ANGLŲ KALBOS PAMOKOSE LIETUVOS IR LENKIJOS VIDURIN

VYTAUTO DIDŽIOJO UNIVERSITETAS
HUMANITARINIŲ MOKSLŲ FAKULTETAS
ANGLŲ FILOLOGIJOS KATEDRA
Wioleta Szlaużys
VERTIMO MOKYMAS(SIS) ANGLŲ KALBOS PAMOKOSE LIETUVOS IR
LENKIJOS VIDURINĖSE MOKYKLOSE
Magistro baigiamasis darbas
Taikomosios anglų kalbotyros studijų programa, valstybinis kodas 621Q30002
Filologijos studijų kryptis
Vadovė doc. dr. I. Žindžiuvienė ______________
(parašas)
___________
(data)
Apginta prof. I. Dabašinskienė ______________ ____________
(parašas)
(data)
Kaunas, 2012
1
TEACHING/LEARNING MEDIATION IN EFL CLASSES AT
SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN LITHUANIA AND POLAND
By Wioleta Szlaużys
Department of English Philology
Vytautas Magnus University
Master of Arts Thesis
Supervisor: Prof. dr. Ingrida Žindžiuvienė
May 2012
2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of abbreviations…………………………………………………………………………………i
List of figures………………………………………………………………………………………..ii
List of tables………………………………………………………………………………………....ii
Glossary……………………………………………………………………………………………..iii
SANTRAUKA………………………………………………………………………………………1
SUMMARY………………………………………………………………………………………….2
1.
INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………...………..…..3
1.1 The problem of the research……………………………………………...……………........3
1.2 The aim, objectives and hypotheses of the research……………………………………......4
1.3 The methods of the research…………………………………………………………….......5
2.
THE SYSTEM OF EDUCATION IN LITHUANIA AND POLAND………………………5
3.
BASIC CONCEPTS AND PURPOSE OF TEACHING AND LEARNING FOREIGN
LANGUAGES.............................................................................................................................8
4.
THE CONCEPT OF MEDIATION…………………………………………………………10
5.
THE STATUS OF MEDIATION IN COMMON EUROPEAN FRAMEWORK OF
REFERENCE FOR LANGUAGES: LEARNING, TEACHING, ASSESSMENT………….11
5.1 Language use and the language user/learner………………………………………………11
5.2 Communicative language competence…………………………………………………….12
5.3 Communicative language activities and their role in language learning/teaching………...13
5.3.1 Reception, production and interaction………………………………………………13
5.3.2 Mediation…………………………………………………………………………...15
6.
THE
CONCEPT
OF
TEACHING/LEARNING
MEDIATION
IN
GENERAL
CURRICULUM FOR GENERAL EDUCATION SCHOOL IN LITHUANIA AND
GENERAL EDUCATION STANDARDS FOR GRADES XI-XII: THE SYLLABUS FOR
FOREIGN LANGUAGE ...........................................................................................................17
6.1 The main purposes of studying EFL at secondary school…………………………...….....17
6.2 Course contents for the EFL teaching/learning curriculum……………………………….18
6.3 Communicative language teaching/learning methods……………………………………..19
7.
THE PLACE OF MEDIATION IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING PROGRAM IN
POLAND……...……………………………………………………………………………….21
7.1 The main purposes of studying EFL at secondary schools in Poland……………………...22
7.2 Course contents and detailed requirements for the EFL teaching/learning curriculum……22
3
8.
THE STATUS OF MEDIATION ACTIVITIES IN EFL TEXTBOOKS FOR
SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN LITHUANIA AND POLAND……………..…25
8.1 The overview of EFL textbooks for secondary school students in Lithuania……………...25
8.2 The overview of EFL textbooks for secondary school students in Poland…………….…..26
8.3 The analysis of mediation activities in EFL textbooks used at secondary schools in
Lithuania and Poland……………………………………………………………………….28
8.3.1 Mediation activities in EFL textbooks used in Lithuania…………………………….29
8.3.2 Mediation activities in EFL textbooks used in Poland………………………………..30
9. THE RESEARCH INTO THE USE OF SPOKEN AND WRITTEN MEDIATION
ACTIVITIES IN EFL CLASSES AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN LITHUANIA AND
POLAND………………………………………………………………………………………35
9.1 The aim and the process of the research……………………………………………………35
9.2 Description of the respondents……………………………………………………………..35
9.3 Discussion of results……….. ……………………………………………………………...36
9.3.1 The prevalence of spoken and written mediation activities in EFL classes at secondary
schools among Lithuanian and Polish teachers……………………………………..36
9.3.2 Lithuanian and Polish students’ approach to mediation activities in EFL
classes…………...…………………………………………………………………..43
10. CONCLUSIONS………………………………………………………………………………54
RECOMMENDATIONS…………………………………………………………………………56
REFERENCES
APPENDIX A Organization of the education system in Lithuania
APPENDIX B Organization of the education system in Poland
APPENDIX C Common Reference Levels: global scale
APPENDIX D Mediation activities: spoken mediation
APPENDIX E Mediation activities: written mediation
APPENDIX F Mediation activity in the State Examination of the English language
APPENDIX G An example of oral mediation task
APPENDIX H An example of oral mediation task
APPENDIX I The translation of sentence fragments
APPENDIX J Questionnaire for Lithuanian teachers “Teaching/learning mediation in EFL classes
at secondary schools in Lithuania and Poland”
APPENDIX K Questionnaire for Lithuanian students “Teaching/learning mediation in EFL classes
at secondary schools in Lithuania and Poland”
4
APPENDIX L Questionnaire for Polish teachers “Teaching/learning mediation in EFL classes at
secondary schools in Lithuania and Poland”
APPENDIC M Questionnaire for Polish students “Teaching/learning mediation in EFL classes at
secondary schools in Lithuania and Poland”
5
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CEFRL or CEF – Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
CKE –
Centralna Komisja Egzaminacyjna (English: Central Examination Commission)
CV –
Curriculum Vitae
EC –
European Commission
EFL –
English as a Foreign Language
ELTP – English Language Teaching Program
FCE –
First Certificate Exam
GC –
General Curriculum for General Education School in Lithuania and General Education
Standards for Grades XI-XII: the Syllabus for Foreign Language
ICT –
Information and Communication Technology
ISCED – International Standard Classification of Education
L1 –
Mother-Tongue
NATO – North Atlantic Treaty Organization
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. The range of teachers’ categories of qualification………………………………….…...36
Figure 2. The use of translation in EFL classes……………………………………………………37
Figure 3. The aspects of code switching usage in EFL classes…………………………………….38
Figure 4. Arguments for the use of translation…………………………………………………….40
Figure 5. The prevailing mediation activities in EFL classes at Lithuanian and Polish secondary
schools………………………………………………………………………………….41
Figure 6. The frequency of mediation activities in EFL classes…………………………………...42
Figure 7. The indication of the usefulness of certain aspects of teachers’ language……………….46
Figure 8. The use of spoken mediation activities included in the EFL textbooks……………….....47
Figure 9. The use of spoken mediation (additional) activities presented by the teacher in EFL
classes……………………………………………………………………………….…48
Figure 10. The use of written mediation activities included in the textbooks…………………….49
Figure 11. The use of written mediation activities presented by the teacher in EFL classes……...50
Figure 12. The most commonly used mediation/translation activities in EFL classes……………51
Figure 13. The indication of the respondents’ opinion concerning the necessity of practice
mediation activities in EFL classes…………………………………………………...52
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Common Reference Levels: global scale…………………………………………………61
Table 2 Intralinguistic activities in the textbook Going for Gold ………………………………...29
Table 3 The variety of speaking activities in textbooks used in Poland…………………………..31
Table 4 The variety of intralinguistic mediation activities in Polish textbooks………..………….33
7
GLOSSARY
Egzamin dojrzałości (Polish) – National examination, held at the end of upper secondary,
specialized general and technical education. It was necessary to obtain
certificate (Polish: świadectwo dojrzałości). In 2005 fully replaced by an
external examination (Polish: egzamin maturalny) (Eurydice 2008/09: 238).
Egzamin maturalny (Polish) – National external examination, held at the end of upper secondary
general, specialized and technical education. It is necessary to obtain
certificate (Polish: świadectwo maturalne). In 2005 it replaced national
examination (Polish: egzamin dojrzałości) (Eurydice 2008/09: 239).
Examination
– the term is used to denote exercises used to assess knowledge or skills. It
may often include a formal set of questions intended to test given
information, although the term may include any process of testing ability or
achievement (Miniotienė and Žindžiuvienė 2006: 62).
Gimnazija
(Lithuanian) – a separate type of secondary school providing a more indepth profiled general education, setting higher requirements or providing a
specialized teaching (Eurydice 2007/08: 332).
Gimnazjum
(Polish) – institution, introduced in 1999/00, offering 3 years of full-time
general lower secondary education for pupils aged 13 to 16 who left primary
school. At the end of the programme pupils take a final external
examination (Eurydice 2008/09: 239).
Interaction
– “even where turn-taking is strictly respected, the listener is generally
already forecasting the remainder of the speaker’s message and preparing a
response. Learning to interact thus involves more than learning to receive
and to produce utterances. High importance is generally attributed to
interaction in language use and learning in view of its central role in
communication” (CEF 2001: 14).
Liceum
(Polish) – a 3-year upper secondary school offering general education to
pupils aged 16 to 19 who left the gymnasium. At the end of the programme
pupils can take the final examination – national external examination
(Eurydice 2008/09: 239).
Matura
(Polish) – synonym of Polish: egzamin dojrzałości – English: national
external examination.
Mediation
– “translation or interpretation, a paraphrase, summary or record, provides
for a third party a (re)formulation of a source text to which this third party
does not have direct access. Mediating language activities - (re)processing
an existing text” (CEF 2001: 14).
Production
– “productive activities have an important function in many academic and
professional fields (oral presentations, written studies and reports) and
particular social value is attached to them (judgments made of what has
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been submitted in writing or of fluency in speaking and delivering oral
presentations)” (CEF 2001: 14).
Reception
– “receptive activities include silent reading and following the
media. They are also of importance in many forms of learning
(understanding course content, consulting textbooks, works of
reference and documents)” (CEF 2001: 14).
Świadectwo maturalne
(Polish) – certificate awarded by upper secondary general,
specialized and technical schools to pupils who complete the
study programme and pass the national external examination. It is
a certificate necessary for admission to higher education
(Eurydice 2008/09: 241).
Valstybinis brandos egzaminas (Lithuanian) – an examination that is set according to the national
level Matura examination programme (requirements). The
examination is administered in local Matura examination centers
and marked centrally at the National Examination Centre based
on a grading scale 1-100 and a norm-referenced assessment
(Eurydice 2007/08: 333).
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SANTRAUKA
Magistro darbe keliama problema dėl vertimo pratimų tipo bei dažnumo anglų kalbos
pamokose Lietuvos ir Lenkijos vidurinėse mokyklose. Svarbų vaidmenį čia atlieka tarpininkavimo
(vertimo raštu ir žodžiu) užduotys. Vertimo užduotys yra naudingos plėtojant užsienio kalbos
įgūdžius, t. y. mokinių anglų kalbos žodyno ir kalbėjimo gebėjimų bei loginio mąstymo plėtojimas,
o tuo pačiu praktinis gramatikos pritaikymas.
Pagrindinis darbo tikslas – išanalizuoti vertimo pratimų sritį anglų kalbos pamokose bei
atskleisti dominuojančias tarpininkavimo (vertimo žodžiu ir raštu) užduotis Lietuvos ir Lenkijos
vidurinėse mokyklose. Pedagoginės literatūros analizė pateikė įvairios informacijos apie vertimo
žodžiu ir raštu užduotis, vertimo mokymą/mokymąsi vidurinėse mokyklose bei jo poveikį
mokiniams.
Tyrime dalyvavo 40 anglų kalbos mokytojų iš Lietuvos (20) ir Lenkijos (20) vidurinių
mokyklų. Respondentų darbo stažas svyravo nuo 0 iki 21 metų ir daugiau. Mokytojai įgiję anglų
kalbos vyr. mokytojo, metodininko ar mokytojo eksperto kvalifikaciją. Tyrime dalyvavo 10 – 12
klasių mokiniai (300) iš trijų Lietuvos ir trijų Lenkijos vidurinių mokyklų. Moksleivių amžius
pasirinktas neatsitiktinai. Kadangi šio amžiaus mokiniai ruošiasi anglų kalbos egzaminams, svarbu
yra žinoti užduotis ir kriterijus, pagal kuriuos valstybinio brandos egzamino metu bus vertinamos
įgytos žinios. Tyrimas atliktas naudojant specialiai parengtą klausimyną mokiniams ir anglų kalbos
mokytojams. Visi duomenys buvo statistiškai apdoroti su Microsoft Office Excel 2007 programiniu
paketu.
Tyrimo rezultatai rodo, kad tarpininkavimo užduočių idėja buvo įvesta Europos Tarybos
parengtame dokumente „Bendrieji Europos kalbų mokymosi, mokymo ir vertinimo metmenys“ 2001
metais, tačiau vertimo raštu ir žodžiu užduotys nėra taip plačiai paplitęs Lietuvoje, kaip Lenkijos
vidurinėse mokyklose. Anglų kalbos mokytojai Lietuvoje dažniau renkasi vadovėlius, kuriuose
pateikiama skaitymo, rašymo, kalbėjimo ir klausymo užduočių, bet mažai dėmesio skiriama
tarpininkavimo užduotims. Pedagogai Lenkijoje dirba su lenkų autorių parašytais anglų kalbos
vadovėliais, kurie yra pagrindinės priemonės anglų kalbos valstybinio egzamino parengčiai. Analizė
parodė, kad Lenkijos mokytojai kaip mokymo metodą naudoja vertimo (raštu ir žodžiu) užduotis.
Tuo pačiu jie pritaria, jog gimtoji kalba daro daug įtakos mokantis užsienio kalbos. Mokinių
nuomone, vertimo žodžiu ir raštu užduotys vysto kalbinę komunikacinę kompetenciją, ugdo
tarpininkavimo ir tarpkultūrinę veiklą
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SUMMARY
This MA thesis rises the issue of types and frequency of mediation activities in EFL classes at
Lithuanian and Polish secondary schools. Mediation (translation and interpretation) plays an
important role in EFL classes at secondary schools. Mediation activities are useful for developing
many skills in foreign language learning, such as expanding students’ vocabulary and speaking
skills, applying their grammar knowledge in practice and developing students’ quick thinking skills.
The aim of the study was to analyze the status of mediation activities in EFL classes and
to survey the prevailing mediation (translation and/or interpretation) activities at Lithuanian and
Polish secondary schools. The pedagogical sources supply with various information about the
mediation tasks and activities. Moreover, they provide with necessary information about
teaching/learning mediation at secondary schools and its impact on the learners.
The research was carried out with 40 EFL teachers from Lithuania (20) and Poland (20).
The participants’ teaching experience ranged from 0-5 years of teaching to 21 years and more. They
possess different categories of qualifications: Senior Teacher, Supervisor and Expert. The other
group of participants was 10th – 12th form students (300) of three Lithuanian and three Polish
secondary schools. This age of students was not chosen accidentally. They are now preparing for
their final exams, so it is important to be familiar with the tasks and the criteria if they think about
taking English examination after completion of the secondary education program. The instrument
used in the data collection was a specially designed questionnaire for students and EFL teachers at
secondary schools. The data of the survey was statistically analyzed and graphically presented using
Microsoft Office Excel 2007 package.
The results of the study showed that the idea of mediation tasks was introduced in the
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment (CEF)
in 2001, but it is not so widely used in Lithuania as it is used in Poland at secondary schools.
Lithuanian teachers use different textbooks which contain many activities devoted to reading,
writing, speaking and listening, but not a single activity for translation practice. On the other hand,
Polish teachers prefer to work with textbooks written by Polish writers. These textbooks contain
different activities that is why they are useful companions for Matura exam preparation. Moreover,
the analysis showed that mediation is not as widely used in Lithuania as it is used in Poland at
secondary schools. The research findings indicate that teachers in Poland use mediating activities as
a teaching technique and code switch whenever they find it necessary. Also, results showed that
students find it useful when teachers ask them to practice different spoken and written mediation
activities, because such activities develop communicative competence and the ability to mediate
between different languages and cultures.
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1. INTRODUCTION
After the integration into European Union, changes in education, social system and culture have
appeared in most European countries. The attitude towards foreign language learning and teaching
has greatly changed. Nowadays, much attention is paid to the learning of European languages,
especially English which has become the major language of communication in the world. Rodney
A. Oglesby and Marjorie G. Adams observe that “since there exist differences between the cultures,
it is difficult to achieve a successful intercultural communication, as it involves many factors, e.g.
body gestures, language, the use of space, silence etc.” (Oglesby and Adams 2009: 508). This
determined the necessity of translators to mediate between cultural communications. Following
Rodney A. Oglesby and Marjorie G. Adams, “it is essential to find out the extent to which an
interpreter can ‘mediate’ rather than merely ‘translate’ in order to improve the communication
flow” (Oglesby and Adams 2009: 508). This suggests that to make a text more reader-friendly or a
speech closer to the target language, a translator should become a mediator in order to transmit the
information and ideas from one culture to another.
1.1 The problem of the research
Nowadays, as the importance of foreign language learning and necessity of mediators/translators
increased, it reveals a major problem at Lithuanian and Polish secondary schools. General
Curriculum for General Education School in Lithuania and General Education Standards for
Grades XI-XII: the Syllabus for the Foreign Language (further ‘GC’) and English Language
Teaching Program in Poland (here and further the translation from Lithuanian and Polish into
English is mine) were prepared according to the Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment (further ‘CEF’). Ministry of Education in Lithuania and
Poland suggest, nowadays, communicative language competence is the most effective in the world
(GC 2002: 3). It was influenced by the increasing popularity of communicative teaching and
learning strategies and methods that were introduced in teaching process. Following CEF (2001),
the communicative language competence of the language learner/user’s “is activated in the
performance of the various language activities, involving reception, production, interaction or
mediation (in particular interpreting or translating) (CEF 2001: 14). Lithuanian and Polish curricula
also suggest the same idea but the problems arise because of the discrepancy between the
curriculum and reality. By learning foreign languages students get knowledge about the world,
other cultures and develop as personalities. In other words, students while learning languages
should be prepared for both real-life situations and examination. However, it does not correspond to
reality because students are being prepared only for examination and all the activities in the
12
classroom are similar to the ones in the examination. The same situation is with mediation
(sometimes translation or interpretation) activities because they are rare in EFL classes. Such
activities are important in language classes because they are useful in real-life and future career.
Sometimes teachers at secondary schools do not possess a unique system of teaching mediation that
is why this discrepancy between curriculum and reality is a problematic sphere and should be
further investigated.
1.2 The aim, objectives and hypotheses of the research
The aim of the thesis is to analyze the status of mediation activities in EFL classes and to survey
the prevailing mediation (translation and/or interpretation) activities at Lithuanian and Polish
secondary schools. In order to achieve this purpose of the study the following objectives were set:
1. To analyze Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching,
assessment, General Curriculum for General Education School in Lithuania and General
Education Standards for Grades XI-XII: the Syllabus for the Foreign Language, and English
Language Teaching Program in Poland.
2. To define and examine mediation activities used in EFL classes.
3. To analyze textbooks used in EFL classes at Lithuanian and Polish secondary schools.
4. To explore the use of spoken (interpretation) and written (translation) mediation activities in
EFL classes at Lithuanian and Polish secondary schools.
5. To explore teachers’ and learners’ attitudes to mediation activities.
Relating to Lithuanian and Polish secondary schools two hypotheses may be raised:
1. The scope of mediation is clearly defined in the European documents: General Curriculum
for General Education School in Lithuania and General Education Standards for Grades
XI-XII: the Syllabus for the Foreign Language and English Language Teaching Program in
Poland.
2. Mediation (spoken and written) activities are used in EFL classes at Lithuanian and Polish
secondary schools.
13
1.3 The methods of the research
The following research methods were used in the study: document analysis, analysis of the
scholarly sources, interviewing, questionnaires and statistical data analysis using Microsoft Office
Excel 2007 package for the presentation of the results. These methods examine the status of
mediation activities in EFL classes at Lithuanian and Polish secondary schools and test the
formulated hypotheses.
The study consists of two parts. The theoretical part and the practical part. First, the
Lithuanian and the Polish system of secondary education is described. Second, basic concepts and
purposes of teaching and learning foreign languages are presented. Third, the concept of mediation
is defined. The discussion is followed by presenting the concept of teaching/learning mediation in
national and international documents. Further, ten EFL textbooks for secondary school students
used in Lithuania and Poland are examined. The content of textbooks and activities of these
textbooks are presented as well. Apart from this, mediation activities are grouped into spoken and
written mediation activities and the main features are given. Lastly, the study ends with the
discussion of the results and with the conclusion on the status of mediation activities in EFL
textbooks for secondary school students in Lithuania and Poland.
The methods of questionnaires and statistical analysis were applied in the second part of
the study. The investigation was carried out in secondary schools in Lithuania and Poland. The aim
of specially designed questionnaires (See Appendices J, K, L, M) was to explore teachers’ and
students’ views about teaching/learning in EFL classes and to investigate whether mediation
activities and which of them prevail in EFL classes at Lithuanian and Polish secondary schools.
Lastly, the study ends with the conclusions on the status of mediation in EFL classes at Lithuanian
and Polish secondary schools.
2. THE SYSTEM OF EDUCATION IN LITHUANIA AND POLAND
In different documents of European countries, education and training “reflects the diversity of
languages, cultures and systems that are an inherent part of the identity of its member countries and
their regions” (European Commission 2002). Such phenomena have for a long time developed
within national contexts and in relative isolation from each other. European countries and regions
“have a wide variety of education and training institutions, apply different admission rules, use
different academic calendars, award hundreds of different degrees and qualifications reflecting a
wide variety of curricula and training schemes” (European Commission 2002). As European
Commission observes, “diversity is valued very highly by nations as well as citizens: diversity is
one thing all Europeans have in common” (European Commission 2002). In this section the system
14
of education, especially the system of secondary education in two different countries, that is
Lithuania and Poland, will be briefly presented.
The place of secondary education in the educational system is placed between basic
education and higher education. Following Kallen (1997), “secondary education is more in the
centre of the educational enterprise […] It is now for adolescents – and no longer for just many of
them – an obligatory stage in their educational career and the one that is most consequential for
their later life” (Kallen 1997: 9). In an international comparison, however, the term “secondary
education” has different meanings.
In Lithuania, “the area of secondary education is regulated by the Law on Education”
(Kaminskas 2009/10: 28). In the Lithuanian education system, the area referred to as secondary
education (lower and upper) in ISCED (International Standard Classification of Education) 2 and 3
(see Appendix A) covers basic education (Lithuanian: “pagrindinis ugdymas“) and secondary
education (Lithuanian: “vidurinis ugdymas“).
Basic education is provided to “learners who have attained the primary level of education”
(Kaminskas 2009/10: 28). When pupils complete this level, they are awarded a basic school-leaving
certificate (Lithuanian: “Pagrindinio išsilavinimo pažymėjimas“). Upon attainment of basic
education, most of learners continue their schooling according to the secondary education
curriculum.
The secondary education curriculum comprises compulsory and elective general and
vocational education modules. The types of schools providing “general secondary education include
secondary schools delivering only the secondary education curriculum or secondary schools (e.g.
gymnasiums) delivering not only the secondary education curriculum but also curricula of other
stages of education” (Kaminskas 2009/10: 29). According to Lukošiūnienė, gymnasiums “provide
an in-depth, specialized general education” (Lukošiūnienė 2001: 34). Lithuanian gymnasiums
specialize in the humanities (the Lithuanian language, social sciences), science (natural and exact
sciences, economics and technology) and arts (fine arts, music). For instance, in gymnasiums of
technological profile, schooling is based on the principle 2+1. After “acquisition of secondary
education provided in the gymnasium over a period of the two years, pupils are offered a choice of
either studying at higher educational institutions or carrying on at the same school by following a
one-year curriculum of vocational education and training” (Kaminskas 2009/10:30).
General secondary education can also be completed at youth and vocational schools of
appropriate level. The first school provides “lower secondary education for the pupils of 12-16
years of age who have trouble adapting to society, learning problems or those who have interrupted
their consecutive studies” (Lukošiūnienė 2001: 35). Vocational schools “provide not only primary
15
vocational qualification, but also general education. Alongside, they implement consecutive
professional training” (Lukošiūnienė 2001: 36). Graduates receive a qualified worker’s diploma
(ISCED 3) (Lithuanian: “kvalifikuoto darbuotojo diplomas“) and have an opportunity to receive a
maturity certificate. Secondary education is attained following completion of the secondary
education curriculum and passing the State Examination at the end.
In Poland, the education system comprises pre-school institutions, primary schools, lowersecondary (gymnasiums) and upper-secondary schools. Institutions of higher education form a
separate higher education system or sector.
The upper secondary education (post-compulsory education) covers the age group 16 to 18
or 19/20. The following secondary schools are open to candidates who have successfully graduated
from gymnasium (Polish: “gimnazjum”): general and specialized secondary schools, technical
secondary school, basic vocational school and supplementary general secondary school but also
supplementary secondary technical school (See Appendix B).
In Poland, a 3-year general secondary school (Polish: liceum ogólnokształcące) offers three
years of full-time general upper secondary education for students aged 16 to 19 and the Matura
examination necessary for admission to higher education. Also, in 3-year specialized secondary
school (Polish: liceum profilowane) teaching is carried out in the general profiles of vocational
training that enables the students to take Matura examination and obtain certificate. Likewise, 4year technical secondary school (Polish: technikum) enable students, aged 16 to 20, to obtain a
vocational qualifications diploma upon passing of an exam, and to take the Matura examination
necessary for the admission to higher education. Moreover, basic vocational school (Polish:
zasadnicza szkoła zawodowa) offers two to three years of full-time upper secondary vocational
education for students aged 16 to 18. The leavers of this school have access to the trade or
occupation or to the supplementary secondary technical school. Finally, (Polish: uzupełniające
liceum ogólnokształcące i technikum uzupełniające) 2-year supplementary general secondary school
and 3-year supplementary secondary technical school offers full- or part-time secondary education
in preparation for the Matura examination (Eurydice 2008). Therefore, in Poland, upper secondary
schools are non-compulsory and mostly coeducational. However, there is also a small number of
single-sex schools within vocational and professional education. Public (state) schools are free of
charge.
To conclude, although the Lithuanian and the Polish educational systems cover different
upper secondary education systems, the main objective of general upper secondary education in
Lithuania and Poland is to prepare students for admission to higher education establishments of
various types and for different real-life situations.
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3. BASIC CONCEPTS AND PURPOSE OF TEACHING AND LEARNING FOREIGN
LANGUAGES
In the process of integration into European Union and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
Lithuanian and Polish governments pay attention to the knowledge and use of foreign languages.
Accordingly, foreign languages were initiated to be taught at Lithuanian and Polish secondary
schools. Noticeably, English became the most popular foreign language in Lithuania and Poland.
Thus, the following paragraphs will survey the purposes of teaching/learning foreign languages but
also the studying of English at Lithuanian and Polish secondary schools.
It is true that English has became a global lingua franca over the past several decades.
Nowadays, for the most part, learning another language at school opens up new opportunities and
gives students perspectives that they might never have encountered otherwise. It is known that
learning a language involves a variety of learning skills, studying English as a foreign language
(EFL) can enhance one’s ability to learn and function in several other areas. According to Vistawide
(2010), “students who have studied a language at the elementary level score higher on tests in
reading, language arts, and math” (Vistawide 2010). Moreover, it was examined that students who
have studied foreign languages “show greater cognitive development in areas such as mental
flexibility, creativity, and higher order thinking skills, such as problem-solving, conceptualizing,
and reasoning” (Vistawide 2010).
In addition, “the study of foreign languages leads to the acquisition of some important life
skills” (Vistawide 2010). As a matter of fact, students at school learn to deal with unfamiliar cultural
ideas, that is why they are much better equipped to adapt and cope in a fast-changing world.
Additionally, “the encounter with cultural differences from one’s own leads to tolerate of diverse
lifestyles and customs” (Vistawide 2010). It improves the student’s ability to understand and
communicate with people from different fields of life.
Nowadays, English as a foreign language became a channel of communication between
different people, cultures and countries. Following Jeremy Harmer (2007), “around the world
English is taught in a bewildering variety of situations” (2007: 23). Nowadays, the knowledge of
English is an entry requirement for higher education in a global market where “English gives the
user a ‘competitive advantage’” (Harmer 2007: 23). Moreover, almost all positions in job require
the knowledge of at least one foreign language, so it sets the rules for general education at schools.
Every language is governed by a number of rules, styles and exceptions. According to
Kenji Kitao (1997), “language instruction has five important components – students, a teacher,
materials, teaching methods, and evaluation” (Kenji 1997: 1). All these components are important,
however, language learners have become the centre of language learning process in classes. Kenji
17
(1997) states that “curriculum, materials, methods, and evaluation should all be designed for
learners and their needs” (Kenji 1997: 1). It is the teacher’s role and responsibility to check and see
whether all of the elements of the learning process are working well for learners and to adapt them
if they are not. Therefore, the main role of the teacher is to help learners to learn, because,
according to Kenji (1997), “learning other languages stimulates learner’s self-sufficiency, critical
thinking and creativity” (Kenji 1997:2). As the importance of foreign language learning increased,
effective English teaching is a major problem of educators. Therefore, new methods and teaching
aids are being introduced into the process. For this reason, to make learning and teaching process
more creative, motivating, meaningful and interesting for the learner, different techniques are used.
It has already been mentioned that English is the most popular second language being
taught at Lithuanian and Polish secondary schools. The purpose of learning English as a foreign
language (EFL) at secondary schools is to improve the learning results (for those planning to
continue on to study, knowledge of English is often a prerequisite for admission) but also to
understand a modern world and its people. Because “without the ability to communicate and
understand a culture on its own term, true access to the culture is barred” (Vistawide 2010).
According to Ministry of National Education (2009), students at secondary schools must
take four levels of EFL which are B1 and B2, and C1 and C2 (Eurydice 1008/09). Table 1 (see
Appendix C) represents knowledge possessed by students after accomplishing these levels Each
proficiency level mentioned in Table 1 is audited by EFL teachers. The teachers follow a screening
of students’ development during different types of assessment. Levels B1 and B2 but also C1 and
C2 signify the compulsory skill and knowledge the students must acquire after the graduation of
secondary school.
To sum up, foreign language knowledge is very important in many fields of life, especially
when students start a social life or during their life in a business world. The studies of foreign
languages give some very important knowledge about the outside world, however, materials often
control the instruction, since teachers and learners tend to rely heavily on them. As Kenji Kitao
(1997) states, “materials that are appropriate for a particular class need to have an underlying
instructional philosophy, approach, method and technique which suit the students and their needs.
They should have correct, natural, current and standard English” (Kitao 1997: 4). Nowadays, many
theories about the learning and teaching of language have been proposed. These theories have
inspired many approaches to the teaching of second and foreign languages.
18
4. THE CONCEPT OF MEDIATION
Mediation is one of the most important but also most contentious activities in EFL classes at
secondary schools. Sometimes, mediation is called a communication between cultures. As CEF
(2001) suggests, “in both the receptive and productive modes, the written and/or oral activities of
mediation make communication possible between persons who are unable, for whatever reason, to
communicate with each other directly” (CEF 2001: 14). Thus, mediation (translation or
interpretation) is as intercultural communication that takes an important part in everyday life.
Webster’s Online Dictionary defines the concept of mediation in the following way:
“Mediation is an intervention between conflicting parties or viewpoints to promote reconciliation,
settlement, compromise or understanding”. Hence mediation is a communicative mediation
(translation and interpretation) for the resolution of intercultural conflicts or differences. Moreover,
it gives one more definition listed in the second place that refers to “the function or activity of an
intermediate means or instrumentality of transmission” (Webster’s Online Dictionary). By this
explanation it is possible to state that mediation and translation are almost equal terms.
Anthony Pym (2002) defines the concept of mediation in the following way:
Mediation should cover everything that can happen when languages are in contact and
there is some impulse for communication across their boundaries. When we learn the
language of the other, that is a form of mediation. […] Mediation might also involve a
conversation in several languages, as in the use of passive knowledge of the other’s tongue,
or the various forms of code-switching.
(Pym 2002: 1)
A mediator in language classes is at the same time a translator but also an interpreter, too.
Nowadays, mediator is called “interlinguistic mediator”. According to Valero-Garces (2010),
interlinguistic mediator is “a person who facilitates communication, understanding and action
between them. It is a person that possess […] a high grade of cultural sensibility which allows
him/her to negotiate the meaning between both cultures and be able to transmit it to the members of
the other community” (Valero-Garces 2010). In other words, mediator is a professional translator
who changes the writing into another language and the one who fills the branch between two
cultures and languages and who favors the understanding of the different groups involved.
In summary, in the process of mediation as communication, speech or text becomes closer
and more understandable to the target language, so translator becomes a mediator and transmits the
ideas and information from one culture to another. Next chapters will present the status of
mediation in national and international documents.
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5. THE STATUS OF MEDIATION IN COMMON EUROPEAN FRAMEWORK OF
REFERENCE FOR LANGUAGES: LEARNING, TEACHING, ASSESSMENT
The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment
(CEFR or CEF) was developed in 2001 with the aim to facilitate learning of foreign or second
language at secondary schools. The CEF provides a common basis for language learning, teaching,
and assessment across Europe, but also encourages and facilitates the communication among
professionals working in the field of language education in different European countries. The
framework consists of two parts. First, the descriptive scheme is an instrument for reflection on and
description of the process of language learning and teaching. Because the approach is actionoriented several parameters that affect the actions of learners are taken into account: competences,
skills, language activities, strategies and domains of language use. The second part, the description
of Common Reference Levels provides specifications for language proficiency levels that are
related to a scale consisting of six levels (A1 and A2, B1 and B2, C1 and C2). Since the
descriptions of CEF are not related to a specific language it can facilitate the communication about
language learning and teaching in different European languages. This chapter will briefly discuss
the concept of mediation in CEF and what competences are the most important in learning foreign
languages.
5.1 Language use and the language user/learner
The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment
(2001) observes that “language learner is in the process of becoming a language user” (CEF 2001:
43). In other words, language learner of a second or foreign language is at the same time a language
user in the particular domains of social life. According to CEF, “the language learner becomes
plurilingual and develops interculturality” (CEF 2001: 43) while learning foreign languages. The
linguistic and cultural competences enable the individual to develop an enriched personality but
also it opens new possibilities of cultural experiences. Also, learners are enabled to “mediate,
through interpretation and translation, between speakers of the two languages concerned who
cannot communicate directly” (CEF 2001: 43). As it has already been mentioned, mediation is a
communication between different cultures. Because mediators make language acceptable and
understandable, it helps to share information with other nations but also to communicate with the
world.
Furthermore, language in use varies greatly according to the context or domain in which it
is used. Following CEF, “the need and desire to communicate arise in a particular situation and the
form as well as the content of the communication is a response to that situation” (CEF 2001: 45).
20
Depending on the situation and domain every language user should use appropriate language
because “language is not a neutral instrument of thought” (CEF 2001: 45) so it changes every time
the domain is changed. In this case, there are four major domains for which language learners need
to prepare: the personal, public, occupational and educational domains. According to CEF, the
abilities of all learners to put their language competence into particular domain should be taken into
consideration because it shows whether instruction in language learning/teaching was effective or it
should be improved the next time communicative language competences are taught.
Briefly stated, language is a channel of communication between different countries,
cultures and people. Nowadays, in language learning and teaching much attention is paid to
communicative tasks (all of them will be described in the following passages) in order to be able to
deal with different situations which arise in the various domains.
5.2 Communicative language competence
Nowadays, communicative language competence is the most important and effective in the world.
According to CEF, language learners “as individuals and as social agents develop a range of
competences, both general and in particular communicative language competences” (CEF 2001: 9).
General competences of language learners comprise knowledge, skills and existential competence
but also their ability to learn. On the other hand, communicative language competence consist of
their linguistic, sociolinguistic and pragmatic competences. In this section, communicative language
competence that comprise also general competences will be briefly discussed.
To start with, linguistic competences “include lexical, phonological, syntactical
knowledge and skills and other dimensions of language as system, independently of the
sociolinguistic value of its variations and the pragmatic functions of its realizations” (CEF 2001:
13). It is obvious that this component relates to the range and quality of knowledge, to the cognitive
organization and the way this knowledge is stored but also to its accessibility (CEF 2001: 13).
However, every individual has different organization of vocabulary and the storing of expressions.
Often it depend “on communities in which the individual has been socialized and where his or her
learning has occurred” (CEF 2001: 13) but also on the cultural features of the society in which the
individual lives.
Sociolinguistic competences “refer to the sociocultural conditions of language use” (CEF
2001:13). In other words, sociolinguistic competences refer to the rules of politeness or norms
governing relations between sexes, generations, social classes and groups. It is interesting to note
that these components strictly affect communication between people of different languages and
cultures. According to CEF, “from level B2, users are then found able to express themselves
21
adequately in language which is sociolinguistically appropriate to the situations and persons
involved” (CEF 2001: 121). Also, students at this level begin to distinguish registers and to cope
with variation of speeches.
Pragmatic competences are also important in foreign language learning. According to
CEF, these “are concerned with the functional use of linguistic resources (production of language
functions, speech acts), drawing on scenarios or scripts of interactional exchanges” (CEF 2001: 13).
In other words, it is concerned with the learner’s knowledge how different messages are organized
and used to perform communicative functions. This component also concerns the identification of
different text types and forms but also the mastery of cohesion and coherence of written or spoken
text.
To conclude, in order to carry out the tasks and activities in EFL classes that deal with
communicative situations, students meet with a number of competences. In one way or another the
communicative language competences help to understand the language they learn, help to
familiarize with the target culture and to use it in real-life.
5.3 Communicative language activities and their role in language learning/teaching
Communicative competence, nowadays, has become an axis of language development and it is
taught at secondary schools through different language activities. Language activities are a feature
of everyday life in a personal, educational, public or occupational domains. Communication then is
an integral part of activities where students “engage in interaction, production, reception or
mediation, or a combination of two or more of these” (CEF 2001: 157). In this section, the main
abilities of the communicative competence, such as reception, interaction, production and mediation
will be discussed and the main characteristic features will be presented.
5.3.1 Reception, production and interaction
In the description of communicative language activities in the document Common European
Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment (2001), it is suggested that
reception and production (oral and/or written) processes are clearly primary because both require
interaction. In CEF these terms are presented by the means they play separately in the language
activities, however, they are also significant in many forms of learning, for example understanding
course content, consulting works of reference and documents (CEF 2001: 14).
To start with, reception activities mainly focuses on the understanding of written and
spoken texts. According to CEF, “in aural reception (listening) activities the language user as a
listener receives and processes a spoken input produced by one or more speakers” (CEF 2001: 65).
22
Examples of listening activities in EFL classes include the following: listening to public
announcements, listening to media (recordings, TV), listening as a member of a live audience
(public lectures, theatre) or listening to overhead conversation (CEF 2001: 65). To achieve the best
results, texts should be authentic or minimally adopted, also the language should be generic and in
moderate rate. Students also deal with written texts, such as letter, questionnaire, instruction, news,
interview, articles, reports etc. In visual reception (reading) activities “the user as a reader receives
and processes as input written texts produced by one or more writers” (CEF 2001: 68). Reading
activities include: reading for general orientation or for pleasure, reading for information or reading
and following instructions (CEF 2001: 68). Diverse types of texts used in EFL classes help to learn
how to look for different information and to use it in everyday life. One more type is audio-visual
reception in which “the user simultaneously receives an auditory and a visual input” (CEF 2001:
71). There are different types of activities in which students can demonstrate their receptive
abilities. For example, a teacher can ask students to follow a text as it is read aloud or to watch a
film with subtitles. Thus in the process of dealing with written and spoken texts, students learn how
to find or to hear specific information, to understand the main ideas, to search for different
information, to distribute it, to eliminate unfitted and to use the correct one.
One more communicative activity used in EFL classes is production. CEF (2001) explains
that productive activities play an important role “in many academic and professional fields (oral
presentations, written studies, reports) and particular social value is attached to them (judgments
made of what has been submitted in writing or of fluency in speaking and delivering oral
presentations)” (CEF 2001:14). Students in EFL classes during written production activities write
personal and business letters, take down messages from dictation, write articles for magazines or
newspapers etc. In oral production activities students produce an oral text (e.g. speaking from visual
aids) and explains detail to the audience.
Interaction is similar to production and reception. In interactive activities student act, at
the same time, “as speaker and listener with the one or more interlocutors so as to construct
conjointly, through the negotiation of meaning following the co-operative principle, conversational
discourse” (CEF 2001: 73). Interaction, a communicative language activity, involves different kinds
of tasks that teach how to communicate in a FL, how to express opinion, exchange information,
how to use conventions of communication that are typical for target culture but also how to mediate
in a conflict. In written activities students learn how to write CV (curriculum vitae),
announcements, messages, formal and informal letters and how to participate in on-line or off-line
national and international conferences (CEF 2001: 82).
Briefly stated, reception, production and interaction play an important role in
23
communication. As it was mentioned before, while communicating people try to listen and to
answer to what has been told, in other words reception and production of utterances. Learning to
interact thus involves more than learning to receive and produce utterances. It is important to
understand the speaker’s message in order to forecast it and prepare the answer to it.
5.3.2 Mediation
The document Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching and
assessment (2001) suggests that “the language user in not concerned to express his/her own
meanings, but simply act as an intermediary between interlocutors who are unable to understand
each other directly – normally (but not exclusively) speakers of different languages” (CEF 2001:
87). Mediating activities in EFL classes include spoken (oral) and written mediation. According to
CEF (2001), oral mediation activities include
• simultaneous interpretation (conferences, meetings, formal speeches, etc.);
• consecutive interpretation (speeches of welcome, guided tours, etc.);
• informal interpretations:
o of foreign visitors in own country
o of native speakers when abroad
o in social and transactional situations for friends, family, clients, foreign guests, etc.
o of signs, menus, notices, etc. (See Appendix D).
Written mediation activities include
• exact translation (e.g. of contracts, legal and scientific texts, etc.);
• literary translation (novels, drama, poetry, libretti, etc.);
• summarizing gist (newspaper and magazine articles, etc.) within FL or between L1 and
FL;
• paraphrasing (specialized texts for lay persons, etc.) (See Appendix E).
(CEF 2001: 87)
In brief, examples of mediating activities include spoken (oral) interpretation and written
translation. Mediating activities also include summarizing and paraphrasing texts in the same
languages, when the language of the original text is not understandable to the intended recipient.
As CEF (2001) observes, “mediation strategies reflect ways of coping with the demands of
using finite resources to process information and establish equivalent meaning” (CEF 2001: 87).
24
These strategies are presented in the following points:
• Planning
Developing background knowledge;
Locating supports;
Preparing a glossary;
Considering interlocutors’ needs;
Selecting unit of interpretation.
• Execution
Previewing: processing input and formulating the last chunk
simultaneously in real time;
Noting possibilities, equivalences;
Bridging gaps.
• Evaluation
Checking congruence of two versions;
Checking consistency of usage.
• Repair
Refining by consulting dictionaries, thesaurus;
Consulting experts, sources.
(CEF 2001: 88)
Following CEF, mediation process may include some pre-planning activities to arrange and
maximize resources (Developing background knowledge; Locating supports; Preparing glossary)
as well as consideration of how to deal with the task (Considering the interlocutors’ needs;
Selecting the size of interpretation unit). During the process of mediation (interpretation or
translation) or glossing the mediator has to take into consideration what has just been said and what
is coming next. In other words to translate correctly it is important to be able to deal with both of
them at the same time while mediating (Previewing). Also, s/he needs to find different ways of
expressing things in L1, to widen his/her glossary (Noting possibilities; equivalences), and to
establish validity and reliability of translated terms. Yet s/he also needs to use methods to avoid
doubtfulness and failure in process of previewing (Bridging gaps). Evaluation takes place at a
communicative level (Checking congruence) and at a linguistic level (Checking consistency of
usage) and with written translation leads to repair through consultation of reference works and
experts (Refining by consulting dictionaries, thesaurus; consulting experts, sources) (CEF 2001:
88).
25
To sum up, mediation in Common European Framework of Reference for Languages:
Learning, teaching, assessment plays a significant role. Here, the concept of mediation is addressed
from the standpoint of translation and interpretation. As it has been already mentioned, people need
to translate or mediate while they are communicating (in written and/or spoken form), for e.g. while
writing CV (curriculum vitae), during job interview in target language or in communication with
foreign customers. Following CEF (2001), mediation is usef in foreign language learning especially
in EFL classes at secondary schools.
6. THE
CONCEPT
OF
TEACHING/LEARNING
MEDIATION
IN
GENERAL
CURRICULUM FOR GENERAL EDUCATION SCHOOL IN LITHUANIA AND GENERAL
EDUCATION STANDARDS FOR GRADES XI-XII: THE SYLLABUS FOR FOREIGN
LANGUAGE
In order to understand whether mediation activities are used or not in EFL classes in Lithuania at
secondary schools it is important to give an overview of the GC. The main purpose, structure,
methodology and objectives of this curriculum will be also presented and discussed. Moreover, it
will briefly outline education standards; its aims, objectives and educated values. This chapter will
briefly show the structure of this curriculum and what part mediation activities play in it.
6.1 The main purposes of studying EFL at secondary school
General Curriculum for General Education School in Lithuania and General Education Standards
for Grades XI-XII: the Syllabus for Foreign Language (further ‘GC’, here and further the
translation from Lithuanian into English is mine) was prepared in order to give an overview how
foreign language teaching in EFL classes at secondary schools look like. As Kenji Kitao (1997)
states, “curriculum, materials, methods, and evaluation should all be designed for learners and their
needs” (Kitao 1997: 1). In other words, curriculum should be designed in such way that it could
satisfy learners’ needs. So the main purpose of this curriculum is to show which abilities are
essential for the student’s development. According to GC, student’s cultural and communicative
competences are essential in the process of different languages learning and/or teaching (GC 2002:
1). Following GC, communicative competence is the ability to understand ideas of others and to
transfer one’s by speaking or writing (reception and production), to communicate with others
verbally and written (interaction) but also to mediate (translate) when people are communicating by
using mother or other languages (GC 2002: 1).
Furthermore, communicative language competence consists of several components. First,
linguistic sub-competence helps to understand how language functions in everyday life, how it is
26
structured and how meaningful unit expressions are formed. Also, in the upper grades students learn
how to use grammar or bigger dictionaries. This kind of competence helps to widen student’s
communicative competence and linguistic knowledge. Second, sociolinguistic sub-competence
refers to the socio-cultural conditions of language use, such as rules of politeness, norms controlling
relationships between sexes, classes, generations and social groups. Third, discourse and strategic
sub-competences are also important in foreign language learning. These competences help to
understand how coherent utterances are formulated but also how to use diverse compensatory
strategies in order to understand different interactions. Finally, one more sub-competence included
in the curriculum is socio-cultural. It helps to understand how in particular situations, paying
attention to the target culture, the language is used. In addition, it helps to distinguish basic
differences between source and target languages. Lastly, following GC (2002), by fostering student
with social sub-competence it is important that students could gain self-confidence and wish to
communicate, they also would know how to behave in different social situations (GC 2002: 1-2). In
other words, diverse social situations may appear all the time in real-life, so students are taught to
understand that they cannot be told how to behave in them because situations always change
independently.
Briefly stated, all the communicative sub-competences are to help students to understand
the language they learn as well as to meet the target culture. The knowledge of the target culture
helps to communicate with different people, especially while traveling and visiting foreign
countries. In short, language is a medium of communications and a link joining different cultures.
6.2 Course contents for the EFL teaching/learning curriculum
Communicative competence is the main factor that influences foreign language learning. As it was
mentioned before, “nowadays, communicative language competence is the most effective in the
world” (GC 2002: 3). So, in EFL classes students mainly are involved in communicative tasks
or/and real or realistic communication, where “the successful achievement of the communicative
task they are performing is at least as important as the accuracy of their language use” (Harmer
2007: 69). To clarify this statement, the curriculum presents a range of abilities that should be
taught in EFL classes:
•
•
•
•
To receive and produce information (to identify, state, ask or answer the question);
To express an opinion, point of view, attitude (to agree or disagree, to express possibility,
certainty, a must, a wish, happiness, interest, surprise, fear, an excuse);
To urge, persuade (to offer, to ask to do something, to refuse a help);
To express communicative conventions (to greet, address, meet, congratulate, wish);
27
•
•
To participate in conversation (to start a conversation, doubt, stress, interrupt);
To use a compensatory strategies (to ask to repeat, to explain, to speak slower).
(GC 2002:2)
Such communicative abilities should be enriched all the time because of the changing
teaching/learning process but also of the new situations that appear in real-life.
Moreover, in successful communication, linguistic minimum is very important as well. It
includes pronunciation, graphic, vocabulary, structure etc. Following GC (2002), “while learning
how to express an idea (to produce language, create a text), it goes from the meaning to the usage
and formation of language forms, while learning how to understand (reception), it tries to identify
and to relate the forms of language according to its signs” (GC 2002: 2). In other words, when
people learn how to write or speak they have to know the meaning of words in order to form a
sentence, idea or the whole text; however when people learn how to understand the language, they
need those forms in order to understand the meaning. Then, communicative activities are prepared
with more complicated structures and these are used in a variety of functional styles (registers or
discourses).
In summary, communicative activities are used in classrooms all over the world.
Communicative tasks are important for a student’s development of skills and knowledge about
target language, culture and people, so they should be useful and motivating.
6.3 Communicative language teaching/learning methods
Communicative language competence becomes more and more popular in the world. Nowadays,
new communicative teaching and learning strategies and methods are involved in the teaching
process. In most schools, teachers have a chance to choose methods of teaching in their classes,
however, all depends on the number of students per class and on the equipment school possess.
To start with, communicative teaching method is based on organization of spoken
activities individually and in groups. Groupworks where students discuss or have debates are the
most useful communicative activities in EFL classes. It is a method that teams students into groups
to create projects, to analyze specific topics or for discussions. As Eggen and Kauchak (2001)
suggest, “groupwork strategies are social interaction models designed to be integrated with others
more inclusive, content-orientated models. They divide students into small groups and use these
groups to encourage social interaction” (Eggen and Kauchak 2001: 101). This method involves
students to work collaboratively and to reach common goals. The goal of this method is to have
students work together, to think about and discuss lesson content. This method helps to work in
groups, to share the tasks, to communicate and the award motivates them to learn.
28
Second, the use of mother language in EFL classes is very important. It is useful to show
the students that FL and L1 have much in common to each other and both of them should be used
while learning. Sometimes teachers need to use mother-tongue while explaining new activities,
information or theory but “it is important that students get used to state their utterances in the law of
foreign language” (GC 2002: 4). Two tasks can be given for students:
a) linguistic – to create conditions to perceive consciously a foreign language and the
mother-tongue systems of structures, to learn them better and to escape interference of
languages;
b) practical – to be able to convey information from foreign language, papers on affairs
etc., in correct and good mother-tongue.
(GC 2002: 4)
As it is suggested, students have to learn how to translate or mediate in their EFL classes. It is very
useful to their future; for example if they will look for a job in foreign country or they will need to
write CV (curriculum vitae) or letter of application for job.
One more thing that is important in EFL classes is to pay special attention to listening,
reading and understanding activities. Teachers should prepare as much realistic, natural, real-life
and interesting activities that students should use their previous knowledge and experiences. As
General Curriculum for General Education School in Lithuania and General Education Standards
for Grades XI-XII: the Syllabus for Foreign Language (2002) suggests, “teachers are looking for
ways and opportunities to give their students to listen to authentic speech, for e.g. television, radio,
movies, records of speeches, meeting with guests from foreign countries, etc.” (Ibid.). It trains
students’ listening skills, ability to hear different sounds, pronunciations, dialects. Also, “it is
important that students would read minimally adapted and authentic present language texts” (GC
2002: 4). Students need to know diverse ways of reading that are adequate to reading aims. So the
way of reading depends on what kind of information is needed; for exhaustive, detailed or general
understanding of the content. With this kind of knowledge students are able to train their reading
and understanding skills.
Furthermore, another very important aspect in FL learning is socio-cultural bringing up as
personality. Following GC, “discussions, reading or writing topics are selected from variety
language country or countries spheres of life, presenting situations that help to understand ethnic,
esthetic and other cultural values of nation more narrowly (GC 2002: 4). Each of the country has
different traditions, cultures and values, so in order to use foreign language correctly and clearly
students need to have some knowledge about it. Such knowledge can be achieved by showing and
using “reproductions and pictures of art, architecture, engineering works, also by reading extracts,
29
telling interesting and attractive things from country’s notable peoples’ life” (Ibid.). These kinds of
lectures are very important and valuable in students’ learning process.
What is more, assessment is a necessary educational tool used by teachers to evaluate skills
and knowledge of students. According to Muijs (2001), assessment “is as invaluable tool for
teachers and education systems, allowing teachers to better plan their lessons by taking into account
the strengths and weaknesses of their students and allowing teachers and schools to see whether
students are learning what has been taught” (Muijs 2001: 185). The term “assessment” refers to all
the information gathered about students in language class by their teachers, either through formal
testing, essays or homework, or through observation or interaction (Muijs 2001: 185). Therefore,
the related term of “evaluation” refers to the process of judging, ranking and valuing students. In
practice, however, giving a test is a method of assessment, while assigning a grade or mark is
evaluation.
Finally, different techniques are used to make learning and teaching process more creative,
motivating, meaningful and interesting. Teachers are using “sets of language teaching supplies,
such as student’s textbooks, workbooks, audio-cassettes, teacher’s book” (GC 2002: 4). Some
additional materials are used as well, for e.g. grammar books, computer programs, charts, pictures,
dictionaries etc. Teachers are using such sets of language teaching supplies that satisfy the
requirements of the curriculum and teaching aims. They also try to choose the ones with urgent
contents and the ones that students achieve the best results with. As it was mentioned before, sets of
language teaching supplies have to satisfy the requirements of the curriculum and teaching aims.
Briefly stated, additional materials are always useful but there is a thin boundary line
between useful additional material and exaggerated reference on them. So teachers should be very
careful while selecting and presenting appropriate and useful materials to their students. Indeed,
teachers should choose such sets of teaching supplies and such materials that would satisfy the
curriculum, teaching aims and students’ needs to achieve the best results.
7. THE PLACE OF MEDIATION IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING PROGRAM IN
POLAND
In order to find out whether the mediation activities are used in Poland in EFL classes it is
important to present an overview of the English Language Teaching Program (further ‘ELTP’, here
and further the translation from Polish into English is mine) used in Poland at secondary schools.
This chapter will briefly present the aim, objectives and content of this curriculum. Moreover, it
30
will discuss the structure and the place of mediation activities in English Language Teaching
Program in the System of Education in Poland.
7.1 The main purposes of studying EFL at secondary schools in Poland
According to Ministry of National Education and Sport in Poland (2010), English is the most
widely foreign language studied by students at secondary schools. There are also schools where
students have to learn more than one modern language. Thus, in Poland, students study English,
which nowadays is an obligatory language in the Polish System of Education as well as German,
French, Spanish, Russian as a foreign languages.
As it has been mentioned, curriculum should be designed in such way that it could satisfy
the learners’ needs. So, the main purpose of this curriculum is to support the comprehensive and
harmonious development of students (ELTP 2002: 4). According to ELTP (2002), the curriculum
has to help students to achieve communicative competences in the English language and use it in
everyday situations. Furthermore, the goal of the curriculum is to prepare students for the final
examination called ‘Matura’. Today, the new Matura is not compulsory, but it is the basis for entry
into universities and colleges of further education. In addition, the goal is to expand the students’
general knowledge about English-speaking countries and its people. In other words, students’
cultural and communicative abilities are developed because they help students to understand the
language they learn, to meet the target culture and to mediate between different people in the world.
Ministry of National Education and Sport (2010) emphasize that Common European
Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment (2001) is the basis for the
English Language Teaching Program in Poland (ELTP 2008: 15). Essential academic requirement,
for the description of foreign language at all levels of education at secondary schools, are associated
with this document. In the next paragraph course contents for the EFL learning/teaching curriculum
will be presented and the main requirements will be discussed.
7.2 Course contents and detailed requirements for the EFL teaching/learning curriculum
According to Ministry of National Education and Sport, students at secondary school apply the
main language competences (lexical, grammatical, spelling and phonetic) to achieve requirements
for the following topics: person, home, school, job, family and social life, health, shopping and
services, travel and tourism, culture, sport, science and technology, world of nature, state and
society, but also the knowledge about native country and countries of language taught, taking into
account the problems arising between different cultures and communities (ELTP 2008: 44). In
31
addition, students create smooth and clear oral statements about above-mentioned topics, and rich in
vocabulary written statements. To illustrate, students practice fundamental activities to describe
people, objects and activities: describe everyday events and comment on them, describe facts of the
past and present, present their own and other people opinions, also present intentions and plans for
the future.
As it has been mentioned before, nowadays, communicative language competence is the
most important in the world. It was influenced by the increasing popularity of teaching and learning
methods that were introduced in the process of education. The Polish curriculum emphasizes that
student acquires communicative competence of English language at secondary school (ELTP 2002:
4). According to ELTP, mastering communication is an essential skill to have in every aspect of
everyday life for both professional and personal reasons. Following ELTP, secondary school student
using appropriate language is able to play different roles in the process of communication, to
formulate oral statements on a given topic, but also to present analysis of a particular subject or
facts. Also, the student uses linguistic means to express intentions, feelings and emotions in
everyday life. Additionally, specific skills such as: obtaining information, providing information,
expressing request, demands, thanks, reporting events, negotiating in different situations and
providing opinion are important as well (ELTP 2008: 52). Such activities are very important for
students because they help to improve communicative competence in EFL classes.
At the same time, mediation activities are used in EFL classes at secondary schools. As
ELTP suggest, language processing activities as well as translating and paraphrasing play an
important role in foreign language learning process (ELTP 2008: 54). Mediation activities include
spoken (oral) and written mediation. First, the student from the text or from the visual materials
(e.g. charts, maps, pictograms) present the main information in the foreign language. Then, s/he
makes an attempt to express his/her thoughts, in an organized way, in native language from the text
written in foreign language. Finally, student presents the main information in foreign language from
the main ideas expressed in native language (ELTP 2008: 54). In other words, language students
are taught to develop their ideas from the text in native language and then to translate them into
English. Such activities develop communicative competence in the second language and the ability
to mediate between different languages and cultures.
Moreover, reading and understanding of written texts is important in FL learning. ELTP
(2008) emphasizes that students understand different written statements (e.g. letters, brochures,
advertising leaflets, menus, advertisements, newspaper articles etc.) and are able to define the main
idea of the whole text or parts of it, can find well-defined information, and to recognize the
relationship between different parts of the text (ELTP 2008: 50). Such activities show students’
32
comprehension skills, that is, the ability to understand the text and to find the main information to
given questions.
Furthermore, ability to create clear as well as simple written statements are taken into
consideration. As ELTP (2008) explains, students describe people, events of everyday life and
different activities. Also, they present facts from the past and present, express and substantiate one’s
opinions and views but also present advantages and disadvantages of different solutions and
sentiments. Finally, students present their own intentions, dreams, hopes, but also their plans for the
future. Such activities train students vocabulary, grammar and the ability to create different kinds of
written statements.
In addition, Ministry of National Education notes that good communicative skills start with
learning how to listen and understand spoken language (ELTP 2008: 7). Students learn how to
understand authentic verbal communications, such as interviews, news, records of speeches etc..
After listening to an audio text message, students try to describe the main idea of the text, identify
specific information, determine authors intentions, and try to define what kind of text it is and what
functions does the text perform. Briefly stated, active listening activities train students to carefully
and attentively listen, but also it improves communicative skills of students.
Finally, students in EFL classes use communicative and compensatory strategies (ELTP
2008: 54). Communicative strategies means guessing words meaning from the context and/or
understanding a text with unknown words and phrases. On the other hand, compensatory strategies
(paraphrase, definition) help students to overcome limitations in language learning. Following
ELTP, students in language classes use different sources of information, such as
bilingual
dictionaries, media, instructions but also ICT (Information and Communication Technology) (ELTP
2008: 54). To conclude, students in EFL classes are involved in the process of assessment.
Involving students in assessment process of themselves can be effective at monitoring and judging
their own language production. In other words, students in classroom must be seen as active
learners who are active in the process of interpreting and constructive their learning.
To sum up, the syllabus of English language in Poland was designed to develop the
communicative skills of students in listening, speaking, writing, reading, but also in mediation that
has become popular in teaching/learning process. The concept of mediation in English Language
Teaching Program is known and different communicative activities are used in EFL classes at
secondary schools.
33
8. THE
STATUS OF MEDIATION ACTIVITIES IN EFL TEXTBOOKS
SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN LITHUANIA AND POLAND
FOR
It has already been mentioned that English is the most popular foreign language being taught at
Lithuanian and Polish secondary schools. Students studies four levels of EFL which are B1 and B2,
and C1 and C2 (See Appendix C). These levels signify the compulsory skill and knowledge that
students must acquire after the graduation of secondary school. However, in the process of teaching,
EFL teachers use various methods and materials in Lithuania and Poland. In this section the content
of EFL textbooks, especially those used at secondary schools in two countries, Lithuanian and
Poland, will be presented and the main activities prevailing in these textbooks will be revealed.
8.1 The overview of EFL textbooks for secondary school students in Lithuania
Secondary schools in Lithuanian are institutions where different types of knowledge are introduced,
developed, and distributed to the secondary school students. Often, teaching and the sharing of
knowledge are accomplished with the help and guidance of foreign textbooks. Nowadays, EFL
teachers themselves are responsible for textbooks selection as well as implementation. Thus, the
following paragraphs will survey the content of EFL textbooks most frequently used at Lithuanian
secondary schools, which are Laser B1+ and B2, Solutions Upper-Intermediate, Going for Gold,
Expert and FCE Result (The list of the most popular textbooks used at Lithuanian secondary
schools was taken from the website of the Ministry of Education and Science in Lithuania, but also
it was compared with the answers from the questionnaires for teachers and secondary school
students).
To start with, Laser B1+ and B2 are written by Malcolm Mann and Steve TayloreKnowles, and printed by Macmillan. Laser B1+ and B2 offers systematic exam preparation together
with solid grammar and vocabulary development to help give students the skills they need when
taking the First Certificate Exam (further ‘FCE’). Textbooks are divided into five sections, such as
reading, writing, vocabulary, listening and ‘Language Development’ also called ‘Get Ready to
Write’ that is a special section for writing activities. Some mediation activities have been found.
‘Vocabulary Builder’ section, focuses on topic-based lexis, collocations, patterns, word formation,
phrasal verbs and metaphorical use of language. Also, students can have a comprehensive practice
in revised ‘ Focus on FCE’ exam-oriented task types. In addition, at the end of the book, students
can find ‘Grammar database’, ‘Speaking database’, ‘Writer’s database’, ‘Key word database’ and
‘Phrasal verb database’.
The second textbook, Solutions Upper-Intermediate is written by Tim Falla and Paul A.
Davies, and printed by Oxford University Press. Solutions Upper-Intermediate is the textbook that
34
prepares students for the school-leaving exam. This textbook is arranged into five sections, such as
reading, listening, writing, speaking and ‘Use of English’. All school-leaving exam topics are
covered in Solutions and some mediation activities have been found. Here maximum support is
given to speaking and writing activities because they are the most important for school-leaving
exam.
Another one, Going for Gold is an exam preparation course for secondary school students.
It is written by Richard Acklam and Araminta Crace, and published by Pearson Longman. This
textbook is an extensive exam practice that presents exam strategies and tips in the “Writing
Reference”. Moreover, Going for Gold deliver enjoyable, communicative classes with a strong
emphasis on communicative practice. In addition, it contains extensive writing sections with model
answers and useful language but also speaking sections where students develop natural speaking
skills. In this textbook, some mediation activities have been found.
Furthermore, Expert is also used in EFL classes at secondary schools in Lithuania.
Textbooks are written by Jan Bell, Roger Gower and Drew Hyde, and published by Pearson
Longman. This follow-on from First Certificate Expert to Advanced Expert thoroughly prepares
students for the CFE while developing their language awareness and communicative skills. Highlevel exam style texts and different tasks are included with exam tips and strategies. Moreover, the
step-by-step approach build students’ speaking and writing skills. Finally, task analysis activities
encourage students to self-evaluation and better understanding of key language.
Finally, FCE Result is the multi-level exam preparation series for school-leaving exams
which inspires students to better exam results. Textbook is written by Paul A. Davies and Tim Falla,
and published by Oxford University Press. Students like this textbook because it contains lively
topics and vibrant images. This book has four main sections, such as reading, writing, speaking and
listening. In addition, a few mediation activities has been found.
To sum up, the analysis of the contents of the textbooks showed that mediation is included
in the EFL textbooks used at Lithuanian secondary schools. Mediation as an EFL class activity is
still a new phenomenon in Lithuania because most of the authors of students’ textbooks are
foreigners. These textbooks are usually divided into twelve units with different topics necessary for
the school-leaving exam. There are many activities devoted to reading, writing, speaking and
listening, but not a single activity for translation practice.
8.2 The overview of EFL textbooks for secondary school students in Poland
Secondary schools in Poland accomplish their teaching and the sharing of knowledge with the help
and guidance of Polish writers textbooks. Textbooks used in Polish secondary schools were
35
previously subject to quality control by Ministry of National Education, however, nowadays, EFL
teachers themselves are responsible for curriculum preparation as well as they “have a right to
select a textbook from among the textbooks approved for the use at school” (Eurydice 2009/10:
103). Teachers may choose educational book which gives more useful information and contains all
kinds of exercises but also which fits the teacher’s requirements. Thus, the following paragraphs
will survey EFL textbooks most frequently used at Polish secondary schools, which are Matura
Masters, Real Life, Matura Success, New English File and Matura Solutions (The list of the most
popular textbooks used at Polish secondary schools was taken from the website of Ministry of
National Education in Poland and it was compared with the answers from the questionnaires for
teachers and secondary school students).
To start with, a textbook Matura Masters is written by Marta Rosińska and Ken Wilson,
and published by Macmillan. This four-level course (Elementary, Pre-intermediate, Intermediate
and Upper-intermediate) is designed to prepare secondary school students for Matura examination.
Matura Masters books have twelve units where each represent new topic within authentic
international contexts to reflect the real needs and interests of working students. Moreover, every
unit is divided into four sections, such as intro, vocabulary and speaking, reading, and language
focus. The ‘Revision Page’ at the end of every unit provide revision of vocabulary, grammar and
pronunciation but also ‘communication and game’ section focuses on the functional/situational
language students need for oral Matura examination and day-to-day life.
Another one, Real Life is written by Sara Cunnigham, Peter Moor and Marta Umińska, and
published by Pearson Longman. English course, Real Life prepares secondary school students for
Matura examination and helps students achieve their learning goals quickly. This textbook gives
students interesting and relevant topics that are important for everyday life. Real Life is special in
the way that every lesson has three sections: ‘Words2know’, ‘Grammar2know’, and functional and
situational language in ‘Phrases2know’. Moreover, ‘Matura Real Time’ photo story with related
exercises using functional language, real contexts and situations with characters of the same age
group helps students to prepare for exam. In addition, this textbook contains ‘Quizzes’ that
encourage students to give opinions on a particular topic and personal views. Finally, the back
cover flap of the textbook provides study tips for exam tasks.
Third, Matura Success is a six-level course for secondary school students, taking learners
from zero beginner to an advanced level of English competency. Textbooks are written by Jenny
Parsons, J. Comyns-Car, S. McKinlay, B. Hastings, M. Galbarczyk and M. Cichmińska, and
published by Pearson Longman. Matura Success prepares students for Matura examination through
stimulating reading texts and integrated vocabulary and grammar work. It offers a fun, fast-paced
36
approach to learning. Short units give students a strong sense of progress, but also gives activities
that help students both to understand ‘Work it Out’ and internalize grammar rules ‘Check it Out’ as
well as avoid common mistakes ‘Mind the Trap’. Moreover, it offers a clear syllabus supported by
exam practice and exam strategies ‘Train Your Brain’. In addition, the textbook Success contains
skill-bases revision section ‘Think Forward to Matura’ and regular opportunities for evaluation and
self-evaluation.
Furthermore, New English File is written by Christina Latham-Koening and Olive
Oxenden, and published by Oxford University Press. The textbook contains texts and topics that
motivate students to talk. It provides solid language development and lively class discussion within
a special focus on pronunciation. Moreover, the course develops a full range of writing skills
needed for the exam. In addition, with authentic dialogues from interviews with native speakers,
New English File prepares students to deal with English as it is really used.
One more textbook used in Poland secondary schools is Matura Solutions. Textbook is
written by Tim Falla, Paul A. Davies, M. Wieruszewska, D.Gryca and J. Sobierska, and published
by Oxford University Press. Matura Solutions is a five-level general English course for secondary
school students who are preparing for Matura examination. The clear structure and step-by-step
approach to communication provides supported language and skill training to get students speaking
confidently. A specially prepared exam page ‘Get Ready for Matura’ after every unit helps students
prepare for B1 and B2 level Matura exam.
To sum up, the analysis of the contexts of the EFL textbooks show that mediation is
included in the students’ textbooks used at secondary schools in Poland. Mediation (translation)
activities are familiar to Polish writers of these textbooks as well as to the students who are
preparing for the Matura examination. These textbooks are perfect companions for Matura exam
preparation. They offer extra reading, writing, vocabulary and grammar practice, plus writing
sections and some mediation activities to practice translation and interpretation skills.
8.3 Analysis of mediation activities in EFL textbooks used at secondary schools in Lithuania
and Poland
This part of the research includes the analysis of the textbooks that are used at secondary schools in
Lithuania and Poland. The research analyses mediation activities in these textbooks and shows
similarities and differences of them in all the textbooks. Moreover, it analyses how mediation
activities correspond with the needs of the students and how the mediation tasks are adequate with
the Matura exams.
37
8.3.1 Mediation activities in EFL textbooks used in Lithuania
Textbooks most often used at secondary schools in Lithuania are the following: Laser B1+ and B2,
Solutions Upper-Intermediate, Going for Gold, Expert and FCE Result. As it has already been
mentioned, mediation (translation) is still a new activity used in EFL classes in Lithuania because
most of the authors of students’ textbooks are foreigners. There are many activities devoted to
reading, writing, speaking and listening, but not a single activity for translation practice. However,
almost all the textbooks contain different types of written and spoken mediation activities such as
‘summarizing gist’ and/or ‘paraphrasing’. Such activities are included in The State Examination of
the English Language so it is important to practice a big variety of mediation tasks as possible.
To start with, the textbook Going for Gold mainly involve intralinguistic mediation
activities with a strong emphasis on personalization. Such activities require students’ general
knowledge about a given topic and the ability to paraphrase the main idea or the problem a given
text presents. The main intralinguistic activities from the textbook Going for Gold are demonstrated
in Table 2:
Table 2 Intralinguistic activities in Going for Gold (2003: 4, 56).
Task 1
Read the article quickly. What two problems caused by the large number of tourists at
Machu Picchu are mentioned in the text?
Task 2
The text below is about Alain Robert, the man in the picture. Read it quickly and
answer this question: How Alain Robert reached top of oil HQ and who met at the end
of his climb?
Moreover, there are some activities, where the Lithuanian student of English is asked to
choose among a few options in English and say what information is included in a particular letter
(See Task 3):
Task 3 Read Trudi’s letter quickly. Which of the following things is she doing in her letter?
•
•
•
•
•
Inviting her friend to come and stay
Apologizing for something she did
Describing one good day she had recently
Telling her friend things she’s done recently
Complaining about something another friend did
(Acklam 2003: 33)
38
This kind of activity tests students’ understanding of the language and the ability to
summarize gist. In addition, as it has already been mentioned, it is necessary to use authentic
reading material in a foreign language teaching process as much as possible. Therefore, the letter
included in the textbook is authentic
authentic that helps students to prepare for the examination and gain the
analytical skills.
Finally, in the textbooks such as Laser B1+ and B2 and Solutions Upper-Intermediate there
are mediation activities during which students have to analyze picture(s) or photo(s)
p
and after that
they have to answer the questions related to it (See
(
Task 4).
Task 4 Look at the photos of historical events and answer the questions.
•
•
•
•
What do you think is happening in the photos?
What are the people in the photos doing?
How do you thing they feel?
Do you know anything else about the photos? When and where were they taken? Do you
recognize anybody in the photos?
(Falla 2009: 54).
Such activities are included in The State Examination of English Language (See Appendix F) that is
why students have to learn how to discuss on a given topic and how to express views.
To conclude, the main goal of the textbooks used at secondary schools in Lithuania is to
present cultural and authentic topics that stimulate the students’ interest.
intere On the other hand, the
interest of the learners is equally stimulated by the interesting topics and properly organized
activities as well.
8.3.2 Mediation activities in EFL textbooks used in Poland
Textbooks most often used in Poland at secondary schools are the following: Matura Masters, Real
Life, Matura Success, New English File and Matura Solutions.. In these textbooks, students and
teachers can find a variety of mediation (translation and interpretations)
interpretations) activities. The variety of
39
mediation activities is very important for the learners. It helps to practice various types of
translation and/or interpretation activities and to gain the skills how to use certain strategies for
effective learning process. Secondary school students are preparing for the Matura exam, therefore,
it is important to practice a big variety of mediation activities as possible.
The analysis of the mediation tasks in EFL textbooks shows that mediation can be across
two or just one language. According to Dendrinos (2006) when it involves two languages (for
example Polish and English), “mediation is an interlinguistic activity” (2006: 19). In this case, for
example the Polish learner of English relays a message which was originally delivered in the Polish
language, in either a spoken or written form. Which part or parts of the message and how the
message will be relayed, that is to whom a learner relays the message and for what purpose, often
depends on the context of situation. All above mentioned textbooks contain such activities.
To start with, the most popular mediation activities are the speaking activities which help
students to prepare for their final exam. Table 3 presents some mediation activities found in these
textbooks:
Table 3 The variety of speaking activities in textbooks used in Poland
Mediation activities
Task 1 Giving and getting
Chcesz
rozdawać
ulotki
szkoły
You want to distribute language school
information
językowej. Zostałeś zaproszony na
leaflets. You have been invited to an
spotkanie informacyjne, zapytaj się
informative meeting. Ask your school
sekretarki danej szkoły o warunki
secretary about conditions at work. Ask
pracy. Poproś ją, aby:
her the following:
• powiedziała, ile godzin dziennie
• How many hours a day do you have
to distribute leaflets,
musisz roznosić ulotki,
• opisała, w jakim miejscu masz to • Where do you have to do it,
• How much do they pay per hour.
robić,
• powiedziała, jaką stawkę za godzinę.
Task 2 Reporting events
(My translation from Polish)
Zrelacjonuj koledze, jak przebiegła
You have to report to your friend about
rozmowa o pracę, na której ostatnio
a job interview you have been recently
byłeś.
invited to. Say:
• Opowiedz,
o
jaką
pracę
się
• What questions you were asked in
ubiegałeś.
• Opowiedz, jakie pytania Ci zadano
your job interview,
• Whether you believe you will get
na rozmowie
• Powiedz,
• What job you applied for,
jakie
są
Twoje
that job.
40
przeczucia, czy dostaniesz tę pracę,
(My translation from Polish)
czy nie.
Task 3 Negotiating
Twój tata w ramach oszczędności
Willing to save up, your father offers
proponuje Ci pracę w jego sklepie
you a job at his computer shop.
komputerowym.
• Let him know that you would be
• Powiedz, że chciałbyś pracować za
wynagrodzenie, podaj, jakie.
• Przypomnij mu, że znasz się
świetnie na komputerach.
• Zaproponuj, w jakich godzinach
możesz pracować.
willing to work for remuneration
and indicate the amount you expect
to get,
• Remind him that you excel at
computers,
• Suggest working hours.
(My translation from Polish)
(Onet.pl 2012: 1)
The following activities take the largest part of mediation activities in the EFL textbooks
used in Polish secondary schools. These three guided situations (activities) ask the Polish students
of English to talk on a given topic for a few minutes. Such situations encompass the skills of getting
and giving information, reporting and negotiating. Moreover, students learn how to express
thoughts, in an organized way, in foreign language (English language) from the instructions and the
issues to be raised during discussion/presentation written in Polish language.
One more task related with mediation is describing a picture and answering questions
concerning it (See Task 4). Together with the task, some textbooks give guidelines (study tips) for
students while mediating written texts. The strategy points and tips help learners to concentrate on
the text and mediation activities for all stages. It helps to gain proper mediation skills and use these
skills during the Matura examination.
Task 4 Describe the picture and answer the questions.
Opisz poniższą ilustrację i odpowiedz na pytania egzaminującego.
Instructions in Polish
41
Pytania do ilustracji (wyłącznie w zestawie dla egzaminującego).
Questions to the illustration
(Only in the teacher’s set)
1. Czy ludzie są szczęśliwi z tej ryby? Dlaczego tak myślisz?
Are they satisfied with the fish? What makes you think so? (My translation from Polish)
2. Dlaczego ludzie lubią łowić ryby?
Why do people like fishing? (My translation from Polish)
(Bogobowicz 2004: 34)
This communicative task focuses on both translation and interpretation. First, students from
the picture have to present the main information in English language. Then, students have to answer
the questions that are asked in their native language. Such activities develop communicative
competence in the second language and the ability to mediate between two languages and cultures.
In addition, in the textbooks used at secondary schools in Poland, there are also
“intralinguistic activities requiring the mediator to relay a message within the same language, in
different words” (2006: 20). Intralinguistic mediation involves relaying the spoken or written
message, to one or more students through conveying the main idea, through different words or a
different channel of communication. Almost all activities involve the discussion which requires
learners’ general knowledge and which is related to the theme of the reading text. The following
intralinguistic mediation activities have been found in the textbooks:
Table 4 The variety of intralinguistic mediation activities in textbooks used in Poland
Task 1
Read the text about the paparazzi. Who do you agree with more, the celebrity or the
photographer?
Task 2
Read and listen to the dialog. In your own words, explain what two thing went wrong
on Martin’s date.
Task 3
Read the text. What was bad about working as a tanner in the past?
Task 4
Read the text. Are most Polish workers in the UK happy or unhappy with their jobs?
Almost all these intralinguistic activities develop learners’ comprehension skills. The
mediation strategies allow students to concern on the text and to complete mediation tasks
gradually. The study tips presented in the textbooks is the another type of guidelines to the learners
as to the strategy points. A very good example of the activity that contains the study tips is the
following:
42
Task 5 Write a summary of the text in about 250 words, using Train Your Brain to help you. Then
swap summaries with a partner and check each other’s work for accuracy (Carr 2007: 101).
Train Your Brain / Writing Skills
Summaries
•
Start by naming the author and identify the text type and the topic.
•
State the author’s main point and summarize the information which supports it, in your
own words.
Be objective: do not include your own opinions or thoughts on the subject.
Once the summary is written, read and check it for accuracy.
•
•
Task 5 is an intralinguistic activity that contains mediation strategies and the study tips that
are useful to achieve effective results in practicing mediation tasks during the lessons and Matura
examination of English language. Sometimes students do not realize what they have to start from.
The misunderstanding causes insufficient results of the task and the mediation process itself.
However, usually it is the teacher’s responsibility to explain the strategies and the process of
mediation activity during the class.
Moreover, there are some mediation activities based on a visual text (pie chart, graph, table,
map, photograph, etc.) that requires general knowledge in order to perform acts such as explaining
(see Appendix G), directing, instructing, and reporting (see Appendix H). First, during this task,
students have to listen to the conversation between an English lady and a travel agent and tick what
there is in Prague. After that, students have to do the task which asks students to report to the class
about their favorite holiday place.
Finally, in the textbook Matura Masters Upper-Intermediate there are some translation
activities during which students have to translate sentence fragments from the Polish language into
English (See Appendix I). Such activities help students to see the link between two languages used.
Moreover, they introduce new vocabulary and help to learn grammar rules. In addition, in terms of
communicative competence, such activities require accuracy, clarity and flexibility. Finally,
translation in groups can encourage learners to discuss the meaning and use of language at the
deepest possible levels as they work through the process of understanding and then looking for
equivalents in another language.
In conclusion, various kinds of mediation (translation and interpretation) activities are
included in the textbooks used in Polish secondary schools. Moreover, textbooks are designed to
correspond with the needs of the students and the Matura exam requirements. Finally, the textbooks
give guidelines that help students to achieve effective results in practicing mediation activities
during the lessons but also while taking the Matura exam.
43
9. THE RESEARCH INTO THE USE OF SPOKEN AND WRITTEN MEDIATION
ACTIVITIES IN EFL CLASSES AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN LITHUANIA AND
POLAND
9.1 The aim and the process of the research
The research was carried out in order to reveal the types and frequency of teaching/learning
mediation in EFL classes at Lithuanian and Polish secondary schools, and to confirm or reject the
set hypothesis. The collected data were expected to verify or contradict the following hypotheses:
1. The scope of mediation is clearly defined in the European documents: General Curriculum
for General Education School in Lithuania and General Education Standards for Grades
XI-XII: the Syllabus for the Foreign Language and English Language Teaching Program in
Poland.
2. Mediation (spoken and written) activities are used in EFL classes at Lithuanian and Polish
secondary schools.
A specially designed questionnaires for EFL teachers and students (see Appendices J, K, L
and M) were used to achieve the aim of the empirical research. The questionnaires were intended to
explore teachers’ and students’ views about teaching/learning system in EFL classes and to
investigate whether mediation activities and which of them are prevailing in EFL classes at
Lithuanian and Polish secondary schools. This type of data collection was chosen because of the
anonymity. The questions were not complicated to get precise answers. The questionnaire for
teachers consisted of nine close-ended questions and four open-ended questions, and the
questionnaire for students consisted of seven close-ended questions and five open-ended questions.
The teachers and students had to answer the questions during their English lessons. After the
respondents answered, questionnaires were collected and the results were obtained. The data of the
survey was statistically analyzed and graphically presented using Microsoft Office Excel 2007
package.
9.2 Description of the respondents
Teaching English as a foreign language is complicated and much effort taking work. 40 EFL
teachers from Lithuania (20) and Poland (20) participated in this research. Although the purposes
are the same of all the English language teachers, their answers show different attitudes towards
mediation activities used in EFL classes. The teachers’ teaching experience in Lithuania falls into
three groups: 6-10 years of teaching (30%), 11-15 years of teaching (30%) and 21 years and more
years of teaching (40%). In Poland, however, the teachers’ teaching experience falls into four
44
groups: 0-5 years of teaching (40%), 6-10 years of teaching (20%), 11-15 years of teaching (20%)
and 21 years and more years of teaching (20%).
Moreover, the EFL teachers possessed different categories of qualification which are
represented in Figure 1. In Lithuania, 30% of respondents were senior teachers and 70% of the
respondents claimed to be supervisors. On the other hand, in Poland, 20% of respondents were
trainees, 20% were senior teachers, 20% were experts and 40% of respondents were the supervisors.
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
Lithuania
30%
Poland
20%
10%
0%
Expert
Supervisor
Senior Teacher
Trainee
Figure 1. The range of participants’ categories of qualification
The second group of participants was 10th – 12th form students in Lithuania: from Kaunas
Varpas Secondary School, Kaunas Jonas Jablonskis Secondary School and Kaunas Jonas
Basanavičius Secondary School; and students in Poland: from Liceum Ogólnokształcące im. 11 –
Marca in Punskas, Liceum Ogólnokształcące in Seinai and Zespół Szkół Technichnych in Suvalkai.
300 questionnaires were delivered to the secondary schools students. All of the questionnaires were
completed and returned representing 100% response rate in Lithuania and 100% response rate in
Poland. This age of students was not chosen accidentally. They are now preparing for their final
exams so it is important to know the standard of examination system if they think about taking
English or other examination after completion of the secondary education program.
9.3 Discussion of results
9.3.1 The prevalence of spoken and written mediation activities in EFL classes at secondary
schools among Lithuanian and Polish teachers.
Types of mediation activities prevailing in EFL classes at Lithuanian and Polish secondary schools
are spoken and written mediation activities. The questionnaire was prepared for 40 teachers in order
45
to receive information whether written and spoken mediation activities are used in EFL classes, but
also how often such activities are practiced at Lithuanian and Polish secondary schools. Thus, in
this part of the research, the findings on the issue of the mediation technique and reasons for using
or avoiding it in the classroom will be presented.
The research analysis shows that generally EFL teachers in Lithuania and Poland practice
pr
mediation activities in their classes, but they are not so popular in Lithuania as they are in Poland.
Teachers answered that mediation (spoken and written) is an indication of the extent to which one
can automate thinking. Also, they noted that it is an indication of the amount of the well mastered
material at school or outside it.
Question 3 (See Appendices J and L) asked teachers to indicate whether they use the method
of translation in their EFL classes. Almost all research respondents answered to this question
positively. In Lithuania, only 20% of teachers (See Figure 2) answered that they use translation
activities in their classes. 80% of teachers stated that they sometimes use such activity, but also the
same percent of teachers answered that they never use this method in language teaching. Analyzing
Polish teachers’ questionnaires, the answers to Question 3 show that teachers at secondary schools
choose this method in language teaching more often that teachers in Lithuania. The majority of
them
em (60%) answered that they practice mediation activities in their classes. 40% of teachers said
that they sometimes use it, and none denied the use of this method of teaching.
Poland
Lithuania
Yes
Yes
No
No
Sometimes
Sometimes
Figure 2.. The use of translation in EFL classes
In addition to that, EFL teachers in Lithuania (30%) and Poland (20%), who answered to
this question ‘No’ or ‘Sometimes’, stated that they avoid using this method because translation of
different texts or sentences requires time to achieve a good translation.
translation. Moreover, some teachers
(30%) admitted including some (number was not given) lessons when the basic tendencies and
46
features of translation are presented and several practical tasks are given. In this case, some teachers
in Lithuania justified it stating that EFL teaching syllabus does not provide much time for
translation activities. Finally, in cases when the teacher has to act as a mediator, two other methods
of teaching are used. The first and the most popular one is the use of paraphrasing that is the
restatement of the sentence or the text in other words using the same language. The second method
widely used in English language classes in Lithuania and Poland is reformulation of the text until
students understand the main ideas. Finally, teachers in Poland use one more method, peer
correction and self-correction, which is not so popular among Lithuanian teachers.
Question 6 (See Appendices J and L) aims at determining the situations when teachers use
two language in EFL classes and perform the role of mediator between the foreign and native
languages. However, not every research participant was able to mark three choices which means
that translation is used in only two or three concrete situations (See Figure 3).
Explaining new words
Explain test mistakes
Read fiction and other literaty text
Poland
Lithuania
Explain grammar theory and exercises
Test language comprehension
0
5
10
15
20
25
Figure 3. The aspects of code switching usage in EFL classes.
As it can be seen from the results, in Poland, EFL teachers (100% of respondents) use
translation while explaining new words, but also while explaining test results. Such results prove
that vocabulary in EFL classes is taught usually through its native language meaning. Moreover,
they answered that it is better to use the Polish language while discussing the mistakes of the test.
Teachers argue that students, while talking in the native language, more often discuss what causes
major problems for them, but also they feel more comfortable. Furthermore, the results showed that
EFL teachers (30%) use code switching while explaining grammar theory and grammar exercises.
According to them, it is more purposeful to explain grammar using native language since new
47
theoretical material could be easier acquired in this manner. In addition to that, a few teachers
admitted (3%) that they tend to use native language when the topic is difficult and causes
misunderstandings for students. A good example may be reading fiction or other literary texts.
Teachers tend to ask students to translate words or sentences for better comprehension and
interpretation of the reading passages.
Analyzing Lithuanian teachers’ answers, it is obvious that native language in EFL classes is
used more often. Teachers, at secondary schools in Lithuania, tend to explain grammar theory and
grammar exercises in their native language. As Figure 3 shows, 23% of the respondents use native
language while checking what students have learned or understood about the topic. In addition to
that, 14 teachers in Lithuania answered that they explain test mistakes using the mother tongue,
since they see that it is better to use the native language while discussing what causes major
problems for students. Finally, a few respondents answered that they use translation in EFL classes
while reading literary texts and explaining new words. According to them, this method is useful for
improving reading comprehension and for understanding of new words.
Additionally, Question 7 (See Appendices J and L) asked teachers to mark arguments for
the use of the native language in EFL classes. Teachers’ answers showed (See Figure 4) that in
Lithuania, the majority (90%) of them prefer to use native language in their classes because it saves
time. Teachers argue that the use of translation helps to go along with the program requirements and
to fully satisfy the objective of the lesson. Furthermore, the tendency to use contrastive analysis is
visible since the third argument for the translation is the fact that students learn grammar more
easily when they see similarities between the foreign and the native languages. In Poland on the
other hand, 60% of EFL teachers stated that similarities of native and foreign languages help
students to learn new grammatical structures and new words. 40% of respondents use the Polish
language in EFL classes because it helps students to better understand the topic and the material
taught during the class. Finally, there were some teachers who commented on the fact that the use
of translation in EFL classes has disadvantages, too. They stated that teacher’s frequent code switch
does not motivate students to learn and think by themselves what is meant in the text, grammatical
structures. In other words, they get answers (translation) from the teacher and make no attempt to
learn.
48
120%
100%
80%
60%
60%
40%
40%
45%
45%
Saves time
Similarities of native and foreign
languages help students to learn
new grammatical structures
20%
0%
10%
Improves comprehension of a
subject
Lithuania
Poland
Figure 4. Arguments for the use of translation.
translation
The purpose of the second part of teachers’ questionnaires (See Appendices J and L,
Questions 8-13)
13) was to find out whether mediation (spoken and written) activities are prevailing in
EFL classes at Lithuanian and Polish secondary schools. It is known that teachers, in the language
teaching process, practice mediation in their classes. Therefore, the
the research has investigated which
type of mediation, discussed in the first part of this work, is more popular at Lithuanian and Polish
secondary schools and how often they use such activities in EFL classes.
Teachers’ questionnaires (See Appendices J and L, Question 11) aimed to investigate what
types of mediation activities they usually use in their classes. The research results show (See Figure
5) that in Lithuania the most popular mediation activity is paraphrasing (50% of teachers use this
activity). The second according to the importance was summarizing gist (articles from the
textbook). 30% of EFL teachers stated that they use this type of mediation in their classes to test
whether students understood what a particular article was about. In addition to that, 20% of
respondents practice other mediation activities, but they use them very rarely in their classes.
Analyzing Polish teachers’ questionnaires, it is obvious that the most popular mediation
activity at Polish secondary schools is paraphrasing. Figure 5 shows that 80% of teachers practice
paraphrasing skills in both written and spoken forms. Teachers often ask students to write, in their
own words, a short summary that present important points, explanations, or arguments. Also, they
practice paraphrasing
phrasing of sentences that are included almost every year in the Matura exam.
Moreover, 10% of respondents in Poland answered that they use gist strategy in which students has
to convey gist, in more or less 20 words, of what they read. Finally, 10% of teachers
tea
practice exact
translation as a mediation activity.
49
90%
Lithuania
80%
Poland
80%
70%
60%
50%
50%
40%
30%
30%
20%
10%
5%
0%
5%
10%
10%
5%
0%
5%
0%
0%
Literary
translation
Exact
translation
Summarising
gist
Paraphrasing
Consecutive
translation
Simultaneous
interpretation
Figure 5. The prevailing mediation activities in EFL classes at Lithuanian and Polish secondary
schools.
Question 9 (See Appendices J and L) asked teachers to indicate how often students are
assigned any type of mediation activities in EFL classes. Three answers were included: often,
rarely, and never. As it can be seen from the results (See Figure 6), 80% of Polish teachers very
often prepare different mediation activities for their students and practice them in the classroom. In
addition, 20% of teachers claim that they rarely give students mediation (spoken and written)
activities in EFL classes. The situation is still satisfactory since teachers use different activities to
practice mediation and help students to increase communicative competence which is strongly
emphasized by Ministry of National Education in Poland (2010). As it has been emphasized,
students’ cultural and communicative abilities are developed because they help students to
understand the language they learn, to meet the target culture, and to mediate between different
people in the world. However, Lithuanian teachers’ answers showed that they rarely practice
mediation in EFL classes (70%) and 30% of respondents claim that they never use these activities.
The main reasons for not using such activities are that they are not included in the English language
curriculum, they are not interesting both to do and to correct, and some of the teachers assumed that
translation, especially mediation, will not help students to pass their State Examination.
50
Lithuania
Never
30%
Poland
Often
0%
Rarely
20%
Never
0%
Rarely
70%
Often
80%
Figure 6. The frequency of mediation activities in EFL classes.
In addition to that, Question 8 (See Appendices J and L) asked teachers to indicate why they
practice mediation in language classes. As they were allowed to write their opinion, teachers wrote
several reasons for the use of mediation tasks in the classroom. The research results show that
arguments for giving students such activities are oriented mainly
mainly towards the improvement of both
languages (native and foreign), but also to improve linguistic and communicative competence of
learners:
• Improves native and foreign languages;
• Translation tasks serve for checking whether students learned and understood
understo
new
material well enough;
• Enriches vocabulary and helps to learn differences and similarities between the two
structures;
• Improves awareness of word order and some grammatical categories;
• Possibility to work with dictionaries and to learn new words;
• Working at home with the mediation tasks, students can use any available access to
information, which motivates their learning;
• Mediation activities adds variety to learning languages.
Considering the reasons outlined above, most of them fall under the category
ca
of better foreign as
well as native language acquisition. The majority of teachers who practice mediation, support the
use of contrastive analysis as an opportunity to explore both languages no matter how different they
are. However, not all arguments
arguments are included into the list because the majority of them repeat
themselves (Lithuanian teachers’ and Polish teachers’ answers were similar). Thus, the provided
ones are the basic reasons, according to which, general tendency is recognized.
Finally, Question
tion 10 (See Appendices J and L) aims at determining if mediation process is
explained to the students before completion of different mediation tasks. As it has been mentioned,
there are four mediation strategies that can be followed while working with mediation
med
activities.
51
Mediating activities in EFL classes include spoken (oral) and written mediation. In other words,
translation can be done through writing, or it can be done by on-the-spot verbal communication.
Therefore, teachers’ answers show that they always try to explain for students what to take into
consideration before taking mediation training. Also, they give students some useful examples
which help them to distinguish differences between two languages. In addition to that, teachers
always give students some clues about how to do written or oral mediation tasks. Finally, some
respondents answered that while practicing mediation, they try to pay more attention to grammar
and the use of language forms in two different languages.
Surveying the results that were received from the questionnaires on the use of mediation
activities in EFL classes, it becomes obvious that in the process of teaching, EFL teachers in Poland
apply a variety of mediation activities. As research results indicate, the majority of teachers agree
that mediating is a conscious process of learning as well as engaging the learners in the learning
process. Also, mediation (spoken and written) tasks are recognized as a tool to improve learners’
awareness of both languages because in their future they will certainly face the situations when they
will have to mediate in business, education or other situations. Thus, it is possible to claim that the
hypothesis stating that mediation (spoken and written) activities are used in EFL classes at
secondary schools in Poland, was confirmed. Also, the research carried out at Lithuanian schools
proves the fact that translation as a mediation activity has gained its grounds in teaching foreign
languages in Lithuania, but mediation (spoken) seems to get little recognition among Lithuanian
teachers.
9.3.2 Lithuanian and Polish students’ approach to mediation activities in EFL classes
In order to find out whether mediation activities are used in EFL classes, it is important to present
the attitude of Lithuanian and Polish students as well. Since they are the main objects to which
mediation is directed, this part of the research focuses on the point of view of the EFL learners. In
general, the students’ task was to express their opinion about two aspects which are translation
activities performed during the classes and mediation outside the classroom.
As the survey was carried out among the students of higher forms who have competence in
two or three foreign languages, it is possible to claim that most of them are multilingual or
plurilingual. Nowadays, it is important to know several languages, because every person in his/her
life faces the situations when it is unavoidable to use one or another foreign language. In addition to
that, all secondary school students are required to pass one or two language exams before
proceeding to the higher education. Finally, students admitted that travelling is the main field where
52
foreign language is necessary, in order to successfully communicate with others as well as to learn
how it is used in everyday situations.
Questions 10 and 11 (See Appendices K and M) asked students to express their opinion on
the use of mediation or translation outside the classroom. In Lithuania, 40 % of students admitted
having a habit to translate in their minds any information that they get either reading a text or
watching a film in a foreign language. In Poland, on the other hand, 86% of secondary school
students try to build the bridge between the foreign language and the native one, which proves that
students tend to mediate or interpret in their minds in a particular situations. It is possible to claim
that the activity of mediation is more favored by Polish than Lithuanian students (48%) who never
translate in their minds ideas that they hear in the foreign language. Accordingly, they should be
given more tasks concerning translation and interpretation at school as a practice of gaining more
competence to act outside the educational environment.
Additionally, Question 11 asked students whether they tend to translate in their mind ideas
from the native to foreign language while communicating with foreigners. As the results show, the
majority of students (78%) in Lithuania try to avoid code-switching during the conversation with
foreigners. 16% of respondents tend to code-switch and to relate several languages while speaking.
In addition to that, 6% of students sometimes translate words in their minds and try as quickly as it
is possible to find synonyms or antonyms, or other expressions to words that causes problems.
However, the situation among Polish students is quite different. More than a half of respondents
(68%) prefer code-switch in their minds in order to be sure that they apply appropriate forms of
language, but also forms of communication to clearly and concisely express themselves. Moreover,
52% of Polish students sometimes translate ideas in their minds and only 20% of them answered
that they avoid the interference of one language to another.
Students were also asked to express their opinion about the factors that determine successful
way to gaining communicative competence in foreign languages. According to the obtained
research findings, appropriate material, in this case the textbook, is the main factor essential for
successful learning. Consequently, the respondents were asked to name the textbooks they are using
in EFL classes. Analyzing Lithuanian students’ questionnaires, it is obvious that the most popular
textbooks used at secondary schools are the following: Fast Track to FCE, Laser and FCE Result.
The analysis of the contents of the textbooks showed that they are usually parted into twelve units
with different topics necessary for the school-leaving exam. There are many activities devoted to
reading, writing, speaking and listening, but not a single activity for translation practice. In addition
to that, it is important to note that most of the authors of students’ textbooks are foreigners.
53
However, Polish students’ answers showed that EFL textbooks most frequently used in
Poland secondary schools are Matura Masters, Matura Success, Matura Solutions, and other
textbooks, such as Longman Matura Podstawowa z Języka Angielskiego or Longman Repetytorium
Maturalne, especially prepared for students who are preparing for Matura examination. These
textbooks are perfect companions for Matura exam preparation. They offer extra reading, writing,
vocabulary and grammar practice, plus writing sections and some mediation activities to practice
translation and interpretation skills. Accordingly, it becomes obvious that Polish teachers prefer to
work with textbooks written by Polish writers, because such textbooks are designed to correspond
with the needs of the students and the Matura exam requirements.
The second factor, according to the importance, is the teacher’s role in the classroom.
Nowadays, EFL teachers themselves are responsible for textbook selection as well as
implementation. In other words, teachers may choose an educational book which gives more useful
information and contains all kinds of exercises but also which fits the requirements of a teacher. For
this reason, the teacher’s role is extremely important since the success of learning is his/her
responsibility. Therefore, it is necessary to recall mediation strategies that were discussed above. A
teacher has to keep in mind “…pre-planning to organize and maximize resources <…> as well as
consideration of how to tackle the task at hand <…> the mediator needs to look ahead at what is
coming next <…> and to construct islands of reliability” (CEF 2001: 88). In other words, the
importance of these strategies is emphasized because students count on the material delivered for
them. Here the teacher’s role as mediator stands out because his/her task is to mediate successfully
in order to make students ready to mediate themselves inside and outside the classroom. Generally,
the results of the research suggest that in order to make the lesson material valuable and to meet the
requirements for mediation activities, a teacher is supposed to put a lot of effort to mediation
strategies.
Additionally, Question 9 (See Appendices K and M) asked students what they favor most
during the classes. The respondents had three options in answering this question: it is more valuable
when teacher speaks only in the foreign language, she/he speaks in the foreign language and
sometimes translates when misunderstanding appears, or she/he speaks in the native language.
Figure 7 reveals that students in Lithuania (73%) prefer lessons when their teacher speaks in the
native language and sometimes translates when misunderstanding appears. The majority of the
respondents chose this answer for mainly one simple reason that most of them have indicated –
listening to foreign language helps to acquire the language more effectively, to get used to it faster.
Still, 14% of EFL students claim that they prefer when their teachers use only one language in the
54
classroom, because once they get used to foreign (English) language, it becomes more easier to
understand the ideas or the meaning of words from the context they hear.
The usage of the foreign language
The usage of the foreign language and the
translation when misunderstanding appears
Poland
Lithuania
The usage of the native language
0%
10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80%
Figure 7. The indication of the usefulness of certain aspects of teachers’ language.
In Poland, students’ attitude towards language use by EFL teacher is quite similar to the one
of the Lithuanian students. Answers showed that in Poland the majority (70%) of students prefer
when a teacher tends to speak in the foreign language and sometimes switches to the native one.
According to them, it is a good way to learn foreign language, because during the classes they can
hear spoken and formal English, but also in this way they learn new phrases. When there are new
words that students do not understand teacher translates for them or explains using their native
language. Thus, it is possible to claim that translation is necessary because sometimes it is still
difficult for the students to understand everything and to acquire new words.
The purpose of the second part of the students’ questionnaires was to find out the frequency
of written and spoken mediation activities in the EFL classrooms. Thus, this section will analyze the
use of mediation activities, whether they are popular or not, but also how often they are used in EFL
classes. Written and spoken mediation activities are different, so they are analyzed separately.
To start with, spoken mediation activities include formal speeches, conferences, debates,
discussions, simulation activities, role plays of translation/interpretation etc. The research questions
(See Appendices K and M, Question 4) considering spoken mediation activities in EFL classes were
divided into two types: spoken mediation activities included in the textbooks (See Figure 8) and
spoken mediation (additional) activities presented by the teacher (See Figure 9). The results of the
research show (See Figure 8) that 56% of respondents in Lithuania often practice spoken mediation
55
activities included in the textbooks. Also, 32% of students pointed
pointed out that they practice such
activities rarely or very rarely during English language classes. As it can be seen from the results,
still 12% of students in Lithuania never do simulation activities or role plays in the classes.
LITHUANIA
UANIA
POLAND
12%
6%
56%
32%
94%
Very often and often
Rarely and very rarely
Never
Very often and often
Rarely and very rarely
Never
Figure 8. The use of spoken mediation activities included in the EFL textbooks.
However, considering the requirements set for foreign language
language acquisition in the English
Language Teaching Program in Poland,
Poland, the results illustrate that Polish teachers are working in the
right direction. Although 6% of students claim that they rarely practice spoken mediation activities
(See Figure 8), the situation
tion is satisfactory since they still have opportunities to practice mediation
and increase their communicative competence, which is strongly emphasized in the national
documents analyzed in the first part of this work.
Another type of spoken mediation activities
activities are also used in Lithuanian and Polish
secondary schools. The research data shows (See Figure 9) that the percentage of the use of spoken
mediation (additional) activities that are presented by the teacher does not differ a lot in the two
countries analyzed.
56
LITHUANIA
POLAND
16%
19%
41%
54%
30%
40%
Very often and often
Very often and often
Rarely and very rarely
Rarely and very rarely
Never
Never
Figure 9. The use of spoken mediation (additional) activities presented by the teacher in EFL
classes.
Analysing Lithuanian students’ answers, it is obvious that spoken mediation (additional)
activities that are presented by the teacher are not very often used in EFL classes at secondary
schools. Only 19% of respondents in Lithuania claim that activities prepared by the teacher are
really motivating because they are based on the real life experiences of the students. In Poland, on
the other hand, the results showed that secondary school students (54%) practice spoken mediation
activities presented by the teacher in EFL classes. According to them, spoken mediation activities
help them to understand the target language more precisely. Also students claim that by practicing
such activities they learn how to form their ideas and how to present them in the target language and
culture.
Surveying the results that were received from the questionnaires on the spoken mediation
activities used in EFL classes, it becomes obvious that in the process of teaching/learning language,
Polish teachers more often apply both types of spoken mediation activities than Lithuanian teachers
do. However, the results in the research are controversial. Some students may have misunderstood
the question or what spoken mediation activities are, for example, asking students to translate the
meaning of the word is not a spoken mediation activity, while some of them could think it was.
Accordingly, it can be reasonably assumed that students lack knowledge of what mediation
activities are and how such activities are important in communicative language acquisition.
The second group of mediation activities are written mediation activities that include:
translation of poetry, extracts from newspapers, contracts, etc. This group of activities is more
precisely defined than spoken mediation activities, so it might have been easier for students’ to
answer the questions from the questionnaire (See Appendices K and M, Question 4). In this section,
57
written mediation activities, the same as spoken ones, are divided into two types: written mediation
activities included in the textbooks (See Figure 10) and written mediation (additional) activities
presented by the teacher (See Figure 11).
LITHUANIA
POLAND
34%
47%
34%
66%
19%
Very often and often
Very often and often
Rarely and very rarely
Rarely and very rarely
Never
Never
Figure 10. The use of written mediation activities included in the textbooks.
According to the obtained research findings, 34% of respondents in Lithuania state that they
have never done written mediation activities in EFL classes. In addition, 19% of students claim that
they do mediation activities very rarely, although such tasks are included in the English language
textbooks. While, 47% of participants claim that they often or very often practice written mediation
activities in EFL classes. Thus, it is clear that written mediation activities included in the textbooks
are not very popular at secondary schools in Lithuania. In Poland, on the other hand, the situation is
different. Figure 10 shows that 66% of Polish students very often practice written mediation
activities which are included in the textbooks used in Polish secondary schools. These textbooks are
designed to correspond with the needs of the students and the Matura exam requirements, that is
why, students can find strategy points and study tips of mediation activities. Such guidelines help
students to achieve effective results in practicing written mediation activities during the lessons, but
also while taking the Matura exam.
Another type of written mediation activities are the ones that are presented by the teacher, or
additional exercises which are not included in the English language textbooks. It is possible to state
that such activities are not very frequent in Lithuania as well. However, 41% (See Figure 11) of
students claim that teacher never prepare for students their own mediation activities, the situation is
not the worst, because still 28% of respondents answered that they use such activities often, but
none of them use them very often.
58
LITHUANIA
POLAND
28%
31%
41%
69%
31%
Very often and often
Very often and often
Rarely and very rarely
Rarely and very rarely
Never
Never
Figure 11. The use of written mediation activities presented by the teacher in EFL classes.
In Poland (See Figure 11) the situation is really satisfactory, because the majority of
respondents answered that they often practice written mediation activities presented by the teacher
in EFL classes. Such tasks are included in the Matura exam, that is why, teachers prepare and give
students such activities
vities in order to fully prepare for English language examination. Furthermore,
31% of students answered that teachers rarely prepare for them such activities, however they argue
that teachers bring them specially prepared textbooks, which contain quite a lot of written mediation
activities.
The conclusion can be made that written and spoken mediation activities are more widely
used in EFL classes at secondary schools in Poland. As the data suggests, the majority of them
practice both types of mediation activities,
activities, although 16% of respondents never use such activities.
On the contrary, in Lithuania the majority of students use rarely or very rarely both types of
mediation activities, and even 28% of respondents never use such activities. As it was explained
above, students’ answers may have been influenced by forthcoming exams,
exams or because different
teachers prefer different types of mediation tasks.
Additionally, Question 5 (See Appendices K and M) asked students to establish the most
frequent mediation activities
ivities that they are asked to perform in EFL classes at secondary schools in
Lithuania and Poland. As they were allowed to mark several options, they chose several tasks that
they practice in EFL classes (See Figure 12).
59
Lithuania
93
Poland
91
73
59
43
22
15
3
Words and phrases
Sentences
Texts
To summarize, give
main ideas in own
words
Figure 12. The most commonly used mediation/translation activities in EFL classes.
As it can be seen from the results (Figure 12), in Lithuania and Poland, students are asked
mostly to translate words and phrases, but also they have to translate or interpret sentences as well
as longer texts. Moreover, students are asked to paraphrase some texts, but there is a great
difference between Lithuania and Poland. Polish students (43 students out of 150) sometimes
practice paraphrasing in EFL classes, however, this activity in Lithuania is not very much practiced
by teachers, which is a big problem that requires deeper investigation into how to promote and
encourage the use and interpretation in foreign language classes. The results given above show the
existence of the lack of basic mediation activities, which prepare students for the real life situations
in which most of them will definitely have to act as mediators and “…make communication
possible between persons who are unable, for whatever reason, to communicate with each other
directly. Translation or interpretation, a paraphrase, summary or record, provides for a third party a
(re)formulation of a source text to which this third party does not have direct access” (CEF 2001:
14). In other words, a student who does not gain communicative competence at secondary school
cannot be called a plurilingual person, because mediation is essential in determining one’s linguistic
skills and communicative abilities.
Furthermore, the purpose of Question 5 (See Appendices K and M) was to find out students’
attitude towards mediation (translation and interpretation) activities used in EFL classes at
secondary schools in Lithuania and Poland. The important fact is that 61% of students in Lithuania
like mediation activities, both from native and into the native language. The rest of them either do
not like (15%) or have no opinion on this question (24%). In Poland, however, a lower number
60
(55%) of secondary school students take an interest in mediation activities carried out during
English language classes, and even a more surprising result is that 23% of students in Poland have
no opinion on the practice of different kinds of mediation tasks, but still admit that they are useful
in the foreign language learning.
In addition to that, Questions 12 and 13 (See Appendices J and L) and Questions 6 and 7
(See Appendices K and M) investigate the students’ and the teachers’ attitudes towards mediation
(translation and interpretation) activities used in EFL classrooms at secondary schools in Lithuania
and Poland. The results showed that answers to this question were different among students and
teachers (See Figure 13).
Necessary
75%
Not necessary
No opinion
71%
67%
40%
25%
43%
22%
22%
17%
11%
7%
0%
Polish teachers
Polish students
Lithuanian teachers
Lithuanian students
Figure 13. The indication of the respondents’ opinion concerning the necessity of practice
mediation activities in EFL classes.
As it can be seen from the results (Figure 13) the attitude towards mediation activities is
similar among Polish teachers and Polish students. The majority of students in Poland pointed out
that they know their prior achievements but also their own strong and weak sides. It is known that
good results of English examination depend on consistent teaching process and students’
preparation for it. 71% of students and 75% of teachers answered that they like mediation activities
because they are important in the learning/teaching process. As the research data indicate, such
activities are useful for Matura exam preparation as well as for language skills acquisition. In
addition to that, teachers pointed out that translation is an aid developing students’ reading
comprehension abilities since students are made to carry a deeper analysis of meanings. In this case,
translation is useful for checking either students’ reading comprehension or their acquisition of any
61
subject matter. Finally, some respondents answered that by practising translation and/or
interpretation, students learn how to form ideas and how to present them in the target/foreign
language, but also it is a way in which students can more easily acquire new vocabulary.
In Lithuania, on the other hand, the results showed that secondary schools students (67%)
like translation tasks in EFL classes. According to them, mediation in English lessons set their
thinking and so can represent opinion on different topics. On the contrary, in Lithuania, EFL
teachers (43%) assume that it is waste of time to practice translation when there is more useful and
more interesting things to do during the lecture. In addition, they argue that by avoiding native
language students learn English language more effectively.
Finally, Question 12 (See Appendices K and M) investigates if any student in Poland and in
Lithuania would like to be either translators or interpreters after completion higher education.
Surprisingly, similar number of students in Lithuania (22%) and Poland (29%) admitted that they
would like to work as mediators or translators in the future. Accordingly, it is possible to assume
that mediation activities at secondary schools are necessary and advantageous so far, because
almost half of the students favor translation as a prospective profession and acknowledge the
learning of languages as a necessity for existence in multilingual European society.
62
10. CONCLUSIONS
The results of the research make it possible to draw the following conclusions:
1. Mediation (translation and interpretation) plays an important role in EFL classes at secondary
schools. Mediation activities are useful for developing many skills in foreign language learning,
such as expanding students’ vocabulary and speaking skills, applying their grammar knowledge
in practice, developing students’ quick thinking skills (for example in foreign country or in
communication with foreigners) etc.
2. The aim of the thesis was to analyze the status of mediation activities in EFL classes and to
survey the prevailing mediation (translation and/or interpretation) activities at Lithuanian and
Polish secondary schools. The analysis showed that the idea of mediation tasks was introduced
in the CEF in 2001, but it is not as widely used in Lithuania as it is used at secondary schools in
Poland.
3. The first hypothesis, which states that the scope of mediation is clearly defined in the European
documents: General Curriculum for General Education School in Lithuania and General
Education Standards for Grades XI-XII: the Syllabus for the Foreign Language and English
Language Teaching Program in Poland, was confirmed. Mediation in Common European
Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment plays a significant
role. Here, the concept of mediation is addressed from the standpoint of translation and
interpretation. Mediation is useful in real life situations, and is a useful skill to learn, because it
gives students speaking practice in a possible real life situation. GC in Lithuania was prepared
in order to give an overview how foreign language teaching in EFL classes should look like.
Although mediation activities are described in the curriculum, it can be stated that mediation
play a big role in foreign language teaching/learning process at Lithuanian secondary schools.
Finally, the concept of mediation in English Language Teaching Program in Poland is known
and different communicative activities are used in EFL classes at secondary schools. Language
students are taught to develop their ideas from text in the native language and then to translate
them into English. Such activities develop communicative competence and the ability to
mediate between different languages and cultures.
4. Teachers in Lithuania and Poland in EFL classes use different types of textbooks which contain
many activities devoted to reading, writing, speaking and listening, but not a single activity for
translation practice. On the other hand, Polish teachers prefer to work with textbooks written by
Polish authors. These textbooks contain different activities that is why they are useful
companions for Matura exam preparation.
63
5. In the textbooks used in Lithuania, there are different types of written and spoken mediation
activities such as ‘summarizing gist’ and/or ‘paraphrasing’ but not a single activity for
translation practice. On the other hand, textbooks used in Poland are designed to correspond
with the needs of the students and the Matura exam requirements, that is why, there are various
kinds of mediation (translation and interpretation) activities and the guidelines that help students
to achieve effective results in language learning.
6. Translation as a teaching technique has gained its grounds in teaching foreign languages in
Lithuania and Poland. The research data indicate that the educators tend to code switch in some
cases and give practical mediating activities in EFL classes. This suggests that the teachers
support the approach promoting better awareness of the native language along with the foreign
one. However, it is essential to mention that not all of them who have participated in the
research favour translation tasks in the classroom. The main reason for not doing so is that
translation is time consuming. Moreover, they do not recognize this activity as really beneficial
for language learning.
7. The second hypothesis, which claim that mediation (spoken and written) activities are used in
EFL classes at Lithuanian and Polish secondary schools, was partially confirmed. The research
meant to find out the frequency of teaching/learning mediation in EFL classes, but also to
investigate the students’ and the teachers’ attitude towards mediation (translation and
interpretation) activities used at secondary schools in Lithuania and Poland. The research
findings indicate that teachers in Poland use mediating activities as a teaching technique and
code switch whenever they find it necessary. Also, results show that students find it useful when
teachers ask them to practice different spoken and written mediation activities, because such
activities will be included in the Matura exam. Differently, teachers in Lithuania argue that
mediation activities are waste of time and are not so important as other activities in learning
languages. Students in Lithuania, on the other hand, assume that mediation is an important
aspect that is an aid in the classroom of the second language acquisition and should be included
into the language teaching curriculum.
Concerning the process of globalization, mediation activities became important in the overall
structure of teaching/learning English as a foreign language in national and international
documents. Thus, more investigation has to be carried out in order to prove the necessity of this
language skill.
64
RECOMMENDATIONS
1.
EFL teachers should use various types of spoken and written mediation activities because such
activities develop communicative competence, the ability to mediate between different
languages and cultures as well as prepare for further professional career.
2.
The 10th – 12th form students should be informed about the English examination requirements
and the tasks, which will be included in the English language examination.
3.
Different types of mediation activities might be displayed on the wall of the classroom for the
students to be sure about the type and method of activity they are taught.
4.
The educational institutions should use school website for announcing assessment tables of
English language examination, different additional activities for spoken and written mediation
practice, information on homework and current class assignments, results of exams, and news
or calendars of events. Such website might provide effective means to maintain communication
with parents, community, students and educators.
5.
Teachers should organize a mediation contest for students in order to stimulate student’s
interest in translation and interpretation practice.
65
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69
APPENDIX A
ORGANIZATION OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM IN LITHUANIA
Eurydice. (2007/08). Organization of the education system in Lithuania [21 May 2012].
70
APPENDIX B
ORGANIZATION OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM IN POLAND
Eurydice. (2008) The system of education in Poland [21 May 2012].
71
APPENDIX C
COMMON REFERENCE LEVELS: GLOBAL SCALE
Table 1. Common Reference Levels: global scale
Council of Europe (2001) Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning,
Teaching, Assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 24.
72
APPENDIX D
MEDIATION ACTIVITIES: SPOKEN MEDIATION
Mediation Activities
• Simultaneous
interpretation
(conferences, meetings,
formal speeches, etc.);
Examples of Spoken Mediation Activities
• debates, conferences, discussions (See Example 1).
Example 1
Debates:
The Advantage and Disadvantage of Nuclear Power
Nuclear power is generated by using uranium which is a metal
mined in various part of the world. The first large scale of
nuclear power station was opened at Calder Hall in Cumbria,
England in 1956. Some military ships and submarines have
nuclear power plant for engine. Nuclear power produces
around 11% of the world's energy needed, and produces huge
amounts of energy. It causes no pollution as we would get
when burning fossil fuels. The advantages of nuclear plant are
as follow:
•
•
•
•
•
It costs about the same coal, so it is not expansive to
make.
It does not produce smoke or carbon dioxide, so it does
not contribute to the greenhouse effect.
It produces huge amounts of energy from small amount
of uranium.
It produces small amount of waste.
It is reliable.
On the other hand, nuclear power is very, very dangerous. It
must be sealed up and buried for many years to allow the
radioactivity to die away. Furthermore, although it is reliable,
a lot of money has to be spent on safety because if it does go
wrong, a nuclear accident can be a major accident.
People are increasingly concerned about this matter. In the
1990's nuclear power was the fastest growing source of power
in many parts of the world.
Note on the Generic Structure of Discussion Text
Discussion is a process to find the meet point between two different
ideas. It is important to get the understanding between the two
73
differences. In many social activities, discussion is the effective way
to calm down any friction and difference in thought, perception and
recommendation.
This example of discussion text present the two poles, between the
advantage and disadvantage of using nuclear plant to fulfill the
energy needed. It is a case which needs to be talked and discussed
from two points. They are represented in the generic structure which
is
used:
Stating the Issue: In the first paragraph, it is stated that using
nuclear power can be the choice in fulfilling the needed energy.
Supporting Point: In the second paragraph, it is presented the
advantages of nuclear power plant to be used as the source of the
world's
energy
needed
Contrastive Point: The third paragraph shows the balance. It gives
the contradictory idea in using nuclear power plant as the resource
of
energy.
Recommendation:
This
text
is
ended
with
a
similar
recommendation on how people should concern in the matter of
nuclear energy.
(The Advantage and Disadvantage of Nuclear Power 2009: 1).
• Consecutive
• Formal speeches (See Example 2)
interpretation (speeches
of
welcome,
tours, etc.);
guided
Example 2
Ladies and Gentlemen, Anne's father, Phil, and her mother, Liz,
have done me the great honor of offering me the opportunity of
making this little speech on this joyous occasion, and to propose a
toast to the happy couple. When I asked why they chose me, Phil
explained that it was because we've been friends for more years than
he cares to remember and that I have known Anne for all her life.
Not so, Phil, I missed the first 24 hours. You know, this is truly a
historic day! This day, the 13th of July, will always be remembered
because of three world-famous events. Film actor Harrison Ford was
born in 1942; Live Aid pop concerts raised millions for charity in
1985; and on this day in 200X, Tim married Anne! It seems like
only yesterday that Anne's weekends were taken up with tap
74
dancing, ballet and the pony club.
(Sample Formal Wedding Speech 2010: 1).
• Informal interpretations:
o of foreign visitors in
own country
o of
native
speakers
when abroad
o in
social
•
simulation activities, role plays of translation/ interpretation
(See Example 3)
Example 3
English Conversations - Roma Store near the Rice Market
and
Sujata Hello. Is that Bela?
transactional situations Bela Yes. How was the bonus party?
for friends, family, Sujata All right.
Bela Then?
clients, foreign guests, Sujata Then what? I’ll tell you about bonus party when we
train to travel in the evening. What are you doing?
etc.
Bela Nothing much. What is home information?
o of
signs,
menus, Sujata I’m getting so bored sitting at home.
Telephone Operator (Interrupting the conversation). Please
notices, etc.
try to finish. I have lots of official calls to make.
Bela All right. Tell me about the movie trailer you saw day
before yesterday?
Sujata I’ didn’t enjoy it at all.
Bela Why? The movie was a bad print ?.
Sujata No, My mother was in a bad mood, because one of the
potatoes turned out to be rotten?
Bela What have potatoes got to do with the movie?
Sujata Nothing. But my mother was in bad mood over the
potatoes.
Telephone Operator Please finish. I am disconnecting now.
An outside call comes in. Answering the telephone.
Telephone Operator Good morning, Rama’s store
Telephone Caller What is the matter with your telephone I’ve
been calling your number for the last half an hour and it has
been engaged all the time!
Telephone Operator Sorry Sir. The number may have been
busy. May I help you, Sir?
Telephone Caller Well, hurry up and get me Mr.Kukreti.
Telephone Operator I’m sorry sir, he has just gone out.
Telephone Caller Yes, please tell him that there are no seats
available on the Friday evening flight to Bangalore. We have
booked him provisionally for Saturday morning. Please
request him to confirm this new schedule.
75
Telephone Operator Are you Mr. Raman from Travel
India? Right Sir. I’ll convey your message to Mr.Kukreti as
soon as he comes in.
Telephone Caller Thank you.
Telephone Operator You are welcome sir.
(English Conversations 2012: 1).
76
APPENDIX E
MEDIATION ACTIVITIES: WRITTEN MEDIATION
Mediating Activities
• Exact translation (e.g. of
contracts,
legal
Examples of Written Mediation Activities
•
Extract from Contract (See Example 1);
and
scientific texts, etc.);
Example 1
OUR RESPONSE
ZZZ’s Role
ZZZ will support the development and quality assurance of the
XXX Toolkit, including support for project learning and
dissemination.
The key elements of this work will be:
a. The development of a prototype Toolkit
b. Liaison with the Commercial Partner on current practice in XXX
c. Revision and validation of the Toolkit (based on engagement with
Transformation Stakeholders and Associate Partners)
d. Production of Toolkit content
e. Production of guides, case studies and additional information
f. Web development and dissemination support
Our approach
Pro-active data gathering
Because of time pressures on Transformation Stakeholders, ZZZ
will act pro-actively in the collection and codification of data. This
will involve:
Site visits, to be used for collection of data on a first-hand basis
Active management of self-competed questionnaires and learning
logs <...>
(Improvement
and
development
agency
2007:7).
• Literary
translation
(novels, drama, poetry,
•
Poetry: “Homework, Oh Homework, My Dog Thinks It’s
Great“ (See Example 2);
libretti, etc.);
Example 2
77
Homework, Oh Homework, My Dog Thinks It’s Great
Homework, oh homework,
my dog thinks it’s great,
‘cause when he goes out,
he shares it with his date.
Homework, oh homework,
my dog thinks it’s swell,
‘cause when he eats homework
his breath doesn’t smell.
• Summarizing
(newspaper
gist
•
(Ashley Elementary 5th Grade studens 2009: 1)
Extract from the Article (See Example 3);
and Example 3
magazine articles, etc.)
Scarlett Johansson, Jessica Alba and Jay Leno among
within FL or between L1 star-studded guests at Barack Obama White House
dinner party
and FL;
Barack Obama is clearly enjoying this glitzy dinner for more than the good
food – as he appears to feast his eyes on his wife’s buns.
In fact, all eyes seemed to be on the First Lady’s rear as comic Jay Leno
also took a peek.
Michelle Obama wowed the star-studded audience in a figurehugging red dress but she wasn’t the only beauty among the 3,000
guests at the White House Correspondents Dinner in Washington on
Saturday.
Actresses Scarlett Johansson, Jessica Alba, Michelle Pfeiffer, Julianna
Margulies and Kristin Davis also added some glamour.
Obama poked fun at Vice-President Joe Biden who was caught on tape
congratulating him for his “big f****ng deal” on his victory over his
healthcare plans.
Obama said: “He told me, ‘Mr President, this is no ordinary dinner. This is
a big ... meal’.”
As he paused there was a long electronic tone – as if he had been bleeped
out
(Mirror 2010:1).
• Paraphrasing
(specialized texts for lay
persons, etc.).
•
Extract from Translation of Lithuanian culture-specific item
into English (See Example 4).
Example 4
Extract from Translation of Lithuanian culture-specific item into
78
English
A general evening festival (vakaronė);
...the complesion of seasonal farm labours, for example after
harvesting rye (pabaigtuvės);
…dwelling houses (log cabins with hearths; (pirkia, troba- houses in
Aukštaitija and Dzūkija, stuba- houses in Suvalkija) (Lithuania,
1986: 390).
The god of lightening and thunders (Perkūnas (Thunder));
The guardian of wizards and sages (Velnias (devil));
The goddesses of forests and hunting (Medeina and Žvorūnė)
(Kalėdaitė, Asijavičiūtė 2005:5).
79
APPENDIX F
MEDIATION ACTIVITY IN THE STATE EXAMINATION OF THE ENGLISH
LANGUAGE
Look at the visual and get ready to present the material and discuss:
• different types of job
• people’s working problems
Then answer the examiner’s questions.
Examiner’s questions:
1. What do the headlines and the newspaper cutting say about modern society?
2. Is John Hammond’s story typical? What do people commonly do ‘let off steam’ or ‘get rid of
negative energy’?
3. What are the causes of stress at work? How could it be prevented?
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the jobs shown in the photos?
5. Which of the jobs shown in the photos do you personally find most attractive? Why?
(Sikorzyńska 2005: 180)
80
APPENDIX G
AN EXAMPLE OF ORAL MEDIATION TASK
Carr, J. C. and Parsons J. (2007) Success. Upper Intermediate. Students’ Book. Harlow: Pearson
Longman, pp. 115.
81
APPENDIX H
AN EXAMPLE OF ORAL MEDIATION TASK
Task 1 Listen to the conversation between an English lady and a travel agent and tick what there is
in Prague.
Task 2 Report to the class about your favorite holiday place.
Oxenden, C. and Latham-Koening Ch. (1997) New English File. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
pp. 73.
82
APPENDIX I
THE TRANSLATION OF SENTENCE FRAGMENTS
Instructions in Polish
A letter with sentence fragments to
translate into English
Rosińska, M, Wilson K. and Kerr P. (2011) Matura Masters Upper-intermediate. Warszawa:
Macmillan, pp. 97.
83
APPENDIX J
ANKETA
VERTIMO MOKYMAS(SIS) ANGLŲ KALBOS PAMOKOSE LIETUVOS/LENKIJOS
VIDURINĖSE MOKYKLOSE
Mieli mokytojai, kviečiu Jus dalyvauti tyrime.
Šios anketos tikslas – atskleisti vidurinėse mokyklose dirbančių anglų kalbos mokytojų požiūrį į
vertimo (tarpininkavimo) metodo naudojimą užsienio kalbų pamokose ir nustatyti dažniausiai
naudojamas vertimo užduotis mokant.
Anketa yra anoniminė, todėl tikimasi nuoširdaus bendradarbiavimo. Tinkamą atsakymo variantą
pažymėkite kryžiuku, o jei reikia, parašykite savo nuomonę.
Ačiū už naudingą ir svarbią informaciją.
1. Jūsų kvalifikacinė kategorija?
Mokytojas
Mokytojas metodininkas
Mokytojas ekspertas
Neturiu
2. Jūsų pedagoginio darbo stažas?
0 – 5 m.
6 – 10 m.
11 – 15 m.
16 – 20 m.
21 - ir daugiau metų
84
3. Ar mokydami užsienio kalbos, naudojate vertimo užduotis pamokose?
Taip
Ne
Kartais
Jei atsakėte „taip“, 4,5 klausimus praleiskite.
4. Jei į 3 klausimą atsakėte „ne“ arba „kartais“, prašome paaiškinti kodėl?
Nes norint gerai išmokti užsienio kalbos, nereikia jos painioti su gimtąja kalba
Mokiniai, nuolat užsienio kalbos pamokose girdėdami gimtąją kalbą, nesuvoks užsienio kalbos,
kaip efektyvios komunikacinės priemonės, svarbos
Vertimas atima daug pamokos laiko
Kita............................................................................................
5. Kokią metodiką tokiu atveju naudojate?
Paaiškinimą, perfrazavimą užsienio kalba
Liepiate bendraklasiams paaiškinti užsienio kalba
Nieko neverčiate ir paliekate teisę mokiniams patiems išsiaiškinti
Kita.................................................................................................
6. Gimtąją kalbą naudojate dažniausiai: (pasirinkite 3 atsakymus)
Aiškinant naujų žodžių reikšmę
Skaitant grožinės ir kitokios literatūros tekstus pamokose
Aiškinant gramatiką/atliekant gramatinius pratimus
Tikrinant, ką ir kaip suprato, ko išmoko
Aiškinant testų klaidas
7. Jūsų nuomone, temą aiškinti gimtąja kalba arba ją dažnai naudoti pamokoje yra gerai, nes:
Mokiniai geriau suvokia temą
Sutaupoma daug pamokos laiko (nereikia leisti daug laiko aiškinant užsienio kalba, nes mokiniai vis
tiek dažniausiai nesupranta tol, kol jiems nebūna išversta)
Gimtosios ir užsienio kalbų struktūrų panašumai padeda mokiniui geriau įsiminti naujas užsienio
kalbos gramatines struktūras
8. Ar duodate mokiniams vertimo raštu ir/ar žodžiu užduočių?
Taip,
nes....................................................................................................................................................
Ne,
nes........................................................................................................................................................
9. Ar dažnai atliekate vertimo užduotis anglų kalbos pamokose?
Dažnai
Retai
Visai neatliekame
10. Jei atliekate, ar paaiškinate mokiniams nuo ko pradėti ir kokią strategiją panaudoti, kad taisyklingai
išversti sakinius/tekstus? (Aprašykite)
....................................................................................................................................................................
85
.........................................................................................................................................................
11. Kokias tarpininkavimo (mediation) užduotis naudojate dažniausiai:
Sinchroninis vertimas
Nuoseklus vertimas
Perpasakojimas kitais žodžiais
Santraukų rašymas
Specializuotų tekstų vertimas
Literatūrinis vertimas
12. Kaip manote ar reikalingos vertimo užduotys ŽODŽIU anglų kalbos pamokose? Apibraukti teisingą
atsakymą:
Taip
Ne
Nežinau
Pagrįskite savo atsakymą
................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................
........
13. Kaip manote, ar reikalingos vertimo užduotys RAŠTU anglų kalbos pamokose? Apibraukti teisingą
atsakymą:
Taip
Ne
Nežinau
Pagrįskite savo atsakymą
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
.
Dėkoju už atsakymus!
Wioleta Szlaużys, II kursas
Anglų filologijos katedra
Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas
86
APPENDIX K
ANKETA
VERTIMO MOKYMAS(SIS) ANGLŲ KALBOS PAMOKOSE LIETUVOS/LENKIJOS
VIDURINĖSE MOKYKLOSE
Mieli mokiniai, kviečiu Jus dalyvauti tyrime.
Šios anketos tikslas – išanalizuoti vertimo mokymo(si) (tarpininkavimo) pratimų sritį Lietuvos ir
Lenkijos vidurinių mokyklų anglų kalbos pamokose.
Anketa yra anoniminė, todėl tikimasi nuoširdaus bendradarbiavimo. Tinkamą atsakymo variantą
pažymėkite kryžiuku, o jei reikia, parašykite savo nuomonę.
Ačiū už naudingą ir svarbią informaciją.
1. Mokykla
……………………………………………………………………………………
2. Tu mokaisi:
10 klasėje
11 klasėje
12 klasėje
3. Anglų kalbos vadovėlis, kuriuo naudojatės šiuo metu. Įrašykite pavadinimą
…………………………………………………………………………………….......................
4. Tarpininkavimo (vertimo) užduotys atliekamos jūsų anglų kalbos pamokų metu:
Apibraukti teisingą atsakymą
1.
Vertimas (interpretavimas) žodžiu (užduotys
vadovėlyje):
2. Vertimas raštu (užduotys vadovėlyje):
Labai
dažnai
Dažnai
Retai
Labai
retai
Niekada
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
3.
Vertimas (interpretavimas) žodžiu:
(Papildoma mokytojo(s) paskirta užduotis)
1
2
3
4
5
4.
Vertimas raštu:
(Papildoma mokytojo(s) paskirta užduotis)
1
2
3
4
5
5.
Ką aukščiau išvardintos užduotys dažniausiai prašo išversti?
Žodžius ir frazes
Sakinius
Tekstus
Perteikti informaciją trumpai, savais žodžiais
87
6. Ar jums patinka klasėje atlikinėti vertimo užduotis (versti į/iš gimtosios kalbos)?
Patinka
Nepatinka
Nežinau
7. Kaip manote, ar reikalingos vertimo (interpretavimo) užduotys ŽODŽIU anglų kalbos pamokose?
Apibraukti teisingą atsakymą:
Taip
Ne
Nežinau
Pagrįskite savo atsakymą
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…........…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……..
8. Kaip manote, ar reikalingos vertimo užduotys RAŠTU anglų kalbos pamokose? Apibraukti
teisingą atsakymą:
Taip
Ne
Nežinau
Pagrįskite savo atsakymą
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
.
9. Užsienio kalbos mokymuisi naudingiau, kai mokytoja/s:
Visada kalba tik užsienio kalba
Daugiausiai kalba užsienio kalba ir kartais verčia tai, kas nesuprantama
Daugiausiai kalba gimtąją kalba
Kodėl taip manote?
.......................................................................................................................................................
10. Ar skaitydami tekstą, žiūrėdami filmą užsienio kalba gautą informaciją verčiate mintyse į gimtąją
kalbą?
Taip
11.
Ne
Nežinau
Ar bendraudami su užsieniečiais anglų kalba, verčiate mintyse iš gimtosios į anglų kalbą ?
Taip
Ne
Kartais
12. Ar mokėdami užsienio kalbą puikiai, norėtumėte užsiimti vertimo praktika ateityje?
Taip
Ne
Nežinau
Dėkoju už atsakymus!
Wioleta Szlaużys, II kursas
Anglų filologijos katedra
Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas
88
APPENDIX L
ANKIETA
NAUKA JĘZYKA ANGIELSKIEGO I TŁUMACZENIA W SZKOŁACH ŚREDNICH NA
LITWIE I W POLSCE
Drodzy nauczyciele, zapraszam Was do udziału w badaniu.
Celem ankiety jest poznanie opinii nauczycieli języka angielskiego szkół średnich na temat
stosowania różnych metod tłumaczenia oraz ustalenie najczęściej stosowanych na lekcjach ćwiczeń.
Poniższa ankieta jest anonimowa, dlatego liczę na szczere i rzetelne odpowiedzi. Właściwą, Twoim
zdaniem, odpowiedź zaznacz krzyżykiem, a gdzie trzeba, napisz swoją opinię.
Dziękuję za ważną i użyteczną informację.
1. Stopień zawodowy:
Stażysta
Nauczyciel kontraktowy
Nauczyciel mianowany
Nauczyciel dyplomowany
Nie mam
2. Twój staż pedagogiczny?
0-5
6 - 10
11 - 15
16 - 20
21 – i więcej
3. Czy na lekcjach języka angielskiego stosuje Pan/Pani zadania z tłumaczenia?
Tak
Nie
Czasami
Jeśli wybrał/a Pan/Pani odpowiedź TAK proszę przejść do pytania 6 w ankiecie.
4. Proszę uzasadnić swoją odpowiedź, dlaczego Pan/Pani odpowiedział/a na pytanie 3 NIE albo
CZASAMI ?
Chcąc dobrze nauczyć się języka angielskiego, nie trzeba mieszać go z językiem ojczystym
Uczniowie słysząc język ojczysty na lekcjach języka angielskiego, nie poznają znaczenia języka
obcego jako efektywnego narzędzia komunikacji
Tłumaczenie zajmuje sporo czasu
Inne……………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. Jaka metodę nauczania obecnie Pan/Pani stosuje?
Parafraza, wyjaśnienie w języku obcym przez nauczyciela
Parafraza, wyjaśnienie w języku obcym przez uczniów w klasie
Samodzielne wyjaśnienie przez samych uczniów
Inne………………………………………………………………………………………………
6. Kiedy najczęściej używa Pan/Pani języka ojczystego? (proszę zaznaczyć 3 odpowiedzi)
Tłumacząc znaczenie nowych słów
Czytając na lekcjach teksty literackie
Tłumacząc gramatykę albo wykonując ćwiczenia gramatyczne
Sprawdzając wiadomości i umiejętności uczniów
Omawiając błędy sprawdzianu
89
7. Języka ojczystego należy używać na lekcjach języka obcego, gdyż:
Uczniowie lepiej zrozumieją temat
Zaoszczędza się dużo czasu, ponieważ uczniowie ostatecznie zrozumieją dopiero wówczas, gdy
przetłumaczymy na język ojczysty
Nowe struktury gramatyczne języka obcego łatwiej jest zapamiętać w porównaniu ze strukturą
języka ojczystego.
8. Czy stosuje Pan/Pani zadania z tłumaczenia pisemnego i/lub ustnego?
Tak, ponieważ……………………………………………………………….........................................
Nie, ponieważ………………………………………………………………………………………….
9. Czy na lekcjach języka angielskiego często stosuje Pan/Pani zadania związane z
tłumaczeniem?
Często
Rzadko
Nigdy
10. Jeśli takie zadania Pan/Pani stosuje, czy poprzedza je objaśnieniem strategii, którą należy
zastosować, by poprawnie przetłumaczyć zdanie/tekst? (Proszę opisać)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
11. Jakie zadania pośrednictwa (mediacji) stosuje Pan/Pani najczęściej?
Tłumaczenie symultaniczne
Tłumaczenie konsekutywne
Wyrażanie czegoś innymi słowami
Pisanie streszczenia
Tłumaczenie techniczne
Tłumaczenie literackie
12. Jak myślisz, czy potrzebne są ćwiczenia tłumaczenia USTNEGO na lekcjach języka
angielskiego? Proszę zaznaczyć poprawną odpowiedź:
Tak
Nie
Nie wiem
Uzasadnij swoją odpowiedź
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
13. Jak myślisz, czy potrzebne są ćwiczenia tłumaczenia PISEMNEGO na lekcjach języka
angielskiego? Proszę zaznaczyć poprawną odpowiedź:
Tak
Nie
Nie wiem
Uzasadnij swoją odpowiedź
Dziękuję za odpowiedzi!
Wioleta Szlaużys, II rok studiów
Uniwersytet Witolda Wielkiego w Kownie
Wydział Filologii Angielskiej
90
APPENDIX M
ANKIETA
NAUKA JĘZYKA ANGIELSKIEGO I TŁUMACZENIA W SZKOŁACH ŚREDNICH NA
LITWIE I W POLSCE
Drodzy uczniowie, zapraszam Was do udziału w badaniu.
Celem ankiety jest analiza ćwiczeń w dziedzinie tłumaczeń (pośrednictwa), stosowanych na
lekcjach języka angielskiego w szkołach średnich na Litwie i w Polsce.
Poniższa ankieta jest anonimowa, dlatego liczę na szczere i rzetelne odpowiedzi. Właściwą, Twoim
zdaniem, odpowiedź zaznacz krzyżykiem, a gdzie trzeba, napisz swoją opinię.
Dziękuję za ważną i użyteczną informację.
13. Szkoła………………………………………………………………………………………
14. Klasa:
I liceum
II liceum
III liceum
15. Proszę podać tytuł i autora podręcznika, z którego korzystacie na lekcjach języka angielskiego
………………………………………………………………………………………………
16. Ćwiczenia w tłumaczeniu tekstów, wykonywane na lekcjach języka angielskiego:
Zaznaczyć właściwą odpowiedź
1. Tłumaczenie ustne (ćwiczenia w podręczniku):
Bardzo
często
Często Rzadko
Bardzo
rzadko
Nigdy
1
2
3
4
5
Tłumaczenie pisemne (ćwiczenia w
podręczniku):
1
2
3
4
5
Tłumaczenie ustne :
3. (Dodatkowe ćwiczenia wyznaczone prze
nauczyciela)
1
2
3
4
5
Tłumaczenie pisemne:
4. (Dodatkowe ćwiczenia wyznaczone przez
nauczyciela)
1
2
3
4
5
2.
17. Co najczęściej należy przetłumaczyć w powyżej wymienionych ćwiczeniach?
Słowa i frazy
Zdania
Teksty
Przekazać informację krótko i własnymi słowami
18. Czy lubisz wykonywać w klasie ćwiczenia w tłumaczeniu tekstów (z/na język ojczysty)?
91
Lubię
Nie lubię
Nie wiem
19. Jak myślisz, czy potrzebne są ćwiczenia tłumaczenia USTNEGO na lekcjach języka angielskiego?
Proszę zaznaczyć poprawną odpowiedź:
Tak
Nie
Nie wiem
Uzasadnij swoją odpowiedź
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……........………………………………………………………………………………
20. Jak myślisz, czy potrzebne są ćwiczenia tłumaczenia PISEMNEGO na lekcjach języka
angielskiego? Proszę zaznaczyć poprawną odpowiedź:
Tak
Nie
Nie wiem
Uzasadnij swoją odpowiedź
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
….
9. W nauce języka obcego więcej skorzystasz, gdy nauczyciel w klasie:
Rozmawia tylko w języku obcym
Najczęściej rozmawia w języku obcym i tłumaczy tylko to, co jest niezrozumiałe dla uczniów
Najczęściej rozmawia w języku ojczystym
Dlaczego tak uważasz?
.....................................................................................................................................................
10. Czy czytając tekst, oglądając film, w języku obcym, otrzymaną informację, tłumaczysz w
myślach na język ojczysty?
Tak
Nie
Nie wiem
11. Czy rozmawiając z obcokrajowcami, tłumaczysz w myślach z języka obcego na język angielski?
Tak
Nie
Czasami
12. Czy doskonale znając język obcy, chciałabyś/byś w przyszłości zajmować się tłumaczeniem?
Tak
Nie
Nie wiem
Dziękuję za odpowiedzi!
Wioleta Szlaużys, II rok studiów
Uniwersytet Witolda Wielkiego w Kownie
Wydział Filologii Angielskiej
92