Compiled Student Research
Transcription
Compiled Student Research
Compiled Student Research from The Lewis Deane Nature Preserve 2005-2007 Green Mountain College One Brennan Circle Poultney, Vermont 05764 Page 1 Page 2 Preface: This document is an attempt to increase the visibility and accessibility of student research on the Lewis Deane Nature Preserve, an 85-acre preserve owned by Green Mountain College, on the slopes of Mount St. Catherine in Poultney and Wells, Vermont. These documents are final reports from independent studies, senior capstone projects, class projects, and summer research positions. These documents represent not only highquality student work, but also—and perhaps more importantly—they represent a significant portion of our current knowledge of the Deane Preserve. They inform us about the ecosystems on the preserve and the impacts of human use on the preserve; they provide a baseline of what is known about the preserve. They also indicate gaps in our knowledge, suggest areas for future student research, and give a base for future research to build upon. As such, they are invaluable to both students and faculty. For the most part, I have not changed or edited these works, instead choosing to leave them as written. For a couple of these documents, only a single hard copy was in existence. These were scanned into electronic files for this compilation. While most of these documents already included internal page numbers, I have added page numbers for the entire document to the bottom center of each page. Each new document is also prefaced by a bordered title page; I hope that these measures will aid the reader in finding the document in question. For my own part, I’ve tracked these documents down, and present them here, as part of my own senior study project. The Deane Preserve is a fantastic asset to the college, full of potential, for both research and recreation. Get out. Use it. Enjoy it. --Ruth Larkin April 22, 2010 Page 3 Page 4 Contents: 1. “Endless Brook Preserve Management Plan” by Adam Adorisio, Senior Study Project, pages 6-84 2. “Forest History of Deane Preserve, Plot 3” by Shannon Bonney, Claire Davis, Corinna Lowe, and Kyle Reid, Ecology Class Project, pages 85-98 3. “Pteridophyte Distribution at Endless Brook Preserve” by Megan Nugent, Independent Study, pages 99-139 4. “A Spatially Explicit Study of the Environmental Influence on Beech Bark Disease” by Robin Sleith and Dr. Natalie Coe, Honors Thesis, pages 140-161 5. “Deane Nature Preserve Wildlife Inventory Assessment” by Adam Adorisio, Independent Study, pages 162-177 6. “Establishing Baseline Resource Impact Data for Trail Conditions at the Deane Nature Preserve: A Sustainable Recreation Research Project” by Jim Harding and Jenna Calvi, Trustees’ Research Project, pages 178-210 Page 5 1. Endless Brook Preserve Management Plan by Adam Adorisio Progressive Program Senior Study Project James H. Graves Faculty Senior Study Advisor Page 6 Page 7 Page 8 Page 9 Page 10 Page 11 Page 12 Page 13 Page 14 Page 15 Page 16 Page 17 Page 18 Page 19 Page 20 Page 21 Page 22 Page 23 Page 24 Page 25 Page 26 Page 27 Page 28 Page 29 Page 30 Page 31 Page 32 Page 33 Page 34 Page 35 Page 36 Page 37 Page 38 Page 39 Page 40 Page 41 Page 42 Page 43 Page 44 Page 45 Page 46 Page 47 Page 48 Page 49 Page 50 Page 51 Page 52 Page 53 Page 54 Page 55 Page 56 Page 57 Page 58 Page 59 Page 60 Page 61 Page 62 Page 63 Page 64 Page 65 Page 66 Page 67 Page 68 Page 69 Page 70 Page 71 Page 72 Page 73 Page 74 Page 75 Page 76 Page 77 Page 78 Page 79 Page 80 Page 81 Page 82 Page 83 About the Author: Adam Adorisio, a member of the Progressive Program, completed a self-design major in Forest Ecology and Management in 2007. Since then, Adam has worked as a free-lance forester, creating forest management plans and completing stand inventories throughout Vermont. In addition to his free-lance work, Adam has worked for three years as a logger and forester for Fortek, Inc, a company based in Pawlet, Vermont. Page 84 2. Forest History of the Deane Preserve, Plot 3 by Shannon Bonney, Claire Davis, Corinna Lowe, and Kyle Reid Ecology Class Project James H. Graves Course Instructor Page 85 Forest History of Deane Preserve Plot 3 By: Shannon Bonney Claire Davis Corinna Lowe Kyle Reid Ecology- Bio2025 Green Mountain College December 4, 2006 Page 86 Introduction As one walks through plot 3 of Deane Nature Preserve she or he will notice an abundance of Hemlocks, sparse saplings and little tree diversity. The goal of the completed tree coring was to create a forest history. There are two questions shaping the goal. What stage of succession is plot 3 in, given the limited amount of data available for analysis? Does weather relate to the size of the tree rings? We hypothesized that plot three is a second growth post-disturbance, Hemlock Forest in mid-succession and that weather is impacting the size of the tree rings. The significance of this study is the correlation, if one is found between tree ring data, weather data and oral history. This study will also contribute to the body of knowledge concerning the correlation of tree rings and forest history and more specifically continue to build our understanding of Deane Nature Preserve. The plot’s most abundant tree species, eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), can live up to 800 years old, reaching maturity around 250-300 years. Ideal temperature for Tsuga canadensis is 10-60 degrees Fahrenheit varying for the tree’s specific location in the native range. The northern part of the eastern hemlocks range has about 80 frost-free days while the southern section has about 200. Hemlocks require a mildly acidic soil to establish in, and the soil increases in acidity as the species becomes more dominate (Godman and Lancaster). Hemlock growth is “generally restricted to regions with cool humid climates… a moist warm site is ideal for establishment,” (Godman and Lancaster) while their continued establishment and dense overstory emphasizes the cool humid climate to a degree that actually creates a microclimate. The heavy slowly decomposing litter encourages leaching, therefore increased acidity of the soil (Godman and Lancaster). Hemlock seed has very low viability with less than 25% germination capacity. A study conducted by the Northern Hardwood Laboratory, found that out of the seeds of one cone, 2.1 were viable, 2.2 were destroyed by insects and the remaining 8 were empty Map 1: Habibtate for Easstern Hemlock <http://plants.usda.gov/java/nameSearch> (Godman and Lancaster). The ideal temperature for hemlock seed germination is 59 degrees Fahrenheit; this ideal temperature has less variance than the required temperature for other species in its genus. Mature seeds are partially dormant and require stratification or exposure to sunlight to complete germination. Other factors that can decrease the number of hemlock saplings are numerous: fungi, insect, white tail deer, rodents, and fire. Hemlock hardiness is evident in the species survival during very extreme weather conditions, which is demonstrated by the number of tree rings that can be absent during suppression (Godman and Lancaster). Another tree species found on plot three is the Northern Red Oak. Its natural habitat ranges from Nova Scotia to Alabama. The acidity of soil for Quercus rubra L can range from a pH of 4.3-6.5, while moisture ranges 3280 inches of rain. According to Sander, in his account of the “Northern Red Oak”, light intensity appears to be the most critical factor affecting not only first year survival, but also survival and growth in subsequent years. 2 Page 87 Red Maple grows from the tip of Nova Scotia to Florida and eastern Texas and has the widest climate variation tolerance according to Walters and Yawney. The climate the Red Maple can live in is limited by cold temperatures in the north, negative 40 degrees Fahrenheit and lack of precipitation in the west. Not many new seedlings can survive under a closed forest canopy, (Walters). Chestnut Oak ranges from southwest Maine to central Alabama. This species is most commonly found on slopes with well drained soils that are conducive to a quick decomposing soil. Seedling germination can be postponed if temperatures drop below 61 degrees F. In the Appalachian region, Chestnut Oak typically occupies intermediate to poor sites where it is considered to be the physiographic climax (McQuilkin). White Oak ranges from Maine to Florida and Georgia. It endures a wide range of temperature variation in its large climate from - 50 degrees Fahrenheit in Wisconsin to 70 degrees in its average high temperature. The major site factors influencing White Oak growth are latitude, aspect, and topography (Rodgers). White Oak can produce seeds prolifically, but good acorn crops are irregular and occur only every four to ten years (Rogers). Methods Field Methods Our study area was plot 3, in the Deane Nature Preserve on the east slope of St. Catherine Mountain, and a north-south running ridge east of Lake St. Catherine. Plot 3 was .04 (ha); the radius was roughly 11.3 meters. Data used in this observational study included data from past labs conducted by Jim Grave’s 2004 Ecology class. The 2004 ecology class established and staked out permanent plot 3. The stake in the center of the plot was there upon arrival so the area was set up for continuing research, and data collection. By assessing the area, it became apparent that the thick canopy cover has prevented widespread ground vegetation; the few plants that were established there are low laying woody plants. The trees that were cored in the plot were mostly Eastern Hemlock, however a few Northern Red Oak, Red Maple, White Oak, Chestnut Oak were also cored. We used data from roughly 120 trees from 2004 and 2006 coring. The tool used to remove tree cores was an increment borer. After core was removed we carefully placed it into a straw, marked the straw, and recorded information regarding species, tag number, and diameter. Diameter was measured at breast height (1.3m) for consistent results. All trees were tagged and diameter was measured, however those trees less than 5 to 6cm were not cored. The smaller trees were tagged by wrapping metal wire around the tree rather than nailing the tag in place. The historic environmental factors that may have affected these tree or tree rings are: a tent caterpillar infestation in 1945, a surface fire in 48 as well as others during the 40’s, a strong hurricane in 51, extreme cold for long period of time in 60, a warm winter in the 80’s, and then alternating extreme cold to warm winters in the 1990’s. There is also evidence of logging until recently and remnants of an apple orchard. Lab Methods To allow these cores to dry, we removed them from the straws and stored at room temperature. Once dried, cores were glued each core to a core mounting board, with white glue, being careful to leave the cores in the 3 Page 88 correct order they were taken from the tree. If a core was curved we gently broke it and glued it strait in proper order. We wrote the proper tree number next to the core on the board. After the glue dried, we gently sanded the top part of cores to make the annual rings easier to see. We counted rings with the aid of dissecting microscopes. Doing the best we could without the proper tools we counted, and recounted the tree rings on the cores from plot 3. However, since we do not have the necessary tools to get down to the cellular and molecular level, we do not have completely accurate data. On account of false rings and locally absent rings, it is difficult to nearly impossible to get accurate data by only using the human eye. There are other tools (e.g. microdensitometer) that are necessary to count correctly to find these absent or false rings, which you either can not see at all or look like all the other rings. Based upon inadequate equipment our age estimates are at most educated guesses. Results Succession Tree cores were collected during the years of 2004 and 2006. Only cores with both a diameter at breast height (DBH) and an estimated age were utilized. The original sample pool included 158 cores. Out of these cores only 120 met the criteria for analysis. Species composition was composed primarily of Eastern Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis). Other tree species found in plot three include Chestnut Oak (Quercus prinus), Northern Red Oak (Quercus rubra), White Oak (Quercus alba), and Red Maple (Acer rubrum). See figures 1 and 2 for a summary of composition results. Composition of tree species 104 120 100 80 104 100 60 40 10 20 0 3 1 2 Frequency Frequency 120 Hardwood and Softwood Frequencies 80 60 40 16 20 Eastern Hemlock Chestnut Oak Northern Red Red Maple Oak White Oak 0 Softwood Tree by species Hardwood Type of Tree Figure 1 (left) is a histogram of all the tree species found in plot 3. Figure 2 (right) shows the ratio of hardwood to softwood in plot 3. Softwood includes Eastern Hemlock and hardwood includes Chestnut Oak, Northern Red Oak, Red Maple, and White Oak. Softwood, more specifically Eastern Hemlock, clearly dominates the stand, with more than six times the amount of hardwood. In general plot three is almost entirely composed of Eastern Hemlock; it occurs more than 10 times as frequently as the next most abundant tree, Chestnut Oak. Based upon these composition results the stand was labeled as a Hemlock Forest (Thompson & Sorenson 2005). This label was given because Hemlocks compose more than 75% of the stand. Determining ages for the trees based upon increment cores was more difficult. Data from 2004 was modified by adding two years onto all of the estimated ages. Deriving ages for cores that missed the center was done by estimating the amount of missing rings based upon the arch of the inner rings; this method has been utilized by other researchers (Ziegler 2000). Broken cores were analyzed only if they appeared to contain all of the segments; cores that were missing segments or were too fragmented to properly count were disregarded. 4 Page 89 Multiple counts were made for many of the cores; ages were defined as the average of all of the counts. Figure 3 is the age distribution of all the tree species found within plot 3. Frequency All Species Age Distribution 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 More Age in decades Figure 3- age distribution of all the tree species of plot 3 in 10 year increments The most common age cohort was 70 years old, followed by 80 years and 60 years respectively. There is a lack of tree older than 100 years of age (with 2 individual exceptions). Trees younger than 50 were uncommon based upon the analyzed cores. This trend could be biased because many of the trees too small to be cored were likely younger than 40 years of age. Caution is used in predicting the age of un-cored trees because diameter of Hemlock trees is not necessarily correlated with age (Ziegler 2000). Hemlock trees with the same diameter can vary up to 176 years (Ziegler 2000). Figures 4 & 5 display the age distribution for each species. Hardwood Age Distribution Eastern Hemlock Age Distribution 30 Frequency Frequency 25 20 15 10 5 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 More Age in decades 100 More Age by decade Red Maple White Oak Northern Red Oak Chestnut Oak Figure 4 (left) include the age distribution in decades for Eastern Hemlock. Figure 5 (right) includes age distribution in decades for all of the Hardwood (Chestnut Oak, Northern Red Oak, White Oak, and Red Maple) analyzed in plot 3. The frequency scales are not equal among the graphs. Figures 4 & 5 show a few trends in age distribution. The Eastern Hemlocks are on average younger than the hardwood (deciduous) trees. Out of the deciduous trees Chestnut Oak seem to be the oldest. This may be an actual trend, or it may be sampling bias because Chestnut Oak was the second most abundant species. Northern Red Oak has relatively the same age distribution than the Chestnut Oak, though was confined to a narrower range. White Oak and Red Maple were the youngest of all the hardwood. Caution is again used with making overarching generalizations about these two species because they were the least abundant, so the sample size is too low for accuracy. The general trend of age distribution is primarily trees less than one century old, with younger Eastern Hemlocks and older hardwoods. Diameter was analyzed for the purpose of determining stage in succession. It was not analyzed to make any assumptions of age. Figures 5 & 6 display the diameters of Hemlocks and hardwoods. 5 Page 90 Hardwood Diameters Eastern Hemlock Diameters 4 Frequency Frequency 20 15 10 5 3 2 1 0 6 0 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Diameter (cm) 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Diameter (cm) Chestnut Oak Northern Red Oak Red Maple White Oak Figure 5 (left) is the diameter of Hemlocks. Figure 6 (right) is the diameter of hardwoods (Chestnut Oak, Northern Red Oak, Red Maple, and White Oak). Diameters were rounded to the nearest whole number. The frequency scales are not equal among the graphs. The graphs illustrate a trend of smaller diameter among the Hemlock trees as compared to the hardwood trees. No further correlations can be made on account of small sample size and an unreliable relationship between age and diameter. Tree Rings and Weather Once the ring counts were completed, ten Eastern Hemlock cores were selected for climatic analysis. Only cores that had intact rings for the last eleven years were used. Cores that were difficult to accurately measure were also excluded. The last ten rings of each core were used for the weather analysis. In order to account for physical differences in trees that the cores were taken from, a standardization method was used to make the ring measurements relative to one another. Factors that necessitate a standardization method include: position in relation to the canopy, amount of light, soil conditions such as nutrient absence or presence, and other local environmental factors that were not able to be considered. Average ring width for each core was estimated and then used in relation to five grades of ring width: 1-At least half the average ring width, 2-Less than average ring width, 3-Average ring width, 4-Greater than average ring width, 5-At least twice the average ring width. Standard grades for all ten hemlock cores were then averaged for the years 1996 though 2006.(Table 1). Eastern Hemlocks’ response to climatic variables was based upon a study conducted at the Boise-des-Muir forest, southwestern Quebec. In the study, Eastern Hemlocks responded positively to higher temperatures during the winter months; a negative response was noted in relation to high temperatures during the summer (Tardiff and others 2001). A positive relationship was found between ring growth and high levels of precipitation during the summer, while a negative relationship with high levels of precipitation occurred during the winter (Tardiff and others 2001). Climatic data for the summer and winter months during the period from 1996-2006 was obtained from the National Climatic Data Center and was then compared against the average standardized ring growth as well as observations from southwestern Quebec. 6 Page 91 Core# #190 #179 #69 #253 #94 #299 #640 #634 #182 #185 Average 1996 3 1 5 5 5 2 5 5 4 2 1997 5 1 4 5 4 3 3 4 3 2 1998 3 1 4 4 4 3 4 5 2 2 1999 5 1 4 5 3 1 3 4 2 2 2000 4 1 4 5 4 2 4 5 4 2 2001 4 1 4 5 4 2 4 4 3 2 2002 3 1 3 4 3 1 3 4 2 2 3.7 3.4 3.2 3 3.5 3.3 2.6 2003 3 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 1.8 2004 4 1 3 3 4 1 4 2 2 2 2005 5 1 4 5 4 2 5 4 3 2 2.6 2006 5 1 4 4 3 2 4 5 4 2 3.4 2.6 Table 1: 1-At least half of the average ring width, 2-Less than the average ring width, 3- Average ring width, 4- Greater than average ring width, 5- At least twice the average ring width Once standardized, Eastern Hemlock core data and climate data were compared to the findings of the southeastern Quebec study. It became apparent that there is no strong evidence of an exact correlation between ring growth and either temperature or precipitation. However, some of the weather data did reflect a few of the relationships noted above. Many of the correlations appear minor and most of the findings seem contradictory. Relatively high temperatures were recorded during the winters of 1998, 2002, and 2006 (figure 8). Standardized Eastern Hemlock core data (Figure 7) show no exceptionally high levels of growth during these periods. Cooler than average temperatures during the summers of 1997, and 2004 (Figure 9) do not relate to above average growth, while cool temperatures during the summer of 2000 do seem to be reflected in the standardized core data with a spike in average ring growth. Above average precipitation during the summer months of 1998, 2004 and 2006 (Figure 10) are not evident in standardized core data. The winters of 1997, 2001 and 2005 (Figure 11) all had above average precipitation which directly contradicts the findings of the southern Quebec study. The results of the ring width-climate comparison do not support the second hypothesis; it was thought that climatic factors would correlate directly to Hemlock ring widths. Average Standarized Ring Growth Of Hemlocks 1996-2006 Vermont December-February Mean Temperature (F) 1996-2006 27 26 25 4 Temperature (F) Average Growth (standardized) 5 3 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 2 17 16 1 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 15 1996 2006 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 Year Year Figure 7: This graph represents the averages of table 1 Figure 8- winter mean temperatures 7 Page 92 Vermont June-August Mean Temperature (F) 1996-2006 Vermont June-August Precipitation 1996-2006 20 69 19 18 Precipitation (Inches) Tem perature (F) 68 67 66 65 64 63 62 1996 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Year 8 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 Year Figure 9- summer mean temperature trends Figure 10- summer precipitation trends Vermont December-February Precipitation 1996-2006 Precipitation (Inches) 11 10 9 8 7 6 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 Year Figure 11- winter precipitation trends Discussion Succession One question of this study aims to understand the stage of succession of plot 3. It is hypothesized that plot 3 is a second growth post-disturbance hardwood forest in mid-succession. The plot was labeled as a Hemlock Forest based upon the criteria brought forth by Thompson and Sorenson (2006); it was composed of more than 75% Eastern Hemlocks. This composition was shown in Figures 1 & 2. The post-disturbance second growth status is derived from the work of Ziegler (2000) in Adirondack Park. Ziegler (2000) found a few trends common to post-disturbance second growth forests among the HemlockNorthern Hardwood Forests in Adirondack Park. Second growth forests were found to have trees of smaller diameters. The smallest of the second growth forests in Ziegler’s study had a maximum diameter at breast height (DBH) of 51.3 cm (p. 379). The maximum DBH found in plot 3 was 24.9 cm (refer to figures 5 & 6). This indicates a high likelihood of second growth status as defined by Ziegler. Other factors Ziegler (2000) 8 Page 93 found among second growth forests (e.g. low density of canopy trees, small canopy gaps, and low volumes of coarse woody debris) were not applicable to our study because the associated data was not collected in the 2006 Deane Nature Preserve study. According to Ziegler (2000) the most common disturbance that initiates second-growth forests in Adirondack park were “stand-replacing crown fires” (p. 376) caused by the logging industry during the early part of the 20th century (p. 374-376). It is unclear whether logging related fire disturbances were also responsible for the plot 3 stand initiation in the Deane Nature Preserve. Historical records provided were not detailed enough to make this conclusion. There is evidence of surface fires in the general vicinity during the 1940’s; though it was unknown if they affected plot 3 (Ecology Lab 2004). If the fires did spread to plot 3 there is little indication of this. The fires occurred approximately 70 years ago. The majority of the trees present are around the age of 70. This does seem to imply that many of the trees could have begun to grow following the fires. A large portion of the trees predate the fires (Figure 3). Most of the trees that do predate the fires are hardwoods (Figure 5). It is possible that the older trees lived through the fire; though this relationship cannot be proved with current data. Future studies can look for evidence of charring in the tree cores that outdate the hypothesized fire disturbances. In addition the intensity and scope of the fire can be proved by analyzing the soil horizons, searching for evidence of charcoal. A severe hurricane that occurred in 1938 is another possible disturbance that initiated regeneration in plot 3. The study of Hemlock-Hardwood Forests in the Great Lakes region (Frelich, Calcote, & Davis 1993) cited hurricanes as the leading disturbance in northeastern Hemlock-Hardwood Forests. The tree ages (figures 3-5) indicate a pulse of generation occurring just after the hurricane of 1938 (about 80 years ago). The hurricane is thought to have hit the east side of St. Catherine Mountain (where plot 3 is located) most heavily (Graves, response to “questions” 2006). Trees that predate this disturbance would have been small enough at the time of the hurricane to be less affected from the brunt of the wind (Graves, response to “questions” 2006). Based upon these factors, however circumstantial, hurricanes are a likely source of disturbance in plot 3. One feature that most strongly points to a post-disturbance stand initiation is the complete lack of trees older than 106 (Figure 3). Eastern Hemlocks and most of the other trees found in the plot have the capability to live much longer than 100 years (Frelich et. al. 1993, Woods 2000, & Ziegler 2000). If there was not a disturbance in recent history there would almost undoubtedly be representatives from older age cohorts (Ziegler 2000). The general lack of old age cohorts point to disturbance within recent history (figures 3-5). The date, intensity, and type of disturbance cannot be determined based upon our data. There are four types of disturbance hypothesized: hurricanes, fires, grazing by agricultural animals, and logging (or a combination thereof). Proving this hypothesis requires subsequent studies. Although Eastern Hemlocks are considered a late successional species (Hibbs 1983 & Woods 2000), this stand is not in the later stages of succession. The minimum age used by Ziegler to classify an old-growth stand was 200 years (p. 376). The oldest tree in plot 3 is 106, while most trees are in the range of 70 years old. The age of plot 3 is far too young to be considered an old growth forest; an indication the plot is not late-successional. The stand cannot be late successional based upon small tree diameter and young age cohorts. Other factors that were untested could also be indicators that the stand is not late successional. The coexistence of hardwoods does indicate the stand is still in mid-succession. Hemlocks tend to outcompete other hardwoods over long periods of time because of higher shade tolerance and longer life spans; leading to complete dominance of the canopy (Brown 1982, Frelich et. al. 1993, Hibbs 1983, & Ziegler 2000). The trend of Eastern Hemlocks being younger than the hardwoods can imply the Eastern Hemlocks are in the process of replacing the hardwoods; though not 9 Page 94 enough information is available to support this hypothesis (figures 3-5). The plot was not considered to be early successional because of the large number of trees in surplus of 50 years of age (figures 3-5) and the lack of pioneer species. This hypothesis was extremely difficult to resolve based upon a number of factors. Tree cores were often incomplete or out of order. This made standard dendrochronological analyses difficult and/or impossible. For instance, correlations between particular rings of the same year among various trees could not be made. Ages were often estimated and many of the samples had to be disregarded. The sample size was extremely small, given only one plot was analyzed. The range of data collected was also limited. The only data usable for analysis collected during both 2004 and 2006 was tree type, diameter, and age. A more thorough investigation of the hypothesis would require a plethora of additional factors including: ambient and ground temperature, percent canopy cover, density of trees, density and type of seedlings, and volume of coarse woody debris (Frelich et. al. 1993, Hibbs 1983, Woods 2000, & Ziegler 2000). Tree Ring and Weather Although the comparisons between Eastern Hemlock ring width and climatic factors did not show significant evidence for a correlation. The lack of support for that hypothesis could indicate that local abiotic conditions dictate the growth patterns of Eastern Hemlocks on the Deane Nature Preserve. Factors such as canopy density, soil nutrition and ph, disturbance, succession and site specific climate (as NCDC data is based on statewide climate information) could account for variations from the predicted results. Other issues that may have impacted the value of the results are time and equipment limitations. A full chronology of Eastern Hemlock ring growth patterns would require much more time than is available, as well as extremely precise measuring equipment. Due to the difficulties related to gathering data, standardization of the Eastern Hemlock cores used in the climate analysis prevented a level of precision of data analysis. This kept the data from becoming too complex for analysis based upon equipment available; therefore giving us data that is more relevant to the depth of this study. 10 Page 95 Literature Cited: Brown, J. 1982. Floristic relationships and dynamics of hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) communities in Rhode Island. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 109(3): 385-391. Available from: JSTOR. Accessed 2006 Nov 17. Frelich, L., Calcote, R., Davis, M. 1993. Patch formation and maintenance in an old-growth hemlock-hardwood forest. Ecology, 74(2): 513-527. Available from: JSTOR. Accessed 2006 Nov 17. Hibbs, D. 1983. Forty years of forest succession in central New England. Ecology, 64(6): 1394-1401. Available from: JSTOR. Accessed 2006 Nov 17. Godman, R. M.; Lancaster, Kenneth. 1990. Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr. eastern hemlock. In: Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H., technicalcoordinators. Silvics of North America. Volume 1. Conifers. Agric. Handb. 654. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 604-612. <http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/Volume_1/tsuga/canadensis.htm> (2 December 2006). McQuilkin, Robert A. Quercus prinus L. Carr. Cheastnut Oak. Silvics of North Ameraia. Volume 2. Hardwoods. Agricultrual Handbook 654. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. <http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/volume_2/quercus/prinus.htm> (2 December 2006). National Climatic Data Center (NCDC). 2006. Vermont Climate Summary (Online). Available from: http://lwf.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/research/cag3/vt.html. Accessed 2006 Nov. 28. Rogers, Robert. Quercus alba L. Carr. White Oak. Silvics of North Ameraia. Volume 2. Hardwoods. Agricultrual Handbook 654. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. <http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/volume_2/quercus/prinus.htm> (2 December 2006). Sander, Ivan L. "Northern Red Oak." USDA Forest Service. USDA Forest Service. 6 Dec. 2005 <http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/Volume_2/quercus/rubra.htm>. Tardiff, J. Brisson, J. Bergeron, Y. 2001. Dendroclimatic analysis of Acer Saccharum, Fagus Grandfolia, and Tsuga Candensis from an old growth forest, Southwestern Quebec. Canadian Journal of Forest Research: Vol. 31: pages 1491-1502. Available from proquest.umi.com Full text(84767137). Accessed 2006 Nov. 14 Thompson, E. and Sorenson, E. 2005. Wetland, Woodland, Wildland: A Guide to the Natural Communities of Vermont. Hanover and London: Vermont Department of Fish and Wildlife and The Nature Conservancy. Walters, Russel, S. and Yawney, Harry W. Acer rubrum L. Carr. Red Maple. Silvics of North Ameraia. Volume 2. Hardwoods. Agricultrual Handbook 654. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. <http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/volume_2/quercus/prinus.htm> (2 December 2006). Woods, K. 2000. Dynamics in late-successional hemlock-hardwood forests over three decades. Ecology 81(1): 110-126. Available from: JSTOR. Accessed 2006 Nov 17. 11 Page 96 USDA, NRCS. 2006. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 3 December 2006). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA.< http://plants.usda.gov/java/nameSearch> Ziegler, S. 2000. A comparison of structural characteristics between old-growth and post-fire second growth hemlock-hardwood forests in Adirondack Park, New York, U.S.A.. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 9(5): 373-389. Available from: JSTOR. Accessed 2006 Nov 17. 12 Page 97 About the Authors: Shannon Bonney graduated in 2008 with a BA in Ecology and Sustainable Development. Upon graduating she spent a year as an environmental analyst for the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources Department of Environmental Conservation River Management Program. Claire Davis graduated from GMC in 2008 with a BA in Environmental Studies, concentrating in Recreation, and a minor in Biology. Since graduating, Claire has combined her interest in biology and recreation through working with the ski patrol at Killington Ski Resort. She also manages a small country inn. In the fall of 2010, Claire will begin pursuing a degree as a Registered Nurse at Vermont Technical College. Corinna Lowe graduated in 2007 with a B.A. in Environmental Studies and a concentration in Sustainable Agriculture and Food Production. After graduation she spent six months in Italy working as a farm-hand. In 2009 Corinna earned a Certificate of Permaculture Design from the Permaculture Institute. She lives in Santa Fe, NM where she works in the Human Resources and Gardening Department at Ten Thousand Waves, a Japanese Heath Spa. In her free time she enjoys rock climbing, hiking, cycling and gardening. Kyle Reid, unfortunately, could not be contacted for this project. Page 98 3. Pteridophyte Distribution at Endless Brook Preserve by Megan Nugent Independent Study James H. Graves Faculty Independent Study Advisor Page 99 Pteridophyte Distribution at Endless Brook Preserve Megan Nugent Green Mountain College October 22, 2007 Final Report for an Independent Study Page 100 Pteridophyte Distribution at Endless Brook Preserve I. Introduction This study examines the ecological factors that determine distribution of pteridophytes at Endless Brook Preserve. II. Methods Adam Adorisio’s stand designations from his Land Management Plan for Endless Brook Preserve were utilized in order to break up the preserve into canopy related data collection sites (Adorisio 2006). Adam’s Management plan broke the preserve into eighteen stands. Two additional stands were added for this study. Stand nineteen was created to include the field, and stand twenty included the steep slope to the southwest of the platform located at the top of the preserve. I used the ‘Existing Conditions’ data from the Land Management plan and a GIS map displaying the stand designations in order to determine their location. The dominant tree cover data was employed most heavily in distinguishing between stands. Once a stand was located, I would perform a rapid community assessment in order to collect data such as topographic position, soil drainage, unvegetated surface description, percent tree cover, percent shrub cover, and percent herbaceous/non-vascular cover. Topographic position was determined by descriptions in the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources Rapid Community Assessment Guide. Soil drainage was determined in a similar fashion using the Guide. Soil drainage classes are defined in terms of actual moisture content and the extent of the period during which excess water is present in the plant-root zone. The values I used were an estimate of the best fitting value provided. Unvegetated surface was an estimate of the percentage of surface was covered by marterial besides vegetation including littler/duff, wood, rocks, bare soil, etc. Percent tree, shrub and herb cover were an estimate of how much cover was prodived by each particular group. All data was collected on Rapid Community Assessment Data sheets (Appendix A). Each stand was then surveyed for existing pteridophyte species using a Releve Method. In the simplest terms, I would walk back and forth, zig-zagging across each stand to ensure than all areas were surveyed. Once a species was located it was identified, recorded and data was collected regarding its percent cover and percent distribution. A specimen was collected and prepared for the Green Mountain College Herbarium for each fern species not previously collected at the preserve. Percent cover is the percent of total land area covered by fern leaf area in cover classes of >1% rare, >1% occasional, 1 – 5%, 6 - 25%, 26 – 50%, 51 – 75%, and 76 – 100%. Percent dispersion measures the distribution of the pteridophyte throughout the stand, or how widely distributed individuals are throughout the stand. The combination of these two measurements gives an accurate picture of the abundance of the pteridophyte within the stand. Soil samples were also collected for each stand. Five samples were collected at random locations within each stand and mixed together. Soil pH was measured with a pH meter in a mixture of water and soil (1:1 by volume) after at least 5 minutes of equilibration time. The measurement was then repeated for each sample. The two measurements were averaged to produce the pH results used in this study. Soil texture was measured by hand using the Simplified Key to Soil Texture (Brewer and McCann 1982). Page 101 III. Observations/Results Twenty-six pteridophyte species were identified during this study. All of the below charts have the stands in order from xeric to mesic soil conditions rather than simply numerical order. The purpose of the Ecological Data Chart was to give a summary of the field data collected (Appendix A). The Pteridophyte Location Chart was made to give a quick guide to the locations of any particular fern species of interest that might be encountered on the preserve. Charts were also made for each species displaying its percent cover and percent distribution within each stand. These charts display the abundance of a particular species in a stand compared with its abundance in other stands. Table 1 Ecological Data Chart Stand 2 20 6 14 13 5 9 11 16 18 3 4 7 15 1 12 10 19 8 17 Forest Type DOW DOW DO/HNH WP WPNH HNH MC MC MC MC HH HH HH HH RP MM MM/MC OF RNH SMOFR pH 5.21 4.29 4.16 4.7 4.64 4.45 5.04 4.72 4.79 5.36 4.33 4.58 4.9 4.69 3.91 4.7 5.18 5.45 5.25 4.48 Soil Texture Drainage SL WD SL WD SL MWD SCL MWD SL SPD SL SPD SCL SPD SCL SPD SCL SPD SCL WD SL WD SL MWD SCL MWD SCL MWD SCL WD SL MWD SL MWD SCL SPD SL PD SCL PD Percent Cover Tree Shrub Herb 80 3 80 50 3 90 50 0 40 50 0 80 80 0 70 80 0 50 85 0 90 60 0 50 75 0 30 95 0 5 50 0 5 90 3 10 90 0 20 80 0 1 60 0 >1 65 1 75 90 1 60 3 5 95 70 0 90 90 10 55 Page 102 Topo. Position IF HS HL SS LL MS LL LL SS MS MS MS MS MS MS MS BS LL LS CW # Fern Spp. 7 3 7 9 10 12 9 11 12 8 3 10 9 9 3 13 12 10 11 12 Table 1.5 Ecological Data Chart KEY Forest Type Drainage DOW HNH WP WPNH Dry Oak Woodland Hemlock Northern Hardwoods White Pine White Pine Northern Hardwoods MC HH RP MM OF RNH SMOFR Mixed Coniferous Hemlock Hardwoods Red Pine Mesic Maple Old Field Rich Northern Hardwoods Sugar Maple/Ostrich Fern Riverine Texture SL SCL Sandy Loam Sany Clay Loam Page 103 WD MWD SPD PD Well Drained Moderately Well Drained Somewhat Poorly Drained Poorly Drained Topo. Position IF HS HL SS LL MS Interfluve High Slope High Level Step in Slope Low Level Midslope BS LS CW Back Slope Low Slope Channel Wall Table 2 Pteridophyte Location Chart By Stand In Order from Xeric to Mesic Soils Pteridophyte: 2 20 6 14 N. Maidenhair Hay-scented Silvery Glade Mountain Wood Spinulose Wood Crested Wood Evergreen Wood Marginal Wood Sensitive Interrupted Narrow Beech C. Polypody Christmas New York MH Spleenwort Fragile Ground Cedar Lady Bracken Rusty Woodsia Royal Oak Marsh Ostrich Princess Pine * * * 13 * * 5 * * 9 * * 11 * * * 16 18 3 * * 4 * * * 7 * 15 1 * * 12 * * * 10 * 19 8 * 17 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Bulblet Table 3 Percent Value Cover Class KEY for Table 3 Charts 1 >1% rare 2 >1% occa. 3 1 - 5% 4 6 - 25% 5 26 - 50% 6 51 - 75% 7 76 - 100% Page 104 TwTw en o Fo S t y u i Th rteex irt n ee n Fi ve N El ine S eve Ei ixte n gh en te Th en re Fo e Se ur Fi ven fte en TwOn el e v N Te in e et n e Se E en ve ig nt ht ee n T Tw wo en ty Fo S i u x Th rtee irt n ee n Fi ve N El ine e Si ven x Ei tee gh n te e Th n re Fo e Se ur Fi ven ft e en Tw O n el e ev e N T in en et ee Se Ei n ve g h nt t ee n Table 3.1 Maidenhair Fern Adiantum pedatum 8 7 6 5 4 Cover Dispersion 3 2 1 0 Stand Number Table 3.2 Maidenhair Spleenwort 8 7 6 5 4 Cover Dispersion 3 2 1 0 Stand Number Page 105 TwTw en o Fo S ty u i Th rteex irt n ee Fi n v N e El ine Si eve Ei xte n gh en te Th en r Foee Se ur Fi ven fte en TwOn el e N Tve in e et n Se E een ve ig nt ht ee n TwTw en o Fo S ty u i T h rte x irt en ee Fi n v N e El ine S i e ve E i xt e n gh en te Th e n re Fo e S ur Fi even fte en TwOn el e N Tve in e et n Se E een ve ig n t ht ee n Table 3.3 Lady Fern Athyrium filix-femina 8 7 6 5 4 Cover Dispersion 3 2 1 0 Stand Number Table 3.4 Bulblet Fern Cystopteris 8 7 6 5 4 Cover Dispersion 3 2 1 0 Stand Number Page 106 TwTw en o Fo S ty u i Th rteex rit n ee n Fi ve N El ine S eve Ei ixte n gh en te Th en re Fo e Se ur Fi ven fte en Tw O el ne ev N Te in e et n e Se E en ve ig nt ht ee n TwTw ne o Fo S ty u i Th rteex ir t n ee n Fi ve N E l in e S eve Ei ixte n gh en te Th en re Fo e Se ur Fi ven fte en TwOn el e v N Te in e et n e Se E en ve ig nt ht ee n Table 3.5 Fragile Fern Cystopteris fragilis 8 7 6 5 4 Cover Dispersion 3 2 1 0 Stand Number Table 3.6 Hay-scented Fern Dennstaedtia punctilobula 8 7 6 5 4 Cover Dispersion 3 2 1 0 Stand Number Page 107 T Tw wo en t Fo S y ur ix T h tee irt n ee Fi n v N e El ine e Si ven x Ei tee gh n te T h en re Fo e Se ur Fi ven fte en Tw O n el e ev N Te in en et e Se Ei en ve gh nt t ee n TwTw en o Fo S ty u i Th rteex ir t n ee n Fi ve N E l ine S eve Ei ixte n g h en te e Th n re F e Se our Fi v e n fte en Tw O el ne ev N Te in e et n e Se E en ve ig nt ht ee n Table 3.7 Silvery Glade Fern Deparia acrostichoides 8 7 6 5 4 Cover Dispersion 3 2 1 0 Stand Number Table 3.8 Mountain Wood Fern Dryopteris campyloptera 8 7 6 5 4 Cover Dispersion 3 2 1 0 Stand Number Page 108 T Tw w o en t Fo S y i u x Th rtee irt n ee Fi n v N e i El n e e Si ven x E i te gh en te Th en re Fo e Se ur Fi ven fte en TwOne el v N Te in en et e Se Ei en ve gh nt t ee n TwTw en o Fo S ty u i Th rte x irt en ee Fi n N ve El ine S eve Ei ixte n gh en te Th en r Foee Se ur Fi ven fte e Tw O n el ne e N Tve in e et n Se E een ve ig nt ht ee n Table 3.9 Spinulose Wood Fern Dryopteris carthusiana 8 7 6 5 4 Cover Dispersion 3 2 1 0 Stand Number Table 3.10 Crested Wood Fern Drtopteris cristata 8 7 6 5 4 Cover Dispersion 3 2 1 0 Stand Number Page 109 TwTw en o Fo S ty u Th rte ix irt en ee Fi n N ve El ine S e ve Ei ixte n gh e n te Th en r F ee Se our Fi v e n f te en TwOn el e N T ve in e et n Se E een ve ig nt ht ee n TwTw en o Fo S ty u i Th rte x irt en ee Fi n v N e El ine S eve E i i xte n g h en te T h en r F ee Se our F i ven fte en TwOn el e N T ve in e et n Se E een ve i g nt ht ee n Table 3.11 Evergreen Wood Fern Dryopteris intermedia 8 7 6 5 4 Cover Dispersion 3 2 1 0 Stand Number Table 3.12 Marginal Wood Fern Dyropteris marginalis 8 7 6 5 4 Cover Dispersion 3 2 1 0 Stand Number Page 110 TwTw en o Fo S ty u Th rte ix ir t e n ee Fi n N ve El ine S eve Ei ixte n gh en te T h en r Foee Se ur Fi ven fte en TwOn el e N T ve in e et n Se E een v e ig nt ht ee n TwTw en o Fo S ty u i Th rte x irt en ee Fi n v N e El ine S eve Ei ixte n gh en te Th en re Fo e S ur Fi even fte en TwOn el e N T ve in e et n Se E een ve ig nt ht ee n Table 3.13 Oak Fern Gymnocarpium dryopteris 8 7 6 5 4 Cover Dispersion 3 2 1 0 Stand Number Table 3.14 Ground Cedar Lycopodium 8 7 6 5 4 Cover Dispersion 3 2 1 0 Stand Number Page 111 TwTw en o Fo S t y u Th rte ix i r t en ee Fi n N ve El ine S ev Ei ixteen gh en t Theen r Foee Se ur Fi ven fte en TwOn el e N Tve in e et n Se E een ve igh nt t ee n TwTw en o Fo S ty u i Th rte x irt en ee Fi n N ve El ine S eve Ei ixte n gh en te Th en r Foee Se ur Fi ven fte en TwOn el e N Tve in e et n Se E een ve ig nt ht ee n Table 3.15 Princess Pine Lycopodium obscurum 8 7 6 5 4 Cover Dispersion 3 2 1 0 Stand Number Table 3.16 Ostrich Fern Matteuccia struthiopteris 8 7 6 5 4 Cover Dispersion 3 2 1 0 Stand Number Page 112 TwTw en o Fo S ty u Th rte ix irt en ee Fi n N ve El ine S ev Ei ixteen g h en te Th en r Foee S ur Fi even fte en TwOn el e N T ve in e et n Se E een ve i g nt ht ee n TwTw en o Fo S ty u Th rte ix irt en ee Fi n N ve El ine S e ve Ei ixte n gh e n te Th en r Foee Se ur Fi v e n f te en TwOn el e N T ve in e et n Se E een ve ig nt ht ee n Table 3.17 Sensitive Fern Onoclea sensibilus 8 7 6 5 4 Cover Dispersion 3 2 1 0 Stand Number Table 3.18 Interrupted Fern Osmunda claytoniana 8 7 6 5 4 Cover Dispersion 3 2 1 0 Stand Number Page 113 TwTw en o Fo S ty u i Th rteex irt n ee Fi n v N e El ine S eve Ei ixte n gh en te Th en r Foee Se ur Fi ven fte en TwOn el e N Tve in e et n Se E een ve ig nt ht ee n TwTw en o Fo S ty u i Th rteex irt n ee Fi n v N e El ine Si eve Ei xte n gh en te Th en re Fo e Se ur Fi ven fte en TwOn el e N T ve in e et n e Se E en ve ig nt ht ee n Table 3.19 Royal Fern Osmunda regalis 8 7 6 5 4 Cover Dispersion 3 2 1 0 Stand Number Table 3.20 Narrow Beech Fern Phegopteris connectilis 8 7 6 5 4 Cover Dispersion 3 2 1 0 Stand Number Page 114 T Tw wo en ty Fo Si ur x Th tee irt n ee n Fi Tw ve el ve Te N n El i n e e Si ven xt Ei ee gh n te e Th n re Fo e Se ur v F i en fte en O n Se Eig e ve ht n N teen in te en TwTw en o Fo S ty u i Th rteex irt n ee Fi n v N e El ine S eve Ei ixte n gh en te Th en re Fo e Se ur Fi ven fte en TwOn el e N T ve in e et n e Se E en ve ig nt ht ee n Table 3.21 Common Polypody Polypodium virginianum 8 7 6 5 4 Cover Dispersion 3 2 1 0 Stand Number Table 3.22 Christmas Fern Polystichum acrostichoides 8 7 6 5 4 Cover Dispersion 3 2 1 0 Stand Number Page 115 TwTw en o Fo S ty u i Th rteex irt n ee n Fi ve N El ine S eve Ei ixte n gh en te T h en re Fo e Se ur Fi ven fte en TwOn el e v N Te in e et n e S e E en ve i g nt ht ee n TwTw en o t Fo S y ur ix Th tee irt n ee n Fi ve N El ine e S ve Ei ixte n gh en te e Th n re F e Se our Fi ven fte en TwOn el e v N Te in e et n e Se E e n ve i g nt ht ee n Table 3.23 Bracken Pteridium aquilinum 8 7 6 5 4 Cover Dispersion 3 2 1 0 Stand Number Table 3.24 New York Fern Thelyopteris noveboracensis 8 7 6 5 4 Cover Dispersion 3 2 1 0 Stand Number Page 116 TwTw en o Fo S ty u i Th rteex irt n ee n Fi ve N El ine S eve Ei ixte n gh en te Th en re Fo e Se ur Fi ven fte en TwOn el e v N Te in e et n e Se E en ve ig nt ht ee n TwTw en o Fo S ty u i Th rteex irt n ee n Fi ve N El ine S ev e Ei ixte n g h en te Th en re Fo e Se ur Fi ven fte en TwOn el e v N Te in e et n e S e E en ve ig nt ht ee n Table 3.25 Marsh Fern Thelyopteris palustris pubescens 8 7 6 5 4 Cover Dispersion 3 2 1 0 Stand Number Table 3.26 Rusty Woodsia Woodsia ilvensis 8 7 6 5 4 Cover Dispersion 3 2 1 0 Stand Number Page 117 IV. Discussion Ecological Data The Ecological Data chart shows that the five most mesic stands (Stands 12, 10, 19, 8, and 17) on the preserve all express high fern diversity. High diversity, in this case, is characterized by a high number of fern species present in that particular stand. The numbers of fern species ranged from 3 to 13, with the majority of stands in the 7 to 13 range. The five most mesic stands had fern diversity ranging from 10 to 13. There were three stands (Stands 20, 3, and 1) with a low fern diversity of 3. They ranged from xeric to mesic in soil conditions. Though, a common trend found among them was a low pH (ranging from 3.91 – 4.33) and low % tree cover (50-60%). The combination of acid soils and not enough shade could have likely affected the presence of ferns in these particular stands. The forest type that consistently had high fern diversity were the two Mesic Maple stands (Stands 12 and 10). It was also found that the areas that had a high fern diversity (with a species number between 8 and 13) had a higher pH ranging from 4.45 to 5.45. Cover and Dispersion Charts by Species Patterns emerged from these charts in which I placed into categories including Midrange pH to Mesic, Rare, Rare in more than one stand, Once but not rare, Xeric, and Common. Midrange pH to Mesic: This pattern is when a peak occurred on the graph between stands 14 to 11 which was fairly xeric soil conditions and a fairly consistent midrange pH (4.45 – 5) and another peak would occur in on the mesic end of the graph with little action in between peaks. Many pteridophyte species ended up falling constant with this pattern including the Northern Maidenhair Fern (Table 3.1), Lady Fern (Table 3.3), Hay-scented Fern (Table 3.6), Silvery Glade Fern (Table 3.7), Sensitive Fern (Table 3.17), Interrupted Fern (Table 3.18), Narrow Beech Fern (Table 3.20), and New York Fern (Table 3.24). Many of these species had a peak in the midrange, but were most abundant in mesic conditions. A few of the above species had peaks in the midrange and mesic, but where the most abundant in the more xeric conditions of the midrange. There species included Hayscented Fern, Narrow Beech Fern, and New York Fern. Rare: There were a few rare species encountered with this study. A rare species is characterized as being found in only one stand and with a cover class rating of 1. This means that when the species was encountered at the particular stand, it was found very rarely and in only one area. Rare species found included the Maidenhair Spleenwort (Table 3.2), Bulblet Fern (Table 3.4), Crested Wood Fern (Table 3.10), Ground Cedar (Table 3.14), Princess Pine (Table 3.15), Royal Fern (Table 3.19), Marsh Fern (Table 3.25). All of these species were encountered off of the established trails therefore will likely not be affected by human activity. Rare in more than one stand: This pattern occurs when a particular species was found in more than one stand, but when if was found, it was rare (cover class rating of 1). These species included Fragile Fern Page 118 (Table 3.5) and Spinulose Wood Fern (Table 3.9). Other species that closely followed this pattern but were rare in one or two stands but abundant in another include Oak Fern (Table 3.13) and Bracken (Table 3.23). Once but not rare: A few species occurred in only one stand, but where abundant in that particular stand. This would be, for example, the dense patches of Ostrich Fern along the stream banks in stand 17. Ostrich Fern only occurred in that stand, but was certainly not rare. Species that followed this pattern included Mountain Wood Fern (Table 3.8), Ostrich Fern (Table 3.17) and Rusty Woodsia (Table 3.26). Xeric: It was uncommon to find species in abundance in particularly xeric soils. Ferns typically flourish in areas with most soils. For the most part, this study found fern to be most abundant in mesic soils. Only a handful of ferns were most abundant in dry soils. These included Hay-scented Fern (Table 3.6), Narrow Beech Fern (Table 3.20), Common Polypody (Table 3.21), and New York Fern (Table 3.24). Common: There were three fern species that were particularly common and occurred in abundance in more than half of the stands they were found. These species are Evergreen Wood Fern (Table 3.11), Marginal Wood Fern (Table 3.12), and Christmas Fern (Table 3.22). Christmas Fern occurred in 19 out of 20 stands. Marginal and Evergreen Wood Ferns both occurred in 18 out of 20 stands. V. Conclusion: There is a great diversity of pteridophytes to be found at Deane Nature Preserve. Every stand surveyed had a minimum of 3 different fern species with as many as 13. Species were most likely to occur in areas with mesic soil conditions and a midrange pH. In general, it seemed that low pH’s led to a lower fern diversity. Christmas, Marginal Wood, and Evergreen Wood were by far the most abundant ferns found. It is very apparent simply walking on the established trails that these ferns are dominant in the under story. Numberous rare species were also encountered including Maidenhair Spleenwort, Bulblet Fern, Crested Wood Fern, Ground Cedar, Princess Pine, Royal Fern and Marsh Fern. Many of these rare species (with the exception of the Crested Wood Fern) were not encountered with my last study. VI. Bibliography: Adorisio, Adam. 2006. Endless Brook Preserve Management Plan. Senior Project, Progressive Program, Green Mountain College, Poultney, Vermont. Cobb B, Farnsworth E, Lowe C. 2005. Ferns of Northeastern and Central North America. New York: Houghton Mifflin. Mickel JT. 2003. Ferns for American Gardeners. Portland: Timber Press. Rickard M. 2000. Garden Ferns: Plantfinder’s Guide to Growing Series. Portland: Timber Press. Sneddon L. 1993. Field Form Instructions for the Descriptions of Sites and Terrestrial, Palustrine, and Vegetated Estuarine Communities. Boston: The Nature Conservancy Eastern Heritage Task Force. Thompson EH, Sorenson ER. 2000. Wetland, Woodland, Wildland: A Guide to Natural Communities of Vermont. Hanover: University Press of New England. Page 119 Appendix A: Rapid Community Assessment Data Stand 1 Location: Endless Brook Preserve Town: Poultney, VT Land Owner: Green Mountain College Survey Date: 6.22.07 Land Area: .5 Acres Forest Type: Red Pine Tree Cover: Red Pine Environmental Description: Topographic Position: Midslope Soil Texture: Soil pH: Soil Drainage: Well Drained Unvegetated Surface: 100% litter/duff Vegetation Description: Tree Cover: 60% Shrub Cover: 0% Herbaceous/Non-vascular: >1% Fern Cover + Dispersion: Species Evergreen Wood Fern Christmas Fern Silvery Glade Fern % Cover 1 1 1 Dispersion 6 5 1 Notes: Area almost completely lacking in under story vegetation besides that occasional fern. One of few stands containing no Marginal Wood Fern Page 120 Stand 2 Location: Endless Brook Preserve Town: Poultney, VT Land Owner: Green Mountain College Survey Date: 6.11.07 Land Area: 5 Acres Forest Type: Dry Oak Woodland Tree Cover: Northern Red Oak, Chestnut Oak, White Oak Environmental Description: Topographic Position: Interfluve Soil Texture: Soil pH: Soil Drainage: Well Drained Unvegerated Surface: 97% litter/duff, 3% large rocks (>10cm) Vegetation Description: Tree Cover: 80% Shrub: 1-5% Herbaceous/Non-vascular: 80% Fern Survey: Species Common Polypody Marginal Wood Fern Christmas Fern Hay Scented Fern Evergreen Wood Fern Maidenhair Spleenwort Fragile Fern % Cover 1 3 3 1 1 1 1 Dispersion 5 7 6 1 1 1 1 Notes: Christmas Fern found mostly on outer edges of stand. Hay Scented found on edge of stand 2 + 4. Ferns rare at southern edge of stand bordering Hemlock Forest. Page 121 Stand 3 Location: Endless Brook Preserve Town: Poultney, VT Land Owner: Green Mountain College Survey Date: 6.19.07 Land Area: 4 Acres Forest Type: Hemlock Hardwoods Tree Cover: Hemlock, Northern Red Oak, White Oak, Chestnut Oak Environmental Description: Topographic Position: Midslope Soil Texture: Soil pH: Soil Drainage: Well Drained Unvegetated Surface: 96% litter/duff, 2% large rocks (>10cm), 2%wood (>1cm) Vegetation Description: Tree Cover: 50% Shrub: 0% Herbaceous/Non-Vascular: 5% Fern Survey: Species: Christmas Fern Marginal Wood Fern Common Polpody % Cover 1 1 1 Page 122 Dispersion 1 1 1 Stand 4 Location: Endless Brook Preserve Town: Poultney, VT Land Owner: Green Mountain College Survey Date: 6.20.07 Land Area: 15 Acres Forest Type: Hemlock-Hardwoods Tree Cover: Hemlock, Sweet Birch, Northern Red Oak, White Pine Environmental Description: Topographic Position: Midslope Soil Texture: Soil pH: Soil Drainage: Moderately Well Drained Unvegetated Surface: 95% litter/duff, 3% wood, 1% large rocks (>10cm), 1% small rocks (<10cm) Vegetation Description: Tree Cover: 90% Shrub: 1-5% Herbaceous/Non-vascular: 10% Pteridophyte Survey: Species Hay Scented Fern Evergreen Fern New York Fern Interrupted Fern Christmas Fern Marginal Wood Fern Silvery Glade Fern Maidenhair Fern Common Polypody Ground Cedar % Cover 4 4 3 1 4 4 3 1 1 1 Dispersion 3 7 2 1 7 7 2 4 1 1 Notes: Evergreen, Christmas, and Marginal were most abundant. Some areas with abundance of Hay Scented. Page 123 Stand 5 Location: Endless Brook Preserve Town: Poultney, VT Land Owner: Green Mountain College Survey Date: 6.25.07 Land Area: 10 Acres Forest Type: Hemlock-Northern Hardwoods Tree Cover: Sugar Maple, Sweet Birch, American Beech, White Ash, Red Maple, Hemlock, Northern Red Oak Environmental Description: Topographic Position: Midslope Soil Texture: Soil Drainage: Somewhat Poorly Drained (vernal pools) Unvegetated Surface: 98% litter/duff, 1% large rocks (>10cm), 1% small rocks (<10cm) Vegetation Description: Tree Cover: 80% Shrub: 0% Herbaceous/Non-Vascular: 50% Pteridophyte Survey: Species Hay Scented Fern Christmas Fern New York Fern Marginal Wood Fern Maidenhair Fern Intermediate Fern Interrupted Fern Sensitive Fern Lady Fern Bracken Common Polypody Narrow Beech Fern % Cover 3 3 4 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 Dispersion 7 7 7 5 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 Notes: Many ferns occurring in large clusters: 5m2 patch of Hay Scented + New York 15m2 patch mostly Hay Scented, also New York + Christmas 10m2 patch of Hay Scented 8m2 patch of Hay Scented + New York 30m2 patch mostly Hay Scented, also New York + Christmas 4m2 patch of Hay Scented, Maidenhair, + Christmas Page 124 Stand 6 Location: Endless Brook Preserve Town: Poultney, VT Land Owner: Green Mountain College Survey Date: 6.26.07 Land Area: 4 Acres Forest Type: Hemlock-Dry Oak Woodland Tree Cover: Hemlock, Northern Red Oak Environmental Description: Topographic Position: High Level Soil Texture: Soil pH: Soil Drainage: Moderately Well Drained Unvegetated Surface: 85% litter/duff, 15% large rocks (>10cm) Vegetation Description: Tree Cover: 50% Shrub: 0% Herbaceous/Non-Vascular: 40% Pteridophyte Survey: Species: Hay Scented Fern Evergreen Wood Fern Spinulous Wood Fern Christmas Fern New York Fern Marginal Wood Fern Common Polypody % Cover 4 1 1 3 1 3 1 Dispersion 5 1 1 4 1 4 1 Notes: Lack of ferns in Hemlock dominate area west of moss area. Polypodys + Marginal in moss/rock area. No Ferns in Dry Oak understory, Marginals just east into Hemlock Page 125 Stand 7 Location: Endless Brook Preserve Town: Poultney, VT Land Owner: Green Mountain College Survey Date:6.26.07 Land Area: 6.5 Acres Forest Type: Hemlock-Hardwoods Tree Cover: Hemlock, Red Maple, Northern Red Oak, Eastern White Pine Environmental Description: Topographic Postion: Midslope Soil Texture: Soil pH: Soil Drainage: Moderately Well Drained Unvegetated Surface: 99% litter/duff, 1% large rocks (>10cm) Vegetation Description: Tree Cover: 90% Shrub Cover: 0% Herbaceous/Non-Vascular: 20% Pteridophyte Survey: Species Margainal Wood Fern Evergreen Wood Fern Lady Fern Christmas Fern Common Polypody Nothern Maidenhair Fern Interrupted Fern New York Fern Fragile Fern % Cover 3 2 2 2 1 3 1 1 1 Dispersion 7 3 3 6 1 3 2 2 1 Notes: North of mountain stream: almost no ferns besides occasional Marginal. South of mountain stream: significantly more ferns Page 126 Stand 8 Location: Endless Brook Preserve Town: Poultney, VT Land Owner: Green Mountain College Survey Date: 6.27.07 Land Area: 3 Acres Forest Type: Rich Northern Hardwoods Dominate Trees: Sugar Maple, White Ash, White Pine, Shagbark Hickory, White Birch and Red Maple, Butternut Hickory, Northern Red Oak and Chestnut Oak, Basswood, Quacking Aspen and White Oak, Eastern Hemlock Environmental Description: Topographic Position: Low Slope Soil Texture: Soil pH: Soil Drainage: Poorly Drained Unvegetated Survace: 98% litter/duff, 1% large rocks (>10cm), 1% small rocks (<10cm) Vegetation Description: Tree Cover: 70% Shrub Cover: 0% Herbaceous/Non-vascular: 90% Pteridophyte Survey: Species Sensitive Fern Lady Fern Interrupted Fern Silvery Glade Fern Evergreen Wood Fern Christmas Fern Nothern Maidenhair Fern Margainal Wood Fern Spinulous Wood Fern Fragile Fern New York Fern % Cover 2 2 3 3 2 3 4 3 1 1 3 Dispersion 2 2 3 2 2 6 7 6 1 1 3 Notes: Maidenhair was most abundant, cliff side completely covered in Maidenhair. Large gap in canopy (full sun): patch of grasses, Maidenhair and New York. Page 127 Stand 9 Location: Endless Brook Preserve Town: Poultney, VT Land Owner: Green Mountain College Survey Date: 6.27.07 Land Area:1 Acre Forest Type: Mixed Coniferous Dominant Trees: White Pine, Eastern Hemlock, White Ash Environmental Description: Topographic Position: Low Level Soil Texture: Soil pH: Soil Drainage: Somewhat Poorly Drained Unvegetated Surface: 99% litter/duff, 1% large rocks (>10cm) Vegetation Description: Tree Cover: 85% Shrub: 0% Herbaceous/Non-vascular: 90% Pteridophye Survey: Species Christmas Fern Northern Maidenhair Fern Interrupted Fern Evergreen Wood Fern Silvery Glade Fern Sensitive Fern Marginal Wood Fern Lady Fern Crested Wood Fern % Cover 3 2 3 3 4 4 3 1 1 Notes: Abundance of Sensitive Ferns at edge of field. Only stand where Crested Wood Fern was found. Numerous large patches of Interruped. Stand with most abundant Silvery Glade Fern. Page 128 Dispersion 6 3 6 6 7 6 3 1 1 Stand 10 Location: Endless Brook Preserve Town: Poultney, VT Land Owner: Green Mountain College Survey Date: 6.21.07 Land Area: 5.5 Acres Forest Type: Mixed Coniferous-Mesic Maple, Ash, Hickory, Oak Dominant Trees: Sugar Maple, Black Cherry, Eastern Hemlock, White Ash, Sweet Birch, White Pine, Basswood, Northern Red Oak, White Oak, White Birch, Red Maple Environmental Desciption: Topographic Position: Back Slope Soil Texture: Soil pH: Soil Drainage: Moderately Well Drained Unvegetated Surface: 99% litter/duff, 1% large rocks (>10cm) Vegetation Desciption: Tree Cover: 90% Shrub Cover: 0-1% Herbaceous/Non-Vascular: 55-65% Pteridophyte Survey: Species Sensitive Fern Christmas Fern Marginal Wood Fern Silvery Glade Fern Evergreen Wood Fern New York Fern Interrupted Fern Northern Maidenhair Fern Lady Fern Narrow Beech Fern Common Polypody Fragile Fern % Cover 1 3 3 3 3 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 Page 129 Dispersion 3 7 7 4 3 1 2 4 1 2 1 1 Stand 11 Location: Endless Brook Preserve Town: Poultney, VT Land Owner: Green Mountain College Survey Date: 6.25.07 Land Area: 1 Acres Forest Type: Mixed Coniferous Dominant Trees: White Pine, Eastern Hemlock, Sweet Birch Environmental Desciption: Topographic Position: Low Level/Low Slope Soil Texture: Soil pH: Soil Drainage: Somewhat Poorly Drained Unvegetated Surface: 99% litter/duff, 1% large rocks (>10cm) Vegetation Desciption: Tree Cover: 60% Shrub Cover: 0% Herbaceous/Non-Vascular: 50% Pteridophyte Survey: Species Evergreen Wood Fern Marginal Wood Fern Hay Scented Fern Christmas Fern Silvery Glade Fern Lady Fern Narrow Beech Fern Northern Maidenhair Fern Sensitive Fern Interrupted Fern Spinulous Wood Fern % Cover 3 3 4 3 3 3 1 3 3 3 1 Notes: Large clusters of ferns along edge of field. Large ferns (Sensitive, Evergreen, Interrupted, Lady, Silvery Glade) Page 130 Dispersion 7 3 6 4 3 1 3 3 3 3 1 Stand 12 Location: Endless Brook Preserve Town: Poultney, VT Land Owner: Green Mountain College Survey Date: 6.21.07 Land Area: 2 Acres Forest Type: Meic Maple, Ask, Hickory, Oak Dominant Trees: Shagbark Hickory, Hophorn Beam, White Ash, Sugar Maple, Basswood, Northern Red Oak Environmental Desciption: Topographic Position: Midslope Soil Texture: Soil pH: Soil Drainage: Moderately Well Drained Unvegetated Surface: 99% littler/duff, 1% large rocks (>10cm) Vegetation Desciption: Tree Cover: 50-75% Shrub Cover: 0-2% Herbaceous/Non-Vascular: 75% Pteridophyte Survey: Species Christmas Fern Marginal Wood Fern Nortern Maidenhair Fern Lady Fern Evergreen Wood Fern Narrow Beech Fern New York Fern Silvery Glade Fern Interrupted Fern Spinulous Wood Fern Sensitive Fern Fragile Fern Hay Scented Fern % Cover 4 4 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 Page 131 Dispersion 7 7 4 3 2 1 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 Stand 13 Location: Endless Brook Preserve Town: Poultney, VT Land Owner: Green Mountain College Survey Date: 6.21.07 Land Area: 2 Acres Forest Type: White Pine-Northern Hardwoods Dominant Trees: White Pine, E. Hemlock, Sugar Maple, White Ash, Northern Red Oak Environmental Desciption: Topographic Position: Low Level Soil Texture: Soil pH: Soil Drainage: Somewhat Poorly Drained Unvegetated Surface: 96% little/duff, 3% wood (>1cm), 1% large rocks(>10cm) Vegetation Desciption: Tree Cover: 80-90% Shrub Cover: 0% Herbaceous/Non-Vascular: 65-75% Pteridophyte Survey: Species Hay Scented Fern Christmas Fern Interrupted Fern Evergreen Wood Fern Lady Fern New York Fern Sensitive Fern Royal Fern Narrow Beech Fern Nothern Maidenhair Fern % Cover 3 4 4 4 3 3 1 1 3 1 Notes: Only 2 Royal Ferns found in entire stand. Page 132 Dispersion 6 7 4 5 3 3 3 1 3 3 Stand 14 Location: Endless Brook Preserve Town: Poultney, VT Land Owner: Green Mountain College Survey Date:6.22.07 Land Area: 5 Acres Forest Type: White Pine Dominant Trees: 100% White Pine Environmental Desciption: Topographic Position: Step in Slope Soil Texture: Soil pH: Soil Drainage: Moderately Well Drained Unvegetated Surface: 100% litter/duff Vegetation Desciption: Tree Cover: 50% Shrub Cover: 0% Herbaceous/Non-Vascular: 80% Pteridophyte Survey: Species Evergreen Wood Fern Christmas Fern Hay Scented Fern Lady Fern Narrow Beech Fern Sensitive Fern Oak Fern New York Fern Bracken % Cover 3 3 4 1 2 1 1 4 3 Dispersion 7 7 3 1 1 1 1 3 1 Notes: Narrow Beech + Sensitive found only on edge of 13 + 14. Numerous large speratic patches of New York. Two large patches of Bracken. Understory vegetation consisted of roughly half maple regeneration and half ferns. Bracken + Haydcented found together. Page 133 Stand 15 Location: Endless Brook Preserve Town: Poultney, VT Land Owner: Green Mountain College Survey Date: 6.22.07 Land Area: 3.5 Acres Forest Type: Hemlock-Northern Hardwoods Dominant Trees: Hemlock, Yellow Birch, White Pine, Red Maple Environmental Desciption: Topographic Position: Midslope Soil Texture: Soil pH: Soil Drainage: Moderately Well Drained/Somewhat Poorly Drained Unvegetated Surface: 100% litter/duff Vegetation Desciption: Tree Cover: 80% Shrub Cover: 0% Herbaceous/Non-Vascular: 1-2% Pteridophyte Survey: Species Evergreen Wood Fern Christmas Fern Margainal Wood Fern Interrupted Fern Hayscented Fern Lady Fern Common Polypody Mountain Wood Fern Narrow Beech % Cover 3 3 1 2 3 2 1 1 3 Dispersion 6 6 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 Notes: Fern populations signicantly more abundant at egde of field Marginal, interrupted, hayscented, lady, polypody, and mountain ferns - field edge only Abundance of fallen/rotten logs Fern populations rather sparse over entire stand - understory veg almost entirely ferns Large patch of Narrow Beech at edge of 13 + 15 Page 134 Stand 16 Location: Endless Brook Preserve Town: Poultney, VT Land Owner: Green Mountain College Survey Date: 6.25.07 Land Area: 4.5 Acres Forest Type: Mixed Coniferous Dominant Trees: Hemlock, White Pine, Hophorn Beam, Sweet Birch, Quacking Aspen Environmental Desciption: Topographic Position: Step in Slope Soil Texture: Soil pH: Soil Drainage: Somewhat Poorly Drained Unvegetated Surface: 100% litter/duff Vegetation Desciption: Tree Cover: 75% Shrub Cover:m 0% Herbaceous/Non-Vascular: 30% Pteridophyte Survey: Species Silvery Glade Fern Evergreen Wood Fern Christmas Fern Marginal Wood Fern New York Fern Lady Fern Marsh Fern Spinulous Wood Fern Sensitive Fern Maidenhair Fern Narrow Been Fern Interrupted Fern % Cover 1 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 Dispersion 1 7 6 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Notes New York found at lower most portion (river edge) + edge of 15 5m2 of Hayscented + New York 8m2 partch of Hayscented, Lady, + Christmas Large fertlie area where canopy opens and dominate tree = Butternut (MICROCLIMATE) Silvery Glade, Marginal, New York + Lady found at bottom close to stream Small patch of interruped in canopy opening just above the TP 6m2 patch of Narrow Beech Page 135 Stand 18 Location: Endless Brook Preserve Town: Poultney, VT Land Owner: Green Mountain College Survey Date: 8.27.07 Land Area: Forest Type: Dominant Trees: Hemlock, White Pine, Maple Environmental Desciption: Topographic Position: Lowslope Soil Texture: Soil pH: Soil Drainage: Weell Drained Unvegetated Surface: 55% Litter/duff, 40% wood, 3% small rocks (<10cm), 2% large rocks (>10cm) Vegetation Desciption: Tree Cover: 95% Shrub Cover: 0% Herbaceous/Non-Vascular: 5% Pteridophyte Survey: Species % Cover New York 2 Christmas 3 Interrupted 2 Hayscented 2 Bracken 1 Evergreen 3 Marginal 3 Sensitive 1 Dispersion 1 6 1 1 1 6 1 1 Notes: Evergreen most abundant Sensitive Fern only found near stream In general, fern cover is rather sparce in this stand Page 136 Stand 19 Location: Endless Brook Preserve Town: Poultney, VT Land Owner: Green Mountain College Survey Date: 8.27.08 Land Area: Forest Type: Field Dominant Trees: White Pine, Hemlock, Apple Environmental Desciption: Topographic Position: Lowslope Soil Texture: Soil pH: Soil Drainage: Mderately Well Drained Unvegetated Surface: 1% litter/duff, 1% wood (>1cm) Vegetation Desciption: Tree Cover: 1% Shrub Cover: 5% Herbaceous/Non-Vascular: 95% Pteridophyte Survey: Species % Cover Sensitive 3 Lady 1 Evergreen 1 Hayscented 1 Christmas 1 Spinulose 1 Marginal 1 New York 2 Interrupted 1 Princess Pine 1 Dispersion 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Notes: Interrupted Fern only found at edge of stand 15 5m2 patch of New York Fern at edge of stand 15 Fern diversity significantly more abundant on perimeters of field Ferns found in actual field consisted primarity of sensitve and princess pine Only stand where Princess Pine was found Sensitive Fern was most abundant fern Page 137 Stand 20 Location: Endless Brook Preserve Town: Poultney, VT Land Owner: Green Mountain College Survey Date: 6.12.07 Land Area: Forest Type: Dominant Trees: Environmental Desciption: Topographic Position: High Slope Soil Texture: Soil pH: Soil Drainage: Rapidly Drained Unvegetated Surface: 90% litter/duff, 5% wood (>1cm), 5% large rocks (>10cm) Vegetation Desciption: Tree Cover: 50% Shrub Cover: 1-5% Herbaceous/Non-Vascular: 90% Pteridophyte Survey: Species % Cover Rusty Woodsia 1 Marginal 1 Polypody 1 Dispersion 5 1 5 Notes Rusty Woodsia only found on rock face Extremely steep slope Area is nearly completely in full sun 39 Page 138 About the Author: Megan Nugent graduated from Green Mountain College in 2007 with a degree in Environmental Studies with a focus in Agroecology and a Minor in Biology. While in college, she conducted several independent studies on the ecology, morphology and distribution of ferns at Deane Preserve. Megan now lives in Brooklyn, New York creating her own clothing line named Photosynthesis which is directly inspired by her research, allowing her to combine a love of science and art. Page 139 4. A Spatially Explicit Study of the Environmental Influence on beech Bark Disease by Robin Sleith and Dr. Natalie Coe Honor’s Thesis Page 140 A Spatially Explicit Study of Environmental Influence on Beech Bark Disease Robin S. Sleith and Natalie R. Coe Green Mountain College, Box Poultney VT 05764 Page 141 Abstract: This project used an 80 acre, GIS monitored, study site to determine if environmental variables determine the spatial distribution of disease agents associated with beech bark disease on American beech (Fagus grandifolia). Many studies have investigated the contribution of environmental factors to the severity of BBD but the resolution of these studies has missed the small scale patterns of the disease. By laser surveying all American beech in a stand, we derived a method to determine the aggregation of Nectria spp. and Cryptococcus fagisuga Lind. Moran’s Index of autocorrelation found that disease agents were clustered in distribution (MI 0.44 Z 3.43). Elevation, slope, aspect and curvature were used as parameters in a logistic regression model set. Akaike’s Information Criterion was used to select the best model. The environmental variables tested were strongly correlated to the presence of BBD causal agents (p<0.0001). Four competing models were generated that explain the contribution of environmental variables at our study site. A predictive model was generated from the logistic regression. Further study is needed to determine the causes of environmental conditions to the susceptibility of American beech trees to beech bark disease. Page 142 1. Introduction Invasions of exotic pests pose significant threats to forested ecosystems (Liebold 1995). The accidental or intentional release of pests by humans have exposed Northeastern forests to a great number of forest disturbance agents such as the gypsy moth, hemlock woolly adelgid, chestnut blight, and the beech bark disease complex (Morin et al. 2007). The impact of these invasions on forest structure, management and community dynamics have been significant (Lovett et al. 2006). American beech (Fagus grandifolia Ehrh.) has declined in abundance and vigor since the introduction of the disease causing agents to Halifax, Nova Scotia around 1890 (Houston 1994). Beech Bark Disease (BBD) has been and continues to be one of the most devastating tree epidemics affecting northeastern forests (Morin et al. 2005 and Lovett et al. 2006). The physiology and phytopathology of beech bark disease have been well documented and characterized throughout the United States and Canada (Ehrlich 1934, Griffen et al. 2003). BBD has been shown to affect all aspects of forest communities, from stand structure to wildlife health (Foster 1988, Houston 2004, Storer et al 2004, Latty et al 2002). Biogeochemical processes in forests are often closely tied to the dominant tree species such as late successional American beech; declines in American beech due to BBD could upset many of these processes (Latty 2004).The study of BBD spans over 74 years of research that has characterized the disease agents, the distribution of the disease and the potential management practices that must be used to maintain American beech populations (Twery et al. 2004). However, many of the relationships between BBD and ecosystems remain unclear (Houston 2004). Page 143 Beech bark disease in northeastern North America results from the infection and attack from the invasive beech scale insect (Cryptococcus fagisuga Lind.) and two varieties of Ascomycete fungus, the nonnative Nectria coccinea var. faginata Lind. and native Nectria galligena Bres. (Houston 2004). Feeding colonies of the beech scale perforate the bark of American beech and allow the fungus to penetrate into the storage and vascular cells eventually causing tree death (Ehrlich 1934). Recent surveys of beech bark disease distributions in North America have returned grim results. The disease is thought to cover an area of 434,548 km2 but modeling and conservative projections predict that this range affects only 27% of the potential habitat for the disease (Morin et. al. 2005). Whether or not the BBD complex is able to inhabit the entire potential habitat is yet to be seen, but the potential damage is immense (Morin et al. 2007). North American forests through which BBD has passed experience changes at many levels. Shigo (1972) succinctly described 3 main phases of beech bark disease: the advancing front, the killing front and the aftermath stage. The advancing front consists of the beech scale with very low amounts of Nectia fungus. Trees in this stage are healthy and show few signs of stress. The killing front occurs when C. fagisuga and either Nectria species inhabit the same forest. Beech trees at this stage show signs of severe stress: many are cracked and cankered, some are dead, but others remain resistant to the disease (Shigo 1972). The aftermath stage contains trees with all level of disease, from dead individuals and severely sick trees to resistant stands (Shigo 1972). Beech trees resistant to beech bark disease have perplexed researchers for more than 50 years (Shigo 1972, Houston and Houston 2000, Koch and Carey 2004). The traits Page 144 responsible for resistance have been studied in many different ways but no clear answer has yet been formulated (Koch and Carey 2004). A research priority formulated from the 2004 Saranac Lake BBD Symposium was to determine the genetic mechanisms of resistance and tolerance of American beech to the BBD complex (Koch and Carey 2004). Environmental variables such as slope and aspect have been linked to the severity and tolerance of BBD but few fine scale studies have been done to determine specifically how environmental variables relate to BBD susceptability (Ehrlich 1934, Munk and Manion 2006). The development of intensively monitored small plots aids the study of how environmental conditions relate to BBD resistance (Twery et al. 2004). We use a Geographic Information System (GIS) and a small, spatially explicit study site to determine the patterns of BBD causal agents and the influence of local environmental conditions on the causal agents. We hypothesize that (H1) causal agents of BBD are clustered in distribution and that (H2) environmental variables are highly correlated to the presence of BBD causal agents (Table 1). We use a GIS analysis and a model selection framework to test these hypotheses. 2. Methods Site Description The Lewis Deane Nature Preserve (LDNP) is a diverse 85 acre forest parcel located at the northern end of the Taconic Mountains. LDNP straddles the towns of Poultney and Wells in Rutland County, Vermont. The Preserve was given to Green Mountain College in 2002 and is home to several research and education projects. Lewis Deane Nature Preserve is host to more than eight plant communities including: hemlock forest, hemlock – northern hardwood forest, northern hardwood forest, white pine - Page 145 northern hardwood forest, mesic red oak – northern hardwood forest, dry oak - hickory hophornbeam forest, dry oak woodland, and a temperate acidic outcrop community (Jim Graves, personal communication). The Preserve lies on the eastern shoulder of Saint Catherine Mountain, a north-south trending ridge. The site is characterized by slate bedrock, mainly from the Lake Saint Catherine formation. The Preserve has relatively steep slopes with predominantly eastern aspects. The steep slopes are broken by wide terraces that accumulate pooled water and form wetland conditions (Jim Graves, personal communication). Endless Brook runs northward at the base of the Preserve at about 200 meters elevation, the acidic outcrop at the top of the ridge is at about 370 meters elevation. Personal communication with landowners and aerial photographs have established that the area of the Endless Book Preserve hosted sheep grazing at the turn of the twentieth century and cattle grazing later in the 1900s (Jim Graves personal communication). By 1940 no livestock remained in the area that is now Lewis Deane Nature Preserve and forest reclaimed pastureland. Selective logging practices were carried out in 1980 after which no extraction or grazing has occurred. The American beech trees at the Lewis Deane Nature Preserve today have an average diameter at breast height (dbh) of 15 centimeters. The dbh distribution (Figure 1) shows that the stand is relatively young with some older trees that were likely spared in the selective logging process. Data Collection Tree Identification Page 146 In the spring and fall of 2003, 210 American beech trees >5cm dbh were identified and tagged with aluminum-zinc tags. The 210 tagged trees do not represent every American beech tree at the Lewis Deane Nature Preserve as some trees (<10) were missed in the initial identification process. Surveying: In the winter of 2004, all trees were surveyed using a Topcon GTS-212 total station. Survey methods followed standard back-sight fore-shot techniques and shot to the center of each tagged American beech tree. Survey results were entered into Autodesk and a coordinate file was created. The coordinate file was then entered into ArcGIS Desktop 9.x (ESRI). A GIS shapefile was created representing each tagged American beech tree. By adding the physical features of the Lewis Deane Nature Preserve and individual American beech tree ranking results (see below) to the attribute table of the shapefile we derived a robust dataset for the Lewis Deane Nature Preserve (Table 2). Ranking Protocol: All 210 American beech trees have been monitored and ranked each fall beginning in 2004. The original ranking system used the standard 1-5 system published by Griffen et al. (2003). A long term study site such as Lewis Deane Nature Preserve allowed a higher level of evaluation and Dr. Natalie Coe developed a set of thirteen characteristics that show significant correlation to overall infection with the insect-fungal complex (unpublished data). Each individual category is summed to achieve a total ranking number for the tree. This number has a range between 0 and 100 and relates well to the 1-5 system developed by Griffen et al. (2003). Blind trials were conducted to assure that ranking was consistent among individuals. To test our hypotheses we used a Page 147 binary system of tree classification where 0 = no signs of the BBD fungal or insect causal agents and 1 = signs of the insect or fungus. The binary system counted any historical sign of either disease agent as a 1. Data Analysis Clustering and tree distribution To analyze the clustering of the trees with respect to the disease agents (H1) we used spatial autocorrelation (Morans Index) from the Spatial Statistics Toolbox within ArcToolbox (ESRI). The input feature class used was the LDNP shapefile and the input field was our binary tree status rank. Inverse distance was used as the spatial relationship concept and Euclidian distance was used to measure the distance between the trees (ESRI). ArcGIS Desktop 9.2 calculates Moran’s Index, an expected index, a variance and a z-score. The tool calculates and presents data in script format (ESRI). The Average Nearest Neighbor Distance tool was used to calculate average nearest tree with BBD causal agents and average nearest tree without BBD causal agents. The LDNP shapefile was used as the point feature class and the tool used Euclidean distance measurements in the minimum enclosing rectangle. The Average Nearest Neighbor Distance tool calculates nearest neighbor observed mean distance, expected mean distance, nearest neighbor ratio and a z-score. Environmental Variables and Model Selection To analyze the relationship between BBD causal factors and environmental variables (H2) we used a combination of GIS and model selection methods. We used GIS layers described in Table 2 as parameters in logistic regressions tested in a model selection framework. Page 148 Model selection is based upon likelihood theory and allows testing of multiple competing hypotheses in complex systems (Johnson and Omland 2004). Akaike’s Information Criterion (AIC) can be used to judge multiple models representing ecologically feasible hypotheses (Burnham and Anderson 2002). There are many factors contributing to beech bark disease presence and severity and many possible mechanisms of environmental and genetic influence (Houston 2004, Latty et al 2003, Munk and Manion 2001). Beech bark disease is a highly complex phenomenon and warrants the use of model selection methods. AIC allows multiple environmental variables to be compared to BBD presence at Lewis Deane Nature Preserve. Underlying environmental values (Table 2) for each tree were extracted using the Extract Values to Points tool within the Extraction tool of ArcToolbox. The values of each parameter for all 210 trees were extracted and entered into a series of competing models based on ecologically plausible hypotheses (Table 2). We combined all parameters and added two interactions into logistic-regression models (Table 3). The binary tree rank was used as the dependant variable. We used R to run the models and generate AIC values (Burnham and Anderson 2002). The dataset was tested for overdispersion (ĉ =1.16) and small sample size bias (k< n/40) but passed both thresholds (Johnson and Omland 2004). 3. Results Lewis Deane Nature Preserve has 133 trees susceptible to BBD and 77 trees that have no signs of either BBD causal agent. The larger diameter classes show higher levels of BBD infection (Figure 1). Page 149 A Moran’s Index of 0.44 indicates a clustered pattern of BBD causal agents on American beech trees at LDNP (Table 3). The nearest neighbor distance for trees with BBD causal agents was 4.4 meters and 5.6 meters for trees without BBD causal factors. The results of AIC model selection (Table 4) revealed four competing models that were within two ΔAIC units (Burnham and Anderson 2002). The goodness of fit for the global model (Model 8, Table 4) was determined by calculating a P value of <0.0001 from the difference of null and residual deviance and degrees of freedom (Burnham and Anderson 2002). The effects of aspect and curvature provided the strongest support for the observed pattern of BBD causal agents at LDNP. However, four other models were strongly supported by the data (Table 4). The only interaction that was supported was elevation by curvature. 4. Discussion Lewis Deane Nature Preserve is likely in the aftermath stage of BBD, a majority of the trees are diseased while some appear to remain resistant or are free of BBD causal agents (Shigo 1972, Houston 1983). The land use associated with LDNP and the logging in the 1980s likely influenced the stand level of BBD infection (Hane 2004). Further investigation of the site is needed to characterize how previous land use affects the disease distribution. The Moran’s Index shows that beech scale and the fungal species responsible for BBD are clustered in distribution in our study site. The clustering of BBD could be due to several factors (Houston 1993, Garnas 2007). Up to 99% of dispersing young beech scale insects disperse <10 meters from their host tree (Wainhouse 1980). This could lead to clusters of infected trees resulting from dispersing scale insects from host trees (Garnas Page 150 2007). The clustered pattern could also be explained by the fungal distribution in the LDNP. The fungal species are often related to geographic variables and proximity of diseased trees (Houston 1993). The nearest infected tree distance was found to be less than the nearest BBD free tree. This may be a result of the insect-fungal relationship that decreases influence with distance from a host tree (Houston 1993). The clustered pattern of disease agents could also be explained by environmental variables. Our model selection found strong support for four environmental conditions that explain the distribution of the disease agents at the LDNP (Table 4). The hypotheses that were most strongly supported by the AIC selection method were, in order of relative importance: Hc, Ha, He*c, and Hs (Table 1,4) (Burnham and Anderson 2002). The support of the hypotheses listed in Table 1 does not indicate that the mechanisms of the hypotheses are supported. Further testing is needed to determine exactly how the individual parameters influence the causal agents of the disease or the physiology of the tree. Aspect, elevation, and elevation by curvature were negatively correlated with the infection of American beech trees at Lewis Deane Nature preserve. Curvature was strongly positively correlated with presence of the disease agents while slope had a weaker positive correlation. The logistic regression equation can be written to give the probability (D) that a 30x30 meter area of American beech will have beech bark disease. Di = e (a+bx+cy+dz) (a+bx+cy+dz) 1+ e Page 151 Where Di is the probability of the area having BBD, a is an intercept, b, c and d are correlation coefficients and x, y, z are observed environmental variables (Table 5). This model can be used to predict areas where American beech trees have BBD at the Lewis Deane Nature Preserve. Predictive models must not distract from groundtruthing our hypotheses. Having found a relationship between the given variables and BBD susceptibility, further investigation and reassessment of the literature is needed to determine how these environmental conditions promote the susceptibility or resistance of beech trees to BBD. Page 152 References DiGregorio, LM., Krasny, ME., Fahey, TJ. 1999. Radial growth trends of sugar maple (Acer saccharum) in an Allegheny northern hardwood forest affected by beech bark disease. Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society. 126, 3:245-254. Faison, E.K., Houston, D.R. 2004. Black bear foraging in response to beech bark disease in northern Vermont. Northeastern Naturalist. 11: 387-394. Forrester, JA., Runkle, JR. 2000. Mortality and replacement patterns of an old growth Acer-Fagus woods in the Holden Arboretum, Northeastern Ohio. 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USDA FS Forest Insect and Disease Leaflet 75. Houston, D.R. 1993. Temporal and spatial shift within the Nectria pathogen complex associated with beech bark disease of Fagus grandifolia. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 24:960-968 Houston, D.R. 1994. Major new tree disease epidemics: beech bark disease. Annual Review of Phytopathology. 32: 75-87. Page 153 Houston, D.B and Houston, D.R. 2000. Allozyme genetic diversity among Fagus grandifiolia trees resistant or susceptible to beech bark disease in natural populations. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 30: 778-789 Houston, D.R. 2001. Effect of harvesting regime on beech root sprouts and seedlings in a north-central Maine forest long affected by beech bark disease. Northeastern Research Station. Research Paper NE-717 Koch, J.L., Carey, D.W. 2004. Identifying and enriching for American beech trees that are resistant to beech bark disease. Proceedings of the NESAF 84th Winter Meeting. GTR-NE-314 Latty, E.F., Canham, C.D., Marks, P.L. 2002. Beech bark disease in northern hardwood forests: the importance of nitrogen dynamics and forest history for disease severity. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 33: 257-268. Lonsdale, D., Wainhouse, D. 1987. Beech Bark Disease. Forestry Commission Bulletin. 69: 1-14 Lovett, G.M., Rueth, H. 1999. Soil nitrogen transformations in beech and maple stands along a nitrogen deposition gradient. Ecological Applications. 9: 1330-1344. Lovett, G.M., Canham, C.D., Arthur, M.A., Weathers, K.C., Fitzhugh, R.D. 2006. Forest ecosystem response to exotic pests and pathogens in North America. Bioscience. 56: 395-405 Morin, R.S., Liebhold, A.M., Luzader, E.R., Lister, A.J., Gottschalk, K.W., Twardus, D.B. 2004. Mapping host-species abundance of three major exotic forest pests. Northeastern Research Station. Research Paper NE-726. Morin, R.S., Liebhold, A.M., Tobin, P.C., Gottschalk, K.W., Luzader, E. 2007. Spread of beech bark disease in the eastern United States and its relationship to regional forest composition. Canadian Journal of Forestry Research. 37: 726-736. Munk, I.A., Manion, P.D. 2006. Landscape-level impact of beech bark disease in relation to slope and aspect in New York State. Forest Science. 52: 503-510. Page 154 Figure 1 DBH Distribution 70 No. Trees 60 50 40 BBD free 30 BBD inf 20 10 0 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45 DBH Class (cm) Page 155 Table 1. Variable Elevation Hypothesis provides a measure of slope position which has been shown to affect BBD causal agents (Ehrlich 1934) Code He Aspect influences solar radiation levels which determines invasability of the Beech scale (Witter et al. 2004) Ha Slope influences Beech tree water availability necessary for fighting scale infestations (Lonsdale 1980) Hs Curvature Influences local water availability nutrient loads in soils (Latty 2004) Hc Elevation*Curvature Elevation by curvature provides a moisture proxy that affects BBD causal agent presence. He*c Slope*Curvature Slope by curvature identifies trees that may catch more wind and thus more scale insect and fungus Hs*c Page 156 Table 2 Data Type (Units) Description Source Parameter Beech Trees Point shapefile (Meters) From survey data, contains binary tree rank and env. variables in attribute table Ken Coe and Robin Sleith Elevation Raster Grid-Digital Elevation Model (Meters) 30x30m resolution Vermont Center for Geographic Information Slope Raster Grid calculated from DEM (degrees) 30x30m resolution DEM/ArcGIS Desktop 9.2 Spatial Analyst Aspect Raster Grid calculated from DEM (degrees clockwise from north) Curvature Raster Grid calculated from DEM (1/100 meters) Page 157 30x30m resolution 30x30m resolution Flat= 0 Upward convex= + Upward concave= - DEM/ArcGIS Desktop 9.2 Spatial Analyst DEM/ArcGIS Desktop 9.2 Spatial Analyst Table 3 Moran's Index Expected Index Variance Z Score Nearest American beech 0.434493 -0.004808 0.016314 3.439445 3.4 meters Page 158 Nearest BBD free tree Nearest BBD infected tree 5.6 meters 4.4 meters Table 4 Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Model Aspect+Curvature Elevation+Aspect+Curvature+Elevation*Curvature Elevation+Aspect+Curvature Slope+Aspect+Curvature Elevation+Slope+Aspect+Curvature+Elevation*Curvature Slope+Aspect+Curvature+Slope*Curvature Elevation+Slope+Aspect+Curvature Elevation+Slope+Aspect+Curvature+Elevation*Curvature+Slope*Curvature Elevation+Slope+Aspect+Curvature+Slope*Curvature Slope+Curvature Slope+Curvature+Slope*Curvature Elevation+Slope+Curvature Elevation+Slope+Curvature+Slope*Curvature Elevation+Slope+Curvature+Elevation*Curvature Aspect Curvature Elevation+Slope+Curvature+Elevation*Curvature+Slope*Curvature Slope+Aspect Elevation+Aspect Elevation+Curvature Elevation+Slope+Aspect Elevation+Curvature+Elevation*Curvature Elevation+Slope Slope Elevation Page 159 Hypothesis supported H a Hc H e Ha Hc He*c H e Ha Hc Hs Ha Hc k AIC ΔAIC 2 4 244.18 244.71 0 0.53 3 3 5 4 4 6 5 2 3 3 4 4 1 1 3 2 2 2 3 3 2 1 1 245.7 245.97 246.71 247.57 247.68 248.28 249.3 252.27 253.1 254.03 254.91 255.19 255.4 255.79 255.87 255.97 257.4 257.48 257.68 258.96 264.46 265.95 279.71 1.52 1.79 2.53 3.39 3.5 4.1 5.12 8.09 8.92 9.85 10.73 11.01 11.22 11.61 11.69 11.79 13.22 13.3 13.5 14.78 20.28 21.77 35.53 Table 5 Coefficients Model Intercept 1 3.6047 2 6.506903 3 6.162360 4 2.76034 Curvature 1.65 20.555614 1.711757 1.61691 Aspect -0.037 -0.042747 -0.037282 -0.03389 Elevation E*C -0.007283 -0.007282 -0.057924 Slope 0.04372 20 Page 160 About the Author: Robin Sleith graduated in 2008 with a B.S. in Biology and a minor in Chemistry. Robin worked with Dr. Natalie Coe on the Beech Bark Disease Project all four years that he attended Green Mountain College, first as a work-study student and then as an undergraduate research assistant. After graduating, Robin spent a year working at an environmental education center in New Hampshire. He currently works for the Urban Ecology Institute in Boston, Massachusetts as an Education Assistant. This AmeriCorps VISTA position combines overseeing an after-school science enrichment program with developing curriculum. Page 161 5. Deane Nature Preserve Wildlife Inventory Assessment by Adam Adorisio Independent Study James H. Graves Faculty Independent Study Advisor Page 162 Deane Nature Preserve: Wildlife Inventory Assessment Adam Adorisio May 2005 INTRODUCTION: The purpose of this study was to inventory existing mammal populations, habitats, and behaviors on the Deane Nature Preserve, part of the St. Catherine Mountain range. Although this study had a focus on mammals, other wildlife classes were documented to best fulfill my goal of understanding species interactions in biotic communities, as well as the relationships between animals and the abiotic environment. Understanding these relationships helps one to see what the ecosystem is composed of in the immediate area, as well as at a landscape level. This knowledge can help to guide management decisions that preserve the integrity of the ecosystems’ requisite parts. Four main hypotheses were made based on reading aerial photographs of the area, as well as experiences before starting the sampling. 1) This property is a small part of a home range for species requiring extensive areas. This property is roughly 85 acres; there are 640 acres in one square mile. Coyotes—which have been documented on this property—required a home range of anywhere between 5 and 13 square miles (Frederick A. Servello, Thomas L. Edwards, Bernice U. Constantina). This example, and the evidence of coyote and bobcat indicating only a brief visit to this property, are support for this hypothesis. 2) This property is seasonal habitat for species such as deer, migratory birds, reptiles, and amphibians—possibly other species as well. The majority of this land is composed of mature hemlock forest with a variety of deciduous and mixed forest types. This landscape provides prime deer wintering habitat. The bacteria that aid the digestion processes of deer changes in the spring and summer to digest herbaceous, non-woody material. Because this land is composed of mainly thick hemlock cover, it does not provide the light resources needed by most herbaceous plant species without intermediate disturbance processes. Therefore this property might not be as appetizing to deer during warm weather months. This evidence supports the hypothesis that this property might only be seasonal habitat for deer. Migratory birds, of course, wouldn’t normally arrive to this latitude until warm weather months. Although reptile and amphibian populations might exist on this property during winter months, they are not active until warm weather months. It is possible that other species may only come to this property during hard times looking for food. This could also be related to the first hypothesis. 3) This property acts as a corridor between main areas of interest. This property lies between a wetland and Endless Brook, both of which are main areas of interest for many wildlife species. There is also the possibility of other high use habitats on surrounding lands that have not been surveyed due to being posted lands. This property has a steep cliff on the western facing side of the mountain that provides a safe method of travel for many wildlife species. Page 163 Evidence of larger species illustrates brief visits, but this could also be related to the first hypothesis. 4) This property is a year-round home range for smaller species. Smaller species such as mice and voles, or medium-sized species such as porcupines, require a smaller home range than larger species. Therefore, this amount of land can support their resource needs. METHODS: Transects—set paths one follows to collect data—were used to survey the property. These transects ran NW to SE at a magnetic bearing of 326 degrees and were set 50m apart up the slope. The bearing of these transects was determined by connecting the two eastern most corners of the property, that were the farthest distance away from each other, with a straight line. A right angle was created from that base line and then a point was set to either side every 50m connected by a straight line. A compass bearing was taken from these lines, reading 326 degrees. A 50m measuring tape was used to find the starting point of each transect. From there a compass was used to find a magnetic bearing of 326 degrees. Orange flagging tape was tied around the tree that fell closest to the mark. The reason for using this method was that it allowed for sampling to be done over the whole property covering a large extent of the area, in a uniform fashion. This prevented human bias from focusing on areas of interest. The reason the transects were set up with the contour of the land was because this tends to simulate patterns of wildlife. Every time clear sign was found along any of the transects, it was recorded on a data sheet. These data sheets were designed to record data that may prove useful for present and future applications. (See attached data sheets for details.) Problems that arose during the sampling process are as follows: -Transects set up in the field are not as straight or as accurate as they are on the map. -Deer sign was too abundant for the data sheet technique. Recording patterns was the best way to record deer sign. -Distinguishing sign between small mammal species was difficult, if not impossible. Track plates—a sheet of metal with suet from a candle—were placed along the runways of small mammals to record the print of their feet. However, these plates weathered too quickly and became unreadable. -Posted land on all sides of the property created an arbitrary boundary that wildlife does not need to follow. This inhibited my ability to see relationships at a landscape scale. RESULTS: The following is a list of species that have been documented on the Deane Nature Preserve property as of May 1, 2005: Mammals Deer Porcupine Gray Squirrel Chipmunk Coyote Reptiles/Amphibians Garter Snake Red Eft Frog Page 164 Birds Partridge Palliated Woodpecker Turkey Turkey Vulture Blue Jay Short Tailed Weasel Small Mammals Bobcat Raven Crow Chickadee Barred Owl Nuthatch From here forward, this document will cover only mammal populations. Deer Deer were the most abundant species found on this property between January and May. Sign was found in every forest type, especially in hemlock stands where sign was found on an average of about every ten meters. They seemed to all follow a specific movement pattern, consisting of a main deer highway running up the slope and branching off in a north to south pattern traveling mostly through the hemlock forest and western facing cliff. The branching patterns seemed to start in heavily around transect #6 and continued up the slope (See map). However, sign was found on every transect. The hemlock forest showed mostly sign of deer beds and scat, whereas the deciduous and mixed forest types showed mainly sign of browse—striped maple being the most heavily browsed species. The following patterns were documented along transects 6 and up: -Transect #6 showed mainly bedding areas in hemlock forest with openings revealing browse. -Transect 37 showed mainly bedding areas in hemlock forest. (Continues to #9). -Transect #9 lies where the hemlock forest transitions into oak, hickory, maple, hop-horn beam forest type. What little evidence is found here is mainly browse. -Transect #11 starts to show evidence of bedding under pines, as well as browse. -Transect #12 shows evidence similar to #11. This is also where the western facing cliff starts. Data could not continue to be documented beyond this point, due to the slippery and dangerous conditions presented by the steepness of this slope. However, it has been noted that deer use this cliff as a means for safe travel. Porcupine One porcupine was found; its den can be found along the southern boundary next to an area that had been recently cut on the neighboring land. Interestingly, these was little sign of activity in winter as well as little tree damage—which porpcupines are well known for—in the surrounding area. This could be due to it spending time on the neighboring property where data could not be collected. Chipmunk One chipmunk was found at the NW end of transect #9. It used a hollow log as its den and travel system. Gray Squirrel Evidence of gray squirrel, mainly caches and tracks, was found in dry oak, hickory, hop-horn beam, maple forest type as well as along the logging road. This is the only place that evidence was recorded, but due to the close relationship between this Page 165 species and oak mast, they are most likely to be found in many areas of the property, as are oak trees. Coyote Sign of tracks and urine was found earlier in winter months. All sign was found along transects 3, 4, and 5. The sign illustrated brief visits to the property passing straight through from one end to the other, only stopping to urinate. This behavior indicates that this property is a small portion of a larger home range, and/or is being used as a corridor between areas of interest. Short Tailed Weasel Little evidence of this species was found on the property. Sign was found in dry oak, hickory, hop-horn beam, maple forest as well as along the field edge. Small Mammals Unfortunately, sign such as tracks and patterns could not be distinguished between species. Species that are expected to exist on this property are short-tailed shrew, woodland vole, red-backed vole, meadow vole, white-footed mouse, deer mouse, woodland jumping mouse, meadow jumping mouse, and perhaps the house mouse around areas that have been influenced by human activity. Possible existing species that have been recognized by the Vermont Department of Fish and Wildlife as in need of conservation are the long-tailed shrew, southern bog lemming, pygmy shrew, rock vole, water shrew, woodland vole, hairy-tailed mole, masked shrew, and the Smokey shrew (Vermont Fish and Wildlife). Identifying small mammal populations will be a main area of concentration for warm weather studies, at which time live trapping can be done. Bobcat Sign of this species was only found once on this property during the winter months. Tracks directly followed a deer trail and showed evidence of a sit down on a small cliff face, signifying hunting techniques used by this species. This sign indicates that this property is a small portion of a larger home range; it was using this property as a corridor between areas of interest; or it represents seasonal activity using this land as a prospect for food in the hard late winter months. MANAGEMENT OPTIONS FOR WILDLIFE: The current management is sufficient for now. There is no management for this land as of not and there is no need for wildlife management. This land is composed of an ecosystem that supports certain species of wildlife, and at this point, it seems to support a fairly wide variety of wildlife at population levels in keeping with the resources of the land. There could be possible management options for warm weather habitat, such as opening areas in the hemlock forest, pending warm weather options. Also, management at a landscape level will be required for the future. This basically refers to the conservation of surrounding lands that as a whole make up a large enough area to support home ranges for larger species—i.e. coyote and bobcat—as well as hot spot areas such as the wetland and Endless brook, including its tributaries. Page 166 Management for most forests focus on game and larger species. When management is applied to this land, however, it will be essential to consider habitat for small mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and birds. This will be the most difficult part of managing for wildlife, but it must be done to preserve the integrity of the ecosystem. FUTURE STUDIES: This project will set a baseline for future studies by students and faculty relating to subjects such as wildlife biology, mammalogy, and any study dealing with change over time. This can also serve as a basis for developing educational material. This project will also serve as information needed to design a positive impact management plan that is in the works. WORKS CITED: Frederick A. Servello, Thomas L. Edwards, Bernice U. Constantin. Univerestiy of Kentucky Cooperative Extension Service. www.ca.uky.edu/agc/pubs/for/for37/for37.pdf Vermont Fish and Wildlife. http://www.vtfishandwildlife.com/library/Reports_and_Documents/Comprehensive_Wild life_Conservation_Strategy/Mammal%20SGCN%20list.pdf Page 167 Page 168 Page 169 Page 170 Page 171 Page 172 Page 173 Page 174 Page 175 Page 176 About the Author: Adam Adorisio, a member of the Progressive Program, completed a self-design major in Forest Ecology and Management in 2007. Since then, Adam has worked as a free-lance forester, creating forest management plans and completing stand inventories throughout Vermont. In addition to his free-lance work, Adam has worked for three years as a logger and forester for Fortek, Inc, a company based in Pawlet, Vermont. Page 177 6. Establishing Baseline Resource Impact Data for Trail Conditions at the Deane Nature Preserve” by Dr. Jim Harding and Jenna Calvi Trustee’s Research Project Page 178 Establishing Baseline Resource Impact Data for Trail Conditions at the Deane Nature Preserve: A Sustainable Recreation Research Project Trustee’s Research Project Summer 2007 FINAL REPORT (1/16/08) Principal Investigator: Dr. James Harding, Associate Professor of Recreation and Natural Resources Management Department of Recreation and Outdoor Studies Green Mountain College Student Research Assistant: Jenna Calvi Natural Resources Management Major (‘09) Page 179 Abstract Between June and August 2007, a student, Jenna Calvi, and a faculty member, Jim Harding, from Green Mountain College collected and analyzed data relating to trail conditions at the Deane Nature Preserve, in Poultney/Wells, Vermont. The data collection included information on trail length, width, slope, surface material in addition to trail impediments. This trail information was analyzed with the assistance of GIS software (ArcPad 7.0.1. and ArcGIS 9.2). The data analyses of the trails at the Deane Nature Preserve are documented in this report. Identification of important trail features is discussed and recommendations for future research and management plans are given. Page 180 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The following individuals were helpful in the completion of this project. Dr. Jim Graves made available data and reports compiled by students he has supervised— these students gathered information on the natural and human history of the site. This information was particularly helpful in writing up the Site Description. Dr. John Van Hoesen was a great asset regarding the use of technology, specifically the operation of the GPS unit and ArcPad and ArcGIS software. Without Dr. Van Hoesen’s generous assistance, the data collection would have been quite onerous and the production of the maps would have suffered in quality. Dr. Greg Brown similarly assisted in the final stages of map production, helping with the manipulation of graphics and features within each map. The student researcher, Jenna Calvi was a help in the early stages of site surveying and data collection. Former students, Matt Shannon and Adam George should be commended on their efforts in laying out the New Trail. Finally, I’d like to thank Dean Mauhs-Pugh for his efforts in establishing this research award. And a final note of gratitude goes to the anonymous Green Mountain College Trustee whose financial contribution made this research possible. Page 181 TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………………… ii Acknowledgements …………………………………………………………………………. iii List of Tables ……………………………………………………………………………….. . v List of Figures ……………………………………………………………………………….. vi Project Description and Goals …………………………………………………………… 1 Timeline of work completed ……………………………………………………………… 2 Site Information …………………………………………………………………………… 2 Methodology ………………………………………………………………………………… 4 Data Analysis: Maps, Tables, Statistics, and Narrative ……………………………… 5 Results and Conclusions ………………………………………………………………… . 9 Bibliography ……………………………………………………………………………….. 20 Appendix A: Data Collection Protocol ………………………………………………….. 21 Appendix B: Trail Sampling Form ………………………………………………………. 24 Page 182 LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Trail Attribute Data for Old Trail ………………………………………………. 7 Table 2: Trail Attribute Data for New Trail ………………………………………… … 9 Page 183 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Aerial photo of the Deane Preserve with property boundaries………..….. 3 Figure 2: Old Trail (Blue) and New Trail (Red) at the Deane Nature Preserve .….. 6 Figure 3: Old Trail with trail segments identified through alternate color coding . 7 Figure 4: New Trail with trail segments identified through alternate color coding 8 Figure 5: Old and New Trail—Trail Segment Widths ...………………………….…. 11 Figure 6: Relationship between Trail Slope and Evidence of Erosion ……………. 12 Figure 7: Meters of trail length within seven slope categories (Old Trail)………… 13 Figure 8: Meters of trail length within seven slope categories (New Trail) ……….. 13 Figure 9: Old and New Trail—Trail Segment Slopes …………………………………. 14 Figure 10: Old and New Trail—Trail Segment Surface Material ………………….. 16 Figure 11: Old and New Trail—Trail Surface Material (Percents)………………… 16 Figure 12: Old and New Trail—Trail Impediments ………………………………... 17 Figure 13: Hypothetical relationship between use and impacts ……………………. 18 vi Page 184 Project Description and Goals The purpose of this research was to establish baseline data for trail conditions at the Deane Nature Preserve. Prior to this research project, there existed no data on the current resource conditions or a change in conditions over time. Ideally, any natural resource-based recreation area will have some management system or tool in place to monitor resource impacts to the site. A system monitoring trail conditions is the most common as trail use is the predominate form of outdoor recreation (Marion et al. 2006). The first step in any monitoring system is to conduct an inventory of resource characteristics. For the purpose of this project, this inventory included detailed data on trail conditions and environmental conditions along the trail corridor. These trail/trail corridor conditions can be monitored every year and can inform management decisions on how the trail should be used and maintained. In absence of any baseline data, it is challenging to make scientifically-based management decisions. The goals of this project were to: 1. Identify the appropriate criteria to measure trail conditions at Deane Nature Preserve. This step of the project involved scholarly research devoted to recreation resource impact studies and some site surveys. Specifically, the PI reviewed the literature on how to identify and measure resource impacts. A number of researchers working in the field of Recreation Ecology/Sustainable Recreation have published works detailing impact indicators and how they are to be measured (see bibliography). Site surveys were conducted to determine how well previously used impact indicators would correspond to the trails at the Deane Nature Preserve. 2. Develop a sampling plan to measure trail conditions. As the impact criteria were being determined, we also developed a sampling plan or strategy for how to collect the data. This also involved a literature review as well as site surveys. At this stage we determined how to collect the data and how to set up our inventory data sheet and database. Appendix A lists the trail data collection protocol and Appendix B illustrates the Trail Sampling Form. Previous work by Cole (1983) and Leung and Marion (1999) provided the starting point for this step. 3. Conduct an inventory of trail conditions The most intensive portion of this research was the field survey of the trail conditions. Measurements included data on trail segment length, width, slope, surface material, and presence/absence of features or characteristics that would inhibit the effective use of the trail (e.g., loose rocks, downed trees, potentially wet areas, severe cross-slope, etc.) Additional data was collected on the predominant Page 185 4. Set witness markers for yearly data collection The original intent was to place witness markers along the trail to allow for repeatable data collection over the years. These witness markers were simple aluminum stakes that would have been sunk into the ground adjacent to the trail and marked on a data sheet with distance measures. These stakes would be retrievable with the use of a metal detector during subsequent yearly surveying sessions. However, once we began using the GPS unit for data collection, this specific technique of the study goal was rendered obsolete, as precise data points can now be located year after year through longitude and latitude data. 5. Write a report on trail conditions at the Deane Nature Preserve for Summer 2007. This report serves as the baseline data for trail conditions at the Deane Nature Preserve. The specific measures of resource conditions are found in the data analysis section. Subsequent use of the trail can be measured (i.e., how many trail users are there) and resource conditions can be monitored for unacceptable changes due to erosion, vegetative trampling, or widening of the trail, or other measures of resource damage. Timeline The timeline of the work completed for this research project is graphically represented below. Identify Criteria Develop Sample Plan Conduct Inventory Data Analysis Report Write-up June July August XXXXXX XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXX XXXXXXX Two changes were made from the original timeline. First, as mentioned above, we did not set witness markers due to the use of the GPS unit. This step was originally scheduled to occur between mid-June and late-July. Secondly, write-up of the final report was delayed due to the increased teaching load assumed by the PI during the Fall 2007 semester. Page 186 Site Information The site can be defined by both its physical characteristics and its social characteristics. Physically, the site is defined by its topography, forest structure and composition, water features, and native fauna. Social characteristics of the site include historic and current land uses and land use patterns. Figure 1 below represents an aerial photo of the Deane Nature Preserve with the property boundary highlighted. Figure 1: Aerial photo of the Deane Preserve with property boundaries. Physical Characteristics: The Deane Nature Preserve is approximately 85 acres of mixed hardwood and softwood forestland. Hardwoods found on site span the range of typical northern hardwood species including Beech (Fagus grandifolia), Maples (Acer saccharum, A. rubrum), Birches (Betula allegheniensis, B. lenta), Oaks (Quercus alba, Q. prinus, Q. rubra), Hickories (Carya cordiformis, C. ovata) and Hophornbeam (Ostrya virginiana). Softwoods include Hemlock (Tsuga candadensis) and Pines (Pinus resinosa, P. stroba). The property is primarily on the western slope of St. Catherine Mountain. Soils range from xeric on the ridge top creating a savannah-like forest community to hydric in various seeps and low-lying areas. A number of bird, mammal, reptile, and amphibian species have been identified on site including, wild turkey, red-tailed hawk, chestnut-sided warbler, blue jay, Page 187 pileated woodpecker, white-tailed deer, moose, porcupine, coyote, garter snake, redspotted newts, spring peepers, and tree frogs. Social Characteristics: The earliest documented human use of the land was for sheep grazing beginning sometime in the 1800s. This use continued to some degree until the 1970s. Remnants of stone walls and barbed wire pasture fencing are still evident throughout the property. At least since the mid-1900s the land has been a productive timber resource—a log road snaking from the meadow at the bottom of the property to the oak-hickory savannah near the top is the most distinctive anthropogenic feature on the site. The College assumed ownership of the property in 2002 following a donation by Bill and Linda Osborne. Principle current uses of the site revolve around education and recreation. The property remains a popular destination for classes, student-faculty research, hiking, hunting, and camping. There are two trails that were sampled in this project; henceforth referred to as the “Old Trail” and the “New Trail”. The Old Trail is an old logging road that has been the primary mode of access for all people visiting the Deane Nature Preserve. The New Trail was designed through two different student projects and continues to be constructed through a third student project. During Fall 2005, Professor Harding’s REC 4031: Leisure Systems Design and Evaluation class developed a range of alternative trails at the Deane Nature Preserve. This class produced six different alternative trails. Following this, during the Spring 2006 semester, two students, Matt Shannon and Adam George, in conjunction with the Deane Nature Preserve Committee (Jim Graves, Teresa Coker, John Van Hoesen, Jim Harding, and Bill Osborne) layed out plans for two alternative trails. These two trails would allow visitors to see more of the property, to see a wider range of natural features, and to decrease the steepness of the grade from the Old Trail. During Fall 2006, each section of Images of Nature spent one to one and a half hours at Deane aiding in the construction of the new trails. These students were armed with shovels, rakes, pick axes, pry bars, and other tools necessary to define and carve two new trails onto the property. Following the work conducted during the Fall 2006 semester, approximately 1/3 of one trail was constructed and 1/5 of the other trail was constructed. The trails remained in this level of completeness during the time period of this research. At some point between January 2007 and May 2007, evidence of the proposed new trail on the northern half of the property disappeared. The yellow flagging marking the proposed trail was removed. As a result, there are no on-site indications of where this trail should be. Therefore, this research project focused on an inventory of trail and trail corridor conditions for the Old Trail and the remaining flagged New Trail. Page 188 Methodology Guided by previous researchers in recreation ecology/sustainable recreation, a data sheet was developed that prescribed the range of data to be collected. The principle unit of analysis of this research is the trail segment. Trail segments were deemed to be the most meaningful unit of analysis as segments could be chiefly defined by one or more of the particular variables of interest. For example, one segment may differ from another based on slope, and may differ from another based on surface material, and may differ from another based on width. In brief, these trail segments are meant to capture the most meaningful information about the trail regarding its physical condition and the potential for resource damage based on recreation use. Early in the data collection, trail segments were identified and relevant data were logged onto data sheets (Appendix A). A range of tools were used by the Research Assistant to gather the relevant data: measuring wheel, tape measure, clinometer, compass, and 10 BAF prism. A handheld Global Positioning System (GPS) with georeferencing softward (ArcPad 7.0.1) was purchased for this project. Unfortunately there was significant delay in receiving this item from the vendor. As a result, this tool wasn’t employed until nearly all of both trails had been surveyed using the data sheets. It became clear that the entire range of data required for this project could have been collected using just the handheld GPS unit. This, then, was done during the final stages of data collection. The method for collecting data using the data sheets was to walk a section of trail with the measuring wheel stopping when that segment ended. Data were logged onto the data sheet and this process was repeated for each trail segment. The method for collecting the data using the GPS unit with ArcPad was to create a new PolylineZ shape file which allowed three-dimensional data capture: X, Y, and Z coordinates for various points along the trail. With this file open and the GPS tracking system turned on, the Principal Investigator simply had to walk the trail at a slow pace, stopping at the end of each trail section and logging the corresponding trail data (trail segment width, surface material, and trail impediments) into a customized data entry form. This method proved to be quite favorable over the traditional data sheet (followed by database data entry). All the data could be collected rather easily and this eliminated the need for three of the tools (measuring wheel, clinometer, and compass). Further, this method eliminated the tedious task of data entry as all the relevant information was put into a database during data collection. Finally, the data analysis stage was greatly Page 189 facilitated by having GIS software (ArcGIS 9.2) perform a range of analyses (see the following section of this report), including maps, tables, and statistics. Data Analysis There were two trails sampled during this research project; the “Old Trail” and the “New Trail.” Both trails are highlighted in Figure 2. Figure 2: Old Trail (Blue) and New Trail (Red) at the Deane Nature Preserve. As mentioned previously, the basic unit of analysis for this study was a trail segment. A trail segment was identified by a combination of a range of trail attributes, unique to that section. Trail segments are defined by: 1) Length, 2) Width, 3) Slope, and 4) Surface Material. In addition, notation was made within trail segments of the presence of trail impediments. Old Trail Analysis The Old Trail consists of 15 trail segments. These segments are illustrated through alternate color-coding in Figure 3. The alternate color coding scheme is Page 190 meaningless beyond providing a mechanism to easily distinguish one trail segment from the next. Further, the relative length of each trail section can be visualized through this as well. Figure 3: Old Trail with trail segments identified through alternate color coding. Table 1 summarizes all of the attribute data associated with the Old Trail, including trail segment widths, lengths in meters, and trail segment slopes in percents. Notations are also given for trail impediments where found. Trail Segment (starting from the top) Surface Material Trail Width 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Soil Soil Soil Rock Rock Rock Soil Rock Litter Rock Soil Wide Wide Wide Wide Wide Wide Wide Wide Wide Wide Wide Trail Impediments Loose Rock Water Loose Rock Loose Rock Water Loose Rock Water Loose Rock Water Page 191 Trail Segment Length (meters) 113.342 55.665 56.389 114.653 94.536 68.229 79.338 37.858 45.417 52.239 48.121 Trail Segment Slope (%) 4.5 23.7 17.2 11.9 15.5 18 20.2 13.2 8.8 11.5 8.3 12 13 14 15 Litter Rock Rock Rock Wide Wide Wide Med. Loose Rock Loose Rock 35.9 49.872 83.067 60.172 24 33.1 7.1 11.5 Table 1: Trail Attribute Data for Old Trail. New Trail Analysis The New Trail consists of 17 trail segments. These segments are illustrated through alternate color coding in Figure 4. Figure 4: New Trail with trail segments identified through alternate color coding. Table 2 on the following page summarizes all of the attribute data associated with the New Trail, including trail segment widths, lengths in meters, and trail segment slopes in percents. And trail impediments are noted where appropriate. Negative values in the Trail Segment Slope (%) column indicate trail segments that run downhill for their length when one is following the trail from the brook to the summit. Page 192 Trail Segment from the bottom # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Surface Material Litter Litter Litter Soil Soil Litter Soil Rocks Rocks Rocks Litter Litter Litter Litter Litter Veg Soil Trail Segment Width Wide Medium Wide Narrow Medium Medium Wide Narrow Narrow Narrow Narrow Wide Medium Wide Medium Wide Medium Trail Impediment Brook Roots Vegetation Rocks Vegetation Cross Slope Cross Slope Cross Slope Cross Slope Logs Logs Cross Slope Logs Trail Segment Length (meters) 103.713 147.808 208.103 109.869 55.863 115.862 69.91 37.808 56.472 113.751 192.804 84.156 108.536 94.597 55.668 106.362 22.642 Trail Segment Slope (%) 2.8 12 17.2 10.5 -13.1 -4.7 -15.3 13.5 8.9 7.6 13.8 12.5 6.7 9.2 18.5 14.1 6.6 Table 2: Trail Attribute Data for New Trail. Results and Conclusions The three months between June 1 and August 31, 2007 allowed for baseline data to be collected on two trails at the Deane Nature Preserve. This baseline data will allow for longitudinal interpretations of evolving resource conditions related to trails. Further, this data will aid in future land-use decisions. The principle outcome of this work is the inventory of trail conditions based on a number of physical characteristics. Key findings include: Trail Length Trail Width Trail Segment Slopes Surface Materials Trail Impediments Trail Length: Defined: Trail length simply refers to the overall length of each trail as measured in both kilometers and miles. Trail segment length (which is the principal unit of analysis for all trail features) is given in meters. Old Trail: 0.995 Kilometers = 0.615 miles New Trail: 1.684 Kilometers = 1.09 miles Page 193 The New Trail is approximately 69% longer than the Old Trail. Trail Segment Width: Defined: Trail segments were inventoried as to their average width. Three width classifications were used: Narrow: < 2 ft. in average width Medium: 2’ – 5’ in average width Wide: > 5’ in average width Trail segment width is considered a high quality indicator of overall trail condition. Increases in trail width are attributed to both type and amount of trail use. As a result, the average width of trail segments should serve to be a useful metric to monitor trail conditions over many years. That said, there is some imprecision to this trail attribute. As the New Trail is not fully constructed, some trail segments that are flagged but not developed are categorized as narrow, despite no evidence of tread width. Old Trail: Largely of uniform width between 5-10 feet across for 94% of the trail length. The remaining 6% of the trail width varies between 2-5 feet across. In all, the old trail is very wide compared to a typical pedestrian trail--the standards for which are generally, between 24”-36” wide. New Trail: Highly variable in width. Six sections of the trail are rated “Wide”; these sections tend to have unobstructed trail widths of at least 5 feet across. However, five trail segments were rated as “Narrow” which means the width across the trail was less than 24” for the majority of that segment. The remaining six trail segments were rated as “Medium” in width which translates to a trail segment whose width fell between 2 and 5 feet. Figure 5 illustrates the comparison of trail segments widths between the two trails. Page 194 Figure 5: Old and New Trail with trail segments color coded by relative trail segment widths: Narrow (Yellow), Medium (Blue), Wide (Red). Trail Segment Slopes Defined: Slope is typically defined as Rise/Run. Thus, a 100 foot long trail segment that gains 15 feet in elevation would be said to have a 15% slope (15/100 x 100). The percent grade can be converted to degrees by multiplying the arctangent by Rise/Run. Thus, a 15% slope would have an 8.5o slope (arctangent x (15/100). All discussions of slope in this document will be expressed as percents. The overall slope of a trail is a moderately useful indicator. However, a more relevant measure of slope is by trail segment rather than overall trail length. A small number of very steep sections (say greater than 15% slope), which can prove quite challenging for the trail user, are easily obscured by slope calculations when done over the whole length of the trail. A rough guideline for trail construction is to aim for overall trail grade to fall between 5 and 10% and to only exceed that percent under certain circumstances and only for very short distances. For example, a 10% grade in a trail segment shouldn’t exceed 30ft in length, a 12% grade shouldn’t exceed 10ft in length, and a 14% Page 195 Further trail slope is considered one of the most strongly tied trail attributes to trail impacts, specifically erosion. Figure 6 illustrates the relationship between trail slope and the percent of trail segments experiencing erosion. Percent of Trail Segments Experiencing Erosion by Trail Segment Slope Categories (in degrees). 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 9-12% 12-15% 15-18% 18-21% 21-24% 24-27% 27-30% Trail Slope (in percent) Figure 6: Relationship between trail slope and evidence of erosion (Source: adapted from Coleman, R. “Footpath Erosion in the English Lake District,” in Applied Geography 1981). Old Trail: The Old Trail is chiefly characterized by numerous runs of rather severe slopes. The overall trail gained 140.9 meters in elevation over a length of 994.798 meters (140.9/994.798) x 100 = 14.2% slope. Individual trail segments frequently exceeded this overall grade for extended distances. Figure 7 illustrates the distances (trail lengths in meters) in each numeric slope category. Page 196 Old Trail: Meters of Trail Length within Seven Slope Categories 0 5. -5 1 10 - 10 .1 15 - 15 .1 20 - 20 .1 25 - 25 .1 30 - 30 .1 -3 5 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 Slope Categories (%) Figure 7: Meters of trail length within seven slope categories (Old Trail) New Trail: The New Trail has an overall slope of 8.5% with few trail segments exceeding 10%. Figure 8 illustrates the distances (trail lengths in meters) in each numeric slope category. New Trail: Meters of Trail Length within Seven Slope Categories 0 5. -5 1 10 - 10 .1 15 - 15 .1 20 - 20 .1 25 - 25 .1 30 - 30 .1 -3 5 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 Slope Categories (%) Figure 8: Meters of trail length within seven slope categories (New Trail) Page 197 We can assign these slope percents into qualitative categories, such as Gentle, Moderate, Steep, and Severe. For example, this analysis the following categories were used: Gentle/Moderate Steep Severe Slopes less than or equal to 10% Slopes between 10.1% and 20% Slopes greater than 20% Using these categories we can compare the two trails based on their relative slopes. Figure 9 illustrates this comparison. Figure 9: Old and New Trail with trail segments color coded by relative trail segment slopes: Yellow—Gentle/Moderate Slope, Blue—Steep Slope, Red—Severe Slope. Trail Surface Materials Defined: Trail Surface Material refers to the predominant material with which a pedestrian’s footwear comes in contact, per trail segment. Trail surface material found at the Deane Preserve Page 198 Old Trail: The predominant material of the Old Trail is rock. In those segments where rock is the primary surface material (56.3% of the trail length), the original vegetation, litter, and soil has been removed from the trail. The removal of these other materials is due in combination of the trail use both by mechanical means and foot traffic as well as the design of the trail. There is a well-established relationship between the amount and rate of erosion and trail grade. This is a positive relationship with steeper slopes losing more ground cover and losing it quicker than on less steep trails. The second most predominate trail surface material was soil (over 35.6% of the trail length) followed by litter (over 8.1% of the trail length). There were no trail segments defined as being largely vegetative in surface material. Due to the length of time this trail has been in existence and the amount of use it currently receives, this is not surprising. New Trail: Four different trail surface materials were identified for the New Trail. Vegetation occurred over 6.3% of the trail, Rock occurred over 12.4% of the trail, Soil occurred over 15.3% of the trail and finally, Litter occurred over 66% of the trail. Conversely, it is not surprising to see such a high percentage of litter for surface material on the New Trail as this trail has seen very little use compared to the old trail, leaf litter and plant material that would otherwise be macerated or kicked off of the trail from foot traffic remains on the trail surface as of the time of the data collection. Figure 10 illustrates the predominant surface material found for each trail segment. Page 199 Figure 10: Old and New Trails with trail segments color coded by predominant surface material: Yellow—Litter, Green—Vegetation, Blue—Soil, Red—Rock. And Figure 11 gives a percentage comparison between the two trails. For instance, about 8% of the Old Trail’s surface material is litter, compared to over 40% for the New Trail. 60 50 40 Old Trail 30 New Trail 20 10 0 Vegetation Litter Soil Rock Figure 11: Comparison of the Old Trail and New Trail by Percent Coverage of Trail Surface Material. Trail Impediments Defined: Trail impediments are defined as features that inhibit safe pedestrian passage. In general, these features might include loose Page 200 Old Trail: Over half (69.5%) of the trail length for the Old Trail has some degree of trail impediment. Trail impediments are defined as features which inhibit safe pedestrian passage. Although there are only two types of trail impediment found on the old trail, singularly or in concert they can be considered significant hazards. The two trail impediments are the presence of loose rocks and frequent water or mud on the trail surface. New Trail: Much of the length of the New Trail also has areas of trail impediments, however none of the trail impediment types from the Old Trail are found on the New Trail and vice versa. Impediments on the New Trail include the presence of roots, encroaching vegetation, severe cross slope and downed logs. With the exception of the presence of roots, each of the other trail impediments is a function of the newness of the trail and certain segments having not been developed. Figure 12: Old and New Trails with trail segments color coded by trail impediment types Page 201 Conclusions The New Trail is significantly longer than the Old Trail. Further, the New Trail does not have any severely sloped trail segments with the majority of the trail (84% of the length falling below 15% slope). There are issues with the new trail related to cross-slope, downed woody material, and trail width. However, each of these factors is a function of the trail not being fully constructed yet. In other words, the issues of cross slope, downed woody material, and trail width will be rectified upon completion of the trail construction. The Old Trail will undoubtedly remain on site for a number of years regardless if it receives continuous use. The current condition of the trail is such that natural forms of soil and vegetative regeneration will take many decades to occur. Even under ideal climatic conditions and no further trail use, we would not see any significant change in the trail surface material for some time. It should be noted that we do not consider the New Trail to be a replacement of the Old Trail. Rather we see the Deane Preserve with two different trails providing different sorts of experiences for hikers. We will certainly see more evidence of trail impacts on the New Trail than on the Old Trail. This is relationship between resource impacts as a function of amount of use. There is a non-linear relationship between the amount of use and the amount of impact. Overwhelmingly, most of the impact occurs under relatively low-levels of use and rather quickly. Figure 13 illustrates the hypothetical relationship between time and amount of impact and rates of recovery following the elimination of visitor use. Page 202 Low-resilience Environment IMPACT High-resilience Environment TIME Figure 13: Hypothetical relationship between amount of resource impacts and time and rates of recovery following elimination of visitor use (Adapted from Cole 1994). Although predicting the future is tricky business, of this we can be sure—trail resource impacts will occur to the New Trail at the Deane Nature Preserve. At issue is the degree and type of resource impacts that occur. With this report serving as a baseline inventory of resource conditions, long-term monitoring of the trail can be done. Further data collected regarding amount and type of use the trail receives will prove to be a valuable addition to the process by which trail resources are impacted over time. Page 203 Bibliography Cole, D.N. 1983. Assessing and Monitoring Backcountry Trail Conditions. Research Paper INT 303. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture—Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. Cole, D. N. 1994. Backcountry impact management: lessons from research. Backcountry Recreation Management/Trends 31(3): 10-14. Cole, D.N. 1995. Experimental trampling of vegetation: Relationship between trampling intensity and vegetation response. Journal of Applied Ecology 32, 203214. Cole, D.N. 2004. Impacts of hiking and camping on soils and vegetation: A review. In Environmental Impacts of Ecotourism. R. Bucklye, ed. Wallingford, U.K.: CABI Publishing, 41-60. Coleman, R. 1981. Footpath erosion in the English Lake District. Applied Geography 1: 121-131. Hall, C.N., and F.R. Kuss. 1989. Vegetation alteration along trails in Shenandoah National Park, Virginia. Biological Conservation 48, 211-227. Leung, Y.-F., and J.L. Marion. 1999. The influence of sampling interval on the accuracy of trail impact assessment. Landscape and Urban Planning 43, 167-179. Leung, Y.-F., and J.L. Marion. 2000. Recreation impacts and management in wilderness: A state-of-knowledge review. In Proceedings: Wilderness Science in a Time of Change; Volume 5: Wilderness Ecosystems, Threats, and Management. D.N. Cole, S.F. McCool, W.T. Borrie, and J. O’Laughlin, comps. Proceedings RMRSP-15-Vol-5. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture—Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, 23-48. Marion, J.L, Y.-F., Leung, and S.K. Nepal. 2006. Monitoring trail conditions: New Methodological Considerations. The George Wright Forum 23, 2: 36-49. Page 204 APPENDIX A Trail Data Collection Protocol Page 205 Trail Data Collection Protocol Trail Name Trail A—River Trail Trail B—Old Logging Road Trail C—Northside Trail Starting Point and Ending Point Description of features (trees, rocks, switchbacks, etc.) found at the start and end of each trail section Trail Segment Just start numbering each segment from the bottom up (i.e., the first/lowest trail segment will be ‘01’). Distance Using measuring wheel, calculate trail segment distance in meters Slope In Degrees Using clinometer, calculate the slope of each trail segment in degrees (right-hand column of numbers when looking through clinometer). Compass Heading of Trail Segment Using compass, take a bearing of the trail segment—expressed in degrees. Width M.P. Using tape measure, calculate the width of the trail in feet and inches at the midpoint of the trail segment Width 1st Quartile Using tape measure, calculate the width of the trail in feet and inches at the point 25% of the distance from the start of the trail segment. Width 3rd Quartile Using tape measure, calculate the width of the trail in feet and inches at the point 75% of the distance from the start of the trail segment. Trees Sampled M.P. Using the prism, count the number of “in” trees at the midpoint of the trail segment. Tread Condition Characteristics: For the length of the trail segment, estimate to the nearest 10% (5% where necessary) the aggregate lineal length occupied by any of the mutually exclusive tread surface categories listed below. Be sure that your estimates sum to 100%. Page 206 S-Soil: All soil types including sand and organic soils, excluding organic litter unless it is highly pulverized and occurs in a thin layer or smaller patches over bare soil. L-Litter: Surface organic matter including intact or partially pulverized leaves, needles, or twigs that mostly or entirely cover the tread substrate. V-Vegetation: Live vegetative cover including herbs, grasses, mosses rooted within the tread boundaries. Ignore vegetation hanging in from the sides. R-Rock: Naturally-occurring rock (bedrock, boulders, rocks, cobble, or natural gravel). If rock or native gravel is embedded in the tread soil estimate the percentage of each and record separately. M-Mud: Seasonal or permanently wet and muddy soils that show imbedded foot or hoof prints from previous or current use (omit temporary mud created by a very recent rain). The objective is to include only transect segments that are frequently muddy enough to divert trail users around problem. G-Gravel: Human-placed (imported) gravel. RT-Roots: W-Water: Exposed tree or shrub roots. WO-Wood: Human-placed wood (water bars, bog bridging, cribbing). O-Other: Specify. Portions of mud-holes with water or water from intercepted seeps or springs. Page 207 APPENDIX B Trail Sampling Form 24 Page 208 Trail Name: Dist (Meters) Slope in Compass Width Deg. Heading M.P. Trail Sampling Form 0 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Surveyor’s Initials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 50 60 70 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 80 90 100 Date ________ G = Gravel L = Litter RT = Roots V = Vegetation R = Rock WO = Wood, human-placed O = Other (Specify) 20 30 40 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Tread Condition Characteristics UTM: Trail Segment (01, 02, etc.) Starting Point: | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | UTM: Width Trees 3nd Sampled Quartile M.P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ending Point: Width 1st Quartile | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | S = Soil RT = Roots W = Water M = Mud Page 209 About the Authors: Dr. Jim Harding graduated from the University of Montana with a PhD. in Forestry and has taught at Green Mountain College as an Associate Professor of Natural Resources Management since 2003. In his teaching, Jim seeks to lessen the perceived distance between humans and the natural world—humans are a part of the natural world, not apart from it. He challenges students to consider both how humans impact the natural world and how the natural world impacts us. Jenna Calvi graduated in 2009 with a BS in Natural Resource Management from Green Mountain College. She is now enrolled at the Vermont Law School, pursuing her masters in Environmental Law. Page 210