Shakespeare on toast

Transcription

NR 6-7 (80) 2010
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INDEKS 374385
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ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING
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Teacher
Weronika Sałandyk
Fun in the sun
Elżbieta Kwiatkowska
Ben Crystal serves
“Shakespeare on toast”
Paulo Coelho
A saint in the
wrong place
ISSN 1644-2059
Fot. © Igor Terekhov
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CONTENTS
Teacher
p. 36
CHECK IT OUT!
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4 Ben Crystal serves
p. 22
READING
WITH PAULO COELHO

22 A saint in the wrong place
BUSINESS ENGLISH
YOUNG LEARNERS

ACTIVATORS

Luiza Wójtowicz-Waga
CULTURE
METHODS

Joanna Kaźmierczak
Magda Fijałkowska
Phil Keegan
WORKSHOPS

36 Ten steps towards
a motivating task
Alina Cîrlănescu

58 Pakistan
33 Motivating students to speak
in the monolingual classroom
12 Additional learning sources (3)
Students for students, measure
for measure. Ideas & tips for
teachers in four acts

55 Teaching English –
a project management (2)
24 Fun in the sunsummertime
lessons outside the classroom
Weronika Sałandyk
10 Off-syllabus activities
as a motivation element
in children classes
41 Testing in the military
as validity and reliability (2)
Paweł D. Madej
Paulo Coelho
9 Shakespeare on Toast - Review
p. 24
63 Macmillan ELT Global Festival 2010
Agnieszka Nowak
65 Nagrody „LCCI Business English
Competition 2009” rozdane
p. 4
p. 41
p. 58
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CHECK
IT OUT!
Teacher
Ben Crystal serves

an interview with an actor and a writer who is our companion through
Shakespeare’s world of work
Editor-in- Chief
Elżbieta Kwiatkowska: Welcome to Poland. Is this
your first time here?
Elżbieta Kwiatkowska: Yes, especially the literature
with capital L.
Ben Crystal: I was actually here five years ago I came
to give a talk in Toruń, but I had a night stay in Warsaw,
which was lovely as I had the first chance to visit
places which I knew about, like the Ghetto Memorial.
You know, I was making a film in 2001 about Warsaw
Ghetto Uprising, but we were filming in Slovakia.
Ben Crystal: That’s right; they assume it is for the
intelligencia, while Shakespeare wrote for the
common masses, as well as for the king and the
court. And looking around to try and find a book
which could help people get closer to Shakespeare,
I could not find one. There was a Shakespeare for
Dummies, but who wants to read a book that says
you’re a Dummy? And there is this book called
Friendly Shakespeare, which is about 500 pages,
and that is, by no means, very FRIENDLY . So,
I wanted to write the book that was quick, and it
is, as all the chapters are very small and easy to
understand but making Shakespeare accessible
without dumbing it down.
Elżbieta Kwiatkowska: Lovely! I am very glad we
could meet as our reads certainly are intrigued
and wish to learn about your book. So, the
question is: Do you like toasts?
Ben Crystal: Do I like toasts? (laughter) Yes, I do,
actually.
Elżbieta Kwiatkowska: What do you like them with?
Ben Crystal: I am a big fan of hot butter toasts,
very simple, wholegrain bread, sometimes with
cheese, sometimes with egg, and the traditional
with beans, of course.
Elżbieta Kwiatkowska: That’s what I wanted to ask
you next, where does this arresting or tricky book
title come from Shakespeare on Toast?
Ben Crystal: The book as a whole is a reaction to
the idea that in recent times, in the last 150 years
or so, Shakespeare has been claimed by literature,
literature with capital L, and Shakespeare wasn’t
always LITERATURE, he wrote plays to be performed
and sonnets to be read out loud. Because of this claim
by literature, I find a lot of people are apprehensive
about Shakespeare. Either they had a bad experience
with it at school, or they assume the literature is for
the elite only.
Elżbieta Kwiatkowska: Do you mean without
trivializing it?
Ben Crystal: Yes, exactly. So, the first part of the
book is relatively light; and the second touches
more serious stuff like, for example, the iambic
pentameter poetry, but in a very accessible way.
I wanted to show the readers a lot of tricks and
secrets that actors know, to understand and break
Shakespeare apart; so, hopefully, by the end of the
book, the reader will know an awful lot. As a result,
this book is quick, it’s easy, and good for you like
the classic British dish-beans on toast . That’s for
the title. The only problem is how to call this book
in America, as they do not have food so much 'on
toast', maybe “Shakespeare over-easy” or so?
Elżbieta Kwiatkowska: I agree it’s a hard task
to make sure that the title sells well
everywhere. Now, where does you fascination
for Shakespeare come from?
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INTERVIEW
Ben Crystal: I’d always acted in musicals at school, but
acted, as I don’t have much of the singing voice ; and
the director saw me in the production of Olivier, I think,
and cast me as Ariel in Tempest, and 3 months later, I
was running around in the North Wales September
rain, wearing two pieces of silk, a piece of string and
covered in gold make-up, and I couldn’t have been
happier. All of a sudden, it just made sense; and ever
since then, I seem to have developed a natural affinity
with Shakespeare, and I never ever have problems
understanding it. I suppose it’s because I created or
found my way into Shakespeare naturally, through
theatre and through acting.
Elżbieta Kwiatkowska: Coming back to the title
itself, have you chosen this one to arrest people,
to trick them, to make them feel intrigued enough
to take this book into their hands when they see
such a simple word as toast being combined with
such a big name as Shakespeare?
Ben Crystal: Well, whether to trick them? If you
are asking me how carefully it was selected for the
marketing reasons, I say YES, there are thousands
books about Shakespeare, so it was chosen with
some dose of attention. And also, when you look at
the cover, you can see the picture of Shakespeare on
the piece of toast with his eyebrow slightly risen in
astonishment, as if saying: “What am I doing on the
piece of toast?”. So, hopefully, this is an attractive
looking book to pick up; and with slightly odd title,
it’s going to make you think twice and take it from the
shelf. I am sure this is “good” enough looking book to
get people interested. Maybe, this will reach my target
audience, people who don’ like to read Shakespeare,
who don’ like to read about Shakespeare, or who are
afraid of him; but they will find it funny enough to
choose it, and then, they will get a different picture.
For example, this book is written in acts, rather than
chapters, and the opening lines describe Arnold
Schwarzenegger playing Hamlet, it’s from a comedy
film he made. That’s the last thing they are going
to expect to read in a book about Shakespeare. So,
maybe the word I’d like to use here is not TRICK but
CARROT, to draw them in. And because the chapters
are quite small, by the time they get to the trickier
stuff, I hope they’ll be enjoying themselves so much
they won’t realise it’s tricky.
CHECK
Elżbieta Kwiatkowska: Does it mean that you
tried to convince yourself to it so much that you
started loving it? 
IT OUT!
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Ben Crystal: This is a very good question as I used to
hate Shakespeare; that was my experience from school.
Elżbieta Kwiatkowska talking to Ben Cristal
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IT OUT!
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Teacher
Elżbieta Kwiatkowska: And now, maybe a bit
controversial question .
Ben Crystal: Lovely, I like controversial!
Elżbieta Kwiatkowska: Do you believe that people
need explanation of Shakespeare’s works and
words? Maybe we should try to interpret or
understand those by ourselves? Is that kind of
guidance really necessary?
Ben Crystal: Exactly, BYĆ ALBO NIE BYĆ ; so I am
not going to tell you what it means, but what I will
tell you is that there’s usually 10 syllables in a line
of Shakespeare but in this line, there is 11. Why
is that? If Shakespeare had wanted it to be 10, he
would have made it 10; so that means that there is
something interesting about this line, that means
that character’s thought is overwhelming the poetry.
I am not going to tell you why, but it is interesting for
you to notice, because an actor would notice that.
Ben Crystal: First of all, I want to say that Shakespeare
does not need up-dating or modernizing to the
present times; this is not an issue. In terms of difficult
words, having written a dictionary on Shakespeare’s
difficult words, I know that there are 900,000 words in
Shakespeare and only about 5% of them could cause a
regular English speaker a problem. The next is poetry.
The way Shakespeare wrote his poetry was different
from a lot of other Elizabethan poets; and what he did,
he worked with the same group of actors for 20 years
or so. So, they knew how he wrote, as well as he knew
how they acted. He became such a master of the style
of poetry that he was writing, that he was able to direct
them through it; so, there are silent stage directions
all the way throughout Shakespeare. And what I do in
Shakespeare on Toast is I do not tell people necessarily
how to interpret what is said. I say, this is the way that
Shakespeare wrote, these are the kinds of silent stage
directions you can look out for, they will help you break
open the heart of what’s going on, but that does not
mean I will tell you whether TO BE OR NOT TO BE is
talking about life or death or this or that. What I do say, is
that a lot of wonder of Shakespeare is that the meaning
will slip and slide out of your reach; so when you get to
the line TO BE OR NOT TO BE THAT IS A QUESTION, you
kind of know what that means, but, at the same time,
you would not be able to describe it in five minutes.
Elżbieta Kwiatkowska: So, you draw readers’
attention to details like these they may miss?
Elżbieta Kwiatkowska: Yes, it takes a bit of thinking.
I would try to understand it through myself, my life,
my experience. Everybody knows this line, but...
Ben Crystal: It is a helping hand, a step up. It is
definitely an introduction. There are number
of different ways of saying it. What I am happy
about is the fact that as
much as it is a good book
for the beginners, there is
an awful lot of information
in there (like the silent
stages directions and the
details of poetry) that
many people who go to see
Shakespeare every week
or have loved Shakespeare
all their lives do not know
about, these are things a lot
of my actor friends do not
Ben Crystal: Yes. Hopefully, I will give them the hint
to the meaning but let them decide for themselves
what it is. I have spent the last decade travelling
around the world talking to different people about
Shakespeare and watching Shakespeare in Japan and
Slovakia. The wonderful thing about Shakespeare is
that he did not write what it is like to be from Stratfordupon-Avon, where he was born, or Warwickshire, the
county he was born, or even London or England; he
wrote about what it is to be a human. And because
of that, every person on the street that I meet, or
anyone in the world, can perform Hamlet. It will
mean something to all of them, and every single
interpretation will be completely different because
as they say: SHAKESPEARE HOLDS THE MIRROR UP
TO LIFE; and whenever you pick up Shakespeare, you
bring a part of yourself to him.
Elżbieta Kwiatkowska: Well, I am getting more
and more intrigued to dip into the book. Shall
then we call/treat this book as an essential for
all people who are somehow, in this or that way,
interested in Shakespeare? I am talking about
non-professionals, maybe teachers as well?
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INTERVIEW
Elżbieta Kwiatkowska: I would like to concentrate
on teachers for a moment. We said the book
could be an essential for many people. Can we
see/treat this book as a “manual” for teachers
of English who wish to introduce drama in
IT OUT!

their classroom, and I mean drama with big D
or literature with big L?
CHECK
know about. I’ve learned these tools as an actor
in order to perform these plays as best I can, but
not all actors learned them. Then, we can say that
part of the book is revealing the secrets of the
magician’s tricks. There is no reason or way that
anybody would necessarily discover these things,
unless they are trained as an actor. They wouldn’t
be taught them in an academia or in literature, so
I am hoping that [the book] will be interesting for
the novice as much as for the old trouper .
Ben Crystal: In regard as a manual for teacher, what it
would hopefully do, it will spend a lot of time asking
the reader to think laterally about Shakespeare.
The book spends a lot of time thinking about what
it would have been like to go to the theatre in
Shakespeare’s times and how this is different from
going to the theatre to see Shakespeare in modern
times. That is important because, after all, these
plays are 400 years old, and it certainly brings up
the question whether what is said/written there is
still relevant or important to us. As we said earlier,
it’s all about humanity, so, of course, it will always
be relevant. Let me give you an example of Macbeth.
Ben Cristal on stage
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CHECK
IT OUT!
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Teacher
I talk a lot about Macbeth in the book; this play is about
witches and killing of the king. I discuss what that
meant to the Elizabethans, as for them, witches were
their worst nightmare, as they were in the middle of
the European Witch Craze. Now, when I go to schools
and ask students, “Are you afraid of witches?” they say,
“No, witches are stupid.” So, how are you supposed
to teach Macbeth, which opens with this scene of
witches, unless you explain to students what witches
were perceived then. So, perhaps, there is a number
of ways in this book that can encourage teachers to
think laterally when approaching Shakespeare, and
say, “So if you are [students] not afraid of witches, what
are you afraid of? What’s your worst nightmare?” and
elicit the answer of a nightmare to compare it with
the fear of witches that people had in those years,
when you could be randomly pointed at on the
street, and called “Witch” and dragged away to your
death. This is the context to teach Shakespeare now,
to bring it up to life and to make sure that people
don’t see the play as dull or boring. But, this play is
also about the killing of the king. When you ask your
students if they have fires on November 5th, they
say, “Yes, we do.” You ask, “what do they symbolize?”
and the answer is, “Well, Guy Fawkes.” So, you explain
that Guy Fawkes tried to blow up the Houses of
Parliament and kill King James I. He [Guy Fawkes] did
that 4 months before Shakespeare wrote this play,
which is about the killing of the king, and all of the
sudden, students say, “WOW! OF COURSE!”.
Elżbieta Kwiatkowska: So, this is like a puzzle
for students; element by element, they create
this complete picture, and this is where this
guidance is needed, yes?
Ben Crystal: Yes. I suppose this book is the manual
as an example of thinking outside the box, of
coming to Shakespeare from different directions.
Another aspect of how we can use Shakespeare
as a teacher or for teaching is an exploration of
how inventive he was, how well he played with
the language. He brought a 1000 words into the
English language. He also took words that already
existed in language and used them in completely
different meanings. The noun, UNCLE was turned
into a verb in Richard II-“Grace me no grace, nor
uncle me no uncle;” he says, “do not call me an
uncle.” He also shows that language and its rules
do not have to be strict; he gives us green light to
play with the language as he did this all the time,
play with it, break the rules .
Elżbieta Kwiatkowska: Great! You are an actor;
let me then ask you what you think about this
quite popular association/combination TEACHERACTOR? How does it work according to you?
Ben Crystal: I find an incredible parallel between
a teacher and an actor; I absolutely agree that
teaching is a performance. Let’s look at a situation;
you are standing often in front of the group of
people who are, hopefully, there by their choice,
but not always , so there is the need for them to
be there, and they are waiting to get something,
to learn something, to take a message. Similar to
the theatre; teaching has to have this balance of
tragedy and comedy, and it has to be entertaining
but also touching. In Shakespeare’s theatre they
performed at 2 p.m. in the afternoon, in the day
light so as an actor could make an eye contact with
every single member of your audience, like you can
in a classroom. And this is useful, as you can keep
a pulse, you can keep a beat of the temperament
of your class. As an actor, on the stage, I have to be
very aware of whether the audience is enjoying it or
not, whether I need to speed up or make a joke or
still give them a moment to reflect.
Elżbieta Kwiatkowska: This is where psychology
comes in.
Ben Crystal: Exactly, this is the psychology of your
classroom as much as it is the psychology of the
audience, as a group of students are an audience
to some respect, so this is a terrific parallel between
TEACHER-ACTOR, yes!
Elżbieta Kwiatkowska: Ben, you started the
prologue of your book with the quotation from
King Lear: “Never, never, never, never, never.” So,
I would like to close our lovely talk by quoting The
Comedy of Errors, which you took part in…
Ben Crystal: Yes! In 2006 in The Globe Theatre.
Elżbieta Kwiatkowska:
“Let’s go hand in hand
not one before another” (5.1)
…this can make adventure with Shakespeare
more enjoyable. And I hope that after reading
your book, people will become friends with
William  and will go hand in hand with him .
Ben Crystal: Oh, that is a lovely image; I’d hope so! I
think that would be terrific!
Elżbieta Kwiatkowska: Good luck with the book;
it was great talking to you.

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BOOK REVIEW
IT OUT!
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 Shakespeare on Toast
CHECK
Ben Crystal
ICON BOOKS
2010
What does Arnold Schwarzenegger have in
common with Shakespeare? Do you know that
Shakespeare invented the word assassination?
How much did it cost to go to the theater
in Elizabethan times? How much bread is
Shakespeare worth? How much did a costume
cost? These and many more unusual questions
you have ever wanted to ask, are finally answered
by Ben Crystal, a linguist, actor, and most of all,
great fan of William Shakespeare.
Why did he write the book? Crystal himself
explains how “the book as a whole is a reaction to
the idea that in recent times, in the last 150 years
or so, Shakespeare has been claimed by literature,
literature with capital L, and Shakespeare wasn’t
always LITERATURE. He wrote plays to be performed,
and sonnets to be read out loud. Shakespeare wrote
for the common masses, as well as for the king
and the court. However, I find a lot of people are
apprehensive about Shakespeare; either they had a
bad experience with it at school or they assume that
literature is for the elite only.” With lots of courage
and enthusiasm, Ben made this book quick, easy,
straightforward, and good for you just like beans
on toast, and it is a good job, even Shakespeare
would be impressed .
The book, told in five fascinating acts, is for
everyone those who like, don’t like, or are afraid
of Shakespeare. Everyone should read it, and then,
they will definitely get a different picture of the
Bard. The first part of the book is quite light to
get a good start; and the second touches more
serious areas like the iambic pentameter poetry
for example, but do not worry, all is done in a very
accessible way. It can be said that this part of the
book reveals the secrets of the magician’s tricks and
so is a good help in understanding Shakespeare’s
ideas. for both the novice and old trouper .
The book is also a good manual for teachers who
wish to introduce Shakespeare into their classroom.
Shakespeare on Toast will spend “a lot of time asking
the them to think laterally about Shakespeare” and
make their students do so as well. “The book spends
a lot of time thinking about what it would have been
like to go to the theatre in Shakespeare’s times and
how this is different from going to the theatre in
modern times. That is important because, these
plays are 400 years old, and it certainly brings up the
question whether what is said/written there is still
relevant or important to us.”
After reading the book, which is a real eye opener ,
it will become clear that since Shakespeare wrote
about what it is to be a HUMAN, we can all find
our way to become friends with him by either
taking a different approach towards his works or
being favourably disposed to him. “And because
of that, every person on the street, or anyone in the
world, can perform Hamlet. It will mean something
to all of them, and every single interpretation will be
completely different because Shakespeare wrote:
‘All the world’s a stage,
and all the men and women
merely players’.
(As You Like It)

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ACTIVATORS
Teacher
Off-syllabus activities
as a motivation element in children classes

Joanna Kaźmierczak
There are the obvious factors motivating children
to learn:
 your own motivation–be enthusiastic, have fun,
make a “fool of yourself”,
 new tasks, exercises, ideas–variety is the spice of
life!
 exciting, modern, interesting materials,
 encouragement and positive feedback,
 active learning and teaching–playing games,
drawing, designing projects, kinaesthetic
exercises,
 sticking to schedules and class
rules,
 giving them a little bit of choice
of what they want to do during
the class.
Joanna Kaźmierczak
Joanna is a Łódź University
graduate in English Studies.
At present she is Assistant
Director of Studies at Warsaw
Study Centre, responsible not
only for teacher training and
evaluation but also for running
extra projects and workshops.

I
have been there. I am quite sure many of you
have been there. I have seen it as well. You are
standing in front of a class of kids or teenagers
who are obviously ignoring you thinking about
something else or just sending text messages under
the desks. You feel helpless and hopeless. How do
you win back their initial motivation?
with a pile of “prizes.” What I mean are off-syllabus
activities that you can organise together with your
students. It might seem difficult at first to come
up with an interesting project, but possibilities are
Finally, you can use different kinds
of “rewards” (small prizes/treats)
for specific tasks or competitions.
The kids will most probably be
motivated and will participate. They
might even learn some new things,
but only for a while. This path will
lead you nowhere as you would
end up with a bunch of children
motivated only by the material prize
and not by their desire to learn.
So, what do you do when you
feel you are running out of ideas?
Fortunately, there are ways to
motivate your students that do not
require you entering the classroom
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ACTIVATORS
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really endless. The basic question that needs to
be asked and answered is what your students are
interested in, what they are fond of in everyday life,
and what gives them most fun and satisfaction.
The same kinds of activities could be used for
off-syllabus projects; the only difference would
be that they would be done using English. This
way, students are not going to be bored and will
become highly motivated and committed to the
project. Don’t be afraid to talk with your students
about your interests outside of school. Capitalize
on any common ground you might have.
One type of activities that is usually attractive for
all kids are “parties,” that is events organized for
a specific holiday (Halloween, Christmas) when
children can dress up and play together. It is worth
pointing out that these events are designed for
entertainment but do not need to be “mere fun;”
they also might have extra educational value. Try
involving your students into preparations, and let
them make something themselves, for example,
decorations. The more hands-on activities, they
will have the more likely they will stay interested
in the activity.
The next off-syllabus project really motivates
younger classes of children up to age 12, but it can
work with all ages. You need to plan it beforehand,
and it can be organized in many different ways.
Plan either a series of performances that you will
stage with your students throughout the school
year or an end of the semester programme so the
children can prepare a surprise for their parents
or other family members. You can do it either in
the classroom or in a special place and have the
children perform, sing, recite poems. Let them
show what they have learned to their peers and
parents. Parents are usually very proud of their
offspring; they attend in big numbers and take
pictures or film their kids performing. Of course,
some small prizes will be welcome for all children
taking part. Some teachers organise drama clubs
with their students and regularly practice drama
techniques. These might be especially interesting
for children who are talented and would like to
practice their skills. Then, attending such a club
is motivation in itself. If there are more students
willing to take part in such activities, it is a good
idea to prepare a “young talent” contest. This way,
an element of competition is introduced, the
team spirit is boosted, and general motivation to
learn soars. Most children are really happy with
their own successes and would like to please
the teacher, so it is the teacher’s job to praise
and motivate all pupils to be proud of their own
accomplishments and to raise their self-esteem.
Then, pupils continue to make effort and become
highly motivated to do their best.
Other special interest clubs attract attention and
are motivation boosters as well. Film clubs, music
clubs, photography clubs are places where kids
can have fun and develop their interest in the
English language and culture, too.
I have seen and heard of many interesting
projects done with kids. Karaoke, jogging,
skating, creating a music band, taking pictures,
cooking, conversation classes in the park are just
a few examples of what you can do. Yet, what we
should always bear in mind is that the atmosphere
we create for our students is a crucial motivation
factor. The more friendly, informal, home-like
atmosphere we have, the more motivated our
students become.
So, there you have it. There are very many
ideas you can use to increase your students
motivation to learn, and you do not need to
“buy” them with gifts at all. What is more, you
can have a lot of fun!

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ACTIVATORS
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Teacher
Additional learning sources (3)
Students for students, measure for measure
Ideas & tips for teachers in four acts

Alina Cîrlănescu
English teacher at The Jagiellonian Language Centre, Kraków
Act I
You and your students
How much is
uch
“you” and how m
is “them” in your
classes?
Alina Cîrlănescu
Romanian born Alina has been
teaching English for seven years.
Beginning in Romania, she is
now enjoying her fourth year
of teaching at the Jagiellonian
Language Centre in Krakow. She
is also known as Alina Alens,
the author of the poetry volume in English
The Incomplete Fantasy We Call Love (published
in 2009), and the lead singer and songwriter
of the band ALENS (founded in 2008). Read
more on her contribution to teaching,
music, and cultural journalism on her blogs:
http://theenglishlearnersblog.wordpress.com/ and
http://alinaalens.wordpress.com/.
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When you think about your students and what
they bring to your classes, how would you generally
quantify their contribution? In other words: What is
the percentage of “you” and what is the percentage
represented by your students in your classes?
If these sound to you like rhetorical questions,
you are right; that is exactly what they are! Let
me say a few words about how I was sent into this
“rhetorical mode” which added extra spice to my
inspiration in writing this article.
I recently took part in a conference for English teachers
in Krakow1, where I had the pleasure of watching Ben
Crystal introduce his latest book on Shakespeare2,
give his take on toast and the Iambic pentameter,
and perform one of Shakespeare’s sonnets and a
few fragments from Hamlet and Macbeth in both
Original Pronunciation and, for a more ascetic taste,
in Received Pronunciation. For anyone who saw one
of Ben Crystal’s performances, there is no question as
to why the words Original Pronunciation deserve to
be capitalised. Listening to Ben Crystal’s rendition of
the original Shakespearean accent is enough to send
any one in the audience shivers up their spine and
suspend their 21st-century minds so that by the time
they realise what they have been listening to, they
have already gulped down an entirely comprehensive
chunk of Shakespearean toast–in our case, thanks
to Ben Crystal, history included. Yes, gulping down
Shakespeare is easier that one thinks, provided you
approach his works with the right companions3 and
the right attitude. Yes, Shakespeare can become as
plain and (still!) as nourishing as bread and butter,
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TIPS
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Ben Crystal’s book is here to suggest. I also picked
up flavoured recommendations like this one: Why
not add Shakespeare’s works to your healthy reader’s
menu?; and, I must add, I see no reason why not.
When I asked Ben Crystal how he had managed
to reconstruct the Original Pronunciation of
Shakespeare’s dialect, which he illustrated for the
first time in Poland about four hundred years since it
was first spoken, he listed three sources that roughly
made up, according to him, 80 per cent of the full
reconstruction (these were the rhyming patterns in
Shakespeare’s writings, the history of phonetics, and
the study of the English dialects today). As for the
remaining 20 per cent, he said simply, “It was me;”
and I believe he couldn’t have been more accurate.
When spoken out loud, any language comes alive.
Moreover, the way each speaker pronounces,
vocalizes, accents, pauses, inflames, or tones
down his or her speech brings that language into
a particular context and records it in history with
the specific imprint of the speaker’s background,
thoughts, and feelings at the time. This occurs
time and time again, whenever a speaker (be
it you or I, Ben Crystal, or any English student)
makes a statement. The beautiful part about this
is that, just as the English of Shakespeare, any
language can potentially be reconstructed, that is
brought to life, in the process of speaking, acting,
or performing in it.
With these aspects considered, I am tempted to
re-consider the questions posed in the beginning
of this article, which I will further rephrase into a
more personal: How much of a class I teach is “mine,”
and how much of it is “my students’”? Here I go on a
rhetorical trail again. I am afraid it cannot be helped.
We, as teachers, are bringing to class a language that
we speak, but do not own, a language which we
share with our students who, in turn, put it to use in
their own way.
Is our students’ English any different than ours? It
may very well be. Is it any heavier- or lighter-toned,
faster or slower? These questions seem to lead up
to more questions, some more rhetorical than
others. There is, however, a main point to be made,
which is this: in communicating in a language, we
communicate ourselves along with our words, or
the words we quote from the books we read, or
from the songs we listen to, which is to say that in
learning a language, the students learn to express
themselves while adapting and adopting it, by
owning the language or making it their own, even
if temporarily, in the process.
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ACTIVATORS
❯❯❯
Teacher
In this context, questions like: Whose English is
the right one: mine or my students’, the politicians’,
scientists’, or the entertainers’? can be answered:
Everyone’s, provided that the speakers’ use of the
language does not preclude or impede understanding.
The same goes for questions like: Should I use an
Original Pronunciation or the Received Pronunciation
in communicating in English (or any given language)?
“All the world’s a stage
(maybe a classroom), And
all the men and women
merely players (why not
students?).”4
As communicators, we have no right or reason to
contest any variety of English as long as it makes
sense to the people involved in the process of
communication. In other words, an accent in
English will never influence the exam results of,
say, Cambridge test takers worldwide, whereas not
being understandable (in English) always will, as it
should, and to a great extent. The particular cases
of English slang and jargon can also be included
in this discussion which I postpone, however, for
another paper.
In language teaching, it is essential to encourage
the students to use the language, not just to know
the language. When I ask my students about their
preference in terms of strategies for learning English,
it is either speaking or dialogue/conversation that
comes up first on their lists. They view speaking as
immediate, easy, whereas writing and reading seem
to require more effort. However, any self-aware
language learner will agree on the necessity of
improving all areas in learning a language (listening,
writing, and reading included).
In this third article of the “Additional Learning Sources”
series, I would like to present a few examples of
good-case practice from my experience of teaching
Alina with her Jagiellonian University Physics students
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IDEAS
Act II
Examples of good-case practice in the classroom
Any student
can develop his
or her learning
potential to its
fullest!
This assertion stands true even when this learning
potential is not manifest in the case of each and every
one of the students you may teach at a certain time.
Some of your students may be quiet or reserved, more
reluctant than others to share their knowledge or
speak from experience in either real or imagined
contexts. It is extraordinary, however, to discover
among your students some who are outwardly
oriented towards sharing in learning. If you
discover such students in your groups, take this
opportunity and use their presence, their energy
and input in order to motivate the other students
in their group and, why not, even students from
other groups you teach.
Among the excellent students I had the pleasure
of teaching in my first two years at the Jagiellonian
Language Centre (October 2006 – June 2008),
Patrycja Gierat was an extraordinarily resourceful
student whose contributions I decided to use as
positive examples to other students I taught.
During my first semester in Kraków, at the end
of 2006, after deciding on a topic for the end-ofsemester writing paper (which happened to be
My New Year’s Resolutions, with five aspects to
focus on: education, health, time management,
environment, and relationships), I noticed a
ACTIVATORS

at the Jagiellonian University in Kraków and explore
a number of ways to encourage students to use the
foreign language in and outside class by making use
of a surprisingly accessible resource: the students.
degree of reluctance among some students towards
this assigned topic. Any teacher experiences situations
like this, in which there are students who might say:
“Oh, I don’t believe in New Year’s resolutions!”
To these, as well as to the ones indifferent to the
topic, I replied: “Whatever your opinion on the topic
might be, you need to be able to express it in writing!
I will read to you a fragment from a very good paper
on the same topic, written by a student of mine, who,
just like some of you, was honest about the fact that
this was not one of her favourite topics in the world.”
on doubt: “He
cannot be heard of.
Out of doubt he is
transported”
Patrycja's summer house at Marcówka
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ACTIVATORS
❯❯❯
Teacher
TEACHING TIP: When in doubt, look for positive examples!
Exempli gratia (e.g.) This is what a student wrote about this topic:
“To be honest, I’ve never ever made any kind of New Year’s resolutions, I’m not quite sure why. Probably
because I don’t believe in such things; life is unpredictable and in my opinion you can’t simplify it by
writing the very things you want to achieve and stick to the scheme. Of course I have my personal goals
and specific places on my life path where I want to arrive, but they are definitely not created because the
New Year is coming.
Well, this was a short introduction into my way of perceiving life. Let’s fast forward to the resolutions that
I have come up with.
As far as education is concerned, my actual goal is to gain as much knowledge as possible. I am truly
fascinated with learning (and I am not talking about mundanely learning by heart totally useless things
which you usually forget after a few hours). I mean the passion in encountering new dimensions of
information. There is so much that we can learn!”
Patrycja Gierat
The students’ resistance towards treating a given topic
is known to subside if they are provided with enjoyable
communicative experiences and positive examples.
Such positive examples can come from any of your
students, as well as from yourself6.
Should you ask yourselves, like I happened to do,
Am I ever in danger of running out of good-case practice
examples? rest assured! It is highly unlikely! Goodcase practice generates more good-case practice,
at a rate we may call exponential.
Either in or outside class, the examples of good-case
practice abound. You just have to take your pick and
be on the lookout for surprises!
Act III
Examples of good-case practice outside the
classroom
Patrycja and her
young students
“Then let not winter’s
ragged hand deface
In thee thy summer”7
Talking of surprises, a few months into my second
semester of teaching in Kraków, I was excited
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TIPS
ACTIVATORS
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to receive an invitation from the same student,
Patrycja Gierat, to attend the English language
camp she was planning to organise for the three
pre-teen girls she had been tutoring (surprise
again!) English well over a year.
This is how I spent my birthday and the first
week of holiday (June, 28 th – July, 4 th 2007)
during my first summer in Poland: co-teaching
three lovely girls with Patrycja, at her summer
house in Marcówka!
TEACHING TIP: Keep a record of your students’ positive achievements!
The form is less important. From scribbling down on napkins to writing down paragraphs in full,
use whichever method works for you, as long as it helps you remember.
Exempli gratia (e.g.) Here are some fragments from an interview I worked on with Patrycja on the
last day of the summer camp:
Alina:
When did you get the idea of organizing an English camp at Marcówka?
Patrycja:
It started as a joke, one day, while talking with Asia’s mother. I later went to bed and in the
morning woke up with this thought: “Maybe I should give it a try!” Then I had a talk with my
parents. My father was totally encouraging, while my mother was a little skeptical about
it. “Are you really going to be able to put up with everything that comes along with such a
commitment?” She is always doubtful when I get such ideas. And this time I was bringing
together the three girls I have been teaching English for a couple of years or so. To think that
they would see each other for the first time at Marcówka was going to be another challenge!
Alina:
I remember you first telling me about your idea when we were in Collegium Maius.
It sounded more like a plan for the distant future, but you were very enthusiastic about it.
You were sure about the place, but you did not know when would be the best time for it.
Why did you think of me as the co-teacher?
Patrycja:
While we were chatting on the topic of having children, everyone in the group had their
arguments, their pros and cons, and I was really into it, but at one point I had a sort of a
“reset” moment. I stepped out of the talk and started connecting in my mind the idea of
a camp, teaching English, having fun, and you, as a person able to help me and as more
experienced teacher. For a brief moment, while I was cooking up all the ingredients for my
plan, I actually saw a yellow light bulb lighting up and sparkling somewhere above my head
– but I’m sure nobody else spotted it but me.
At that time, I was working
on my poetry volume8 in
English which ended up
including
three
poems
I wrote in Marcówka. A guest
speaker at one of my book
presentations last year in
Kraków, Patrycja chose to
read the poem “I wish I could
speak to you in another
language,”9 and confessed
how proud she felt to see the
name of her summer-house
village where I wrote it, in the
published book. The feeling
was mutual.
“Featured like him,
like him with friends
possessed” 10
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ACTIVATORS
❯❯❯
Teacher
Alina with two former
students, Joanna Kita
& Patrycja Gierat, at
Massolit, Krakow, during
her book release in 2009
Students can learn a lot
from other students. In
a questionnaire that
I recently distributed
among my Jagiellonian
University
students
I asked them to
analyse among other
issues
concerning
class
participation
what (and if ) they
have learnt from their
colleagues at our
English classes this
academic year.
Alina with her Jagiellonian University Law students
Here are some samples
from the answers
I received.
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IDEAS
ACTIVATORS
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TEACHING TIP:
Be a talent scout in and outside class, and pass this on to your students!
Teach them to appreciate talent, enthusiasm, and motivation in themselves and others.
Kasia Cieszynska:
Hmm… I think I always learn something from my colleagues’ presentations. By the
way, I like the way Aleksander (Piszcz) is reading in English so much! :D He’s really
good at it!
Justyna Panek:
From the Physics students in my group (Izabela Balwierz and Ada Uminska) I learnt
that Physics is not only about complicated formulas. I don’t have more precise
examples, but generally I got to know more about my friends thanks to their
presentations. I know what they are interested in and I can discover more about
their personalities through their passions.
Krzysztof Kuś:
I think that at first our presentations were boring (including mine), because of the
complicated vocabulary, the tight timing and the specialized topics connected
to our studies that we had to choose. I have to admit that sometimes I wasn’t
focused at all during these presentations. However, the situation changed once
we could choose our subjects according to what we liked. I remember Patrick
(Kopka)’s great presentation about an Oriental herbal tea (which we drank during
that class). Natalia (Bilewicz)’s presentations on house swapping and her trip to
Morocco were noticeable. I also enjoyed Rafał (Guzik)’s presentation on capital
punishment and Aga (Kowalska)’s on fashion.
Natalia Bilewicz:
Listening to my colleagues’presentations is an important and fun part of our classes.
The presentations often contain interesting information and are given in an
entertaining way. I remember Michał (Olszowski)’s performances most clearly. Both
of them (the one about the conclave and the one about the autopsy) were very
interesting, well-prepared, and while listening to them I had the impression that
the speaker knows what he is talking about and feels comfortable in that particular
subject. Personally, I always try to include as much of “me” in my presentations
as possible. I like talking about my hobbies, spreading good ideas, and drawing
attention to important issues. I find the idea of obligatory presentations very
good-it is fun to create them and to listen to other students’ ideas.
Agnieszka Kowalska:
I’ve learnt that my colleagues are fantastic, open-minded people, with great
passions (for example Rafał (Guzik), who is trying to be a film director). I’ve also
learnt who sees things in a way similar to mine–this person is Agnieszka (Pytel).
There are, of course, opinions like: “We’ve known each
other since the beginning of our studies, therefore
I did not learn anything about my colleagues that
I haven’t already known.”
Or, in the case of newcomers, you could get responses
like my student’s, Anna Żarnik:
“I have been attending your classes only for two
and a half months, but I noticed many interesting
personalities among my colleagues. Unfortunately,
they speak about their interests and passions too
rarely. I know that Paulina (Polak) loves reading
books and Aleksandra (Romanowska) gives very
interesting comments about the art of speaking, but
I only get a general view on my colleagues.”
In both of these types of (“minus/plus,” “too much/
too little,” “enough/not enough”) cases, we need to
persevere by showing new angles and approaches
to the former and by allowing more time for selfexpression and peer investigation to the latter.
As Shakespeare brilliantly put it in the title of one of his
plays, all’s well that ends well, therefore, a tip we, teachers,
can remember is: to persevere and check for progress
at the end of each relevant teaching and learning cycle.
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ACTIVATORS
❯❯❯
Teacher
“Of th
at and a
ll the
progress
less Re more and
so
leisure s lvedly more
hall exp
ress.” 11
If you look up the word “limitation” in the glossary12
of Shakespeare’s Words, you will find the definition
“allotted time, appointed period.” Four centuries
ahead, there is an interesting twist in what we
understand today by “limitation.” We look at learning
as life-long, we like to think it is a never-ending
process, whereas life itself is finite, limited. What the
Elizabethan theatre goer first heard when a character
mentioned the word “limitation” was probably
closely linked to the rapid tick-tack of a coming end.
“Kind is my love today, tomorrow kind,
Still constant in a wondrous excellence;
Therefore my verse to constancy confined,
Act IV
How far can you go?
One thing expressing, leaves out difference.
Fair, kind, and true, is all my argument,
Fair, kind, and true, varying to other words,
Assessing progress is essential; however, how far
should we go in teaching both in and outside the
English class? What resources are we best to tap into?
The articles in the “Additional Learning” series you
have been reading so far in The Teacher magazine have
loosely guided you into resources like movies, how
to bring more of yourself as a teacher to class, how to
incorporate within your classes passions and interests
beyond teaching, how to look at your students as a
talent scout and inspire them to look for talents in their
peers, and the list may very well continue to be written
by each and every one of you teachers out there.
And in this change is my invention spent,
Three themes in one, which wondrous scope
affords.” 13
With the 21st-century dreamer’s hat back on, there is
no saying as to what the limits in teaching are. What
I may add, nevertheless, is that each teacher should
not only map out the progress made in class, the
“known,” but also leave some room for the “unknown,”
for surprises such as discovering that you are
Jesteśmy drukarnią offsetową wyposażoną w procesy przygotowania do druku i rozbudowaną introligatornię
20  www.teacher.pl  6-7 (80) 2010
Drukujemy na papierze od 60 g/m2 do 400 g/m2, w formatach od A3 do B1+
SPECJALIZUJEMY SIĘ W PEŁNOKOLOROWYM DRUKU OFFSETOWYM NA MASZYNACH ARKUSZOWYCH
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TIPS
Yes, it is the same girl on the cover, the narrator
in her debut novel and the accomplished main
character in her real life, and, yes, indeed, her
English teacher at the Jagiellonian University
in Kraków, Sorina, is based on yours truly.
latest book presentation and his performance of
several Shakespeare fragments.
2.
Read more on Ben Crystal’s latest book
on Shakespeare, Shakespeare on Toast, his
speeches and upcoming events at http://www.
shakespeareontoast.com/
3.
It is worth exploring David Crystal and Ben
Crystal’s site based on their best-selling glossary
and companion, “Shakespeare’s Words,” at this
address: http://www.shakespeareswords.com/
4.
Quoted from Shakespeare’s play As You Like It,
courtesy of http://www.shakespeareswords.
com/Plays.aspx?Ac=2&SC=7&IdPlay=26#205970
5.
Quoted
from
Shakespeare’s
play
A
Midsummer Night’s Dream, courtesy of
http://www.shakespeareswords.com/Plays.
aspx?Ac=4&SC=2&IdPlay=4#127628
6.
My take on the New Year’s Resolution for 2007 is
available online at: http://alinaalens.wordpress.
com/about/nyr/
7.
Quoted from Shakespeare’s “Sonnet 6”, courtesy
of http://www.shakespeareswords.com/Poem.
aspx?IdPoem=53#6
8.
Alina Alens, The Incomplete Fantasy We Call Love,
Drukarnia Kraków, Kraków, 2009.
9.
Idem., p. 16.
ACTIVATORS

a character in a book written by a former student of
yours, an English teacher of Romanian origin named
Sorina. The name of the student is Elisa Vian, and the
name of the book, “Il Diario di un Erasmus,”14 which
I translate as “Memories of an Erasmus Student.”
10. Quoted from Shakespeare’s “Sonnet 29”,
courtesy of: http://www.shakespeareswords.
com/Poem.aspx?IdPoem=53#3994
11. Quoted
from
Shakespeare’s
play
All’s Well That Ends Well, courtesy of
http://www.shakespeareswords.com/Plays.
aspx?Ac=5&SC=3&IdPlay=30#224188
12. http://www.shakespeareswords.com/Search.aspx
Sorina and Alina, two in one,
I will now take my leave, fair readers,
Till next time!
Exeunt
References
1.
I am referring to the Macmillan ELT Global
Festival held in Kraków on May 20th, 2010. The
conference included a part dedicated to young
learners (Part I: Young Learners’ Expertise), and
a part dedicated to global English and a brand
new “Global” Macmillan series (Part II: Global
Innovation), that concluded with Ben Crystal’s
13. Quoted from Shakespeare’s “Sonnet 105”,
courtesy of http://www.shakespeareswords.
com/Poem.aspx?IdPoem=53#5140
14. More on Elisa Vian and her debut novel at
http://ildiariodiunerasmus.blogspot.com/. At
my radio show in English on June 6th on RadioWid
(http://radiowid.pl/) you could listen to my
interview with Elisa recorded during her recent
visit to Kraków and find out more about the
inspiration for her debut novel. The transcript of
this interview will be made available on my blog
(at http://alinaalens.wordpress.com/), where you
are welcome any time.

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READING
WITH
PAULO COELHO
Teacher
A saint in the wrong place
Stories for Parents, Children and Grandchildren

By courtesy of Paulo Coelho for The Teacher magazine
Browse also through: www.paulocoelho.com or www.paulocoelhoblog.com
“W
hy is it that some people can resolve
the most complicated problems really
easily, whilst others agonize over every
tiny crisis and end up drowning in a glass of water?“
I asked. Ramesh replied by telling the following story:
“Once upon a time, there was a man who had
been the soul of kindness all his life. When he died,
everyone assumed that he would go straight to
Heaven, for the only possible place for a good man
like him was Paradise. The man was not particularly
bothered about going to Heaven, but that was where
he went. Now, in those days, service in heaven was not
all that it might be. The reception desk was extremely
inefficient, and the girl who received him gave only
a cursory glance through the index cards before
her and when she could not find the man’s name,
she sent him straight to Hell. And, in Hell, no one
asks to check your badge or your invitation because
anyone who turns up is invited in. The man entered
and stayed… Some days later, Lucifer stormed up to
the gates of Heaven to demand an explanation from
St. Peter. “What you’re doing is pure terrorism!” he said.
St. Peter asked why Lucifer was so angry, and an
enraged Lucifer replied: “You sent that man down into
Hell, and he’s completely undermining me! Right from
the start, there he was listening to people, looking them
in the eye, talking to them. And now everyone’s sharing
their feelings and hugging and kissing. That’s not the
sort of thing I want in Hell! Please, let him into Heaven!”
When Ramesh had finished telling the story,
he looked at me fondly and said:
“Live your life with so much love in your heart that if,
by mistake, you were sent to Hell, the Devil himself
would deliver you up to Paradise.“
Fot. E. Kwiatkowska
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ACTIVITY
To be in a state of bliss. John was in seventh heaven when the
director praised his speech.
HEAVENS OPENED
It started to rain heavily. The heavens opened, and we had to run
for cover. We were waiting at the bus stop when the heavens opened.
MOVE HEAVEN AND EARTH
Exert the utmost effort. I’d move heaven and earth to get
an apartment here. This hyperbolic expression was first
recorded in 1792.
STINK TO HIGH HEAVEN
Be of very poor quality; also, be suspect or in bad repute. This plan
of yours stinks to high heaven, or His financial schemes smell to
high heaven; I’m sure they’re dishonest. This expression alludes
to something so rank that it can be smelled from a great distance.
MANNA FROM HEAVEN
An unexpected aid, advantage, or assistance. After all the
criticism in the media, that favourable evaluation was like manna
from heaven. This expression alludes to the food (manna) that
miraculously appears to feed the Israelites on their journey from
Egypt to the Promised Land (Exodus 16:15).
UNTIL HELL FREEZES OVER If you say that someone can do something until hell freezes over,
you mean they will not get the result they want. They can talk
until hell freezes over-they won’t make me change my mind.
ROAD TO HELL IS PAVED WITH GOOD
INTENTIONS
Prov. People often mean well but do bad things or simply
nothing. John: I’m sorry. I didn’t mean to hurt your feelings; I only
wanted to help you. Jane: Oh, yeah? The road to hell is paved with
good intentions.
HELL’S BELLS!
(AND BUCKETS OF BLOOD)!
An exclamation of anger or surprise. (Use hell with caution.) Alice:
Your pants are torn in back. John: Oh, hell’s bells! What will happen
next? Bill: Well, Jane, looks like you just flunked calculus. Jane: Hell’s
bells and buckets of blood! What do I do now?
ALL HELL BREAKS LOOSE If all hell breaks loose, a situation suddenly becomes noisy and
violent, usually with a lot of people arguing or fighting This big
guy walked up to the bar and hit Freddie; and suddenly, all hell
broke loose.
THROUGH HELL AND HIGH WATER
through all sorts of severe difficulties. (Use hell with caution.) I
came through hell and high water to get to this meeting on time.
Why don’t you start on time? You’ll have to go through hell and
high water to accomplish your goal, but it’ll be worth it.
WITH
IN SEVENTH HEAVEN
READING
HEAVEN FORBID
May heaven prevent something from happening or being the
case. Heaven forbid that they actually encounter a bear, or
Heaven forbid that the tornado pulls off the roof. This term does
not necessarily imply a belief in heaven’s direct intervention but
merely expresses a strong wish.
PAULO COELHO

After reading:
I. English language practice - heaven and hell idioms
II. Discussion: (notes for teachers)
This is a funny and, at the same time, a beautiful story! It shows us the reality that when you love something,
you believe in it with all your heart and soul, no matter what or where life takes you, even to hell, you stay
true to who you are, and in the end you will reach heaven  I really loved this story. Help your students to
understand this metaphorical story and teach them idioms.

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YOUNG LEARNERS
Teacher
Fun in the sunsummertime lessons outside the classroom

Weronika Sałandyk
Outdoor lessons open up a possibility to start fresh.
Throughout the school year or during a holiday
course, we might encounter problems where
students fail to cooperate to a desired degree. These
problems might include disruptive behaviour of
any sort, general lack of motivation, unwillingness
to speak English, or reluctance to take active part in
the activities we have planned. Before you work out
a long-term plan how to avoid similar situations,
surprise your students. Go outside, re-establish
rules, and offer a selection of completely different
activities which will engage the children fully.
Beyond any doubt, outdoor lessons can revive the
spirits and motivation more than standard lessons
Weronika Sałandyk
Weronika graduated from the
English Department at the
Silesian University. She worked
as a teacher, teacher trainer and
Director of Studies in a private
language school for eight years.
Now, she is a teacher in a private
primary school in Gliwice. She is particularly
interested in developing her own teaching
materials, games and activities.

T
he holiday counter says “5 days till the end of the
school year,” all the grades are given, syllabus is
covered, and there are no more exercises left
to do in the coursebook. The sun is shining, birds are
singing, and grass is greener than ever. You might
start to wonder how on earth you will bear another
lesson in the classroom if it goes without saying that
your students won’t be able to concentrate even for
one second. Or, consider another scenario. You work
as a teacher at a summer language camp, and it is 10
a.m., your time to start the lesson. There come your
students with their notebooks, pencil cases, files with
copied exercises. They sit down reluctantly in the
corners of the lounge or canteen and wait till it is over,
constantly peeking at their watches. Undoubtedly,
summertime has its own rules; and it seems pointless
to fight them. Why not take full advantage of the
situation and let your students enjoy the unique
experience of having an English lesson outdoors?
This article presents the ways in which we can benefit
from the sun, fun, and English combination. It shows
examples of activities which you can use during
holiday courses or at the very end or beginning of the
school year when the weather seems too temptingly
favourable to stay indoors.
in the classroom. First of all, such classes are always
unique, so children need to be deserving of such a
lesson. On sunny days, students usually come and
beg to go to the schoolyard with them. Moreover,
lessons outside provide the change students need.
These lessons are no longer lessons of English
grammar or vocabulary but a combination of English
and other activities, such as art, designing or making
things, outdoor sports or any other form of physical
movement, discovering the world, or trying to solve
puzzles. Outdoor lessons can easily change into a
real and unforgettable adventure.
However, the successful sun-fun-English combination
needs to be well-planned to allow everybody,
including you as a teacher, to enjoy an outdoor lesson.
THE SUN – getting organised
Being outside obviously means no desks, chairs, or
comfortable cushions. It also involves direct and
blazing sun, strong wind, lots of small insects, people
passing by and talking, or any other disruptions.
 Find a quiet place, far from the hustle and bustle
of everyday life.
 Choose a place in the shade. It is almost impossible
to concentrate when sitting in full sun.
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
If you plan to sit with your students, don’t count
to find a lovely fallen tree to rest on. Bring
enough blankets or mattresses. Children need
some space because if it gets too crowded,
they will start pushing, elbowing, and finally
quarrelling.
Carefully select the materials you want to use
outdoors. Make sure it is not a pile of small
pieces of paper which will go away with the first
gust of wind. Try to guarantee that they will last
even if the first drops of rain appear suddenly.
Think twice before you take something and
before you take too much and turn it into an
ordinary lesson.
after school. And, most important of all, come to that
lesson smiling, energetic, and full of enthusiasm.
Positive attitude is highly infectious!
ENGLISH – making them speak
Forget about the specific language aims; try to
concentrate on getting your students to talk. First of
all, establish the basic rule: No Polish. Being outside
is fine as long as students try to speak English. At
first, children, especially if they are not used to,
will complain, give up, find it impossible. But, be
persistent, praise their attempts, and don’t correct if
they try to say something. Make a box with special
prizes where you can keep slips of paper with ideas
such as no homework, another lesson outside, a movie
lesson, etc. At the end of the lesson, if you feel your
students deserve it, let them choose one slip of
paper with the prize. On the other hand, indicate
clearly you don’t approve of Polish. Don’t make it
too serious at the beginning: frown upon every
word in Polish that you hear, wag your finger, and
look meaningfully at students who speak Polish.
Fot. E. Kwiatkowska
THE FUN – increasing motivation
When you plan an outdoor lesson, make sure it
will be special, different from the ones you spend
indoors with your students. Try new activities, and
incorporate movement: running, chasing, hiding.
Go back to your childhood memories, and think
of the activities you used to play with your friends
YOUNG LEARNERS


❯❯❯
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YOUNG LEARNERS
❯❯❯
Teacher
If none of this works, explain that they have five
warnings and then, they will have to come back
to the classroom. If they really enjoy the lesson
outside, they will feel responsible as the whole
group and start reminding each other “no Polish, no
Polish.” Remember to always act immediately and
adhere to the rule. Children will finally understand
that this is the only way it is going to work.
SOME ENGLISH AND A LOT OF FUN
There are lots of outdoor activities and games which
can be adapted to help children practise English.
There is also a long list of games which have nothing
to do with teaching or learning English. However,
they might be used as the first small steps which
students take to bridge the gap between learning
and uncontrolled playing. The object of these games
is not to reinforce any structure, sentence types, or
vocabulary group. Their primary goal is the sheer fun
combined with English. Of course, it depends on you
and your students how much English you add into
the game.
 Before you start adapting any games to teach
English, use the ones your kids love and are
familiar with. How about playing dodgeball,
rope jumping, or playing games such as Uno
or Eurobusiness? Set one condition-“English
only.” If necessary, pre-teach useful phrases
your students might need during the game;
and let them have fun. Monitor and help
with the language. You will be surprised how
quickly and easily your students get involved
in playing in English.
 Smugglers and spies is a game played outside
in a closed area. Divide your students into
two groups: one will be spies and the other
smugglers. To make it clear who belongs to
which team, children can wear armbands in
two different colours. Before you start playing,
explain the rules. The team of smugglers is
given a set of small pieces of paper which
represent the goods they want to smuggle. It
also contains information how many points
each product or thing is worth, for example,
chocolate–40 points, quantity of the same
pieces of paper–8; sugar–30 points, quantity–10;
gunpowder–80 points, quantity–5; map to a
buried treasure–500 points, quantity.
Before the game starts, each team gathers up
and discusses the strategy. Spies need to set up
their headquarters by pointing to a particular
piece of land with definite boundaries.
Smugglers need to hide their goods within
external layers of their clothes, for example, in
the shoes, in the pockets, under the cap.

During the game, smugglers need to get
inside the spies’ headquarters and hand in the
goods to the scorekeeper who is waiting there.
Then, such a spy is allowed to walk freely and
continue playing. Spies, on the other hand,
must intercept the goods by catching (tagging)
a smuggler on his/her way to the headquarters.
In such a case, a spy is allowed to search the
smuggler. In this time, a smuggler must stand
still; and to measure the time of the search, s/he
can either say a poem, count to twenty, starting
with one Mississippi, two Mississippi, or say the
whole alphabet from A to Z and from Z to A. If
during the search, a spy finds some goods, s/he
hands them over to the scorekeeper.
The game is played for a pre-arranged period
of time. When it is over, the value of goods each
team possesses at that stage is counted. Of
course, only the goods which have been handed
over to the scorekeeper are taken into account.
The winner is the team who has more goods.
The game might seem complicated but it is fun
and you need to teach a few phrases to make
it a fully English game such as stand here, hide,
count, here you are etc.
The game might seem complicated, but it is fun;
and you need to teach a few phrases, such as
stand here, hide, count, here you are, etc., to make
it a fully English game
One of the most popular games played outside
is a stalking game. As there are two teams, you
need to play that game with another teacher. One
team runs away leaving signs and tasks for the
other team, which must follow them, complete
the tasks, and, at the end, find their hiding place
in a given period of time. Students should write all
the tasks in English. To make it more challenging,
instead of drawing signs, the running team might
leave directions written in English or give a map
of their route with some descriptions prepared
beforehand. Moreover, think of a way to promote
speaking English. In each team, there might be one
spy who will remember or count all the phrases and
words said in Polish and then, together with the
teacher accompanying that group, report them at
the end of game. The more-English-speaking team
should be given a special prize.
If you can’t find a teacher who could play a
stalking game with you, choose a route before
the lesson and leave the signs as well as tasks.
Then, during the lesson, simply walk with your
students following the signs and make them
complete all the tasks. To keep it motivating,
give them a time limit in which they must finish
all the tasks and get back to the school.
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❯❯❯
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YOUNG LEARNERS
❯❯❯
Teacher
ON THE ASPHALT
A pavement, a fragment of street not used by cars, or
any other asphalt path might replace the classroom
desks and chairs during your next English lesson.
Typical drawing or writing activities, even board
games, don’t always work outside as there are usually
no tables, the wind is blowing, and students are
extremely unwilling to use pens. Asphalt pavements
or lanes give space, and activities utilizing them
are more like childhood games than real
lessons. All you need is a box of chalk and
enough space for everyone.
 Ask your students to draw anything
they like. While they are doing this,
just walk around asking in English
what it is. If you prefer, give topics.
Kids usually enjoy drawing monsters
or designing a fantasy island. When
they finish, ask them to describe their
pictures in English.
 Drawing can also take form of a
competitive game. Divide your
students into two or three groups,
and assign each group some space.
Make sure these places are not
too close to one another. Tell each
group to draw everything they
can see and are able to name in
English. After twenty minutes,
students present their pictures,
count and name all the things
they’ve drawn.
 A piece of asphalt can turn into a
gigantic board game where students
play with their whole body jumping
from square to square as if they were
counters. Start by asking children to
design and draw their own board
game. Then, they should invent the
tasks which must be completed when
players land on particular squares.
When everything is ready, have fun
and try out all the games.
 Try a variation of hopscotch by
drawing a large spiral resembling a
snail’s shell. The circle in the centre
should be left empty and labelled
“home”. The rest of the snail’s shell
should be divided into around 15-20
spaces. The first player must hop on
one foot and land in each space until
s/he reaches “home” base where s/
he lands on both feet, turns around,
and continues hopping on one foot
from “home” to start. If the child does
it without stepping on any line, s/he can write
his/her name or initials on any space s/he wants.
The next player starts hopping but can’t stand
on the space with the initials of other players.
The winner is the person whose name is written
on most spaces.
To add English to that game, tell students to
say a different word in English on every space
they land. They might, for example, finish the
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ON THE BLANKET
Sitting in the shade and playing is a perfect
alternative when your kids feel tired after running,
chasing, and hiding in the forest. Actually, you
may use any board or card games to keep them
interested. Even the games in Polish might work if
you control the language the students use. The great
advantage of introducing games in such a form is
that children simply get used to playing them in
English. Sometimes, during the summer camp, you
can hear them playing in English behind the closed
door of their room.
 Who am I? is a game available in shops, but it
might be funny to prepare your own version
with the students. Cut out strips of cardboard,
and staple them together to make a headband
for each child. Use flashcards, or ask children to
prepare a set of pictures.
During the game, choose one child to come to
the front. That child needs to wear a headband
with a picture stuck with Blu-Tac or paper
clips. The task of that person is to guess his/
her identity. With younger or less advanced
students, help students to create hints; for

YOUNG LEARNERS

sentences such as In the forest, I can see… For
breakfast, I eat … In my free time, I …
example, ask them, “Is it an animal or a person?”
or “Does it live on farm or in Africa?” Students
whose English is better should say sentences
such as “You are an animal”, “You live on the farm”,
“You eat grass”. The person who has been the
most active in giving clues in English comes
to the front with his/her headband to guess
his/her identity in the new round. Make sure
everyone is somehow given that chance.
Bom, bom, bom is a game which resembles
ordinary charades; but by adding element of
chasing, it is a perfect exercise for an outdoor
lesson. Divide students into two groups. Each
group should sit on a separate blanket. The first
team stands up, comes to the front and starts a
short dialogue with the other team:
Team 1: “Here we come.”
Team 2: “Where are you from?”
Team 1: “New York.”
Team 2: “What’s your trade?”
Team 1: “Ice cream and lemonade.”
Then, the first team presents their charades
(for example, they present the activity washing
French Hopscotch
Snail Layout
❯❯❯
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YOUNG LEARNERS
❯❯❯
Teacher

hands) and the other team tries to guess what
it is. When the correct answer is said, team 2
tries to catch team 1 before they come back and
sit down on their blanket. No Polish is allowed
during the game. Every phrase or word said
in Polish is one penalty point. When the team
collects 10 penalty points, the other team gives
them a task to do.
I spy or Bumble Bee is a settling activity
which calms children down and lets
them regain energy after exhausting
exercises. Sit with your students on the
blankets, more or less in a circle formation.
Have a quick look around, and say
I spy with my little eye something beginning with
“t”. With little children who don’t know how to
spell, make it a phonics exercise. They need to
find a word starting with a given sound. With
older students, change sounds into letters.
In that way, players need to think how the
word is spelled. Children try to guess the
object you think of by naming all the things
they see Is it a tree? The person who guesses
correctly picks a new item.
In a similar game, the bumble bee, one child is
chosen to be the king of bees. S/he says
Bumble bee, bumble bee
I see something you don’t see
And the colour of it is red
The rest of the children tries to guess what the
king of bees is thinking about. The person who
names that thing first becomes the king of bees
in the next round.
FINDING GAMES
Looking for clues or finding answers or hints
appeals to everyone. It is relatively easy to
incorporate English into these activities by giving
tasks or questions only in English and accepting the
answers in the same language.

Divide your students into groups, and give
each team a list of questions
about the area around your
school or hotel if you are on a
language camp. Clearly explain
where children are allowed to
run during the information
chase. Make sure it is a small,
safe, and closed area. A school
playground would be great. All
questions should check students’
knowledge of that area, for
example: How many windows
are there on the northern wall of
school building? What colour are
the benches? How many steps are
there from the school entrance to a
football pitch? Children write the
answers on an answer sheet and
bring it back to you when they
are ready. Award extra points for
being the first, second, or third
team to find out all the answers.
Next, check the answers carefully
and declare winners.
If your children are too small to
work with a list of questions written
in English, prepare a table with
questions and names of teams:
If your children are too small
to work with a list of questions
written in English prepare
a table with questions and
names of teams:
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Team 2
Team 3
YOUNG LEARNERS

Team 1
Team 4
How many
trees are there
behind the school
building?
What can you see
from the head
teacher’s window?
Then, give each team a different question at a time
and tell them to come back to you when they have
an answer. Write OK, and give them a new question.
If the answer is not correct, tell them to go and check
it again. Always give questions at random order so
that the teams do not crowd around one place and
together, work out the same answer.
Naturally, as the teams run around, it is almost
impossible to control their English. You can walk
around all the time trying to overhear what they
say. Award bonus points if you catch them speaking
English unexpectedly.
 Treasure hunt is another classic game
which can be played in many different ways.
❯❯❯
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❯❯❯
YOUNG LEARNERS
Teacher

The object of the game is to find the clues
which will lead you to the treasure. It’s a
good idea to play that game within a closed
and safe area allowing children to run freely
in teams. One of the simplest forms you can
use with primary children is to give them a
simple map of that area with places marked
with a cross. There, they must look for a
clue, which is a small picture with a number
hidden on the tree, under a bush, etc. The
picture can show, for example, a dog and
number 3. It means that the first letter of
the word dog (“d”) is the third letter in the
final clue which will show where the treasure
is hidden. The final clue should be at least 7
letters long to be challenging enough, and
it should refer to a place easily identifiable
by kids. In that spot, hide something small
but nice, like a box of sweets or lollipops. As
with the information chase, walk around and
check their English.
Scavenger hunt is a popular and brilliant game
which can be played with kids, teenagers, or
even adults. The basic idea of the activity is to
send teams with a list of things to find or tasks
to complete. To play that game, divide your
students into two groups. Each group needs
to go for the hunt with another teacher. The
object of the game is to find all the things
on the list or perform all the tasks. The best
way to check how the tasks are completed is
to equip each team with a camera (a mobile
phone will do as well). Then, they need to
take a picture of every item from the list or
of themselves while performing the task.
When the teams come back, together, they
choose the winners by taking into account
the performance of each task and the time
in which the list was completed. There are
many scavenger hunt ideas on the Internet,
for example: build a house for ants or find a
bird feather, a bunch of red, yellow, blue, and
orange flowers, a stick that looks like “Y”, two
different birds, a yellow butterfly, an animal
with most legs, and so on.
MOVING AROUND
Being outdoors and sitting on the blanket
for the whole “lesson” seems like wasting the
opportunity. Kids need to move, especially if they
are on the playground or in the forest. Design
your lesson plans in such a way to add movement
activities here and there.
 Blindfolded walk is an activity during which
students work and walk in pairs. One child

is blindfolded, and the other must direct
his/her friend from point A to point B. The
route should be varied, including going on
or under something. You might also draw a
maze on the pavement and have blindfolded
students walk guided step by step by their
friends. They must not cross the lines.
To play four corners, you need to choose
a relatively small area with four corners. A
football pitch is ideal, but a meadow or a part
of forest will be fine; you just need to state
clearly where the four “corners” are. Each
corner is appointed a number, and children
are divided into four groups and sent to each
corner. One child, chosen to be “it,” stands
in the middle. That child says, “Two, dance
like happy monkeys,” and all the children in
corner number two must perform that task.
If they don’t, they are out. If children from
any other corners do it by mistake, they are
out as well. After each round, you need to
redistribute the rest of children so that there
is more or less an equal number of players
in each corner. Proceed until there is only
one child left who becomes “it” in the next
round. When doing that activity, pay special
attention to eliminating talks in Polish in each
corner. You might note down who speaks
most English (for example, commenting Do
it now, watch out, our turn, listen) and choose
that player to be “it” in the next round.
Planning and selecting activities for an outdoor
lesson seems easy. But before you actually decide
to do something, think and answer these three
questions: Will my students really get involved
in that activity? Will they speak English? Will I be
able to control and monitor their behaviour? Only
well-selected activities with a clear purpose and
good balance between fun and language make
unforgettable outdoor lessons and motivate
students to speak English even if they only know
twenty words.

References
Harmer, J. (2007). The practice of English Language
Teaching. Harlow: Pearson.
http://family.go.com
www.gameskidsplay.net
www.ultimatecampresource.com
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Motivating students to speak
in the monolingual classroom

Phil Keegan
I
n a monolingual classroom, it can be quite difficult
to get teenagers to speak English to each other
during an English lesson. It is so easy for them to
communicate in their mother tongue that they often
don’t see the need to speak English, or simply don’t
want to. And, after all, why should they? If they can
communicate perfectly in their L1, why pretend that
they can’t just because the teacher wants them to?
I would like to present some ideas for motivating
your students to speak English in class.
Phil Keegan
Phil is a freelance teacher trainer
and writer. He has worked in the
UK, the USA, France, Germany,
Turkey, and Austria. His first book,
In My Opinion, was published by
Prolingua Associates in 2008 and
is available on www.kenigbooks.
pl. For more information, blog and contact,
please see www.philkeegan.com.
First, you need to collect a lot of local newspapers
and cut out the job adverts. These will obviously be
in the students’ L1. Nowadays, it should be the case
that many or even most of the job adverts specify
English skills as a job requirement (if, for some
reason, they do not, then this activity won’t work!).
Now, ask the students to name some musical
instruments that they would maybe like to learn to play.
(There could be some scope for vocabulary input here).
Ask your students to work in groups, and give out
the job adverts, preferably quite a lot to each group.
Pick out one instrument to use as an example.
I’ll take the piano.
Their task is to identify which skills are most often
mentioned. It is likely that the answer is English,
IT skills, and numeracy skills.
Ask the students the following questions:
 Can you learn to play the piano by watching
other people play?
 Can you learn to play the piano by listening to
other people play?
 Can you learn to play the piano by reading
books about the piano?
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Now, ask the whole class why they think English is
mentioned so often. You can do this like a brainstorming
session and write their ideas on the board. Once you
have covered the board with their ideas, and also added
your own where appropriate, ask the students if they
think learning English is important in today’s world.
The answer should be a pretty resounding ‘yes’. Elicit all
the different reasons why English is important – global
communication, Internet, media, and so on should all
come up. (In respect of global communication, you
might want to point out that 80% of all the English
that is spoken in the world is between non-native
speakers – i.e., where both speakers are speaking English
as a foreign language. People are usually quite
astonished at this statistic).
Make sure the students understand that although these
activities help you understand the piano and piano
music, they cannot help you actually play the piano.
Now, ask the students how they think professional
pianists become good enough to be professional
musicians. The students should be able to tell you that
it is all about practice and talent. At this point, it is really
important to emphasize the importance of practice.
You need to stress that even the most talented of
musicians still has to practice for several hours every
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Teacher
day. In other words, the only way to become good is
to practise. (You could teach the saying that genius is
1% inspiration and 99% perspiration).
Now, remind the class that they previously agreed
that learning English is an important skill to acquire.
Try to elicit from them why you talked about learning
to play a musical instrument, and try to bring them
to the point where they say that in order to learn
to speak, just like if you want to play a musical
instrument, you have to practise, practise, practise.
Tell your students that the reason you want them
to speak English in class is because you want to
give them the chance to get the practice they really
need to in order to develop their English skills. The
speaking activities are like the musician’s practice
hours. It has to be done, and there is no substitute
for it. There is no magic trick, no short cut. If you want
to be good at speaking English, you have to practise.
What type of activities motivates students
to speak?
My favourite speaking activities are opinion gap
activities, which I guess is why I wrote a book of them.
The reason I like opinion gap activities is that the
speaking the students do can be very authentic, as
they are being asked to express their own opinions,
thoughts, and feelings. Obviously, you have to pick
and choose the topics for each individual group, but
asking students to express their real opinions is, I
think, very motivating and meaningful and is more
likely to encourage the students to speak.
My favourite types of opinion gap activities are
questionnaires and card games, usually based
around a specific theme, such as music, food, drinks,
travelling, languages, smoking, personality types,
and so on. The list is endless really. Questionnaires
can be copied or prepared before the lesson and
handed out to the students, and the students simply
In My Opinion
A Photocopyable
Collection of OpinionGap Discussion Topics
By Phil Keegan
ProLinguaAssociates.com
2009
have to answer the questions, giving their thoughts
and opinions. Card games need to be copied onto
card and cut up before the lesson. Each group
of students then takes turns to ask and answer
each other the questions. It is important to stress
that there are no right or wrong answers in these
activities, only opinions, and the aim is to get a lot of
speaking practice–which, hopefully, your students
now understand is really important.
I have attached a couple of examples of my opinion
gap activities. For the activity on clothes, you simply
have to photocopy the questionnaire, put the
students into small groups–groups of three works
really well–and have them talk about their answers.
They don’t have to write anything, just talk. If you
want to do a follow up writing activity, that’s fine, but
it is not a must. For the activity ‘Names,’ each student
needs a copy of the handout and you need to give
them time to think about which names they want
to write. Play some relaxing music on the CD player
while they are doing this. It is also ok if they don’t
write a name in every category. If they can’t think of
one or two, that’s fine. Then, they just sit in groups and
talk about the people they have named. Encourage
them to ask each other questions about the people.
This is a very personal activity, and students often
become quite engrossed in it. If it takes the whole
lesson and the students are speaking English, I am
perfectly happy. Again, if you want to do some kind
of follow up writing activity, then go ahead.
It is, of course, extremely important when selecting
speaking activities that you choose topics that are
interesting for the students, topics that are relevant,
topics that the students want to talk about. It is
useless asking a group of male students who are
interested in sports and computers to talk about
fashion. Similarly, a group that is really interested in
fashion might not be interested in football–though
you never know. Clearly, the thing to do is to get your
students to suggest topics to talk about and then
create the activities. This can itself be a fun speaking
activity if you get the students to work in groups
to brainstorm possible topics and find reasons why
they would be good for the class.
So, in summary, what I have suggested is that
demonstrating to your students how important
English is likely to be in their future lives could
be a motivating factor for them. Explaining the
importance of practice and choosing topics that are
relevant and interesting for the students will also
encourage your students to speak English in class.

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ACTIVITY
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Clothes
Answer the questions with a partner or in a small group.
(In this activity, clothes also includes shoes).
1. How interested are you in clothes?
2. Do you think clothes are important?
3. Do you have clothes that you only wear on special occasions?
4. Does your country have a traditional or national costume?
Please describe it. Do you own such a costume?
5. How often do you buy new clothes?
6. How much money do you spend on clothes?
7. Do you like to go clothes shopping alone or with friends?
8. Do you have a favourite designer or label?
9. Where do you usually buy clothes?
10. How would you describe your personal clothes style or dress sense?
11. Are you more or less interested in clothes now than when you were younger?
12. Why do you think teenagers are often so interested in clothes?
13. Do children in your country wear a school uniform? What’s your opinion of school uniforms?
14. Do you think you judge other people on their dress sense?
15. Why is it important in business to look smart? Isn’t a business suit basically just a uniform?
16. What do you think of professional models? Are they good role models for young people?
17. What do you think about the fashion industry?
18. Would you like to be a clothes designer?
Names
Write a name in each box as indicated; then, sit with a partner or in a small group
and talk about the people you have named.
The most important person in your life at the moment
Someone who influenced you in the past
Someone you don’t like
Someone you know personally who you admire
A famous person you would like to meet
Anyone you would like to talk about
© Phil Keegan
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METHODS
Teacher
Ten steps towards a motivating task

Agnieszka Nowak
Each activity at a lesson is a fraction of the whole
teaching process, as well as a step towards
forming a student’s attitude to the subject. That
is why a careful organization of a particular
task plays an important role in shaping one’s
motivation in foreign language learning. To make
it successful, we ought to take into consideration
the following points:
1. Get to know students’ needs
First of all, we should think of development stage
the learners are at as it influences the cognitive and
affective processes that take place in their lives;
and, as a consequence, they determine the choice
of methods that will be used at a lesson. What
should we consider? As an example, I will present
the analysis of children in the younger school age
– the ones that are between 7 and 11/12 years old.
In this case, we should remember that they are
unable to identify the elements that have to be
acquired and also cannot cope with the process
of memorization on their own. What is more,
mechanical memory exerts a greater influence on
children at that age. That means that they are not
Agnieszka Nowak
Agnieszka is a teacher at
Junior High School and
College in Zabrze and also
a teacher trainer at language
courses for the NonGovernmental OrganizaƟons
conducted as a part of the
European Union Projects.
She loves rock climbing,
skiing, and dancing salsa.
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“S
trictly speaking, there is no such thing
as ‚motivation’” (Dornyei: 2006). The
term ‚motivation’ is an abstract idea
that is used to describe the reasons that form the
basis of human actions. It is so widespread that it
embraces countless motives (Dornyei: 2006). How
in this case are we–the teachers–able to make the
lesson activities motivating? How can we respond
to the students’ needs and make them motivated
to perform the tasks without having their heads
hopelessly hung down as a response? In this article
I will present theoretical aspects as well as practical
ideas that can be used while planning a lesson with
both children and adult learners.
able to find logical connections among language
elements. That is why we need to make sure
that we do not introduce any intricate grammar
structures as they will not comprehend them. We
should also pay attention to familiarizing children
only with vocabulary that describes tangible items
not abstract terms. Another characteristic feature
of this group is short concentration span (Arabski:
1997). Therefore, while introducing vocabulary,
we may think of the following activity. Divide the
learners into the groups of four. Give each group a
big poster out-sizing their height. In each group,
pick one learner that should lay on a poster and
the others’ task will be to outline the boy. After
doing that, ask them to color the drawing so that it
resembles the boy as much as possible. Give them
pieces of paper with the names of body parts
written in English, and ask them to make guesses
on which word is the equivalent of a given body
part. When they make the right guess, they may
stick the word to the poster. This activity has many
advantages. First of all, it involves movement,
which is so important for children in that age,
and it satisfies their short concentration span as
it makes the actions go on very dynamically. It
also contains the element of the unknown as the
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MOTIVATION
2. Use native language in the task introduction
We need to remember that the task introduction
is a very important part of a lesson activity. It is so
because it shapes the student’s attitude towards
the whole task. That is why when there is some
more advanced grammar structure to be practiced,
e.g., passive voice, there is no point to conduct
the whole introduction in English as it will make
the issue seem more complicated than it really is.
Therefore, introducing the element in the mother
tongue gives a student the chance of complete
understanding. Moreover, speaking in native
language, the learner has freedom and comfort
of asking additional questions in his/her own
language, which decreases the level of uneasiness
and stress that may be caused by fear of inability
to form the question in the foreign language.
Nevertheless, when asking the question, whether
the students understand the grammar point, do
not be satisfied with their affirmative answer. As a
proof, I will present the following situation: during
one of my lessons at the junior high school, I asked
the same question to the group of fourteen-yearolds in reference to the passive voice and, of course,
their answer was affirmative. However, when I gave
them the example in Polish of the sentence in active
voice saying “The mother is bathing a child,” they
transformed it into the sentence in passive voice
saying: “The child is bathing a mother.”
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learners are asked to guess the meanings of the
words. What is practical about this type of task
is the fact that the drawing part is not very time
consuming as there are four children to complete
the poster. Moreover, making the guesses about
the words engages the involuntary memory,
which is a great help to familiarize the vocabulary.
When we hang the posters in the classroom, they
will make a useful tool for revisions. Another
idea for effective vocabulary learning is asking
the pupils to choose ten new words introduced
at every lesson and to write each of them on a
small colorful piece of paper with its equivalent in
Polish on the other side. Inform them that at the
beginning of every second class, you will devote
a couple of minutes to playing the board games.
These may be different games, but there is one
rule common to all of them–the next move can be
made only after guessing one word from the set
that the learners prepared. I was truly surprised
to see how motivated the students became and
what pleasure it gave them to get to know the
vocabulary as it brought tangible results–their
success in the game.
3. Do not assume that the learners remember
Sometimes, it does not occur to us that when we
present some new material one day, the learners
may forget it just on the next day. I was surprised
myself when I first found out that the process
of utter oblivion is seriously advanced among
learners. That is why it is so important to remind
them the issue that was introduced even a day
or two ago by revising the information yourself
or eliciting the answers from the learners. Such
introduction may be conducted in form of several
sentences or questions. It also needs to have a form
of a relaxed lead-in so that the students do not feel
checked or condemned for the lack of knowledge.
As teachers, we should understand that learners
receive so much information every day that it is
impossible to remember everything straight away.
Refreshing their memory before the exercise gives
them confidence to complete the task because they
possess the necessary tools to do that. What is more,
such forms of short revision before each activity
constitute a very effective way to memorize the
given issue. Putting theory into practice, you may
ask learners the following questions in reference to
the Past Simple tense:





What actions do we describe by means of Past
Simple?
What two groups of verbs do we have in Past
Simple?
What ending does a regular verb receive?
What about the irregular verbs?
What word appears at the beginning of
questions?
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Teacher


What word appears in the negative sentences?
What rule do we have to remember about in
questions and negative sentences? (Here, you
may remind them of a nice and catchy rule:
“Didek zjada Edka.” I heard it from the learners
of grammar school, and I liked it a lot.) Orally,
go through one affirmative sentence, question,
and negation for a regular verb and the same
for an irregular verb. You will quickly find out
that such revision takes two or three minutes of
a lesson and is very effective.
4. Keep visual aids available
While having an introduction, such as the one
described above, you may also note its most
important pieces on the blackboard and mark
them with color chalk. It will be very helpful while
conducting the grammar exercise. You will be
able to refer to it when a learner does not know
the correct answer. You can do it by pointing to
the word or structure that is needed. Such action
is very beneficial because it gives the students
the impression of independent work as they
provide the correct answer themselves and the
teacher does not do that for them. Therefore, while
conducting the exercise on Present Simple, note on
the blackboard some sentences like the following:
She likes chocolate; She doesn’t like chocolate; Does
she like chocolate? and mark the most essential
elements of these sentences to make them visible.
5. Set attainable goals
During one lesson, I noticed that there was a learner
who did not want to take an active part in the task. To
encourage the boy to work I gave an argument that
perhaps one day he would go to England and find
speaking English useful. However, his answer was
that he did not want to go to England at all. It was very
surprising to me as I did not expect such a response.
At that point I was unable to say anything. That was
the reason why I started thinking of effective goal
setting as I realised that it is not everyone’s dream
to go to England, especially when one is thirteen
years old and has different interests. As McCombs
and Pope (in Dornyei: 2006) recommend, setting
goals ought to follow the rule of ‘ABCD’ of goals in
accordance to which they should be:
Achievable – appropriate to age and strengths,
Believable – a learner believes he/she can achieve it,
Conceivable – clear and measurable,
Desirable – a learner wants to achieve it.
A similar statement is made by Locke (in Dornyei:
2001) that “high commitment to goals is attained
when (a) the individual is convinced that the goal
is important; and (b) the individual is convinced
that the goal is attainable (or, at least, progress
can be made towards it).” Bearing this in mind, we
have to remember of personalizing the goals and
try to think of such forms of encouragement that
correspond to students’ interests. When a similar
situation appears, we need to know what the
learners like and what they are interested in to be
able to set such a goal that responds to their needs.
Following this rule, one day I printed out Garfield
comic strips in English and proposed reading them
during the last ten minutes of a lesson. I was truly
pleased to see how eagerly they worked and how
curious they were to get to know the story. When
they were reading it they saw the usefulness of
what they had learnt as they could put it into
practice straight away.
6. Provide the strategies to solve the task
Whenever you plan to do a new type of task with the
students such as transformation or word formation
remember to include into introduction the strategies
which should be followed to complete an exercise.
Such an element of the lead-in is very important
as it tells students how to use knowledge they
possess. What is more, thanks to providing it at the
beginning of a task unnecessary mistakes or even
failure is avoided because students use information
with awareness. Additionally, their motivation is
increased because even though they approach
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TASKS
7. Create real information gap
When students complete the task, they are
encouraged to do it not only by the goals that are set
by the teacher. They also need to see the real purpose
in their actions. That is why when they are asked to
describe the picture just for its own sake, that does
not activate intrinsic motivation. Learners can clearly
see what is presented in the picture, so why describe
it? Therefore, to awake real interest in what the
students do, we need to create special conditions
for that. When describing a picture, we can organize
a game “Can you spot the difference?” in which the
learners work in pairs. Both of them receive similar
pictures which cannot be shown to each other. Next,
they are asked to describe them; and in this way, they
search for the details that are different. The teacher
can also set the time limit to make it even more
challenging. A real information gap may be created
in many other types of exercises as well. When we
want to prepare an interesting reading exercise, we
do not have to refer to a course book with games or
fun activities. It is enough to make the copy of any
reading text that is appropriate to the learners’ level
and erase some of the words (e.g., every seventh
one or all the adjectives) or even cut one or two
centimetres of the content from either margin and
ask the students to guess the missing words. In such
cases, the learners work in the realistic setting where
they search for something that is truly unknown and
they use the foreign language as a tool to do that.
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the exercise for the first time they do not have to
be afraid of anything new because they know what
to expect. Forgetting about this element may have
very demotivating results because students may be
unable to complete the task even when they possess
the necessary knowledge. You may give learners the
following strategies of solving the multiple choice
reading exercise:
 read the whole text first;
 think of the type of words that that fit into each
gap, i.e., nouns, verbs, numbers;
 think of the structure of the word that is
needed–if it is verb, will it be in present or past
form?; if it is a noun, will it be singular or plural?;
 look at the given options and think of the best
answer.
objects, that is colouring, cutting out items, or
origami, which is an effective response to their short
concentration span. What is more, such a task is
connected with activating more intelligence types
than only linguistic. These are body/kinesthetic
and visual/spatial (Larsen-Freeman: 2000). Looking
at the advantages of such task type, think of
applying the following activity. When discussing
the vocabulary connected with clothes, have the
children cut out the shape of a girl or a boy; then,
ask them to design clothes for them. However, they
should be prepared on separate pieces of paper and
have additional “hooks” to fix them to the created
“person.” To join learning with fun, you may propose
signing particular piece of clothing in English as a
part of a new design. Additional advantages of this
type of task are that it allows for great creativity on
the part of the learner, as one may draw as many
clothes as possible. What is more, writing the names
of clothes on them makes the learning process
subconscious. The child may take the work home,
play with it, and in this way continue the process
of learning. However, creative learning including
arts may become equally effective with teenagers
or adult learners. Give the students two pictures.
These may be various pictures, even ones googled
and printed from the Internet. The learners cannot
show the pictures to each other. The task of one
student is to describe the picture and of the other to
draw what he/she hears. When they finish, they may
compare the original painting with the drawing.
Then they change, and the same action begins.
8. Make the exercise result tangible
Especially when working with younger learners,
think of the activities that engage the children in
arts. There are many reasons for arranging such
type of task. First of all, it involves manipulating
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9. Think of appropriate error correction
There are numerous ways to correct errors.
Different methods are used depending on the
exercise type. However, we need to be very careful
and sensitive about the learners’ confidence and
fear of making mistakes. That is why doing it
properly is so important. As Hanna Komorowska
(2009) states, we may use the following error
correction strategies during a speaking exercise:
repetition of the learner’s utterance till the last
correct word with the raising intonation:
Learner: Two days ago, I meet my friend
Teacher: Two days ago I …,
asking the question concerning the wrong
part of the utterance:
Learner: Two days ago I meet my friend
Teacher: What did you do two days ago?,
giving the set of answers for the learner to
choose from:
Teacher: meet–met–met,
form the learners. In this way the error correction
becomes a revision for the whole class.
10. Provide appropriate feedback
To make a task motivational, we cannot forget
about giving the student such type of feedback that
will not discourage him/her from further work. As
Dorneyi (2006) states, “It is an essential ingredient
of learning.” What is more, appropriate feedback
helps to maintain the pursuit of the goals (Dornyei:
2006). However, how to provide a motivational
feedback when we clearly see lack of effort or lack
of positive work results on the student’s part? First
of all, we need to remember not to put the blame
on the lack of ability but on the lack of effort. Such
a teacher’s attitude has an important impact on the
student’s perception of himself/herself as a learner.
Another strategy I would recommend is focusing
on our feelings as teachers. We may tell the learners
that we see worse results and we are worried about
it. That would direct attention to the teacher’s
feelings and not to the learner’s misfortunes. It
would not put him/her in the position of a villain.
Moreover, such behaviour would make the student
realize that we are all members of the same team
and we are heading for the same goals.
Conclusion
indicating the error with a gesture, giving
the correct answer and asking the learner to
repeat, expanding strategy, i.e. continuing
conversation with sentences including correct
forms:
pointing to the learner whose task is to correct
errors.
The ideas described in this article stem from
didactic principles that are presented in various
books and from my own teaching experience
based upon numerous successes and failures.
They can constitute food for thought to reconsider
one’s own ideas, but they can also supplement
one’s own teaching practice. Whatever their use,
I hope that they will serve as a factor enriching
both thoughts and actions.

References
The strategies enumerated above indicate the
actions that allow for correction instantly after
the error has been made. They are very successful
when we pay attention to advancing the linguistic
competence (Komorowska: 2009). However, we
need to remember that if we want to focus on
developing students’ communicative competence,
instant error correction may break the flow of
thoughts. Taking this fact into consideration, we
may make notes during the speaking activity and
when it is finished, we may discuss the errors with
the whole class without indicating who made
the mistake. We may elicit the correct answers
Dornyei, Z. Motivational Strategies in the Language
Classroom. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
2006.
Arabski, J. Przyswajanie języka obcego i pamięć
werbalna. Śląsk, Katowice, 1997.
Dornyei, Z. Teaching and Researching Motivation.
Pearson Education Limited, Harlow, 2001.
Larsen-Freeman, D. Techniques and Principles
in Language Teaching. Oxford University Press,
Oxford, 2000.
Komorowska, H. Metodyka nauczania języków
obcych. Fraszka Edukacyjna, Warszawa, 2009.
Teacher: You know what? Two days ago I also met
my friend,
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Testing in the military
as validity and reliability (2)

Paweł D. Madej
Second installment re information on military exam defined by
norms of STANAG 6001 presented with test tasks examples.
Demonstrating that a test is relevant to and covers a
given area of content or ability is therefore a necessary
part of validation.
From the above, it is apparent that two facets of
content validity are crucial: content relevance and
content coverage (Borys: 2009). Content relevance
concerns – according to Messick (1980:1017) – the
specification of the behavioral domain in question and
the attendant specification of the task or test domain.
Bachman (1990) concedes that sometimes, there
is a problem with including the test method facets
when analyzing the content of a test. The domain
specification that is necessary for checking content
relevance is basically the process of operationally
defining constructs. Cronbach (1971:449) explains
the reason why it is also important to specify the test
method facets:
A validation study examines the procedure as a whole.
Every aspect of the setting in which the test is given and
every detail of the procedure may have an influence
on performance and hence on what is measured. Are
the examiner’s sex, status, and ethnic group the same
as those of the examinee? Does he put the examinee
at ease? Does he suggest that the test will affect the
instructional method? Changes in procedure such as
these lead to substantial changes in the examinee’s
future, or does he explain that he is merely checking
out the effectiveness of ability-and personalitytest performance, and hence in the appropriate
Paweł D. Madej
Paweł is a Senior Language
Specialist in Land Forces
Command Training Department
and EFL teacher at Warsaw
University Foreign Languages
Centre. He is currently working
on his PhD thesis on Foreign
Language
Didactics
and
Translation; lives in Saska Kępa, Warsaw; likes
travelling, French movies and Italian cuisine; listens
to jazz in his free time and plays the saxophone.

I
n developing a test, it is advisable to begin with
a definition of the content or ability domain
or, at the very least, with a list of content areas,
from which items or test tasks can be generated.
When the final version of a test has been produced,
it is essential to scrutinize the test in terms of its
content relevance and content coverage. Bachman
(1990:244) leaves no doubt about the necessity of
investigating a test in relation to its content aspects:
interpretation of test scores. …. The measurement
procedure being validated needs to be described with
such clarity that other investigators could reproduce
the significant aspects of the procedure themselves.
The second aspect of examining test content
concerns the content coverage of a test. Content
coverage relates to the extent to which the task
required in the test adequately represents the
behavioral domain in question. In practice, content
validity is often evaluated by examining the plan and
procedures used in the test construction. Alderson
et al. (1995:173) concede that content validation
involves gathering evidence or judgment by experts.
Experts are to be understood as those people whose
judgment one is prepared to trust, even if it disagrees
with one’s own. A common approach is to analyze
the content of a test and compare it with the content
statements from the test’s specifications or from a
teaching syllabus or curriculum.
The other way to collect evidence for content
validation is to create some data collection instrument.
Experts would then be told how to make and record
their judgments. In this case, test developers can
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develop, for example, a certain scale and then, experts
can evaluate the content of the test according to
the degree to which it met certain criteria. Clapham
(1992) used such a scale in order to evaluate the
content of three reading comprehension tests. She
asked three other teachers to rate aspects of the test
input. The experts had to judge the test including
the propositional content, organizational and
sociolinguistic characteristics of the test and reading
passages. It should be added with reference to the
scale of rating language aspects or domains to be used
for assessing the content validity that such a scale can
involve assessing different aspects of language, for
example, test items, test passages, the test rubric, item
type and nature of test input. The scale can also be
related to the level of ability required of test takers in
the areas of grammatical, textual, sociolinguistic and
strategic or illocutionary competence.
Having discussed the concept of content validity,
it should be concluded that the greater a test’s
content validity, the more likely it is to be an accurate
measure of what it is supposed to measure. In this
respect, content validity will be helpful with view to
construct validity. And, this seems to be prevailing
argument for conducting content validity of a test.
Further, Hughes (2003) warns that a test which
does not involve the major areas identified in the
specification is unlikely to be accurate. Lastly, the test
which is under-represented due to the lack of major
language areas will, in consequence, have a harmful
backwash effect. This stems from the fact that areas
that are not tested will most likely be ignored in a
teaching and learning process. Hughes (2003:27)
also concedes that too often, the content of tests is
determined by what is easy to test rather than what
is important to assess.
Concurrent validity is established when the test and
the criterion (other measures of language ability)
are administered at about the same time. Bachman
(1990) points out two ways of being able to establish
concurrent criterion relatedness. These are: (1)
examining differences in test performance among
groups of candidates at different levels of language
ability or (2) examining correlations among various
measures of a given ability. In the first case, there
is comparison of the results on the test among the
individuals that are at different levels on the ability.
So, it is possible to investigate the degree to which a
test of this ability accurately discriminates between
these groups of individuals. Such comparisons can be
made either with native-speakers or with non-native
speakers of the language. However, it is necessary
to make two assumptions while interpreting results
from such studies. First, as Bachman (1990:248)
warns, it is advisable to carefully examine the basis
on which it is assumed that one of the groups – for
example, the one to which the comparison is made- is
the more proficient one. This problem also concerns
the comparison group consisting of natives. Allen
et al. (1983) and Bachman (1985) found that native
speakers perform neither uniformly well on tests
of all aspects of language ability nor uniformly
better than do non-native speakers. The second
assumption which must be made is that although
individuals in one group are at a higher level of
language ability in general, this does not mean that
they will, therefore, perform at a higher level on the
specific ability. To conclude, it should be noticed that
in order to interpret group differences as evidence
proving concurrent validity, it is necessary that the
groups differ on the specific ability or abilities that
our test measures. The second type of information
on concurrent criterion relatedness concerns
the examination of correlations among different
measures of the ability in question. It is possible
to correlate the scores of a test with scores from a
parallel version of the same test or from some other
test; with the students’ self-assessments of their
language abilities or with ratings of the student on
relevant dimensions by teachers, subject specialists
or other informants.
However, in order to make such correlations
between the scores obtained, it is necessary to have
a good reason for believing that the scores of the
external measure are reliable or valid. This concern is
expressed by Alderson et al. (1995: 178):
There is little point in comparing students’ test scores
with their performance on some measure which is
known to be unreliable or invalid. Although this may
seem logical and obvious, in actual practice it is not so
easy to gather believable external data.
Normally, it is advisable to try to compare scores
on the test in question with scores on some other
test which is known to be valid and reliable. Test
developers often feel compelled to administer their
own constructed test with another standardized
test in order to find out if scores on the two tests are
correlated. Bachman (1990) argues that in such a case
the problem could arise that such correlations may
in fact be best interpreted as indicators of reliability,
rather than as evidence of validity (Borys: 2009). Even if
the measurement methods are distinct. He concedes:
However, even when the measurement methods
are clearly distinct, there are serious problems with
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accepting a high correlation between two indicators
of a given ability as conclusive evidence of validity. One
problem is that this assumes that the criterion behavior
(test or other performance) can be validly interpreted
as an indicator of the ability in question. Frequently
evidence for the validity of the criterion itself is that it
is correlated with other tests, or other indicators of the
ability, which simply extends the assumption of validity
to these other criteria, leading to an endless spiral of
concurrent relatedness. (Bachman 1990:248)
of concurrent validity becomes either circular or
eventually appeals to real life, or natural or normal
language use as a criterion.
In the case of concurrent validity reference is made
to a high level of agreement or little agreement
between the scores obtained. This causes a
second problem concerning the concurrent
criterion relevance. According to Bachman
(1990) concurrent validity considers the extent
to which measures of the same ability tend to
agree but ignores another important question
of the extent to which scores on the test are
different from indicators of different abilities. He
explains that test developers should not expect
scores from measures of language ability to be
highly correlated with, for example, knowledge
of important dates in history. In essence, if there
is a need to demonstrate that test scores are
valid indicators of a given language ability, it is
necessary to show not only that they are related to
Rys. Archiwum
From this, it might be conceded that without
independent evidence supporting the interpretation
of the criterion as an indicator of the ability in
question, it is not possible to have the basis for
interpreting such a correlation with that criterion as
evidence of validity. According to Messick (1989) and
Cronbach (1971) it is only the process of construct
validation which allows one to obtain the evidential
basis of validity. It should be concluded that in
absence of construct validation, the examination
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other indicators of that same ability but also that
they are not related to measures of other abilities.
As has been mentioned above, test results can also
be compared with other measures of students’
abilities. One such a way is to compare students’ tests
results with teachers’ rankings or assessments of
students. If teachers have taught students over some
considerable time, they should have knowledge of
students’ language abilities in certain domains. It
is also suggested in respect to conducting such
comparisons of test results that it would be better
if there were two teachers rating the same group of
students for greater validity and reliability.
Another method of carrying out validation studies is
to correlate the students’ test scores with their own
assessments. The only concern here might be that
some students may not be accustomed to rating
their own language ability as the teachers. The usual
procedure for conducting such assessments is to
design appropriate questionnaires.
To summarize, although it seems that concurrent
validation process has one drawback which is that it
only considers the extent to which measures of the
same ability tend to agree, it is this type of validation
process that is most commonly used in language
testing. The great advantage of this type of validity is
that this measure can be expressed numerically and
that it is not related to the test itself.
Correlation lies at the heart of many approaches
to investigating both reliability and validity of
measurement. For these reasons, it is essential to
understand the concept of correlation which is often
used in language testing. Generally, it may be said
that correlation is the relationship between two
variables that tend to go together (Bachman, 2004:
80). The correlation is used in order to demonstrate
the extent to which those two variables covary.
When the scores on two different distributions
vary together, they covary, which means they share
some common variation. So, the correlation is the
relationship between two variables which might
covary to different degrees. Now, the question is how
this concept of correlation could be used with view
to the meaningful measurement in the language
testing. In fact, a correlation is a relationship
between two entities. These entities might be either
constructs or variables. Bachman (2004:81) provides
the following example:
For example, we may know, on the basis of previous
research, that learning a second or foreign language
is correlated with motivation, so that under similar
conditions of language learning, individuals who
are highly motivated tend to learn languages more
quickly than those who are not highly motivated. In
this case, the correlation is a relationship between two
constructs–motivation and language ability. If we were
to observe that individuals who received high scores on
a test of grammar also received high scores on a test
of vocabulary, the correlation is a relationship between
two variables–two sets of test scores.
This concept of correlation is particularly used
with reference to concurrent validity, where there
is a need to compare the test scores with other
criterion outside the test such as grades, class ranks,
other tests or teachers’ ratings. Thus, in order to
investigate correlations empirically, it is necessary
to have a statistic that precisely summarizes the two
qualities: constructs or variables. In practical terms, it
is necessary to have a correlation coefficient which
is a statistic that is calculated from data. Since there
are many different correlation coefficients, tests
developers in their research studies choose between
two coefficients that are the most commonly used
in the language testing, namely: Pearson productmoment correlation coefficient and Spearman
rank-order correlation coefficient. The values of
both the Pearson and the Spearman correlation
coefficients can range between negative one (-1.00)
and positive one (+1.00). The larger the coefficient,
positive or negative, the stronger the relationship.
When a coefficient is close to one, it means there
is a very strong relationship. When the coefficient
is close to zero, it indicates very weak relationship.
In this respect, both coefficients can be interpreted
in the same way. Further, the main difference
between the two coefficients derives from the fact
that the product-moment correlation coefficient is
based on the data (scores). In practice, the Pearson
product coefficient can be used appropriately with
large samples where a normal distribution can be
assumed. The Spearman rank-order coefficient does
not assume normal distribution. It is preferable to
be used to investigate relationship among variables
with small sample size.
For the purposes of conducting research on
validation, both coefficients can be useful. From the
discussion on concurrent validity it can be assumed
that the Spearman rank-order correlation might be
particularly helpful. In language testing situations
there is often a need to compare the results between
the test scores and self-assessments of students or
the teacher ratings. The Pearson product-moment
correlation coefficient will be helpful when one
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wants to correlate the data among the different
constructs, like for example between reading and
listening comprehension. This is possible due to the
calculation on data (raw scores) and the possibility to
deal with intervals, which is the case when calculating
the observable scores. One can also notice at this
point that the Pearson product-moment correlation
coefficient will be helpful in supporting the construct
validation. In calculating both coefficients, the Excel
Spreadsheet Program can be used.
The second kind of criterion-related validity is
predictive validity. This concerns the degree to
which test scores can predict students’ future
performance. So, one would use language
test scores for example to predict successful
achievement in a course of instruction or success
in performance of a job. To be able to do this, it
would be necessary to collect data demonstrating
a relationship between test scores and course or
job performance. Basically, one is interested in
such a case in the accuracy with which the test
scores predict the criterion behavior in question.
The major problem with the use and interpretation
of predictive validity is-according to Bachman
(1990:250)-that it does not measure the ability
in question. He gives the following example for
supporting his claim:
We might find, for example, that scores on a test of
signed number problems in mathematics are excellent
predicators of performance in language courses.
Regardless of such a finding, however, we would
not seriously consider using this test as a predicator,
because of the obvious mismatch between the ability
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the test appears to measure and the performance we
are trying to predict.
This example indicates that one should probably reject
predictive utility as evidence supporting the validity
of the test use. Upshur (1979) voices a different view
on predictive utility of the test use. He concedes that
predictive utility of the test can be an indicator of the
language ability of a test taker. This view stems from
the different understanding of language proficiency.
Upshur (1979:76) perceives language ability or
proficiency in the following manner:
Language proficiency is variously conceived in two
different ways: as a pragmatic ascription (someone is
proficient) and as a theoretic construct representing
human capacity (someone has proficiency).
This distinction is also reflected in the way we use
test scores. This distinction means that in the first
case, when one views language ability as pragmatic
ascription, the test scores would indicate that a
student is able to do X in the language. The latter
view of the language means that the test scores
would indicate that a student has ability X. Upshur
concludes that the former view of the language
(pragmatic ascription) does not require a theoretical
description of the language ability and is sufficient if
one is interested in predicting future performance. In
consequence, it is possible to develop tests that will
predict some future behavior, without recourse to
any particular theoretical considerations. However,
even in Upshur’s concept of predictive utility of test
use, there are certain inconsistencies. As Bachman
(1990) argues, usually when tests for predictive
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utility are developed, there is a tendency to simplify
or reduce the number of measures the test user uses
to the smallest set or even to the single measure that
provides the greatest accuracy of prediction. The
reason for this is that in such situations efficiency is
very crucial. This simplification leads, however, to the
indeterminacy of the relationships among several
predictors and the behavior to be described. Cattell
(1964:10) illustrates this problem as follows:
The correlation of a test now with a criterion next
year has a host of determinants among which the
properties of the test may well be insignificant.
Future prediction, after all, requires knowledge of the
natural history of the trait, the laws of psychology,
and (not least) the changing life situations, e.g., the
stock exchange, which will affect the individual in
the interim. If only, say, a tenth, of the variance in
estimates of that future behavior is tied to test validity
variance, it is absurd to use that behavior to calculate
an alleged property of predictive validity in a test.
This indeterminacy causes that -as Bachman
(1990:252) points out- one is not able both to 1)
identify and measure all the abilities and factors
that are crucial to the criterion, and 2) to specify
not only whether the predictors are connected
with each other and to the predicted behavior.
This is also connected with the strength and type
of these relationships. Prediction is an important
and justifiable use of language tests. But this is
only one of the aspects of a validation process
with special information on test use. However,
there is a wide range of situations in which one
is not interested in prediction in all. In most
situations one is interested in determining the
levels of abilities of students. The other point to
be made here is that while designing tests the
primary concerns in most educational settings are
with diagnosing and evaluating student’s abilities.
For this reason, it is necessary to possess tests that
are based on a definition of language ability.
It has been recognized in the language testing
research that construct validity is perceived as a
superordinate form of validity. Bachman and Palmer
(1996:21) view the construct validity as this form
of validity which allows to make meaningful and
appropriate interpretations of the test scores of a
given test. First, it is necessary to decipher what
is hidden behind the term construct when one
is discussing construct validity. Ebel and Frisbie
(1991:108) explain this term as follows:
The term ‘construct’ refers to a psychological construct,
a theoretical conceptualization about an aspect of
human behavior that cannot be measured or observed
directly. Examples of constructs are intelligence,
achievement motivation, anxiety, achievement,
attitude, dominance, and reading comprehension.
Construct validation is the process of gathering
evidence to support the contention that a given test
indeed measures the psychological construct the
makers intend it to measure. The goal is to determine
the meaning of scores from the test, to assure that the
test scores mean what we expect them to mean.
In case of language tests, construct would pertain
to language ability and its aspects, components. In
other words, it can be noted that all test use involves
the interpretation of test scores as indicators of
language ability. When one asks himself/ herself
what one measures by using a given test, then in such
a case this person calls for construct validation. So, in
language testing, it is crucial to be able to define the
construct. In order to be able to do this , one must
know what is known about language knowledge
and ability, and ability to use the language. There
are, however, certain assumptions one needs to
make when discussing construct validation. First,
the abilities one wants to measure are not directly
observable. He or she can make inferences about
them on the basis of observed performance.
Furthermore, these abilities are theoretical, in the
sense that one makes hypotheses that they affect
the way one uses language, and how one performs
on language tests. So the essence of construct
validation is as Bachman (1990:256) states:
The fundamental issue in construct validity is the extent
to which we can make inferences about hypothesized
abilities on the basis of test performance. In construct
validation, therefore, we seek to provide evidence
that supports specific inferences about relationships
between constructs and test scores.
That would mean that when conducting construct
validation, one wants to test empirically the
hypothesized relationships between test scores
and abilities. Bachman (1990), thus, perceives
construct validation as a special case of verifying,
or falsifying, a scientific theory. He also argues that
since theory can never be proven, validity of any
given test use or interpretation is always subject to
falsification. Construct validation should be based
on two investigations: logical and empirical. In
the case of logical investigation it is necessary to
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define the constructs theoretically and operationally.
In examining the relationships among different
observations of language performance, a test
developer engaged in the construct validation process
needs to collect some type of empirical evidence.
In the language testing literature the following
methods of construct validation have been
established: factor analysis, multitrait-multimethod
analysis, comparison with students’ biodata
and psychological characteristics, and internal
correlation study. Below each of the methods of
supporting construct validity will be briefly outlined.
In construct validation studies of language tests it is
common to examine patterns of correlations among
test scores, either directly, or for correlations among
large numbers of test scores, through factor analysis.
A correlation is the functional relationship between
two measures. Two sets of scores are correlated
with each other when they tend to vary in the same
way with respect to each other. Convergence or
discrimination among test scores can be calculated
by the correlation coefficient which is a single statistic
or number. A common procedure for interpreting a
large number of correlations is the above mentioned
factor analysis. The need for using factor analysis
lies in the fact that it is impossible to make clear,
unambiguous inferences concerning the influence
of various factors on test scores on the basis of a
single correlation between the test scores. Bachman
(1995:260) gives the following example:
For example, if we found that a multiple-choice test of
cohesion were highly correlated with a multiple-choice
test of rhetorical organization, there are three possible
inferences: (1) the test scores are affected by a common
trait (textual competence); (2) they are affected by a
common method (multiple-choice), and (3) they are
affected by both trait and method.
The factor analysis is a group of analytical and
statistical techniques which aim at representing a set
of observed variables in terms of a smaller number
of hypothetical variables. The observed variables are
test scores or other measures, while the hypothetical
variables are what one attempts to interpret as
constructs, test methods, and other influences on
performance on language tests. These hypothetical
variables that underlie the observed scores are called
factors. The results that are obtained through factor
analysis study are factor loadings that show the
degree of relationship between observed test scores
and the various factors that emerge from the analysis.
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Generally, there are two stages in conducting
factor analysis: one is the exploratory mode and
the other is the confirmatory mode. In the former
mode, a test researcher starts with a number of
tests that are available and that measure a wide
range of language abilities. When the pattern
of factor loadings emerges, a researcher may
formulate the hypotheses about similarities and
differences among the test scores. Having these
hypotheses, the researcher starts the confirmatory
mode eliminating some tests from further study.
The researcher may also design news tests in order to
support specific hypotheses. The reason that these
two factor analytic approaches belong to the class
of construct validation procedures is that the factors
that emerge are explained or predicted on the basis
of applied linguistic theory of what should relate to
what. One problem with having correlations among
large numbers of measures is that the number
of correlations multiplies geometrically with the
number of tests, so that it soon becomes extremely
difficult to see and interpret patterns. Bachman
(1995:262) visualizes the problem as follows:
Suppose, for example, that we gave 15 different tests
to a single group of subjects in which we expected
differences of abilities on a number of different traits.
We would attempt to find and interpret patterns
among 105 correlations.
This procedure Bachman (1990) calls the classic
approach to designing correlational studies for
construct validation. This study was described by
Campbell and Fiske (1959). The idea of such a study
is to measure a combination of trait and method,
and tests are included in the design so as to combine
multiple traits with multiple methods. The advantage
of such a study is that it allows the investigator to look
at patterns of both convergence and discrimination
among correlations. The convergence is the extent
to which different measures of the same trait tend to
agree, or converge. Discrimination, thus, is the extent
to which measures of different traits, using either
the same or different test methods, tend to produce
different results. Data from MTMM correlation
matrix can be analyzed by: 1) the direct inspection
of convergent and discriminant correlations;
2) the analysis of variance and 3) confirmatory
factor analysis. The disadvantage of such a study
is-according to Bachman (1995:283)–that with
large correlation matrices, this involves a lot of eyeballing. He also recognizes that no clear criteria are
available for determining how large the differences
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among the different kinds of correlations need to
be in order to be significant or meaningful. Another
way of supporting construct validation is an internal
correlation study. This kind of study was employed
by Alderson, Clapham and Wall (1995) when they
examined construct validity of the college English
placement test. The placement test consisted of four
different components. They explained the reasons for
using such internal correlations as follows:
Since the reason for having different test components
is that they all measure something different and
therefore contribute to the overall picture of language
ability attempted by the test, we should expect these
correlations to be fairly low – possibly in the order
+.0-+.5. If two components correlate very highly
with each other, say +.9, we might wonder whether
the two subtests are indeed testing different traits or
skills, or whether they are testing essentially the same
thing. The correlations between each subtest and the
whole test, on the other hand, might be expected, at
least according to classical test theory, to be higher –
possibly around +.7 or more – since the overall score is
taken to be more general measure of language ability
than each individual component score. Obviously
if the individual component score is partly between
the test component and itself, which will artificially
inflate the correlation. For this reason it is common
in internal correlation studies to correlate the test
components with the test total minus the component
in question. (Alderson et al., 1995:184)
This method has been widely used in research studies
on a validation of a test. Basically, it can be said that
this method is not sophisticated in comparison
to other ones discussed earlier. It does not involve
doing a lot of calculation. One can use the Pearson
product-moment correlation coefficient and attempt
to correlate different subtests or components of the
test in order to support a construct validity of a test.
In order to support construct validation, some
testers can also compare test performance with
biodata and other data gathered from students at
the time they were taking the test. The rationale for
this is to find out bias in the test for or against groups
of students defined by these biodata characteristics
– gender, first language, number of years studying
the language, age, and so on. Alderson et al.
(1995:185) argue that in such a case the prediction
would be that a valid test would be more difficult
for these students who had been studying the
language for a shorter period of time, or whose
first language was less related to the language of
the test than other students. It is also possible to
compare performance on a test with some other
relevant psychological measures. Some people may
wish to validate an aptitude test, for example, by
comparing performance on one component, which
is to test grammatical sensitivity, with some other
measure of inductive language learning ability
which was theoretically regarded to be related.
Messick’s unitary concept of validity and
discussion of validity
As could be seen in the previous subsections, test
validity refers to the degree with which the inferences
based on test scores are meaningful, useful, and
appropriate. Thus, test validity is a characteristic
of a test when it is administered to a particular
population. A validation process of a test consists
of gathering empirical evidence data and making
logical arguments to show that the inferences are
indeed appropriate. It is necessary at this point
to refer to Messick’s concept of validity, which is
nowadays regarded as a modern approach towards
validation process of a test. His idea of validity is
captured in the following statement:
Validity is an integrated evaluative judgment of the
degree to which empirical evidence and theoretical
rationales support the adequacy and appropriateness
of inferences and actions based on test scores or other
modes of assessment. (Messick, 1989:13)
Traditionally, validity has been divided into
different types such as face, content, criterion,
and construct validity. The main criticism of the
traditional conception of validity is that this
concept is fragmented and incomplete because it
fails to take into account both evidence of the value
implications of score meaning as a basis for action
and the social consequences of score use. Nowadays
there is a tendency to view all these categories of
validity as aspects of a unitary concept of validity
that subsumes all of them.
It is still necessary to gather information about
content relevance, predictive and concurrent
relatedness in the process of developing a test.
It is essential to recognize that one must collect
a number of validity evidence. However, Messick
(1980, 1989) stresses that testers should examine
both the evidence that supports that interpretation
or use of a test and the ethical values that provide
the basis or justification for that interpretation
or use. This view is strictly connected with the
relevance of testing nowadays, which plays a role in
influencing educational and social decisions about
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individuals. So, in this context one should not limit
his/her investigation of validity to collecting factual
evidence to support a given interpretation or use. It is
also essential to consider the educational and social
consequences of the uses one makes of tests due to
the fact that testing takes place in an educational and
social context. Bachman (1990) explains this concept
by providing an example that if testers wanted to
interpret a score from an oral interview and to use
this score in order to make about the employment
of a potential language teacher, in such a case they
should provide the full range of justification. To be
able to justify the interpretation of this test score, it is
necessary to consider both its construct validity and
the value implications of interpreting this score in a
particular way. In order to justify the use of scores
from this test as a basis for employment decisions, it
is necessary to gather evidence or argue coherently
that this ability is important to the individual’s
effectiveness as a language teacher. Again, to be
able to assess the construct validity and interpret the
scores meaningfully, one needs to refer to the latest
theory on language theories. As Lowe (1988) notes,
the label oral proficiency, for example, has value
implications different from those of communicative
language ability. Both labels or approaches to
understanding the language have different views of
language ability. Another aspect raised by Messick
concerns the ethical basis of validity. The mentioned
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evidential basis is more scientific and technical in
nature, and the ethical basis concerns the role of
tests in society. In practice, it is recognized that tests
are almost always intended to serve the needs of an
educational system or of society. As Bachman (1990)
points out, people develop and use language tests for
the types of educational decisions such as selection,
placement, diagnosis, evaluation. In this context,
tests are also used to make decisions that will have
societal implications, for example, to whom to award
high school diplomas or the certification of language
teachers on the basis of minimum competency
tests. However, nowadays this view of Messick’s
unitary concept of validity has found criticism. The
main problem concerns the global interpretation
of validity, which in this sense becomes impractical.
Brennan (1998:7), for example, states:
In my experience those who are actually responsible for
validation almost always require detailed and concrete
guidance for conducting validation activities, and the
‘unitary’ notion is simply not helpful for them.
In a similar sense, Fremer (2000:1) expresses his
concern with reference to the unitary concept of
validity: We have elevated the concept of construct
validation to so high a level that it seems an ‘out of reach’
goal. This dissatisfaction with Messick’s view of validity
is also expressed by Borsboom et al. (2004:1061):
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The concept that validity theorists are concerned
with seems strangely divorced from the concept that
working researchers have in mind when posing the
question of validity.
As can be noticed, this unified concept of validity
conceptualized by Messick with the construct
validity at its center seems to be difficult to carry
out practically. Further, Messick’s concept of
validation is seen as an ongoing process which
should be continuously monitored and updated
with relevant information, and hence this process
is never complete. Unfortunately, this can be really
frustrating for test developers, who want to know
how best to conduct a validation of a given test. Test
developers also would like to know if the inferences
made on the basis of scores of the test administered
can be seen as valid or not.
Lissitz and Samuelsen (2007) propose to take a
different perspective on conducting validation
studies. They deny the concept of unified theory
of test validity as they see construct validity being
in the phase of deconstruction. The fundamental
question which they address is whether the focus
of the investigation of a test is internal to the test
itself or focuses on constructs and relationships
that are external to the test. They argue that the
test definition and development process (currently
known as content validity) and test stability (currently
known as reliability) become the critical descriptors
of a test. In this sense, these two aspects also
become the primary justification for the existence
and acceptance of use of a test. Concluding from
this content validity (by them called internal
validity) should be recognized as the critical initial
characteristic to consider when evaluating the
quality of a test. They conclude that the other
characteristics of a test are very important but the
user of these techniques should, we argue, recognize
that they answer fundamentally different questions
(Lissitz and Samuelsen, 2007:446). Consequently,
the characteristics mentioned should not be
presented as a unified theory of validity; and they
also should not draw the researcher’s attention
away from a focus on internal validity.
This discussion on current views of validity concepts
shows that there is ongoing debate on how to
conceptualize the concept of validity so as to facilitate
the practical conduct of a validation study of a given
test. It can be noticed that there is increased concern
with the consequences of test use, the ethics of
testing and even the attempts to reconceptualize
the nature of validity, therefore test developers still
will have to wait for more concrete guidance on how
to approach validation process and how to interpret
and evaluate conflicting sources of validity. Although
a unified view of validity is widely accepted, it is
still problematic how to investigate the aspects
of validity. What stems from this review of validity
concepts is that one should attempt to accumulate
evidence of validity of a test in many ways as it is
possible and make meaningful inferences on their
basis about test scores.
Sections above discuss the current views on
validity and validity investigation in the language
testing. It is without question that validity is the
most important quality of test development. This is
because the validity concept concerns the crucial
question in testing, namely, do testers measure by
administering a test the language abilities of their
students? A test is supposed to test something
- in the language testing situation that will be
the language abilities or different components
of language abilities. It has also been shown
in this discussion on validity that a validation
study contributes to the fairness of the test. Test
developers should be made accountable for their
tests, which will impact the lives of students. In
the previous subchapters different types, aspects
of validity have been shown and discussed and
there was also an attempt made to present their
strengths and weaknesses, mainly for the reasons
of being able to evaluate their usefulness and
contribution to test development. It has been
demonstrated that the test user has at his/her
disposal these kinds of validity which can be
supported empirically, quantitatively as well those
which will be rather based on the judgments. It has
been noted that each of these types of validity is
needed to support the validation process of a test.
Even though it appears to be difficult to carry out
content validity and to prepare the appropriate
procedures or rating scales to evaluate and make
inferences, it is still worth conducting this type
of validity for one single reason. If one evaluates
the relevance and content of tasks on the test,
particularly during a test development, this type
of validity contributes greatly to the construct
of a test and in consequence, it strengthens
construct validity.
Further, when looking at face validity the value
of which is denied by some test developers and
researchers, this validity still has one enormous
value: the judgment of the test by students or by
potential test takers. It is essentially they who will
take the test. One could see from the discussion on
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face validity how positively the test can influence
and motivate students and in all probability let them
perform better on the test. For this reason, in this
thesis a positive position on face validity in language
testing will be maintained. It is also vital that
students themselves understand the concept of the
tests they are taking. Criterion-related validity, it has
been noted, has some limitations, the biggest one
being that it does not deliver conclusive evidence of
validity due to the serious problems with accepting
a high correlation between two indicators of a given
ability. Frequently, evidence for validity of a criterion
itself is that it is correlated with another test, or other
indicators of the ability, which simply extends the
assumption of validity to these other criteria, leading
to an endless spiral of concurrent relatedness.
Although the concurrent validity only considers the
extent to which measures of the same ability tend to
agree, but still when having this agreement, it means
that testers are on the right path of contributing to
the overall picture of language abilities.
Lastly, it has been observed that construct validity is
the crucial source in favour of validity support of a
test. One remark which should be made is that when
one is conducting a validation study on a given test,
this kind of evidence is essential. There are validation
studies on different language abilities which do
not involve face or content validities, but construct
validation is indispensible. However, when people
conduct a validation study of a test, they should
attempt to gather as much evidence in support of
validity as it is possible and then make evaluative
judgments on the given test or rather test scores. In
the language testing research reliability is defined
as consistency of measurement. Jones (2001:1)
provides this illustrative example of reliability:
Reliability is a word whose everyday meaning adds
powerful positive connotations to its technical
meaning in testing. Reliability is a highly desirable
quality in a friend, a car or a railway system.
Reliability in testing also denotes dependability, in
the sense that a reliable test can be depended on to
produce very similar results in repeated uses.
Simply put, this means that if the same test were to
be administered to the same group of test takers on
two different occasions, in two different settings,
it should not make any difference to a particular
test taker whether he or she takes the test on one
occasion and setting or the other. In such a situation,
a test taker should obtain from the tests comparable
scores. Similarly, if we had developed two forms of a
test that we can use interchangeably, it should also
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make no difference to a student, which form of the
test the student takes. All in all, the students in both
described situations will most probably not get
exactly the same results. As Alderson et al. (1995:87)
concede, the fact that test takers do not receive the
same results on both administrations of the tests
is ascribed to the variations in scores. On the one
hand, we have the variations which are due to the
true score or -in other words- systematic differences.
The systematic differences may be, for example,
students’ improvement in the skills being tested.
On the other hand, we will have variations in tests
scores which are caused by unsystematic changes,
for example, students’ lapses in concentration,
fatigue, poor health, test-wiseness or distracting
noises in the examination room.
In the case of subjective tests, the marking itself
may be unreliable. Let us suppose that a given
composition was rated by a number of raters. In such
a situation, the composition checked should receive
the same score irrespective of which particular rater
scored the composition. But if it turned out that the
raters rated the composition differently because
some of them were more severe in rating than the
other raters that would mean that scores obtained
are not reliable. The inconsistent rating concerning
the subjective tests (writing and speaking) may be
caused by factors such as variation in the way an
oral interview is conducted, ambiguity of marking
criteria, the application of different standards by
different raters, and inconsistency on the part of
individual raters. The aim of testing is, therefore, to
design tests which measure systematic rather than
unsystematic changes. From the above, it stands
to reason that the higher proportion of systematic
variation in the test results, the more reliable a test
is. Bachman (1990:160) also voices the concern that
in the development of a test the major problem
is to identify potential sources of error in a given
language ability. He represents the view that when
the effect of the unsystematic changes in the test
scores is minimized, the measurement error is, hence,
minimized and in this way reliability is maximized.
He expresses this view in the following manner:
The less these factors affect test scores, the greater
the relative effect of the language abilities we want
to measure, and hence, the reliability of language test
scores. (Bachman, 1990:160)
There are also some testing authorities that see
limitations with regard to estimating reliability.
Cronbach argued (1990:121) that theory
(construct)- and content-based validity are the
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qualities that affect the test most and that without
such validity a test and all other criteria including
reliability are worthless. Wood (1993:132) also
perceives the limitation of the reliability of a test
when he quotes Feldt and Brennan:
No body of reliability data, regardless of the elegance of
the methods used to analyse it, is worth very much if the
measure to which it applies is irrelevant or redundant.
Despite these voiced concerns pertaining to
reliability, Weir (2005:23) concedes that reliability
is now increasingly seen as a type of validity
evidence and due to this fact it is necessary to find a
superordinate term for it to reflect this. He suggests
using the term scoring validity as the superordinate
for all the aspects of reliability and adds that this
quality (scoring validity) is a valuable part of a test’s
overall validity. If a test lacks reliability, its validity is
seriously threatened. Further, in the language testing
research it is conceded that if a test has a specified
reliability, it is necessary to do so with reference to
the scores obtained on that particular version of the
test by a specific sample of examinees. Weir (2005:24)
expresses this requirement as follows:
Aeroplanes have to be checked before, during and
after each flight; the same applies to the language
test we use.
It has been observed earlier in this work that validity
and reliability are the two qualities which are essential
for the design of a good test. Now it is necessary to
look at the relationship of these two qualities and
attempt to explore how they complement each
other. Reliability and validity are often thought of
as two distinct but related characteristics of test
scores. The investigation of reliability is concerned
with the question: How much of an individual’s
test performance is due to measurement error, or to
factors other than the language ability we want to
measure? Validity, on the other hand, is concerned
with the question: How much of an individual’s test
performance is due to the language abilities we want
to measure? It becomes apparent that a test cannot
be valid unless it is reliable. If a test does not measure
something consistently, it means that it cannot be
measuring it accurately. On the other hand, it is quite
possible for a test to be reliable and at the same
time not to be valid. Hughes (2003:50) illustrates this
phenomenon as follows:
A reliable test, however, may not be valid at all. For
example, as a writing test we would require candidates
to write down the translation equivalents of 500 words
in their own language. This might well be a reliable test;
but it is unlikely to be a valid test of writing.
This example indicates that a test can consistently
give the same results, although it is not measuring
what it is supposed to. Alderson et al. (1995:187)
conclude that although reliability is necessary for
validity, it alone is not sufficient. In this context
they argue that for test designers it is essential to
find the balance between reliability and validity.
In order to maximize reliability it is necessary to
reduce validity of a test. Multiple-choice tests can
be made highly reliable, but many testers would
argue that this kind of test is not able to measure
with high validity the abilities of a student,
particularly with view to use of language in real
life. Another example which demonstrates this
complexity very clearly is the multiple-choice test
of pronunciation. By means of such a test it is easy
to achieve reliability but the test fails to identify
students whose actual pronunciation is good or
bad. At the same time one can conduct a test of
pronunciation in the oral form and which may be
highly valid but where there might be the problem
with reliable marking. Alderson et al. (1995) note
that reliability may have to be sacrificed to achieve
validity. Yet, it is not possible to have validity
without reliability.
In practice, neither reliability nor validity are
absolutes: there are degrees of both, and it is
commonplace to speak of a trade-off between the
two- you maximize one at the expense of the other.
Which you chose to maximize will depend upon the
test’s purpose and the consequences for individuals
of gaining and inaccurate result. (Alderson et al.,
1995:187)
To conclude, although many researchers in their
discussions of reliability and validity emphasize the
differences between these two qualities, rather than
similarities, both concepts are better understood
by recognizing them as complementary aspects of
a common concern in measurement – identifying,
estimating, and controlling the effects of factors
that affect test scores. Both concepts lead to two
complementary objectives in designing and
developing tests: (1) to minimize the effects of
measurement error, and (2) to maximize the effects
of the language abilities one wants to measure.
For these reasons, it is essential for any validation
study of a given test to include the investigation of
reliability as both concepts are relevant for the final
quality of the test.

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ACTIVITIES
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TASK ONE
PART A
Your unit is expecting a visit of several officers from England. Some arrangements have already
been made. However, a few more things must be made clear. Write a letter to Maj Smith, the
officer organizing the visit from the English side, giving him necessary information and asking
about some details. Use the notes below. Write about 100–120 words.
THINGS TO DO
NOTES
x
x
x
they come –
August 22
Warsaw Airport
----------------
what time?
transport–OK as suggested
passports –
copies arrived
----------------
one invalid–a new one when?!!!
security clearance
----------------
needed, by 2 August- at the
latest
----------------
PART B
You have received a letter from Maj Smith. Write a memo to your CO telling him what information
you got and suggesting what else must be done to get ready for the visit. Write about 60–80
words.
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TASK TWO
A NATO agency is preparing a report on soldiers’ fitness and attitude to sport in the Allied countries. You are
to contribute to the report and write about the situation in Poland. Include assessment of the situation and
state what might be done to improve it. The pictorials below are given to help you but do not have to be
used. Write a report of 200-250 words.
Paying Soldiers for Being Fit! Why?
Two Die During the Annual Fitness Test.
Fewer soldiers on sick leave to avoid fitness test.
(Military magazines headlines)
PAF Results of the Annual Fitness Test
fail
pass
good
very good
A bit wimpish, I agree, but we have to
make an allowance for age.
We don’t have money
for proper equipment,
let alone sport
facilities… Besides,
there is no time!
Anonymous soldiers
“Why should I run 3 kilometers? I simply do
paper work… “
“My office is in a town center. There is no
gym!”
“When I got injured in Iraq, a really strong chap
dragged me out of that hell. But for his
strength, I wouldn’t be here today.“
“Finally they did something about it! I train
again and it’s good for me.“
An officer
In my unit it’s not a
problem. We can
train as much as we
want.
A sergeant
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TIPS & TRICKS
BUSINESS ENGLISH
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Teaching English –
a project management part 2

Last month, I began sharing with you my idea of an
English teacher as a project manager in a complex
project called the language teaching. I wrote about
my evaluation of the work of the best teachers,
seen as those who have managed to realize that
language instructors are no longer just teachers but,
to a certain extent, project managers and as such
require managerial skills in organizing the project
called teaching a language. We discussed the idea
of macro-and micro-planning as well as introducing
rules and procedures to govern the process.
Continuing the idea this month, I am to devote
the second part of my text to the execution of the
project in a facilitative way.
Luiza is a Warsaw University
graduate in Applied Linguistics
and American Studies. An
experienced EFL teacher, for the
last nine years cooperating with
Warsaw Study Centre, where she
works as a Director of Studies and
an in-house trainer, she supervises
the work of over 200 teachers, supporting their
professional development. She also cooperates
with PASE running workshops for teachers. Since
September 2009, she’s been a presenter for
Cambridge University Press.
Facilitating the process
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A teacher-manager, thinking and planning the
process of language presentation and practice,
thinks about organizing it in the most facilitative
way possible. Having said that, what exactly is
“facilitation”? Three points for us to consider here are:
Learning
FacilitaƟon
Interest
Variety
Pace
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




Your students have different learning styles,
different attention spans, different abilities–
facilitation means that anything happening in
the classroom should reflect these differences;
Facilitation also means being able to inspire
and motivate through constant varying of
techniques and approaches as well as through
raised curiosity of your students. (“What will
my teacher do next?”);
Facilitation means that you differentiate the
tasks with attention paid to activity pace: a)
drills are done briskly, b)discussions that involve
thought, reflection and retrospection–more
leisurely;
Facilitation means that you make provisions
for students who finish early–allow slower
students extra time, activate those who have
finished (see the graph below);
Facilitation also means that you touch your
students’ lives and keep a good ratio between
male-female topics;
Facilitation means that in every moment of the
class whatever is happening–it is planned in an
interesting way:
- game-like activities
- activities with a clear goal
- activities with a thoughtful and insightful
use of language
- activities with attractive visuals
- problem-solving activities
- role-plays
- personalization: such activities whose
aim is to find “the individual” in the crowd
- activities in which everyone is challenged,
occupied, and interested
 Write a more optimistic/funnier finish.
 There are two mistakes in your work – spot






them and correct them.
Write two extra questions to the story.
Help Ola with question 4.
Check your friend’s work.
Do you have the same answers with Kasia?
Write one more example with this structure.
Prepare definitions of these new words.
Enlarge the circle of attention
Are you listening
at all???
A teacher-manager knows his/her tricks. A clever
playing about with instructions we issue may save
you a lot of frustration:
Making provisions for those who finish early
 Don’t call on the first SS whose hand goes
So… you’ve
already finished?




up: With one hand up, most brains are turned
off. Students stop thinking; they realize that you
will most probably call on the student who is
ready. Do not!
When a student is talking, walk farther
away and allow his/her voice to reach more
SS: Our natural tendency would be to walk
closer with the result of the active student’s
voice going down.
Ask a question before calling the name:
Instead of saying, “Kasia, what is the past form of
go?” say: “What is the past form of go? (………
pause…………..) Kasia?”.
Don’t be afraid to pause for some thinking
time. Don’t let silence frighten you.
Don’t call on SS in a predictable order.
56  www.teacher.pl  6-7 (80) 2010
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2010-06-15 16:41:17
TIPS & TRICKS

Cater for all learner types
Who are your students? What intelligence type
do they represent? There are quite many different
divisions (more and less detailed). Below you will
find the most common types, found in most sources:
Think about:
 social intelligence
 verbal intelligence
 logical/mathematical intelligence
 physical intelligence
 visual/spatial intelligence
 musical intelligence
Who do you cater for when you ask your students to:






Write poems with new words?
Think of silly stories?
Create patterns for grammar?
Create logical sequences for words?
Draw pictures of words?
Make up songs, play music while students
study?
 Move around when they study?
Analyze your lesson plans. What type of intelligence
do you have a tendency to cater for most? Answer:
the type you represent!
Time has come to sum up, my dearest teachersmanagers!
 PLAN THE PROCESS
 PLAN EACH LESSON TO
REPRESENT THE AIM OF THE
WHOLE PROCESS
 INTRODUCE RULES AND
PROCEDURES
 STICK TO THE RULES YOU HAVE
INTRODUCED
 FACILITATE THE PROCESS
 MAKE THE PROCESS
FASCINATING
 CATER FOR ALL






55-57.indd 57
2010-06-15 16:41:17
CULTURE
Teacher
Pakistan
interview with Muhammad Arshad

Magda Fijałkowska
Official language of Pakistan is English and the national language is Urdu. Other main
languages are Punjabi, Sindhi, Balochi, Pashto, Sariky, Hindko and Dari etc. English is
the medium of instruction in educational institutions.
Muhammad Arshad: My name
is Muhammad Arshad. I come
from Punjab, Pakistan. I can
speak Punjabi, Urdu, Hindi,
Arabic, and English languages.
Now, I am learning Swedish
and Norwegian languages.
Previously, I did graduate in
Chemical Engineering from Lahore, which is the
2nd biggest city in Pakistan. Later, I moved to
Sweden in 2005 for education purpose and did my
master from Chalmers University of Technology in
Environmentally Sustainable Process Technology.
I have experience working as process engineer
in Bergen, Norway. Nowadays, I am working
as research assistant in Chalmers University of
Technology. In my free time, I mostly like to travel.
MF: How different is living in Europe to living
in Pakistan?
Muhammad Arshad: There is so much difference
between living in Europe and in Pakistan because the
cultures and lifestyle is different. Mostly, European
people have individualistic approach; but the Pakistani
society is collective and remains in social networks in
families and people around. The traditional values
are very strong in Pakistani families. Pakistan has rich
and diverse cultures. The social class system is highly
prevalent in Pakistani society.
MF: What are the 10 most important things that
everyone should know about Pakistan?
Magda Fijałkowska
Magda dreamed of becoming an
English teacher when she was a
child, and so she did. When grew
up, worked with International
House Kraków, UEC-Bell in
Warsaw, Eurocentres, as well as Macmillan and
Pearson Longman publishing houses. Since 2007
she’s been running NaukaBezGranic.pl, organising
theatre shows and multicultural workshops for
students as well as language and training events
for teachers of English. In the summers she works
as Centre Director for Stafford House summer
schools (Glasgow 2008, Edinburgh 2009). Check
out www.naukabezgranic.pl

MF: Arshad, could you tell us a few words about
yourself and your life in Pakistan and Sweden now?
Muhammad Arshad: It is a difficult thing to list 10
most important things about Pakistan, since there
could be many more:
 the 6th largest country in the world on the basis
of population,
 a multi-lingual and multi-cultural country,
the official language is English, the national
language is Urdu,
 5 highest mountain peaks of the world out of
14, above 7000 meters, including 2nd highest
peak of K2,
 Lahore is famous cultural city to visit,
 Pakistan is the 7th nuclear power,
 Pakistan stands 7 in producing dairy products,
 Pakistan has biggest water Dam Tarbela which
is made of mud,
58  www.teacher.pl  6-7 (80) 2010
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2010-06-15 14:31:17




Pakistan has the largest water irrigation system
of the world,
Pakistan has archaeological ruins of the city
Mon ju daro and Harappa which are ruins of old
civilizations of 2600 BC,
Pakistan is rich in natural resources and has
biggest reserves of Copper and Coal,
Pakistan has two biggest Mosques in the world.
The Faisal Mosque stands 6th and the Badshahi
Mosque stands 7th,
Pakistan has 7th biggest army.
CULTURE


MF: What do you miss, now that you have lived
away from home for a few years?
Muhammad Arshad: I am missing my food,
especially my favorite dishes Biryani, Chapli Kabab,
and Haleem. Missing the weather, especially warm
weather. Last but not least, my favourite fruit of
Pakistan “mangos”.
g
Me in front of the Emperors Mosque in Lahore
MF: What’s the history of Pakistan in bullet
points?
Muhammad Arshad: All India Muslim League
adopted the Lahore Resolution for the independence
of Pakistan in 1940, and Pakistan was founded in 1947.
Its first head of state was Mohammad Ali Jinna, who
was the founder of Pakistan and known as Quaidi-Azam (father of nation). In 1956, first constitution
of Pakistan was promulgated but was suspended
in 1958 by the first military dictator General Ayoub
Khan. After that, in 1962, the new constitution was
promulgated but was suspended; and after that, the
present constitution of 1973 was promulgated; but it
was also suspended several times by the martial law
dictators, namely General Zia Ul Haq and General
Prevaz Musharaf. Pakistan and India fought wars in
1948, 1965, 1971, and last in 1998.
Mango tree
Chicken biryani, which I miss
MF: What would you change in Pakistan if you could?
Muhammad Arshad: I would like to improve and
promote tourism in Pakistan. Pakistan is full of sights,
I think, which are unseen by the people of the world,
for instance, beauteous scenes, valleys, lakes, and
mountains of north of Pakistan: the Hunza, Naran,
Kaghan, Kalash, Sakrdu, Sawat and Kashmir. The most
famous and highest lake Saif-ul-Maluk has its own
mysterious charms. Out of world’s 14 highest mountain
peaks, Pakistan has 5 highest peaks, including K2, the
second highest mountain peak in the world.
K2- 8,611 meters high - summer time
❯❯❯
58-62.indd 59
2010-06-15 14:31:18
CULTURE
❯❯❯
Teacher
MF: What languages are spoken in Pakistan? Is
English used by all?
Muhammad Arshad: There are a lot of languages
spoken in Pakistan since there is a multi lingual
society. Official language of Pakistan is English, and
the national language is Urdu. Other main languages
are Punjabi, Sindhi, Balochi, Pashto, Sariky, Hindko,
and Dari, etc. English is the medium of instruction in
educational institutions.
MF: Can you tell us about the lifestyle people
have in Pakistan?
Muhammad Arshad: First of all, one should know
that Pakistan has diverse and multicultural society.
Pakistan has five (one newly named Gilgit Biltistan)
provinces; people of every province have their own
culture and lifestyle, which is different from the
people of other provinces. Most of the population,
around 70 percent, lives in rural areas in Pakistan.
The distribution of urban and rural also has impacts
on society. Most of the people are very friendly, and
hospitality is considered to be a great tradition.
The common lifestyle in rural areas of Pakistan is
based on joint family system. All three generations,
grand-parents, parents, and children, prefer to live
under one roof. However, the men and women
have divided out-door and domestic responsibilities
among themselves according to their ages and
skills. Main source of income and duties of the men
in the family belongs to agriculture. The women’s
responsibilities include fetching water from the well
or pond, cooking, washing, maintenance of house,
thread-making, embroidering, knitting, etc., and
they also help their men in the fields. Life in big cities
and urban areas is quite different, where one can see
the effects of modernization. The environment of
cities is polluted by the traffic.
MF: What about families there and family values?
Muhammad Arshad: Generally, Pakistan has a joint
family system; and usually, the male is considered to
be the head of family. Often, one family comprises
the grandparents, parents, uncles, and the children;
Public transport Near Interior in Kashmir, Pakistan
60  www.teacher.pl  6-7 (80) 2010
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CULTURE

so the number of family
would be around 6 to 10
persons. In this sense,
Pakistan has a patriarchal
society. Women cook
food for the family. At any
occasion or events, mostly
families get together at
the family house and
celebrate; for instance,
Eids is one of these events.
Parents play important
role in decision making.
Minar-e-Pakistan in Lahore
MF: Are you going back?
Muhammad Arshad: Yes,
I have plans to go back to
my home country because
I miss my family, friends,
my cultural festivals, and
most favorite foods.

National Monument of Pakistan
❯❯❯
58-62.indd 61
2010-06-15 14:31:21
PAT R O N AT M E D I A L N Y
WARSAW SUMMER SCHOOL 2010
II Liceum Ogólnoksztaácące im. Batorego
46 godzin lekcyjnych prowadzą:
Tonya Trappe
John Cudak
Bulent Akman
5-10 lipca 2010
25-30 sierpnia 2010
25-30 sierpnia 2010
Language Refresher (46h)
Language and Culture (46h)
Language Refresher (46h)
Language&Culture
Language Refresher
25.08.10 The British Empire, John Cudak
26.08.10 Great Britain and Scotland, Tonya Trappe
27.08.10 Ireland, Tonya Trappe
28.08.10 Australia and New Zealand, Bulent Akman
29.08.10 USA and Canada, Bulent Akman
30.08.10 Other English Speaking Regions, John Cudak
All Gimnazjum Exam and Matura Topics Covered!
5/07 – 10/07 All topics covered by John Cudak
25/08 – 30/08 All topics covered by Tonya Trappe,
John Cudak, Bulent Akman
”I would like to explore cultural and language issues in my sessions.
I will also be touching on classroom management problems and the
particular difficulties of motivating this new digital generation. Most of all
it will be a great opportunity to get organized for the coming academic
year in a pleasant and positive environment. I also hope that we have
a lot of fun. Come along and hear a wide variety of accents! “
Tonya Trappe
Zapisy tel.: 783 514 771 lub email:
[email protected]
Cena
Caáy kurs 46 godzin
Pojedynczy dzieĔ 6-8 godzin
58-62.indd 62
Wpáata do 20 czerwca 2010
460 zá
80 zá
Wpáata do ostatniej chwili
552 zá
96 zá
2010-06-15 14:31:26
WORKSHOPS

Macmillan ELT Global Festival 2010

H
affner Centre, Multikino in Sopot, Teatr
Bajka in Warsaw, Centrum Kinowe ARS in
Kraków…– the selection of venues in week
1 of Macmillan Global Festival 2010 certainly raised
more than one eyebrow... But then, the name of these
events was rather extraordinary, too - an ELT festival
rather than seminar, conference or symposium.
The theatrical space and the word ‘festival’ were
meant to communicate an important message.
The festival, hosted by Macmillan Education,
in academic partnership with University of
Cambridge ESOL Examinations, was conceived
as an alternative to mainstream teacher training
events. As such, it brought together highly
experienced teacher trainers, coursebook
authors, exam specialists, and … a professional
Shakespearean actor! They all joined forces to
offer the participants in Sopot, Warsaw, Kraków,
Wrocław, Poznań, Łódź, and Lublin a truly different
experience, celebrating the 10th anniversary of
benchmarking teacher development activities of
Macmillan Education in Poland.
The make-up of the festival programme was
itself fairly unusual, targeting teachers of young
learners on the one hand and teachers of young
adults and adults on the other. Each of the two
groups had a chance to find out about some of
the latest trends in ELT methodology, sample a
selection of hot-off-the-press teaching materials,
Lindsay Clandfield
❯❯❯
63-64.indd 63
2010-06-15 14:36:29
WORKSHOPS
❯❯❯
Teacher
and – above all – share, network, and socialize in
a highly relaxed atmosphere.
Ben Crystal
In a truly festival fashion, the line-up of speakers
varied from city to city.
A master class on teaching English to young
learners was conducted either by Olha Madylus,
representing University of Cambridge ESOL
Examinations, or Carol Read, speaking on
behalf of Macmillan Education. Olha is a highly
experienced teacher trainer and exam adviser,
while Carol is a world authority on teaching
and writing for kindergarteners and primarylevel kids, author of several bestselling titles,
including Bugs World, 500 Activities for the Primary
Classroom, and, most recently, Footprints.
A taster session, highlighting the methodological
concept behind Global, a major new course offering
for general English teaching, was delivered either
by Lindsay Clandfield or Grzegorz Śpiewak.
Lindsay is a highly experienced teacher, teacher
trainer, head author of Global www.sixthings.net,
one of the most popular and highly acclaimed EFL
blogs. Grzegorz is the Head ELT Consultant for
Macmillan Poland, a regular speaker at teacher
Carol Read
training conferences, author or co-author of
a number of ELT projects.
The highpoint of the first week of the festival was
without doubt a Shakespearean show, performed
by Ben Crystal, a professional actor, trainer, and
accomplished author of several highly acclaimed
popular titles, the most recent of which is
Shakespeare on Toast. Ben is also co-author, with
his father, Professor David Crystal, of Shakespeare’s
Words: A Glossary and Language Companion. Ben’s
fascinating performance included the first ever
presentation of selected Shakespearean speeches
and poems in so-called ‘Original Pronunciation,’ an
accent that the Bard actually spoke 400 years ago,
reconstructed on the basis of a highly sophisticated
linguistic and literary analysis. Several video
samples of what OP sounded like compared to RP
(the ‘Received Pronunciation’) are still available on
www.macmillan.pl , courtesy of Ben.

64  www.teacher.pl  6-7 (80) 2010
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2010-06-15 14:40:10
WORKSHOPS

Nagrody "LCCI Business English
Competition 2009" rozdane

7
m aja w Szkole Głównej Handlowej w
Warszawie odbyła się uroczysta gala
rozdania nagród “LCCI Business English
Competition 2009”. Wyróżnieni zostali najlepsi
studenci, biorący udział w konkursie oraz
najlepsze centra egzaminacyjne LCCI w Polsce.
Tegoroczna edycja konkursu LCCI była już czwartą
z kolei. W pierwszych trzech edycjach bezpłatnego
konkursu organizowanego przez firmę inMedia Polska
(Krajowy Reprezentant Londyńskiej Izby PrzemysłowoHandlowej w Polsce) udział wzięło nieomal 1500
uczestników, a honorowy patronat nad imprezą
objęli między innymi Minister Nauki i Szkolnictwa
Wyższego oraz Ambasador Wielkiej Brytanii w
Polsce. W ”LCCI Business English Competition” mogli
wziąć udział wszyscy studenci szkół wyższych w
Polsce. W 2009 roku do konkursu stanęło ponad
1000
osób
zainteresowanych
specyficznym
słownictwem i zasadami językowymi, obowiązującymi
w międzynarodowym środowisku biznesowym.
W pierwszej części konkursu, studenci zmierzyli
się z leksykalnym testem wyboru, który składał się
z 20 pytań związanych z frazeologią biznesową.
W drugiej części, uczestnicy konkursu poproszeni
zostali o napisanie pracy pisemnej na temat: ”Discuss
the importance of technological methods of
communication in the modern business world”.
❯❯❯
61-62.indd 65
2010-06-15 14:35:23
WORKSHOPS
❯❯❯
Teacher
Najlepszy wynik uzyskał Paweł Pankiewicz, student
Uniwersytetu
Ekonomicznego
w
Krakowie,
który do konkursu LCCI stawał już kilkakrotnie,
zajmując wcześniej wysokie lokaty. Kolejne
miejsca zajęli: Maria Wiktoria Wąsowska (Szkoła
Główna Handlowa w Warszawie), Tomasz Krais
(Uniwersytet Ekonomiczny w Krakowie), Paweł
Guzik (Szkoła Główna Handlowa w Warszawie),
Liliana Religa (Uniwersytet Warszawski), Grzegorz
Trela (Uniwersytet Ekonomiczny w Poznaniu), Jakub
Palowski (Uniwersytet Ekonomiczny w Krakowie),
Robert Marks (Szkoła Wyższa Psychologii Społecznej
w Warszawie), Karol Jurczyński (Akademia
Ekonomiczna w Katowicach) oraz Katarzyna
Leśniewska (Akademia Ekonomiczna w Katowicach.
Na gali wyróżniono także najlepsze centra
egzaminacyjne LCCI, organizujące i przeprowadzające w Polsce egzaminy ”First Certificate for Teachers
of Business English” (FTBE). Nagrody przyznano w
kilku różnych kategoriach (m.in., za największą ilość
uczestników oraz za najlepsze wyniki uzyskane
przez osoby egzaminowane w tych centrach). Na
gali wręczono także medale LCCI dla osób, które na
ubiegłorocznych egzaminach uzyskały najlepsze
wyniki. Złoty medal w tej kategorii (”EFB Level 3”)
zdobyła m.in. Agnieszka Pietrzak, która pisała swój
egzamin w centrum egzaminacyjnym The Teacher.
Stanisław Wanatowicz (The Teacher) odbiera złoty medal od Anny Cisło (inMedia)
Rozdanie
nagród
i
dyplomów
poprzedziły
wystąpienia prorektor Szkoły
Głównej Handlowej prof.
dr hab. Anny Karmańskiej
oraz
przedstawiciela
Kapituły
Egzaminacyjnej
Londyńskiej
Izby
Przemysłowo - Handlowej,
Roberta Hughesa. Podczas
uroczystości został także
odczytany list gratulacyjny
Minister Nauki i Szkolnictwa
Wyższego
Barbary
Kudryckiej, która w 2009 roku
objęła honorowy patronat
nad konkursem. Magazyn
The Teacher był, podobnie
jak w roku ubiegłym,
patronem
medialnym
konkursu. Organizatorzy już
teraz zapraszają wszystkich
zainteresowanych do wzięcia
udziału w jego tegorocznej
edycji.

66  www.teacher.pl  6-7 (80) 2010
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2010-06-15 14:35:32
English Teaching Professional
Praktyczne wskazówki, przewodnik i źródło materiałow dla nauczycieli.
English Teaching Professional jest wiodącym,
międzynarodowym magazynem dla
nauczycieli języka angielskiego. W każdym
numerze znaleźć można wiele ciekawych
i niestandardowych pomysłów na lekcje.
Pomoże on każdemu nauczycielowi rozwijać
się zawodowo i osiągać zamierzone cele
dydaktyczne. W magazynie publikowane
są praktyczne materiały na lekcje, artykuły
na temat rozwoju zawodowego i szkoleń,
jak też konkursy i recenzje książek.
Modern English Teacher
Nowości metodyczne, miarodajne recenzje podręczników.
Kwartalnik Modern English Teacher ukazuje
się od 30 lat. Magazyn zajmuje się praktycznymi
aspektami nauczania języka angielskiego.
Publikowane są w nim artykuły na temat teorii
i praktyki nauczania, recenzje najnowszych
materiałów dydaktycznych. W każdym numerze
znaleźć można sekcje poświęcone egzaminom
i testowaniu, teorii języka, metodyce oraz
tematom bardziej specjalistycznym np. ESP
i CALL. Dzięki tej publikacji można śledzić
na bieżąco najnowsze trendy w dziedzinie
nauczania języków obcych.
The Teacher
Praktyczna wiedza i gotowe materiały na lekcje .
The Teacher to magazyn edukacyjny dla
nauczycieli języka angielskiego, studentów
oraz dla wszystkich zainteresowanych kulturą
krajów anglojęzycznych. Na treść magazynu
składają się między innymi artykuły prezentujące
zagadnienia i materiały metodyczne na
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skorzystać na lekcji, recenzje książek, przegląd
najnowszych osiągnięć i trendów w nauczaniu
języka angielskiego..
ESL Magazine
Nowości, wskazówki, recenzje dla nauczycieli języka amerykańskiego.
Jest jednym z wiodących, międzynarodowych
magazynów dla nauczycieli języka
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znanych metodyków.
Promocyjna cena pakietu tylko na:
www. s k l e p. t e a c he r. pl
67-68.indd 67
2010-06-15 15:19:52
UWAGA!: Najłatwiej, najszybciej i taniej zamówisz i opłacisz prenumeratę na:
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2010-06-15 15:19:53
English Teaching professional is written by professional English teachers
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kol_III.indd 1
2010-06-15 15:55:47
kol_IV.indd 1
2010-06-15 15:24:47

Shakespeare on toast

Transcription

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