of the horse wrapping from the
back of the shoulder, the horses’ heads on the human necks, and with one
front leg extended and one back (the same as the more flatly represented
horses) on the front part of the chest. Although the heads that wrap around
the shoulders were difficult to reconstruct due to wrinkling and defects of the
skin, other similarities show that they are larger, more elaborate versions of the
mid-arm tattoos.
The second and third sets of tattoos have been described as depicting deer
or ungulates (Bogucki, 1996, p. 150; Polosmak, 1998, p. 153, 2000, p. 95;
Rudenko, 1953/1970, pp. 110-112), reindeer (Vitebsky, 2005, p. 9), and
G. Argent / Society & Animals 21 (2013) 178-193
185
Figure 3. Top left (lower arm tattoos): top—Pazyryk 2 male, lower forearm (after
Rice, 1957, Fig. 58); middle—Pazyryk 5 male, lower forearm (Barkova & Pankova,
2005, Fig. 6); bottom—Pazyryk 5 male, hand (Barkova & Pankova, 2005, Fig. 5). Top
right (mid-arm tattoos): top left—Pazyryk 2 male, right bicep (Rudenko, 1953/1970,
p. 130); top right—Pazyryk 2 male, left bicep (Rudenko, 1953/1970, p. 131); middle—Ak-Alakha 3-1 female, upper left arm (Polosmak, 1998, Fig. 14); bottom—
Pazyryk 2 male, upper right forearm (Rudenko, 1953/1970, p. 133). Bottom (shoulder
tattoos): top—Pazyryk 2 male, right shoulder (Rudenko, 1953/1970, Fig. 132); bottom left—Pazyryk 2 female, left shoulder, either less expertly applied or degraded
(Barkova & Pankova, 1995, Fig. 23); bottom right—Verh-Kaldzhin 2-1 male, right
shoulder (enlargement of Polosmak, 2000, Fig. 1).
186
G. Argent / Society & Animals 21 (2013) 178-193
Figure 4. The stallion Sunspot’s Eclipse playfully rearing (photo by author).
“fantastic monster[s] . . . deer with the beak of an eagle and the tail of a cat”
(Rudenko, 1953/1970, p. 263). On closer inspection these can be seen as
horse bodies. The hooves are too large and the bone too thick for these to
be deer or reindeer. The hooves with fetlocks above, the bends and reflected
movement of the legs, the differences in muscling, and the entire shape and
proportions echo horses not deer and certainly not reindeer. Furthermore, the
manner in which the forelegs are raised and bent, one higher than the other,
and the hind legs are separated portray, in all but the twisted aspect, a horse
in the middle of the particular motion of rearing playfully (Fig. 4). This is the
only time horses’ legs are so placed.
I suggest that the second and third sets of tattoos depict not invented beings
but actual, masked horses, adorned with headdresses with representations of
ibex horns, as found in Pazyryk burials (Fig. 1) and on rock art dated to the
Bronze Age (Francfort, 1998, Fig. 17.11) where a man appears to hit the horse
on the head. Francfort (1998) states regarding these Inner Asian horned
horses—both actual, in the burials, and as portrayed in the petroglyph—that
“a shamanistic substratum in the broad sense gives . . . the best possible explanation of this theme: the image of a magic mount for a journey to the other
world” (p. 315). According to this view the actual Pazyryk horses decorated
with horn headdresses and buried with the deceased humans were sacrificed
G. Argent / Society & Animals 21 (2013) 178-193
187
for the purpose of carrying the souls of the human dead to the otherworld. I
suggest that these horses are represented in the tattoos.
To explain why the horses’ bodies were twisted 180 degrees, we might also
fruitfully look to elements of the Inner Asian shamanistic worldview, a highly
conservative collection of beliefs which have been argued to date back to the
Paleolithic (Basilov, 1989), Mesolithic (Zvelebil, 2003), or Neolithic (Martynov, 1991). This worldview concerns an animistic universe with upper,
middle, and lower worlds; reciprocity between the human, environmental,
spirit, and animal worlds; and particular symbolism in material culture.
Within this belief system, animals are tied to the unseen world in that they
may undergo transformations themselves, and it is only through animals that
humans may move between the three levels of the seen and unseen worlds
(Baldick, 2000, p. 89). Within this context, the otherworld is the reverse of
this one; there things are inverted, upside down, backwards (Eliade, 1951/1964,
pp. 190-204). Here, the spiral:
. . . bears the imprint of the cosmological paradigm, the transcendental cavity tunneling to the axis mundi, which joins the antipodal centers of this World and the
Other. It demarcated an existential place or point, wherein the arcana of creation and
entropy are but reflected images of each other—both, at once, self-generating and selfdestructive. (Ripinski-Naxon, 1993, p. 33)
Thus, the reverse spiral might represent life and death, simultaneously. According to Jacobson (2007), within Animal Style art “a twisted animal referred
inevitably to either the act of predation or to the impact of predation . . . and
probable death” (p. 65). But there is more to these tattoos than their twisted
aspect. In addition, generally the upper arm and shoulder horse tattoos are
more detailed on the front parts of their bodies, which face down toward the
earth. Their hindquarters drift upward as if floating, outlined but undefined,
not filled in. The black/down, white/up rendering of the horse tattoos is also
consistent with the Inner Asian shamanistic tenet that black is associated with
lower world and white with the upper world (Basilov, 1990, p. 37). With
this detailing in mind, I suggest that the twisted horse tattoos represent neither predation nor “probable” death but the actual act of dying, the moment
at which the soul or life force leaves the body. There seems to be a notion
conveyed in the tattoos that at death the substance of life, the detail, leaves
the body; the ephemeral spirit is freed of its weight and glides amorphously
upward to the upper world. In this way—twisted, at the point of death—the
horse is memorialized, yet the power of his ascending spirit remains as well.
Depicted in the tattoos at the moment of death, life and death, the earthly
and the otherworldly, appear in the same image. The horse is dead, but he is
188
G. Argent / Society & Animals 21 (2013) 178-193
also always alive—and memorialized playfully, happily so—his memory and
power always with the person and visible to the community.
Life, Death, and the Marking of Time
Parker Pearson (1999, p. 64) discusses the importance of skin as a boundary
in the Pazyryk burials, where both its surface and its covering hold symbolic
importance. The skin and bones were preserved by the Pazyryks through
embalming; the flesh and brains were discarded. The skin represents the interface between the self and the world, and tattoos upon it serve to bring into
consciousness images and ideas that are culturally or personally important.
Through time, tattoos have been applied for purely decorative purposes, to
celebrate a significant event or life achievement, to mark rites of passage, to
memorialize loved ones who have died, and to mark various types of ethnic,
religious, or ideological group membership (Cains & Byard, 2008, pp. 197,
206-210). Parker Pearson (1999, p. 65) argues that the Pazyryk tattoos were
meant to be protective, while Polosmak (1998, p. 153) supposes that both the
Pazyryk tattooing and the iconography itself were of broader significance to
the community as a whole (rather than the tattoos solely relating to personal
attributes or meanings). Clearly the regularities I have pointed out within this
small set would support their communal significance. But this does not rule
out personal, relational meanings of the horses on the tattoos.
For the people of the Altai Mountains today a person’s time is measured by
his horses (A. Halemba, personal communication, October 15, 2005). A man
will have several horses over his lifetime, a gentle one as a young boy, then one
(or more) he trains himself. Halemba notes that this latter horse is sometimes
called the “highest treasure.” When a person’s horse dies, it is a noted time, a
time of transition to another phase of life. With this in mind, I suggest the
Pazyryk horse tattoos represent actual, biographical horses, horses who
belonged with the tattooed person, the horses of that person’s lifetime. If this
is so, then it is possible to imagine that they were applied over time, beginning
with the hands and moving upward to the shoulders, with the regularities of
pattern and placement representing rites of passage associated with the person’s own horses. The less defined and unadorned horses on the lower arms
may have been representative of that first horse, the older, steady schoolmaster
who taught the youngster to ride, now gone; their rough execution correlative
with the lack of finesse of a learning rider.
The masked horses of the middle arms, more elaborate and artfully applied,
could be those who shared and reflected more refined riding ability and
human-horse accomplishments and identities (Argent, 2010). The largest,
G. Argent / Society & Animals 21 (2013) 178-193
189
“highest” horse, on the shoulders, might be the “highest treasure,” the horse
trained by the now-expert rider. It is significant that this horse is applied so
that the actual human and tattooed horse heads touch, perhaps depicting the
special bond that can occur when horse and human have chosen to belong to
each other.
If this was the case then as the horses themselves marked significant events
in the humans’ lives, the horses’ own deaths would be inscribed upon their
humans’ bodies. Painfully etched upon the most important part of the body
for these people of Pazyryk—the part worth preserving through embalming
for the life in the otherworld—were the histories of the horses of their lifetimes, both commemorated and marking time.3
Beyond these potential individual meanings, that the horses are all portrayed in the particular position of rearing playfully might convey a sense of
both the Pazyryk community’s treatment of horses and their cosmological
beliefs. Dominated, abused horses do not amuse themselves in this way, suggesting that the models for these tattoos were valued and well-treated, and that
these human-horse relationships were pleasant and caring. These happy horses
seem to leave willingly on their journey to the unseen otherworld, perhaps
serving to remind their people that it might not be such a bad place to go
when their time in the seen world is over. Furthermore, literally curved back
on themselves, the horses seem to represent a nonlinear sense of time folding
back on itself, the expression of a future for humans and horses alike that
extends beyond the death of the body. Within this template of time, the belief
in a reconstructed life for humans and their horses within an afterlife might
have served, as it does for many today, as an anodyne to the fear of death and
the loss of loved ones.
In these ways, Pazyryk personal, social, and cosmological meanings appear
to coalesce in these horse tattoos, materialized as powerful, interspecies “narratives of belonging” (Casella & Fowler, 2004, p. 3), entangling human and
horse bodies and identities into one. The horses are no longer of flesh and
blood and hair but of soot implanted into human skin. Yet the importance of
the actual horses seems to not be reduced by these archetypical images, but
instead it is heightened. Although each image is still one horse, and remembered as one horse, each is more. Each also becomes “horses,” both creative of
and embedded within communal corporeal, cognitive, and spiritual experiences and beliefs, multiplied in significance.
When approached with a broadened understanding of how human-horse
culture can be perpetuated intersubjectively and pro-socially, what emerges
from this assessment of the Pazyryk tattoos is an historically particular and
unique culture with beliefs about the nature and abilities of horses that belie
assumptions that their value consisted of mere economic and symbolic import,
190
G. Argent / Society & Animals 21 (2013) 178-193
points that would be missed in a narrow, conventional archaeological analysis.
Within the Pazyryk community, smaller-scale, embodied, emotional interspecies interactions fed into larger social structures and cosmological meanings.
The space the Pazyryk people shared with their horses was liminal—in the
relational borderlands of hybrid bodies and wills (see also Birke et al., 2004;
Thompson, 2011). The boundaries between human and animal, the living
and the dead, this world and the next, and the past, present, and future were
blurred, permeable, and in every sense included horses—not as objects or sets
but as individual, relational beings.
It is clear that objectifying, functionalist schemes of human-animal cobeing focused solely upon economics and exploitation limit our view and can
no longer be assumed a priori. As convincingly put by Clark (2007), when
concepts of “ ‘giving,’ ‘generosity,’ ‘hospitality,’ ‘care,’ ‘affection’ [and] ‘love’ ”
regain validity in contemporary thought, we can begin to “acknowledge that
relations of giving and taking, caring and being cared for . . . are always already
at play in the more official economies we partake in” (p. 51). The pro-social
equine deeds described here simply cannot be accommodated within conventional archaeological paradigms which focus solely upon control and manipulation. I have instead moved the discussion from politics to pedagogy, where
culture is shared and co-created, looped through time between thoughtful,
caring subjects of two species, in the past as in the present. Exploring smallerscale, intersubjective human-animal relationships and their effects on shared
interspecies worlds seems one fruitful way for archaeology to begin to move
toward accepting animals as beings who can significantly impact human societies in ways not previously considered.
Acknowledgements
I wish to thank Piers Locke for early discussions on human-nonhuman apprenticeship. I also thank Kristin Armstrong Oma and Lynda Birke for their hard
work in pulling together this special issue and the Society & Animals reviewer
whose comments contributed much to this piece.
Notes
1. Schooling to the level of “plain usefulness” (Wynmalen, 1952, p. 20) takes about a year of
regular work. As the potential danger or precision of the action increases, so does the time
needed for schooling. Dressage “airs above the ground,” for instance, are attempted only after a
minimum of six to eight years of constant, daily work.
G. Argent / Society & Animals 21 (2013) 178-193
191
2. It is possible for a human to teach herself to ride, particularly with an older, patient schoolmaster. It is not, however, advisable with a young horse because neither typically possess the
confidence, sense of balance, and learned language through which to share meanings while
remaining safe. Another adage used to describe this pairing is “green on green equals black and
blue” (where green refers to inexperienced).
3. In interesting support of this thesis, when I presented a version of this paper at an academic
conference, one of the session panelists showed upon her shoulder a tattoo commemorating her
first horse, now gone.
References
Acton, A. (2010). Getting by with a little help from my hunter: Riding to hounds in English
mounted foxhound packs. In N. Kowalsky (Ed.). Hunting—Philosophy for everyone: In search
of the wild life (pp. 80-92). Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
Anthony, D. W. (2007). The horse the wheel and language: How Bronze-Age riders from the Eurasian
steppes shaped the modern world. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Argent, G. (2010). Do the clothes make the horse? Relationality, roles and statuses in Iron Age
Inner Asia. World Archaeology, 42(2), 157-174.
——. (2012). Toward a privileging of the nonverbal: Communication, corporeal synchrony
and transcendence in humans and horses. In J. A. Smith & R. W. Mitchell (Eds.), Experiencing animal minds: An anthology of animal-human encounters (pp. 111-128). New York, NY:
Columbia University Press.
Balcombe, J. (2009). Animal pleasure and its moral significance. Applied Animal Behaviour
Science, 118, 208-216.
Baldick, J. (2000). Animal and shaman: Ancient religions of Central Asia. New York, NY: New
York University Press.
Barkova, L. L., & Pankova, S. V. (2005). Tattooed mummies from the large Pazyryk mounds:
New findings. Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia, 2(22), 48-59.
Basilov, V. N. (1989). Nomads of Eurasia. Los Angeles, CA: Natural History Museum.
——. (1990). Chosen by the spirits. In M. M. Balzer (Ed.), Shamanic worlds: Rituals and lore of
Siberia and Central Asia (pp. 3-48). Armonk, NY, and London, UK: M.E. Sharpe, Inc.
Birke, L., Bryld, M., & Lykke, N. (2004). Animal performances: An exploration of intersections
between feminist science studies and studies of human/animal relationships. Feminist Theory,
5(2), 167-183.
Bogucki, P. (1996). Pazyryk and the Ukok princess. In P. G. Bahn (Ed.), Tombs, graves and mummies (pp. 146-151). New York, NY: Barnes & Noble.
Boyd, L., & Keiper, R. (2005). Behavioural ecology of feral horses. In D. S. Mills and S. M.
McDonnell (Eds.), The domestic horse: The evolution, development and management of its behaviour (pp. 55-82). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Brandt, K. (2004). A language of their own: An interactionist approach to human-horse communication. Society & Animals, 12(4), 299-316.
Cains, G. E., & Byard, R. W. (2008). The forensic and cultural implications of tattooing. Forensic Pathology Reviews, 5, 197-220.
Casella, E. C., & Fowler, C. (Eds.). (2004). The archaeology of plural and changing identities. New
York, NY: Springer.
Clark, N. (2007). Animal interface: The generosity of domestication. In R. Cassidy & M. Mullin
(Eds.), Where the wild things are now: Domestication reconsidered (pp. 49-70). Oxford, UK: Berg.
192
G. Argent / Society & Animals 21 (2013) 178-193
Cohen, B. (Ed.). (1998). Stories and images about what the horse has done for us: An illustrated history
of Okanagon ranching and rodeo. Pentiction, BC: En’owkin Centre and Theytus Books Ltd.
Decety, J., & Ickes, W. (Eds). (2009). The social neuroscience of empathy. Cambridge, MA: The
MIT press.
de Waal, F. (1996). Good natured: The origins of right and wrong in humans and other animals.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Dietz, U. L. (2003). Horseback riding: Man’s access to speed? In M.A. Levine, C. Renfrew, &
K. Boyle (Eds.), Prehistoric steppe adaptation and the horse (pp. 189-199). Cambridge, UK:
McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research.
Dorrance, B., & Desmond, L. (1999). True horsemanship though feel. Guilford, CT: The Lyons
Press.
Drews, R. (2004). Early riders: The beginnings of mounted warfare in Asia and Europe. New York,
NY, and London, UK: Routledge.
Eliade, M. (1964). Shamanism: Archaic techniques of ecstasy (Bolligen Series 76, W. R. Trask,
Trans.) Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. (Original work published 1951.)
Evans, R., & Franklin, A. (2009). Equine beats: Unique rhythms (and floating harmony) of
horses and their riders. In T. Edensor (Ed.), Geographies of motion (pp. 173-188). Farnham,
UK: Ashgate.
Ewers, J. C. (1955). The horse in Blackfoot Indian culture: With comparative material from other
western tribes (Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 159). Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution.
Fey, C. (2005). Relationship and communication in socially natural horse herds. In D. S. Mills
& S. M. McDonnell (Eds.), The domestic horse: The evolution, development and management of
its behaviour (pp. 83-93). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Francfort, H.-P. (1998). Central Asian petroglyphs: Between Indo-Iranian and shamanistic interpretations. In C. Chippendale & P. S. C. Tacon (Eds.), The archaeology of rock art
(pp. 302-318). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Game, A. (2001). Riding: Embodying the centaur. Body & Society, 7(1), 1-12.
Haddle, J. (1975). The complete book of the appaloosa. London, UK: Thomas Yoseloff Ltd.
Ingold, T. (1994). From trust to domination: An alternative history of human-animal relations.
In A. Manning & J. Serpell (Eds.), Animals and human society (pp. 1-22). London, UK, and
New York, NY: Routledge.
Jacobson, E. (2007). The Issyk headdress: Symbol and meaning in the Iron Age nomadic culture.
In C. Chang & K. S. Guroff (Eds.), Of gold and grass: Nomads of Kazakhstan (pp. 65-70).
Bethesda, MD: Foundation for International Arts and Education.
Keltner, D., Marsh, J., & Smith, J. A. (2010). The compassionate instinct. New York, NY: W.W.
Norton & Company.
Knapp, M. L., & Vangelisti, A. L. (2005). Interpersonal communication and human relationships
(5th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Levine, M. A., Renfrew, C., & Boyle, K. (Eds.). (2003). Prehistoric steppe adaptation and the
horse. Cambridge, UK: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research.
Martynov, A. I. (1991). The ancient art of Northern Asia (D. B. Shimkin & E. M. Shimkin, Eds.
and Trans.). Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.
McGreevy, P., & McLean, A. (2005). Behavioral problems with the ridden horse. In D. S. Mills
and S. M. McDonnell (Eds.), The domestic horse: The evolution, development and management
of its behaviour (pp. 196-211). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Morris, D. (1988). Horsewatching. New York, NY: Crown.
Olsen, S. L., Grant, S., Choyke, A. M., & Bartosiewicz, L. (Eds.). (2006). Horses and humans:
The evolution of human-equine relationships (BAR International Series 1560). Oxford, UK:
Archaeopress.
G. Argent / Society & Animals 21 (2013) 178-193
193
Parker Pearson, M. (1999). The archaeology of death and burial. College Station, TX: Texas A&M
University Press.
Podhajsky, A. (1997). My horses, my teachers (E. Podhajsky Trans.). North Pomfret, VT: Trafalgar
Square Publishing. (Original work published 1968.)
Polosmak, N. V. (1998). The burial of a noble Pazyryk woman. Ancient Civilizations from Scythia
to Siberia, 5(2), 125-163.
——. (2000). Tattoos in the Pazyryk world. Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia,
4(4), 95-102.
Rice, T. T. (1957). Ancient people and places: The Scythians. London, UK: Thames & Hudson.
Ripinsky-Naxon, M. (1993). The nature of shamanism: Substance and function of a religious metaphor. Albany, NY: State of New York University Press.
Rudenko, S. I. (1970). Frozen tombs of Siberia: The Pazyryk burials of Iron-Age horsemen (M. W.
Thompson, Trans.). Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press. (Original
work published 1953.)
Samashev, Z., Bazarbaeva, G., Zhumabekova, G., & Sungatai, S. (2000). Berel. Almaty, Kazakhstan: O.F. Berel.
Sanders, C. (2007). Mind, self, and human-animal joint action. Sociological Focus, 40(3), 320336.
Sanger, J. R. (2010, May-June-July). Shamu: In loving memory. Foothill Footfalls, 1-4.
Sharpe, L. (2005). Creatures like us? A relational approach to the moral status of animals. Exeter,
UK: Imprint Academic.
Sigurjónsdóttir, H., van Dierendock, M. C., & Thórhallsdóttir, A. G. (2002). Friendship
among horses—Rank and kinship matter. In Havemeyer Foundation workshop on horse behavior. Retrieved November 10, 2006, from http://www3.vet.upenn.edu/labs/equinebehavior//
hvnwkshp/hv02/hv02auth.htm.
Smuts, B. (2008). Embodied communication in nonhuman animals. In A. Fogel, B. King and
S. Shanker (Eds.), Human development in the 21st Century: Visionary ideas from systems scientists (pp. 136-146). Toronto, ON: Council on Human Development.
Thompson, K. (2011). Theorizing rider-horse relations: An ethnographic illustration of the centaur metaphor in the Spanish bullfight. In N. Taylor and T. Signal (Eds.), Theorizing animals:
Re-thinking humanimal relations (pp. 221-253). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
Tuan, Y.-F. (1984). Dominance and affection: The making of pets. New Haven, CT: Yale University
Press.
van Dierendonck, M. C., & Goodwin, D. (2006). Social contact in horses: Implications for
human-horse interactions. In M. C. van Dierendonck (Ed.), The importance of social relationships in horses (pp. 28-44). Utrecht, The Netherlands: Proefschrift Universitat.
Vitebsky, P. (2005). The reindeer people: Living with animals and spirits in Siberia. Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin.
Wynmalen, H. (1952). Dressage: A study in the finer points of riding. Hollywood, CA: Melvin
Powers.
Zvelebil, M. (2003). People behind the lithics. Social life and social conditions of Mesolithic
communities in temperate Europe. In L. Bevan and J. Moore (Eds.), Peopling the Mesolithic in a
northern environment (BAR International Series 936, pp. 1-26). Oxford, UK: Archaeopress.