australian crime commission

Transcription

2013–14
ILLICIT DRUG
DATA REPORT
AUSTRALIAN CRIME COMMISSION
Australian Crime Commission
Illicit Drug Data Report 2013–14
CEO FOREWORD
MR CHRIS DAWSON APM
The Australian Crime Commission’s Illicit Drug
Data Report, now in its 12th edition, informs
Australia’s understanding of the illicit drug
threat and focuses our collective efforts by
bringing together data from a wide range of
sources into the one unique report.
Serious and organised criminals are at the
centre of the Australian illicit drug market.
Motivated by greed and power, many of
these groups and individuals use the illicit
drug market as their primary income stream,
profiting from the misery illicit drugs inflict on
the nation.
Targeting illicit drug importation, production
and distribution is a focus of the Australian
Crime Commission and its partners.
In 2013–14, law enforcement agencies
recorded more than 93 000 illicit drug seizures,
with a combined weight of 27 tonnes and more
than 110 000 arrests. These figures are all the
highest on record.
2
While this is testament to the vigilance and
achievements of law enforcement in combating
the illicit drug trade, it also demonstrates the
continued prevalence of drugs in our society
and the need for a collective approach.
All illicit drug activity is a concern for law
enforcement and the wider community. But
in my 38 years in law enforcement, I have
never seen a substance as destructive as
methylamphetamine, particularly crystal
methylamphetamine (ice).
Methylamphetamine is wreaking havoc in
every state and territory. It is ruining lives,
families and communities. We are now seeing
demand for methylamphetamine in areas
where the drug has not previously been a
significant issue. This includes urban and rural
areas and disadvantaged communities where it
is having a destructive impact.
Seizures in 2013–14 include a record 10 tonne
seizure of benzaldehyde—a chemical used to
make methylamphetamine.
Introduction
If not seized, this chemical could have
been used to produce up to 4.5 tonnes of
methylamphetamine—this equates to an
estimated 45 million individual street deals,
with an estimated value of $3.6 billion.
The Illicit Drug Data Report 2013–14 provides
governments, law enforcement agencies, policy
makers, academia, interested stakeholders and
the community with a robust statistical picture
of the Australian illicit drug market.
More than 740 clandestine laboratories were
detected this reporting period. Add that to the
previous two reporting periods and that’s more
than 2 300 labs detected. These are dangerous,
with many of the chemicals used hazardous
and corrosive in nature, posing significant risk
to the community and the environment.
The statistical information is collected from all
Australian state and territory police agencies,
the Australian Federal Police, the Australian
Customs and Border Protection Service and
forensic laboratories. These statistics will
inform prioritisation and decision-making to
assist in hardening Australia against the threat,
harm and destruction caused by illicit drugs.
While the methylamphetamine market is the
primary concern, there was also a number of
records reported across other drug markets.
These include a record number of national
amphetamine-type stimulant seizures and
arrests, a record number of national cannabis
arrests, a record number of national cocaine
seizures and arrests, a record number of
national steroid seizures and arrests, a record
number of national hallucinogen arrests and a
record number of national other opioid seizures.
I would like to thank all those who have
contributed to this report. Without input from
law enforcement, forensic services, health
and academia, it would not be possible to
understand the complex and evolving illicit
drug market in Australia.
Chris Dawson APM
Chief Executive Officer
3
INTRODUCTION
FOREWORD
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ABBREVIATIONS
INTRODUCTION
KEY POINTS
2
6
17
18
20
21
AMPHETAMINE-TYPE
STIMULANTS
Key points
Main forms
International trends
Domestic trends
Domestic market indicators
National impact
References
23
24
26
28
41
52
54
CANNABIS
Key points
Main forms
Domestic trends
National impact
References
57
58
59
60
64
69
70
HEROIN
Key points
Main forms
Domestic trends
National impact
References
73
74
74
76
83
89
90
COCAINE
Key points
Main forms
Domestic trends
National impact
References
91
92
93
94
100
106
107
23
57
73
91
4
Introduction
OTHER DRUGS
Key points
Anabolic agents and selected hormones
Tryptamines
Anaesthetics
Pharmaceuticals
Drug analogues and new psychoactive substances
Other and unknown—not elsewhere classified
National impact
References
109
110
119
125
130
140
145
147
149
CLANDESTINE
LABORATORIES AND
PRECURSORS
Key points
Main forms
Domestic trends
National impact
References
155
156
157
159
164
169
171
INITIATIVES
Key points
Introduction
173
174
STATE AND TERRITORY
LEGISLATIVE
AMENDMENTS AND
INITIATIVES
Introduction
Legislative and regulatory amendments
State and territory initiatives
177
178
185
STATISTICS
Introduction
Counting methodology
Data sources
Limitations of the data
Jurisdictional issues
Explanatory notes
Arrest tables
Seizure tables
Purity tables
Price tables
193
194
194
195
198
201
204
210
212
222
109
155
173
177
193
5
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The Australian Crime Commission (ACC) Illicit Drug Data Report 2013–14 provides a snapshot of
the Australian illicit drug market. The report combines illicit drug data from a variety of sources
including law enforcement, health and academia. The Illicit Drug Data Report is the only report
of its type in Australia and provides the important evidence base to assist decision makers in the
development of strategies to combat the threat posed by illicit drugs.
This reporting period saw numerous record illicit drug detections at the Australian border. The
number of amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) (excluding MDMA), gamma-hydroxybutyrate
(GHB), gamma-butyrolactone (GBL), benzodiazepine and opioid detections are all the highest on
record. The number of cannabis, cocaine and MDMA reported in 2013–14 are the second highest
on record. The weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detected at the Australian border was the second
highest on record, while the weight of cannabis detected this reporting period is the highest
reported in the last decade.
Nationally, a record 93 086 illicit drug seizures was reported in 2013–14, an increase from the
86 918 seizures reported in 2012–13. A record 27.3 tonnes of illicit drugs was seized this reporting
period, an increase from 19.6 tonnes in 2012–13. A single 10 tonne seizure of benzaldehyde1 in
Victoria contributed to the considerable increase in weight of drugs seized this reporting period.
As a direct consequence of this seizure, other and unknown drugs account for 57.4 per cent of the
weight of national illicit drug seizures in 2013–14.
There was a record 112 049 national illicit drug arrests in 2013–14, an increase from
101 749 in 2012–13. The number of national ATS, cannabis, cocaine, steroid, hallucinogen and
other and unknown not elsewhere classified arrests this reporting period are all the highest on
record, with the number of national heroin and other opioid arrests the second highest reported
in the last decade.
There has been a change in the preferred form of methylamphetamine amongst users, from
powder (‘speed’) to crystal (‘ice’). In 2013–14, there was a record number of border detections,
national seizures and arrests relating to ATS. Annual average median methylamphetamine purity
levels increased in 2013–14.
Cannabis continues to dominate the Australian illicit drug market and remains the leading illicit
drug in Australia in terms of seizures, arrests and use. The weight of cannabis border detections
this reporting period is the highest reported in the last decade.
The number of clandestine laboratories detected nationally has increased 95.2 per cent over the
last decade. Despite a decrease in the number of clandestine laboratories detected nationally this
reporting period, the 744 laboratories identified in 2013–14 is the third highest number on record.
While residential areas remain the most common location for laboratory detections, the number
of laboratories located in vehicles and rural areas increased in 2013–14. Addict-based laboratories
continue to constitute the greatest proportion of national detections. However, the proportion
attributed to laboratories of other categories increased this reporting period to almost 50 per cent.
1
6
Benzaldehyde is a precursor chemical used in the phenyl-2-propanone (P2P) method of methylamphetamine production.
Introduction
KEY FINDINGS 2013–14:
the number of illicit drug seizures and arrests are the highest on record
the number of ATS (excluding MDMA) border detections and ATS national seizures are the
highest on record
profiling of both border detections and national seizures indicates that methylamphetamine
manufactured with ephedrine/pseudoephedrine remains prominent
the weight of cannabis border detections is the highest reported in the last decade
profiling of heroin detected at the border identified heroin originating in South America for the
first time
analysis of cocaine detected at the Australian border indicated a potential shift in primary
source country from Colombia to Peru
the number of steroid seizures and arrests are the highest on record
there was an increase in the proportion of clandestine laboratories detected classified as other
small-scale, medium sized, or industrial scale.
The following charts provide an overview of the Australian illicit drug market in 2013–14.
ARRESTS, 2013–14
7
SEIZURES BY NUMBER, 2013–14
SEIZURES BY WEIGHT, 2013–14
8
Introduction
The following charts provide an overview of changes that have occurred in the illicit drug market
in the last decade.
NATIONAL ILLICIT DRUG ARRESTS, 2004–05 TO 2013–142
Nationally, there was a record 112 049 illicit drug arrests in 2013–14.
National ATS arrests increased in 2013–14, accounting for 23.4 per cent of national illicit drug
arrests, second only to cannabis.
National cannabis arrests continue to account for the greatest proportion of illicit drug arrests,
comprising 59.5 per cent of national illicit drug arrests in 2013–14.
The number of heroin and other opioid arrests accounted for 2.5 per cent of arrests in the
reporting period, but overall the number has declined by 16.1 per cent since 2004–05.
Cocaine arrests continue to account for less than 1.5 per cent of national illicit drug arrests.
National other and unknown drug arrests remained relatively stable this reporting period,
accounting for 13.3 per cent of national illicit drug arrests in 2013–14.
2
Totals include Cannabis Expiation Notices, Cannabis Intervention Requirements, Drug Infringement Notices, Simple Cannabis
Offence Notices.
9
NUMBER OF NATIONAL ILLICIT DRUG SEIZURES, 2004–05 TO 2013–14
Cannabis continues to account for the greatest number of national illicit drug seizures, with the
53 404 cannabis seizures in 2013–14 the second highest number on record.
ATS remain second to cannabis in terms of seizures, with a record 26 805 seizures accounting
for 28.8 per cent of national illicit drug seizures in the reporting period.
National heroin and other opioid seizures account for 2.9 per cent of seizures in 2013–14,
an increase from the 1.9 per cent decade low reported in 2012–13.
There was a record 3 121 cocaine seizures in 2013–14.
The 7 021 national other and unknown drug seizures reported in 2013–14 is the second highest
on record, accounting for 7.5 per cent of national illicit drug seizures in the reporting period.
10
Introduction
WEIGHT OF NATIONAL ILLICIT DRUG SEIZURES, 2004–05 TO 2013–14
The weight of illicit drugs seized nationally increased by 39.4 per cent this reporting period
and is the highest on record.
Other and unknown drugs account for the greatest proportion of the weight of national
illicit drug seizures in 2013–14, primarily due to a single large seizure of benzaldehyde in
Victoria. Other and unknown drug seizures also accounted for the greatest proportion of
weight in 2007–08 and 2011–12.
Cannabis accounts for the second highest proportion of national illicit drugs seizures by weight.
While the weight of ATS seized nationally decreased by 36.8 per cent this reporting period, the
4 076 kilograms seized is the second highest weight recorded.
The weight of national heroin and other opioid seizures decreased by 65.9 per cent this
reporting period.
11
The following charts present national illicit drug arrests and seizures reported in 2013–14 by
state and territory and drug type.
NUMBER OF ILLICIT DRUG ARRESTS, AS A PROPORTION OF TOTAL
ARRESTS, BY STATE AND TERRITORY, 2013–14
With the exception of New South Wales, cannabis accounted for the greatest proportion of
illicit drug arrests in all states and territories in 2013–14.
ATS accounted for the greatest proportion of illicit drug arrests in New South Wales this
reporting period.
In Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory,
ATS related arrests were second only to cannabis.
While Queensland accounts for the greatest proportion of national cannabis arrests, Tasmania
reported the largest proportion of cannabis arrests within a jurisdiction.
In New South Wales, 9.6 per cent of illicit drug arrests relate to heroin and other opioids, the
highest proportion of any state or territory in 2013–14.
In Western Australia, 24.6 per cent of illicit drug arrests in 2013–14 relate to other and
unknown drugs, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory. Western Australia
also reported the highest proportion of arrests in this category in 2012–13.
12
Introduction
NUMBER OF ILLICIT DRUG SEIZURES, AS A PROPORTION OF TOTAL
SEIZURES, BY STATE AND TERRITORY, 2013–14
With the exception of South Australia, all states and territories reported cannabis as the most
commonly seized illicit drug in 2013–14, followed by ATS.
In South Australia, ATS accounted for the greatest proportion of illicit drug seizures, followed by
cannabis.
Cannabis accounted for 82.1 per cent of seizures in Tasmania, the highest proportion of any
state or territory this reporting period.
In New South Wales, cocaine comprises 6.1 per cent of illicit drug seizures, the highest
proportion of any state or territory in the reporting period.
In New South Wales, heroin and other opioids accounts for 5.2 per cent of illicit drug seizures,
the highest proportion of any state or territory in the reporting period.
Other and unknown not elsewhere classified drugs account for 10.2 per cent of seizures in
the Australian Capital Territory, the highest proportion for any state or territory this reporting
period.
13
WEIGHT OF ILLICIT DRUG SEIZURES, AS A PROPORTION OF TOTAL
SEIZURES, BY STATE AND TERRITORY, 2013–14
ATS accounted for 42.0 per cent of the weight of illicit drugs seized in New South Wales,
the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 2013–14.
Cannabis accounted for the greatest proportion of the weight of illicit drugs seized in South
Australia, Western Australia, Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory in 2013–14.
In South Australia, cannabis accounted for 93.9 per cent of the weight of illicit drugs seized,
the highest reported by any state or territory in 2013–14.
In New South Wales and Western Australia, heroin and other opioids account for 1.9 per cent of
the weight of illicit drugs seized, the highest proportion of all states and territories in 2013–14.
In New South Wales, cocaine accounted for 4.3 per cent of the weight of illicit drugs seized,
the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 2013–14.
Other and unknown drugs accounted for the greatest proportion of the weight of illicit drugs
seized in Victoria, Queensland and the Northern Territory in 2013–14.
14
Introduction
The following chart provides an overview of findings of the 2013 National Drug Strategy
Household Drug Survey.
PROPORTION OF THE AUSTRALIAN POPULATION AGED 14 YEARS OR
OLDER REPORTING RECENT* DRUG USE, 1993 TO 2013
(SOURCE: AUSTRALIAN INSTITUTE OF HEALTH AND WELFARE)
* Recent use refers to reported use in the 12 months preceding interview.
Note: Prior to 2004, the ‘ecstasy’ category included substances known as ‘designer drugs’
The reported recent use of meth/amphetamine remained stable at 2.1 per cent.
Cannabis continues to be the most commonly reported illicit drug used by the Australian
population aged 14 years or older. Reported recent use has remained relatively stable since
2010.
Reported recent heroin use significantly decreased, from 0.2 per cent in 2010 to
0.1 per cent in 2013, the first decrease reported since 2001.
The reported recent use of cocaine in this population remained stable at 2.1 per cent.
The reported recent use of ecstasy significantly decreased, from 3.0 per cent in 2010 to
2.5 per cent in 2013.
15
The following chart provides an overview of self-reported illicit drug use, in the 12 months
preceding interview, in an Australian detainee population, 2004–05 to 2013–14.
PROPORTION OF DETAINEES REPORTING ILLICIT DRUG USE
IN THE 12 MONTHS PRECEDING INTERVIEW, 2004–05 TO 2013–14
(SOURCE: AUSTRALIAN INSTITUTE OF CRIMINOLOGY)
Cannabis remains the most commonly reported illicit drug used by police detainees. Since
the decrease in self-reported use in 2007–08, use patterns have remained relatively stable.
Amphetamines continue to be the second most commonly reported illicit drug used by police
detainees, with the proportion reporting use increasing.
Self-reported amphetamine use by detainees increased by 23.3 per cent this reporting period,
from 39.6 per cent in 2012–13 to 48.9 per cent in 2013–14, the highest figure in the
last decade.
Since 2004–05, reported heroin use has decreased. This trend continued in 2013–14, with
12.4 per cent of respondents reporting heroin use.
The reported use of cocaine increased from 11.2 per cent in 2012–13 to 13.5 per cent in
2013–14. However, self-reported cocaine use amongst the detainee population has been
relatively stable over the last decade.
16
Introduction
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This report contains data and analysis provided by federal, state and territory police, as well
as forensic laboratories and the Australian Customs and Border Protection Service. Police and
forensic data managers contributed significantly to improving this report’s data quality. Their
expertise and experience, along with their continued support, has been invaluable to the
Australian Crime Commission.
Key contributors are listed below:
Australian Customs and Border Protection Service
Australian Government Department of Health
Australian Institute of Criminology, Drug Use Monitoring in Australia Program
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare
Australian Federal Police
Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence
Australian Federal Police, ACT Policing
ChemCentre
Forensic Science Service Tasmania
Forensic Science South Australia
New South Wales Health, Mental Health and Drug and Alcohol Office
New South Wales Forensic and Analytical Science Service
New South Wales Police Force
Northern Territory Police Force
Queensland Health Forensic and Scientific Services
Queensland Police Service
South Australia Police
Tasmania Police
Victoria Police
Western Australia Police.
17
ABBREVIATIONS
1,4-BD
1,4-butanediol
4-MMC
4-methylmethcathinone
AAS
Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids
ACBPS Australian Customs and Border Protection Service
ACC
ACT
Australian Capital Territory
AFP
AIHW Australian Institute of Health and Welfare
ATS
Amphetamine-Type Stimulants
CENS
Cannabis Expiation Notice Scheme
CIN Cannabis Infringement Notice
CIR
Cannabis Intervention Requirement
CMD
Court Mandated Diversion
DANPs
Drug Analogues and New Psychoactive Substances
DEA
United States Drug Enforcement Administration
DHEA
Dehydroepiandrosterone
DIN
Drug Infringement Notice
DMT
Dimethyltryptamine
DHHS
Department of Health and Human Services
DoH
Department of Health
DUMA Drug Use Monitoring in Australia
EDRS
Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System
ENIPID
Enhanced National Intelligence Picture-Illicit Drugs Project
Eph
Ephedrine
EPO
Erythropoietin
EUD
End User Declaration
E.Coca Erythroxylum Coca
E. Erythroxylum Novogranatense Novogranatense
18
FDI
Forensic Drug Intelligence
GBL
Gamma-butyrolactone
GHB
Gamma-hydroxybutyrate
hCG
Human Chorionic Gonadotropin
hGH
Human Growth Hormone
Introduction
IDDI
Illicit Drug Diversion Initiative
IDDR
Illicit Drug Data Report
IDRS
Illicit Drug Reporting System
LSD
Lysergic Acid Diethylamide
MDMA
3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine
MDP2P
3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl-2-propanone
NCETA
National Centre on Education and Training on Addiction
NDC National Drugs Campaign
NDARC
National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre
NDS
National Drug Strategy
NDSHS National Drug Strategy Household Survey
NEC
Not Elsewhere Classified
NIDRF National Illicit Drug Reporting Format
NIDIP
National Illicit Drug Indicators Project
NMI
National Measurement Institute
NSW
New South Wales
NT
Northern Territory
P2P
Phenyl-2-propanone
PBS
Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme
PIED
Performance and Image Enhancing Drug
PSE
Pseudoephedrine
Qld
Queensland
SA
South Australia
SCON
Simple Cannabis Offence Notice
SUSMP
Schedule for the Uniform Scheduling of Medicines and Poisons
Tas Tasmania
THC
Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol
UK
United Kingdom
UNODC
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
US
United States of America
Vic
Victoria
WA
Western Australia
WADA
World Anti-Doping Agency
WCO World Customs Organization
19
INTRODUCTION
The Illicit Drug Data Report is the only report of its type in Australia, providing governments,
law enforcement agencies and interested stakeholders with a national picture of the illicit drug
market. This report provides the data necessary to assess the current and future illicit drug trends
and offers a brief analysis of those trends.
The Australian Crime Commission collects data annually from all state and territory police services,
the Australian Federal Police, the Australian Customs and Border Protection Service, state and
territory forensic laboratories and research centres. The illicit drug data collected and presented in
this report for the 2013–14 financial year includes:
arrests
seizures
purity levels
profiling data
prices.
The purpose of this report is to provide statistics and analysis to assist decision makers in
developing illicit drug supply and harm reduction strategies. The data also assists the Australian
Government to meet national and international reporting obligations.
The Australian Crime Commission uses the National Illicit Drug Reporting Format to standardise
the data received from each law enforcement agency and other contributing organisations.
20
Introduction
KEY POINTS 2013–14
AMPHETAMINE-TYPE STIMULANTS
HEROIN
The number of ATS (excluding MDMA)
detections at the Australian border
increased this reporting period, with the
2 367 detections in 2013–14 the highest
number on record.
The number and weight of heroin
decreased in 2013–14.
While the weight of ATS (excluding
MDMA) detected at the Australian border
decreased in 2013–14, it is the second
highest weight on record.
The number of MDMA detections at the
Australian border decreased this reporting
period. However, it is the second highest
number on record.
Analysed samples of methylamphetamine
seized at the Australian border continue to
be produced primarily from ephedrine and
pseudoephedrine.
Drug profiling data indicates the majority
of analysed methylamphetamine national
seizures are primarily manufactured from
ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, with an
increased proportion manufactured using
phenyl-2-propanone.
The number of national ATS seizures and
arrests in 2013–14 are the highest on
record.
CANNABIS
Despite a decrease in the number of
cannabis detections at the Australian
border in 2013–14, the weight detected
increased 635.3 per cent and is the highest
The number and weight of national
cannabis seizures decreased this reporting
period. However, the number of national
seizures is the second highest on record.
The 66 684 national cannabis arrests in
2013–14 are the highest on record.
For the first time, profiling data of analysed
border seizures in 2013 identified heroin
originating in South America.
While the number of national heroin
seizures remained relatively stable in
2013–14, the weight of heroin seized
nationally decreased 71.0 per cent.
The number of national heroin and other
opioid arrests increased by 12.5 per cent
this reporting period, with the 2 771
arrests in 2013–14 the second highest
COCAINE
While both the number and weight
of cocaine detections at the Australian
border decreased this reporting period,
the 1 512 detections in 2013–14 is the
second highest number on record.
Analysis of cocaine samples seized at the
Australian border indicates a potential
shift in the geographical origin of cocaine
entering Australia.
There was a record 3 121 national cocaine
seizures in 2013–14.
There was a record 1 466 national cocaine
arrests in 2013–14.
OTHER DRUGS
The number of national steroid seizures
and arrests continued to increase in
2013–14 and are the highest on record.
There was a record number of national
hallucinogen arrests this reporting period.
The number of GHB and GBL detections at
the Australian border increased this reporting
period and are the highest on record.
21
KEY POINTS 2013–14 CONT.
OTHER DRUGS CONT.
INITIATIVES
There was a record number of
benzodiazepine and opioid detections at
the Australian border in 2013–14.
The Australian Government health
portfolio continues to work in close
partnership with Commonwealth, state
and territory health and law enforcement
agencies to reduce drug related harms and
improve health and social outcomes for
people affected by illicit drug use.
The number of national other opioids
seizures continued to increase in 2013–14
and is the highest on record.
In 2013–14, both the weight of national
other and unknown not elsewhere
classified drug seizures and number of
arrests increased and are the highest on
record.
CLANDESTINE LABORATORIES AND PRECURSORS
Although the number of clandestine
laboratories detected nationally decreased
this reporting period, the 744 detections in
2013–14 are the third highest on record.
The majority of clandestine laboratories
continue to be detected in residential
areas, with increases in rural and vehicle
detections in 2013–14.
While the majority of laboratories detected
continue to be addict-based, in
2013–14 there was an increase in the
proportion of small-scale, medium sized
and industrial scale laboratories.
Both the number and weight of ATS
(excluding MDMA) and MDMA precursor
decreased in 2013–14.
In 2013–14, the number of tablet press
and tablet press parts detected at the
Australian border and the number of tablet
presses seized nationally decreased.
22
The National Research Centres of
Excellence continue to enhance law
enforcement, health and regulatory
agencies’ understanding of the nature of
Australia’s illicit drug markets.
The 2013 National Drug Strategy
Household Survey was released on
25 November 2014 and is a comprehensive
population-based survey focusing on
substance use and related issues.
AMPHETAMINE-TYPE
STIMULANTS
KEY POINTS
The number of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border increased this
reporting period, with the 2 367 detections in 2013–14 the highest number on record.
While the weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detected at the Australian border decreased
in 2013–14, it is the second highest weight on record.
The number of MDMA detections at the Australian border decreased this reporting period.
However, it is the second highest number on record.
Analysed samples of methylamphetamine seized at the Australian border continue to be
produced primarily from ephedrine and pseudoephedrine.
Drug profiling data indicates the majority of analysed methylamphetamine national seizures
are primarily manufactured from ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, with an increased
proportion manufactured using phenyl-2-propanone.
The number of national ATS seizures and arrests in 2013–14 are the highest on record.
23
MAIN FORMS
The term amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) refers to a category of illicit drugs which includes
amphetamine, methylamphetamine and phenethylamines (WHO 2014). ATS are synthetic drugs
generally produced in illegal clandestine laboratories (commonly referred to as ‘clan labs’) by
processing chemical ingredients. ATS speed up the central nervous system and produce effects
similar to that of adrenalin (WHO 2014a). This category of drugs poses a serious health risk to
both users and manufacturers for a number of reasons, including inconsistent purity levels,
presence of unknown chemical additives and dangerous production methods. A list of ATS
identified in Australia is outlined in Table 1.
TABLE 1: ATS used in Australia
24
Drug type
Common names
Forms
Method of
administration
Amphetamine
Speed, whiz, uppers,
goey, louee, dexies,
pep pills
White, yellow, pink or
brown powder, paste
Oral, intranasal,
injection, anala
Dexamphetamineb
(amphetamine dextro isomer in a
pharmaceutical preparation)
Dexies, D-amp, dex
White, round tablets
that can have the
marking ‘D5’
Oral, intranasal,
injections, anala
Methylamphetamine
Meth, speed, whiz,
fast, uppers, goey,
louee, Lou Reedc,
rabbitc, tailc, pep pills;
in paste form can be
referred to as base,
pure or wax; in liquid
form can be referred
to as ox blood,
leopard’s blood, red
speed or liquid red
White, yellow or
brown powder, paste,
tablets or a red liquid
Oral, intranasal,
injection, anala
Crystal methylamphetamine
Ice, dmeth, glass,
Crystalline—resembles Smoking, intranasal,
crystal, batu, shabu (in crushed ice, particle
injection
South-East Asia)
size variable
3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine
(MDMA)
XTC, X, ecstasy, Adam,
M&M, eccy, E, go,
Scooby snacks, hug,
beans
Tablet, powder,
capsule,
geltab (rare), crystal
Oral, intranasal,
smoking, injecting
3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine
(MDEA)
Eve
Tablet
Oral
3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA)
Love bug, crystal, P,
window pane
Tablet
Oral
N-methyl-1-(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)-2butanamine (MBDB)
Eden
Tablet
Oral
Paramethoxyamphetamine (PMA)d
Death, Dr Death,
Mitsubishi double
Tablet, powder
Oral, intranasal,
injecting (rare)
Paramethoxymethylamphetamine (PMMA)
PMMA
Tablet
Oral
4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine
Nexus, 2-CB, bromo,
TWOs
Tablet (Nexus), blotting Oral, intranasal
paper, powder
TABLE 1: ATS used in Australia (continued)
Drug type
Common names
Forms
Method of
administration
4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyamphetamine (DOB) DOB, 4-bromo-DMA,
bromo
Tablet, blotting paper
Oral
2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine
(DOM)
DOM, STP
Tablet, blotting paper
Oral
4-methylthioamphetamine (4-MTA)
Flatliner, golden eagle
Tablet
Oral
a. In tablet form, the drug can be inserted into the anus or the vagina to avoid irritation to the user’s stomach, as commonly occurs
when taken orally (also known as ‘shafting’ or ‘shelving’).
b. Dexamphetamine (also known as dextroamphetamine sulphate) is sold in tablet form in Australia for the treatment of Attention
Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and narcolepsy, in accordance with state and territory laws. It is also used illicitly.
c. Terminology noted in Queensland.
d. PMA has stimulant and hallucinogenic properties.
Amphetamine is most commonly available in powder, tablet or capsule form and can be
swallowed, snorted and less commonly injected.
In Australia, the most common form of methylamphetamine has historically been powder (also
referred to as ‘speed’). However, recently there has been a rapid increase in the prevalence of
crystal methylamphetamine (‘ice’). Methylamphetamine is also available in tablet, capsule or base
(also referred to as ‘paste’ or ‘oil’) form. The administration of methylamphetamine is dependent
on its form. Generally, powder is snorted, tablets are ingested, liquid is either smoked or injected
and crystal is heated and the vapours inhaled (CESAR 2006).1
Amphetamine and methylamphetamine produce an effect by releasing excess amounts of
the neurotransmitters dopamine and norepinephrine, resulting in feelings of high energy and
positive emotion (WHO 2014). Due to slight structural differences, methylamphetamine produces
a stronger nervous system response than amphetamine. The onset of effects from injecting
methylamphetamine occurs immediately. When the drug is snorted, effects occur within three
to five minutes and when ingested, effects occur within 15–20 minutes (CESAR 2006). Short-term
effects of amphetamine and methylamphetamine use may include dehydration, hyperthermia,
sleep disorders and decreased appetite. High doses may result in overdose, high blood pressure,
seizures, nausea and vomiting. Long-term effects of amphetamine and methylamphetamine
use may include drug dependence, cardiovascular problems, stroke and death (WHO 2014a).
Methylamphetamine use is also associated with violent behaviour.
The drug 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), also known as ‘ecstasy’, belongs to a
broader class of drugs known as phenethylamines. MDMA is most commonly sold in tablet form,
but may also come in capsule, powder or crystal form. Tablets sold as MDMA vary in shape, size,
colour, and in the logo or ‘brand’ that is imprinted onto the tablet. The colour and logo of tablets
is often used as a marketing tool. The composition and purity of tablets sold as MDMA can vary
greatly and may not actually contain any MDMA at all. As a result, the effects and health risks
associated with MDMA use are unpredictable (Degenhardt & Hall 2010).
1
Crystal methylamphetamine is most often smoked (vaporised and inhaled) in a glass pipe, allowing for quick absorption into the
bloodstream without the risks associated with injecting the drug. Powder and crystal methylamphetamine may also be injected
after being dissolved in water.
25
MDMA is most commonly ingested, although it can also be snorted, smoked or injected. MDMA
produces stimulatory and hallucinogenic effects in users. Reported effects include improved mood,
increased alertness, increased energy and sexual arousal (Degenhardt & Hall 2010). Short-term
effects of MDMA use may include anxiety, aggression, sweating and muscle cramping. Long-term
effects of MDMA use may include high blood pressure, seizures, kidney failure and depression
(NIDA 2006).
While tablets are the most common form of MDMA used by regular users, there is an increasing
trend towards the use of MDMA crystal/rock. These crystals are commonly packaged in capsules,
ingested and absorbed more quickly than tablets or powder. It is hypothesised that the increase
in MDMA crystal usage is driven by a user perception that crystal is of higher purity than tablets
(Entwistle & Burns 2014). Physiologically, the absorption of crystals in the digestive system is higher
than tablets or powdered MDMA, resulting in users experiencing a stronger ‘peak’ effect and longer
lasting after effects (Entwistle & Burns 2014). There is a risk that users replacing MDMA tablet usage
with MDMA crystals may ingest a similar quantity of MDMA crystal without factoring in purity levels.
Increased purity levels have the potential to cause overdose (Entwistle & Burns 2014).
INTERNATIONAL TRENDS
In 2014, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) reported that after cannabis,
ATS (excluding MDMA) constitutes the second most commonly used group of illicit substances
worldwide, with an estimated 13.9 million to 54.8 million users. MDMA users are estimated to
total between 9.4 and 28.2 million worldwide (UNODC 2014).
Global ATS (excluding MDMA) seizures increased 15.0 per cent from 2011, to 144 metric tonnes
in 2012, the largest annual total on record. The increase is largely attributed to increases in
methylamphetamine seizures, which accounted for 114 metric tonnes or 80 per cent of the
total amount seized. Of the 144 metric tonnes of ATS (excluding MDMA) seized globally in 2012,
approximately half was seized in North America and approximately a quarter in East and SouthEast Asia (UNODC 2014).
Increases in border detections of ATS (excluding MDMA) provide further evidence of the growth
of this market. The World Customs Organization (WCO) reported methylamphetamine border
detections increased from around 9 tonnes in 2012 to around 12 tonnes in 2013. In contrast,
reported amphetamine and MDMA seizures decreased (WCO 2014). The global increase in
methylamphetamine seizures has been influenced by increased detections in East and South-East
Asia and North America (UNODC 2014).
Asia—in particular East and South-East Asia—is the world’s largest and most established ATS
market, in terms of use and manufacture (UNODC 2013). Domestic production in this region
is supplemented by imports from West Africa and the Americas. China, followed by Thailand
and Indonesia, recorded the highest number of methylamphetamine seizures, with seizures
of methylamphetamine tablets and crystal methylamphetamine tripling in the last five years.
Many of the large seizures in China and Thailand have reportedly been sourced from Burma
(UNODC 2014). In June 2014, Burmese authorities reportedly destroyed around 1 tonne of
methylamphetamine tablets (Sky News 2014).
26
The Chinese methylamphetamine market is also supplied by large-scale domestic production.
This is evidenced by the detection of several industrial sized laboratories during the reporting
period (Harris 2014a). In November 2013, approximately 3 tonnes of crystal methylamphetamine
was seized in Boshe, Guangdong, China—a village which has reportedly supplied over one third
of China’s crystal methylamphetamine over the past three years. The seizure included around
22 tonnes of precursor materials used to manufacture methylamphetamine (Li 2014). With an
average purity of 90 per cent, the methylamphetamine seized in Hong Kong and mainland China is
of a significantly higher purity than the rest of Asia (Harris 2014). It is likely a significant proportion
of ATS (excluding MDMA) produced in China is also destined for international markets.
South and Central America continue to supply methylamphetamine to the Asia Pacific region.
In particular, Mexico has been a primary source for seizures of methylamphetamine at the
Australian and Japanese borders. Authorities in the Philippines have also reported seizing
methylamphetamine sourced from Peru and Bolivia (UNODC 2014). In December 2013,
Philippines anti-drug police seized 83 kilograms of methylamphetamine and arrested three
affiliates of the Mexican Sinaloa cartel (Shadbolt 2014). Mexico reports the greatest quantity
of methylamphetamine seizures globally (UNODC 2014a). There are indications that Mexico’s
organised crime groups are further developing their international presence, including expanding
to South-East Asia, Europe and Africa. This includes moving ATS production into other countries in
order to be closer to major drug markets outside of Central and North America (Harris 2014a).
Iran is a primary source of methylamphetamine to markets across the Middle East and the Asia
Pacific region, and was ranked fifth in global methylamphetamine seizures (BINLEA 2014). Seizures
over a five month period in 2013 totalled around 2 tonnes, six times the annual totals since 2009
(BINLEA 2014).
In January 2014, a joint operation between the Australian Federal Police (AFP) and the United
States Immigration and Customs Enforcement Homeland Security Investigations (US ICE-HSI)
resulted in the seizure of 60 kilograms of methylamphetamine which had been intended for
export to Australia. The methylamphetamine was concealed within consignments of water filters
and had an estimated value of A$12 million. Five Colombian nationals were arrested in relation to
this attempted export (AFP 2014).
Seizures of MDMA have increased after a decline in 2011. Three-quarters of the global seizures for
MDMA occured in East and South-East Asia and Europe. Further details relating to seizure figures
are unavailable (UNODC 2014). UNODC reports that the decline in the availability of MDMA on
an international level has significantly impacted upon its use, with decreased usage reported
in Europe, North America and Oceania. In England and Wales, both key markets in Europe, the
reported use of MDMA by 16–24 year olds has decreased from 6.8 per cent in 2001–02 to
2.9 per cent in 2012–13. This trend has also been observed in other European countries.
In the Netherlands, which is identified as a primary source of MDMA, the content of MDMA
decreased from 90 per cent in 2000–04 to 70 per cent in 2009 and increased to 91 per cent in
2011, likely indicating a recovery of the European MDMA market (UNODC 2014).
27
DOMESTIC TRENDS
AUSTRALIAN BORDER SITUATION
The Australian Customs and Border Protection Service (ACBPS) continues to intercept and disrupt
attempted importations of ATS at the Australian border. During 2013–14, detections of ATS were
identified in most import streams, with international mail and air cargo being the most common
methods. ATS (excluding MDMA) were identified in multiple forms including liquid, crystal,
powder, paste and tablets.
The number of detections of ATS (excluding MDMA) increased 18.4 per cent this reporting period,
from 1 999 detections in 2012–13 to 2 367 in 2013–14, the highest number on record. While the
total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections decreased 15.2 per cent this reporting period,
from 2 138.5 kilograms in 2012–13 to 1 812.4 kilograms in 2013–14, it is the second highest
weight on record (see Figure 1).
FIGURE 1: Number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border, 2004–05 to
2013–14 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
The number of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections has continued to increase since 2008–09.
The record weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detected at the border in 2012–13 was largely due
to 3 large sea cargo detections, which weighed 1 254.8 kilograms and accounted for 58.7 per cent
of the total weight detected in that reporting period.
In this reporting period, the number of MDMA detections decreased 21.6 per cent, from 4 139 in
2012–13 to 3 247 in 2013–14, the second highest number on record. The total weight of MDMA
detected this reporting period decreased 36.5 per cent, from 149.2 kilograms in 2012–13 to
94.8 kilograms in 2013–14 (see Figure 2).
28
FIGURE 2: Number and weight of MDMA detections at the Australian border, 2004–05 to 2013–14
(Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
SIGNIFICANT BORDER DETECTIONS
Significant border detections of ATS (excluding MDMA) in 2013–14 include:
203.2 kilograms of crystal methylamphetamine detected on 26 September 2013, concealed in
truck tyres, via sea cargo from China to Brisbane
183 kilograms of crystal methylamphetamine detected on 4 February 2014, concealed in sea
kayak hulls, via sea cargo from China to Sydney
56 kilograms of crystal methylamphetamine detected on 22 July 2013, concealed around
engines, via sea cargo from the United States of America (US) to Melbourne
48.9 kilograms of crystal methylamphetamine detected on 24 June 2014, concealed in
machinery, via sea cargo from China to Sydney
39.8 kilograms of crystal methylamphetamine detected on 10 April 2014, concealed in a metal
vat, via air cargo from Mexico to Sydney.
These 5 detections have a combined weight of 530.9 kilograms and account for 29.3 per cent of
the total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detected in 2013–14.
Significant border detections of MDMA in 2013–14 include:
18.8 kilograms of MDMA detected on 16 April 2014, concealed in furniture, via sea cargo from
the Netherlands to Sydney
5.4 kilograms of MDMA detected on 19 March 2014, concealed in baby powder and bath salts
within a passenger’s baggage on a flight from Hong Kong to Sydney
3.5 kilograms of MDMA detected on 2 December 2013, concealed within bottles of protein
powder, via international mail from Canada to Sydney
29
2.2 kilograms2 of MDMA detected on 30 January 2014, concealed within bottles of shampoo,
via international mail from the Netherlands to Melbourne
2.2 kilograms3 of MDMA detected on 10 February 2014, concealed within bottles of shampoo,
via international mail from the Netherlands to Melbourne.
the total weight of MDMA detected in 2013–14.
IMPORTATION METHODS
While detections of ATS (excluding MDMA) occurred across most import streams this reporting
period, the majority occurred within the international mail and air cargo streams in amounts
ranging from less than 1 gram to 39.8 kilograms. In 2013–14, international mail accounted for
77.5 per cent of the number of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections, followed by air cargo with
18.9 per cent (see Figure 3).
FIGURE 3: Number of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total
detections, by method of importation, 2013–14 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
In 2013–14, 342 ATS (excluding MDMA) detections weighed over 1 kilogram. This consisted of
11 sea cargo detections with a combined weight of 612.1 kilograms, the largest single detection
of which weighed 203.2 kilograms. In 2013–14, sea cargo detections accounted for 33.8 per cent
of the weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections, followed by air cargo with 31.0 per cent and
international mail with 25.8 per cent (see Figure 4).
2
3
30
The final weight of the liquid seizure is in kilograms as it represents the drug’s final weight after being extracted from the
suspension liquid and dried.
The final weight of the liquid seizure is in kilograms as it represents the drug’s final weight after being extracted from the
suspension liquid and dried.
FIGURE 4: Weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total
weight, by method of importation, 2013–14 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
International mail accounted for 98.9 per cent of the number of MDMA detections in 2013–14
(see Figure 5). This is a similar proportion to that reported in 2012–13, where 99.9 per cent
of MDMA detections were via international mail. The average weight of MDMA detections in
international mail continues to remain low, averaging 19 grams in 2013–14.
FIGURE 5: Number of MDMA detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by
method of importation, 2013–14 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
In 2013–14, 9 MDMA detections weighed 1 kilogram or more. During this reporting period, a
single sea cargo detection weighing 18.8 kilograms accounted for 19.8 per cent of the weight
of MDMA detected in 2013–14. International mail accounted for 67.7 per cent of the weight of
MDMA detected in 2013–14, followed by sea cargo with 19.8 per cent (see Figure 6).
31
FIGURE 6: Weight of MDMA detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total weight, by method
of importation, 2013–14 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
EMBARKATION POINTS
In 2013–14, 54 countries were identified as embarkation points for ATS (excluding MDMA)
detections at the border, compared with 49 countries in 2012–13. China remains the primary
embarkation point for ATS (excluding MDMA) detections, with 277 detections weighing a total of
778 kilograms in 2013–14. Other key embarkation points this reporting period include Hong Kong
(331 detections weighing 456.3 kilograms), Mexico (27 detections weighing 139.7 kilograms),
the US (334 detections weighing 107.7 kilograms) and Canada (343 detections weighing
80.3 kilograms). Combined, these 5 embarkation points account for 55.4 per cent of the total
number and 86.2 per cent of the total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detected in 2013–14.
While Thailand was reported as the second most prominent embarkation point by weight in
2012–13 with 43 detections weighing 313.9 kilograms, it is not included in the top ten most
significant embarkation points in 2013–14 (see Figure 7).
In 2013–14, 30 countries were identified as embarkation points for MDMA detections at the
border, compared with 33 countries in 2012–13. Of these, 9 countries reported a total detection
weight of 1 kilogram or more. The Netherlands was the prominent embarkation point this
reporting period with 1 161 detections, weighing a total of 46.3 kilograms. Other key embarkation
points in 2013–14 included Hong Kong, Canada, the United Arab Emirates and the United
Kingdom. These 5 embarkation points accounted for 66.3 per cent of the number and
77.2 per cent of the total weight of MDMA detected in 2013–14 (see Figure 8).
32
Embarkation country
Top 10 embarkation points by weight:
China, Hong Kong, Mexico, United States of America,
Canada, India, Netherlands, Taiwan, Iran and Malaysia.
FIGURE 7: Key embarkation points for ATS (excluding MDMA) detections, by weight, at the Australian border, 2013–14
33
34
Embarkation country
Netherlands, United Kingdom, Germany, Hong Kong, Canada, Ireland,
Belgium, United Arab Emirates, Denmark and United States of America.
FIGURE 8: Key embarkation points for MDMA detections, by weight, at the Australian border, 2013–14
DRUG PROFILING
The AFP Forensic Drug Intelligence (FDI) team operates a forensic drug profiling capability through
the National Measurement Institute (NMI), which enables the identification of the synthetic route
of synthesis for samples of methylamphetamine and MDMA submitted from seizures made at
the Australian border. The capability also allows for comparisons within and between seizures to
identify distinct batches of drugs, origin of drugs, or to demonstrate links between groups involved
in illicit drug manufacture or trafficking. The following data relates to seizures investigated by the
AFP between 2010 and June 2014 from which samples were submitted to the NMI for routine
analysis and profiling.4
Analysed samples of methylamphetamine seized at the border continue to be produced
primarily from ephedrine and pseudoephedrine (Eph/PSE). During 2013, 1 055 samples of
methylamphetamine from 205 seizures, representing a total weight of 2 294 kilograms were
submitted for analysis. This is significantly higher than 2012, when 721 samples were submitted
from 126 seizures, representing a total weight of 1 172 kilograms. This trend appears to be
continuing, with samples from 152 seizures submitted for analysis in the first six months of 2014,
representing a total weight of 728 kilograms of methylamphetamine.
Of the samples submitted for analysis in 2013, samples from 181 seizures representing a total bulk
weight of 1 776.7 kilograms, were amenable to profiling by NMI. In the first half of 2014, samples
from 117 seizures, representing a total bulk weight of 595 kilograms were found suitable for
profiling by NMI.
Consistent with previous years, Eph/PSE remains the dominant precursor for methylamphetamine
seized at the border. However, during 2013 there was a slight increase in the proportion of
methylamphetamine samples synthesised from phenyl-2-propanone (P2P) in comparison to those
seized in 2012.
In 2013, the proportion of methylamphetamine seized at the border produced using
P2P accounted for 26.7 per cent of analysed seizures, an increase from 19.1 per cent in 2012.
This proportion remained stable in the first half of 2014 (see Table 2). Table 3 illustrates the
synthetic route of manufacture, as a proportion of the total bulk weight of analysed seizures.
4
In examining profiling data, it should be noted that they relate to seizures investigated by the AFP between 2010 and June 2014
from which samples were submitted to the NMI for routine analysis and profiling. For all reporting years, the data represents a
snapshot across the applicable reporting period. These figures cannot reflect seizures that have not been submitted for forensic
examination due to prioritisation of law enforcement resources or those that have passed through the border undetected.
Certain seizures/samples, such as those containing swabs or trace material, have been omitted from the analysis as they are
not amenable to chemical profiling. It is difficult to extrapolate the impact of any observed trends on drugs reaching consumers
i.e. street level seizures in Australia. The AFP is collecting samples of methylamphetamine from selected state and territory
jurisdictions for chemical profiling as part of the Enhanced National Intelligence Picture on Illicit Drugs (ENIPID) project.
35
TABLE 2: Synthetic route of manufacture of methylamphetamine samples as a proportion of analysed AFP
border seizures classified by precursor, 2010–June 20145 (Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug
Intelligence)
Year
Synthetic Route
Eph/PSE %
P2P %
Mixed/Unclassified %
Jan–Jun 2014
70.0
26.7
3.3
2013
68.1
26.7
5.2
2012
71.8
19.1
9.1
2011
56.8
13.6
29.6
2010
80.4
5.9
13.7
TABLE 3: Synthetic route of manufacture of methylamphetamine samples as a proportion of total bulk
weight of analysed AFP border seizures classified by precursor, 2010–June 20146 (Source: Australian
Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence)
Year
Synthetic Route
Eph/PSE %
P2P %
Mixed/Unclassified %
Jan–Jun 2014
75.4
13.4
11.2
2013
76.4
14.7
8.9
2012
72.2
27.8
–
2011
35.6
62.8
1.6
2010
48.5
1.8
49.7
The Enhanced National Intelligence Picture on Illicit Drugs (ENIPID) project extends this profiling
to include state and territory seizures involving heroin, methylamphetamine, MDMA and cocaine.
This enables detection of similarities between supply routes into different jurisdictions; links
between different criminal groups; as well as comparison of trends between jurisdictions.
Methylamphetamine manufactured from Eph/PSE continued to account for the greatest
proportion of analysed ENIPID cases and samples in 2013–14. The proportion of samples
identified as being manufactured from P2P increased from 5.0 per cent in 2012 to 16.1 per cent
in 2013. This proportion decreased in the first six months of 2014, with P2P accounting for
11.2 per cent of analysed samples. The proportion of cases identified as using P2P increased from
5.5 per cent in 2012 to 12.1 per cent in 2013. This proportion decreased in the first six months of
2014 to 8.9 per cent (see Tables 4 and 5).
5
6
36
This data may also include seizures destined for Australia which occurred offshore.
TABLE 4: Synthetic route of manufacture of methylamphetamine ENIPID samples as a proportion of
analysed jurisdictional samples, classified by precursor, 2011–June 20147 (Source: Australian Federal Police,
Forensic Drug Intelligence)
Synthetic Route
Year
Jan–Jun
2014
Jurisdiction
Eph/PSE %
P2P %
Mixed/ Unclassified %
Total %
NSW
64.1
10.5
9.2
83.8
QLD
–
–
0.7
0.7
SA
0.7
–
–
0.7
VIC
3.5
–
–
3.5
WA
8.5
0.7
2.1
11.3
76.8
11.2
12.0
100
28.4
4.5
0.9
33.8
NT
3.3
0.2
0.9
4.5
TAS
2.4
0.2
–
2.6
VIC
–
0.2
–
0.2
Total
NSW
2013
WA
40.7
10.9
7.3
58.9
74.7
16.1
9.2
100
ACT
4.7
–
–
4.7
NSW
38.2
0.6
6.2
45.0
NT
7.9
–
0.3
8.2
TAS
0.6
–
–
0.6
Total
2012
WA
34.4
4.4
2.7
41.5
85.8
5.0
9.2
100
13.7
0.9
2.4
17.0
NT
5.7
0.5
–
6.2
TAS
2.4
–
–
2.4
Total
NSW
2011
WA
Total
46.0
1.9
26.5
74.4
67.8
3.3
28.9
100
Note: This data set represents a total of 1 196 methylamphetamine samples. Due to a lack of available data, 106 samples were
classified based on the sample collection date in place of the sample seizure date.
7
Legislative impediments precluded a number of jurisdictions (Queensland, South Australia and Victoria) from providing samples to the
ENIPID project. As an interim measure, approval was granted to collect samples from international mail seizures examined by the AFP
National Forensic Rapid Laboratory (NFRL), which were destined for Queensland, South Australia and Victoria. The data in Table 4 relating
to Queensland, South Australia and Victoria is representative of samples from NFRL seizures which were submitted to the ENIPID project
and subsequently profiled by NMI to give an indication of methylamphetamine destined for those jurisdictions.
37
TABLE 5: Synthetic route of manufacture of methylamphetamine ENIPID samples as a proportion of
analysed jurisdictional cases, classified by precursor, 2011–June 20148 (Source: Australian Federal Police,
Forensic Drug Intelligence)
Synthetic Route
Year
Jan–Jun
2014
Jurisdiction
Eph/PSE %
P2P %
Total %
NSW
55.6
7.8
16.7
80.0
QLD
–
–
1.1
1.1
SA
1.1
–
–
1.1
VIC
5.6
–
–
5.6
WA
10.0
1.1
1.1
12.2
72.2
8.9
18.9
100
33.9
4.6
1.7
40.2
NT
4.6
0.4
1.7
6.7
TAS
2.9
–
0.4
3.3
VIC
–
0.4
–
0.4
Total
NSW
2013
WA
33.5
6.7
9.2
49.4
74.9
12.1
13.0
100
ACT
3.5
–
–
3.5
NSW
41.3
0.5
5.5
47.3
NT
11.4
–
0.5
11.9
TAS
1.0
–
–
1.0
Total
2012
WA
26.8
5.0
4.5
36.3
84.0
5.5
10.5
100
13.5
1.8
4.5
19.8
NT
8.1
1.0
–
9.1
TAS
4.5
–
–
4.5
Total
NSW
2011
WA
Total
32.4
2.7
31.5
66.6
58.5
5.5
36.0
100
Note: This data set represents a total of 1 196 methylamphetamine samples (641 cases). Due to a lack of available data, 106 samples
were classified based on the sample collection date in place of the sample seizure date.
Of the 2010 and 2011 MDMA border seizures amenable to profiling, the dominant MDMA
production method identified was reductive amination–borohydride. However, due to the
relatively small number of seizures during this period (15 in both 2010 and 2011), there are
limitations to how this data can be generalised to the broader MDMA market.
From 2012 to June 2014, there was a significant increase in the number of MDMA seizures.
This period corresponded with a shift towards MDMA manufactured through reductive amination–
platinum hydrogenation. In addition, for the first time, a seizure of MDMA was observed to be
manufactured via the reductive amination-palladium hydrogenation method in 2014.
8
38
Legislative impediments precluded a number of jurisdictions (Queensland, South Australia and Victoria) from providing samples to the
ENIPID project. As an interim measure, approval was granted to collect samples from international mail seizures examined by the AFP
National Forensic Rapid Laboratory (NFRL), which were destined for Queensland, South Australia and Victoria. The data in Table 5 relating
to Queensland, South Australia and Victoria is representative of samples from NFRL seizures which were submitted to the ENIPID project
and subsequently profiled by NMI to give an indication of methylamphetamine destined for those jurisdictions.
From 2010 to 2012, MDMA produced using the reductive amination-borohydride method
comprised the highest proportion by bulk weight. Of the 2010 and 2011 MDMA border seizures
amenable to profiling, the dominant MDMA production method identified was reductive
amination-borohydride. However, due to the relatively small number of seizures during this
period (15 in both 2010 and 2011), there are limitations to how this data can be generalised to
the broader MDMA market. While in 2012 3 seizures, all produced by this method, made up
approximately 96 per cent of the total profiled bulk for the period, the 2013 reporting period saw
the largest seizure of MDMA since 2007, weighing approximately 117 kilograms. Although that
seizure was deemed to have been manufactured via reductive amination, profiling was unable
to further determine the specific catalyst used. Of the remaining bulk weight, the reductive
amination-borohydride method was the most prevalent.
During the first half of 2014, MDMA made via the reductive amination-borohydride method
continued to account for the highest proportion of bulk weight. One large seizure in the 2014
period contributed approximately 55 per cent of the total bulk weight profiled for that period, and
was determined to be made using the borohydride method (see Tables 6 and 7).
TABLE 6: Synthetic route of manufacture of AFP MDMA border seizure samples as a proportion of analysed
seizures, 2010–June 20149 (Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence)
Reductive Amination
Unclassified
%
Borohydride
%
Platinum
Hydrogenation
%
Palladium
Hydrogenation
%
Aluminium
Amalgam %
Mixed/
Unclassified %
–
11.5
80.7
3.9
–
3.9
2013
7.8
14.1
71.9
–
–
6.2
Year
Jan–Jun 2014
2012
14.0
8.0
70.0
–
–
8.0
2011
–
58.3
16.7
–
8.3
16.6
2010
–
66.7
22.2
–
–
11.1
TABLE 7: Synthetic route of manufacture of AFP MDMA border seizure samples as a proportion of analysed
bulk weight, 2010–June 201410 (Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence)
Reductive Amination
Unclassified
%
Borohydride
%
Platinum
Hydrogenation
%
Palladium
Hydrogenation
%
Aluminium
Amalgam %
Mixed/
Unclassified %
–
56.0
26.1
<0.1
–
17.9
2013
94.7
3.3
1.7
–
–
0.3
2012
0.9
96.7
2.4
–
–
–
Year
Jan–Jun 2014
2011
–
70.6
26.6
–
2.0
0.8
2010
–
99.9
0.1
–
–
<0.1
9 This data may also include seizures destined for Australia which occurred offshore.
10 This data may also include seizures destined for Australia which occurred offshore.
39
Since 2011, there has been an increase in the proportion of ENIPID samples identified using the
platinum hydrogenation method. This method accounts for the greatest proportion of analysed
samples, increasing from 30.8 per cent in 2011 to 56.0 per cent in 2013. A decreasing proportion
of MDMA ENIPID samples have been identified as being manufactured using a reductive
amination–aluminium amalgam method, from 30.8 per cent in 2011 to 6.7 per cent in 2013.
This has further deceased in the first six months of 2014 to 2.9 per cent. Of note, no MDMA
border samples analysed since 2011 have been identified as having been manufactured using
this method. For the first time in 2013, ENIPID samples identified MDMA manufacture using a
reductive amination–palladium hydrogenation method. Of note, 2013–14 was the first period in
which a border seizure of MDMA manufactured using a palladium hydrogenation method was
identified (see Tables 8 and 9).
TABLE 8: Synthetic route of manufacture of MDMA ENIPID samples as a proportion of analysed
jurisdictional samples, 2011–June 2014 (Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence)
Reductive Amination
Year
Jan–Jun
2014
Unclassified
Jurisdiction
%
2.9
–
–
26.6
–
35.4
QLD
–
–
–
–
23.5
–
23.5
VIC
–
–
14.7
–
20.6
2.9
38.2
WA
–
–
–
–
2.9
–
2.9
5.9
2.9
14.7
–
73.6
2.9
100
NSW
8.0
6.7
–
1.3
21.3
–
37.3
NT
1.3
–
–
–
–
–
1.3
–
–
–
–
8.0
–
8.0
1.3
–
1.3
–
16.0
–
18.6
QLD
WA
4.0
–
17.3
–
10.7
2.8
34.8
14.6
6.7
18.6
1.3
56.0
2.8
100
–
2.7
1.3
–
1.3
–
5.3
10.7
14.7
16.0
–
24.0
–
65.4
NT
–
–
1.3
–
1.3
–
2.6
WA
5.4
–
9.3
–
12.0
–
26.7
Total
ACT
NSW
Total
2011
Total
Total
%
5.9
VIC
2012
Mixed/
Unclass
%
NSW
Total
2013
Aluminium
Palladium
Platinum
Amalgam Borohydride Hydrogenation Hydrogenation
%
%
%
%
16.1
17.4
27.9
–
38.6
–
100
NSW
15.4
–
–
–
15.4
–
30.8
NT
15.4
–
–
–
15.4
–
30.8
WA
–
30.8
7.6
–
–
–
38.4
30.8
30.8
7.6
–
30.8
–
100
Note: This data set represents a total of 205 MDMA samples. Due to a lack of available data, 60 samples were classified based on the
sample collection date in place of the sample seizure date.
40
TABLE 9: Synthetic route of manufacture of MDMA ENIPID samples as a proportion of analysed
jurisdictional cases, 2011–June 2014 (Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence)
Reductive Amination
Year
Jan–Jun
2014
Unclassified
Jurisdiction
%
Total
%
3.0
3.0
–
–
27.3
–
33.3
QLD
–
–
–
–
24.3
–
24.3
VIC
–
–
15.2
–
21.2
3.0
39.4
WA
Total
Mixed/
Unclass
%
NSW
–
–
–
–
3.0
–
3.0
3.0
3.0
15.2
–
75.8
3.0
100
NSW
7.9
6.3
–
1.6
20.7
1.6
38.1
NT
1.6
–
–
–
–
–
1.6
–
–
–
–
9.5
–
9.5
Total
2013
Aluminium
Palladium
Platinum
Amalgam Borohydride Hydrogenation Hydrogenation
%
%
%
%
QLD
VIC
1.6
–
1.6
–
19.0
–
22.2
WA
3.2
–
9.5
–
11.1
4.8
28.6
14.3
6.3
11.1
1.6
60.3
6.4
100
Note: This data set represents a total of 205 MDMA samples (156 cases). Due to a lack of available data, 60 samples were classified
based on the sample collection date in place of the sample seizure date.
DOMESTIC MARKET INDICATORS
The number of clandestine laboratories producing ATS can be an indicator of the size of the ATS
market. Of the 744 clandestine laboratories detected nationally in 2013–14, the majority were
identified as producing ATS (excluding MDMA). The number of laboratories manufacturing MDMA
remains comparatively small, decreasing from 7 in 2012–13 to 3 in 2013–14 (see Clandestine
laboratories and precursors chapter).
According to the 2013 National Drug Strategy Household Survey (NDSHS), 7.0 per cent of the
Australian population aged 14 years or older reported using amphetamine or methylamphetamine
at least once in their lifetime. In the same survey, 2.1 per cent reported recent11 amphetamine
or methylamphetamine use. These figures remain unchanged from those reported in 2010
(AIHW 2014). The 2013 NDSHS report indicates that while there has been no significant increase
in the use of meth/amphetamines, there has been a change in the form of drug used. The
reported use of powder methylamphetamine decreased from 51 per cent in 2010 to 29 per cent
in 2013, while the reported use of crystal methylamphetamine more than doubled, increasing
from 22 per cent in 2010 to 50 per cent in 2013. There has also been an increase in the reported
frequency of use, with the proportion of users reporting daily or weekly use increasing from
9.3 per cent in 2010 to 15.5 per cent in 2013. Of note was the reported increase in the daily or
monthly crystal methylamphetamine use, which more than doubled, increasing from 12.4 per cent
to 25.3 per cent in 2013 (AIHW 2014). While the 20–29 year age group accounts for the largest
proportion of recent amphetamines users, the proportion of recent users in this age group has
been steadily decreasing since 1998 (AIHW 2013).
11 In the NDSHS, ‘recent use’ refers to reported use in the 12 months preceding interview.
41
According to the 2013 NDSHS, the proportion of the Australian population aged 14 years or
older reporting use of ecstasy at least once in their lifetime increased from 10.3 per cent in
2010 to 10.9 per cent in 2013, making ecstasy the second most commonly used drug in Australia
after cannabis. In the same survey, 2.5 per cent reported recent ecstasy use, a decrease from
3.0 per cent in 2010. Reported recent ecstasy use continues to be greatest among those aged
20–29 years; however, the proportion of recent users in this age group has decreased (AIHW 2013).
According to a 2013 national study of regular injecting drug users, 66 per cent of respondents
reported using one or more forms of methylamphetamine, a decrease from 68 per cent in 2012.
The proportion of respondents reporting methylamphetamine as their drug of choice increased,
from 23 per cent in 2013 to 24 per cent in 2014 (Stafford & Burns 2014a).12 Early findings from the
2014 study also indicate methylamphetamine use is increasing, with 70 per cent of respondents
reporting recent use13 of one or more forms of methylamphetamine, compared to
66 per cent in 2013.
The proportion of respondents reporting the recent use of crystal methylamphetamine increased,
from 54 per cent in 2012 to 55 per cent during 2013 (Stafford & Burns 2014). Early findings from
the 2014 study indicate this has continued to increase to 61 per cent (Stafford & Burns 2014a).
Respondents reporting the recent use of speed decreased from 40 per cent in 2012 to 34 per cent
in 2013. Early findings from the 2014 study indicate this proportion has decreased to 30 per cent.
Respondents reporting recent use of base decreased from 18 per cent in 2012 to 13 per cent in
2013. Early findings from the 2014 study indicate this proportion has decreased to 12 per cent.
Recent methylamphetamine users within this regular injecting drug user population reported
using methylamphetamine a median of 24 days in the six months preceding interview in 2013.
Early findings of the 2014 study indicate that this figure has remained stable (see Figure 9).
FIGURE 9: Proportion of a regular injecting drug user population reporting the recent use of speed,
base and crystal/ice compared to median days of use of any form of methylamphetamine, 2005–14
(Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
a. Reported figures for 2014 are preliminary.
12 The Illicit Drugs Reporting System (IDRS) is not designed to monitor trends in ecstasy and related drug use as the frequency and
prevalence of use in people who inject drugs is low.
13 In both the IDRS and the Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System (EDRS) ‘recent use’ refers to use within the last six months.
42
In a 2013 national study of regular ecstasy users, 33 per cent of respondents reported ecstasy
as their drug of choice, an increase from the 32 per cent reported in 2012, but lower than the
52 per cent reported in 2003 (Sindicich & Burns 2014). Early findings from the 2014 study indicate
this has increased to 36 per cent. According to early findings of the 2014 study, 92 per cent of
respondents reported using MDMA in tablet form, a decrease from the 96 per cent reported
in 2013. The reported use of MDMA in crystal form increased, from 39 per cent in 2013 to
49 per cent in 2014, as did the reported use of MDMA capsules, increasing from 50 per cent
in 2013 to 53 per cent in 2014 (Sindicich & Burns 2014a).
The proportion of respondents reporting recent methylamphetamine use decreased, from
50 per cent in 2013 to 47 per cent in 2014 (Sindicich & Burns 2014a). The proportion of
respondents reporting recent crystal methylamphetamine use decreased, from 6 per cent in 2012
to 4 per cent in both 2013 and 2014. Respondents reporting the recent use of speed decreased
from 48 per cent in 2012 to 37 per cent in 2013. Early findings from the 2014 study indicate this
has marginally decreased to 36 per cent. The proportion of respondents reporting the recent use
of base decreased from 15 per cent in 2012 to 6 per cent in 2013. Early findings from the 2014
study indicate this proportion has increased to 8 per cent. In 2013, recent methylamphetamine
users within this regular ecstasy user population reported using methylamphetamine a median
of 4 days in the six months preceding interview. Early findings of the 2014 study indicate that this
figure has remained stable (see Figure 10).
FIGURE 10: Proportion of a regular ecstasy user population reporting the recent use of speed,
base and crystal/ice compared to median days of use of any form of methylamphetamine, 2005–14
(Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
43
The Drug Use Monitoring in Australia (DUMA) program, which examines drug use among police
detainees, is comprised of an interviewer-assisted self-report survey and voluntary provision of a urine
sample which is subjected to urinalysis to detect licit and illicit drug use.14 The proportion of detainees
testing positive15 via urinalysis for amphetamine16 increased this reporting period, from 27.3 per cent
in 2012–13 to 35.8 per cent in 2013–14, the highest proportion reported in the last decade.17
The proportion of detainees testing positive for methylamphetamine was also the highest
reported in the last decade, increasing from 25.9 per cent in 2012–13 to 33.0 per cent in
2013–14 (see Figure 11). The proportion of detainees testing positive for amphetamine, at
35.8 per cent is higher than the proportion testing positive for cocaine, heroin, opiates, MDMA
and benzodiazepines, but lower than the proportion testing positive for cannabis. In 2013–14,
the proportion of detainees self-reporting recent18 methylamphetamine use was 48.9 per cent.
This percentage is higher than that recorded in 2012–13 (38.6 per cent) when detainees were
requested to report the use of amphetamines. Due to this methodological change, 2013–14
self-reported methylamphetamine use data cannot be directly compared to data collected prior
to 2013. However, as amphetamine use would be expected to include methylamphetamine use,
the data can be interpreted as representing an increase in methylamphetamine use from 2012–13
to 2013–14.
FIGURE 11: National proportion of detainees testing positive19 for methylamphetamine/amphetamine20
compared with self-reported use21, 2004–05 to 2013–14 (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
a. Urinalysis figures reported for 2013–14 reflect data collected in the third and fourth quarter of 2013 and the first quarter of 2014.
14 Detainees can participate in the survey without providing a urine sample. Cases with missing data are excluded from the relevant
analysis.
15 Amphetamines and their metabolites can be detected in urine on average 2 to 14 days after use.
16 Results for all amphetamine types including MDMA, methylamphetamine.
17 It should be noted that following administration, methylamphetamine is metabolised into amphetamine, which could account for
the high proportion of positive amphetamine results in urine testing.
18 ‘Recent use’ in the DUMA program refers to reported use in the 12 months prior to arrest.
19 Includes only detainees who provide urine samples.
20 Includes methylamphetamine, MDMA and other amphetamines.
21 Note that from Quarter 3 of 2013, the self-reporting questions were modified from “Have you used amphetamine speed /
methamphetamine in the last 12 months?” to “Have you used methamphetamine / speed in the last 12 months?” As such, caution
should be exercised when comparing reporting periods.
44
The proportion of detainees testing positive for MDMA decreased, from 1.4 per cent in 2012–13
to 1.2 per cent in 2013–14. Self-reported recent use of MDMA decreased from 13.4 per cent in
2012–13 to 12.1 per cent in 2013–14, the second lowest proportion reported in the last decade
(see Figure 12).
FIGURE 12: National proportion of detainees testing positive22 for MDMA compared with self-reported
use23, 2004–05 to 2013–14 (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
a. Urine was collected in the third and fourth quarter of 2013 and the first quarter of 2014.
b. Figures reported for 2013–14 reflect data collected in the third and fourth quarter of 2013 and the first and second quarter of 2014.
PRICE
Nationally, the price of a gram of amphetamine increased this reporting period, from between
$150 and $800 in 2012–13 to between $300 and $900 in 2013–14. In 2013–14, the national price
of an 8-ball24 of amphetamine ranged between $600 and $2 650.
Nationally, the price of a gram of non-crystal methylamphetamine remained relatively stable,
ranging from $70 to $700 in 2013–14. The price range reported for a kilogram of non-crystal
methylamphetamine remained relatively consistent with prices reported in 2012–13. Similar
to 2012–13, New South Wales and Victoria were the only two states to report the price for a
kilogram of non-crystal methylamphetamine. In New South Wales, the price ranged between
$70 000 and $110 000, and in Victoria the price was $88 000.
Consistent with prices reported in 2012–13, the national price of a gram of crystal
methylamphetamine in 2013–14 ranged between $300 and $1 600. Similar to 2012–13, the
Northern Territory reported the highest price per gram this reporting period, ranging between
$1 200 and $1 600. New South Wales reported a change in the price range for a kilogram of crystal
methylamphetamine, from $200 000 to $260 000 in 2012–13 to $160 000 to $265 000 in 2013–14;
Victoria reported a decrease, from between $280 000 and $320 000 in 2012–13 to between
$200 000 and $220 000 in 2013–14. Queensland reported a price range between $200 000 and
$250 000 per kilogram this reporting period.
22 Includes only detainees who provided a urine sample.
23 The self-reporting question included use of ‘ecstasy/MDMA’ and related to use in the 12 months prior to arrest.
24 An 8-ball equates to 3.5 grams.
45
Overall, MDMA prices have remained relatively stable between 2012–13 and 2013–14. Nationally,
the price of one MDMA tablet/capsule ranged between $15 and $50, consistent with prices
reported in 2012–13. The Northern Territory reported the highest price for purchases of multiple
MDMA tablets, with the price of 2–24 tablets/capsules in 2013–14 ranging between $30 and
$50 per tablet.
PURITY
Figure 13 illustrates the annual median purity of amphetamine25 over the last decade. Since
2004–05, the median purity of analysed samples has fluctuated, ranging between 0.1 per cent
and 71.4 per cent. In 2013–14, the annual median purity ranged between 0.4 per cent in South
Australia and 33.0 per cent in the Australian Capital Territory. New South Wales, Queensland,
Western Australia, South Australia and the Australian Capital Territory all reported decreases in
annual median purity this reporting period.
FIGURE 13: Annual median purity of amphetamine samples, 2004–05 to 2013–14
Figure 14 illustrates the median purity of analysed amphetamine samples on a quarterly basis
in 2013–14. In this reporting period, the quarterly median purity of amphetamine ranged from
0.4 per cent in South Australia to 55.1 per cent in the Australian Capital Territory.
25 Amphetamine is a manufacturing by-product of some commonly used methods of methylamphetamine production. This can result
in two separate purity figures for a single drug sample—one as methylamphetamine with considerable purity and another as
amphetamine of low purity.
46
FIGURE 14: Quarterly median purity of amphetamine samples, 2013–14
Figure 15 illustrates the annual median purity of methylamphetamine over the last decade. Since
2004–05, the median purity of analysed methylamphetamine samples has ranged from 4.4 per
cent to 80.0 per cent. This reporting period, every state recorded an increase in the annual median
purity of methylamphetamine, with all median purities reported in 2013–14 the highest on record.
On average, the annual median purity of methylamphetamine increased by 7.4 per cent from
2012–13 to 2013–14. This reporting period, Victoria recorded the highest annual median purity of
methylamphetamine on record at 80.0 per cent.
FIGURE 15: Annual median purity of methylamphetamine samples, 2004–05 to 2013–14
47
Figure 16 illustrates the median purity of analysed methylamphetamine samples on a quarterly
basis. During this reporting period, the quarterly median purity of samples ranged from 47.0 per
cent in Western Australia to 83.6 per cent in Victoria. Western Australia recorded the greatest
fluctuation in quarterly median purity in 2013–14, ranging from a low of 47.0 per cent in the third
quarter of 2013 to a high of 64.0 per cent in the second quarter of 2014.
FIGURE 16: Quarterly median purity of methylamphetamine samples, 2013–14
Figure 17 illustrates the annual median purity of phenethylamine samples over the last decade,
the majority of which relate to MDMA. Since 2004–05, the annual purity of phenethylamines
has ranged from 6.8 per cent to 82.7 per cent. In 2013–14, the annual median purity of
phenethylamine samples ranged from 14.1 per cent in South Australia to 77.0 per cent in the
Australian Capital Territory.
FIGURE 17: Annual median purity of phenethylamine samples, 2004–05 to 2013–14
48
Figure 18 illustrates the median purity of analysed phenethylamine samples on a quarterly basis
in 2013–14, the majority of which relate to MDMA. During this reporting period, the quarterly
median purity of phenethylamine samples ranged from 11.3 per cent in South Australia during the
third quarter of 2013 to 77.0 per cent reported in the Australian Capital Territory during the same
period.
FIGURE 18: Quarterly median purity of phenethylamine samples, 2013–14
AVAILABILITY
In a 2013 study of regular injecting drug users, the proportion of respondents reporting ice as easy
or very easy to obtain increased, from 84 per cent in 2012 to 88 per cent in 2013. Early findings
from the 2014 study indicate this has further increased to 91 per cent. Of the respondents able to
comment on the availability of speed in the same survey, 84 per cent reported it to be easy or very
easy to obtain in 2013, a decrease from the 89 per cent reported in 2012. Early findings from the
2014 study indicate this has increased marginally to 85 per cent. In the same study, 80 per cent of
respondents reported base as easy or very easy to obtain, an increase from 79 per cent in 2012.
Early findings from the 2014 study indicate this has increased to 83 per cent (Stafford & Burns
2014; Stafford & Burns 2014a).
In a 2013 study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting ice as easy or
very easy to obtain decreased, from 90 per cent in 2012 to 88 per cent in 2013. Early findings
from the 2014 study indicate this has further decreased to 86 per cent. In the same study, of
the respondents able to comment on the availability of speed, 78 per cent reported speed to
be easy or very easy to obtain, an increase from the 75 per cent reported in 2012. Early findings
from the 2014 study indicate this has decreased to 73 per cent. In the 2013 study, 95 per cent
of respondents reported base as easy or very easy to obtain, an increase from the 61 per cent
reported in 2012. Early findings from the 2014 study indicate this has decreased to 72 per cent
(Sindicich & Burns 2014; Sindicich & Burns 2014a).
49
Early findings from the same 2014 study indicate that 42 per cent of respondents found MDMA
(tablets, powder or capsules) very easy to obtain, a decrease from the 45 per cent reported in
2013. The 2014 study collected data on the availability of MDMA crystal for the first time. Of
those respondents able to comment, 27 per cent reported MDMA crystal as very easy to obtain,
41 per cent reported it as easy to obtain, 28 per cent reported as difficult to obtain and 4 per cent
reported it as very difficult to obtain (Sindicich & Burns 2014a).
SEIZURES AND ARRESTS
Since 2009–10, the number of national ATS seizures has continued to increase, with the
26 805 national ATS seizures reported in 2013–14 the highest on record. While the weight of
national ATS seizures decreased by 36.8 per cent this reporting period, the 4 076 kilograms seized
nationally in 2013–14 is the third highest on record (see Figure 19).
FIGURE 19: National ATS seizures, by number and weight 2004–05 to 2013–14
The number of national ATS seizures increased by 27.3 per cent this reporting period, from
21 056 in 2012–13 to a record 26 805 in 2013–14. The weight of ATS seized nationally decreased
36.8 per cent this reporting period, from 6 453.7 kilograms in 2012–13 to 4 076.3 kilograms in
2013–14. New South Wales continues to account for both the greatest number and weight of
national ATS seizures, accounting for 43.5 per cent of the number and 51.3 per cent of the weight
seized in 2013–14. Only Tasmania reported a decrease in the number of ATS seizures this reporting
period, with New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia all reporting decreases in the weight
of ATS seized (see Table 10).
50
TABLE 10: Number, weight and percentage change of national ATS seizures, 2012–13 and 2013–14
Number
Weight (grams)
2012–13
2013–14
% change
2012–13
2013–14
% change
New South Wales
8 762
11 668
33.2
4 403 788
2 091 441
-52.5
Victoria
2 422
2 848
17.6
1 850 879
1 482 843
-19.9
Queensland
4 172
5 077
21.7
58 053
309 720
433.5
346
452
30.6
53 359 25 074
-53.0
4 580
5 942
29.7
74 688
122 747
64.3
Tasmania
241
175
-27.4
5 199
9 890
90.2
Northern Territory
350
447
27.7
7 032
18 537
163.6
State/Territory
ab
South Australia
Western Australia
Total
183
196
7.1
738
16 132
2 085.9
21 056
26 805
27.3
6 453 736
4 076 384
-36.8
a. The term amphetamine-type stimulants encompasses drugs included under both the amphetamines and phenethylamines
groupings. For further details see the Statistics chapter.
b. Includes seizures by state and territory police and AFP for which a valid seizure weight was recorded.
There was a record 26 269 national ATS arrests this reporting period, an increase of 18.4 per cent
on the 22 189 arrests reported in 2012–13. Consumer arrests continue to account for the greatest
proportion of arrests, comprising 75.9 per cent of national ATS arrests in 2013–14. However,
Tasmania reported more ATS provider arrests than consumer arrests this reporting period
(see Figure 20).
FIGURE 20: Number of ATS arrests, 2004–05 to 2013–14
51
New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia and the Australian
Capital Territory all recorded increases in ATS arrests in 2013–14. Victoria accounted for
28.8 per cent of national ATS arrests this reporting period, followed by Queensland (25.8 per cent)
and New South Wales (24.3 per cent). Combined, these states accounted for 78.8 per cent of
national ATS arrests in 2013–14 (see Table 11).
TABLE 11: Number and percentage change of national ATSa arrests, 2012–13 and 2013–14
Arrests
State/Territory
2012–13
2013–14
% change
New South Wales
5 905
6 385
8.1
Victoria
6 762
7 555
11.7
Queensland
4 941
6 772
37.1
South Australia
1 312
1 434
9.3
Western Australia
2 870
3 756
30.9
Tasmania
125
72
-42.4
Northern Territory
169
138
-18.3
105
157
49.5
22 189
26 269
18.4
b
Total
a. The term amphetamine-type stimulants encompasses drugs included under both the amphetamines and phenethylamines
groupings. For further details see the Statistics chapter.
b. The arrest data for each state and territory includes Australian Federal Police data.
NATIONAL IMPACT
The Australian ATS market has historically been supplied by domestic manufacture facilitated by
domestic diversion and importation of precursor chemicals, and supplemented by the importation
of finished product. Nationally, the majority of clandestine laboratories identified in 2013–14 were
manufacturing ATS, specifically methylamphetamine, while the number of laboratories detected
producing MDMA remained small.
Australian drug user surveys have found crystal methylamphetamine has become the preferred
form of methylamphetamine. According to the 2013 NDSHS, while the proportion of the
Australian population reporting recent meth/amphetamines use and use at least once in their
lifetime remained stable, the reported preferred form of the drug changed from powder to crystal.
The report also noted increases in the reported frequency of methylamphetamine use, particularly
that relating to crystal methylamphetamine. Early reporting from a 2014 study of regular injecting
drug users indicates an overall decrease in reported methylamphetamine use, but an increase in
the reported recent use of crystal methylamphetamine.
The increase in the number of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border this
reporting period reflects an ongoing trend over the last five years, with a record 2 367 detections
in 2013–14. Despite a decrease in the weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detected this reporting
period, it is the second highest weight on record. Both the number and weight of MDMA
detections in 2013–14 decreased when compared to 2012–13. In 2013–14, international mail
accounted for the greatest proportion of the number of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections
and both the number and weight of MDMA detections. Sea cargo accounted for the greatest
proportion of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections by weight this reporting period.
52
The number of embarkation points identified for ATS (excluding MDMA) increased, from
49 in 2012–13 to 54 in 2013–14. China remained the primary embarkation point this reporting
period, followed by Hong Kong, Mexico and the US. The number of embarkation points identified
for MDMA detections decreased, from 33 in 2012–13 to 30 in 2013–14. The Netherlands was
identified as the single most significant embarkation point for MDMA detections in 2013–14.
Between 2010 and 2014, analysed samples of methylamphetamine seized at the Australian
border have primarily been manufactured from Eph/PSE. Over this period, there has been an
increase in the proportion of samples identified as being manufactured from P2P. An increase in
the proportion of P2P samples is also reflected in methylamphetamine profiling as part of the
ENIPID project. These figures indicate a growing preference for using P2P in methylamphetamine
manufacture.
From 2012, there has been a significant increase in the number of MDMA seizures and a shift
towards MDMA manufactured through reductive amination-platinum hydrogenation. For the
first time in 2013, ENIPID samples identified MDMA manufacture using a reductive amination–
palladium hydrogenation method. However, this method was not identified in analysis of border
seizures until 2014.
In 2013–14, the reported annual median purity of methylamphetamine increased, with all
medians the highest on record. Of the 744 clandestine laboratories detected in 2013–14,
the majority were identified as producing ATS (excluding MDMA), specifically
methylamphetamine. The number of laboratories manufacturing MDMA remains comparatively
small, decreasing from 7 in 2012–13 to 3 in 2013–14.
There was a record 26 805 national ATS seizures in 2013–14. While the weight of ATS seized
nationally decreased this reporting period, it is the second highest weight on record. New South
Wales continues to account for the greatest proportion of the number and weight of national ATS
seizures, accounting for 43.5 per cent and 51.3 per cent of seizures respectively.
There were a record 26 269 national ATS arrests in 2013–14. Victoria accounted for the greatest
proportion of arrests this reporting period, followed by Queensland and New South Wales.
Consumer arrests continued to account for the greatest proportion of national ATS arrests this
reporting period. However, Tasmania recorded more ATS provider arrests than consumer arrests in
2013–14.
53
REFERENCES
Australian Federal Police (AFP) 2014, Media Release, Five men charged with attempting to import
black ice, 8 February 2014, viewed 11 November 2014, <http://www.afp.gov.au/media-centre/
news/afp/2014/february/media-release-five-men-charged-with-attempting-to-import-black-ice.
aspx>.
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) 2013, ‘2013 National Drug Strategy Household
Survey report (NDSHS)’ NDSHS 2013 data & references, AIHW, Canberra, viewed 4 November
2014, <http://www.aihw.gov.au/alcohol-and-other-drugs/ndshs/2013/data-and-references/>.
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) 2014, ‘National Drug Strategy Household Survey
detailed report 2013’ Drug statistics series no.28, AIHW, Canberra, viewed 1 December 2014,
<http://www.aihw.gov.au/alcohol-and-other-drugs/ndshs-2013/>.
Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (BINLEA) 2014, ‘International
Narcotics Control Strategy Report’, Drug and Chemical Control, vol. 1, BINLEA, US Department
of State, Washington D.C., viewed 3 November 2014, <http://www.state.gov/documents/
organization/222881.pdf>.
Center for Substance Abuse Research (CESAR) 2006, Drug profile: Methamphetamine, CESAR,
Maryland, viewed 3 July 2014, < http://www.cesar.umd.edu/cesar/drugs/meth.pdf >.
Degenhardt, L & Hall, W 2010, ‘The health and psychological effects of ecstasy (MDMA) use’,
Monograph no. 62, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, viewed 3 July 2014, <https://
ndarc.med.unsw.edu.au/sites/default/files/ndarc/resources/Mono.%2062%20FINAL.pdf>.
Entwistle, G & Burns, L 2014, Crystal MDMA: A Unique Addition to Australian Markets, National
Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, viewed 14 November
2014, <https://ndarc.med.unsw.edu.au/sites/default/files/newsevents/events/Poster%20
%28NSW%20EDRS%29%20-%20Crystal%20MDMA.pdf>.
Harris, B 2014, ‘Mexican cartel smuggling cocaine into Hong Kong amid booming demand for
drugs’, South China Morning Post, 2 February 2014, viewed 8 September 2014, <http://www.
scmp.com/news/hong-kong/article/1418852/mexican-cartel-smuggling-cocaine-hong-kong-amidbooming-demand-drugs>.
Harris, B 2014a, ‘Arrest of Joaquin Guzman ‘won’t slow Asia push’ of Sinaloa cartel’, South China
Morning Post, 2 March 2014, viewed 8 September 2014, <http://www.scmp.com/news/world/
article/1438293/arrest-joaquin-guzman-wont-slow-asia-push-sinaloa-cartel>.
Li, G 2014, ‘China embraces ‘Breaking Bad’? Three tons of crystal meth seized in village’, NBC
News (Online), 3 January 2014, viewed 3 November 2014, <http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_
news/2014/01/03/22159681-china-embraces-breaking-bad-three-tons-of-crystal-meth-seized-invillage>.
National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) 2006, MDMA (Ecstasy) abuse, NIDA, Maryland, viewed
3 July 2014, <http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/mdma-ecstasy-abuse/what-are-effectsmdma>.
54
Shadbolt, P 2014, ‘Philippines raid reveals Mexican drug cartel presence in Asia’, CNN (Online),
25 February 2014, viewed September 2014, <http://edition.cnn.com/2014/02/24/world/asia/
philippines-mexico-sinaloa-cartel/>.
Sindicich, N & Burns, L 2014, ‘Australian trends in ecstasy and related drug markets 2013: Findings
from the Ecstasy and Related Drug Reporting System (EDRS)’, Australian Drug Trend Series, no.
118, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney.
Sindicich, N & Burns, L 2014a, ‘Australian Drug Trends 2014: Findings from the Ecstasy and Related
Drug Reporting System (EDRS)’, Australian Drug Trends Conference, National Drug and Alcohol
Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, viewed 21 October 2014,<https://ndarc.
med.unsw.edu.au/sites/default/files/ndarc/resources/National_EDRS_2013.pdf>.
Sky News 2014, ‘Burma makes record illegal drug seizure’, Sky News (Online) 24 August 2014,
viewed 9 September 2014, <http://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=
web&cd=4&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CDIQFjAD&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.skynews.com.au%2
Fnews%2Fworld%2Fasiapacific%2F2014%2F08%2F24%2Fmyanmar-makes-record-illegal-drugseizure.html&ei=At_SVNTwNqPImAWWvoKYBQ&usg=AFQjCNEQMnWfBADfg6xZuuILOsiOcAMSw&bvm=bv.85142067,d.dGY>.
Stafford J & Burns LA, 2014, ‘Australian Drug Trends 2013: Findings from the Illicit Drug Reporting
System (IDRS)’, Australian Drug Trends Series no. 109, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre,
University of New South Wales, Sydney, viewed 5 September 2014, <https://ndarc.med.unsw.edu.
au/sites/default/files/ndarc/resources/National_IDRS_2013.pdf>.
Stafford, J & Burns, L 2014a, ‘Australian Drug Trends 2014: Findings from the Illicit Drug Reporting
System (EDRS)’, Australian Drug Trends Conference, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre,
University of New South Wales, Sydney, viewed 21 October 2014, <https://ndarc.med.unsw.edu.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013, Global Smart Update March 2013, vol.
9, UNODC, Vienna.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2014, Global Synthetic Drugs Assessment:
Amphetamine-type stimulants and new psychoactive substances, UNODC, Vienna.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2014a, World Drug Report 2014, UNODC,
Vienna, viewed 9 December 2014, <https://www.unodc.org/documents/wdr2014/World_Drug_
Report_2014_web.pdf>.
World Customs Organization (WCO) 2014, Illicit Trade Report 2013, WCO, Brussels.
World Health Organization (WHO) 2014, Management of substance abuse: Amphetamine-type
stimulants, WHO, Geneva, viewed 3 July 2014, <http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/facts/ATS/en/>.
World Health Organization (WHO) 2014a, Patterns and consequences of the use of amphetaminetype stimulants, WHO, Geneva, viewed 3 July 2014, <http://www.drugsandalcohol.
ie/15415/2/1Patterns_and_consequences_of_the_use.pdf>.
55
Cannabis
CANNABIS
KEY POINTS
Despite a decrease in the number of cannabis detections at the Australian border in
2013–14, the weight detected increased 635.3 per cent and is the highest reported in the last
decade.
The weight of national cannabis seizures decreased this reporting period. However, the number
of national seizures is the second highest on record.
The 66 684 national cannabis arrests in 2013–14 is the highest on record.
57
MAIN FORMS
Cannabis plants are grouped into two categories, hemp and marijuana, based on their intended
purpose. Hemp refers to the form of the plant bred specifically for its fibre, which can be used
in clothing, construction, oils and nutritional products (Agri-Food Canada 2013). Marijuana,
commonly referred to as cannabis, is an illicit drug and refers to strains of the plant that have been
bred specifically for their psychoactive components. Cannabis is harvested from two common
subspecies within the cannabis genus, Cannabis sativa and Cannabis indica (ElSohly 2007).
Cannabis contains a set of naturally occurring compounds known collectively as cannabinoids.1
Cannabinoids exert their effects by interacting with specific cannabinoid receptors present in the
central nervous system. The most recognised cannabinoid compound and main psychoactive
component of the cannabis plant is delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which is concentrated in
the flowering heads of the plant (UNODC 2006).2 Cannabidiol, which is also present in cannabis, is an
antipsychotic and is believed to have a balancing effect with THC (Pertwee 2008; News Medical 2014).
There are three main forms of cannabis: herb, resin and oil. Herbal cannabis consists of the dried
flowers and leaves of the cannabis plant and is the least potent form of cannabis. Cannabis resin
(hashish) is produced from the compressed resin glands of the cannabis plant. Cannabis oil, the
most potent form of cannabis, is a thick oil obtained from the resin (NCPIC 2011). The main forms
of cannabis and methods of administration are further explained in Table 12.
TABLE 12: Main forms of cannabis
Form
Description
Properties
Method of administration
Herbal cannabis
The leaves and flowering heads Low levels of THC
Cannabis resin (hashish)
Made from the resinous
material of the cannabis plant,
dried and compressed into
balls, blocks or sheets; colour
ranges from light brown to
dark green to black
Medium levels of THC
Crumbled and smoked in
a pipe or bong, rolled into
a cigarette with cannabis
leaf or tobacco, or cooked
with food and eaten, most
notably as ‘hash cookies’
Cannabis oil
Viscous oil extracted using
a solvent such as acetone,
isopropanol or methanol;
colour ranges from amber to
dark brown
High levels of THC
Small amounts applied
to cannabis or tobacco
cigarettes; can also be
heated and the vapour
inhaled
Smoked as a rolled cigarette
or inhaled through a water
pipe or ‘bong’
Cannabis is a depressant drug, slowing both cognitive and physical responses. When large amounts
of cannabis are used, it may also produce hallucinogenic effects (ADF 2014). Effects of cannabis
use may include a sense of mild euphoria and relaxation, changes in sensory perception, loss of
inhibitions and talkativeness (NCPIC 2011). Short-term effects of cannabis use may include blurred
vision, increased heart rate, bloodshot eyes and slowed reflexes. Long-term effects of cannabis use
may include memory loss, mood swings, cognitive difficulties and paranoia (ADF 2014).
1
2
58
Drug analogues and new psychoactive substances that are categorised as synthetic cannabinoids are discussed in the Other Drugs
chapter.
THC is found in most parts of the cannabis plant, but is most plentiful in the flowers and small leaves surrounding them.
Cannabis
Cannabis use may cause a condition called drug-induced psychosis, may exacerbate existing
psychotic symptoms and may decrease the chance of recovery from a psychotic episode. Cannabis
users with a psychotic illness may experience increased hallucinations, delusions and other
symptoms (SANE 2014).
Globally, cannabis continues to be the most commonly produced and used illicit drug. Global
seizures of cannabis herb in 2012 were reported at 5 350 tonnes, a reduction from 6 260 tonnes
in 2011. With the exception of the Caribbean and Europe, seizures have declined slightly in most
regions. Cannabis seizures in North America account for 64 per cent of the weight of cannabis
seizures worldwide (UNODC 2014). Although herbal cannabis can be grown on any continent,
production of cannabis resin is limited to a few countries in North Africa, the Middle East and
South-West Asia. Cannabis resin seizures increased in 2012, with 1 269 tonnes seized, compared
with 1 058 tonnes in 2011. Resin seizures increased significantly in Afghanistan, from 62 tonnes in
2011 to 160 tonnes in 2012; and in North Africa, increasing from 53 tonnes to 157 tonnes (mainly
due to increases reported in Algeria) (UNODC 2014).
Recent reporting on the use of cannabis estimates between 2.7 and 4.9 per cent of the global
population aged 15–64 years have used cannabis within their lifetime. Regions with reported
usage rates above the global average include West and Central Africa, North America and Oceania.
Some reporting also indicates that nearly half of the countries in Asia assess that cannabis use is
increasing (UNODC 2014).3
The World Customs Organization (WCO) reported that the number of global border detections of
herbal cannabis increased from 14 698 in 2012 to 16 360 in 2013, while the weight increased from
1 359 tonnes in 2012 to 1 407 tonnes in 2014. In 2013 Spain, India, Malawi and Poland moved into
the top ten reporting countries for herbal cannabis border detections (WCO 2014).
Analysis of global border detections indicates the major source countries for cannabis in 2013
were Mexico (202 tonnes), India (21 tonnes) and Albania (9 tonnes). In July 2013, Mexican
authorities seized 15.9 tonnes of herbal cannabis concealed in an articulated truck originating
in Mexico and destined for the United States of America (US). During the same month, Indian
Customs discovered around 4 tonnes of herbal cannabis at Siliguri in a truck’s load and around
1 tonne of herbal cannabis was detected by Burkinabe Customs being trafficked from Ghana to
Mali, transported on bicycles (WCO 2014).
In Europe, cannabis accounts for over 80 per cent of the total number of illicit drugs seizures.
The majority of herbal cannabis used in Europe is supplied by domestic cultivation, while the
majority of cannabis resin is sourced from Morocco. In the past ten years, the European user
market appears to have shifted from predominantly resin to herbal cannabis, with herbal cannabis
seizures now representing two-thirds of all cannabis seizures. Spain and the United Kingdom (UK)
account for the greatest proportion of cannabis seizures in the European Union (EMCDDA 2014).
3
Reported cannabis usage rates may be influenced by variable reporting methodologies and comparatively high levels of usage
may be a consequence of more comprehensive reporting in comparison to other countries. It is also acknowledged that not all
countries provide usage data to the UNODC.
59
Despite increased eradication efforts by local authorities, Morocco remains one of the world’s top
exporters of cannabis resin (EMCDDA 2014a). In June 2014, a ship reported to have originated
from Morocco was seized by Italian police with 42.7 tonnes of cannabis concealed on board.
Furthermore, in June 2014 Moroccan police seized approximately 30 tonnes of cannabis resin in
a warehouse in Casablanca (Agence France Presse 2014). Cultivation is concentrated in the
northern Rif Mountains, an area with the highest rates of poverty in the country (EMCDDA 2014a).
Over 700 000 Moroccan farmers in the region reportedly depend on cannabis production for their
livelihood (EMCDDA 2008; Karam 2013).
DOMESTIC TRENDS
The Australian Customs and Border Protection Service (ACBPS) continue to detect and intercept
attempted imports of cannabis at the Australian border. While the number of cannabis detections
decreased 21.7 per cent this reporting period, from 3 629 in 2012–13 to 2 840 in 2013–14, the
total weight of cannabis detected increased 635.3 per cent, from 21.5 kilograms in 2012–13 to
158.1 kilograms in 2013–14 (see Figure 21). The increase in the weight of cannabis detected
this reporting period is due to 2 large cannabis seed detections. In total, detections for cannabis
seed accounted for 150.6 kilograms or 95.2 per cent of the total weight detected.
Cannabis seed also accounted for the greatest proportion of cannabis border detections by
number this reporting period, increasing from 89.2 per cent in 2012–13 to 95.2 per cent in
2013–14. During the reporting period there were 4 detections of cannabis seed in excess of
1 kilogram. Combined, these 4 detections totalled 148.5 kilograms, accounting for 93.9 per cent
of the total weight of cannabis detected in 2013–14. The largest detection of cannabis leaf
weighed 475 grams and was identified in international mail from Canada.
FIGURE 21: Number and weight of cannabis detections at the Australian border, 2004–05 to 2013–144
4
60
Cannabis statistics for 2013–14 have been impacted by a number of food products containing hemp and cannabis seeds, such
as ‘Hemp Force’ powder and tea. Although food products containing hemp have no traces of THC, due to the wording of current
Australian legislation, any product containing hemp that can be ingested is prohibited because it comes from the cannabis plant.
This consideration is under review by Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ).
Cannabis
Significant border detections of cannabis in 2013–14 include:
125.9 kilograms of cannabis seed detected on 17 December 2013, concealed in boxes, via sea
cargo from Hong Kong to Brisbane
18 kilograms of cannabis seed detected on 19 February 2014, wrapped in packages, via
international mail from China to Sydney
3.6 kilograms of cannabis seed detected on 22 January 2014, hidden in packages, via
international mail from the US to Sydney
1 kilogram of cannabis seed detected on 22 August 2013, concealed in tea, via sea cargo from
China to Melbourne
800 grams of ‘Hemp Force’ powder5 detected on 28 January 2014, via air cargo from the US to
Sydney.
the total weight of cannabis detected in 2013–14.
IMPORTATION METHODS
In 2013–14, international mail was the most commonly detected method of importation by
number, accounting for 98.0 per cent of detections (see Figure 22).
FIGURE 22: Number of cannabis detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by
In 2013–14, sea cargo accounted for 80.3 per cent of the total weight of cannabis detected. This
was followed by international mail, which accounted for 18.3 per cent (see Figure 23). This is a
change from 2012–13 where international mail accounted for 51.2 per cent of the total weight of
cannabis detected at the border.
5
‘Hemp Force’ is a nutritional supplement marketed as a health food and source of protein.
61
FIGURE 23: Weight of cannabis detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by
EMBARKATION POINTS
In 2013–14, a total of 36 countries were identified as embarkation points for cannabis detected
at the border, compared with 43 countries in 2012–13. By number, the UK accounted for
63.1 per cent of the number of cannabis detections in 2013–14, with 1 792 detections, followed
by the Netherlands (470) and Canada (199). The combined total of these 3 embarkation
points accounted for 86.7 per cent of the total number of cannabis detections in 2013–14.
By weight, Hong Kong (125.9 kilograms of cannabis seeds and 30 grams of hash) and China
(18.0 kilograms of cannabis seeds and 1.0 kilogram of tea containing cannabis seeds) were
the most significant embarkation points for cannabis detections. Combined, these 2 embarkation
points accounted for 91.6 per cent of the total weight of cannabis detected in 2013–14 (see
Figure 24).
62
Embarkation country
Hong Kong, China, United States of America, Canada,
Netherlands, South Africa, United Kingdom, India and Spain.
FIGURE 24: Key embarkation points for cannabis detections, by weight, at the Australian border, 2013–14
Cannabis
63
According to the 2013 National Drug Strategy Household Survey (NDSHS), the proportion of the
Australian population aged 14 years or older reporting cannabis use at least once in their lifetime
decreased, from 35.4 per cent in 2010 to 34.8 per cent in 2013. In the same survey, 10.2 per cent
reported recent6 cannabis use, a decrease from the 10.3 per cent reported in 2010. In 2013, the
20–29 year age group accounted for the largest proportion of cannabis users, at 20.8 per cent
(AIHW 2014).
According to a 2013 national study of regular injecting drug users, the proportion of respondents
reporting recent use7 of hydroponic or bush cannabis8 decreased, from 76 per cent in 2012 to
72 per cent in 2013. Early findings from the 2014 study indicate the rate remains relatively stable
at 73 per cent. Recent cannabis users within this regular drug user population reported using
cannabis a median of 96 days in the six months preceding interview in 2014, a significant decrease
from the 170 days reported in 2013 and the lowest number of days reported in the last decade
(Stafford & Burns 2014; Stafford & Burns 2014a) (see Figure 25).
FIGURE 25: Proportion of a regular injecting drug using population reporting recent cannabis use and
median days of use, 2005 to 2014 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
In the same 2013 study, cannabis herb was the most common form of cannabis used by recent
users (hydroponic 66 per cent, bush 38 per cent), with 7 per cent reporting using ‘hashish’
(cannabis resin) and 4 per cent using cannabis oil (Stafford & Burns 2013).
6
7
8
64
In the NDSHS, ‘recent use’ refers to reported use in the 12 months preceding interview.
In both the Illicit Drugs Reporting System (IDRS) and the Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System (EDRS) ‘recent use’ refers to
use within the last six months.
The distinction between hydroponic and bush cannabis was based on the respondents’ views and was not supported by any
scientific analysis.
Cannabis
In a 2013 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting recent
cannabis use increased, from 82 per cent in 2012 to 86 per cent in 2013. Early findings from the
2014 study indicate this has decreased to 83 per cent. Recent cannabis users within this regular
drug user population reported using cannabis a median of 32 days in the six months preceding
interview in 2014, a decrease from the 48 days reported in 2013 (Sindicich & Burns 2014; Sindicich
& Burns 2014a) (see Figure 26).
FIGURE 26: Proportion of a regular ecstasy using population reporting recent cannabis use and median
days of use, 2005 to 2014 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
detainees, is comprised of an interviewer-assisted self-report survey and voluntary provision of a
urine sample which is subjected to urinalysis to detect licit and illicit drug use.9
Results obtained during the reporting period indicate that cannabis remains the most commonly
used illicit drug among this population.10 The proportion of detainees testing positive via urinalysis
for cannabis has been declining since 2004–05. The data from 2013–14 followed this trend,
decreasing to 46.1 per cent from 49.0 per cent in 2012–13. The proportion of detainees selfreporting cannabis use has remained relatively stable. In 2013–14, 56.3 per cent of detainees
reported recent11 cannabis use compared to 55.6 per cent in 2012–13 (see Figure 27) (AIC 2014).
9
Detainees can participate in the survey without providing a urine sample. Cases with missing data are excluded from the relevant
analysis.
10 The ability of urine testing to detect cannabis up to 30 days after use, as compared to less than 4 days for other illicit drugs, should
be considered when analysing the results.
65
FIGURE 27: National proportion of detainees testing positive12 for cannabis compared with self-reported
use, 2004–05 to 2013–14 (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
a. Urine was collected for the third and fourth quarters of 2013 and the first quarter of 2014.
The number of cannabis oil extraction laboratories detected nationally increased 250 per cent
this reporting period, from 2 in 2012–13 to 7 in 2013–14. Tasmania and South Australia each
reported 1 detection, with 5 reported in Queensland. The 7 laboratories detected this reporting
period is the highest number reported since related reporting began in 2007–08 (see Clandestine
laboratories and precursors chapter).
PRICE
Nationally, cannabis prices remained relatively stable in 2013–14. The price of a gram of
hydroponic cannabis head this reporting period ranged between $12 and $50. The price of an
ounce13 of hydroponic cannabis head ranged between $210 and $450, while the price for a single
mature hydroponic cannabis plant ranged between $2 000 and $5 000.
AVAILABILITY
In a 2013 national study of regular injecting drug users, of the respondents able to comment on
the availability of hydroponic cannabis, 93 per cent reported hydroponic cannabis as being easy
or very easy to obtain, a marginal increase from 92 per cent in 2012. Early findings from the 2014
study indicate this has decreased to 91 per cent (Stafford & Burns, 2014; Stafford & Burns 2014a).
In a 2013 national study of regular ecstasy users, of the respondents able to comment on the
availability of hydroponic cannabis, 90 per cent reported hydroponic cannabis as being easy or very
easy to obtain, a decrease from the 95 per cent reported in 2012. Early findings from the 2014 study
indicate this has increased to 92 per cent (Sindicich & Burns 2014; Sindicich & Burns 2014a).
13 An ounce equates to approximately 28 grams.
66
Cannabis
While the number and weight of national cannabis seizures decreased this reporting period,
the number of seizures is the second highest reported in the last decade. In 2013–14, the number
of national cannabis seizures decreased by 1.4 per cent, from 54 181 in 2012–13 to 53 404 in
2013–14. The weight of national seizures decreased by 24.3 per cent, from 9 344.0 kilograms in
2012–13 to 7 074.0 kilograms in 2013–14 (see Figure 28).
FIGURE 28: National cannabis seizures, by number and weight, 2004–05 to 2013–14
In 2013–14, New South Wales accounted for the greatest proportion of the number of national
cannabis seizures (32.4 per cent). Despite a decrease in the weight of cannabis seized this
reporting period, Victoria continues to account for the greatest proportion of the weight of
national cannabis seizures, accounting for 40.4 per cent in 2013–14. This reporting period Western
Australia reported the greatest percentage increase in both the number and weight of cannabis
seizures (see Table 13).
TABLE 13: Number, weight and percentage change of national cannabis seizures, 2012–13 and 2013–14
Number
State/Territory
a
New South Wales
Victoria
Queensland
South Australia
Western Australia
Weight (grams)
2012–13
2013–14
% change
2012–13
2013–14
% change
16 205
17 323
6.9
1 824 922
1 663 115
-8.9
4 056
3 991
-1.6
5 320 497
2 860 916
-46.2
18 009
15 815
-12.2
813 277
914 672
12.5
370
410
10.8
733 281
756 673
3.2
10 294
11 626
12.9
28 441
230 759
711.4
Tasmania
2 796
1 825
-34.7
244 702
113 097
-53.8
Northern Territory
1 685
1 755
4.2
178 520
161 084
-9.8
766
659
-14.0
200 373
373 685
86.5
54 181
53 404
-1.4
9 344 013
7 074 001
-24.3
Total
a. Includes seizures by state and territory police and AFP for which a valid seizure weight was recorded.
67
Cannabis continues to account for the greatest proportion of illicit drug arrests in Australia. Since
2004–05, national cannabis arrests have increased by 21.3 per cent. The proportion of cannabis
provider arrests has remained relatively stable over the decade. In 2013–14, the number of
national cannabis arrests increased by 7.3 per cent, from 62 120 in 2012–13 to a record 66 684
in 2013–14. Consumer arrests accounted for 87.2 per cent of all cannabis arrests in the reporting
period (see Figure 29).
FIGURE 29: Number of national cannabis arrests, 2004–05 to 2013–14
In the last decade, Queensland has accounted for the greatest proportion of national cannabis
arrests. In 2013–14, Queensland accounted for 30.3 per cent of national cannabis arrests, followed
by New South Wales with 23.6 per cent (see Table 14).
TABLE 14: Number and percentage change of national cannabis arrests, 2012–13 and 2013–14
Arrests
State/Territory
a
New South Wales
Victoria
Queensland
South Australia
South Australia (CENs)
b
Western Australia
Western Australia (CIRs)
c
Tasmania
2013–14
% change
14 796
15 756
6.5
8 305
8 558
3.0
18 365
20 219
10.1
2 378
2 305
-3.1
8 677
9 204
6.1
5 358
8 286
54.6
1 463
na
–
1 338
930
-30.5
Northern Territory
528
464
-12.1
Northern Territory (DINs)d
521
565
8.4
277
266
-4.0
114
131
14.9
62 120
66 684
7.3
Australian Capital Territory (SCONs)
Total
68
2012–13
e
a. The arrest data for each state and territory includes AFP data.
b. Cannabis Expiation Notices.
c. Cannabis Intervention Requirements. Note: WA Police statistics on the number of Cannabis Intervention Requirements issued in
2013–14 were not available at time of publication. These figures will be published retrospectively in the 2014–15 Illicit Drug Data Report.
d. Drug Infringement Notices.
e. Simple Cannabis Offence Notices.
Cannabis
NATIONAL IMPACT
In Australia, cannabis continues to account for the greatest proportion of illicit drug use, seizures
and arrests. Due to abundant domestic cultivation, with the exception of cannabis seeds, resin
and oil, trafficking cannabis into Australia is generally unnecessary or unprofitable and remains
relatively low.
The number of cannabis detections at the Australian border decreased by 21.7 per cent this
reporting period, from 3 629 in 2012–13 to 2 840 in 2013–14. Despite this decrease, the weight of
detections increased 635.3 per cent, from 21.5 kilograms in 2012–13 to 158.1 kilograms in
2013–14. Cannabis seeds continue to account for the majority of cannabis border detections,
having a combined weight of 150.6 kilograms.
International mail remained the primary importation method by number, accounting for
98.0 per cent of Australian border detections. Sea cargo was the primary importation method by
weight, comprising 80.3 per cent of detections, with a single detection of cannabis seeds weighing
125.9 kilograms. Similar to 2012–13, the UK was the prominent embarkation point by number in
2013–14. By weight, Hong Kong was the prominent embarkation point for cannabis detected at
the Australian border in 2013–14.
The number of cannabis oil extraction laboratories detected in Australia increased to 7 this
reporting period, the highest number recorded since related reporting began in 2007–08.
While cannabis remains the dominant illicit drug used in Australia, cannabis seizures decreased
in Australia in 2013–14, consistent with marginal decreases in global seizures. Despite these
decreases, the number of cannabis seizures is the second highest on record. National cannabis
arrests continued to increase this reporting period, with a record 66 684 arrests in 2013–14.
69
REFERENCES
Agence France Presse 2014 ‘Morocco seizes nearly 30 tons of hashish in Casablanca’, The Daily
Star, Lebanon 9 June 2014, viewed 3 November 2014, <http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/
Middle-East/2014/Jun-09/259446-morocco-seizes-nearly-30-tons-of-hashish-in-casablanca.ashx>.
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (Agri-Food Canada) 2013, Industrial Hemp, Government of
Canada, Ottawa, viewed 11 September 2014, <http://www.agr.gc.ca/eng/industry-marketsand-trade/statistics-and-market-information/by-product-sector/crops/pulses-and-special-cropscanadian-industry/industrial-hemp/?id=1174595656066>.
Australian Drug Foundation (ADF) 2014, DrugInfo: cannabis facts, ADF, Melbourne, viewed
11 July 2014, <http://www.druginfo.adf.org.au/drug-facts/cannabis?gclid=CJXCgdvxsb8CFYMHvAo
dKooAEQ>.
detailed report 2013’ Drug statistics series no.28, AIHW, Canberra, viewed 1 December 2014,
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addition (EMCDDA) 2008, ‘A cannabis reader:
global issues and local experiences’, EMCDDA Monographs, EMCDDA, Luxembourg.
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addition (EMCDDA) 2014, European Drug Report:
Trends and developments 2014, EMCDDA, Luxembourg.
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addition (EMCDDA) 2014a, Perspectives
on Drugs: New developments in Europe’s cannabis market, EMCDDA, Luxembourg, viewed 8
December 2014, <http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/attachements.cfm/att_228236_EN_POD2014_
New%20developments%20cannabis%20market.pdf>.
ElSohly, M 2007, Marijuana and the Cannabinoids, Humana Press, viewed 11 September 2014,
<http://books.google.com.au/books?id=fxoJPVNKYUgC&pg=PA8&redir_
esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false>.
Karam, S 2013, ‘Morocco’s marijuana farms may become legal’, Bloomberg Business Week, viewed
3 November 2013, <http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2013-08-01/moroccos-marijuanafarms-may-become-legal>.
National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre (NCPIC) 2011, What is cannabis?, NCPIC,
Sydney, viewed 10 July 2014, <http://ncpic.org.au/workforce/alcohol-and-other-drug-workers/
cannabis-information/factsheets/article/what-is-cannabis>.
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11 July 2014, <http://www.news-medical.net/health/Cannabinoids-What-are-Cannabinoids.aspx>.
Pertwee, BJ 2008, ‘The diverse CB1 and CB2 receptor pharmacology of three plant cannabinoids:
delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabivarin’, British Journal of
Pharmacology, 153(2), pp 199-215.
SANE Australia 2014, Cannabis and psychotic illness: fact sheet, SANE Australia, Melbourne,
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70
Cannabis
Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, viewed 21 October 2014, <https://ndarc.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2006, ‘How cannabis is produced’, Bulletin on
Narcotics, vol. LVIII, UNODC, Vienna.
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Vienna.
World Customs Organization (WCO) 2014, Illicit Trade Report 2013, WCO, Brussels.
71
Heroin
HEROIN
KEY POINTS
The number and weight of heroin detections at the Australian border decreased in 2013–14.
For the first time, profiling data of analysed border seizures in 2013 identified heroin
originating in South America.
While the number of national heroin seizures remained relatively stable in 2013–14, the weight
of heroin seized nationally decreased 71 per cent.
The number of national heroin and other opioid arrests increased by 12.5 per cent this
reporting period, with the 2 771 arrests in 2013–14 the second highest reported in the last
decade.
73
MAIN FORMS
Heroin (diacetylmorphine or diamorphine) is a derivative of morphine—an organic alkaloid
substance contained in raw opium. Raw opium is the dried milky juice (latex) extracted from the
unripe seed pods of opium poppy plants (Papaver somniferum). Illicit cultivation of the opium
poppy occurs on a large scale in at least three geographically distinct areas—South-West Asia
(‘Golden Crescent’)1, South-East Asia (‘Golden Triangle’)2 and Latin America (primarily Mexico)
(UNODC 2014). The term opioid is used for the entire family of opiates including natural, synthetic
and semi-synthetic drugs.
Opium is converted to heroin by a filtration process to extract the morphine, which is then
processed into heroin base by a chemical process using acetic anhydride. The resulting substance
is then further treated with hydrochloric acid to produce heroin hydrochloride salt (Stevens 2013).
Heroin is available in four ‘grades’ of quality, numbered one through four, and also in a form that
is widely known as ‘black tar’. Grades one and two are essentially unprocessed heroin and are not
commonly encountered in Australia. Grade three is a tan-coloured, granular powder sometimes
called ‘brown rock’—this is the type of heroin that is most commonly smoked. Grade four, the
purest form of heroin, is a fine white powder, which is easily dissolved and injected. Black tar
heroin—which is created through the incomplete acetylation of morphine—can appear as a dark
brown, tar-like substance or a light-brown powder (Stevens 2013).
Heroin is most commonly injected but can be smoked or snorted. Alternatively, heroin can be
heated and the vapours inhaled—a practice known as ‘chasing the dragon’ (ADF 2013). Users
experience an initial ‘rush’, which is generally followed by feelings of warmth, pleasure and
sedation (UNODC 2014).
Heroin is a depressant drug. Use results in slowed brain function, in particular the control of
breathing, which may slow down or cease. Blood pressure and body temperature may fall and the
heartbeat can become irregular (DoH 2014). Short-term effects of heroin use may include slurred
speech, dry mouth, confusion, and dilated pupils. Long-term effects of heroin use may include
skin abscesses, heart and lung problems, loss of appetite, and pneumonia. Heroin overdose is
very common and can occur even when small amounts are taken. Signs of overdose may include
muscle twitching, slowed heart rate and breathing, vomiting and low body temperature (NSW
Health 2013). Intravenous use of heroin can expose users to further health risks, such as bloodborne viruses including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and Hepatitis B and C (ADF 2013).
In 2014, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) reported that the area under
opium cultivation globally has increased significantly since 1998, with an estimated 296 720
hectares worldwide currently used for illicit cultivation (see Figure 30). This is the highest level
since estimates began in 1998 (UNODC 2014).
Afghanistan and Burma reported the largest growth in the area under cultivation in 2013.
Afghanistan remains the world’s largest cultivator and producer of opium, accounting for
80 per cent of global opium production. Cultivation increased by 36 per cent, from 154 000
hectares in 2012 to 209 000 hectares in 2013, with a potential yield of 5 500 tonnes of raw
opium—a 48.6 per cent increase in production from 2012 (UNODC 2014; BINLEA 2014).
1
2
74
The ‘Golden Crescent’ encompasses large areas of Afghanistan and parts of Pakistan.
The ‘Golden Triangle’ comprises the shared border regions of Burma, Thailand and Laos.
Heroin
Raw opium grown in the Golden Crescent is predominantly processed in Afghanistan, with small
quantities of opium and morphine trafficked into neighbouring countries for further processing.
The UNODC estimated the potential opium production in Afghanistan at 6 400 tonnes, a
17.0 per cent increase from the 5 500 tonnes reported in 2013. The average opium yield in 2014
is estimated at 28.7 kilograms per hectare, a 9.0 per cent increase from the 26.3 kilograms per
hectare reported in 2013 (UNODC 2014a). The majority of Afghanistan’s opium and heroin is
destined for international markets (BINLEA 2014). While trafficking continues via the Balkan
route3, trafficking via southern Afghanistan into Europe, the Middle East and Africa has
increased (UNODC 2014).
Pakistan and Iran remain major transit countries for Afghan heroin, with increasing domestic
heroin user markets (UNODC 2014). It is estimated that 40 per cent of the world’s supply of heroin
transits through Pakistan, en route to major markets in China, Africa, Europe and North America
(BINLEA 2014). Heroin trafficked into Iran is destined for the large domestic market, as well as
transiting to international markets. It is estimated that 35 per cent of Afghan heroin transits Iran,
Syria and Turkey (BINLEA 2014).
The Golden Triangle is a major source of opium and heroin, particularly for South-East Asia and
Oceania. In terms of global source countries, Burma is second only to Afghanistan in opium
production levels, producing approximately a third of that produced in Afghanistan. In 2013,
UNODC estimated opium production in Burma was 870 tonnes. Opium cultivation in Burma
increased by 13 per cent, from 51 000 hectares in 2012 to 57 814 hectares in 2013, the seventh
consecutive year of growth (UNODC 2014). Drug traffickers exploit Burma’s porous borders and
inadequate regulatory controls to traffic opium and heroin to neighbouring countries including
China, Laos and Thailand (BINLEA 2014).
FIGURE 30: Potential production of opium, 2005 to 20144 (Source: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime)
a. UNODC has not published potential production data for Colombia and Mexico in 2013.
b. UNODC data relating to potential opium production in Burma & Laos and Colombia & Mexico in 2014 was not published at the
time of this report.
3
4
The historically important ‘Balkan’ route runs west through Turkey, into Balkan countries (Bulgaria, Romania or Albania) and on to
Central, Southern and Western Europe.
From 2013, UNODC has only reported opium production weights for Afghanistan, not Afghanistan and Pakistan jointly.
75
Global heroin seizures fluctuate across regions. Between 2011 and 2012, global seizures of heroin
decreased by 19 per cent. Whilst South-West Asia and Central and Western Europe reported
a decrease in heroin seizures, other regions, including Eastern and South-Eastern Europe and
Oceania reported increases (UNODC 2014).
Overall, seizures in North America have remained stable. It has been reported that opioid users
may be alternating between pharmaceutical opioids and heroin, depending on the availability and
price of each substance. The UNODC assess that ongoing availability of heroin in the United States
of America is likely due to the high levels of heroin production in Mexico and the expansion of
Mexican traffickers in the heroin market (UNODC 2014).
In 2012, East Africa emerged as a prominent transit region for heroin destined for European markets.
Ongoing large-scale seizures indicate this region remains a key transit hub (UNODC 2014). In April
2014, a Royal Australian Navy frigate, deployed under a Combined Maritime Task Force, seized more
than a tonne of heroin off the Kenyan coast. This is the second largest seizure of Afghan heroin
reported outside the Pakistani–Iranian border. Since April 2012, the taskforce has seized over
4 tonnes of heroin trafficked from the coast of Iran and Pakistan to East Africa (Wright 2014).
During this reporting period, the Australian Federal Police (AFP) and Royal Thai Police conducted
an operation that resulted in the arrest of two individuals in relation to an attempt to export
168 kilograms of heroin from Thailand to Australia. The AFP estimates the value of this heroin
at A$95 million (AFP 2014).
DOMESTIC TRENDS
The Australian Customs and Border Protection Service (ACBPS) continues to detect attempted
imports of heroin at the Australian border. Both the number and weight of heroin detections
decreased this reporting period. The number of heroin detections decreased by 24.1 per cent,
from 237 in 2012–13 to 180 in 2013–14, while the total weight of heroin detected decreased by
76.9 per cent, from 513.8 kilograms in 2012–13 to 118.9 kilograms in 2013–14 (see Figure 31).
FIGURE 31: Number and weight of heroin detections at the Australian border, 2004–05 to 2013–14
76
Heroin
In this reporting period, 148 of the 180 heroin detections at the border weighed less than
1 kilogram, accounting for 82.2 per cent of the total number of heroin detections in 2013–14. The
32 heroin detections weighing one kilogram or more totalled 88.3 kilograms and accounted for
17.8 per cent of the total number of detections and 74.3 per cent of the total weight of heroin
detected in 2013–14.
Significant border detections of heroin in 2013–14 include:
17.5 kilograms of heroin detected on 18 November 2013, concealed in the baggage of four
passengers travelling together on a flight from Thailand to Melbourne
9.9 kilograms of heroin detected on 22 April 2014, concealed in a vehicle engine, via air cargo
from Malaysia to Sydney
6 kilograms of heroin detected on 19 March 2014, concealed in a passenger’s baggage on a
flight from Uganda to Sydney
4.6 kilograms of heroin detected on 14 March 2014, concealed in a passenger’s baggage on a
flight from the Philippines to Melbourne.
These 4 detections have a combined weight of 38.0 kilograms and account for 32.0 per cent of the
total weight of heroin detected in 2013–14.
IMPORTATION METHODS
In 2013–14, international mail was the most commonly used import stream, accounting for
70.6 per cent of the total number of heroin detections at the border. This was followed by air
cargo at 17.2 per cent and air passenger/crew at 12.2 per cent. There were no detections of
heroin in sea cargo this reporting period (see Figure 32).
FIGURE 32: Number of heroin detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections,
by method of importation, 2013–14 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
77
Air passenger/crew imports accounted for 47.1 per cent of the total weight of heroin detected
in 2013–14. Air cargo accounted for 29.2 per cent of the weight of heroin detections, with
international mail accounting for 23.7 per cent (see Figure 33).
FIGURE 33: Weight of heroin detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections,
EMBARKATION POINTS
In 2013–14, 24 countries were identified as embarkation points for heroin detected at the border,
compared with 25 countries in 2012–13. In terms of the number of detections, India was the
prominent embarkation point this reporting period with 45 detections, followed by Thailand
(41 detections), the Netherlands (30 detections) and Canada (15 detections). Combined, these
4 embarkation points accounted for 72.8 per cent of the total number of heroin border detections
in 2013–14.
This reporting period, 11 embarkation countries recorded border detections in excess of one
kilogram. By weight, Thailand was the most significant embarkation point in 2013–14, accounting
for 43.4 kilograms, followed by India with 19.5 kilograms and Malaysia with 16.9 kilograms.
Other key embarkation points this reporting period included Cambodia and the Philippines
(see Figure 34).
78
Embarkation country
Key source country
Thailand, India, Malaysia, Cambodia, Philippines,
Uganda, Singapore, Pakistan, Vietnam and Laos.
FIGURE 34: Key source countries and embarkation points for heroin detections, by weight, at the Australian border, 2013–14
Heroin
79
DRUG PROFILING
The AFP Forensic Drug Intelligence (FDI) team operates a forensic drug profiling capability through
the National Measurement Institute (NMI), which enables the identification of the regions of origin
and manufacturing trends for samples of heroin submitted from detections made at the Australian
border. The capability also allows for comparisons within and between seizures to identify distinct
batches of drugs, or to demonstrate links between groups involved in illicit drug manufacture or
trafficking. The following data relates to seizures investigated by the AFP between 2010 and June
2014, and from which samples were submitted to the NMI for routine analysis and profiling.5
In 2013 heroin samples from 69 seizures, representing a total bulk weight of 197.3 kilograms,
were sent to the NMI for analysis. Profiling could not be performed on samples from 14 of these
seizures (representing approximately 5.5 kilograms of heroin). These seizures could not be
analysed for a range of reasons including the amount of sample available, the physical form of
the sample, the purity of the sample, or suspected sample degradation. In total, 55 seizures of
heroin were profiled by NMI with a total weight of 191.8 kilograms. Between January 2014 and
June 2014, heroin samples from 20 seizures, representing a bulk weight of 32.7 kilograms, were
sent to the NMI for analysis. Profiling was performed on all samples.
The proportion of analysed heroin border seizures, by number, originating from South-East Asia
increased, from 70.7 per cent in 2012 to 74.6 per cent in 2013. This proportion decreased in the
first six months of 2014 to 60.0 per cent. Conversely, the proportion of analysed border seizures
originating from South-West Asia decreased, from 25.9 per cent in 2012 to 18.2 per cent in 2013.
However, this increased to 35.0 per cent in the first six months of 2014 (see Table 15).
TABLE 15: Geographical origin of heroin samples as a proportion of analysed AFP border seizures, 2008–June 20146 (Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence)
Year
South-West Asia South American
%
%
Unclassified
%
South-East Asia
& Unclassified %
South-West Asia
& Unclassified %
Jan–Jun 2014
60.0
35.0
–
–
5.0
–
2013
74.6
18.2
5.5
–
1.8
–
2012
70.7
25.9
–
3.4
–
–
2011
49.0
51.0
–
–
–
–
2010
63.8
27.5
–
5.8
–
2.9
2009
53.9
42.6
–
3.4
–
–
2008
44.1
44.1
–
11.8
–
–
5
6
80
South-East Asia
%
In examining profiling data, it should be noted that the data relates to seizures investigated by the AFP between 2005 and
June 2014, and from which samples were submitted to the NMI for routine analysis and profiling. Improvements in information
technology have brought about changes to how the data is collated and presented and for this reason care should be taken in
comparing figures before 2010 to more recent data. For all reporting years, the data represents a snapshot across the applicable
reporting period. These figures cannot reflect seizures that have not been submitted for forensic examination due to prioritisation
of law enforcement resources or those that have passed through the border undetected. Certain seizures/samples, such as those
containing swabs or trace material, have been omitted from the analysis as they are not amenable to chemical profiling. It is
difficult to extrapolate the impact of any observed trends on drugs reaching consumers i.e. street level seizures in Australia. The
AFP is collecting samples of heroin from selected state and territory jurisdictions for chemical profiling as part of the Enhanced
National Intelligence Picture on Illicit Drugs (ENIPID) project.
Heroin
The proportion of analysed heroin border seizures by total bulk weight originating from South-East
Asia decreased, from 98.4 per cent in 2012 to 84.3 per cent in 2013.7 This proportion continued
to decrease in the first six months of 2014 to 71.8 per cent. Conversely, the proportion of
analysed border seizures originating from South-West Asia increased, from 1.3 per cent in 2012 to
8.9 per cent in 2013. This proportion continued to increase to 28.1 per cent in the first six months
of 2014 (see Table 16). One large seizure contributed approximately 36.0 per cent of the total bulk
weight (69.3 kilograms) of heroin seized in 2013, which was chemically profiled to be of South-East
Asian origin. In 2013, heroin identified as originating in South America was seen for the first time
in Australian profiling data, accounting for 4.3 per cent of the weight of analysed seizures.
TABLE 16: Geographical origin of heroin samples as a proportion of total bulk weight of analysed AFP border
Year
South-East Asia %
South-West Asia
%
South American
%
Unclassified
%
South-East Asia %
Unclassified %
Jan–Jun 2014
71.8
28.1
–
–
0.1
2013
84.3
8.9
4.3
–
2.5
2012
98.4
1.3
–
0.3
–
2011
39.4
60.6
–
–
–
2010
93.3
5.8
–
0.9
–
2009
48.2
40.9
–
10.9
–
2008
26.0
66.3
–
7.7
–
2007
47.9
50.6
–
1.5
–
2006
70.1
27.4
–
2.7
–
2005
78.9
18.0
–
3.1
–
The Enhanced National Intelligence Picture on Illicit Drugs (ENIPID) project extends illicit drug
profiling to include state and territory seizures involving heroin, methylamphetamine, MDMA and
cocaine. This enables detection of similarities between supply routes into different jurisdictions;
links between different criminal groups; as well as comparison of trends between jurisdictions.
According to ENIPID profiling data obtained between 2011 and 2014, analysed heroin samples
predominately originate from South-East Asia. While exact proportions vary from year-to-year
and are subject to a range of variables, this trend continues in terms of both samples and cases.
As with border figures, the market appears to be supplied by South-East Asia and South-West Asia
sources, with no confirmed detections of South American heroin among ENIPID samples
(see Tables 17 and 18).
7
8
Figures for 2012 reported in the 2012–13 Illicit Drug Data Report have been updated to reflect the results of analysis.
Of note, analysed seizures in 2010 and 2011 were influenced by single large seizures from South-East Asia and South-West Asia
respectively. The significant influence of these 2 seizures on the profiling data demonstrates that strategic assessments of the
market must be made with caution. This data may also include seizures destined for Australia which occurred offshore.
81
TABLE 17: Geographical origin of heroin ENIPID samples as a proportion of analysed jurisdictional samples,
2011–June 2014 (Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence)
Geographical Origin
Year
Jurisdiction
South-East Asia %
South-West Asia %
Total %
Jan–Jun
2014
NSW
55.6
11.1
–
66.7
WA
33.3
–
–
33.3
88.9
11.1
–
100
Total
2013
NSW
45.7
–
2.9
48.6
WA
34.3
17.1
–
51.4
80.0
17.1
2.9
100
ACT
8.5
–
–
8.5
NSW
55.3
12.8
12.8
80.9
WA
2.1
8.5
–
10.6
Total
2012
Total
2011
65.9
21.3
12.8
100
NSW
9.8
2.0
3.9
15.7
WA
82.3
–
2.0
84.3
92.1
2.0
5.9
100
Total
Note: This data set represents a total of 139 heroin samples. Due to a lack of available data, 22 samples were classified based on
sample collection date in place of sample seizure date.
TABLE 18: Geographical origin of heroin ENIPID samples as a proportion of analysed jurisdictional cases,
2011–June 2014 (Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence)
Geographical Origin
Year
Jurisdiction
Jan–Jun
2014
NSW
WA
Total
Total %
60.0
20.0
0.0
80.0
0.0
0.0
20.0
20.0
0.0
100
NSW
50.0
0.0
5.6
55.6
WA
33.3
11.1
0.0
44.4
83.3
11.1
5.6
100
ACT
9.4
–
–
9.4
NSW
46.9
12.5
18.7
78.1
WA
3.1
9.4
–
12.5
59.4
21.9
18.7
100
NSW
18.8
6.2
12.5
37.5
WA
56.3
–
6.2
62.5
75.1
6.2
18.7
100
Total
2011
20.0
Total
2012
South-West Asia %
80.0
Total
2013
South-East Asia %
Note: This heroin data set represents a total of 71 cases. Due to a lack of available data, 22 samples were classified based on sample
collection date in place of sample seizure date.
82
Heroin
Australian population aged 14 years or older reporting heroin use at least once in their lifetime
decreased, from 1.4 per cent in 2010 to 1.2 per cent in 2013. In the same survey, the proportion
of the population reporting recent9 heroin use decreased from 0.2 per cent in 2010 to 0.1 per cent
in 2013. This is the first decrease reported since 2001. The median age of heroin users reporting
recent use was 37 years (AIHW 2014).
reported heroin as their drug of choice, a marginal decrease compared to 54 per cent in 2012.
Early findings from the 2014 study indicate a further decrease to 50 per cent. The proportion of
respondents reporting recent10 heroin use remained stable at 60 per cent in 2012 and 2013. In
2013, recent heroin users within this regular injecting drug user population reported using heroin
a median of 60 days in the six months preceding interview, a decrease from the 72 days reported
in 2012. Early findings of the 2014 study indicate this has increased to 72 days, in line with figures
reported for 2009–12 (Stafford & Burns 2014; Stafford & Burns 2014a) (see Figure 35).
In the same 2013 survey, respondents reported white/off-white powder or rock was the most
common form of heroin used (83 per cent), followed by brown powder or rock (51 per cent), with
some respondents reporting use of both. Early findings of the 2014 study indicates similar patterns
of use, with white/off-white powder or rock at 89 per cent and brown powder or rock at
53 per cent (Stafford & Burns 2014a).
FIGURE 35: Proportion of a regular injecting drug user population reporting recent heroin use and median
9 In the NDSHS, ‘recent use’ refers to reported use in the 12 months preceding interview.
10 In both the Illicit Drugs Reporting System (IDRS) and the Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System (EDRS) ‘recent use’ refers to
83
According to a 2013 national study of regular ecstasy users, 4 per cent of respondents reported
using heroin in the six months preceding interview, a decrease from 5 per cent in 2012. Early
findings of the 2014 study indicate that heroin use amongst regular ecstasy users further
decreased to 2 per cent. In 2013, recent heroin users within this user population reported using
heroin a median of 5.5 days in the six months preceding interview, an increase from the 5 days
reported in 2012 (see Figure 36) (Sindicich & Burns 2014; Sindicich & Burns 2014a).
FIGURE 36: Proportion of a regular ecstasy user population reporting recent heroin use and median days of
use, 2005 to 2014 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
b. Data relating to median days of heroin use is not yet available for 2014.
detainees in Australia, is comprised of a self-report survey and voluntary provision of a urine
sample which is subjected to urinalysis to detect licit and illicit drug use. The proportion of
participating detainees testing positive for heroin has decreased from 10.0 per cent in 2012 to
8.3 per cent in 2013, while self-reported recent11 heroin use decreased from 13.4 per cent in
2012–13 to 12.4 per cent in 2013–14 (see Figure 37).
84
Heroin
FIGURE 37: National proportion of detainees testing positive12 for heroin compared with self-reported use,
2004–05 to 2013–14 (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
PRICE
Nationally, the price for a gram of heroin in 2013–14 ranged between $150 and $700. Queensland
reported the highest price range for a gram of heroin ($400–$700). The price for an 8-ball13 of
heroin nationally ranged between $950 and $2 000. New South Wales was the only state or
territory to report a price for 1 kilogram of heroin in 2013–14, which ranged between $280 000
and $295 000.
PURITY
Figure 38 illustrates the annual median purity of heroin in Australia since 2004–05. During the
last decade, the median purity of analysed heroin samples ranged between 12.2 per cent and
68.0 per cent. In 2013–14, the annual median purity of heroin ranged between 12.7 per cent in
Victoria and 68.0 per cent in Western Australia.
13 An 8-ball equates to 3.5 grams.
85
FIGURE 38: Annual median purity of heroin samples, 2004–05 to 2013–14
Figure 39 illustrates the median purity of analysed heroin samples on a quarterly basis in 2013–14.
The quarterly median purity of heroin ranged from 11.7 per cent in Victoria to 75.0 per cent in
Western Australia. Western Australia also recorded the greatest fluctuation in the quarterly median
purity for analysed heroin samples this reporting period, from 28.0 per cent in the third quarter of
2013 to 75.0 per cent in the first quarter of 2014. Western Australia continues to report the highest
median purity values (annually and quarterly) for analysed heroin samples of all states and territories.
FIGURE 39: Quarterly median purity of heroin samples, 2013–14
AVAILABILITY
In a 2013 national study of regular injecting drug users, of the respondents able to comment
on the availability of heroin, 85 per cent reported heroin as being easy or very easy to obtain.
This remains consistent with figures reported in 2012. Early findings from the 2014 study indicate that
this has increased to 89 per cent (Stafford & Burns 2014; Stafford & Burns 2014a).
86
Heroin
The number of national heroin seizures increased marginally this reporting period, from
1 584 in 2012–13 to 1 598 in 2013–14. The weight of heroin seized nationally decreased by
71.0 per cent this reporting period, from 544.4 kilograms in 2012–13 to 158.0 kilograms in
2013–14 (see Figure 40).
FIGURE 40: National heroin seizures, by number and weight, 2004–05 to 2013–14
New South Wales continues to account for the greatest proportion of national heroin seizures
by number (50.9 per cent) and weight (43.7 per cent). Western Australia reported the largest
percentage increase in the number of seizures this reporting period (26.6 per cent), while the
Australian Capital Territory reported the largest percentage increase in the weight of heroin seized
(1 763.4 per cent increase) (see Table 19).
TABLE 19: Number, weight and percentage change of national heroin seizures, 2012–13 and 2013–14
Number
State/Territory
a
New South Wales
Weight (grams)
2012–13
2013–14
% change
2012–13
2013–14
% change
848
814
-4.0
377 798
69 089
-81.7
Victoria
275
302
9.8
28 679
67 261
134.5
Queensland
194
197
1.5
128 818
6 218
-95.2
40
28
-30.0
1 857
2 558
37.7
173
219
26.6
937
8 401
796.6
0
0
–
0
0
–
South Australia
Western Australia
Tasmania
Northern Territory
Total
8
3
-62.5
6 148
5
-99.9
46
35
-23.9
243
4 528
1 763.4
1 584
1 598
0.9
544 480
158 060
-71.0
87
The number of national heroin and other opioid arrests increased by 12.5 per cent this reporting
period, from 2 463 in 2012–13 to 2 771 in 2013–14. The 2 771 arrests in 2013–14 is the second
highest number reported in the last decade. Consumer arrests account for the greatest proportion
of arrests, comprising 74.5 per cent of national heroin and other opioid arrests (see Figure 41).
However, South Australia and the Northern Territory both reported more heroin and other opioid
provider arrests than consumer arrests this reporting period.
FIGURE 41: Number of national heroin and other opioid arrests, 2004–05 to 2013–14
In 2013–14, New South Wales accounted for the greatest proportion of national heroin and other
opioid arrests (40.2 per cent). Combined, New South Wales and Victoria accounted for 80.1 per
cent of national heroin and other opioid arrests this reporting period. Only New South Wales and
Queensland reported increases in the number of arrests in 2013–14 (see Table 20).
TABLE 20: Number and percentage change of national heroin and other opioid arrests, 2012–13 and
2013–14
Arrests
State/Territory
2012–13
2013–14
% change
648
1 113
71.8
1 217
1 106
-9.1
Queensland
291
318
9.3
South Australia
111
64
-42.3
Western Australia
155
138
-11.0
18
13
-27.8
3
2
-33.3
20
17
-15.0
2 463
2 771
12.5
a
New South Wales
Victoria
Tasmania
Northern Territory
Total
a. The arrest data for each state and territory includes Australian Federal Police data.
88
Heroin
NATIONAL IMPACT
Globally, the UNODC estimates the geographical area utilised for illicit opium cultivation is at the
highest level since reporting commenced in 1998. Both Afghanistan and Burma have experienced
the largest growth in area under cultivation. Afghanistan remains the primary cultivator and
producer of opium in the world, controlling 80 per cent of global production.
For the first time, heroin cultivated in South America was identified in analysed samples of
heroin seized at the Australian border in 2013. South-East and South-West Asia remain the key
source regions for heroin seized at the Australian border. In 2013, the majority of profiled heroin
was sourced from South-East Asia. While there were decreases in the proportion of analysed
border seizures of South-East Asian origin in 2014, it remains the primary source region. The
predominance of heroin of South-East Asian origin is also reflected in heroin profiled as part of
the ENIPID project.
The number of heroin detections at the Australian border decreased this reporting period,
from 237 in 2012–13 to 180 in 2013–14. The weight of heroin detected also decreased, from
513.8 kilograms in 2012–13 to 118.9 kilograms in 2013–14. A total of 24 embarkation countries
were identified in 2013–14, one less than reported in 2012–13. By number, India, Thailand and
the Netherlands were the primary embarkation points this reporting period. In terms of weight,
Thailand, India and Malaysia were the primary embarkation points.
The NDSHS, user surveys and analysis of detainee user data identified decreases in recent use
of heroin, as well as in lifetime use where that data was available. This is the first decline in use
reported since 2001.
The number of national heroin seizures remained relatively stable this reporting period, increasing
from 1 584 in 2012–13 to 1 598 in 2013–14. However, the weight of heroin seized nationally
decreased considerably, from 544.4 kilograms in 2012–13 to 158.0 kilograms in 2013–14. New
South Wales continues to account for the greatest proportion of national heroin seizures by
number and weight.
In 2013–14, the number of national heroin and other opioid arrests increased by 12.5 per cent,
with the 2 771 arrests this reporting period the second highest number reported in the last
decade. New South Wales and Victoria continue to account for the greatest proportion of national
heroin and other opioid arrests. While consumer arrests continue to account for the greatest
proportion of national heroin and other opioid arrests, South Australia and the Northern Territory
reported more provider arrests than consumer arrests in 2013–14.
89
REFERENCES
Australian Drug Foundation (ADF) 2013, DrugInfo: heroin facts, ADF, Melbourne, viewed
4 August 2014, <http://www.druginfo.adf.org.au/drug-facts/heroin>.
Australian Federal Police (AFP) 2014, Media Release: Joint AFP / Royal Thai Police Operation
prevents $95 million worth of heroin from reaching Australia, 26 March 2014, viewed
11 November 2014, <http://www.afp.gov.au/media-centre/news/afp/2014/march/media-releasejoint-afp-royal-thai-police-operation.aspx>.
detailed report 2013’, Drug statistics series no.28, AIHW, Canberra, viewed 1 December 2014,
Department of Health (DoH) 2014, ‘Heroin or diacetylmorphine’, National Drugs Campaign, DoH,
Canberra, viewed 4 August 2014, <http://www.health.gov.au/internet/drugs/publishing.nsf/
content/Heroin/$file/Heroin%20or%20diacetylmorphine.pdf>.
New South Wales Health (NSW Health) 2013, Factsheet: heroin, NSW Government, Sydney, viewed
4 August 2014, <http://www.health.nsw.gov.au/mhdao/Factsheets/Pages/heroin.aspx>.
from the Ecstasy and Related Drug Reporting System (EDRS)’, Australian Drug Trend Series,
no. 118, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney.
Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, viewed 21 October 2014, <https://ndarc.
University of New South Wales, Sydney, viewed 21 October 2014, <https://ndarc.med.unsw.edu.au/
sites/default/files/ndarc/resources/National_IDRS_2013.pdf>.
Stevens, A 2013, Understanding addiction to heroin, Behavioral Health of the Palm Beaches Inc.,
Florida, viewed 4 August 2014, <http://www.bhpalmbeach.com/sites/default/files/eBooks/
understanding-addiction-to-heroin.pdf>.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2014, World Drug Report 2014, UNODC, Vienna.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2014a, Afghanistan Opium Survey 2014:
Cultivation and Production, UNODC, Vienna, viewed 5 December 2014, <https://www.unodc.org/
documents/crop-monitoring/Afghanistan/Afghan-opium-survey-2014.pdf>.
Wright J 2014, ‘Australian frigate makes second largest ever heroin seizure’, IHS Jane’s 360,
6 May 2014, viewed 18 September 2014, <http://www.janes.com/article/37619/australian-frigatemakes-second-largest-ever-heroin-seizure>.
90
Cocaine
COCAINE
KEY POINTS
While both the number and weight of cocaine detections at the Australian border decreased
this reporting period, the 1 512 detections in 2013–14 is the second highest number on record.
Analysis of cocaine samples seized at the Australian border indicates a potential shift in the
geographical origin of cocaine entering Australia.
There was a record 3 121 national cocaine seizures in 2013–14.
There was a record 1 466 national cocaine arrests in 2013–14.
91
MAIN FORMS
Cocaine (benzoylmethylecgonine) is a naturally occurring alkaloid found in certain varieties of
the Erythroxylum genus, or coca plant.1 Of the over 200 species, only Erythroxylum coca (E. coca)
and Erythroxylum novogranatense (E. novogranatense) contain significant levels of cocaine. The
coca plant can grow in widely varied climates and soil conditions, though the highest cocaine
content is found in plants that are grown in higher, cooler climates. E. Coca has the highest cocaine
content of the two species and is cultivated in Bolivia and Peru. E. Novogranatense is cultivated in
Colombia and Central America (DARA 2014; Freye & Levy 2009).
Cocaine is synthesised from the leaves of the coca plant through a solvent or acid extraction
process, creating coca paste. Once the coca paste has been extracted, a further purification
process is conducted to produce a substance that is ingestible. The resulting cocaine product is
further dried to convert it into cocaine hydrochloride or ‘street-level’ cocaine (DARA 2014).2
In its powdered hydrochloride salt form, cocaine can be either snorted or dissolved in water and
injected. Crack3 is a crystallised form of cocaine, made by cooking cocaine hydrochloride with
sodium bicarbonate or ammonia. Crack cocaine, the use of which is uncommon in Australia, is
typically smoked by heating in a glass pipe and inhaling the vapours (DARA 2014; NIDA 2013).
Acting as a strong central nervous system stimulant, cocaine’s impact on the neurotransmitters
norepinephrine, dopamine and serotonin results in feelings of euphoria, confidence and energy.
The duration and intensity of a cocaine high is determined by the method of administration.
Smoking and injecting cocaine delivers the drug rapidly into the bloodstream, while snorting
cocaine delivers a longer lasting high (MethOIDE 2014). Users often binge4 on cocaine in an effort
to prolong its effects (NIDA 2013).
Short-term effects of cocaine use may include paranoia, increased body temperature, dry mouth
and reduced appetite. Long-term effects of cocaine use may include depression, hallucinations,
insomnia and impaired cognitive function (ADF 2014). When cocaine is used in conjunction with
alcohol, the liver converts the combination into a third substance known as cocaethylene, which
may result in liver or heart failure (DRS 2013).
1
2
3
4
92
The coca plant is grown predominantly along the Andean Ridge in South America.
Cocaine hydrochloride is usually cut with other products in order to increase volume before it is sold to users. The substances with
which cocaine is cut may be non-toxic, such as talcum powder, bicarbonate soda or glucose; or toxic, such as amphetamine or
levamisole, a veterinary pharmaceutical.
The term crack refers to the crackling sound produced by the rock as it is heated.
The term ‘binge’ refers to taking the drug repeatedly within a relatively short period of time, at increasingly higher doses.
Cocaine
The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) World Drug Report 2014 reported that the
global cocaine market continues to decline, based on cultivation statistics, cocaine manufacture
estimates, law enforcement seizures and user estimates. Cultivation levels are reportedly at the
lowest level since estimates were first made available in 1990 (UNODC 2014c). Between 2011
and 2012, there has been a reported 25.0 per cent decrease in coca production in Colombia; a
decrease of 17.5 per cent in Peru; and a 9.0 per cent decrease in Bolivia (UNODC 2014; UNODC
2014a; UNODC 2014b).
Based on the last reported data in 2012, Peru is the second largest cultivator of coca and remains
the world’s top potential producer of cocaine. Cocaine from Peru is transported to other South
American countries for domestic and international markets including Europe, East Asia and
Mexico (BINLEA 2014). According to media reporting, in 2013 authorities in Peru made one of
the country’s largest cocaine seizures, comprised of 351 kilograms of cocaine in solid blocks and
3 721 kilograms in liquid form, hidden in a shipping container (Southwick 2013). In addition to
being one of the largest cocaine producing countries in the world, Bolivia is also a major transit
zone for Peruvian cocaine (BINLEA 2014).
The total number of cocaine seizures by World Customs Organization (WCO) agencies increased
marginally, from 6 244 in 2012 to 6 296 in 2013. However, the total weight of cocaine seized by
WCO agencies decreased, from 119 253 kilograms in 2012 to 80 996 kilograms in 2013 (WCO
2014).
In July 2013, a joint Australian Federal Police (AFP), Australian Customs and Border Protection Service
(ACBPS) and United States Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) operation seized 690 kilograms of
cocaine, valued at approximately A$370 million from a yacht docked in Port Vila, Vanuatu.
The UNODC has reported a sustained, worldwide decline in cocaine use since 2006, citing
decreased availability as the primary cause (UNODC 2014c). Globally, cocaine use remains
concentrated in the Americas, Europe and Oceania. There are indications that pockets of increased
and systemic cocaine use are emerging in Africa and Asia, driven by increased cocaine trafficking
through these regions (UNODC 2014c). The United States of America (US) continues to report a
sustained decrease in availability and use (UNODC 2014c). In contrast, South America reported an
increase in cocaine use in the same period (UNODC 2014c). In Europe, the indicators for cocaine
use are generally down, with 0.9 per cent of the population aged 15–64 years of age reporting use
in the last 12 months (EMCDDA 2014).
93
DOMESTIC TRENDS
The Australian Customs and Border Protection Service (ACBPS) continues to detect
attempted cocaine imports at the Australian border. Despite the number of cocaine
detections decreasing 24.5 per cent this reporting period, from 2 003 in 2012–13 to 1 512
in 2013–14, the 1 512 detections is the second highest number on record. The total weight
of cocaine detected decreased by 38.5 per cent this reporting period, from 399.6 kilograms
in 2012–13 to 245.6 kilograms in 2013–14 (see Figure 42).
FIGURE 42: Number and weight of cocaine detections at the Australian border, 2004–05 to 2013–14
Of note, 98.3 per cent of the number of cocaine detections this reporting period weighed less
than 1 kilogram. In 2013–14, 38 detections weighed over 1 kilogram. These 38 detections had a
combined weight of 192.0 kilograms and account for 78.2 per cent of the total weight of cocaine
detected in 2013–14.
94
Cocaine
Significant border detections of cocaine in 2013–14 include:
74.8 kilograms of cocaine detected on 13 April 2014, concealed in unaccompanied passenger
baggage on a flight from Chile to Sydney
22 kilograms of cocaine detected on 9 March 2014, concealed in unaccompanied passenger
21 kilograms of cocaine detected on 12 February 2014, concealed in unaccompanied passenger
5.1 kilograms of cocaine detected on 29 April 2014, concealed in protein powder contained in a
passenger’s baggage on a flight from Chile to Sydney
5 kilograms of cocaine detected on 7 May 2014, contained in food packages, via international
mail from Peru to Sydney.
the total weight of cocaine detected in 2013–14.
IMPORTATION METHODS
In the past decade, international mail has accounted for the majority of cocaine detections at the
Australian border. In 2013–14, international mail accounted for 89.3 per cent of the total number
of cocaine detections (see Figure 43).
FIGURE 43: Number of cocaine detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by
95
In this reporting period, air passenger/crew accounted for 60.0 per cent of the total weight of
cocaine detected, followed by international mail (21.1 per cent) and air cargo (17.7 per cent)
(see Figure 44).
FIGURE 44: Weight of cocaine detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total weight, by
EMBARKATION POINTS
In 2013–14, 50 countries were identified as embarkation points for cocaine detected at the
Australian border, compared with 56 countries in 2012–13. By number, Canada was the primary
embarkation point for cocaine detections in 2013–14, with 273 detections. Other key embarkation
points this reporting period include Chile, Brazil, the US, Argentina, Colombia, Peru, Malaysia,
South Africa, the United Arab Emirates, and Trinidad and Tobago.
This reporting period, 22 countries were linked to cocaine border detections weighing one
kilogram or more. By weight, Chile was the prominent embarkation point, accounting for
129.0 kilograms, followed by Brazil with 24.9 kilograms. The combined weight of these
2 embarkation points accounts for 62.7 per cent of the total weight of cocaine detected at the
Australian border in 2013–14 (see Figure 45).
96
Embarkation country
Key source country
Chile, Brazil, United States of America, Argentina, Colombia, Peru,
Malaysia, South Africa, United Arab Emirates and Trinidad and Tobago.
FIGURE 45: Key source countries and embarkation points for cocaine detections, by weight, at the Australian border, 2013–14
Cocaine
97
DRUG PROFILING
The AFP Forensic Drug Intelligence (FDI) team operates a forensic drug profiling capability
through the National Measurement Institute (NMI) which is used to identify regions of origin and
manufacturing trends for samples submitted from seizures made at the Australian border. The
capability also allows for comparisons within and between seizures to identify distinct batches
of drugs, the origin of drugs, or to demonstrate links between groups involved in illicit drug
manufacture or trafficking. Only certain drug types are examined and not every seizure of drugs
is analysed or profiled. The following data relates to seizures investigated by the AFP between
2010 and June 2014, and from which samples were submitted to the NMI for routine analysis and
profiling.5
The figures in Table 21 and Table 22 represent cocaine profiling results for border seizures,
identifying the geographic origin of the coca-leaf used in the production of the drug. It should be
noted that ‘unclassified’ figures include samples currently undergoing profiling, as well as samples
for which geographic origin could not be determined through existing profiling techniques. The
term ‘mixed’ seizures refers to seizures where more than one type of cocaine was present (for
example, cocaine of Colombian and Peruvian origin within a single shipment).
In 2013, cocaine samples from 105 seizures, representing a total bulk weight of 860.7 kilograms
were sent to the NMI for analysis. Profiling could not be performed on samples from 27 seizures
(representing approximately 73.1 kilograms). This was for a range of reasons including the amount
of sample available, the physical form of the sample, the purity of the sample, or suspected
sample degradation. In total, 78 seizures of cocaine were able to be profiled by NMI, representing
a total bulk weight of 787.6 kilograms.
Between January and June 2014, cocaine samples from 34 seizures, representing a total bulk
weight of 298.3 kilograms were sent to the NMI for analysis. Profiling could not be performed
on samples from 6 seizures (representing approximately 4.52 kilograms). In total, 28 seizures of
cocaine were able to be profiled by NMI, representing a total bulk weight of 293.8 kilograms.
Colombian leaf-origin has traditionally dominated analysed samples but this appears to be
changing. The proportion of analysed cocaine border seizures, by number, with Colombian leaforigin remained stable between 2011 and 2012 (55.9 and 55.3 per cent, respectively). However,
in 2013 this increased to 64.1 per cent. In the first six months of 2014, this decreased to
46.4 per cent. The proportion of analysed seizures of Peruvian leaf-origin decreased to
28.2 per cent in 2013; however, it increased to 50.0 per cent during the first six months of 2014
(see Table 21).
5
98
In examining profiling data, it should be noted that it relates to seizures investigated by the AFP between 2005 and June 2014
and from samples which were submitted to the NMI for routine analysis and profiling. Improvements in information technology
have brought about changes to how the data is collated and presented and, for this reason, care should be taken in comparing
figures before 2010 to more recent data. For all reporting years, the data represents a snapshot across the applicable reporting
period. These figures cannot reflect seizures that have not been submitted for forensic examination due to prioritisation of law
enforcement resources, or those that have passed through the border undetected. Certain seizures/samples, such as those
containing swabs or trace material, have been omitted from the analysis as they are not amenable to chemical profiling. It is
difficult to extrapolate the impact of any observed trends on drugs reaching consumers i.e. street level seizures in Australia. In
December 2013, the AFP commenced collecting samples of cocaine from selected state and territory jurisdictions for chemical
profiling as part of the Enhanced National Intelligence Picture on Illicit Drugs (ENIPID) project. There is current insufficient data to
provide analysis at the time of this report.
Cocaine
TABLE 21: Geographical origin of coca leaf used to produce cocaine as a proportion of analysed AFP border
Year
Colombian %
Peruvian %
Bolivian %
Mixed %
Unclassified %
Jan–Jun 2014
46.4
50.0
–
3.6
–
2013
64.1
28.2
–
5.1
2.6
2012
55.3
29.1
–
5.9
9.7
2011
55.9
35.3
–
5.9
2.9
2010
55.2
30.2
1.0
6.3
7.3
2009
44.9
32.7
2.0
10.2
10.2
2008
67.3
28.6
–
–
4.1
2007
61.7
23.3
1.7
9.9
3.4
The data in Table 22 is based on the same analytical samples used as the basis for Table 21, but
is organised in terms of the total bulk weight of seizures rather than number. One large seizure
contributed to approximately 97.0 per cent of the total bulk weight of cocaine seized and
chemically profiled in 2013. Available profiling data on this seizure indicates that it was of Peruvian
origin. Although this trend appears to have reversed in the first six months of 2014, it should be
noted that any large seizures in the last six months of 2014 could influence annual figures.
In terms of total bulk weight, the proportion of analysed cocaine border seizures of Colombian
leaf-origin decreased, from 23.7 per cent in 2012 to 9.9 per cent in 2013. Conversely, the
proportion of analysed border seizures of Peruvian leaf-origin increased, from 74.3 per cent in
2012 to 90.0 per cent in 2013 due to a single large seizure of Peruvian cocaine. This trend appears
to have reversed in the first six months of 2014, with seizures of Colombian leaf-origin accounting
for 83.3 per cent of the bulk weight, while those of Peruvian leaf-origin account for 15.5 per cent
(see Table 22).
TABLE 22: Geographical origin of coca leaf used to produce cocaine as a proportion of total bulk weight of
analysed AFP border seizures, 2007–June 20147 (Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence)
Year
Jan–Jun 2014
Colombian %
Peruvian %
Bolivian %
Mixed %
Unclassified %
83.3
15.5
–
1.2
–
2013
9.9
90.0
–
–
0.1
2012
23.7
74.3
–
1.3
0.7
2011
51.3
44.2
–
4.4
0.1
2010
96.3
3.2
<0.1
–
0.4
2009
91.3
6.8
<0.1
–
1.9
2008
95.1
4.7
–
–
0.2
2007
86.3
10.6
0.4
–
2.7
6
7
99
Australian population aged 14 years or older reporting cocaine use at least once in their lifetime
increased, from 7.3 per cent in 2010 to 8.1 per cent in 2013. In the same survey, reported recent8
cocaine use remained stable at 2.1 per (AIHW 2013). In 2013, the 20–29 year age group continued
to constitute the largest proportion of recent users, at 5.9 per cent (AIHW 2013).
reporting recent9 cocaine use increased from 15 per cent in 2012 to 16 per cent in 2013, the
second lowest proportion reported in the last decade. According to early findings from the 2014
study, this has decreased to 12 per cent. In 2013, recent cocaine users within this regular injecting
drug user population reported using cocaine a median of 3 days in the six months preceding
interview, which is consistent with 2012 findings (see Figure 46). According to the 2013 study,
powder remains the most commonly reported form of cocaine used (76 per cent) (Stafford &
Burns 2014; Stafford & Burns 2014a).
FIGURE 46: Proportion of a regular injecting drug user population reporting recent cocaine use and median
8
9
100
Cocaine
In a 2013 national study of regular ecstasy users, 36 per cent of respondents reported recent
cocaine use, a decrease from 40 per cent in 2012. According to early findings from the 2014
study, this has increased to 44 per cent. In 2013, recent cocaine users within this regular ecstasy
user population reported using cocaine a median of 2 days in the six months preceding interview,
which is consistent with early findings from the 2014 study (see Figure 47). The proportion of
respondents reporting cocaine as their drug of choice decreased from 13 per cent in 2012 to
6 per cent in 2013. The most common form of administration was snorting (78 per cent), followed
by swallowing (11 per cent). The form of cocaine used by EDRS respondents was not reported
(Sindicich & Burns 2014; Sindicich & Burns 2014a).
FIGURE 47: Proportion of a regular ecstasy user population reporting recent cocaine use and median days
of use, 2005 to 2014 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
detainees in Australia, is comprised of a self-report survey and voluntary provision of a urine
sample which is subjected to urinalysis to detect licit and illicit drug use. Results obtained during
the reporting period indicate that the proportion of detainees testing positive through urinalysis
for cocaine has increased, from 1.1 per cent in 2012–13 to 2.2 per cent in 2013–14. Self-reported
recent use10 of cocaine increased, from 11.2 per cent in 2012–13 to 13.5 per cent in 2013–14 and
is the highest proportion recorded in the last decade (see Figure 48).
101
Figure 48: National proportion of detainees testing positive11 for cocaine compared with self-reported
use12, 2004–05 to 2013–14 (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
PRICE
Nationally, the price of a gram of cocaine in 2013–14 ranged between $250 and $1 000. The price
of a gram of cocaine remained stable in New South Wales, ranging between $250 and $450. The
Northern Territory reported the highest price per gram of cocaine this reporting period at $1 000.
Nationally, the price of a kilogram of cocaine in 2013–14 ranged between $180 000 and $250 000.
This reflects a decrease from the price range reported in 2012–13, which ranged between
$180 000 and $360 000 per kilogram. The highest prices per kilogram were reported in New South
Wales and Queensland.
PURITY
Figure 49 illustrates ongoing fluctuations in the annual median purity of cocaine over the last
decade. Since 2004–05, the annual median purity of analysed cocaine samples has ranged
between 9.5 per cent and 64.5 per cent. In 2013–14, the highest annual median purity of analysed
cocaine samples was reported in Western Australia at 64.5 per cent, an increase from 36.0 per
cent in 2012–13. South Australia reported the lowest annual median purity of analysed samples at
30.0 per cent, a decrease from 56.6 per cent in 2012–13.
11 Includes only detainees who provided urine samples.
12 The self-report survey indicates drug use in the 12 months preceding arrest.
102
Cocaine
FIGURE 49: Annual median purity of cocaine samples, 2004–05 to 2013–14
Figure 50 illustrates the median purity of cocaine samples analysed on a quarterly basis for
2013–14. During the reporting period, both the minimum and maximum median purities for
analysed cocaine samples were recorded in South Australia, which ranged from 13.5 per cent
in the fourth quarter of 2013 to 69.9 per cent during the second quarter of 2014.
FIGURE 50: Quarterly median purity of cocaine samples, 2013–14
103
AVAILABILITY
In a 2013 national study of regular injecting drug users, of the respondents able to comment
on the availability of cocaine, 70 per cent reported cocaine as easy or very easy to obtain, an
increase from 65 per cent in 2012.13 Early findings from the 2014 study indicate a slight increase
in availability, with 72 per cent of respondents reporting cocaine as easy or very easy to obtain
(Stafford & Burns 2014; Stafford & Burns 2014a).
In a 2013 national study of regular ecstasy users, of the respondents able to comment on the
availability of cocaine, 58 per cent reported cocaine as easy or very easy to obtain, compared to
49 per cent in 2012. Early findings from the 2014 study indicate this figure has remained relatively
stable, with 57 per cent of respondents reporting cocaine as easy or very easy to obtain (Sindicich
& Burns 2014a).
Since 2004–05, the number of national cocaine seizures has increased by 361.8 per cent.
The number of national cocaine seizures increased 44.0 per cent this reporting period, from
2 167 in 2012–13 to a record 3 121 in 2013–14. The weight of national cocaine seizures decreased
70.0 per cent, from 1 056.5 kilograms in 2012–13 to 317.4 kilograms in 2013–14, the third lowest
weight reported in the last decade (see Figure 51).
FIGURE 51: National cocaine seizures, by number and weight, 2004–05 to 2013–14
New South Wales continues to account for the greatest proportion of national cocaine seizures,
with 70.8 per cent of the number and 68.9 per cent of the weight seized in 2013–14
(see Table 23).
13 Of the respondents able to comment on the availability of cocaine, a significant number were from New South Wales. As such,
national comparisons of this data should be treated with caution.
104
Cocaine
TABLE 23: Number, weight and percentage change of national cocaine seizures, 2012–13 and 2013–14
Number
Weight (grams)
2012–13
2013–14
% change
2012–13
2013–14
% change
1 382
2 211
60.0
1 034 956
218 597
-78.9
Victoria
298
340
14.1
12 124
59 896
394.0
Queensland
253
236
-6.7
4 503
13 801
206.5
21
22
4.8
1 784
3 347
87.6
199
273
37.2
2 221
4 476
101.5
Tasmania
0
2
1.0
0
25
1.1
Northern Territory
1
8
700.0
0
180
8.1
13
29
123.1
982
17 139
1 645.3
2 167
3 121
44.0
1 056 570
317 461
-70.0
State/Territory
a
New South Wales
South Australia
Western Australia
Total
Over the last decade, the number of national cocaine arrests has increased (see Figure 52).
National cocaine arrests increased by 14.4 per cent this reporting period, from 1 282 in 2012–13
to 1 466 in 2013–14, the highest number of arrests on record. Consumer arrests accounted for
68.5 per cent of national cocaine arrests this reporting period, a decrease from 70.1 per cent
in 2012–13. However, South Australia, Tasmania and the Northern Territory all reported more
cocaine provider arrests than consumer arrests this reporting period.
FIGURE 52: Number of national cocaine arrests, 2004–05 to 2013–14
Only South Australia and Tasmania reported a decrease in cocaine arrests in 2013–14. New South
Wales continues to account for the greatest proportion of national cocaine arrests, accounting for
56.7 per cent in 2013–14 (see Table 24).
105
TABLE 24: Number and percentage change of national cocaine arrests, 2012–13 and 2013–14
Arrests
State/Territory
2012–13
2013–14
% change
New South Wales
694
831
19.7
Victoria
235
240
2.1
Queensland
a
213
231
8.5
South Australia
30
27
-10.0
Western Australia
91
108
18.7
Tasmania
2
1
-50.0
Northern Territory
0
4
200.0
17
24
41.2
1 282
1 466
14.4
Total
NATIONAL IMPACT
The global cocaine market continues to decline and cultivation levels are reported to be the lowest
since estimates were made available in 1990. Peru is identified as the second largest cultivator
of coca worldwide and remains the top potential producer of cocaine. While profiling data for
2013 indicates that border seizures of Colombian leaf-origin accounted for the greatest number
of analysed seizures, and seizures of Peruvian leaf-origin accounted for the greatest weight, this
trend has reversed in the first six months of 2014.
Both the weight and number of cocaine detections at the Australian border decreased this
reporting period. In 2013–14, there were 1 512 cocaine detections at the Australian border, a
25.4 per cent decrease from 2012–13. Despite this decrease, it is the second highest number on
record. The weight of cocaine detected at the border decreased by 38.5 per cent this reporting
period, from 399.7 kilograms in 2012–13 to 245.6 kilograms. International mail accounted for
the greatest number of detections this reporting period, while air passenger/crew accounted for
the greatest weight. The number of embarkation points identified for cocaine detected at the
Australian border decreased this reporting period, from 56 in 2012–13 to 50 in 2013–14. This
reporting period Canada was the primary embarkation point for detections by number, whilst
Chile was the key embarkation point by weight.
There was a record 3 121 national cocaine seizures in 2013–14. New South Wales continues to
account for the greatest proportion of national cocaine seizures, by both number and weight.
The number of national cocaine arrests increased this reporting period, from 1 282 in
2012–13 to a record 1 466 in 2013–14. New South Wales continues to account for the greatest
proportion of national cocaine arrests, accounting for 56.6 per cent this reporting period.
Continuing a historical trend, cocaine consumer arrests continue to account for the greatest
proportion of national cocaine arrests. However in 2013–14 South Australia, Tasmania and the
Northern Territory all reported more cocaine provider arrests than consumer arrests.
106
Cocaine
REFERENCES
Australian Drug Foundation (ADF) 2014, DrugInfo: Cocaine facts, ADF, Melbourne, viewed
5 August 2014, <http://www.druginfo.adf.org.au/drug-facts/cocaine>.
Survey Report (NDSHS)’ NDSHS 2013 data & references, AIHW, Canberra, viewed 4 November
of State, Washington D.C., viewed 3 November 2014, <http://www.state.gov/documents
Drug and Alcohol Rehab Asia (DARA) 2014, How cocaine is made, DARA, Thailand, viewed
5 August 2014, <http://alcoholrehab.com/drug-addiction/how-cocaine-is-made/>.
Drug Rehab Services (DRS) 2013, Cocaethylene: The danger of cocaine and alcohol, DRS, Canada,
viewed 5 August 2014, <http://www.drugrehab.ca/cocaethylene-the-danger-of-cocaine-andalcohol.html>.
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) 2014, European Drug
Report: Trends and Developments 2014, EMCDDA, Spain.
Freye, E & Levy, JV 2009, Pharmacology and abuse of cocaine, amphetamines, ecstasy and related
designer drugs, Springer, Germany, viewed 5 August 2014, <http://issuu.com/hospitalemfoco/
docs/pharmacology_abuse_drugs>.
Methamphetamine and Other Illicit Drug Education (MethOIDE) 2014, Cocaine overview:
Pharmacology, University of Arizona, viewed 5 August 2014, <http://www.methoide.fcm.arizona.
edu/infocenter/index.cfm?stid=170>.
National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) 2013, Drugfacts: Cocaine, NIDA, Maryland, viewed
5 August 2014, <http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/cocaine>.
Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, viewed 21 October 2014,<https://ndarc.
Southwick, N 2013, ‘Peru seizes 4 tonnes of Europe-bound cocaine at major port’, InSight Crime,
16 October 2013, viewed 16 October 2014, <http://www.insightcrime.org/news-briefs/peruseizes-4-tons-europe-bound-cocaine-at-major-port>.
107
REFERENCES (continued)
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2014, Colombia: Coca cultivation survey 2013,
UNODC, Vienna.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2014a, Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia:
Monitoreo de Cultivos de Coca 2013, UNODC, Vienna.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2014b, Perú: Monitoreo de Cultivos de Coca
2013, UNODC, Vienna.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2014c, World Drug Report 2014, UNODC,
Vienna.
World Customs Organisation (WCO) 2014, Illicit Trade Report 2013, WCO, Brussels.
108
Other Drugs
OTHER DRUGS
KEY POINTS
The number of national steroid seizures and arrests continued to increase in
2013–14 and are the highest on record.
There was a record number of national hallucinogen arrests this reporting period.
The number of GHB and GBL detections at the Australian border increased this reporting
period and are the highest on record.
There was a record number of benzodiazepine and opioid detections at the Australian border
in 2013–14.
The number of national other opioids seizures continued to increase in 2013–14 and is the
highest on record.
In 2013–14, both the weight of national other and unknown not elsewhere classified drug
seizures and number of arrests increased and are the highest on record.
109
OTHER DRUGS
Other drugs and substances—collectively referred to in this report as ‘other drugs’—are being
increasingly recognised as part of Australia’s illicit drug market. This chapter focuses on the main
drugs and substances in this category:
anabolic agents and selected hormones
tryptamines
anaesthetics
pharmaceuticals
drug analogues and new psychoactive substances (DANPS)
other drugs not elsewhere classified.
ANABOLIC AGENTS AND OTHER SELECTED
HORMONES
MAIN FORMS
The Australian Standard Classification of Drugs of Concern (ABS 2011) distinguishes four classes of
substances as anabolic agents and selected hormones. These are:
anabolic-androgenic steroids
other anabolic agents and selected hormones
beta2-agonists
peptide hormones, mimetics and analogues.
Anabolic agents and selected hormones are also referred to as performance and image enhancing
drugs (PIEDs).
ANABOLIC-ANDROGENIC STEROIDS, BETA2-AGONISTS AND OTHER
ANABOLIC AGENTS (AAS)
AAS are derivatives of the male sex hormone testosterone. These prescription-only drugs assist
in the growth and repair of muscle and bone, the treatment of a variety of conditions including
cancer, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and diseases that reduce lean muscle mass.
In addition, they are used by athletes and body builders for non-medical purposes to enhance
muscle development and sports performance (NIDA 2012).
The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) categorises anabolic agents as either AAS or ‘other
anabolic agents’. Both AAS and other anabolic agents are prohibited substances under the World
Anti-Doping Code 2014 Prohibited List (WADA 2014). The use of beta2-agonists is prohibited under
the World Anti-Doping Code 2014 Prohibited List, with the exception of asthma treatments. These
drugs are used illicitly by some athletes and body builders to promote the growth of skeletal
110
Other Drugs
muscle and to reduce body fat. The most frequently reported side effects of beta2-agonist use
include insomnia, cardiovascular conditions, increased body temperature, nausea and anxiety
(USADA 2014; WADA 2014).
AAS can be administered orally, injected intramuscularly or absorbed via skin patches, creams,
suppositories and nasal sprays. Side effects from AAS use may include liver damage, acne, heart
problems, mood swings, depression, paranoia and aggression. Male-specific side effects include
infertility and development of breast tissue. In females, use can lead to menstrual problems,
baldness, growth of facial hair and foetal damage during pregnancy (NIDA 2012).
AAS and other anabolic agents commonly used in Australia are outlined in Table 25.
TABLE 25: AAS and other anabolic agents commonly used in Australia
Drug name
Potential effects
Brand name
Forms
AAS – Anabolic
Used to increase muscle
mass through increased
retention of protein
Deca-durabolin,
Anadrol-50, Oxandrin
Ampoule, vial, pre-packed
syringe, tablet
AAS – Androgenic
mass by increasing male
sex hormone levels
Depo-testosterone,
Sustanon, Androil
Testocaps
Vial, ampoule, pre-packed
syringe, capsule
Beta2-agonists (including
clenbuterol)
Commonly used to treat
asthma, however when
taken into the bloodstream increase muscle
mass by mimicking the
effects of adrenaline and
non-adrenaline
Bricanyl, Ventolin,
Spiropent (clenbuterol)
and Ventipulmin
(clenbuterol)
Ampoule, rotacap, inhaler,
nebuliser, tablet
PEPTIDE HORMONES, MIMETICS AND ANALOGUES
While anabolic steroids remain widely used, the PIEDs market has evolved to include a range
of substances which manipulate the body’s hormonal system. These substances, which include
peptide hormones, mimetics1 and hormonal analogues, may provide similar effects to and
complement the use of anabolic steroids. Synthetic mimetics and analogues of naturally occurring
hormones have been developed to assist in the treatment of a number of medical conditions.
Some peptide hormones, mimetics and analogues are diverted for non-medical use because of
their performance enhancing side effects. They are listed in the World Anti-Doping Code 2014, and
include erythropoietin (EPO), human growth hormone (hGH) and human chorionic gonadotropin
(hCG) (ASADA 2013).2
EPO is a naturally occurring hormone produced by kidney cells that regulate the production of
red blood cells in bone marrow. Increased EPO levels in the body increases oxygen absorption,
reduces fatigue and improves endurance. It also increases metabolic and healing rates. A major
side effect of increased EPO is an increased risk of blood clots and thrombosis (Harty 2010; NSW
Health 2013; USADA 2014).
1
2
Substances that are chemically different, but produce similar pharmacological effects to another substance.
For a substance or method to be prohibited, it must meet at least two of the following three conditions: potential to enhance or
does enhance performance in sport, potential to risk the athlete’s health and/or WADA has determined that use of the substance
or method violates the spirit of the sport (ASADA 2013).
111
The hormone hGH is a naturally occurring hormone produced by the pituitary gland. This hormone
is responsible for muscle development and bone growth, as well as psychological wellbeing. Side
effects of hGH use may include gigantism, or acromegaly, where the jaw and chin increase in size,
and excessive growth in the fingers, hands, toes, feet, nose and cheekbone. Major organs such as
the heart and liver may also increase in size (NADA 2012).
The hCG hormone is important in triggering hormonal changes in women during pregnancy and
can increase the production of natural male and female steroids. It can be used to stimulate
natural testosterone production following a long cycle of steroid use and is also sold as a weightloss drug. Side effects of hCG use may include acne, tiredness, mood changes, fluid retention,
heart disease, liver disease and infertility (NADA 2012; NDS 2006; NSW Health 2013).
Peptide hormones, mimetics and analogues commonly used in Australia are listed in Table 26.
TABLE 26: Peptide hormones, mimetics and analogues commonly used in Australia
Drug name
Potential effects
Brand name
Forms
Erythropoietin (EPO)
Increases endurance and
recovery from anaerobic
exercise
Eprex, Aranesp
Ampoule, pre-packed
syringe
Human chorionic
gonadotrophin (hCG)
Used to manage the side
effects of AAS use such
as gynaecomastiaa and
shrinking testicles
APL, Pregnyl, Profasi,
Novarel, Repronex
Vial, ampoule
Human growth hormone
(hGH)
size and strength
Norditropin, Norditropin
SimpleXx, Genotropin,
Humatrope, Saizen,
Scitropi
Penset, vial, auto injector
cartridge
Insulin
Used because of the
perception that it
contributes to increased
muscle bulkb
NovoRapid, Apidra,
Humalog, Hypurin Neutral,
Actrapid, Humulin R,
Protaphane, NovoMix 30
Vial, penset, pre-packed
syringe
Pituitary and synthetic
gonadotrophins
Used to overcome the side
effects of AAS use or as a
masking agent
Clomid, Bravelle
Ampoule, tablet
Insulin-like growth factor
bulk and reduce body fat
Increlex
Vial
Corticotrophins
Used because of its antiinflammatory properties
and for mood elevating
effects
Synacthen Depot
Ampoule
Anti-oesterones
Used to manage the side
effects of AAS use such as
gynaecomastiaa
Nolvadex
Tablet
a. The development of breast-like tissue in males.
b. There is no scientific evidence of this.
112
Other Drugs
PIEDs are either diverted from legitimate sources or manufactured in clandestine laboratories.
China remains a primary source country for PIEDs globally, while some European countries and
the United States of America (US) have reported increased domestic illicit manufacture. Internet
sales, including sales from the growing number of unregulated online pharmacies, ensure PIEDs
are accessible to global markets.
In 2014, Interpol reported that organised crime groups were increasingly involved in counterfeit
and illicitly produced PIEDs. In Eastern Europe, there has been a shift away from importing
finished product, to domestic production using precursors sourced from Asia. In January 2014,
Czech Police arrested six people for trading in anabolic steroids. Police seized 100 000 tablets and
400 ampoules reportedly imported from Asia. The seized steroids were to have been repacked
with forged labels and distributed throughout the European Union. The Czech Republic’s National
Drug Centre advised that the organised crime group involved had links to Cyprus, Germany, Spain
and the Ukraine (THF 2014).
In May 2014, South African police seized steroids and equipment from a laboratory in Pretoria in
one of the largest illicit steroid manufacturing laboratories discovered in South Africa. The value of
the illicit PIEDs and equipment seized was estimated at R$20 million (ENCA 2014).
Illicit PIEDs are primarily marketed to the professional and amateur athlete and body building
markets and distributed online or through direct sales to users, including through gyms or
sporting clubs. Investigations in Canada, Sweden and the US have linked the Hells Angels Outlaw
Motorcycle Gang with PIED distribution (Interpol 2014).
In November 2013, 16 people from Portland, Oregon, US, were charged with importing illegal
anabolic steroids and using a legitimate business to disguise their illicit drug trafficking activities.
The majority of the 68 shipments of illegal anabolic steroids were purchased from Chinese
chemical companies and shipped to the US (Bernstein 2013).
DOMESTIC TRENDS
The Australian Customs and Border Protection Service (ACBPS) continues to disrupt the movement
of PIEDs3 into Australia. There were 6 885 PIED detections in 2013–14, a 33.5 per cent decrease
from the 10 356 detections in 2012–13 (see Figure 53).
3
PIEDs detected by the ACBPS during the reporting period include: anabol, dianabol, androstenedione, norandrostenedione,
chronic gonadotrophins, clomiphenes, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), prasterone, erythropoietin, GH releasing hormones,
somatorelines, methandienone, methandrosterone, nandrolone, oxymethelone, stanozolol, hGH, somatopin/s and testosterone.
113
FIGURE 53: Number of performance and image enhancing drug detections at the Australian border,
2004–05 to 2013–14 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
Of the 6 885 PIED detections in 2013–14, 77.4 per cent were steroids and 22.6 per cent were
hormones. The number of steroid detections decreased 21.8 per cent this reporting period,
from 6 813 in 2012–13 to 5 327 in 2013–14. The number of hormone detections decreased
56.0 per cent, from 3 543 in 2013–13 to 1 558 in 2013–14 (see Figure 54).
FIGURE 54: Number of performance and image enhancing drug detections, by category, at the Australian
border, 2004–05 to 2013–144 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
Note: In the 2012–13 Illicit Drug Data Report the number of steroid and hormone detections at the Australian border were incorrectly
reported by ACBPS. Although the total number of PIED detections was accurate, the number of detections assigned to each category
was transposed. This has been rectified in the 2013–14 report.
4
114
From 2011–12 DHEA detections have been incorporated into steroid detection numbers. All the data contained in Figure 54 has
been updated to reflect this change to enable direct comparison across the decade.
Other Drugs
The largest PIED detection made during this reporting period was of 30 litres of liquid testosterone
contained in one litre bottles falsely described as argan oil, which arrived in Brisbane from China.
The second largest detection in 2013–14 was 20 450 Dianabol (methandrostenolone) tablets,
located in passenger baggage on a flight from Fiji to Brisbane.
IMPORTATION METHODS
PIED importations were identified in the four major streams in 2013–14, with international
mail accounting for 82.4 per cent of detections (see Figure 55). There were 637 detections of
clenbuterol5 in 2013–14, 577 of which occurred in the international mail stream, 48 in the air
passenger environment and 12 via air cargo.
FIGURE 55: Number of performance and image enhancing drug detections at the Australian border,
as a proportion of total detections, by method of importation, 2013–14 (Source: Australian Customs and
Border Protection Service)
EMBARKATION POINTS
In 2013–14, 61 countries were identified as embarkation points for steroid detections. Key
embarkation points this reporting period were the US, Thailand, United Kingdom (UK), Hong Kong
and China. These countries were also identified as primary embarkation points in 2012–13.
In 2013–14, a total of 31 countries were identified as embarkation points for hormone detections.
Key embarkation points this reporting period were the US, China, Canada, India and Hong Kong.
The primary embarkation points for clenbuterol detections in 2013–14 were the US and Thailand.
5
Clenbuterol is a beta2-agonist commonly misused in Australia. Clenbuterol may be used either alone or in conjunction with other
substances to promote muscle definition and growth and decrease body fat.
115
reporting steroid use at some stage in their lifetime remained stable at 6 per cent. In the same
study, the proportion of respondents reporting recent6 steroid use decreased, from 2 per cent
in 2012 to 1 per cent in 2013. According to a 2013 national study of regular ecstasy users, the
proportion of respondents reporting steroid use at some stage in their lifetime remained stable
at 2 per cent. In the same study, the proportion of respondents reporting recent steroid use
also remained stable at 1 per cent. Early findings from the 2014 study indicate the proportion of
respondents reporting recent steroid use has increased to 2 per cent (Sindicich & Burns 2014;
Sindicich & Burns 2014a; Stafford & Burns 2014).
PRICE
National law enforcement data on the price of PIEDs is limited. In 2013–14, the price for a
single 10 millilitre vial of testosterone enanthate ranged between $150 and $250. A single
10 millilitre vial of Sustanon (a blend of four testosterone compounds) cost $150 in the Northern
Territory, whereas in Queensland, prices for a bulk purchase of 10 Sustanon vials averaged
$180 per vial. Prices for testosterone propionate ranged between $150 and $250 per 10 millilitre
vial, with Queensland reporting prices of $1 400 for 10 vials, $2 600 for 20 vials and $5 550 for
50 vials. In 2013–14, the price of a single 10 millilitre vial of the anabolic steroid Deca-durabolin
ranged between $150 and $250. Queensland reported the price of a single 40 millilitre vial of the
steroid Stanozolol as $180.
AVAILABILITY
According to the 2013 National Drug Strategy Household Survey (NDSHS), less than 1 per cent
of the Australian population aged 14 years or older had been recently7 offered or had the
opportunity to use steroids, compared to 1 per cent in 2010 (AIHW 2014). According to the
Australian Needle and Syringe Program Survey (ANSPS), the prevalence of respondents reporting
PIEDs as the drug last injected remained stable at 7 per cent, with 9 per cent of respondents
reporting they injected PIEDs in the preceding 12 months (The Kirby Institute 2014).
The number of national steroid seizures increased by 7.9 per cent this reporting period, from
331 in 2012–13 to 357 in 2013–14, the highest number on record. The weight of steroids seized
decreased by 8.5 per cent this reporting period, from 18.8 kilograms in 2012–13 to 17.2 kilograms
(see Figure 56).
6
7
116
Other Drugs
FIGURE 56: National steroid seizures, by number and weight, 2004–05 to 2013–14
New South Wales continues to account for the greatest proportion of national steroid seizures,
accounting for 49.6 per cent of the number and 79.6 per cent of the weight seized in 2013–14.
Queensland reported the greatest increase in seizure numbers this reporting period, increasing
78.9 per cent, from 57 in 2012–13 to 102 in 2013–14. South Australia reported the largest
decrease, from 31 in 2012–13 to only 1 in 2013–14 (see Table 27).
TABLE 27: Number, weight and percentage change of national steroid seizures, 2012–13 and 2013–14
Number
State/Territory
a
New South Wales
Weight (grams)
2012–13
2013–14
% change
2012–13
2013–14
% change
157
177
12.7
6 020
13 743
128.3
Victoria
18
6
-66.7
2 677
552
-79.4
Queensland
57
102
78.9
4 618
1 883
-59.2
South Australia
31
1
-96.8
3 373
2
-99.9
Western Australia
13
22
69.2
102
182
78.4
0
0
0.0
0
0
0.0
Tasmania
Northern Territory
14
6
-57.1
816
84
-89.7
41
43
4.9
1 280
820
-35.9
331
357
7.9
18 886
17 266
-8.6
Total
The number of national steroid arrests continued to increase this reporting period. National
steroid arrests increased 41.6 per cent, from 661 in 2012–13 to a record 936 in 2013–14.
Continuing the historical trend, consumer arrests continue to account for the greatest proportion
of national steroid arrests, comprising 80.8 per cent of national steroid arrests. However, the
Australian Capital Territory reported more provider arrests than consumer arrests this reporting
117
FIGURE 57: Number of national steroid arrests, 2004–05 to 2013–14
In 2013–14, New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, Western Australia and the Australian Capital
Territory all reported increases in steroid arrests. Queensland continues to account for the
greatest proportion of national steroid arrests, accounting for 57.8 per cent in 2013–14
(see Table 28).
TABLE 28: Number and percentage change of national steroid arrests, 2012–13 and 2013–14
Arrests
State/Territory
2012–13
2013–14
% change
New South Wales
39
85
117.9
Victoria
88
103
17.0
392
541
38.0
8
7
-12.5
101
177
75.2
Tasmania
13
3
-76.9
Northern Territory
14
7
-50.0
6
13
116.7
661
936
41.6
a
Queensland
South Australia
Western Australia
Total
118
Other Drugs
TRYPTAMINES
MAIN FORMS
Tryptamines are hallucinogenic substances that act upon the central nervous system, distorting
mood, thought and perception. These substances contain chemical compounds which temporarily
interfere with the action of neurotransmitters (NIDA 2009). Tryptamines are naturally occurring
alkaloids found in a variety of plants and life forms. More than 1 500 natural varieties exist,
including psilocybin, psilocin and dimethyltryptamine (DMT) (NDARC 2012).
Short-term effects of tryptamine use include perceptual distortions, poor coordination and increased
body temperature. The most frequently reported long-term effect of hallucinogen use is flashbacks,
a spontaneous recurrence of a specific experience which occurred while taking the drug. Other longterm effects may include impaired memory, depression and anxiety (NDARC 2012).8
The two most common types of tryptamines used in Australia are lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)
and psilocybin, a substance found in various species of mushrooms.
LYSERGIC ACID DIETHYLAMIDE (LSD)
LSD is one of the most potent mood and perception-altering drugs. In its pure form, LSD is a
white, odourless powder that is soluble in water. Available in liquid, squares of gelatine, tablet and
capsule form, LSD is most commonly sold as impregnated, single dose squares of blotting paper
called tabs. Due to its potency, only very small doses are required to produce a hallucinogenic
effect (ADF 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2014).
LSD produces unpredictable psychological effects, often referred to as ‘trips’, which typically
last up to 12 hours. In addition to a distorted sense of time and space, the user may experience
several different emotions simultaneously or extreme emotional mood swings. Users commonly
experience flashbacks, which may persist over the long term, seriously impairing social or
occupational functioning. Chronic use of LSD can also result in other psychological conditions, such
as prolonged psychosis and depression (NIDA 2012).
Physical effects of LSD use may include increased body temperature, heart rate and blood
pressure, sleeplessness and loss of appetite (NDARC 2012). Users may experience confusion, loss
of coordination and slurred speech. While under the effects of LSD, users may not see objects
clearly. Combined with a loss of coordination and distorted perceptions of time and space,
accidents and injuries may occur (LSD Abuse Help 2013).
PSILOCYBIN-CONTAINING MUSHROOMS
Psilocybin is a hallucinogenic chemical found in some varieties of mushrooms, commonly referred
to as ‘magic mushrooms’. These mushrooms grow in tropical and sub-tropical regions of South
America, the Indian sub-continent, South-East Asia, Eastern Australia and the southern US. They
typically contain less than 0.5 per cent psilocybin and trace amounts of psilocin. In Australia, there
are at least 20 varieties of psilocybin-containing mushrooms. Psilocybin-containing mushrooms
are usually sold dried and can be eaten raw, brewed as tea or combined with other foods or drugs
(DoH 2014; ADF 2013).
8
Flashbacks can persist and lead to a condition known as hallucinogen persisting perceptual disorder.
119
Although several species of psilocybin-containing mushroom grow wild in Australia, it is difficult
to distinguish psilocybin-containing mushrooms from poisonous varieties, increasing the potential
for harm. Short-term effects of psilocybin-containing mushroom use may include drowsiness,
paranoia and panic attacks. Long-term effects may include increased risk of mental illness and
impaired memory (NDARC 2012).
Globally, LSD use remains low, with availability likely to decrease following improved precursor
controls (UNODC 2014). In the majority of countries, less than 1 per cent of the general population
report LSD use, with higher use confined to niche groups. Niche groups—particularly those who
regularly attend nightclubs—generally report higher rates of LSD use than the population as
a whole. The 2014 Global Drug Survey reported 10.1 per cent of respondents (primarily aged
between 20–40 years of age) had used LSD in the previous 12 months (Global Drug Survey 2014).
According to the 2014 European Drug Report, the overall prevalence of hallucinogenic mushrooms
and LSD use in Europe is generally low and has been stable for a number of years (EMCDDA 2014).
Initial reports indicate that 25I-NBOMe9 has been sold in Europe as a substitute for LSD (EMCDDA
2013). In the UK, 0.3 per cent of the population aged 16–59 years reported LSD use in the last 12
months (Home Office 2014). Latin America has seen an increase in reported use among university
students, from 0.2 per cent in 2009 to 9.5 per cent in 2012, while the US reported a decrease in
use among 12th grade students, from 8.8 per cent in 1996 to 2.2 per cent in 2013 (UNODC 2014).
Reporting on the use of psilocybin-containing mushrooms remains limited. The 2014 Global Drug
Survey reported 10.6 per cent of respondents (primarily in the 20–40 year age group) had used
‘magic mushrooms’ in the previous 12 months (Global Drug Survey 2014). In the US, 3.7 per cent
of college students aged 19 to 28 years reported use of hallucinogens other than LSD (primarily
mushrooms) in 2013 (Johnston et al. 2014).
DOMESTIC TRENDS
Despite the number of tryptamine detections decreasing by 20.0 per cent this reporting period,
from 509 in 2012–13 to 407 in 2013–14, it is the second highest number on record (see Figure 58).
Of the 407 detections in 2013–14, 299 were LSD, 72 were psilocybin and the remaining 36 were
reported as ‘other.’10
9
4-iodo-2,5-dimethoxy-N-(2-methoxybenzyl)phenethylamine (25l-NBOMe) is a synthetic derivative of phenethylamine with
stimulant and hallucinogenic properties.
10 Prominent tryptamines detected at the Australian border include psilocybin, psilocin, LSD and DMT.
120
Other Drugs
FIGURE 58: Number of tryptamine detections at the Australian border, 2004–05 to 2013–14
IMPORTATION METHODS
International mail accounted for 99.0 per cent of the total number of tryptamine detections
in 2013–14, with air cargo and air passenger/crew both comprising 0.5 per cent of detections
(see Figure 59). International mail accounted for 98.9 per cent of LSD detections, while all
psilocybin detections were identified in the international mail stream.
FIGURE 59: Number of tryptamine detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections,
121
EMBARKATION POINTS
Canada was identified as the primary embarkation point for tryptamine detections in
2013–14, followed by the Netherlands, UK, Spain and the US. This corresponds with the key
embarkation points identified in 2012–13. Canada was the primary embarkation point for LSD,
accounting for 43.8 per cent of LSD detections this reporting period. Key embarkation points for
psilocybin detections in 2013–14 were Canada, the Netherlands, the UK, Germany, Denmark, the
US and Spain.
According to the NDSHS, 9.4 per cent of the Australian population aged 14 years or older reported
using hallucinogens at least once in their lifetime. This is an increase from 8.8 per cent reported in
2010 and is the third highest illicit drug category (excluding pharmaceuticals), following cannabis
and ecstasy. In the same survey, the reported recent use of hallucinogens increased, from
1.3 per cent in 2010 to 1.4 per cent in 2013 (AIHW 2014).
reported using hallucinogens at some stage in their lifetime. However, in the same study only
7 per cent of respondents reported the recent use of hallucinogens, a slight increase from the
6 per cent reported in 2012. LSD and mushrooms were the most common hallucinogens used
(Stafford & Burns 2014).
According to a 2013 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting
use of mushrooms in their lifetime decreased from 71 per cent in 2012 to 60 per cent in 2013.11 In
the same study, 43 per cent of respondents reported recent LSD use compared with 34 per cent in
2012. While this percentage has steadily increased from 28 per cent in 2003, early findings from the
2014 study indicate a decrease to 41 per cent. The proportion of respondents reporting recent use of
mushrooms remained stable at 27 per cent in 2013. Early findings from the 2014 study indicate use
has decreased to 21 per cent (Sindicich & Burns 2014; Sindicich & Burns 2014a).
PRICE
Nationally, the price per tab of LSD in 2013–14 ranged between $10 and $50. In Queensland,
the cost of a 20 millilitre vial of LSD was $800. South Australia was the only state or territory to
provide price data for psilocybin-containing mushrooms this reporting period, with 1 gram priced
at $10.
AVAILABILITY
According to a 2013 study of regular ecstasy users, 67 per cent of respondents able to comment
on availability of LSD indicated that it was easy or very easy to obtain. Early findings from the 2014
study indicate availability has remained relatively stable, with 66 per cent of respondents who
were able to comment indicating LSD as easy or very easy to obtain (Sindicich & Burns 2014a).
11 In response to difficulties experienced by smaller states and territories in recruiting regular ecstasy users, the recruitment criteria
was expanded in 2012 to include recent use of any psychostimulant. As such, caution should be exercised when comparing to
reporting periods prior to 2012.
122
Other Drugs
While the number of national hallucinogen seizures decreased by 27.9 per cent this reporting
period, from 319 in 2012–13 to 230 in 2013–14, it is the third highest number reported in the last
decade. In 2013–14, the weight of hallucinogens seized nationally increased 33.9 per cent, from
3.6 kilograms in 2012–13 to 4.9 kilograms in 2013–14 (see Figure 60).
FIGURE 60: National hallucinogen seizures, by number and weight, 2004–05 to 2013–14
New South Wales accounted for 52.2 per cent of the number of national hallucinogen seizures
this reporting period, while Queensland accounted for the greatest proportion of the weight of
national seizures, at 41.9 per cent (see Table 29).
TABLE 29: Number, weight and percentage change of national hallucinogen seizures, 2012–13 and 2013–14
Number
State/Territory
a
New South Wales
Weight (grams)
2012–13
2013–14
% change
2012–13
2013–14
% change
199
120
-39.7
2 444
1 158
-52.6
Victoria
52
16
-69.2
524
491
-6.3
Queensland
20
38
90.0
278
2 063
642.1
2
1
-50.0
32
100
212.5
36
40
11.1
364
1 066
192.9
South Australia
Western Australia
Tasmania
2
3
50.0
31
32
3.2
Northern Territory
7
12
71.4
2
11
450.0
1
0
-100.0
0
0
0
319
230
-27.9
3 675
4 921
33.9
Total
123
The number of national hallucinogen arrests increased by 24.6 per cent this reporting period, from
565 in 2012–13 to a record 704 in 2013–14. Continuing the historical trend, consumer arrests
account for the greatest proportion of national hallucinogen arrests, comprising 77.1 per cent of
arrests this reporting period. However, South Australia and the Northern Territory reported more
provider arrests than consumer arrests in 2013–14 (see Figure 61).
FIGURE 61: Number of national hallucinogen arrests, 2004–05 to 2013–14
New South Wales, South Australia and the Northern Territory reported decreases in hallucinogen
arrests in 2013–14. Queensland accounted for the greatest proportion of national hallucinogen
arrests this reporting period, accounting for 34.4 per cent of arrests (see Table 30).
TABLE 30: Number and percentage change of national hallucinogen arrests, 2012–13 and 2013–14
Arrests
State/Territorya
New South Wales
Victoria
Queensland
South Australia
Western Australia
2012–13
2013–14
% change
157
143
-8.9
70
118
68.6
203
242
19.2
16
10
-37.5
111
180
62.2
Tasmania
3
4
33.3
Northern Territory
4
3
-25.0
1
4
300.0
565
704
24.6
Total
124
Other Drugs
ANAESTHETICS
MAIN FORMS
Anaesthetics and their precursor chemicals have many legitimate uses in the medical, veterinary,
plastics and chemical industries. However, they are also diverted for illicit use. The following
section will focus on ketamine and gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), the two most prevalent
anaesthetics used illicitly in Australia.
KETAMINE
Ketamine is a general anaesthetic clinically used in medical and veterinary settings. Described
as a dissociative anaesthetic, it induces feelings of emotional detachment and ‘out of body’
experiences. It is used illicitly for its sedative and hallucinogenic effects (ADF 2014b).
Ketamine is commonly sold in three forms—powder, tablet and liquid. It can be swallowed,
snorted or injected. When used in combination with other depressant drugs, such as alcohol,
Valium or heroin, it can cause vital organs to cease functioning (ADF 2014b).
Short-term effects of ketamine use may include drowsiness, temporary paralysis, amnesia and
convulsions. Long-term effects of use may include reduced ability to concentrate, personality and
mood changes, depression and severe bladder conditions (ADF 2014b; Colebunders & Van Erps
2008; Morgan & Curran 2011).12
GAMMA-HYDROXYBUTYRATE (GHB) AND RELATED SUBSTANCES
GHB, also known as 4-hydroxybutanoic acid, is a central nervous system depressant with hypnotic,
amnesic and sedative effects (ADF 2014a).
GHB is commonly used as a water soluble salt and appears in water solutions as a colourless,
odourless, bitter or salty tasting liquid. On the illicit market it is usually sold in small bottles or
vials and, on occasions, as a bright blue liquid (Medicine Net 2012).
GHB is readily manufactured from its precursors—gamma-butyrolactone (GBL) and 1,4-butanediol (1,4-BD). These precursors are commercially available as industrial cleaning products
and are used in the production of rubber and plastic. Both GBL and 1,4-BD metabolise into GHB in
the body. Commercially available domestic or industrial products containing these precursors are not
meant for human consumption and invariably contain other potentially toxic substances, including
heavy metals and other organic solvents, such as acetone or toluene (WHO 2012).
Effects of GHB use may include decreased body temperature, hallucinations, vomiting and
respiratory depression. High doses of GHB can result in unconsciousness, seizures, coma and death.
Poly drug use with other depressants or psychoactive compounds may exacerbate the toxic effects.
Furthermore, the combination of GHB with stimulant drugs, such as crystal methylamphetamine or
cocaine, increases the toxic effects of these drugs as users may administer increased doses of the
stimulant drug to counteract the sedative effects of GHB (Lee & Levounis 2008).
12 Ketamine use has been linked to cystitis, which can lead to blood in the urine, incontinence, severe pain and kidney failure.
125
Chronic regular use can lead to dependence. If the drug is abruptly discontinued, serious life
threatening withdrawal symptoms may occur. These symptoms include insomnia, anxiety, tremors
and increased heart rate and blood pressure (DEA 2012). In frequent users, withdrawal symptoms
can start as early as 1–2 hours after the last dose (NHTSA 2013).
East and South-East Asia report a higher proportion of ketamine use than the Americas and
Europe. Between 2008 and 2011, seizures of ketamine in mainland China and Hong Kong
accounted for almost 60 per cent of global ketamine seizures (UNODC 2014a). In August 2013,
2 ketamine clandestine laboratories were dismantled and 196 kilograms of ketamine was seized
in China. Thirty-eight people were arrested with links to a gang of illicit drug manufacturers and
dealers and a sales network covering seven cities in Guangdong Province (BINLEA 2014).
Ketamine remains a popular drug of choice for Taiwanese teenagers and is a growing health
issue. The ketamine user market in Taiwan is predominantly supplied by China, which accounts
for approximately 76 per cent of ketamine seized or sold in Taiwan (BINLEA 2014a). In December
2013, Taiwanese officials seized 200 kilograms of ketamine concealed in 3 air freight shipments
from China (Li 2013). In October 2013, Taiwanese authorities seized 249 kilograms of ketamine
originating from Burma via Vietnam (BINLEA 2014; Chang 2013).
In North America, South America and Europe, ketamine is sold illicitly in tablet form and marketed
as ecstasy (UNODC 2014a). In Europe, reported GHB and ketamine use remains low across the
general population, with use significantly higher in populations identified as ‘regular clubbers’
(EMCDDA 2014). In the UK, reported ketamine use has increased marginally, from 0.4 per cent
in 2012–13 to 0.6 per cent in 2013–14 (Home Office 2014). GHB and ketamine use also remains
low in the US. In a 2014 study of US adolescent13 and adult drug use, 1.4 per cent of 12th graders
reported use of ketamine in the year preceding interview, while 1.0 per cent reported GHB use.
The proportion of respondents aged 19 to 28 years reporting ketamine or GHB use in the year
preceding interview was below 1.0 per cent (Johnston et al. 2014).
DOMESTIC TRENDS
Detections of anaesthetics by the ACBPS most commonly include GHB, GBL and ketamine. Overall,
anaesthetic detections have remained relatively stable this reporting period, with 274 detections
in 2013–14 compared with 277 in 2012–13 (see Figure 62). This reporting period the number
of GHB detections increased 275 per cent, from 4 in 2012–13 to a record 15 in 2013–14. GBL
detections increased by 40.5 per cent this reporting period, from 74 in 2012–13 to a record 104
in 2013–14. While the number of ketamine detections decreased by 22.1 per cent this reporting
period, from 199 in 2012–13 to 155 in 2013–14, it is the second highest number on record.
13 Adolescent refers to individuals aged 18 or under, typically 14 to 16 years old.
126
Other Drugs
FIGURE 62: Number of anaesthetic detections at the Australian border, 2004–05 to 2013–14
IMPORTATION METHODS
Anaesthetic detections occurred across the air cargo, air passenger/crew and international mail
import streams this reporting period. International mail accounted for 91.2 per cent of anaesthetic
detections in 2013–14, followed by air cargo (7.3 per cent) (see Figure 63).
FIGURE 63: Number of anaesthetic detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections,
In 2013–14, international mail accounted for 85.7 per cent of the combined GHB and GBL
detections (see Figure 64). GBL was detected in the air cargo, air passenger/crew and international
mail import streams, while all GHB detections were in the international mail stream.
127
FIGURE 64: Number of GBL and GHB detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total
The international mail stream accounted for 95.5 per cent of ketamine detections in 2013–14
(see Figure 65).
FIGURE 65: Number of ketamine detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections,
EMBARKATION POINTS
Key embarkation points for anaesthetic detections in 2013–14 were the UK, Poland, Canada, US,
the Netherlands and China. These 6 countries accounted for 78.1 per cent of the total number
of anaesthetics detected this reporting period. Poland and the US were the primary embarkation
points for GBL and GHB, accounting for 48.7 per cent of the total number of detections in
2013–14. A total of 16 embarkation points were identified in relation to ketamine, with the UK
accounting for 56.8 per cent of ketamine detections this reporting period.
128
Other Drugs
According to the 2013 NDSHS, 1.7 per cent of the Australian population aged 14 years or older
reported using ketamine at least once in their lifetime, an increase from 1.4 per cent in 2010.
In the same survey, the percentage of the population reporting GHB use at least once in their
lifetime also increased, from 0.8 in 2010 to 0.9 in 2013. While the reported recent use of ketamine
increased, from 0.2 per cent in 2010 to 0.3 per cent in 2013, the reported recent use of GHB
decreased, from 0.1 per cent in 2010 to <0.1 per cent in 2013 (AIHW 2014).
In a 2013 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting recent
ketamine use increased from 14 per cent in 2012 to 19 per cent in 2013. Early findings from the
2014 study indicate this proportion has decreased slightly to 18 per cent. Respondents reporting
recent GHB use decreased slightly from 7 per cent in 2012 to 6 per cent in 2014. Early findings
from the 2014 study indicate this trend is continuing, with 5 per cent of respondents reporting
recent use of GHB (Sindicich & Burns 2014; Sindicich & Burns 2014a).
PRICE
National law enforcement price data for ketamine is limited. In 2013–14, the price of 1 gram of
ketamine powder in New South Wales ranged between $100 and $180, and $150 and $200 in
Queensland. This is consistent with prices reported in 2012–13. No price data was reported for
the cost of a single ketamine tablet this reporting period.
In 2013–14, the price of 1–1.5 millilitres of GHB/GBL ranged from $3 to $20. The price for a
litre of GHB/GBL varied, ranging between $1 000 and $3 000 in Queensland and up to $4 000
in New South Wales.
PURITY
In a 2013 national study of regular ecstasy users, 58 per cent reported ketamine purity as high,
with early findings of the 2014 study indicating this has increased to 61 per cent (Sindicich & Burns
2014a).14 In the same 2013 survey, 35 per cent reported the purity of GHB as high. Early findings
from the 2014 study indicate this has increased, with 72 per cent of respondents reporting GHB
purity as high.15
AVAILABILITY
According to a 2013 national survey of regular ecstasy users 69 per cent reported ketamine as easy
or very easy to obtain, an increase from 45 per cent in 2012. Early findings from the 2014 study
indicate this figure has decreased to 48 per cent.
According to a 2013 national survey of regular ecstasy users 75 per cent of respondents reported
GHB as easy or very easy to obtain, an increase from the 59 per cent reported in 2012. Early findings
from the 2014 study indicate this figure has decreased to 45 per cent (Sindicich & Burns 2014a).
14 As only small numbers of the national sample commented on characteristics of the ketamine market, results should be interpreted
with caution.
15 As small numbers (n<10) of the national sample commented on characteristics of the GHB market, results should be interpreted
with caution.
129
PHARMACEUTICALS
MAIN FORMS
In Australia, the importation, manufacture, distribution and supply of pharmaceuticals is
controlled under various legislation and regulations. Despite these controls, many pharmaceutical
drugs continue to be diverted to the illicit drug market for non-medical use.
Pharmaceutical drugs are misused for a variety of reasons, including dependence, self-medication,
treatment for an underlying drug dependency problem, withdrawal from other drugs and
enhancement of illicit drug effects. Pharmaceutical drugs used for non-medical purposes can have
potentially dangerous side effects and their use can lead to addiction, poisoning, disease or death.
Pharmaceutical drugs are illicitly obtained for non-medical purposes through a range of means,
including:
family and friends with legitimate prescriptions
stolen, altered or forged prescriptions
feigning symptoms
theft from surgeries or pharmacies
doctor-shopping16
threats to medical practitioners
purchases over the internet
poor prescription practices, such as prescribing larger than required quantities
health practitioners self-prescribing or otherwise misappropriating through their work
(ADF 2013; DCPC 2007).
The Australian government-funded Pharmaceuticals Benefits Scheme (PBS) subsidises a wide
range of medicines.17 The increased number of subsidised pharmaceutical drugs on the PBS in
recent years has increased legitimate access to pharmaceuticals, but also provides an increased
opportunity for their misuse.
This section will focus on the pharmaceutical drugs most commonly misused in Australia:
benzodiazepines and opioids (PHAA 2010).
16 ‘Doctor-shopping’ refers to presenting to numerous doctors for the purpose of obtaining multiple prescriptions to deal with nonexistent or exaggerated symptoms.
17 The PBS is a federally funded government program which subsidises the cost of a broad range of medicines and was established to
ensure Australians have affordable access to pharmaceutical medicines.
130
Other Drugs
BENZODIAZEPINES
Benzodiazepines are a group of central nervous system depressants medically prescribed to
treat conditions including anxiety, insomnia and epilepsy. They are also used to assist in reducing
symptoms of alcohol and drug withdrawal (ADF 2014). Benzodiazepines are generally sold in tablet
or capsule form and stamped with their proprietary name and dose in milligrams. Both medical
and non-medical use of these medications is extremely common. Even when used at therapeutic
levels, dependence18, depression and cognitive impairment can occur.
Benzodiazepines are misused for a number of reasons. These include enhancing the effects of
other depressant drugs, to avoid withdrawal symptoms, as a substitute for drugs of choice and to
moderate side effects from stimulant use (ADF 2014c).
The short-term effects of use may include drowsiness, confusion, nausea and seizures. Longterm use may result in depression, memory loss, lethargy and a lack of motivation, with some
users experiencing anxiety and aggression. Tolerance develops very quickly and withdrawal from
dependent use can lead to panic attacks, vomiting, depression and paranoia (AIC 2011). The
injection of benzodiazepines that are designed to be swallowed can result in chronic inflammatory
granulomas in the lung which can result in emphysema (DCPC 2007). Additionally, severe vascular
damage can occur, which may result in loss of limbs, organ damage or stroke (Partenen et al. 2009).
Benzodiazepines are known to be used illicitly in conjunction with heroin, either as a supplement
or as an alternative drug. Research has indicated that the combination of benzodiazepine, heroin
and alcohol use increases the risk of breathing difficulties and is a key factor in heroin overdose
(AIC 2011).
The main forms of benzodiazepine pharmaceuticals are listed in Table 31.
TABLE 31: Main forms of commonly used benzodiazepine pharmaceuticals
Pharmaceutical type
Trade name
User names
Alprazolam
Zanax, Alprazolam, Tafil, Farmapram,
Asolan, Traxil, Niravam
Zanies, Zans, Blues, Quad Bars, Totem
Poles, Z Bars
Bromazepam
Lexotan
Clonazepam
Rivotril
Diazepam
Valium, Ducene, Antenex, Propam
Flunitrazepam
Rohypnol, Hypnodorm
Rohies, roofies
Nitrazepam
Mogadon, Alodorm, Dormican,
Nitepam
Moggies
Oxazepam
Serepax, Murelax, Alepam, Benzotran
Sarahs
Temazepam
Normison, Temaze, Euhypnos
Footballs, Normies
18 Drug dependence is defined by the International Classification of Diseases 10th Revision (ICD-10) as the presence of three or more
indicators of dependence for at least a month within the previous year (Degenhardt et al. 2013).
131
OPIOIDS
Opioids are a class of drug derived from the opium poppy and include various substances with
similar pain relieving properties. Opioid pharmaceuticals are commonly prescribed for pain
management and the treatment of heroin and other opioid addictions. Opioids are known to be
used illicitly in conjunction with heroin, either as a supplement or as an alternative drug.
The most common opioids used to treat pain include codeine, morphine and oxycodone.
Prolonged regular opioid use may lead to dependence and tolerance, leading the user to seek
increasingly large doses of the drug to achieve the same effect (ADF 2013).
There is a range of harms related to the non-medical use of prescription opioids including nausea,
vomiting, respiratory depression, constipation, drowsiness, confusion and circulatory failure
(Degenhardt et al. 2007). Long-term opioid use may result in gonadal suppression, reduced bone
density, and increased risk of osteoporotic fractures. The risk of lethal overdose is high when
pharmaceutical opioids are used outside the parameters of medical supervision, or in combination
with other pharmaceutical or illicit drugs (DoH 2011).
Common opioid pharmaceuticals are listed in Table 32.
TABLE 32: Main forms of commonly used opioid pharmaceuticals
Pharmaceutical type
Trade name
User names
Comments
Morphine
MS Contin,
Anamorph, Kapanol,
Morphalgin
M, Monkey, Morph,
Miss Emma, Dreamer,
Hard Stuff, Greys
Main component of opium; powerful
narcotic analgesic
Codeine
Panadine Forte, Codral
Forte, Dymadon
Forte, Codalgin Forte,
Mersyndol Forte
Oxycodone
Oxycontin, Endone,
Wxynorm, Percocet,
Roxidcodone, Tylox,
Percodan
Fentanyl
Durogesic, Actiq
(lozenge), Fenpatch,
Denpax
Oxy, Oxies, O.Cs,
Oxycottons, Oxy 80s,
Hillbilly Heroin, Roxies,
Percs
A semi-synthetic opioid analgesic
similar to morphine
An opioid analgesic more potent than
morphine, with a rapid onset and
short duration
Pethidine
Peth
Synthetic narcotic analgesic, similar to
morphine but shorter lasting
Methadone
(or Physeptone—tablet
form)
Meth, Done, Metho
Synthetic narcotic analgesic used in
the treatment of opioid dependence;
predominantly provided in syrup form
to patients
Beup, Mud
Used to treat withdrawal from heroin
and employed in maintenance
treatment to block the effects of
other opioids
Buprenorphine
132
An extract of opium which is not as
strong as morphine
Subutex, Temgesic
Other Drugs
According to the 2014 Global Drug Survey, the non-medical use of benzodiazepines is widespread
internationally, with 7.8 per cent of respondents reporting use of benzodiazepines in the past
12 months (Global Drug Survey 2014). Benzodiazepines are usually diverted from licit supply
chains rather than produced in clandestine laboratories and are often smuggled into countries
where there is an illicit market for the drug (INCB 2013).
The non-medical use of prescription opioids has been increasing globally, with the availability
and price of heroin appearing to influence the market for the non-medical use of prescription
opioids (UNODC 2014). In the US, there is growing evidence that opioid users are choosing to use
heroin when heroin can be sourced cheaper and easier than prescription opioids (Volkow 2014).
Conversely, opioid users in the Russian Federation and Estonia are reportedly shifting from heroin
to prescription opioids, which are cheaper and more readily available (UNODC 2014).
In the US, the fastest-growing drug problem is the non-medical use of prescription drugs,
particularly opioids (ONDCP 2014; Volkow 2014). In 2013, 2.5 per cent of the US population
aged 12 years or older reported the non-medical use of prescription drugs in the last month
(SAMHSA 2014). Between 1991 and 2013, the quantity of opioids prescribed in the US increased
by 172.0 per cent, from around 76 million to almost 207 million prescriptions (Volkow 2014). In
an effort to address the non-medical use of prescription drugs, US government health services are
working with law enforcement, as well as pharmacy and physician boards, to combat fraudulent
and over-prescribing practices (CMMS 2014).
DOMESTIC TRENDS
The importation of prescription pharmaceuticals, when imported by individuals, is primarily done
for personal use and without serious criminal intent. Pharmaceuticals continue to be purchased
over the internet due to the anonymity afforded to purchasers, the ability to purchase without a
prescription and the lower cost.
Pharmaceutical detections reported by the ACBPS in 2013–14 include benzodiazepines19
and opioids. In 2013–14, detections of benzodiazepines increased 45.6 per cent, from 1 056 in
2012–13 to a record 1 538 in 2013–14 (see Figure 66). Opioid pharmaceuticals detected during
2013–14 were oxycodone, codeine, morphine, buprenorphine and methadone. These detections
increased 21.5 per cent this reporting period, from 79 in 2012–13 to a record 96 in 2013–14.
Oxycodone and codeine were the most common opiate pharmaceuticals detected, accounting for
52.0 per cent of the total number of detections this reporting period.
19 Drugs detected in the benzodiazepine class at the Australian border in 2013–14 included diazepam, benzodiazepine, lorazepam,
midazolam and nitrazepam.
133
FIGURE 66: Number of pharmaceutical detections at the Australian border, 2004–05 to 2013–1420
IMPORTATION METHODS
International mail accounted for 65.5 per cent of the number of benzodiazepine detections in
2013–14, followed by air passengers/crew (29.8 per cent) (see Figure 67).
FIGURE 67: Number of benzodiazepines detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total
The international mail stream accounted for 70.8 per cent of the number of opioid detections in
2013–14 (see Figure 68).
20 The ACBPS cannot provide accurate data for the total number of pharmaceuticals detected at the border. The data supplied
since 2012–13 included ‘benzodiazepine’ and ’opiate’ statistics, which only represent a component of the larger pharmaceuticals
category. As such, caution must be used in comparing data.
134
Other Drugs
FIGURE 68: Number of opioid detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by
EMBARKATION POINTS
For benzodiazepine detections in 2013–14, India and Thailand were identified as the key
embarkation points. India was identified as the major embarkation point for opioid detections,
accounting for 21.9 per cent of detections this reporting period.
According to the 2013 NDSHS, the proportion of the Australian population aged 14 years or older
reporting non-medical21 use of pharmaceuticals22 at least once in their lifetime decreased, from
7.4 per cent in 2010 to 4.7 per cent in 2013. In contrast, the proportion reporting recent use
increased, from 4.2 per cent in 2010 to 4.7 per cent in 2013 (AIHW 2013).
According to a 2013 national study of regular injecting drug users, consistent with 2012,
64 per cent of respondents reported the recent use of any form (licit or illicit) of benzodiazepine.
Two-thirds of respondents reported swallowing as the main route of administration. In the same
survey, 6 per cent of respondents in 2013 reported recently injecting illicit benzodiazepines in any
form. However, early findings from the 2014 study indicates this proportion has decreased to
4 per cent. In the 2013 study, recent use of illicit morphine was reported by 35 per cent of
respondents and remained the most commonly injected pharmaceutical opioid. The proportion
of respondents reporting the recent illicit use of oxycodone decreased, from 35 per cent in 2012
to 32 per cent in 2013 (Stafford & Burns 2014a; Stafford & Burns 2014).
Figure 69 illustrates the recent use of various pharmaceutical drugs in 2013, as reported by a
regular injecting drug user population (Stafford & Burns 2014).
21 The NDSHS relates use for non-medical purposes to ‘ways that induced or enhanced a drug experience, enhanced performance or
were for cosmetic purposes’.
22 The NDSHS defines pharmaceuticals as pain-killers/analgesics, tranquilisers, steroids, methadone or buprenorphine and/or other opioids.
135
FIGURE 69: Proportion of a regular injecting drug using population reporting recent use of illicit and licit
pharmaceuticals, by pharmaceutical type, 2013 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
In a 2013 national study of regular ecstasy users, 27 per cent of respondents reported recent
illicit benzodiazepine use and 10 per cent reported recent illicit opioid use. Early findings from the
2014 study indicate the reported use of benzodiazepines has increased to 34 per cent. Figure 70
shows the recent reported illicit use of various pharmaceuticals in 2013, by a regular ecstasy user
population (Sindicich & Burns 2014; Sindicich & Burns 2014a).
FIGURE 70: Proportion of a regular ecstasy using population reporting recent use of illicit and licit
pharmaceuticals, by pharmaceutical type, 2013 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
136
Other Drugs
The Drug Use Monitoring in Australia (DUMA) program, which examines drug use among
police detainees in Australia, is comprised of a self-report survey23 and voluntary provision of a
urine sample which is subjected to urinalysis to detect licit and illicit drug use. In 2013–14, the
proportion of detainees testing positive for benzodiazepine use increased, from 20.0 per cent in
2012–13 to 23.6 per cent.
FIGURE 71: National proportion of detainees testing positive for benzodiazepine use, 2004–05 to
2013–14a (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
The proportion of detainees testing positive for opioid use increased from 14.0 percent in
2012–13 to 20.0 per cent in 2013–14 (see Figure 72).
23 The self-report survey provides a measure of drug use in the 12 months preceding arrest.
137
FIGURE 72: National proportion of detainees testing positive for opiates use, 2004–05 to 2013–14a
(Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
PRICE
Law enforcement price data for pharmaceuticals obtained for non-medical use is limited.
Nationally, in 2013–14 the price for a single 80 milligram Oxycontin tablet ranged between
$20 and $150, with a box costing between $2 000 and $2 800.
According to a 2013 national study of regular injecting drug users, of the respondents able to
comment, the reported median price for a 40 milligram ‘illicit’ Oxycontin tablet ranged from $20
to $40. The same study reported the median price of Diazepam ranged between $1 and $5.50 per
tablet and for Alprazolam the price ranged between $4 and $16 per tablet (Stafford & Burns 2014).24
AVAILABILITY
According to a 2013 national study of regular injecting drug users, 70 per cent of the respondents
able to comment reported illicit oxycodone as easy or very easy to obtain, compared to 68 per
cent in 2012. Figures for 2014 were not available at the time of this report (Stafford & Burns 2014).
SEIZURES
The number of national other opioid seizures increased 1 003.9 per cent this reporting period, from
103 in 2012–13 to a record 1 137 in 2013–14. The weight of seizures increased 378.7 per cent this
reporting period, from 6.1 kilograms in 2012–13 to 29.4 kilograms in 2013–14 (see Figure 73).
24 Due to low response numbers, figures should be interpreted with caution.
138
Other Drugs
FIGURE 73: National other opioid seizures, by number and weight, 2004–05 to 2013–14
New South Wales recorded a large increase in both the number and weight of opioid seizures, and
continues to account for the greatest proportion of national seizures, accounting for 95.6 per cent
of the number and 89.5 per cent of the weight in 2013–14. New South Wales, South Australia,
Western Australia and the Australian Capital Territory reported increases in the number of other
opioid seizures this reporting period. New South Wales, South Australia, Western Australia,
Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory reported increases in the weight of other opioids
seized in 2013–14 (see Table 33).
TABLE 33: Number, weight and percentage change of national other opioid seizures, 2012–13 and
2013–14
Number
Weight (grams)
2012–13
2013–14
% change
2012–13
2013–14
% change
New South Wales
48
1 088
2 166.7
3 823
26 342
589.0
Victoria
13
5
-61.5
1 672
1 648
-1.4
Queensland
16
8
-50.0
385
218
-43.4
South Australia
–
2
100.0
–
5
100.0
Western Australia
4
9
125.0
8
26
225.0
17
14
-17.6
244
337
38.1
Northern Territory
–
–
0.0
–
–
–
5
11
120.0
15
848
5 553.3
103
1 137
1 003.9
6 147
29 424
378.7
State/Territorya
Tasmania
Total
139
DRUG ANALOGUES & NEW PSYCHOACTIVE
SUBSTANCES
MAIN FORMS
Drug analogues and new25 psychoactive substances (DANPS)—also referred to by generic terms
‘synthetic drugs’ or novel/new psychoactive substances—are often marketed as ‘legal highs’.26
DANPS are substances that are structurally similar to a parent compound which is a prohibited
or scheduled drug (a drug analogue); or substances that are intended to have a similar effect to
a prohibited or scheduled drug (a new psychoactive substance). DANPS have been identified in
Australia and overseas since at least the mid-2000s.
DANPS are developed to mimic the pharmacological effects of prohibited drugs while attempting
to avoid existing drug control measures (ACBPS 2010). Available DANPS include stimulants,
hallucinogens, anaesthetics and cannabinoids. DANPS are available in various forms including
tablet, capsule, powder, spray and smoking material (CCC 2013).
A primary concern in relation to DANPS is the diversity and large number of substances involved.
Each variety is sourced from among large groups of chemical compounds, which complicates their
regulation and enables producers and sellers to evade regulatory mechanisms by amending the
chemical composition of their products.
Sellers may falsely market DANPS as being legal alternatives to illicit drugs, or falsely label them as
bath salts or plant food to avoid law enforcement attention. Prospective users may also interpret
the marketing of DANPS as legal highs as meaning they are safe to use, or less harmful than
illicit drugs. The chemical composition of DANPS is often unknown, particularly the psychoactive
chemicals contained in the drug. In addition, there is often no or limited testing done to gauge its
suitability for human consumption prior to distribution (Corderoy 2012). As a result, the effect on
drug users is unpredictable and potentially volatile, addictive and toxic, especially if mixed with
other substances.
DANPS have now become established in the Australian drug market as a drug of choice for some
users. Recent drug use survey results indicate that DANPS usage has increased in the past two
years, but the reported frequency of use remains low compared with that for more established
classes of illicit drugs (Sindicich & Burns 2013). The role of the internet in facilitating the sale of
DANPS, as well as providing a platform for users to discuss these substances, is well known.
Three groups of DANPS that have received considerable public attention are synthetic
cannabinoids, cathinones—in particular 4-methylmethcathinone (4-MMC)—and N-methoxybenzyl
compounds (NBOMes). This section will cover these three groups in more detail.
25 The term ‘new’ does not necessarily refer to a new invention—as many DANPS may have been synthesised years or decades ago—
rather that they have recently emerged on the market.
26 Use of the term ‘legal high’ may not reflect the true legal status of these substances under Australian legislation.
140
Other Drugs
SYNTHETIC CANNABINOIDS
Cannabinoids27 are synthetic chemicals which mimic the effects of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)—
the principal psychoactive component of cannabis. While some cannabinoids share a chemical
structure similar to THC, the vast majority of cannabinoids identified to date have no structural
relationship to THC (EMCDDA 2014). In Australia, cannabinoids are prohibited imports under
Schedule 4 of the Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations 1956 and are border controlled drugs
under Schedule 4 of the Criminal Code Regulations 2002.
As cannabinoids are synthetic substances, there can be considerable variety in both the type
and quantity of psychoactive chemical present, resulting in unpredictable effects experienced
by users. Even in small doses, use of cannabinoids may result in memory and cognitive
impairment. Short-term effects of cannabinoid use include decreased coordination, fatigue,
headaches, disorientation, nausea, hallucinations, high blood pressure, tachycardia, paranoia,
agitation, restlessness, panic attacks, anxiety and depression. Heavy and regular use may cause
hallucinations, confusion, anxiety, depression, paranoia, psychosis, heart palpitations and
outbursts of anger (NSW Health 2013a; Macgregor & Payne 2013).
4-MMC (4-METHYLMETHCATHINONE)
4-MMC, also commercially marketed as mephedrone, is a synthetic stimulant drug and an
analogue of the border controlled drug methcathinone. 4-MMC was originally marketed to
users as a plant fertiliser and ‘research chemical’ in order to avoid attention of law enforcement
agencies (ADF 2014c). In Australia there are no legal uses for 4-MMC and it is a prohibited import
under Schedule 4 of the Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations 1956 and is a border controlled
drug under Schedule 4 of the Criminal Code Regulations 2002.
Commonly sold in capsule or powder form, 4-MMC is usually swallowed or snorted. Although less
common, 4-MMC has also been seized in tablet, crystal and liquid form, which can be snorted,
swallowed, or dissolved for ingestion or injection. The most common route of administration is
snorting (EMCDDA 2010; Sindicich & Burns 2013).
Similar to MDMA, users have reported that 4-MMC produces distinctive emotional and social
effects such as empathy, stimulation and euphoria. Other reported effects include loss of appetite,
dilated pupils, tremors or convulsions, insomnia, anxiety and paranoia. Regular users have
reported that it is difficult to stop using 4-MMC. Regular use can lead to side effects including
insomnia, involuntary muscle clenching and hallucinations. 4-MMC has been implicated in deaths
in the UK and Europe (ADF 2014c; EMCDDA 2010).
NBOMe
There are a number of different NBOMe compounds available, all with differing effects. However,
they are generally designed to mimic or produce similar hallucinogenic effects to more common
illicit drugs, such as LSD (ADF 2014d). Commonly encountered NBOMe compounds include
25I-NBOMe, 25B-NBOMe and 25C-NBOMe (Bright & Barratt 2013). NBOMe compounds are
prohibited imports under Schedule 4 of the Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations 1956 and
are border controlled drugs under Schedule 4 of the Criminal Code Regulations 2002.
27 Scientifically, synthetic cannabinoids are known as cannabimimetics due to the way the compounds mimic cannabis-like behaviour.
The commonly used term ‘synthetic cannabinoids’ has been used here to avoid confusion and remain consistent with existing
public terminology.
141
NBOMe compounds are known illicitly by a variety of names including N-Bomb, Bom-25, pandora,
solaris, divination and wizard. NBOMes are available in blotting paper (similar to LSD) with images
and logos from popular culture, clear liquid, white powder or tablet form. NBOMes have a very
bitter taste, whereas LSD has no taste. The most common method of administration is under the
tongue or held in the cheek to allow absorption into the blood stream (ADF 2014d).
Low to moderate doses of NBOMes can produce effects that last between 4 to 10 hours. The
effects have been reported by users to be more similar to LSD than MDMA and occur at very low
doses. A dose of MDMA, for example is 125mg, whereas users reported that some of the NBOMes
were active at 0.05 milligrams. This variation increases the likelihood of individuals overdosing
on NBOMe drugs. Side effects of use may include confusion, difficulty communicating, nausea,
paranoia, aggression, rapid heart rate, difficulty breathing, seizures or death, with NBOMes
implicated in fatalities in Australia (Bright and Barratt 2013; Caldicott et al 2013; NSW Health
2013b).
The expansion of the DANPS market continues to challenge regulatory control in many countries
globally. The UNODC reports that the number of newly identified DANPS increased, from 251 in
2012 to 348 by December 2013 (UNODC 2014).
The number of categories of DANPS reported in South-East Asia has increased, from 11 in 2008 to
over 200 in 2013. Predominate categories included synthetic cannabinoids (increasing from 1 in
2009 to 52 in 2013), ketamine and phencyclidine-type substances (increasing from 11 in 2008 to
50 in 2013). These substances accounted for 50 per cent of all NPS groups reported in South-East
Asia (UNODC 2014a).
China is a major producer and exporter of DANPS, including synthetic cannabinoids and synthetic
cathinones (BINLEA 2014). China produces the majority of synthetic cannabinoid powders that
are shipped in bulk using established legitimate transport and distribution networks to Europe.
Significant European seizures of bulk powders in 2013 include 7 kilograms in Finland and 6 kilograms
in France. In 2013, 81 DANPS were reported to the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug
Addiction (EMCDDA), of these, 29 were synthetic cannabinoids. As of March 2014, a total of 107
types of synthetic cannabinoids have been reported to the EMCDDA (EMCDDA 2014a).
DOMESTIC TRENDS
Detections by the ACBPS of DANPS comprise synthetic cannabinoids, substituted cathinones,
analogues of amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS), as well as novel and obscure research
chemicals. Their main feature is the diversity and large numbers of substances involved.
DANPS are increasingly detected at the Australian border, mainly in air cargo and international
mail. However, border regulation of DANPS is complex due to new and emerging substances
not being covered under current legislation. Shipments encountered at the Australian border
are either personal use quantities that are purchased online and delivered by mail, or larger
shipments clearly intended for resale. Shipments intended for resale comprise either large
numbers of retail doses, mostly of synthetic cannabinoids packaged as ready-to-use smoking
mixtures, or bulk active agents in kilogram quantities primarily from China.
142
Other Drugs
DRUG PROFILING
DANPS have low active dose thresholds, such as 3–6 milligrams for synthetic cannabinoids and
0.1–0.4 milligrams for the exceptionally dangerous NBOMe group compounds, which have been
linked to fatalities in Australia and other countries. While DANPS, which are sold in Australia at
low prices per dose, have potential to generate criminal profits in excess of those obtained from
trafficking other illicit drugs, at present the DANPS market does not compare in size with more
traditional illicit drug markets.
Although the breadth of new substances appearing on the market is very large, and some
only appear sporadically, the Australian Federal Police Forensic Drug Intelligence (FDI) team,
in consultation with the National Measurement Institute (NMI) has identified the following
categories of DANPS:

amphetamine-type substances
cathinone-type substances
synthetic cannabinoids
tryptamine-type substances
others.
Among the many different compounds detected and profiled since 2006–07, some have been
more common than others in terms of weight of material seized and/or the overall number of
seizures. These have included 4-MMC, N,N-dimethylamphetamine (DMA), 1-benzylpiperazine
(BZP), 3-triflouromethylphenylpiperazine (TFMPP) and 3,4-methylenedioxymethcathinone (MDMC).
Analysis of DANPS seizures indicates that the number increased by 64.3 per cent this reporting
period, from 56 in 2012–13 to 92 in 2013–14. The weight of analysed seizures increased by
271.9 per cent, from 146 kilograms to 543 kilograms (see Figure 74).28
FIGURE 74: Number and weight of seizures selected for further analysis and found to contain drug
analogues and novel substances, 2006–07 to 2013–14 (Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug
Intelligence)
28 The data in Figure 74 refers only to seizures made by the AFP, examined by the AFP crime scene teams, sampled and subsequently
confirmed to contain a novel substance by the NMI. Seizure data does not represent all AFP seizures of DANPS during these periods.
143
Since 2008–09, novel cathinone-type substances have accounted for the highest proportion
of the number of seizures in this subset. In 2013–14, the number of novel cathinone-type
substances comprised 34.8 per cent of analysed seizures, followed by ATS (31.5 per cent), other
(23.9 per cent)29, and synthetic cannabinoids (9.8 per cent). There were no analysed seizures of
novel tryptamine-type substances this reporting period. The weight of ATS accounted for 92.0 per cent
of the weight of analysed seizures, followed by cathinone-type substances (3.7 per cent).
In 2013, the NDSHS surveyed DANPS use for the first time. According to the survey, 1.3 per cent of
the Australian population aged 14 years or older reported recent use of synthetic cannabinoids,
with 0.4 per cent reporting the use of other DANPS. Synthetic cannabinoid use was most common
in the 14–19 year age group. Other DANPS use was most common amongst 20–29 year olds
(AIHW 2013).
According to a 2013 national study of regular ecstasy users, 37 per cent of respondents reported
recent use of DANPS. Early findings of the 2014 study indicate this figure has remained relatively
stable at 36 per cent (Sindicich & Burns 2014; Sindicich & Burns 2014a). This study also found
6 per cent of respondents reported recent use of 4-MMC, while 17 per cent reported use at least
once in their lifetime. Recent 4-MMC use was reported primarily in Tasmania and Victoria. Early
findings from the 2014 study indicate reported recent use has decreased to 5 per cent (Sindicich
& Burns 2014a). Snorting (61 per cent), followed by swallowing (49 per cent), were the most
common methods of administration, with minimal reporting of injecting (Sindicich & Burns 2014).
In the same 2013 study, the proportion of respondents reporting recent use of synthetic
cannabinoids decreased, from 15 per cent in 2012 to 9 per cent in 2013. Early findings from the
2014 study indicate this has further decreased to 7 per cent (Sindicich & Burns 2013; Sindicich &
Burns 2014a).
Prior to 2014, these national surveys of regular ecstasy users did not capture data relating to
NBOMe use. Early findings from the 2014 study, which now includes information on the use of
NBOMes, indicate that 9 per cent of respondents reported recent use of NBOMes. According to
early findings of the 2014 study, non-specified NBOMe compounds are the second highest NPS
category after 2CB (a form of NBOMe) at 12 per cent (Sindicich & Burns 2014a).
PRICE
National law enforcement price data for DANPS is limited. In 2013–14, the price of a single 4MMC
tablet/capsule in Tasmania was $30, while in Queensland the price ranged between $20 and $50.
These prices are consistent with those reported in 2012–13. In Western Australia, the price of
1.5 grams of synthetic cannabinoid was reported at $25, with 3 grams reported to cost $60 in the
Northern Territory and between $50 and $95 in Queensland, and 7 grams reported to cost $100 in
the Australian Capital Territory.
29 Figures for other also include seizures which contain mixed combinations of amphetamine-type substances, novel cathinonetype substances, synthetic cannabinoids, novel tryptamine-type substances, novel 2C-type substances and novel piperazine-type
substances.
144
Other Drugs
OTHER & UNKNOWN NOT ELSEWHERE
CLASSIFIED DRUGS
Data for national other and unknown not elsewhere classified (NEC) drug arrests and seizures
capture those drugs and substances outside the specific drug categories contained in the Illicit
Drug Data Report. This category covers a range of substances including precursors, anaesthetics,
DANPS, pharmaceuticals and drugs not elsewhere classified. Substances in this category are likely
to change between reporting periods. Data limitations are further discussed in the Statistics
chapter of this report.
SEIZURES
While the number of national other and unknown NEC drug seizures decreased by 10.4 per cent
this reporting period, from 7 177 in 2012–13 to 6 434 in 2013–14, it is the second highest number
reported in the last decade. The weight of other and unknown NEC drugs seized nationally
increased, from 2 200.0 kilograms in 2012–13 to a record 15 685.9 kilograms in 2013–14 (see
Figure 75). A single 10 tonne seizure of benzaldehyde in Victoria in 2013–14 contributed to the
significant increase in weight of drugs seized.
FIGURE 75: National other and unknown—not elsewhere classified seizures, by number and weight,
2004–05 to 2013–14
New South Wales accounted for the greatest proportion of the number of national other and
unknown NEC seizures this reporting period, accounting for 40.2 per cent in 2013–14. Victoria,
Western Australia, Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory all reported increases in seizure
numbers this reporting period. Victoria accounted for the greatest proportion of the weight of
national other and unknown NEC seizures this reporting period, accounting for 75.3 per cent in
2013–14. Western Australia and the Australian Capital Territory were the only jurisdictions to
report decreases in the weight seized this reporting period (see Table 34).
145
TABLE 34: Number, weight and percentage change of national other and unknown—not elsewhere
classified seizures, 2012–13 and 2013–14
Number
State/Territory
a
New South Wales
Victoria
Queensland
South Australia
Western Australia
Weight (grams)
2012–13
2013–14
% change
2012–13
2013–14
% change
3 122
2 588
-17.1
655 050
893 530
36.4
663
713
7.5
371 678
11 814 007
3 078.6
1 258
926
-26.4
486 917
2 293 141
371.0
32
17
-46.9
13 926
17 737
27.4
1 704
1 720
0.9
90 523
74 521
-17.7
Tasmania
158
204
29.1
1 807
2 454
35.8
Northern Territory
211
203
-3.8
578 715
590 175
2.0
29
63
117.2
1 444
371
-74.3
7 177
6 434
-10.4
2 200 060
15 685 936
613.0
Total
ARRESTS
The number of national other and unknown NEC arrests increased by 6.0 per cent this reporting
period, from 12 469 in 2012–13 to a record 13 219 in 2013–14. Consumer arrests continue to
account for the greatest proportion of national arrests in this category, comprising 78.4 per cent.
However, the Northern Territory reported more provider than consumer arrests this reporting
Figure 76: Number of national other and unknown not elsewhere classified arrests, 2004–05 to 2013–14
146
Other Drugs
Victoria, Queensland and Western Australia all reported increases in other and unknown NEC
arrests in 2013–14. New South Wales, South Australia, Tasmania and the Northern Territory
all reported decreases, while the Australian Capital Territory recorded no related arrests in the
reporting period. Queensland continues to account for the greatest proportion of national arrests,
accounting for 30.8 per cent of arrests in 2013–14 (see Table 35).
Table 35: Number and percentage change of national other and unknown not elsewhere classified arrests,
2012–13 and 2013–14
Arrests
State/Territory
a
New South Wales
Victoria
Queensland
South Australia
Western Australia
Tasmania
Northern Territory
Total
2012–13
2013–14
% change
1 706
1 425
-16.5
3 182
3 526
10.8
3 945
4 068
3.1
801
265
-66.9
2 439
3 657
49.9
345
237
-31.3
51
41
-19.6
–
–
–
12 469
13 219
6.0
NATIONAL IMPACT
Australian border detections of PIEDs decreased in 2013–14. Of the total number of PIEDs
detected, 77.4 per cent were steroids and 22.6 per cent were hormones. In 2013–14, a total
of 31 embarkation points were identified for hormone related detections and 61 for steroid
related detections, with the US, China and Hong Kong common to both categories. As in 2012–13,
imports were identified across the four major import streams, with international mail accounting
for 82.4 per cent of the total number of AAS/PIED detections.
There was a record 357 national steroid seizures this reporting period. While the weight of
national steroid seizures decreased, it is the third highest weight reported in the last decade.
New South Wales continues to account for the greatest proportion of both the number and
weight of national steroid seizures. There was a record 936 national steroid arrests in 2013–14.
Queensland continues to account for the greatest proportion of national steroid arrests. Consumer
arrests continue to account for the greatest proportion of national arrests. However, the Australian
Capital Territory reported more provider than consumer steroid arrests in 2013–14.
Australian border detections of tryptamines decreased in 2013–14. Of the 407 detections
this reporting period, LSD accounted for nearly three-quarters. As seen in 2012–13, Canada,
the Netherlands, the UK, Spain and the US were the primary embarkation points for tryptamine
detections at the Australian border in 2013–14. The international mail stream accounted for
99.0 per cent of the number of tryptamine detections in 2013–14 and 100.0 per cent of psilocybin
detections.
147
In 2013–14, both the number and weight of national hallucinogen seizures decreased, with the
number of seizures the third highest number reported in the last decade. By number, New South
Wales accounted for the greatest proportion of national seizures in 2013–14, while Queensland
accounted for the greatest proportion of the weight. While the number of national hallucinogen
arrests decreased in 2013–14, it is the second highest number reported in the last decade.
Consumer arrests continue to account for the greatest proportion of national hallucinogen arrests.
However, South Australia and the Northern Territory reported more provider than consumer
arrests this reporting period.
Despite the number of anaesthetics detected at the Australian border decreasing in 2013–14,
GHB and GBL detections increased this reporting period and are the highest on record. While
ketamine detections decreased, it is the second highest number on record. The UK was the
primary embarkation point for all anaesthetic detections in 2013–14, whereas Poland was the key
embarkation point for GHB and GBL detections. As seen in 2012–13, the international mail stream
accounted for the highest proportion of detections this reporting period, followed by air cargo.
Pharmaceuticals identified at the Australian border in 2013–14 include both benzodiazepines
and opioids. The number of Australian border detections of benzodiazepines and opioids
increased this reporting period to record highs. Thailand remained a key embarkation point for
benzodiazepine detections at the Australian border, while India was the primary embarkation
point for opioids. International mail accounted for 65.5 per cent and 70.8 per cent of
benzodiazepine and opioid detections in 2013–14, respectively.
Both the number and weight of national opioid seizures increased in 2013–14, with the number of
seizure the highest on record. This reporting period New South Wales accounted for the greatest
proportion of both the number and weight of national other opioid seizures.
Recent drug use survey results indicate an increase in the use of DANPS over the last two years.
However, the frequency of use remains low when compared to other classes of illicit drugs.
DANPS are increasingly being detected at the Australian border, with shipments comprising
packages identified for personal use and larger scale detections, likely for resale. In the reporting
period, shipments intended for resale primarily comprised synthetic cannabinoids packaged as
ready-to-use smoking mixtures, or bulk active agents in kilogram quantities primarily from China.
While the number of other and unknown NEC seizures decreased this reporting period, it is the
second highest number on record. The total weight of other and unknown NEC drugs seized
nationally increased in 2013–14 and is the highest on record. This reporting period New South
Wales accounted for the greatest proportion of the number of national seizures, while Victoria
accounted for the greatest proportion of the weight. There was a record number of other and
unknown NEC arrests in 2013–14. Queensland continues to account for the greatest proportion of
national other and unknown NEC arrests. Consumer arrests continue to account for the greatest
proportion of national arrests in this category. However, the Northern Territory reported more
provider than consumer arrests in 2013–14.
148
Other Drugs
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152
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154
Clandestine Laboratories and Precursors
CLANDESTINE
LABORATORIES AND
PRECURSORS
KEY POINTS
Although the number of clandestine laboratories detected nationally decreased this reporting
period, the 744 detections in 2013–14 is the third highest on record.
The majority of clandestine laboratories continue to be detected in residential areas, with
increases in rural and vehicle detections in 2013–14.
While the majority of laboratories detected continue to be addict-based, in 2013–14 there was
an increase in the proportion of small-scale, medium sized and industrial scale laboratories.
Both the number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) and MDMA precursor detections at the
Australian border decreased in 2013–14.
In 2013–14, the number of tablet press and tablet press parts detected at the Australian border
and the number of tablet presses seized nationally decreased.
155
MAIN FORMS
Synthetic illicit drugs are generally produced within clandestine laboratories. Commonly referred
to as ‘clan labs’, these facilities range in scale and capability from crude, makeshift operations
using simple processes to highly sophisticated operations using technically advanced equipment
and complex chemical techniques. Regardless of their size or level of sophistication, the corrosive
and hazardous nature of chemicals used in clandestine laboratories pose significant risks to
those operating the laboratories, neighbouring properties and the wider community. Many of
the chemicals used are extremely volatile and are an explosion risk. The waste associated with
manufacture can also contaminate the environment (AGD 2011).
Drug manufacturing carried out in clandestine laboratories may involve any or all of the following
processes:
Extraction—the active chemical ingredients are extracted from a chemical preparation or
plant, using a chemical solvent to produce a finished drug or a precursor chemical. Examples of
extraction include the extraction of precursor chemicals from pharmaceutical preparations1, or
the extraction of morphine from opium.
Conversion—a raw or unrefined drug product is changed into a more sought-after product
by altering the chemical form. Examples include converting cocaine base into cocaine
hydrochloride or methylamphetamine base into crystalline methylamphetamine hydrochloride.
Synthesis—raw materials are combined and reacted under specific conditions to create the
finished product through chemical reactions. Synthetic drugs such as methylamphetamine,
3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) are
created through this process.
Tableting—the final product is converted into dosage units. An example is pressing MDMA
powder into tablets.
There are three types of substances used in illicit drug manufacture:
Precursors—considered the starting materials for illicit drug manufacture. Through chemical
reactions, the precursor’s molecular structure is modified to produce a specific illicit drug.
For example, precursors such as ephedrine (Eph) and pseudoephedrine (PSE) are converted
to methylamphetamine.
Reagents—substances used to cause a chemical reaction that modify the precursor’s molecular
structure. For example, when hydriodic acid and red phosphorous are mixed with the
precursors Eph or PSE, the resulting compound is methylamphetamine.
Solvents—added to the chemical mixture to ensure effective mixing by dissolving precursors
and reagents, diluting the reaction mixtures, and separating and purifying other chemicals.
For example, acetone and diethyl ether are used in heroin production (INCB 2014).
1
156
Such as pseudoephedrine from cold and flu products.
Globally, amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) are the most common illicit drugs manufactured in
clandestine laboratories. In Australia, Eph and PSE are the most common precursors used in the
manufacture of methylamphetamine. Safrole, isosafrole and piperonal are the principal precursors
used in the manufacture of MDMA (UNODC 2014). However, new methods using a variety
of precursors and pre-precursors are constantly being developed in response to the reduced
availability of required chemicals and law enforcement attention.
Many, but not all, precursor chemicals are controlled by international and domestic regulations. As
many industrial chemicals have legitimate application, precursor controls must balance legitimate
access with efforts to reduce diversion to the illicit market. The emergence of production
methodologies using unregulated precursors, pre-precursors, solvents and reagents is an ongoing
challenge for government and law enforcement.
In 2007, the Australian Government funded the national roll-out of Project STOP, an initiative
aimed at reducing the diversion of pharmaceutical products containing PSE to the illicit drug
manufacturing market. As of 30 June 2013, 79.4 per cent of approved community pharmacies
were registered with Project STOP. This proportion has remained relatively stable, with
79.3 per cent reported at 30 June 2014.
A number of strategies have been implemented internationally to prevent the illegal trade of
chemicals. However, the introduction of chemical brokers and intermediaries has made the chemical
industry more vulnerable to attempts to divert chemicals to the illicit market (UNODC 2014).
The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) World Drug Report 2014 found that
in the period 2010–12, 77 countries were involved in the manufacture of precursor chemicals,
150 countries reported importing precursors and 122 reported exporting precursors. Chemicals
listed in Table I of the 1988 United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and
Psychotropic Substances (1988 Convention), which include those used in the manufacture of
heroin, cocaine, and synthetic drugs, have almost doubled over the past two decades.2 This is in
contrast to chemicals listed in Table II of the 1988 Convention which have been following a stable
trajectory during the same reporting period (UNODC 2014).
International controls of precursor chemicals have led to a reduction in their diversion to the illicit
market, including through increased interception rates, greater quantities of precursors being seized
compared to manufactured illicit substances, reduced availability of precursors and increased pricing.
For example, the price of acetic anhydride—used in the production of heroin—on the Afghanistan
illicit market increased from US$8 per litre in 2002 to a peak of US$430 per litre in 2011. Since 2011,
prices have decreased, averaging around US$167 to US$221 per litre in 2013 (UNODC 2014).
2
The 1988 Convention sets out specific measures for the manufacture and distribution of, and international trade in, a number of
chemicals frequently used in the manufacture of illicit drugs. These are listed under two categories: Table I lists the more strictly
controlled substances and Table II lists the relatively less controlled substances.
157
In response to limited precursor availability, operators of clandestine laboratories have developed
a number of counter-strategies, including the use of transit countries with weaker regulatory
controls, use of organised criminal groups to obtain illicit precursors, smuggling precursors, use
of unrestricted chemicals and novel production methods and use of front companies to facilitate
importations (UNODC 2014).
China, India and Singapore remain the world’s largest producers and exporters of chemicals. China
and India are targeted by criminal groups who exploit limited domestic regulatory frameworks and
the proximity of manufacturing regions to divert precursor chemicals for illicit drug manufacture
(UNODC 2014). Despite improvements in legislative and regulatory controls, China continues
to be a major source of precursor chemicals used by transnational criminal organisations from
Mexico, Colombia, West Africa, Iran and Pakistan. Criminal groups are exploiting the location of
large chemical factories located near coastal cities with port facilities to divert legal shipments of
precursors for illicit drug manufacture (BINLEA 2014).
Diversion from legitimate trade remains a primary method for sourcing precursor chemicals.
The majority of Chinese-produced precursors seized in Mexico and Central America were legally
exported from China. The precursors had either been diverted en route or exported using
fraudulent labelling or false declarations (BINLEA 2014).
The global manufacture of ATS (excluding MDMA) continues to increase, with a large increase in
the number of methylamphetamine laboratories dismantled in key source countries including
China, the United States of America and Mexico. North America accounted for half of the
144 metric tonnes of ATS (excluding MDMA) seized globally during 2013 (UNODC 2014).
On average, around 48 tonnes of ephedrines (Eph and/or PSE) are seized globally each year,
primarily in South-East and East Asia, Central America and the Caribbean. Reporting of precursor
and clandestine laboratory seizures globally indicates methylamphetamine continues to be primarily
manufactured using Eph/PSE, despite significant increases in the use of phenyl-2-propanone (P2P) in
South America (BINLEA 2014).
Recent reporting indicates that the global availability of MDMA has increased as manufacturers
find new ways to procure alternative chemicals from which to manufacture the drug (EMCDDA
2014). There are early indications that MDMA manufacture is increasing in Europe. During 2013,
Belgian authorities dismantled two of the largest MDMA clandestine laboratories ever discovered
in Europe. A MDMA lab discovered in August 2013 contained several tonnes of safrole and around
a tonne of crystal MDMA (Europol 2013). In October 2013, authorities in Belgium dismantled an
MDMA laboratory covering 1 000 square metres and containing around 35 tonnes of chemicals. It
was estimated that the laboratory was capable of producing several hundred kilograms of MDMA
per week (Europol 2013a). MDMA produced in large-scale laboratories across Netherlands and
Belgium is trafficked to international user markets, including Australia (DEA 2013).
158
Argentina has become a major supplier of precursor chemicals for Mexican drug cartels involved
in cocaine production (Gurney 2014). Argentina’s poor regulatory control and minimal restrictions
on precursors reduces the risk of law enforcement detection of precursor diversion (Gurney
2014a). During August and September 2013, Argentinean authorities seized around 65 tonnes of
cocaine precursors, which were in road transit from Argentina to Bolivia (Southwick 2013). Recent
cocaine seizures indicate production is being moved into Argentina, closer to source chemicals and
international trafficking routes. In September 2013, 300 kilograms of cocaine and coca base, as
well as large quantities of precursors, were located in a coca lab in Argentina (Southwick 2013).
DOMESTIC TRENDS
As ATS are the most common illicit drugs manufactured in domestic clandestine laboratories,
analysis of border data focuses on ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor and MDMA precursor
detections. In this reporting period, ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor border detections included
Eph/PSE and MDMA precursor border detections were of safrole.
During 2013–14, ATS (excluding MDMA) and MDMA precursors were detected in both
international mail and air cargo, with ATS (excluding MDMA) precursors also imported via sea
cargo and by air passengers/crew. Hong Kong and China were identified as the only embarkation
points for MDMA precursors this reporting period. Both were also key embarkation points for ATS
(excluding MDMA) precursors.
There were 1 035 detections of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursors in 2013–14, a slight decrease
from 1 043 detections in 2012–13. The weight of detections also decreased this reporting period,
from 1 700.4 kilograms in 2012–13 to 1 505.2 kilograms in 2013–14 (see Figure 77).
FIGURE 77: Number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor detections at the Australian border,
2004–05 to 2013–14 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
159
In 2013–14, there were 283 ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor detections weighing more than
1 kilogram each. These detections accounted for 96.1 per cent of the total weight of ATS
(excluding MDMA) precursors detected this reporting period, totalling 1 446.1 kilograms.
The number of MDMA precursor detections has remained consistently low since 2004. This
reporting period the number of MDMA precursor detections decreased, from 12 in 2012–13
to 4. The weight of MDMA precursor detections has fluctuated over the last decade, with
two notable spikes in 2004–05 and 2010–11 relating to the detection of 3 050 kilograms of
3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl-2-propanone (MDP2P) and 12 240 litres of safrole, respectively. The
weight of MDMA precursor detections decreased this reporting period, from 7.9 kilograms in
2012–13 to 1.2 kilograms in 2013–14 (see Figure 78).
FIGURE 78: Number and weight/litresa of MDMA precursor detections at the Australian border, 2004–05 to
2013–14 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
a. Significant detections of MDMA precursors occur in both litres and kilograms. As this figure reflects two units of measurement, it is
necessary to refer to ‘Significant Border Detections’ for individual reporting periods to determine the related unit of measurement.
Significant border detections of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursors in 2013–14 include:
274 kilograms of ephedrine detected on 16 July 2013, concealed in bags of rice, via sea cargo
from India to Melbourne
106 kilograms of ephedrine detected on 15 May 2014, contained in cardboard boxes, via sea
cargo from China to Sydney
66 kilograms of ephedrine detected on 28 February 2014, concealed in jars of tomato paste, via
sea cargo from Lebanon to Sydney
55 kilograms of ephedrine detected on 13 May 2014, concealed within granite balusters, via
sea cargo from China to Sydney
37 kilograms of ephedrine detected on 14 May 2014, concealed in henna powder, via sea cargo
from India to Sydney.
160
These 5 detections have a combined weight of 538 kilograms and account for 33.7 per cent of the
total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursors detected at the border in 2013–14.
There was a total of 4 MDMA precursor detections in 2013–14:
900 grams of safrole detected on 27 January 2014, concealed in lotion bottles, via international
mail from Hong Kong to Melbourne
300 grams of safrole detected on 1 April 2014, concealed in lotion bottles, via international
mail from China to Melbourne
30 grams of safrole detected on 5 April 2014, concealed in lotion bottles, via air cargo from
Hong Kong to Brisbane
10 grams of safrole detected on 2 March 2014, contained in a foil bag, via air cargo from China
to Sydney.
IMPORTATION METHODS
ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor importations were detected in all streams this reporting period.
International mail accounted for 54.5 per cent of the number of detections. This was followed by
air cargo, which accounted for 21.4 per cent (see Figure 79).
FIGURE 79: Number of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor detections at the Australian border, as a
proportion of total detections, by method of importation, 2013–14 (Source: Australian Customs and
Border Protection Service)
Air cargo accounted for 39.9 per cent of the total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor
detections in 2013–14. This was followed by sea cargo, which accounted for 35.0 per cent
(see Figure 80).
161
FIGURE 80: Weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of
total weight, by method of importation, 2013–14 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
There was a total of 4 MDMA precursor detections in 2013–14, with 2 detections each in air cargo
and international mail (See Figure 81).
FIGURE 81: Number of MDMA precursor detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total
The combined weight of the 4 MDMA precursor detections was 1.24 kilograms, of which 96.8 per
cent was identified in international mail consignments (see Figure 82).
162
FIGURE 82: Weight of MDMA precursor detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total weight,
EMBARKATION POINTS
A total of 43 embarkation points for ATS (excluding MDMA) precursors were identified in 2013–14. The
key embarkation point this reporting period was China, accounting for 16.8 per cent of the total number
and 63.4 per cent of the total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor detections in 2013–14.
Hong Kong and China were the only 2 MDMA precursor embarkation points identified in 2013–14.
This reporting period Hong Kong accounted for 75 per cent of the total weight of detections, with
China accounting for 25 per cent.
TABLET PRESS DETECTIONS
In 2013–14, 20 tablet presses and associated parts were detected at the Australian border, a
decrease from 28 in 2012–13. Of the related detections, they included 16 tablet presses ranging
from hand held to hydraulic, and boxes of tablet press parts such as logo makers and motors. Air
cargo accounted for 85.0 per cent of detections, followed by international mail, which accounted
for 15.0 per cent (see Figure 83). Hong Kong and China were identified as the key embarkation
points for tablet press detections in 2013–14.
FIGURE 83: Number of tablet press detections at the Australian border, 2013–14 (Source: Australian
Customs and Border Protection Service)
163
The number of clandestine laboratory detections is not indicative of production output, which
is calculated using a number of variables including size of reaction vessels, amount and type
of precursor chemicals used, the skill of people involved and the method of manufacture.
Regardless of their size, the residual contamination arising from illicit drug manufacture presents
a serious risk to humans and the environment. In 2011, the Australian Government launched the
Clandestine Drug Laboratory Remediation Guidelines in recognition of the hazardous nature of
clandestine laboratories (AGD 2011).
CLANDESTINE LABORATORY DETECTIONS
The number of clandestine laboratories detected nationally has continued to increase over the
last decade, from 381 in 2004–05 to 744 in 2013–14. Despite a decrease from 757 detections in
2012–13, the 744 detections in 2013–14 is the third highest on record (see Figure 84).
FIGURE 84: National clandestine laboratory detections, 2004–05 to 2013–14
Victoria, Queensland, South Australia and the Northern Territory reported increases in the number
of clandestine laboratories detected in 2013–14 (see Table 36). The 80 clandestine laboratory
detections in South Australia this reporting period is the highest number reported for the state
in the last decade and represents a 42.8 per cent increase in detections in 2013–14 compared
with 2012–13. The 114 laboratory detections in Victoria in 2013–14 is also the highest number
of detections reported for the state in the last decade. Queensland continues to account for the
greatest proportion of national clandestine laboratory detections, accounting for 45.8 per cent this
reporting period.
164
TABLE 36: Number of clandestine laboratory detections, by state and territory, 2004–05 to 2013–14
Year
NSW
Vic
Qld
SA
WA
Tas
NT
ACT
Total
2004–05
45
31
209
25
44
3
21
3
381
2005–06
55
47
161
50
58
5
12
2
390
2006–07
49
72
132
51
37
9
1
5
356
2007–08
51
76
121
69
30
2
1
6
356
2008–09
67
84
148
65
78
0
7
0
449
2009–10
82
113
297
71
118
1
12
0
694
2010–11
87
63
293
75
171
11
2
1
703
2011–12
90
99
379
58
160
15
7
1
809
2012–13
105
113
330
56
136
9
8
0
757
2013–14
98
114
340
80
96
5
11
0
744
SIZE AND PRODUCTION CAPACITY
There is currently no recognised standard, either in Australia or internationally, for measuring the
size or production capacity of clandestine laboratories. State and territory police services were asked
to provide an indication of size and production capacity of detected laboratories using categories
provided by the UNODC. Full definitions for the four categories—addict-based, other small-scale,
medium sized and industrial scale—are provided in the Statistics chapter of this report.
In 2013–14, clandestine laboratories detected in Australia covered all four laboratory categories.
During this reporting period, for those able to be categorised, the majority of detected clandestine
laboratories were addict-based laboratories, the proportion of which decreased from 58.8 per
cent in 2012–13 to 51.6 per cent in 2013–14.3 Conversely, the proportion of laboratories attributed
to other small-scale, medium sized and industrial scale laboratories increased, reflecting increases
in the sophistication and/or size of detected laboratories. The largest growth occurred in the
medium sized category, which increased from 9.7 per cent in 2012–13 to 12.3 per cent in 2013–14
(see Figure 85).
FIGURE 85: Category of detected clandestine laboratories, by size and production capacity, 2013–14
3
This is the third time jurisdictions have provided an indication of the size and production capacity of detected laboratories. Figures
were not available for all clandestine laboratories detected.
165
DRUG TYPES AND METHODS OF PRODUCTION
Clandestine laboratories manufacturing ATS (excluding MDMA) continue to represent the
majority (78.9 per cent) of detections by drug production type in Australia. In 2013–14,
methylamphetamine was the main drug produced in detected laboratories (see Table 37).
TABLE 37: Number of clandestine laboratory detections, by drug production type and state and territory,
2013–14
State/
Territory
ATS
(excluding
MDMA)
Chemicals/
Cannabis
glassware/
Homebake
oil
PSE a
equipment
MDMA
heroin extraction extraction GHB/ GBL
onlyb
Otherc Unknownd
Totale
78
1
0
0
0
1
0
10
8
98
Vic
102
1
0
0
0
2
0
0
9
114
Qld
270
0
3
5
4
6
9
12
55
364
SA
52
1
0
1
1
2
0
4
20
81
WA
92
0
2
0
0
0
0
3
0
97
Tas
3
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
5
NT
11
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
11
ACT
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
608
3
5
7
6
11
9
29
92
770
NSW
Total
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Pseudoephedrine.
The seizure of glassware or equipment only is not categorised as a laboratory detection in some jurisdictions.
‘Other’ refers to the detection of other illicit manufacture.
‘Unknown’ includes seized substances which were unable to be identified or are awaiting analysis.
Total may exceed the number of clandestine laboratory detections due to multiple drug production types being identified in a
single laboratory.
The number of national ATS (excluding MDMA) laboratory detections increased, from 544
in 2012–13 to 608 in 2013–14. Since 2000–01, Queensland has accounted for the greatest
proportion of national ATS (excluding MDMA) clandestine laboratory detections, accounting for
44.4 per cent in 2013–14.
The number of MDMA clandestine laboratories detected nationally remains low, with
3 detections in 2013–14. These laboratories were detected in New South Wales, Victoria and
South Australia.
The number of national homebake heroin laboratory detections increased from 1 in 2012–13 to
5 in 2013–14. This reporting period there were 3 detections in Queensland and 2 detections in
Western Australia. Cannabis oil extraction laboratories continue to be detected in low numbers.
In 2013–14, 7 cannabis oil extraction laboratories were detected nationally, 5 in Queensland and
1 each in South Australia and Tasmania.
During this reporting period, 11 clandestine laboratories manufacturing gamma-butyrolactone/
gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB/GBL) were detected nationally, an increase from 4 laboratories
in 2012–13. Queensland reported 6 detections, with Victoria and South Australia both reporting
2 detections, and New South Wales 1 detection. The number of clandestine laboratories detected
nationally extracting pseudoephedrine continued to decrease this reporting period, from 11
in 2012–13 to 6 in 2013–14.
166
In 2013–14, the hypophosphorous and Nazi/Birch methods of methylamphetamine production
continued to dominate detections in Australia. Nationally, the number of laboratories identified
using the hypophosphorous method of manufacture increased, from 264 in 2012–13 to 284 in
2013–14. Queensland continues to account for the greatest proportion of hypophosphorous
laboratories, accounting for 50.7 per cent of the national total in 2013–14.
Nationally, the proportion of clandestine laboratories using the Nazi/Birch method decreased
29.1 per cent this reporting period, from 134 in 2012–13 to 95 in 2013–14. These laboratories
continue to be predominately detected in Western Australia, which accounted for 88.4 per cent
of national Nazi/Birch detections this reporting period (see Table 38).
TABLE 38: Method of ATS (excluding MDMA) production in clandestine laboratory detections, by state and
territory, 2013–14
Nazi/Birch
Phenyl-2Propanone
(P2P)
Othera
Totalb
8
2
7
9
78
50
6
5
7
2
70
Qld
144
11
2
5
0
162
SA
21
4
2
1
0
28
WA
3
3
84
0
6
96
Tas
3
0
0
0
0
3
NT
11
0
0
0
0
11
ACT
0
0
0
0
0
0
284
32
95
20
17
448
State/
Territory
Hypophosphorous
Redphosphorus
NSW
52
Vic
Total
a. ‘Other’ includes the detection of other ATS (excluding MDMA) production methodologies.
b. Total may not equal the number of ATS (excluding MDMA) clandestine laboratory detections as the method of production may not
be identified.
The number of clandestine laboratories identified nationally as using the P2P method of
production has increased, from 16 laboratories detected in each of the two previous reporting
periods to 20 laboratories in 2013–14. Victoria and New South Wales each reported 7 laboratories
in 2013–14, accounting for 70 per cent of the P2P laboratories detected nationally this reporting
period. National detections of laboratories using the red phosphorous production method
decreased 27.3 per cent this reporting period, from 44 in 2012–13 to 32 in 2013–14.
SIGNIFICANT PRECURSOR SEIZURES
While the majority of detected clandestine laboratories in Australia remain addict-based, illicit
drug manufacture in Australia does include medium to industrial scale clandestine laboratories.
In addition to a 10 tonne seizure of benzaldehyde in 2013–14, the following provides a national
snapshot of the identification and/or seizure of some other significant quantities of precursors/
reagents this reporting period:
375 kilograms of hypophosphorous acid in Victoria
250 kilograms of anhydrous ammonia in Victoria
22.5 kilograms of Eph in Western Australia
2 kilograms of iodine in Queensland
167
500 grams of red phosphorous in Victoria
900 litres of cinnamaldehyde in South Australia
150 litres of benzaldehyde in South Australia
74 litres of hypophosphorous acid in South Australia
6 litres of PSE in Victoria
3 000 tablets of PSE in Victoria
200 boxes of PSE-based medication in South Australia.
LOCATION AND CATEGORY
Residential areas remain the primary location of clandestine laboratory detections in Australia.
In 2013–14, 67.8 per cent of clandestine laboratory detections were located in residential areas,
followed by vehicles (12.2 per cent), other (9.6 per cent) and public areas (3.9 per cent). The
proportion of clandestine laboratories detected in commercial/industrial locations decreased, from
8.9 per cent in 2012–13 to 3.0 per cent in 2013–14. The proportion of clandestine laboratories
detected in vehicles increased this reporting period, from to 9.0 per cent in 2012–13 to 12.2 per cent
in 2013–14. The number of laboratories identified in rural locations also increased, from
2.2 per cent in 2012–13 to 3.5 per cent in 2013–14 (see Figure 86).
FIGURE 86: Location of clandestine laboratory detections, 2013–14
There are four distinct categories of clandestine laboratories:
Category A—active (chemicals and equipment in use)
Category B—stored/used (equipment or chemicals)4
Category C—stored/unused (equipment or chemicals)
Category D—historical site.
4
168
Laboratories that are fully assembled, but not active at the time of detection.
Nationally, the majority of clandestine laboratories detected this reporting period were classified
as Category C, accounting for 55.6 per cent of detected laboratories in 2013–14. This is an
increase from 50.5 per cent in 2012–13. Category B was the second most common category,
accounting for 25.0 per cent of detected laboratories. The percentage of detected laboratories
classified as Category A decreased from 11.3 per cent in 2012–13 to 8.3 per cent in 2013–14,
while laboratories classified as Category D increased from 5.8 per cent in 2012–13 to 11.0 per cent
in 2013–14 (see Figure 87).
FIGURE 87: Category of detected clandestine laboratories, 2013–14
NATIONAL TABLET PRESS SEIZURES
The number of tablet presses5 seized nationally decreased 63.2 per cent this reporting period,
from 19 in 2012–13 to 7 in 2013–14. The 7 seizures this reporting period is the lowest figure
reported since 2008–09. The majority of seizures this reporting period occurred in Queensland,
where 4 presses were seized.
NATIONAL IMPACT
The number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) and MDMA precursor detections at the
Australian border decreased in 2013–14. Eph and safrole were the predominant precursors
detected at the Australian border this reporting period.
In 2013–14, the number of tablet presses detected at the Australian border and seized nationally
decreased compared to 2012–13. Detections of tablet presses and tablet press parts at the
border decreased by 28.6 per cent this reporting period, with the number of tablet presses seized
nationally decreasing 63.2 per cent.
5
Simple and rotary presses.
169
Despite a continued decrease in the number of clandestine laboratories detected nationally,
the 744 clandestine laboratories detected this reporting period is the third highest number
on record. The majority of these laboratories were manufacturing ATS (excluding MDMA),
using the hypophosphorous method of production. While Nazi/Birch remains the second most
prominent method of production, the proportion of laboratories using this method decreased
29.1 per cent this reporting period. In 2013–14, the number of clandestine laboratories detected
nationally producing MDMA and extracting pseudoephedrine decreased, while those producing
ATS (excluding MDMA), homebake heroin, GHB/GBL and undertaking cannabis oil extraction
increased.
Clandestine laboratories detected in Australia range from addict-based through to industrial scale
laboratories. While the greatest proportion of laboratories able to be categorised this reporting
period remained addict-based, the proportion attributed to other small-scale, medium sized and
industrial scale laboratories increased in 2013–14. Residential areas remain the most common
location for clandestine laboratory detections. However, the number of vehicle based laboratories
increased this reporting period, from 9.0 per cent in 2012–13 to 12.2 per cent and those located
in rural locations increased from 2.2 per cent in 2012–13 to 3.5 per cent. Of note this reporting
period is the decrease in the proportion of laboratories attributed to commercial/industrial
locations, from 8.9 per cent in 2012–13 to 3.0 per cent in 2013–14, which is similar to detection
levels reported in 2011–12.
170
REFERENCES
Attorney-General’s Department (AGD) 2011, Clandestine drug laboratory remediation guidelines,
Commonwealth of Australia, Barton.
Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) 2013, 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine, DEA,
Washington D.C., April 2013, viewed 18 September 2014, <http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/
drug_chem_info/mdma.pdf>.
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) 2014, Perspectives on
Drugs: Synthetic drug production in Europe, EMCDDA, Lisbon, viewed 18 September 2014, <http://
www.emcdda.europa.eu/attachements.cfm/att_212354_EN_EMCDDA_POD_2013_Synthetic%20
drug%20production.pdf>.
Europol 2013, ‘Largest ecstasy lab ever found in Europe dismantled’, Media Release, Europol, The
Hague, 28 August 2013, viewed 6 November 2014, <https://www.europol.europa.eu/content/
largest-ecstasy-lab-ever-found-europe-dismantled>.
Europol 2013a, ‘Police discover largest synthetic drugs production site ever found in the EU’, Media
Release, Europol, The Hague, 23 October 2013, viewed 18 September 2014, <https://www.europol.
europa.eu/content/police-discover-largest-synthetic-drugs-production-site-ever-found-eu>.
Gurney, K 2014, ‘Ex-Argentina Anti-Drug Chief accused of trafficking precursor chemicals’, InSight
Crime, 21 July 2014, viewed 6 November 2014, <http://www.insightcrime.org/news-briefs/exargentina-anti-drug-chief-accused-of-trafficking-precursor-chemicals>.
Gurney, K 2014a, ‘Argentina President’s Office embroiled in precursor chemical trafficking scandal’,
InSight Crime, 2 September 2014, viewed 6 November 2014, <http://www.insightcrime.org/newsbriefs/argentina-presidents-office-embroiled-in-precursor-chemical-trafficking-scandal>.
International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) 2014, ‘Precursors and chemicals frequently used in
the illicit manufacture of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances’, Report of the International
Narcotics Control Board for 2013 on the Implementation of Article 12 of the United Nations
Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances of 1988, INCB,
United Nations, New York.
Southwick, N 2013, ‘Argentina Seizes Massive Precursor Shipment Near Bolivia’, InSight Crime,
18 September 2013, viewed 13 November 2014, <http://www.insightcrime.org/news-briefs/
argentina-seizes-massive-precursor-shipment-near-bolivia>.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2014, World Drug Report 2014, UNODC,
Vienna.
171
Initiatives
INITIATIVES
KEY POINTS
The Australian Government health portfolio continues to work in close partnership with
Commonwealth, state and territory health and law enforcement agencies to reduce drug
related harms and improve health and social outcomes for people affected by illicit drug use.
The National Research Centres of Excellence continue to enhance law enforcement, health and
regulatory agencies’ understanding of the nature of Australia’s illicit drug markets.
The 2013 National Drug Strategy Household Survey was released on 25 November 2014 and is
a comprehensive population based survey focusing on substance use and related issues.
173
INTRODUCTION
This chapter outlines some of the initiatives that reflect the Australian Government’s commitment
to countering the threat posed by illicit drugs. These initiatives have been developed by health
authorities, law enforcement and other government and non-government agencies. This chapter
outlines a variety of initiatives reported by the Commonwealth Department of Health (DoH).
NATIONAL
Since 1985, the DoH has worked in close partnership with Commonwealth, state and territory
health and law enforcement agencies to address illicit drug issues under the National Drug
Strategy (NDS). The DoH supports the balanced, evidence-based approach to drug issues set out
in the NDS, which encompasses the three pillars of supply, demand and harm reduction. Under
the current NDS 2010–2015, the DoH continues to deliver a range of initiatives aimed at reducing
drug-related harms and improving social outcomes for individuals, families and communities
affected by drug misuse.
NATIONAL GRANTS
Established in 1997, the Non Government Organisation Treatment Grants Program provides
funding to increase treatment places and improve service quality and outcomes. Funding under
this program supports a number of treatment options including outpatient counselling, outreach
and peer support, home detoxification, therapeutic communities, and rehabilitation.
The Substance Misuse Service Delivery Grants Fund aims to better promote and support
treatment services across Australia to provide improved health and social outcomes for individuals
and communities affected by alcohol and drug use. Australian Government funding is also
provided through the Substance Misuse Prevention and Service Improvement Grants Fund to
support prevention of substance misuse and to promote service improvement within the drug and
alcohol and related sectors.
NATIONAL DRUGS CAMPAIGN
The National Drugs Campaign (the campaign) is a key prevention element of the Australian
Government’s contribution to the NDS. The campaign supports objectives relating to illicit drug
use under the NDS, specifically to reduce the uptake of illicit drugs among young people through
education and primary prevention communication strategies. The campaign has been running
since 2001 and has included a number of phases focusing on particular drugs prevalent during
each phase to build awareness over time and adapt to emerging drug trends. The campaign
reinforces the message that drugs are harmful and drug use is to be avoided.
From 2011 to 2012, the campaign focused on ecstasy. This phase consisted of advertising,
public relations, youth marketing activities, online communication, a campaign website and the
development of resources. Research on the campaign’s efficacy was undertaken by Stancombe
Research & Planning during 2011–12 and found overall that the campaign did impact attitudes
towards ecstasy and its use.
174
Initiatives
NATIONAL RESEARCH CENTRES OF EXCELLENCE
The DoH supports strategic research in the alcohol and other drugs sector by funding three
National Research Centres of Excellence. Each centre has a distinct role in terms of research and
advice provided to Government.
National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC): situated at the University of New South
Wales, focuses on research and data collection that underpins Australia’s understanding of the
nature and extent of drug use and harms, evidence about new and emerging treatment options
and analysis of effectiveness and outcomes of drug and alcohol interventions. NDARC is supported
by funding from the Australian Government under the Substance Misuse Prevention and Service
Improvements Grants Fund.
National Drug Research Institute (NDRI): situated at Curtin University in Western Australia, NDRI
was formed in 1986 and plays a key role in national harm prevention strategies through research
designed to establish the preventive potential of legislative, economic, regulatory and educational
interventions.
National Centre on Education and Training on Addiction (NCETA): located within the School of
Medicine at Flinders University in South Australia, the NCETA is a collaborative venture between
Flinders University, DoH and the South Australian Department of Health. NCETA is focused on
workforce strategies and drug and alcohol issues in the workplace, advancing the capacity of
health and human services organisations and workers to respond to alcohol and drug related
problems.
DRUG TRENDS PROGRAM
The Drug Trends Program at NDARC incorporates the Illicit Drug Reporting System (IDRS), the
Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System (EDRS) and the National Illicit Drug Indicators Project
(NIDIP).
This program improves Australia’s capacity to monitor changing drug patterns in a timely manner
and to effectively disseminate this information to government and other stakeholders.
IDRS is a national illicit drug monitoring system intended to serve as a strategic early warning
system, identifying emerging trends of local and national concern in illicit drug markets. EDRS is a national monitoring system for ecstasy and related drugs that is intended to serve as a
strategic early warning system, identifying emerging trends of local and national interest in the
markets for these drugs.
The aims of NIDIP are to provide epidemiological data on trends over time in drug-related harms,
to complement other Australian monitoring systems such IDRS and EDRS, and to improve the
understanding of, and systematically track changes in, drug-related harms for both illicit and
prescription drugs. 175
NATIONAL CANNABIS PREVENTION AND
INFORMATION CENTRE
The National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre (NCPIC) was established by the
Australian Government in 2007 in response to community concerns about cannabis use.
NCPIC aims to reduce cannabis uptake and the harms associated with its use in the community by
providing high-quality and evidence-based information on cannabis use and related harms, as well
as evidence-based interventions and support services to respond to people experiencing cannabis
related problems. Young Australians and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders have been identified
as a particular target audience for NCPIC activities.
NCPIC continues to provide:
the national Cannabis Information and Helpline (CIH), which provides callers with evidencebased information on cannabis, as well as targeted advice and brief interventions for cannabis
users, their families and concerned others
national training on the delivery of motivational and brief interventions for cannabis related
problems among adolescents and adults
a website providing cannabis information to the community, users, their families, and various
workforces involved in the delivery of cannabis-related interventions
social marketing resources, including factsheets, research briefs, posters and pamphlets on
cannabis and its related harms
clinical tools and approaches to reducing individual cannabis use, including a postal
intervention, web-based intervention, telephone intervention via the CIH, a cannabis
withdrawal scale and a youth-focused assessment for mental health setting
a variety of projects to inform service delivery, such as findings of studies on barriers to and
facilitators of cannabis treatment seeking and the development of new models of delivering
interventions via telephone, internet and mail
community activities to increase awareness of the harms associated with cannabis use. These
include a poster competition, short film competition, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
music competition, road safety messages and partnership activities with key agencies.
2013 NATIONAL DRUG STRATEGY HOUSEHOLD SURVEY
The DoH commissioned the 2013 National Drug Strategy Household Survey (NDSHS), the results
of which were released by the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) on 25 November
2014. The NDSHS is a comprehensive population-based survey of approximately 24 000 people in
Australia aged 14 years or older. Focusing on substance use and related issues, it is the principal data
collection used to monitor drug trends and evaluate prevalence of use in Australia under the NDS.
176
STATE AND TERRITORY
LEGISLATION
AMENDMENTS &
INITIATIVES
INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides an overview of recently proposed or implemented legislative and regulatory
changes and law enforcement initiatives related to illicit drugs in Australian states and territories.
Contributions to this chapter were provided by each state and territory police service. Information
contained in this chapter should be used as a guide only. Please refer to the nominated Act or
Regulation for further detail.
177
STATE & TERRITORY LEGISLATIVE &
REGULATORY AMENDMENTS
AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY
________________________________________________________________________________
TITLE OF ACT/REGULATION
Drugs of Dependence Act 1989
Date assented: 10 December 2013
PURPOSE
To amend the Drugs of Dependence Act 1989 by increasing the quantity for which a Simple
Cannabis Offence Notice (SCON) can be issued, from 25 grams to 50 grams.
OBJECTIVES
The amendment provides for the issuing of a SCON for the possession of 50 grams of cannabis
deemed to be for personal use.
________________________________________________________________________________
Criminal Code Regulation 2005 and the Drugs of Dependence Regulation 2009
Date assented: 10 April 2014
PURPOSE
The Criminal Code (Controlled Drugs) Legislation Amendment Regulation 2014 (No 1) amends the
Criminal Code Regulation 2005 and the Drugs of Dependence Regulation 2009 for the purpose of
implementing a series of measures to enhance the transparency and efficacy of drug enforcement.
OBJECTIVES
Amendments include:
addition of 44 new illicit substances to Schedule 1 of the Criminal Code Regulation
changing the trafficable quantities of the five most common drugs (and their associated
substances) in the Criminal Code (Controlled Drugs) Legislation Amendment Regulation 2014
(No 1)
adoption of a uniform multiplier to govern the relationship between trafficable, commercial
and large commercial quantities of drugs
adoption of a ‘mixed weight’ purity regime of drug enforcement.
178
State and Territory Legislation Amendments and Initiatives
NEW SOUTH WALES
________________________________________________________________________________
Drug Misuse and Trafficking Act 1985
Date assented: 7 October 2013
PURPOSE
The Drug Misuse and Trafficking Act 1985 was amended to have 45 new substances added to
Schedule 1.
The substances listed in Schedule 9 of the Commonwealth Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of
Medicines and Poisons (SUSMP) are adopted into the Poisons and Therapeutic Goods Act (NSW).
When new substances that belong to this class are identified, it will be specified in the Drug
Misuse and Trafficking Act 1985 Schedule and then become a prohibited drug.
OBJECTIVES
The majority of synthetic cannabinoids, cathinone analogues and the NBOMe compounds have
become prohibited substances. The definition of ‘analogue’ has been amended not to include the
phrase ‘psychotropic properties’. This will make it easier to prove a substance is an analogue.
________________________________________________________________________________
Drugs & Poisons Legislation Amendment (New Psychoactive and Other Substances) Act 2013
Date assented: 24 September 2013
PURPOSE
To introduce a new Act to deal specifically with psychoactive substances.
OBJECTIVES
This Act makes it an offence under the Drugs Misuse and Trafficking Act 1985 to sell, manufacture
and advertise substances with a psychoactive effect. It will also deal with those substances that
are marketed as ‘plant food’ or ‘bath salts’. There is no possession offence attached to this Act.
179
NORTHERN TERRITORY
________________________________________________________________________________
Misuse of Drugs Amendment Act 2014
Date assented: 20 March 2014
PURPOSE
To amend the Misuse of Drugs Act to remedy supply provision requirements (Indigenous
Community) and resolve inconsistent and duplicitous entries in Schedule 2.
OBJECTIVES
The Act provides for:
a clearer definition of the aggravation elements required to prove ‘supply dangerous drug
Indigenous Community’. The amendment corrected the element which necessitates supply to
have had occurred. This was not in keeping with the Act, which enabled ‘supply’ to encapsulate
‘acts or acts done in preparation to supply’
imprisonment penalty to apply where offenders are apprehended outside of the Indigenous
community boundaries, but where evidence proves beyond a reasonable doubt that supply
was intended for use within the community
removal of duplicitous entries by identifying dangerous drugs by their base compound
remedies proof requirement that substance effects be ‘psychotropic’.
________________________________________________________________________________
Misuse of Drugs Amendment (Methamphetamine) Act 2013
Date assented: 11 November 2013
PURPOSE
To amend the Misuse of Drugs Act, removing methamphetamine from Schedule 2, and provide
for tougher penalty provisions by classifying the drug as a Schedule 1 substance.
OBJECTIVES
In recognition of the level of harm, methamphetamine is identified as a Schedule 1 drug, with
increased penalty provisions, and decreased possession thresholds.
180
QUEENSLAND
________________________________________________________________________________
Drugs Misuse Regulation 1987
PURPOSE
The amendments increase the scheduling of steroids to Schedule 1, which is Queensland’s highest
level for dangerous drugs.
OBJECTIVES
The amendments increase penalties for the unlawful possession, manufacture, supply and
trafficking of steroids; however, does not impact on steroid medicines that are lawfully prescribed
for legitimate therapeutic use.
________________________________________________________________________________
Criminal Code Act 1899
PURPOSE
Provides the power for police to require a person to undertake breath, saliva, blood or urine
testing where it is alleged the person has committed grievous bodily harm, unlawful wounding, or
serious assault of a police officer or public official.
OBJECTIVES
Proposed legislation allows for the provision of evidence supporting that a person is intoxicated
due to alcohol or drugs and informs the requirement for additional community service after the
offender’s sentence has been completed.
________________________________________________________________________________
Bail Act 1980
Date assented: 1 October 2014
PURPOSE
Legislation requires the court and authorised watch house keepers to include a bail condition on
an offender charged with a prescribed assault offence whilst intoxicated in a public place to attend
a Drug and Alcohol Assessment Referral.
OBJECTIVES
The legislation provides an avenue of intervention for offenders identified committing assault
offences whilst intoxicated. This intervention is aimed at changing the culture of violence in
entertainment precincts state-wide.
181
SOUTH AUSTRALIA
________________________________________________________________________________
Hydroponics Industry Control (Fees) Variation Regulations 2013
Date assented: 1 July 2013
PURPOSE
To amend the fees in Schedule 1 of the Hydroponics Industry Control Regulations 2010 under the
Hydroponics Industry Control Act 2009.
OBJECTIVES
Fees are payable under the licensing scheme imposed by the Act to regulate the sale of equipment
used in hydroponic cultivation of cannabis.
________________________________________________________________________________
Controlled Substances (Controlled Drugs, Precursors and Plants) (Synthetic Controlled Drugs)
Variation Regulations 2013
PURPOSE
The amendments addressed the following:
controlled drugs: inserted amounts for large commercial (mixed), commercial (mixed) and
trafficable (mixed) quantities and declared 15 additional substances as controlled drugs
controlled precursors: inserted amounts for large commercial (mixed) and commercial (mixed)
quantities
controlled plants: removed reference to any species of genus Datura L or genus Brugmansia
Pers.
OBJECTIVES
Provides for legislation addressing listed quantities, and in particular declares 15 substances as
controlled drugs, including new stimulants, NBOMe, hallucinogens, synthetic cannabinoids and
4-hydroxybutyric acid lactone (also known as gamma-butyrolactone, or GBL).
________________________________________________________________________________
Mutual Recognition (South Australia) Regulations 2013
PURPOSE
To exempt the scheduled substances in the Controlled Substances (Controlled Drugs, Precursors
and Plants) Regulations 2000 inserted by the Controlled Substances (Controlled Drugs, Precursors
and Plants) (Synthetic Controlled Drugs) Variation Regulations 2013 from requirements of the
Mutual Recognition (Commonwealth) Act 1992 for a period of 12 months.
182
SOUTH AUSTRALIA CONT.
________________________________________________________________________________
Trans-Tasman Mutual Recognition (South Australia) Variation Regulations 2013
Date assented: Effective from 24 October 2014
PURPOSE
The Trans-Tasman Mutual Recognition (South Australia) Regulations 2013 revoked the TransTasman Mutual Recognition (South Australia) Regulations 1999. The Regulations vary sections
4(4)(i), (j) and (k) and substituted the identification details for the synthetic drugs 25B-NBOMe,
25C-NBOMe and 25I-NBOMe.
________________________________________________________________________________
Controlled Substances (Offences) Amendment Act 2013
Date assented: 15 December 2013
PURPOSE
To expand the definition of ‘controlled drug’ to include the concept of an ‘interim controlled drug’
and empowers the Attorney-General to declare a substance an ‘interim controlled drug’ by notice
in the South Australian Government Gazette.
OBJECTIVES
These amendments follow the interim ban on synthetic substances introduced in June 2013
to target stores selling synthetic drugs, the promotion of controlled drug alternatives and the
manufacturing, packaging, selling or supplying of a substance promoted as a controlled drug
alternative.
________________________________________________________________________________
Aboriginal Lands Trust Act 2013
Date assented: 1 July 2014
PURPOSE
The Act provides for the making of regulations that may prohibit the use, possession and
consumption of regulated substances, including petrol and liquor, on Aboriginal Lands Trust land.
It also proposes to extend the operation of the South Australian Public Intoxication Act 1984 to
certain Trust land.
183
VICTORIA
________________________________________________________________________________
Drugs, Poisons and Controlled Substances Amendment Act 2014
Date assented: 25 February 2014
PURPOSE
The main purpose of this Act is to amend the Drugs, Poisons and Controlled Substances Act 1981 to:
extend the meaning of drug of dependence to include analogues of certain drugs
allow Victoria Police to provide drug related exhibits and samples to authorised external
laboratories in Victoria or other states and territories
enable cannabis water pipes, bong components and bong kits to be forfeited to the Crown
and destroyed by Victoria Police where an infringement notice has been issued to a person for
displaying, selling or commercially supplying the seized item
to include certain substances as drugs of dependence.
________________________________________________________________________________
Drugs, Poisons and Controlled Substances (Poppy Cultivation and Processing) Amendment Act 2014
Date assented: 18 March 2014
PURPOSE
The main purpose of this Act is to amend the Drugs, Poisons and Controlled Substances Act 1981 to:
provide for a licensing scheme to cultivate alkaloid poppies and process poppy straw.
OBJECTIVES
The Act allows for the commercial scale cultivation of alkaloid poppies in Victoria for therapeutic
and research purposes. The key elements of this Act are that it:
establishes a fully licensed framework for poppy growers and processors
creates an effective compliance and enforcement framework to oversee the industry.
WESTERN AUSTRALIA
________________________________________________________________________________
Poisons (Appendix A Amendment) Order 2014
Date assented: 28 June 2014
PURPOSE
Thirty-three new psychoactive substances became prohibited drugs, making it an offence to
possess, manufacture, sell or supply.
184
STATE AND TERRITORY INITIATIVES
________________________________________________________________________________
INITIATIVE
Illicit drug awareness campaign
DURATION
September–November 2013
MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES
This three-month campaign targeted the manufacturing, sale and distribution of illicit and
synthetic drugs. Through advertising, print, social media and online channels, the campaign aimed
to show Australian Capital Territory (ACT) residents some of the telltale signs of drug production
or dealing and encourage them to report suspicious activity to police. At the launch, members
from the Crime Reduction Unit were available to educate members of the community about the
physical appearance of certain drugs and their effects.
For the second phase of the campaign, Emergency Medicine Consultant at Calvary Hospital, Dr
David Caldicott, joined ACT Policing to promote the devastating health effects of illicit drugs and
their impact on people’s lives. During the final phase, ACT Policing partnered with the Australian
Customs and Border Protection Service (ACBPS) to remind business owners that it is an offence to
sell or import synthetic drugs.
The successful campaign resulted in a 150 per cent increase in the number of manufacturing or
cultivation reports received compared with the same period in the previous year. This led to 558
seizures of amphetamines, cannabis, cocaine, heroin and other substances over the three-month
period. Approximately 51 kilograms of suspected illicit drugs with a potential estimated street
value of $2.9 million were removed from the streets of Canberra and surrounding areas.
NEW SOUTH WALES
________________________________________________________________________________
INITIATIVE
End User Declarations (EUDs)
DURATION
2010–2015
EUDs are required to be completed by legitimate buyers when purchasing chemicals and scientific
apparatus identified as being of high risk for diversion. The EUD highlights to the purchaser
that the product may be identified as, for example, a precursor and in order to comply with
regulations, a photographic ID is required to complete the transaction.
The NSW Police Drug Squad has made a submission to the Parliament of New South Wales to
create an electronic system which facilitates the input and retrieval of EUDs. A study funded by
the National Drug Law Enforcement Research Fund (NDLERF) is currently looking at the feasibility
of such a system. PricewaterhouseCoopers (PWC) have finished their scoping study and have
presented their results. NDLERF has accepted and endorsed the scoping study.
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NEW SOUTH WALES CONT.
The study has been adopted by the Australia New Zealand Policing Advisory Agency (ANZPAA)
Crime Forum and has been endorsed by the Strategic Issues Group (CrimTrac) and Senior Officers
Group on Organised Crime. The Investigations Coordinator, Chemical Operations (NSW Police
Force), will chair the EUD Working Group.
The benefit of electronic storage and retrieval of EUDs is the potential for law enforcement to
more effectively and efficiently work with industry to identify clandestine laboratories and target
drug offenders.
____________________________________________________________________________
INITIATIVE
Pharmaceutical misuse
DURATION
2010–2015
The New South Wales Police Force is currently involved in a range of external committees that are
looking at pharmaceutical misuse including:
the Intergovernmental Committee on Drugs (IGCD)
NSW Expert Advisory Group on Drugs
NSW Illicit Drug and Alcohol Monitoring Group.
The IGCD commenced the National Pharmaceutical Drugs Misuse Strategy in 2010. The aim
of the strategy is to reduce the diversion and misuse of pharmaceuticals and associated harms.
New South Wales Police Force have contributed to the consultation process for the strategy
through participation in the New South Wales consultation forum and through the provision of
research into the illicit pharmaceuticals market conducted by Drug and Alcohol Coordination (DAC).
Some of the key issues for law enforcement agencies in response to actioning the program
include:
accurate police data collection
information sharing between state and federal police and health bodies
sharing and development of best practice strategies in relation to prosecutions and health
initiatives
review of relevant jurisdictional laws and regulations
clear delineation of regulator roles
responsibility and liaison channels
a real-time national online prescription system and education programs
resources for stakeholders.
186
New South Wales Police Force is committed to pursuing operational and policy responses to
these issues through an internal working party consisting of DAC, the Drug Squad and Local Area
Command members. This working party will facilitate change within the New South Wales Police
Force and through membership to external bodies including the IGCD.
NORTHERN TERRITORY
________________________________________________________________________________
INITIATIVE
Community Engagement Police Officer Program (CEPOP)
DURATION
Ongoing
Within the community, CEPOP develops and facilitates ongoing engagement with the community
safety action plan. These plans comprise of community safety and wellbeing initiatives and include
drug and alcohol management initiatives.
A key focus for communities is to develop local solutions that are community led. This can include
education and treatment options for persons at risk of or currently engaged in drug taking activities.
________________________________________________________________________________
INITIATIVE
Northern Territory Illicit Drug Pre Court Diversion Program (NT IDPCDP)
DURATION
Ongoing
The NT IDPCDP model enables police to divert first time drug offenders (both juvenile and
adults), who have been found in possession of less than a trafficable quantity of an illicit drug,
from the criminal justice system. These offenders may be given the opportunity to participate in
assessment, education, counselling and/or treatment to expiate the offence. Non-compliance in
assessment or intervention results in the offender being prosecuted through the court system.
The program utilises and enhances service provision, provided by both Government and nongovernment organisations to maximise the opportunity for users of illicit drugs and licit drugs (used
illicitly) to enter assessment, education, counselling and/or treatment. It establishes a framework
whereby users may, through the admission of guilt, be diverted by police to assessment, education,
counselling and/or treatment as an alternative to receiving a criminal penalty.
187
QUEENSLAND
________________________________________________________________________________
INITIATIVE
Project Sentinal
DURATION
2014–2015
The purpose of this project is to extend on the informal relationship between the police and
hardware stores in the targeting of illicit drug laboratories. The project will improve knowledge
and understanding amongst hardware store staff that legitimate items purchased from their
stores can be diverted for use in illicit drug laboratories. Project Sentinal will develop and enhance
information sharing and partnerships between police and the major hardware stores (Bunnings,
Masters, Mitre10 and True Value).
The project will use educational posters and a formalised contact point for stores around the state
to report any suspicious transactions.
SOUTH AUSTRALIA
________________________________________________________________________________
INITIATIVE
Police Drug Diversion Initiative (PDDI)
DURATION
2001 to present
The PDDI is a nationally funded initiative which aims to provide people with the opportunity to
address their drug use problems and to subsequently bring about a reduction in the number of
illicit drug users in South Australia, and the criminal and social harms associated with drug use.
The PDDI commenced in September 2001, as a South Australian implementation under the
Council of Australian Government Illicit Drug Diversion Initiative. The primary focus of the PDDI is
the diversion of illicit drug users into assessment and treatment, based on the premise that the
intervention will break the cycle of their offending, resulting in a reduction in crime within the
community.
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SOUTH AUSTRALIA CONT.
________________________________________________________________________________
INITIATIVE
Cannabis Expiation Notice (CEN)
DURATION
1987 to present
The CEN scheme came into effect in April 1987. Under this scheme adults coming to the attention
of South Australia Police for simple cannabis offences can be issued with an expiation notice.
By paying the prescribed penalty, the offender is able to avoid court proceedings and a criminal
conviction for this offence.
Underlying this scheme is the rationale that a clear distinction should be made between private
users of cannabis and those who are involved in dealing, producing or trafficking cannabis.
This distinction was emphasised at the introduction of the CEN scheme by the simultaneous
introduction of more severe penalties for offences relating to the manufacture, production, sale or
supply of all drugs of dependence and prohibited substances, including offences relating to large
quantities of cannabis.
TASMANIA
________________________________________________________________________________
INITIATIVE
Illicit Drug Diversion Initiative (IDDI)
DURATION
2000–ongoing
IDDI is an early intervention program for adult minor drug offenders where illicit drugs are
involved, including the illicit use of pharmaceuticals. IDDI operates under an agreement between
the Department of Police and Emergency Management and the Department of Health and Human
Services (DHHS).
IDDI seeks to divert minor drug offenders away from the criminal justice system by issuing
offenders with a caution or a diversion notice. A diversion notice requires that the individual make
contact with the Alcohol Drug Service (ADS), DHHS. The ADS provides assessment, counselling and
treatment to assist minor drug offenders to address their drug use issues.
Young minor drug offenders are dealt with under the Youth Justice Act 1997 and are referred to
ADS through a formal cautioning process.
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TASMANIA CONT.
________________________________________________________________________________
INITIATIVE
Court Mandated Diversion (CMD)
DURATION
Ongoing
CMD provides Magistrates with an option to divert eligible offenders into treatment for their drug
use through either the bail or sentencing process. CMD is administered by the Department of Justice.
The primary goal is to break the drug-crime cycle by involving offenders in treatment and
rehabilitation programs. It increases offender access to drug, alcohol, and other welfare services,
in order to break their cycle of contact with the criminal justice system.
Other principal goals of the CMD project are to:
provide offenders with an opportunity to acknowledge and address offending behaviour
caused by drug abuse, thereby improving physical and psychological well being
help eligible offenders to reduce and abstain from illicit drug use
reduce drug-related offending behaviour
improve offenders’ relationships with family and friends
improve offenders’ possibility of gaining or retaining employment
provide offenders with the tools to recognise and prevent relapse into substance abuse and
criminal behaviour
develop a shared approach to and a commitment to a ‘joined up’ service delivery system
between Government and the non-governmental organisation sector.
VICTORIA
________________________________________________________________________________
INITIATIVE
Illicit Drug Diversion Initiative
DURATION
1998 to present
The Drug Diversion and Cannabis Cautioning programs enable police to refer illicit drug users to
timely health interventions.
The Cannabis Cautioning program involves providing a cautioning notice for simple use/ possess
cannabis offences to offenders who meet the police criteria. An optional education session for
offenders will be offered in conjunction with the caution.
The Drug Diversion program involves offering a diversion to a person detained for use or
possession of an illicit drug other than cannabis, on the condition that they undertake a clinical
drug assessment and enter any prescribed drug treatment. The offender must meet police criteria
and agree to the diversion. They will then be provided with a drug assessment appointment time.
190
WESTERN AUSTRALIA
________________________________________________________________________________
INITIATIVE
Cannabis Intervention Requirement scheme (CIR)
DURATION
2011 to present
In August 2011 the Misuse of Drugs Act 1981 (MDA 1981) was amended to reflect legislative
changes related to the possession of cannabis and the legal consequences of such. Police officers
now issue a CIR for ‘minor cannabis related offences’, however the CIR scheme does not apply to
offences involving the possession or cultivation of cannabis plants, or possession of any quantities
of cannabis resin (hash), hash oil, or other cannabis derivatives. These offences will be prosecuted
through the courts.
The CIR can be resolved by completing a Cannabis Intervention Session (CIS) within 28 days of
being given the CIR by a police officer. Approved drug counsellors conduct the session that aims to
increase awareness of the laws and health effects relating to cannabis and enhance motivation to
change by providing a non-judgemental environment in which open discussion will be encouraged.
This scheme is available to juveniles over 14 years of age who may receive up to two CIRs, and
adults on one occasion. An adult who has received a CIR as a juvenile is not precluded from
receiving a CIR.
________________________________________________________________________________
INITIATIVE
Other Drug Diversion scheme (ODD)
DURATION
2007 to present
This initiative of the Western Australia Diversion Program provides assessment and treatment for
adults for simple possession of illicit drugs. There is emphasis on positive action (not necessarily
prosecution) including diversion from the judicial system and referral to treatment services.
Police have the discretion to issue an All Drug Diversion notice to a person caught with small
quantities of illegal drugs other than cannabis, instead of charging them with an offence.
If the offender accepts the notice, they must attend three treatment sessions within
30 days where they will have the opportunity to explore issues related to their drug use with
a qualified drug counsellor. If necessary, ongoing support will be made available to the offender
after the three sessions have been completed.
Because the program is primarily for adult offenders who have no previous drug dealing
convictions, an All Drug Diversion notice can only be issued once. The police officer who issues
the notice must also be satisfied the drugs are for personal use.
The program is an opportunity for offenders to avoid a criminal conviction. If the offender does
not complete three sessions within 30 days, a summons will be issued for the original drug offence
and the matter referred to court.
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STATISTICS
INTRODUCTION
The Australian Crime Commission (ACC) uses the National Illicit Drug Reporting Format (NIDRF)
system to process seizure, arrest and purity data for the Illicit Drug Data Report (IDDR). This allows
for more accurate analysis of law enforcement data and assists in moving towards nationally
standardised data holdings. The ACC acknowledges the assistance of police statisticians and
information managers in this process.
193
COUNTING METHODOLOGY
The following methodology was used to develop a count of arrests by drug type:
where a person has been charged with multiple consumer or provider offences for a particular
type of drug, that person is counted once only as a consumer or provider of that drug
where consumer and provider charges for a particular drug type have been laid, the provider
charge takes precedence and the person is counted only as a provider of that drug
a person who has been charged in relation to multiple drug types is counted as a consumer or
provider for each drug type
a person is counted on each separate occasion that they are charged.
DATA SOURCES
ARREST AND SEIZURE DATA
The following agencies provided arrest and seizure data:
New South Wales Police Force
Northern Territory Police Force
Queensland Police Service
South Australia Police
Tasmania Police
Victoria Police
Western Australia Police.
DRUG PURITY DATA
The following agencies and organisations provided drug purity data:
ChemCentre Western Australia
Forensic Science South Australia
Forensic Science Service Tasmania
New South Wales Health, Mental Health and Drug and Alcohol Office
New South Wales Forensic and Analytical Science Service
Forensic and Scientific Services, Queensland Department of Health
Victoria Police.
194
Statistics
The purity tables only represent purity figures for seizures of that drug type that have been
analysed at a forensic laboratory. The number of ‘cases’ in the purity level tables reflects the
number of individual samples analysed (items), as distinct from the number of seizures/cases
(which may have multiple items).
The time between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratories can vary from
a few days to several months and, in isolated cases, years. The purity table represents those seizures
analysed during the financial year 2013–14, not necessarily all seizures made during that period.
The New South Wales Drugs Laboratory tests for purity levels on cases larger than the trafficable
level: being 3 grams for amphetamine, methylamphetamine, heroin, cocaine, 0.75 grams for
phenethylamine and 15 discrete dosage units (ddu) for lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). For each
case, purity testing is carried out on each drug type over the traffickable quantity. Additionally,
the laboratory will only test a limited number of samples per case. The laboratory also tests purity
levels on controlled operations for the New South Wales Police Force, including undercover units,
which are greater than 100 milligrams.
In South Australia, very low levels of drugs (less than 0.1%) were excluded from analysis.
Tasmania Police do not conduct purity determinations on exhibits unless it is specifically requested
by the investigator and he/she has a good reason for doing so. Tasmania Police also do not
conduct purity determinations on less than 0.5 grams. Legislation in Tasmania does not take into
account the purity of the exhibit, so there are very few instances where purity determinations are
of great value and hence not worth the significant effort required to determine the purity.
Drug seizures are not routinely tested for purity in the Northern Territory, unless specifically
requested. The Misuse of Drugs Act (NT) provides for all of the preparation or mixture to be
deemed as if all of the substance (preparation or mixture) is comprised of the dangerous drug
found, irrespective of purity.
ACT Policing only tests for purity on seizures that are larger than the traffickable amount. All
samples lodged by ACT Policing with the ACT Government Analytical Laboratory are tested, but
not all are tested for purity.
DRUG PRICE DATA
Data on prices for illicit drugs were collected from each of the police jurisdictions and are based
on information supplied by covert police units and police informants. Unless otherwise stated,
police price information has been used.
LIMITATIONS OF THE DATA
OVERVIEW
Despite limitations in the current data set, the IDDR provides the best collection of arrest and
seizure statistics available in Australia. The NIDRF data processing system has enabled the ACC to
improve statistical quality and reliability.
195
DATASETS
Since the development and implementation of the NIDRF processing system, limitations with the
administrative datasets used to compile the statistics have decreased. However, the following
factors should be considered when using the data to develop assessments or conclusions:
a lack of uniformity across all states and territories in the recording and storing of data on illicit
drug arrests and seizures
ongoing problems with quality control, resulting in the absence of essential information from
some records
differences in applying a uniform counting and data extraction methodology across all
jurisdictions
differences in definitions of consumer and provider offences across and within jurisdictions
over time
differences in the way drugs and offences may be coded
insufficient drug identification
an inability to identify seizures resulting from joint operations, for example, those involving the
AFP and a state or territory agency.
DRUG IDENTIFICATION AND CODING
Not all illicit drugs seized by law enforcement are scientifically analysed to establish the precise
nature of the drug. In some cases, only seizures of a predetermined weight or those that are the
subject of a ‘not guilty’ plea are analysed. In some instances, an initial field test may be carried out
to provide an indication as to the seized drug, but all other seizures are recorded at the discretion
of the investigating officer and without further qualification.
Historically, a number of jurisdictional data systems did not differentiate between amphetamines
and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). This has restricted the ACC’s ability to
monitor and report on national trends specific to these drug types. Similar problems continue to
exist with a range of other drugs, particularly those contained within the other and unknown not
elsewhere classified drugs category. Monitoring and reporting on national trends of specific drugs
within this category is therefore limited.
RECORDING AND STORAGE METHODS
The lack of consistency between law enforcement agencies in recording illicit drug arrests and
seizures presents difficulties when data is aggregated and compared. Disparities exist in the level
of detail recorded for each offence, the methods used to quantify the seizures, the way offence
and seizure data is extracted, and the way counting rules and extraction programs are applied.
QUALITY CONTROL
Missing, incomplete and non-specific information relating to drug seizures make it impossible to
precisely calculate the total quantity of each drug type seized. As a result it is difficult to analyse
trends on a comparative basis across a number of years. This has been a particularly pertinent
issue since the 2001–02 report, as the NIDRF system allows for increased scrutiny of large seizures
that may not have been queried in the past.
196
Statistics
CONSUMERS AND PROVIDERS
Offenders are classified as consumers or providers in order to differentiate between people who
have been apprehended for trading in, as opposed to using, illicit drugs. Those charged with
supply-type offences (importation, trafficking, selling, cultivation and manufacture) are classified
as providers. Those charged with user-type offences (possessing or administering drugs for their
own use) are classified as consumers.
In some cases, the jurisdictions allocate consumer and provider codes, and in others, the ACC
applies the codes based on the information on the type of offence committed. Further, there
are some differences in the methodologies jurisdictions use for applying consumer and provider
codes. In some states and territories, the quantity of the drug involved determines whether an
offence is regarded as a consumer or a provider offence. Additionally, the threshold quantity that
determines whether a person is to be charged as a provider varies over time, both within and
between states and territories. Offender data supplied may exclude law enforcement actions that
are the subject of ongoing investigations.
DETECTION DATA
Border detection data supplied may exclude detections that are the subject of ongoing investigations.
SEIZURE DATA
The seizure data presented in Table 49 includes only those seizures for which a valid drug weight
was recorded. Consequently, it undercounts both the number of seizures and the amount of
drug seized for all drug types. Seizure data for ATS, cannabis and other drugs are most likely to be
affected by the variety of measurement methods and these figures should be treated with caution
when making comparisons between jurisdictions or over time. This table includes seizures by the
Australian Federal Police and state and territory police jurisdictions. Seizure data supplied may
exclude seizures that are the subject of ongoing investigations.
DRUG USE MONITORING IN AUSTRALIA (DUMA) PROGRAM
The DUMA program is an ongoing data collection system capturing information on approximately
2 500 police detainees per year across five locations throughout Australia. There are two core
components: an interviewer-assisted self-report survey and collection of a voluntary urine sample
which is subjected to urinalysis to detect the presence of licit and illicit substances. The self-report
survey details a range of criminal justice, demographic, drug use and drug market participation
information, while the urinalysis serves as an important objective method for corroborating selfreported drug use. Not all detainees who complete the survey agree to provide a urine sample,
although the response rate is high. Commencing in 2014, urine samples will be collected in
alternate quarters, specifically the first and third. During 2013–14, data on approximately 2 300
police detainees was collected. Figures reported for 2013–14 reflect data collected in the third and
fourth quarter of 2013 only and the first and second quarters of 2014.
197
JURISDICTIONAL ISSUES
The comparability of law enforcement data across states and territories is problematic. For the
information of agencies and individuals wishing to interpret the data, specific issues regarding
jurisdictional data have been identified by the ACC and the relevant jurisdiction. These issues have
been summarised and are represented below.
NEW SOUTH WALES
New South Wales Police Force provided the ACC with offender and seizure data. The New South
Wales Ministry of Health—Mental Health and Drug and Alcohol Office—provided the drug purity
data.
Prior to 2005–06, New South Wales Police Force data was extracted directly from the mainframe
recording system (COPS). Since 2005–06, data has been extracted from COPS using a data
warehousing application ‘Enterprise Data Warehouse’. Tests to verify the process of data
extraction have been undertaken and the New South Wales Police Force is confident that the
retrieval process is comparable with previous extracts from COPS.
VICTORIA
Victoria Police provided the ACC with offender, seizure and drug purity data.
Drug quantities and weights reported are estimates only and are not validated by forensic analysis.
In 2004–05, Victoria Police rewrote its data extraction program and improved the data quality
checks. Further data quality processes have been implemented to improve the data.
The Victorian clandestine laboratory detections figure was taken from the record of attendances
by forensic analysts at suspected laboratories and validated by the Clandestine Laboratory Squad.
QUEENSLAND
The Queensland Police Service provided the ACC with offender and seizure data. Queensland
Health Forensic and Scientific Services provided purity data.
During the 2006–07 reporting period, the Queensland Police Service changed administrative
systems. As a result, caution should be exercised in comparing data across years.
SOUTH AUSTRALIA
South Australia Police provided the ACC with offender and seizure data, but did not include
data for offenders participating in its Drug Diversion Program. Forensic Science South Australia
provided the purity data.
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Statistics
WESTERN AUSTRALIA
Western Australia Police provided the ACC with seizure and offender data. ChemCentre provided
the purity data.
Legislation changes for cannabis offences in Western Australia took effect from 1 August 2011
following amendments to the Misuse of Drugs Act. The Cannabis Infringement Notice (CIN) was
replaced by a Cannabis Intervention Requirement (CIR) which changes the way police should
respond when dealing with a person in possession of cannabis. From 1 August 2011, any person
who does not have a criminal history and is found to have 10 grams or less of cannabis will be
offered 28 days to complete a Cannabis Intervention Session after which no charges will follow.
People with previous cannabis related convictions are ineligible for this option. Participation in
a Cannabis Intervention Session is offered once to adult offenders, but twice to juveniles aged
between 14 and 17 years, so that subsequent offending would result in charges being brought
directly.
Western Australia Police introduced a new incident recording system in 2002–03, which changed
the method for recording drug seizures. For this reason, care should be exercised when comparing
data across years.
Data is subject to change and reflects the available data at time of extraction. Totals reported in
the IDDR may differ from those published in other reports, including the Western Australia Police
Annual Report and other publications.
Western Australia Police conducted a data cleansing process on drug seizure data reported in
the Western Australia Police Incident Management System (IMS) and this has resulted in more
accurate drug seizure data now being available for previous years.
The originally reported weight of cannabis seized in Western Australia in 2012–13 was 20 590
grams. Western Australia Police has now identified that the correct seizure weight was 268 615
grams.
The originally reported weight of heroin seized in Western Australia in 2012–13 was 937 grams.
Western Australia Police has now identified that the correct seizure weight was 4 064 grams.
Western Australia Police statistics on the number of Cannabis Intervention Requirements
issued in 2013–14 were not available at the time of publication. These figures will be published
retrospectively in the 2014–15 IDDR.
TASMANIA
Tasmania Police provided the ACC with offender and seizure data. Forensic Science Service
Tasmania provided the purity data.
It is important to note that reported figures may differ from those reported in the Tasmania Police
Annual Report and other publications due to the differing counting rules applied.
199
NORTHERN TERRITORY
Northern Territory Police Force provided the ACC with seizure and offender data. The Northern
Territory Forensic Laboratory was unable to provide purity data for this report.
Data collection methods in the Northern Territory have been audited since the 2010–11 report.
The change in data collection methodology has resulted in the provision of more detailed and
accurate data for 2013–14.
Seizure data for the Northern Territory relates to suspected drug type only. The number of
Drug Infringement Notices (DINs) may differ to those extracted from the Integrated Justice
Information System.
Kava seizures in the Northern Territory may constitute a significant proportion of the number and
weight of other and unknown NEC seizures within a given reporting period.
In the Northern Territory it is often difficult to obtain accurate date of birth and address details
from offenders. However, this lack of detail does not invalidate the data.
ACT Policing provided seizure and offender data. ACT Policing provided the purity data for
inclusion in this report from analysis results provided by the ACT Government Analytical
Laboratory.
Data is comparable with figures in the IDDR from 2002–03 onwards.
As reported by ACT Policing, Simple Cannabis Offence Notices (SCONs) data may not be a true
representation of the number of SCONs issued for the period as offenders may be subsequently
summonsed for non-payment and will therefore be included in consumer and provider arrest data.
AUSTRALIAN CUSTOMS AND BORDER PROTECTION SERVICE (ACBPS)
Detections of illicit drugs by the ACBPS are handed to the AFP for investigation purposes, safe
storage and destruction. Border detections are recorded on ‘Druglan’, which is updated with
confirmed seizure weight data from the AFP. At present, there is no provision for an automatic
update of accurate weights to Druglan. Data relating to the same border detections held by the
AFP and Druglan will differ slightly. This is because only unconfirmed seizure weights are initially
recorded. ACBPS detection figures are subject to change and reflect available data at time of
extraction. As such, figures published in the IDDR may differ from those published in other reports,
including ACBPS Annual Reports.
For operational reasons, the format of data presented in the IDDR may vary from year to year.
From 2011–12, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and steroid border detection data are reported as
a combined figure.
ACBPS advised that statistics relating to cannabis in 2013–14 have been impacted by a number of
food products containing hemp and cannabis seeds, such as ‘Hemp Force Powder’ and tea. Food
products containing hemp have no traces of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), but due to the wording
of current legislation, any product containing hemp that can be ingested is prohibited because it
comes from the cannabis plant. This issue is currently under review by Food Standards Australia
New Zealand (FSANZ).
200
Statistics
ACBPS advised for the current reporting period and 2012–13, the total number of pharmaceuticals
detected at the border included benzodiazepine and opiate statistics, which only represent a
component of the larger pharmaceuticals category.
AUSTRALIAN FEDERAL POLICE
The AFP provided national offender, seizure and purity data. This data was compiled in conjunction
with the AFP’s Forensic Drug Intelligence team. Seizures resulting from joint operations with the
ACBPS are represented within AFP figures in Table 49. Totals may differ from those published in
the AFP Annual Report 2013–14 due to the data extraction being based on more recent data and
on the AFP using different drug grouping categories to the ACC.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
The following explanatory notes relate to terms used in this report.
AMPHETAMINE-TYPE STIMULANTS (ATS)
Unless otherwise specified, ‘amphetamine-type stimulants’ include amphetamine,
methylamphetamine and phenethylamines.
ARREST
‘Arrest’ incorporates recorded law enforcement action against a person for suspected unlawful
involvement in illicit drugs. It incorporates enforcement action by way of arrest, summons,
diversion program, cannabis expiation notice (South Australia), cannabis intervention requirement
(Western Australia) simple cannabis offence notice (Australian Capital Territory), drug
infringement notice (Northern Territory), and notice to appear (Queensland). Some charges may
have been subsequently dropped or the defendant may have been found not guilty.
CANNABIS
‘Cannabis’ includes cannabis plant, leaf, resin, oil, seed and all other forms.
CATEGORIES FOR CLANDESTINE LABORATORIES
Since 2011–12, jurisdictions have been asked to distinguish detected clandestine laboratories into
the following four categories, taken from the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime Annual
Report Questionnaire that is used to inform the World Drug Report.
Addict-based labs (kitchen labs). Only basic equipment and simple procedures are used. Typically,
those operating in such laboratories have a limited or non-existent knowledge of chemistry and
simply follow instructions. Usually, there are no significant stores of precursors and the amount of
drugs or other substances manufactured is for personal use. A typical manufacture cycle for ATS
would yield less than 50 grams of the substance.
Other small-scale labs. People operating in these laboratories have advanced chemical
knowledge. More complex amphetamine-type stimulants may be manufactured. Laboratories may
be of similar size to ‘addict-based labs’ but frequently employ non-improvised equipment. They
may also include experimental laboratories. The amount manufactured is typically for personal
use or for a limited number of close associates. A typical manufacture cycle for ATS would yield
less than 500 grams of the substance.
201
Medium sized labs. Use commercially available standard equipment and glassware (in some cases,
custom-made equipment). They are not very mobile, making it possible to recover precursor
chemicals and equipment in many cases (production estimates are the most viable and reliable).
The amount manufactured at such sites is primarily for illicit economic gain. A typical manufacture
cycle for ATS would yield between 0.5 to 50 kilograms.
Industrial scale labs. Laboratories use oversized equipment and glassware that is either custommade or purchased from industrial processing sources. Such industrial operations produce
significant amounts of ATS in very short periods of time, only limited by access to precursors,
reagents and consumables in adequate quantities, and the logistics and manpower to handle large
amounts of drugs or chemicals and process them into the next step. A typical manufacture cycle
for ATS would yield 50 kilograms or more.
COCAINE
‘Cocaine’ includes cocaine, coca leaf and coca paste.
DETECTION
In the context of the border environment, the term ‘detection’ refers to the identification of illicit
drugs by the ACBPS.
EMBARKATION POINT
‘Embarkation point’ describes the origin of the transport stage of importations. Embarkation is
affected by air and sea transport connection patterns and the location of transport hubs, and may
not necessarily reflect the true origin of drugs.
Australia may appear as an embarkation country due to an export detection. In some instances, it
may relate to detections on air passengers travelling domestically on an international flight.
HALLUCINOGENS
‘Hallucinogens’ includes tryptamines such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and psilocybincontaining mushrooms.
HEROIN AND OTHER OPIOIDS
‘Heroin and other opioids’ include opioid analgesics such as heroin, methadone and pethidine and
opiate analgesics including codeine, morphine and opium.
OTHER DRUGS
‘Other drugs’ include anabolic agents and selected hormones, tryptamines, anaesthetics,
pharmaceuticals and drugs not elsewhere classified. Current reporting processes do not enable
detailed identification of these drugs.
202
Statistics
PHENETHYLAMINE
Phenethylamines include 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA),
3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDEA),3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA),
dimethoxyamphetamine (DMA) and paramethoxyamphetamine (PMA).
SEIZURE
‘Seizure’ is the confiscation by a law enforcement agency of a quantity of an illicit drug or
a regulated drug being used or possessed unlawfully, whether or not an arrest is made in
conjunction with that confiscation.
The amount of drug seized may be recorded by weight, volume or as a unit count—for example,
number of tablets, plants or bags. The method of estimating the amount of drug seized varies
between and within jurisdictions. For example, seizures of amphetamine in tablet form may be
weighed or counted. Similarly, seizures of cannabis plants may be weighed, counted or measured.
STEROIDS
‘Steroids’ include anabolic and androgenic steroids such as testosterone, nandrolone and
stanazolol.
SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
The following symbols and abbreviations are used in the tables:
na
NEC
no.
r
%
–
not available
not elsewhere classified
number
revised figure
per cent
zero, or rounded to zero.
Figures that have been rounded may not add to totals.
203
204
21 855
1 501
7 385
Qld
SA
SA CENsb
298
112
ACT
ACT SCONse
19 009
17
65
133
82
183
na
3 033
1 819
453
6 518
3 079
3 627
Female
100
0
0
0
2
0
na
56
0
0
16
17
10
Not known
92 882
129
363
563
364
1 027
na
13 414
9 204
1 954
28 389
16 466
21 013
Total
15 011
2
100
2
207
196
na
2 268
0
1 667
3 191
3 906
3 472
Male
3 471
0
18
0
86
37
na
613
0
441
811
820
645
Female
31
0
0
0
2
0
na
7
0
1
0
14
7
Not known
Provider
18 513
2
118
2
295
233
na
2 888
0
2 109
4 002
4 740
4 124
Total
89 293
114
398
432
487
1 040
na
12 593
7 385
3 203
25 046
17 276
21 319
Male
22 624
17
83
133
168
220
na
3 646
1 819
908
7 329
3 899
4 402
Female
132
0
0
0
4
0
na
63
0
1
16
31
17
Not known
Totala
112 049
131
481
565
659
1 260
na
16 302
9 204
4 112
32 391
21 206
25 738
Total
a. Includes those offenders for whom consumer/provider status and gender was not stated. Total may exceed the sum of the table components.
c. Cannabis Intervention Requirements. WA Police statistics on the number of Cannabis Intervention Requirements issued in 2013–14 were not available at the time of publication. These figures will be published
retrospectively in the 2014–15 Illicit Drug Data Report.
Note: The arrest data for each state and territory include Australian Federal Police data.
73 776
430
NT DINsd
Total
280
NT
na
844
Tas
WA CIRsc
10 325
13 370
WA
17 376
Vic
Male
NSW
State/Territory
Consumer
TABLE 39: All drugs: consumer and provider arrests, by state and territory and gender, 2013–14
ARREST TABLES
213
4 528
4 508
522
2 037
28
54
82
15 486
NSW
Vic
Qld
SA
WA
Tas
NT
ACT
Total
4 450
16
18
3
661
212
1 447
1 084
1 009
Female
19
0
2
0
11
0
3
2
1
Not known
Total
19 955
98
74
31
2 709
734
5 958
5 614
4 737
Male
5 119
53
44
37
855
527
644
1 603
1 356
1 134
6
20
4
192
143
170
331
268
Female
12
0
0
0
0
1
0
7
4
Not known
Provider
Total
6 265
59
64
41
1 047
671
814
1 941
1 628
191
112
ACT
ACT SCONse
11 180
17
45
133
60
143
na
1 581
1 819
176
3 915
1 113
2 178
Female
60
0
0
0
0
0
na
28
0
0
12
12
8
Not known
58 201
129
236
563
266
783
na
7 329
9 204
968
17 835
6 922
13 966
Total
6 845
2
22
2
139
123
na
720
0
1 068
1 911
1 351
1 507
Male
1 607
0
8
0
59
24
na
234
0
261
473
281
267
Female
8
0
0
0
0
0
na
3
0
0
0
4
1
Not known
Provider
8 460
2
30
2
198
147
na
957
0
1 329
2 384
1 636
1 775
Total
Male
53 825
114
213
432
345
763
na
6 440
7 385
1 867
15 819
7 148
13 299
Male
20 638
135
98
65
2 892
1 068
5 152
6 131
5 097
12 791
17
53
133
119
167
na
1 815
1 819
438
4 388
1 394
2 448
Female
68
0
0
0
0
0
na
31
0
0
12
16
9
Not known
31
0
2
0
11
1
3
9
5
Not known
Totala
5 600
22
38
7
853
365
1 617
1 415
1 283
Female
Totala
Total
66 684
131
266
565
464
930
na
8 286
9 204
2 305
20 219
8 588
15 756
Total
26 269
157
138
72
3 756
1 434
6 772
7 555
6 385
c. Cannabis Intervention Requirements. WA Police statistics on the number of Cannabis Intervention Requirements issued in 2013–14 were not available at the time of publication. These figures will be published
retrospectively in the 2014–15 Illicit Drug Data Report.
a. Includes those offenders for whom consumer/provider status and gender was not stated. Total may exceed the sum of the table components.
46 961
430
NT DINsd
Total
206
NT
na
640
Tas
WA CIRs
c
5 720
792
SA
WA
13 908
Qld
7 385
5 797
SA CENsb
11 780
Vic
Male
NSW
State/Territory
Consumer
TABLE 41: Cannabis: consumer and provider arrests, by state and territory and gender, 2013–14
a. Includes those offenders for whom consumer/provider status or gender was not stated. Total may exceed the sum of the table components.
Male
3 727
State/Territory
Consumer
TABLE 40: Amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS): consumer and provider arrests, by state and territory and gender, 2013–14
214
Statistics
205
206
626
211
12
52
5
0
6
1 574
Vic
Qld
SA
WA
Tas
NT
ACT
Total
493
3
0
2
24
9
79
166
210
Female
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Not known
2 067
9
0
7
76
21
290
792
872
Total
529
5
0
5
42
27
24
245
181
Male
168
3
2
1
19
16
4
68
55
Female
2
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
Not known
Provider
699
8
2
6
62
43
28
314
236
Total
133
158
8
48
0
0
15
875
Vic
Qld
SA
WA
Tas
NT
ACT
Total
128
1
1
0
9
0
33
17
67
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
Not known
Consumer
Female
1 005
16
1
0
57
8
191
151
581
Total
399
7
2
1
40
16
33
76
224
Male
58
1
1
0
11
3
7
11
24
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
2
Not known
Provider
Female
461
8
3
1
51
19
40
89
250
Total
513
Male
NSW
State/Territory
TABLE 43: Cocaine: consumer and provider arrests, by state and territory and gender, 2013–14
662
Male
NSW
State/Territory
Consumer
TABLE 42: Heroin and other opioids: consumer and provider arrests, by state and territory and gender, 2013–14
1 274
22
2
1
88
24
191
209
737
Male
2 105
11
0
10
94
39
235
871
845
Male
186
2
2
0
20
3
40
28
91
Female
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
3
Not known
2
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
Not known
Totala
664
6
2
3
43
25
83
234
268
Female
Totala
Total
1 466
24
4
1
108
27
231
240
831
Total
2 771
17
2
13
138
64
318
1 106
1 113
215
83
414
7
114
2
3
0
684
Qld
SA
WA
Tas
NT
ACT
Total
71
0
1
0
12
0
48
7
3
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
Not known
Consumer
Female
756
0
4
2
127
7
462
90
64
Total
157
13
2
1
43
0
68
12
18
Male
22
0
1
0
7
0
11
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Not known
Provider
Female
179
13
3
1
50
0
79
13
20
Total
80
151
3
95
2
1
4
430
Qld
SA
WA
Tas
NT
ACT
Total
113
0
0
1
32
1
44
15
20
Female
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Not known
543
4
1
3
127
4
195
95
114
Total
135
0
1
1
43
5
40
18
27
Male
25
0
1
0
9
1
7
5
2
Female
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
Not known
Provider
161
0
2
1
53
6
47
23
29
Total
94
Vic
Male
NSW
State/Territory
Consumer
TABLE 45: Hallucinogens: consumer and provider arrests, by state and territory and gender, 2013–14
61
Vic
Male
NSW
State/Territory
TABLE 44: Steroids: consumer and provider arrests, by state and territory and gender, 2013–14
565
4
2
3
138
8
191
98
121
Male
841
13
5
3
157
7
482
95
79
Male
138
0
1
1
41
2
51
20
22
Female
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
Not known
Totala
94
0
2
0
19
0
59
8
6
Not known
Totala
Female
704
4
3
4
180
10
242
118
143
Total
936
13
7
3
177
7
541
103
85
Total
216
Statistics
207
208
2 505
157
2 259
167
16
0
7 766
Qld
SA
WA
Tas
NT
ACT
Total
2 574
0
2
34
714
55
952
677
140
19
0
0
0
16
0
1
2
0
Not known
Consumer
Female
10 359
0
18
201
2 989
212
3 458
2 802
679
Total
1 827
0
19
28
525
24
471
601
159
Male
27
457
0
2
8
141
17
139
123
4
0
2
0
2
0
0
0
0
Not known
Provider
Female
2 288
0
23
36
668
41
610
724
186
Total
366
Hallucinogens
68 776
69 731
6 544
283
277
575
1 706
50 845
9 501
2010–11
83 042
76 165
92 874
10 359
543
756
1 005
2 067
58 299
19 945
2013–14
15 624
2 109
144
67
400
860
8 123
3 921
2009–10
9 090
442
509
899
1 678
53 829
16 595
2012–13
7 893
366
389
714
1 800
52 413
12 590
2011–12
Consumer
Note: Excludes arrests where consumer/provider information was not recorded.
Total
6 588
221
Steroids
Other and unknown NEC
841
1 884
48 883
9 993
2009–10
Cocaine
Heroin and other opioids
Cannabis
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Drug type
TABLE 47: All arrests: consumer and provider arrests, by drug type, 2009–10 to 2013–14
539
2 123
Vic
Male
NSW
State/Territory
14 125
1 838
89
68
264
838
7 694
3 334
2010–11
10 045
0
35
195
2 784
190
2 976
2 724
1 141
Male
16 339
2 153
117
118
280
907
8 548
4 216
2011–12
Provider
3 151
0
4
42
855
75
1 091
800
284
17 108
2 209
120
148
380
776
8 013
5 462
2012–13
23
0
2
0
18
0
1
2
0
Not known
Totala
Female
TABLE 46: Other and unknown—not elsewhere classified (NEC): consumer and provider arrests, by state and territory and gender, 2013–14
18 513
2 288
161
179
461
699
8 460
6 265
2013–14
13 219
0
41
237
3 657
265
4 068
3 526
1 425
Total
217
85 252
9 263
512
314
1 244
100
10.9
0.6
0.4
1.5
3.2
67.1
16.4
%
Note: Includes arrests where consumer/provider information was not recorded.
Total
Other and unknown NEC
Hallucinogens
Steroids
Cocaine
2 767
57 170
Cannabis
Heroin and other opioids
13 982
2009–10
No.
Drug Type
100
10.6
0.4
0.4
1.0
3.0
69.3
15.2
%
93 148
10 605
484
511
995
2 714
61 011
16 828
2011–12
No.
100
11.4
0.5
0.5
1.1
2.9
65.5
18.1
%
84 757
8 972
373
365
839
2 551
58 760
12 897
2010–11
No.
TABLE 48: All arrests: number and proportion, by drug type, 2009–10 to 2013–14
101 749
12 469
565
661
1 282
2 463
62 120
22 189
2012–13
No.
100
12.3
0.6
0.6
1.3
2.4
61.1
21.8
%
112 049
13 219
704
936
1 466
2 771
66 684
26 269
2013–14
No.
%
100
11.8
0.6
0.8
1.3
2.5
59.5
23.4
218
Statistics
209
210
NSW
Vic
247
4 291
55
62 970
149
63 914
253
24 106
1 150
40 376
665
5 175
3 738
2 836 810
1 280
1 397 424
4 408
1 613 148
16 173
1 622 739
1 568
85 419
7 260
478 293
6
4 232
191
1 986
103
761
15 712
913 911
271
283 457
4 806
26 263
Qld
1
2 412
27
146
14
6 996
396
749 677
12
10 809
440
14 265
SA
20
5 523
199
2 878
711
10 330
10 915
220 429
593
67 878
5 349
54 869
WA
0
0
0
0
5
5
1 820
113 092
5
1 062
170
8 828
Tas
0
0
3
5
31
665
1 724
160 419
5
3 199
442
15 338
NT
2
4 472
33
56
9
303
650
373 382
13
14 319
183
1 813
ACT
233
143 523
1 365
14 537
2 276
83 542
51 128
6 990 549
6 587
3 391 296
20 218
685 088
Total
Other opioids
State police
Seizures (no.)
1 084
1
3
1
8
14
0
11
1 122
Weight (gms)
24 483
11
0
5
26
337
0
848
25 710
AFP
Seizures (no.)
4
4
5
1
1
0
0
0
15
Weight (gms)
1 859
1 637
218
0
0
0
0
0
3 714
Note: Includes only those seizures for which a drug weight was recorded. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and
state/territory police. Totals may differ from those reported in jurisdictional annual reports due to the different counting rules applied.
Heroin
State police
Seizures (no.)
Weight (gms)
AFP
Seizures (no.)
Weight (gms)
Cannabis
State police
Seizures (no.)
Weight (gms)
AFP
Seizures (no.)
Weight (gms)
State police
Seizures (no.)
Weight (gms)
AFP
Seizures (no.)
Weight (gms)
TABLE 49: Seizures: drug type, by state and territory, 2013–14
SEIZURE TABLES
222
16
491
0
0
3
0
6
552
10
4 029
117
1 158
0
0
260
57 938
1 191
197 754
167
9 714
80
1 958
Vic
1 020
20 843
NSW
9
39
29
2 024
1
2
101
1 881
81
10 992
155
2 809
Qld
0
0
1
100
0
0
1
2
1
2 833
21
514
SA
3
9
37
1 057
1
7
21
175
109
3 149
164
1 327
WA
0
0
3
32
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
25
Tas
0
0
12
11
0
0
6
84
1
165
7
15
NT
0
0
0
0
0
0
43
820
1
16 040
28
1 099
ACT
15
48
215
4 873
18
4 590
339
12 676
1 644
288 871
1 477
28 590
Total
Other and unknown drugs nec
State police
Seizures (no.)
1 246
349
836
14
1 578
203
175
59
4 460
Weight (gms)
280 875
11 661 526
59 983
8 485
54 276
2 450
494 994
358
12 562 947
AFP
Seizures (no.)
1 342
364
90
3
142
1
28
4
1 974
Weight (gms)
612 655
152 481
2 233 158
9 252
20 245
4
95 181
13
3 122 989
Note: Includes only those seizures for which a drug weight was recorded. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and
state/territory police. Totals may differ from those reported in jurisdictional annual reports due to the different counting rules applied.
Hallucinogens
State police
Seizures (no.)
Weight (gms)
AFP
Seizures (no.)
Weight (gms)
Steroids
State police
Seizures (no.)
Weight (gms)
AFP
Seizures (no.)
Weight (gms)
Cocaine
State police
Seizures (no.)
Weight (gms)
AFP
Seizures (no.)
Weight (gms)
TABLE 49 (continued): Seizures: drug type, by state and territory, 2013–14
223
Statistics
211
212
6.2
4.7
5.5
–
23.2
23.2
12.8
7.8
10.0
–
–
–
1.5
0.4
0.6
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
10
12
–
3
3
11
6
17
–
–
–
25
18
43
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0.3
0.3
0.3
–
–
–
1.2
1.1
1.1
–
17.7
17.7
6.0
1.0
1.0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
5.5
7.1
7.1
–
–
–
27.2
77.6
77.6
–
32.2
32.2
6.5
38.0
38.0
–
–
–
1
9
10
–
–
–
15
16
31
–
2
2
17
4
21
–
–
–
–
8
8
Cases
(no.)
–
–
–
0.4
0.3
0.3
–
–
–
2.3
10.7
2.5
–
47.6
47.6
12.4
17.4
12.4
–
–
–
–
5.7
5.7
–
–
–
0.4
0.1
0.1
–
–
–
0.7
0.5
0.5
–
44.7
44.7
1.9
9.2
1.9
–
–
–
–
1.5
1.5
–
–
–
0.4
27.9
27.9
–
–
–
5.5
55.6
55.6
–
50.6
50.6
66.3
76.4
76.4
–
–
–
–
9.5
9.5
Max
(%)
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
18
6
24
–
3
3
14
4
18
–
2
2
4
13
17
Cases
(no.)
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
3.4
1.3
1.5
–
65.9
65.9
6.6
76.0
11.2
–
54.7
54.7
3.8
6.5
5.0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0.4
0.3
0.3
–
55.2
55.2
1.7
17.3
1.7
–
31.6
31.6
2.5
2.0
2.0
Purity
Median
Min
(%)
(%)
January–March 2014
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
10.7
9.1
10.7
–
76.9
76.9
84.0
84.2
84.2
–
77.8
77.8
4.5
15.0
15.0
Max
(%)
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
7
10
17
–
–
–
2
3
5
–
–
–
–
17
17
Cases
(no.)
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1.3
7.2
7.2
–
–
–
46.0
2.6
3.1
–
–
–
–
8.0
8.0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0.4
0.4
0.4
–
–
–
7.9
2.3
2.3
–
–
–
–
1.0
1.0
Purity
Median
Min
(%)
(%)
April–June 2014
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
50.6
40.7
50.6
–
–
–
84.1
3.1
84.1
–
–
–
–
26.0
26.0
Max
(%)
–
–
–
1
9
10
–
–
–
65
50
115
–
5
5
44
17
61
–
5
5
6
48
54
Cases
(no.)
–
–
–
0.4
0.3
0.3
–
–
–
1.8
2.1
2.0
–
55.2
55.2
11.0
11.8
11.8
–
31.6
31.6
4.2
6.5
6.0
–
–
–
0.4
0.1
0.1
–
–
–
0.3
0.3
0.3
–
44.7
44.7
1.2
1.1
1.1
–
17.7
17.7
2.5
1.0
1.0
Purity
Median
Min
nnnn(%)
(%)
221
–
–
–
0.4
27.9
27.9
–
–
–
50.6
55.6
55.6
–
76.9
76.9
84.1
84.2
84.2
–
77.8
77.8
6.5
38.0
38.0
Max
(%)
Total July 2013–June 2014
Note: Figures do not represent the purity levels of all amphetamine seizures—only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of amphetamine
received at the laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of amphetamine seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the
laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
State/Territory
NSW
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
Vic
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
Qld
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
SA
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
Max
(%)
Purity
Median
Min
(%)
(%)
Purity
Median
Min
(%)
(%)
Cases
(no.)
October–December 2013
July–September 2013
TABLE 50: Amphetamine purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2013–14
PURITY TABLES
–
–
–
–
9.1
9.1
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
55.1
55.1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
2
2
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
33.0
33.0
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
9.1
9.1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
77.2
77.2
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
9.1
9.1
–
–
–
Max
(%)
–
–
–
–
1
1
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
1
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
4
4
Cases
(no.)
–
–
–
–
10.2
10.2
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
41.2
41.2
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1.0
1.0
–
–
–
–
10.2
10.2
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
41.2
41.2
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1.0
1.0
Purity
Median
Min
(%)
(%)
–
–
–
–
10.2
10.2
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
41.2
41.2
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1.0
1.0
Max
(%)
–
1
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
6
6
Cases
(no.)
–
18.4
18.4
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
8.0
8.0
–
18.4
18.4
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
7.0
7.0
Purity
Median
Min
(%)
(%)
–
18.4
18.4
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
8.0
8.0
Max
(%)
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
6
6
Cases
(no.)
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1.0
1.0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0.2
0.2
Purity
Median
Min
(%)
(%)
April–June 2014
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
39.0
39.0
Max
(%)
–
1
1
–
3
3
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
1
1
–
–
–
–
1
1
–
16
16
Cases
(no.)
–
18.4
18.4
–
33.0
33.0
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
41.2
41.2
–
–
–
–
9.1
9.1
–
4.0
4.0
–
18.4
18.4
–
10.2
10.2
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
41.2
41.2
–
–
–
–
9.1
9.1
–
0.2
0.2
Purity
Median
Min
(%)
(%)
222
–
18.4
18.4
–
77.2
77.2
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
41.2
41.2
–
–
–
–
9.1
9.1
–
39.0
39.0
Max
(%)
Note: Figures do not represent the purity levels of all amphetamine seizures—only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of amphetamine
received at the laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of amphetamine seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the
laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
State/Territory
WA
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
Tas
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
NT
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
ACT
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
Purity
Cases Median
Min
(no.)
(%)
(%)
TABLE 50 (continued): Amphetamine purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2013–14
Statistics
213
214
–
78.2
–
1
78.2
53.9
118
1
56.1
63
51.8
79.6
2
55
–
79.6
51.7
47.3
–
2
44.4
161
398
78.2
–
78.2
0.6
0.6
0.6
79.5
–
79.5
0.1
0.1
0.1
74.9
74.9
–
0.3
0.2
0.2
1.3
1.3
64.7
1.0
1.5
1.0
(%)
78.2
–
78.2
80.1
80.1
79.7
79.8
–
79.8
77.1
77.1
76.8
80.4
80.4
–
93.2
98.6
98.6
80.3
80.3
80.0
87.5
85.5
87.5
(%)
Max
–
–
–
154
94
60
3
–
3
199
506
307
18
19
1
107
453
346
31
33
2
219
62
157
(no.)
Cases
–
–
–
60.0
70.2
47.5
74.8
–
74.8
59.5
58.1
56.3
78.2
78.2
77.6
70.6
78.1
79.6
78.0
78.0
78.8
68.0
62.7
70.0
(%)
–
–
–
0.1
0.1
0.8
1.3
–
1.3
0.2
0.1
0.1
40.3
40.3
77.6
1.2
0.2
0.2
2.5
2.5
77.5
1.0
2.5
1.0
(%)
Purity
Median
Min
–
–
–
100.0
100.0
80.8
79.9
–
79.9
77.1
77.5
77.5
90.6
90.6
77.6
97.5
100.0
100.0
80.3
80.3
80.0
85.5
84.5
85.5
(%)
Max
–
–
–
84
56
28
4
–
4
211
505
294
17
17
–
88
316
228
22
24
2
161
33
128
(no.)
Cases
–
–
–
55.3
61.2
54.6
78.1
–
78.1
63.9
63.8
63.6
77.1
77.1
–
84.7
83.6
83.0
77.8
77.7
44.1
71.0
73.5
71.0
(%)
–
–
–
0.1
0.2
0.1
73.9
–
73.9
0.1
0.1
0.1
34.9
34.9
–
4.1
0.6
0.6
26.1
12.2
12.2
1.0
1.0
1.0
(%)
Purity
Median
Min
–
–
–
81.3
81.3
80.4
79.7
–
79.7
77.3
78.0
78.0
80.3
80.3
–
95.9
97.2
97.2
80.3
80.3
76.1
86.0
86.0
85.5
(%)
Max
–
–
–
108
78
30
4
–
4
179
522
343
16
16
–
6
46
40
7
8
1
78
28
50
(no.)
Cases
–
–
–
67.5
67.5
67.5
79.7
–
79.7
62.2
61.7
60.6
78.1
78.1
–
70.3
78.8
79.8
73.8
73.7
69.1
71.5
75.5
65.0
(%)
–
–
–
0.1
0.1
0.1
72.0
–
72.0
0.1
0.1
0.1
37.7
37.7
–
0.2
0.2
0.6
33.4
33.4
69.1
1.0
9.5
1.0
(%)
Purity
Median
Min
April–June 2014
–
–
–
81.3
81.3
80.7
80.3
–
80.3
77.6
77.9
77.9
80.3
80.3
–
89.4
94.7
94.7
80.3
80.3
69.1
82.5
81.5
82.5
(%)
Max
1
–
1
464
291
173
13
–
13
750
1 931
1 181
59
60
1
354
1 450
1 096
77
88
11
655
171
484
(no.)
Cases
78.2
–
78.2
59.7
64.2
53.7
79.4
–
79.4
59.8
58.8
58.2
78.2
78.1
77.6
79.9
80.0
80.2
77.7
77.5
77.1
71.0
70.5
71.0
(%)
78.2
–
78.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
1.3
–
1.3
0.1
0.1
0.1
34.9
34.9
77.6
0.2
0.2
0.2
1.3
1.3
12.2
1.0
1.0
1.0
(%)
Purity
Median
Min
78.2
–
78.2
100.0
100.0
80.8
80.3
–
80.3
77.6
78.6
78.0
90.6
90.6
77.6
97.5
100.0
100.0
80.3
80.3
80.0
87.5
86.0
87.5
(%)
Max
223
Note: Figures do not represent the purity levels of all methylamphetamine seizures—only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of
methylamphetamine received at the laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of methylamphetamine seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the
date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
Total
>2 gms
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
SA
AFP
<=2 gms
Total
<=2 gms
>2 gms
–
79.3
79.3
237
8
8
State police
–
79.4
79.0
>2 gms
Total
Qld
78.9
153
635
74.7
77.1
482
78.2
6
73.5
67.7
74.5
(%)
17
23
197
48
149
(no.)
<=2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
State police
Total
Vic
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
>2 gms
State police
<=2 gms
State/Territory
NSW
Cases
Purity
Median
Min
TABLE 51: Methylamphetamine purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2013–14
19.5
52.0
47.0
–
77.2
77.2
–
56.6
56.6
–
79.0
79.0
na
na
na
13.6
–
13.6
–
–
–
–
–
–
52
290
342
–
8
8
–
8
8
–
1
1
na
na
na
1
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
13.6
–
13.6
na
na
na
–
79.0
79.0
–
10.2
10.2
–
52.6
52.6
0.6
0.1
0.1
–
–
–
–
–
–
13.6
–
13.6
na
na
na
–
79.0
79.0
–
79.0
79.0
–
78.8
78.8
66.0
81.0
81.0
–
2
2
–
–
–
–
1
1
na
na
na
–
1
1
–
–
–
–
8
8
62
256
318
–
79.6
79.6
–
–
–
–
77.6
77.6
na
na
na
–
41.2
41.2
–
–
–
–
78.0
78.0
43.0
55.0
53.0
–
79.4
79.4
–
–
–
–
77.6
77.6
na
na
na
–
41.2
41.2
–
–
–
–
43.2
43.2
0.2
0.0
0.0
–
79.9
79.9
–
–
–
–
77.6
77.6
na
na
na
–
41.2
41.2
–
–
–
–
80.1
80.1
74.0
81.0
81.0
Purity
Cases
Median
Min
Max
(no.)
(%)
(%)
(%)
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
4
4
–
6
6
46
344
390
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
74.0
74.0
–
76.9
76.9
63.0
60.5
61.0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
73.0
73.0
–
49.8
49.8
16.0
0.1
0.1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
76.7
76.7
–
79.1
79.1
78.0
84.0
84.0
Purity
Cases
Median
Min
Max
(no.)
(%)
(%)
(%)
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
5
5
1
1
22
304
326
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
61.8
61.8
–
78.3
78.3
62.0
64.0
64.0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
13.5
13.5
–
78.3
78.3
34.0
0.1
0.1
April–June 2014
Purity
Cases
Median
Min
(no.)
(%)
(%)
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
66.2
66.2
–
78.3
78.3
80.0
88.0
88.0
Max
(%)
–
2
2
–
–
–
1
1
2
na
na
na
–
2
2
–
17
17
–
23
23
182
1 194
1 376
–
79.6
79.6
–
–
–
13.6
77.6
45.6
na
na
na
–
60.1
60.1
–
64.3
64.3
–
77.6
77.6
45.0
58.0
57.0
–
79.4
79.4
–
–
–
13.6
77.6
13.6
na
na
na
–
41.2
41.2
–
10.2
10.2
–
43.2
43.2
0.2
0.0
0.0
–
79.9
79.9
–
–
–
13.6
77.6
77.6
na
na
na
–
79.0
79.0
–
79.0
79.0
–
80.1
80.1
80.0
88.0
88.0
Purity
Cases
Median
Min
Max
(no.)
(%)
(%)
(%)
224
Note: Figures do not represent the purity levels of all methylamphetamine seizures—only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of
methylamphetamine received at the laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of methylamphetamine seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the
date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
State/Territory
WA
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
Tas
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
NT
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
ACT
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
Purity
Cases
Median
Min
Max
(no.)
(%)
(%)
(%)
TABLE 51 (continued): Methylamphetamine purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2013–14
Statistics
215
216
(%)
12.7
12.0
12.0
–
50.7
50.7
15.6
14.1
14.9
23.9
57.5
34.4
15.4
14.3
14.9
–
–
–
5.6
11.9
11.2
27.9
–
27.9
(no.)
14
49
63
–
4
4
104
31
135
6
2
8
43
110
153
–
–
–
4
39
43
1
–
1
27.9
–
27.9
1.8
2.4
1.8
–
–
–
0.9
0.2
0.2
0.2
36.9
0.2
0.9
2.1
0.9
–
13.0
13.0
4.0
1.0
1.0
(%)
27.9
–
27.9
6.5
80.6
80.6
–
–
–
63.1
57.4
63.1
74.9
78.2
78.2
88.7
80.1
88.7
–
76.9
76.9
78.5
80.0
80.0
(%)
–
–
–
18
31
49
–
5
5
32
20
52
–
5
5
82
14
96
–
7
7
16
40
56
(no.)
–
–
–
15.1
41.2
19.2
–
61.3
61.3
59.3
12.9
23.7
–
51.8
51.8
16.3
13.2
15.2
–
76.3
76.3
13.5
14.2
14.0
(%)
–
–
–
8.6
2.4
2.4
–
1.7
1.7
0.4
0.1
0.1
–
26.4
26.4
0.6
0.4
0.4
–
2.3
2.3
1.0
1.5
1.0
(%)
–
–
–
75.6
80.0
80.0
–
78.6
78.6
72.8
72.3
72.8
–
75.3
75.3
87.1
74.6
87.1
–
79.2
79.2
79.5
81.0
81.0
(%)
Purity
Cases
Median
Min
Max
–
1
1
2
43
45
–
–
–
73
68
141
–
1
1
49
11
60
1
4
5
34
45
79
(no.)
–
30.4
30.4
45.8
10.9
12.1
–
–
–
19.2
7.3
16.5
–
69.0
69.0
20.6
30.3
22.5
21.4
76.3
76.3
35.5
19.5
23.0
(%)
–
30.4
30.4
18.6
4.0
4.0
–
–
–
0.4
0.4
0.4
–
69.0
69.0
8.0
21.7
8.0
21.4
74.8
21.4
4.5
1.0
1.0
(%)
Purity
Cases
Median
Min
–
30.4
30.4
73.1
84.1
84.1
–
–
–
72.1
72.6
72.6
–
69.0
69.0
79.5
85.8
85.8
21.4
76.9
76.9
82.0
79.0
82.0
(%)
Max
–
–
–
5
37
42
–
–
–
69
44
113
–
–
–
1
–
1
–
3
3
13
24
37
(no.)
Cases
–
–
–
81.7
11.6
11.8
–
–
–
56.6
6.5
23.8
–
–
–
24.0
–
24.0
–
22.5
22.5
22.5
52.7
51.5
(%)
–
–
–
11.7
0.8
0.8
–
–
–
0.2
0.1
0.1
–
–
–
24.0
–
24.0
–
22.0
22.0
2.0
8.0
2.0
(%)
April–June 2014
Purity
Median
Min
–
–
–
82.1
78.0
82.0
–
–
–
73.8
71.1
73.8
–
–
–
24.0
–
24.0
–
24.7
24.7
81.0
78.5
81.0
(%)
Max
1
1
2
29
150
179
–
5
5
217
242
459
6
8
14
236
56
292
1
18
19
77
158
235
(no.)
27.9
30.4
29.1
14.9
12.4
13.3
–
61.3
61.3
23.3
13.1
15.5
23.9
60.4
44.3
16.6
14.2
16.0
21.4
75.8
75.3
22.5
17.0
18.5
(%)
27.9
30.4
27.9
1.8
0.8
0.8
–
1.7
1.7
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.2
26.4
0.2
0.6
0.4
0.4
21.4
2.3
2.3
1.0
1.0
1.0
(%)
27.9
30.4
30.4
82.0
84.1
84.1
–
78.6
78.6
73.8
72.6
73.8
74.9
78.2
78.2
88.7
85.8
88.7
21.4
79.2
79.2
82.0
81.0
82.0
(%)
Purity
Cases
Median
Min
Max
225
Note: Phenethylamine includes MDA, MDEA, MDMA, mescaline, PMA, DMA and phenethylamine not elsewhere classified (NEC). Figures do not represent the purity levels of all phenethylamine seizures—only those that have been analysed at a
forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of phenethylamine received at the laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of
phenethylamine seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations
between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
State/Territory
NSW
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
Vic
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
Qld
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
SA
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
Purity
Cases
Median
Min
Max
TABLE 52: Phenethylamine purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2013–14
(%)
29.5
17.5
19.0
78.1
46.8
47.2
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
77.0
77.0
–
–
–
(no.)
16
52
68
1
5
6
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
1
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
77.0
77.0
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
78.1
39.4
39.4
5.0
4.0
4.0
(%)
–
–
–
–
77.0
77.0
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
78.1
48.7
78.1
52.0
84.0
84.0
(%)
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
62
58
120
(no.)
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
27.0
14.0
22.5
(%)
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
10.0
10.0
10.0
(%)
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
50.0
90.0
90.0
(%)
Purity
Cases
Median
Min
Max
–
2
2
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
1
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
26
70
96
(no.)
–
56.2
56.2
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
64.0
64.0
–
–
–
–
–
–
30.0
15.0
21.5
(%)
–
38.0
38.0
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
64.0
64.0
–
–
–
–
–
–
9.0
2.0
2.0
(%)
–
74.4
74.4
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
64.0
64.0
–
–
–
–
–
–
79.0
74.0
79.0
(%)
Purity
Cases
Median
Min
Max
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
12
202
214
(no.)
Cases
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
25.0
26.0
26.0
(%)
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
19.0
6.0
6.0
(%)
April–June 2014
Purity
Median
Min
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
28.0
92.0
92.0
(%)
Max
–
2
2
–
1
1
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
1
1
–
–
–
1
5
6
116
382
498
(no.)
–
56.2
56.2
–
77.0
77.0
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
64.0
64.0
–
–
–
78.1
46.8
47.2
26.5
25.0
25.0
(%)
–
38.0
38.0
–
77.0
77.0
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
64.0
64.0
–
–
–
78.1
39.4
39.4
5.0
2.0
2.0
(%)
–
74.4
74.4
–
77.0
77.0
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
64.0
64.0
–
–
–
78.1
48.7
78.1
79.0
92.0
92.0
(%)
Purity
Cases
Median
Min
Max
226
Note: Phenethylamines include MDA, MDEA, MDMA, mescaline, PMA, DMA and phenethylamine not elsewhere classified (NEC). Figures do not represent the purity levels of all phenethylamine seizures—only those that have been analysed at a
forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of phenethylamine received at the laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of
phenethylamine seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations
between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
State/Territory
WA
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
Tas
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
NT
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
ACT
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
Purity
Cases
Median
Min
Max
TABLE 52 (continued): Phenethylamine purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2013–14
Statistics
217
218
–
–
–
–
–
16.7
15
–
15.9
4
16.7
–
–
11
–
–
14.1
14.3
–
–
14.5
14
64
–
–
–
7.6
11.8
7.6
–
–
–
0.1
0.1
2.1
68.6
68.6
–
5.3
4.3
4.3
3.1
3.1
–
4.5
4.5
25.0
–
–
–
19.4
18.0
19.4
–
–
–
36.4
36.4
27.9
71.7
71.7
–
67.1
68.5
68.5
66.5
66.5
–
65.0
55.5
65.0
(%)
Max
1
–
1
–
–
–
1
–
1
16
46
30
8
8
–
21
102
81
4
4
–
42
17
25
(no.)
Cases
71.7
–
71.7
–
–
–
1.0
–
1.0
19.1
16.4
16.3
75.5
75.5
–
12.0
13.1
13.8
44.2
44.2
–
26.2
25.0
26.5
(%)
71.7
–
71.7
–
–
–
1.0
–
1.0
7.1
6.0
6.0
4.9
4.9
–
0.4
0.4
4.2
4.6
4.6
–
8.5
9.5
8.5
(%)
Purity
Median
Min
71.7
–
71.7
–
–
–
1.0
–
1.0
31.4
31.4
21.3
90.6
90.6
–
71.1
71.1
47.5
73.2
73.2
–
71.0
68.5
71.0
(%)
Max
–
–
–
7
4
3
1
–
1
29
33
4
1
1
–
9
44
35
3
3
–
28
12
16
(no.)
Cases
–
–
–
13.8
13.9
13.7
64.1
–
64.1
12.0
12.1
15.9
67.7
67.7
–
17.1
14.7
14.1
54.6
54.6
–
35.2
29.0
44.0
(%)
–
–
–
1.1
1.1
13.7
64.1
–
64.1
7.8
2.4
2.4
67.7
67.7
–
10.3
4.6
4.6
48.4
48.4
–
9.5
10.0
9.5
(%)
Purity
Median
Min
–
–
–
15.0
15.0
14.3
64.1
–
64.1
45.9
45.9
18.2
67.7
67.7
–
69.2
70.1
70.1
59.7
59.7
–
71.0
68.5
71.0
(%)
Max
–
–
–
13
1
12
–
–
–
26
55
29
2
2
–
8
17
9
–
–
–
18
7
11
(no.)
Cases
–
–
–
19.9
19.4
19.9
–
–
–
20.3
15.3
12.8
37.4
37.4
–
14.4
14.4
14.7
–
–
–
22.0
21.0
22.5
(%)
–
–
–
13.8
19.4
13.8
–
–
–
0.2
0.1
0.1
1.1
1.1
–
8.1
8.1
12.8
–
–
–
15.5
15.5
16.0
(%)
Purity
Median
Min
April–June 2014
–
–
–
41.8
19.4
41.8
–
–
–
62.9
62.9
61.0
73.8
73.8
–
17.2
63.1
63.1
–
–
–
76.0
76.0
72.5
(%)
Max
1
–
1
35
9
26
2
–
2
85
198
113
13
13
–
72
325
253
14
14
–
112
51
61
(no.)
Cases
71.7
–
71.7
17.0
14.5
18.0
32.5
–
32.5
15.9
14.8
14.2
73.0
73.0
–
12.2
12.7
12.8
51.5
51.5
–
27.0
26.5
27.5
(%)
71.7
–
71.7
1.1
1.1
7.6
1.0
–
1.0
0.1
0.1
0.1
1.1
1.1
–
0.4
0.4
4.2
3.1
3.1
–
4.5
4.5
8.5
(%)
Purity
Median
Min
71.7
–
71.7
41.8
19.4
41.8
64.1
–
64.1
62.9
62.9
61.0
90.6
90.6
–
71.1
71.1
70.1
73.2
73.2
–
76.0
76.0
72.5
(%)
Max
227
Figures do not represent the purity levels of all heroin seizures—only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of heroin received at the laboratory in
the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of heroin seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment
has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
Total
>2 gms
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
SA
AFP
<=2 gms
Total
<=2 gms
>2 gms
–
70.1
70.1
50
2
2
State police
–
11.0
11.7
34
162
>2 gms
Total
Qld
11.8
128
–
33.1
33.1
7
7
26.2
26.0
37.0
–
24
15
9
(no.)
(%)
(%)
Cases
<=2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
State police
Total
Vic
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
>2 gms
State police
<=2 gms
State/Territory
NSW
Purity
Median
Min
TABLE 53: Heroin purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2013–14
–
28.0
28.0
–
64.9
64.9
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
22.4
22.4
–
22
22
–
1
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
1
–
22.4
22.4
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
64.9
64.9
–
13.0
13.0
–
22.4
22.4
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
64.9
64.9
–
47.0
47.0
Max
(%)
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
4
8
12
Cases
(no.)
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
5.6
62.0
30.0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0.2
4.0
0.2
Purity
Median
Min
(%)
(%)
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
11.0
81.0
81.0
Max
(%)
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
1
2
28
30
Cases
(no.)
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
67.2
67.2
73.0
75.0
75.0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
67.2
67.2
73.0
71.0
71.0
Purity
Median
Min
(%)
(%)
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
67.2
67.2
73.0
80.0
80.0
Max
(%)
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
1
2
12
14
Cases
(no.)
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
53.4
53.4
70.0
41.0
48.0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
53.4
53.4
70.0
30.0
30.0
Purity
Median
Min
(%)
(%)
April–June 2014
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
53.4
53.4
70.0
84.0
84.0
Max
(%)
–
1
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
3
3
8
70
78
Cases
(no.)
–
22.4
22.4
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
64.9
64.9
40.5
68.0
68.0
–
22.4
22.4
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
53.4
53.4
0.2
4.0
0.2
Purity
Median
Min
(%)
(%)
–
22.4
22.4
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
67.2
67.2
73.0
84.0
84.0
Max
(%)
228
Figures do not represent the purity levels of all heroin seizures—only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of heroin received at the laboratory in
the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of heroin seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment
has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
State/Territory
WA
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
Tas
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
NT
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
ACT
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
Cases
(no.)
Purity
Median
Min
(%)
(%)
TABLE 53 (continued): Heroin purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2013–14
Statistics
219
220
–
–
–
–
–
55.7
7
–
56.7
4
15.7
63.2
11
3
–
63.2
48.8
45.2
–
11
43.7
32
48
–
–
–
10.2
55.7
10.2
3.9
–
3.9
13.4
1.5
1.5
32.8
32.8
72.2
57.8
5.5
5.5
0.1
0.1
38.6
15.0
18.0
15.0
(%)
Min
–
–
–
56.9
56.9
29.9
86.5
–
86.5
71.6
77.7
77.7
84.7
84.7
76.0
74.7
78.7
78.7
81.7
81.7
61.8
88.0
63.5
88.0
(%)
Max
–
–
–
11
2
9
5
1
4
21
33
12
1
2
1
14
56
42
11
12
1
51
9
42
(no.)
Cases
–
–
–
13.5
55.4
12.3
50.9
69.6
49.8
26.2
26.2
24.8
80.5
60.7
40.9
63.3
45.0
44.3
67.4
66.1
1.5
53.5
43.5
54.0
(%)
Median
–
–
–
3.1
45.2
3.1
28.1
69.6
28.1
16.2
0.7
0.7
80.5
40.9
40.9
17.2
12.2
12.2
18.4
1.5
1.5
17.0
26.0
17.0
(%)
Min
–
–
–
65.6
65.6
56.3
69.6
69.6
55.6
69.2
74.4
74.4
80.5
80.5
40.9
89.5
98.6
98.6
83.1
83.1
1.5
87.0
81.0
87.0
(%)
Max
–
–
–
2
2
–
2
–
2
42
64
22
–
–
–
3
13
10
6
8
2
37
15
22
(no.)
Cases
–
–
–
55.6
55.6
–
54.2
–
54.2
57.7
26.5
19.9
–
–
–
65.6
38.1
32.0
67.5
66.1
18.8
42.0
48.5
41.5
(%)
Median
Purity
–
–
–
45.3
45.3
–
52.2
–
52.2
0.9
0.9
0.9
–
–
–
43.9
12.8
12.8
51.8
0.4
0.4
8.0
8.0
20.0
(%)
Min
–
–
–
65.9
65.9
–
56.2
–
56.2
79.1
79.1
58.7
–
–
–
72.9
73.6
73.6
75.8
75.8
37.2
76.0
66.0
76.0
(%)
Max
1
–
1
3
3
–
–
–
–
16
31
15
2
2
–
3
6
3
3
3
–
29
18
11
(no.)
Cases
82.9
–
82.9
69.9
69.9
–
–
–
–
53.6
37.0
28.6
71.0
71.0
–
32.7
35.6
38.5
79.0
79.0
–
33.0
31.7
33.5
(%)
Median
Purity
82.9
–
82.9
0.1
0.1
–
–
–
–
21.5
15.4
15.4
62.9
62.9
–
21.9
21.9
31.7
69.1
69.1
–
10.0
10.0
27.0
(%)
Min
April–June 2014
82.9
–
82.9
70.0
70.0
–
–
–
–
65.9
65.9
45.4
79.1
79.1
–
38.8
44.1
44.1
82.9
82.9
–
75.5
75.5
60.5
(%)
Max
1
–
1
23
11
12
18
1
17
111
176
65
5
8
3
23
101
78
40
45
5
169
51
118
(no.)
Cases
82.9
–
82.9
29.9
56.8
12.9
57.5
69.6
56.2
41.7
33.8
27.0
79.1
74.1
72.2
62.4
44.1
43.1
61.3
57.4
37.2
50.0
41.5
51.5
(%)
Median
Purity
82.9
–
82.9
0.1
0.1
3.1
3.9
69.6
3.9
0.9
0.7
0.7
32.8
32.8
40.9
17.2
5.5
5.5
0.1
0.1
0.4
8.0
8.0
15.0
(%)
Min
82.9
–
82.9
70.0
70.0
56.3
86.5
69.6
86.5
79.1
79.1
77.7
84.7
84.7
76.0
89.5
98.6
98.6
83.1
83.1
61.8
88.0
81.0
88.0
(%)
Max
229
Figures do not represent the purity levels of all cocaine seizures—only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of cocaine received at the
laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of cocaine seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly.
No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
Total
>2 gms
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
SA
AFP
<=2 gms
Total
<=2 gms
>2 gms
58.7
74.1
74.1
16
2
4
State police
2
74.6
45.8
>2 gms
Total
Qld
44.4
3
26
47.2
47.2
23
50.2
2
54.5
53.0
55.0
(%)
20
22
52
9
43
(no.)
<=2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
State police
Total
Vic
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
>2 gms
State police
<=2 gms
State/Territory
NSW
Median
Purity
Purity
Cases
TABLE 54: Cocaine purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2013–14
(%)
–
57.0
57.0
–
68.2
68.2
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
70.7
70.7
(no.)
–
8
8
–
2
2
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
1
–
70.7
70.7
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
68.1
68.1
–
13.0
13.0
(%)
Min
–
70.7
70.7
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
68.3
68.3
–
77.0
77.0
(%)
Max
–
1
1
–
4
4
–
1
1
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
1
2
106
108
(no.)
Cases
–
58.2
58.2
–
47.0
47.0
–
53.2
53.2
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
66.6
66.6
82.0
67.0
67.0
(%)
Median
–
58.2
58.2
–
25.7
25.7
–
53.2
53.2
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
66.6
66.6
82.0
22.0
22.0
(%)
Min
–
58.2
58.2
–
63.8
63.8
–
53.2
53.2
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
66.6
66.6
82.0
87.0
87.0
(%)
Max
–
–
–
–
2
2
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
2
2
10
12
(no.)
Cases
–
–
–
–
24.7
24.7
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
61.0
61.0
16.0
27.0
23.5
(%)
Median
Purity
–
–
–
–
12.8
12.8
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
53.6
53.6
16.0
12.0
12.0
(%)
Min
–
–
–
–
36.7
36.7
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
68.4
68.4
16.0
68.0
68.0
(%)
Max
–
–
–
–
5
5
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
44
44
(no.)
Cases
–
–
–
–
33.1
33.1
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
62.5
62.5
(%)
Median
Purity
–
–
–
–
20.2
20.2
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
25.0
25.0
(%)
Min
April–June 2014
–
–
–
–
82.7
82.7
–
–
–
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
78.0
78.0
(%)
Max
–
2
2
–
11
11
–
1
1
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
5
5
4
168
172
(no.)
Cases
–
64.4
64.4
–
33.1
33.1
–
53.2
53.2
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
68.1
68.1
49.0
64.5
64.5
(%)
Median
Purity
–
58.2
58.2
–
12.8
12.8
–
53.2
53.2
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
53.6
53.6
16.0
12.0
12.0
(%)
Min
–
70.7
70.7
–
82.7
82.7
–
53.2
53.2
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
68.4
68.4
82.0
87.0
87.0
(%)
Max
230
Figures do not represent the purity levels of all cocaine seizures—only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of cocaine received at the
laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of cocaine seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly.
No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
State/Territory
WA
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
Tas
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
NT
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
ACT
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
Median
Purity
Purity
Cases
TABLE 54 (continued): Cocaine purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2013–14
Statistics
221
222
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
2 grams
3 grams
8 ball (3.5 grams; i.e. 1/8 ounce)
1/4 ounce
1 vial (1/2 ounce)
1 ounce (street deal)
1 ounce
1 pound
1 kilogram
25–50
25–40
28–35
12–35
8–12
na
1 tablet/capsule
2–24 tablets/capsules (per tab)
1 000+ tablets/capsules (per tab)
5 000+ tablets/capsules (per tab)
TABLE 56: MDMA prices by state and territory, 2013–14 ($)
NSW
Weight
na
na
1 weight gram
na
10–15
10–15
15–20
15–20
15–20
Vic
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
0.5 gram
na
Vic
na
NSW
1 street deal (0.1 gram)
Weight
TABLE 55: Amphetamine prices by state and territory, 2013–14 ($)
PRICE TABLES
SA
8
9
10
15
16
7–40
SA
na
na
8 000–18 000
na
5 000–8 000
na
600–2 650
na
na
450–900
250–350
100
na
12–18
13–20
15–20
18–20
20–50
Qld
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
Qld
na
1.33
24
na
na
15
WA
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
WA
na
20
25
30
40
50
Tas
na
na
na
4 000–5 000
na
na
800–900
na
na
300
na
50
Tas
NT
na
na
na
na
30–50
50
NT
na
na
na
na
na
na
1 500
na
na
600–800
na
100
ACT
na
na
na
na
na
30–40
ACT
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
80–100
231
250–400
na
2 grams
3 grams
70 000–110 000
1 kilogram
13 000–15 000
88 000
40 000
2 500
3 000–4 000
na
850
na
na
na
150–400
na
50
200 000–220 000
na
45 000–90 000
na
4 000
na
na
600–1 100
na
na
180–500
na
50–150
200 000–250 000
70 000–120 000
6 800–11 000
120 000
3 300–8 000
na
1 200–3 400
750–1 750
na
na
300–500
na
50–150
Qld
na
na
2 700
1 500–1 900
na
na
750–1 000
80
100
Vic
na
na
na
10 000
5 000–6 000
na
1 000–2 000
na
na
600–700
na
100
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
SA
na
na
na
4 000–5 000
13 375
na
na
na
na
800–900
na
na
300
na
50
na
na
na
10 000–14 000
na
na
1 800–2 000
na
na
500
na
100
Tas
na
7 500
na
2 000
na
na
700
na
150
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
WA
na
200
NTa
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
16 000–19 000
na
na
5 000
na
na
1 200–1 600
a. Northern Territory Police Force has not provided prices for non-crystal methylamphetamine prices as crystal methylamphetamine is most common in the Northern Territory.
18 000–28 000
1 pound
na
1 500–3 000
na
1 vial (1/2 ounce)
1 ounce
na
1/4 ounce
250–600
100–300
1 weight gram
8 ball (3.5 gram; i.e. 1/8 ounce)
120–200
20–100
160 000–265 000
0.7 gram
Powder/paste/base
1 kilogram
Non-crystal form
6 000–11 000
95 000–120 000
1 pound
na
1 ounce
na
2 000–3 000
1/4 ounce
1 vial (1/2 ounce)
1 000–2 500
na
8 ball (3.5 gram; i.e. 1/8 ounce)
na
3 grams
400–1 000
250–500
50–250
NSW
2 grams
1 weight gram
0.7 gram
Crystal form (‘ice’)
Weight
TABLE 57: Methylamphetamine prices by state and territory, 2013–14 ($)
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
10 000–12 000
na
na
1 500–3 000
na
na
600–700
na
100
ACT
232
Statistics
223
224
na
na
25–30
250
450
2 100–3 200
na
3 000
na
na
25–50
na
na
4 500
na
5 000
25–50
na
na
3 800–5 000
na
na
na
na
300–450
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
Qld
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
25–30c
150
210–320
2 200–3 200
na
na
na
na
na
400
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
25
na
350
3 000–4 800
8 000–10 000
WA
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
SAa
na
na
25
150
300
3 500–4 500
8 500–9 000
na
na
na
na
na
na
25
80
150
200–300
3 000–3 500
7 000
na
na
na
na
na
na
Tas
a. South Australia Police has not provided prices for cannabis ‘leaf’ as this is believed to no longer have a market in South Australia—only ‘head’ is sold.
b. Northern Territory Police Force has not provided prices for cannabis ‘leaf’ as it is no long frequently seen or sold, ‘head’ is seen but it is primarily hydroponic.
c. A deal bag in South Australia is approximately 2.5 grams.
50
40–50
Deal (1 gram approx.)
Oil
Cap/vial
12–30
na
200–400
3 500–4 200
na
2 000–5 000
1/2 bag (14 grams)
Ounce bag (28 grams)
1 pound
1 kilogram
1 mature plant
Resin
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
12–30
na
na
200–400
3 000–4 200
na
1 000–2 000
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
Vic
na
na
na
na
na
NSW
1/2 bag (14 grams)
1 pound
1 kilogram
Head
1/2 bag (14 grams)
1 pound
1 kilogram
Head
1/4 bag (7 grams)
1/2 bag (14 grams)
1 pound
1 kilogram
1 mature plant
Hydroponic
Leaf
Weight
Bush
Leaf
TABLE 58: Cannabis prices by state and territory, 2013–14 ($)
na
na
30–50
na
450
5 000–6 500
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
NTb
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
20
na
300–350
3 500
na
ACT
233
360–550
1 gram
50–80
7 200–10 000
1 ounce (28 grams)
180 000–220 000
na
180 000–220 000
na
9 200
3 500
na
350
50
250 000
na
6 000–7 000
na
1 100–1 300
350–400
na
na
na
na
1 500–1 800
300–800
na
SA
na
na
na
na
na
6 000–16 000
na
na
950–1 500
na
na
na
na
100
50
SA
a. Tasmania Police has not provided prices for heroin due to heroin not being sold in Tasmania.
1 kilogram
na
na
1 pound (0.45 kilograms)
na
1/4 ounce (7 grams)
250–450
8 ball (3.5 grams)
1 gram
1 cap
Qld
TABLE 60: Cocaine prices by state and territory, 2013–14 ($)
NSW
Vic
Weight
na
na
na
70 000–120 000
5 000–9 000
na
na
800
400–700
na
200
100
50
50
Qld
na
280 000–295 000
1 kilogram
na
na
105 000–115 000
105 000–115 000
11 000
na
na
na
150
na
200
na
50
na
Vic
na
160 000–210 000
na
1 pound
Asian catti (700 grams)
na
80 000–110 000
12.5 ounce block
1/2 Asian catti (350 grams)
6 800–8 000
na
1/2 ounce
1 ounce
na
10 gram bag
900–1 800
200–300
1 street weight (0.6–0.8 gram)
8 ball (3.5 grams; i.e. 1/8 ounce)
140–350
na
50–200
35–70
NSW
1/2 weight (0.4–0.6 gram)
1/4 gram
1 taste/cap (0.1–0.3 gram)
Half point (0.05 gram)
Weight
TABLE 59: Heroin prices by state and territory, 2013–14 ($)
na
na
10 000
na
2 500
750
na
WA
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
WA
na
na
7 000–9 000
2 000
na
300–500
na
Tas
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
50
Tasa
NT
na
na
na
na
na
1 000
100
NT
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
50
na
na
8 000
na
na
250–350
na
ACT
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
1 200–1 750
280–300
na
120–180
80
na
na
ACT
234
Statistics
225
226
a. Discrete dosage units (ddu).
LSD
1–9 tabs (ddua)
10–100 tabs (ddu)
101–999 tabs (ddu)
1000+ tabs (ddu)
1 x 20 millilitre vial
Ketamine
Tablet
Powder (1 gram)
Vial (5–10 millilitres)
GHB/GBL
1–1.5 millilitres
4–5 millilitres (fish)
10–15 millilitres
50 millilitres
100 millilitres
Bulk
1 litre
25 litres
GHB
Serve/4 milligrams
Vial
8 serves/32 milligrams
Opioid pharmaceuticals
Per milligram
Per tablet
Oxycontin (per tablet)
Oxycontin (60 milligram tablet)
Oxycontin (1 box)
MS Contin
1 milligram
Per tablet
60 milligram tablet
100 milligram tablet
Kapanol (per tablet)
Buprenorphine (2 milligram tablet)
Buprenorphine (8 milligram tablet)
Fentanyl (1 microgram tablet)
Fentanyl (1 x 100 microgram patch)
Morphine (per tablet)
Psilocybin
1gram
na
na
na
3
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
1
na
na
60
na
100
na
2 000
1
na
na
na
65
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
100–180
100–200
10–20
20–30
50–80
na
na
na
2 200–5 000
150 000–170 000
na
na
na
1
10–150
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
20–100
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
1
30
30–60
60–100
na
10–20
20–50
na
na
na
1
10–12
na
na
20–80
na
na
2 800
na
na
na
5–8
10–20
na
250
na
na
1 000–3 000
Na
na
150–200
na
20–50
na
na
na
800
Qld
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
SA
10
na
na
na
na
50
na
na
na
na
50
1
50
50
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
2–5
na
na
na
na
na
2 000–3 000
na
na
na
na
na
na
Vic
20–40
20–30
na
na
na
TABLE 61: Other drugs prices by state and territory, 2013–14 ($)
Other drugs
NSW
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
25
20
na
na
na
WA
na
1
na
60
100
na
na
na
na
na
na
1
na
na
60
na
100
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
10–20
na
na
na
na
Tas
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
80–100
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
50
30–50
na
na
na
NT
235
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
50
na
100
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
ACT
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
1 000
na
na
na
na
na
1 500
na
na
na
1 000
na
na
25 000
na
na
na
na
na
25 000
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
20
na
1 000
na
4–200
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
90–250
na
na
100
na
na
na
80 000–105 000
Vic
NSW
20–50
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
20–50
na
na
1 200–3 000
na
0.40–1
40–100
400
25 000–60 000
na
50–250
na
na
na
25 000–60 000
1
20–50
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
Qld
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
5 000
na
na
na
1 500
na
na
na
na
na
4 000–4 700
na
na
5
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
5
50
250
SA
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
WA
na
50
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
30
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
50
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
350
Tas
a. Northern Territory Police Force has not provided prices for precursors due to them being primarily sourced in other states and imported, to be utilised for diversion and not for separate sale.
4MMC per tablet/capsule
4MMC (1 milligram)
MDPV
1 tablet/capsule
2–24 tablets/capsules (per tablet)
1000+ tablets/capsules (per tablet)
Point
Milligram
Ounce
N-Benzylpiperazine (BZP)
1 tablet
Analogues
Ephedrine
1 kilogram
Pseudoephedrine
Box
Per milligram
100 x boxes
Ounce
1 kilogram (pure)
Hypophosphorous acid
50 millilitres
1 litre
Iodine
1 gram
100 grams
1 kilogram
Precursors
Other drugs
Benzodiazepine pharmaceuticals
Per milligram
Per tablet
Bromazepam (per tablet)
Clonazepam (per tablet)
Flunitrazepam (per tablet)
Nitrazepan (per tablet)
Diazepam (per tablet)
Oxazepam (per tablet)
Temazepam (per tablet)
Xanax (1 tablet)
Xanax (10 tablets)
Xanax (50 tablets)
TABLE 61 (continued): Other drugs prices by state and territory, 2013–14 ($)
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
NTa
236
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
ACT
Statistics
227
228
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
Vic
20–25b
na
na
na
na
NSW
3
160
na
na
na
na
na
180
1 400
2 600
5 500
200
1 800
180
230
230
1 900
3 600
8 000
na
15
na
20–50
50–95
100–140
150–250
300–450
Qld
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
200–500
na
na
150
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
25
na
na
na
na
SA
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
WA
na
na
150–250
na
na
na
na
150–250
na
na
na
150–250
na
na
150–250
150–250
na
na
na
na
20
na
na
65
na
na
na
Tas
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
NTa
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
100
na
na
ACT
237
a. Northern Territory Police Force has not provided prices for performance and image enhancing drugs as they are primarily seen as a secondary substance and detection relates to location of substances in conjunction
with other targeted substances.
b. This is the price per gram in New South Wales.
Synthetic cannabinoids
1.5 grams
3 grams
7 grams
14 grams
Ounce
Other
Methadone 30 millilitres
Sildenafil (per tablet)
Dimethyltripamine (DMT) per milligram
Performance and Image Enhancing Drugs
Testosterone enanthate 200 milligrams
Deca-durabolin 200 milligrams
Stanozolol 25 milligram/millilitre
40 millilitre vial
Sustanon 250 (blend of 4 testosterone)
compounds)
Testosterone propionate 100mg
Primoteston 300 milligrams/millilitres
1 x 10 millilitres
Trenbolone Acetate 100mg
Clenbuterol
0.04 milligram tablet
30 millilitres
Other drugs
TABLE 61 (continued): Other drugs prices by state and territory, 2013–14 ($)