BAQ April 2015, Vol. 1(1) - Behavior Analysis Quarterly

Transcription

VOL 1 | NO 1
FROM THE EDITOR’S DESK
There has been a lot of talk about behavior analysis’s future. Some worry that
we do not extend our reach far enough. Others worry that we have not done
a good enough job refining our current practices. Some worry that we do
not pursue enough interdisciplinary collaborations, while others worry interdisciplinary collaborations will water down our science. These conversations
(and many more like them), of course, are not new.
Now, I’m not saying anyone who has these (and other) worries is wrong for
having them. Heck, that’s kind of the point of science: to constantly refine
itself (which means it’s constantly in need of improvement). But I have a
different type of worry to add to our growing list of concerns. For me, I worry
that we’ve not done enough to celebrate what we have accomplished together. So instead of continuing to worry without any action, I want to eliminate
my worry by creating a platform that helps us celebrate the thing we all love
so very much. So here it is: Behavior Analysis Quarterly—A celebration of
all things behavioral! Think of BAQ as a central place to document the wonderful things we’ve done, are doing, and will be doing together.
And in the spirit of celebration, I’d like the first bit of recognition to go to
Joseph Wyatt. BAQ started out as Behavior Analysis Digest International,
which in a prior life didn’t have the “International” attached to it. That digest was Dr. Wyatt’s creation. He kept it alive and in circulation for nearly
25 years. He took a gamble and handed the Digest over to me. After a year
at the helm, the editorial board and I decided to take the publication to a
larger platform and create a full-fledged magazine for the field. The format
has changed, but we retain two things: 1) the Digest still exists in BAQ, and
is now run by Julie Ackerlund Brandt, and 2) the spirit of celebration and
recognition that Dr. Wyatt put into every issue is still here, and hopefully
more accessible than ever.
We at BAQ are so thrilled to have you join us in this grand celebration we
call “Behavior Analysis.”
Mission
Behavior Analysis Quarterly
has as its mission the
dissemination and celebration
of all things behavior analysis.
BAQ Staff
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
Benjamin N. Witts
St. Cloud State University
COLUMNISTS
Todd A. Ward
University of North Texas
Zach Morford
University of Nevada, Reno
Daniel Reimer
Chelsea Wilhite
THE DIGEST EDITOR
Julie Ackerlund Brandt
Contact the editor at:
[email protected]
Author Submissions Information:
www.baquarterly.com
Benjamin N. Witts, Ph.D., BCBA
Assistant Professor - Behavior Analysis
Dept of Community Psychology, Counseling, and Family Therapy
[email protected]
© 2015 Stimulus Press, LLC
VOL 1 | NO 1
COLUMNS
FEATURES
DIGEST
BEHAVIORIST CROSSING
13
Give Choice a Chance
Picky Eating: Treatment
Options from Behavior Analysts
and Speech Pathologists
The Overjustification Effect:
Fact or Fiction?
Behavior Analysis Goes to Medical
School: The University of Nevada
School of Medicine and the
Behavior Analysis Program at
DANIEL REIMER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS AND
WORLD EVENTS
Can a Science of Individual
Behavior Prevent Terrorism?
TODD WARD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
LIVE IT!
Social Interactions
ROCIO B. CUEVAS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
ALEXIS C. WALDIN
JOY A. MCKENZIE
BENJAMIN N. WITTS
JEREMY W. DASHIELL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Children with Disabilities Learn
From Their Peers
MORGAN DELUNA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
17
Behavioral Science Needed
in Ebola Outbreak
LAURA ADLINGTON
Promising Tool Emerges Within
Human Services Field
DAVID HUGHES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
The Big Bang Theory Gets It Right
CHELSEA WILHITE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
MARTIN IVANCIC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
FROM THE LAB
A Brighter Future for Clinical
Behavior Analysts
Blocking, Overshadowing,
and the Difficulties in Teaching
Impaired Learners to Read
TYLER LOY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
BENJAMIN N. WITTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Football and Domestic Violence
QUINN MURRAY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
OUR VERBAL BEHAVIOR
Why We Don’t Reinforce People!
Communication...I Want It And I
Want It Now!
BENJAMIN N. WITTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
MOLLY ANN REED. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
RECOGNITION
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
THINKSTOCK / BUMBASOR
20
Fear and Loathing of ABA
RANDALL BACHMAN
A Brief Review of Behavioral
Interventions for Selective
Mutism
MEGAN A. RHETT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Behavioral Crossing: The field of behavior analysis is varied and diverse. The science
can be useful to practically any profession, allowing us to work or contribute in many
different settings. However, many of us are not aware of the unique and uncommon
professional opportunities available to behavior analysts. This column strives to
highlight the diverse areas in which behavior analyst’s work and to inspire all behavior
analysts to pursue opportunities in areas not traditionally part of our repertoires.
Daniel Reimer / University of Nevada, Reno
Behavior Analysis Goes to Medical School:
The University of Nevada School of Medicine and the Behavior
Analysis Program at University of Nevada, Reno
In 2009, the University of Nevada
School of Medicine (UNSOM)
had a site visit from the Liaison
Committee for Medical Education
(LCME), the accrediting entity for
all medical school in the US, Canada and the Caribbean. The LCME
strongly encouraged a curricular
shift from traditional, subject-based
courses (e.g. microbiology, anatomy) to a more integrated “blockbased” curriculum focused on organ
systems (e.g. circulatory, respiratory). This request represented
an enormous change in
both educational strategy as
well as administration and
infrastructure of the medical
school.
first meeting it was decided that
they needed another set of eyes on
the problem.
Ramona Houmanfar, Ph.D., associate professor in the UNR behavior
analysis program was sought out
by the group to act as an external
member to the group, both in a
consultant role for change management, as well as to provide expertise
in evaluation and assessment. Having Dr. Houmanfar as an external
the faculty and administrators at
UNSOM has been a rewarding
and fulfilling experience. We have
worked closely with them to develop a number of evaluation strategies
for students. One of the difficulties
that can come up in medical school
evaluation is the operationalization
of what students are being evaluated on. How do you measure ‘professionalism’ or being a ‘good listener?’
Behavior analysis can help create
definitions for these things that are
observable and objective.”
The partnership was so
successful that the role of
the CEG was expanded to
include the assessment and
evaluation of other aspects
“A huge shift was needed to
of the change, such as the
accomplish the change,” says
impact of the new curricuGwen Shonkwiler, PhD, the
lum on faculty. Faculty were
interim Associate Dean of
an important group to study
Medical Education at the
as they were the people
time of the transition. “Medimplementing the change.
ical schools are incredibly
Primarily, the CEG wanted
complex organizations, with
to quantify the concerns facThe Mack Social Science building - home to UNR’s Behavior Analysis program
all kinds of pressures that
ulty had about the change.
need to be considered.” One
Interviews were conducted,
of the primary concerns was the
member also offered CEG an easy
and faculty verbal behavior was
effect a curriculum change would
way to conduct research ethically, as coded to determine areas faculty
have on student performance.
the staff and administrators would
identify as potentially problematic
have a conflict of interest when
when rolling out the change. ReA group of faculty, staff and admin- doing research on student perforsults of the interviews were presentistrators created the Curriculum
mance.
ed to upper level administrators,
Evaluation Group (CEG). CEG’s
with ideas about how to address
main task was to develop a strategy
Amber Candido, MA, a graduate
these concerns. For example, one
to measure student performance
student in the behavior analysis
concern was financial compensation
before, during and after the curricdepartment currently working
for block directors, which correular change. However, during their
with CEG says, “Teaming up with
sponded with the suggestion that
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their funds be contingent on block
leadership.
There have also been opportunities
for outreach and education. In order to better understand the system
in which faculty and administrators
were working, CEG requested a
workshop on Behavioral Systems
Analysis (BSA). Content included
chapters from Dr. Maria Malott’s
book Paradox of Organizational
Change, as well as select publications on BSA and the metacontingency. The two part workshop
allowed the members of the CEG
to ask questions and apply the newly learned concepts to the curricular
change.
The administration of UNSOM
has acknowledged the value of
CEG, and the contribution of
behavior analysis. Recently, the
Dean, Executive Associate Dean of
Academic Affairs, Associate Dean
of Medical Education, and the
Director of Evaluation and Assessment all attended the Summit on
Leadership and Cultural Change,
as well as ABAI 2014. They have
given multiple presentations and are
currently in the process of publishing a paper summarizing their work
to-date in the Journal of Organizational Behavior Management.
Additionally, the partnership has
allowed for the creation of other
projects. “One exciting side project
I have been working on is a compilation of leadership and leadership development literature,” says
Candido. “The Dean [of UNSOM]
created the Leadership Taskforce to
develop a universal definition of the
term “leadership,” and to create a
beneficial for both fields.
The need for medical education to
stay competitive in order to attract
the top medical students can be
used to a behavior analyst’s advantage. It makes medical education
much more open to innovation and
How do you measure ‘professionalism’
or being a ‘good listener?’
questionnaire pertaining to observable leadership behaviors. The
questionnaire will be used to help
evaluation the leadership practices of UNSOM’s Dean, Associate
Deans and Department Chairs.”
The self-report measure can provide
useful feedback to UNSOM leaders
and will hopefully shape suitable
leadership behavior in the future.
Conclusion
Medical education is a large and
influential field that is ripe for collaboration with behavior analysts.
Medical educators are in important
positions, with great connections to
other high-profile, prominent areas
of medicine. Creating solid and
long-lasting relationships, based off
of collaboration and mutual exploration of modern problems facing
medical science today, can be highly
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increases the need for functional,
useful technology which behavior
analysts should be more than happy
to provide. This is in contrast to
some other areas of science which
are more resistant to change. By
building professional relationships
in medical education, other areas
of science can observe the benefits
of cooperating with the field of
behavior analysis, making medical
education an ideal location to start
improving the widespread adoption
of a workable conception of human
behavior. n
Authors Note: The author would like to
thank Dr. Gwen Shonkwiler, Amber
Candido and all the members of the CEG,
past and present.
BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS AND WORLD EVENTS
Todd Ward / University of North Texas
Skinner’s vision for Radical Behaviorism had cultural
analysis at its core. Today, behavior analysts working
on cultural issues are few and far between. Behavior
Analysis and World Events returns behavior analysts
to their roots by addressing current events of the
21st century from a behavior analytic perspective.
Can a Science of Individual Behavior Prevent Terrorism?
Terrorism defines the world stage
of the 21st century. However, behavior analysts, tasked with “saving
the world” with their science, are
virtually non-existent in this, and
many other critical social issues
(Mattaini & Luke, 2014). In the
pages below, a brief overview of
modern terrorism will be provided,
followed by Biglan’s (2015) call for
more research evaluating terrorism
prevention efforts. It will be suggested that behavior analysts have
a preliminary framework within
which to contribute to the amelioration of terrorism. However, in
order to make substantive contributions to the area, behavior
analysts need to rethink the
identity of their field from
one of procedures to a “formless” field of principles.
In the U.S. and allied nations,
countless lives, dollars, and
other resources have been devoted to countering terrorism
practices since 9/11. Yet, the
Global Terrorism Database
tells us that the annual rate
of terrorist attacks has grown
from approximately 2,000
in 2001 to 12,000 in 2013. In the
years since 2013, the U.S. significantly drew down their presence in
Iraq and the Islamic State of Iraq
and Syria (ISIS) now controls vast
swaths of territory in the region.
The processes involved in the increase aren’t certain, but at least two
possibilities exist. The first, which
I will tentatively call the “two-process” theory of terrorism, is that the
increase in terrorism is relatively independent of the actions of governments who are fighting against it.
According to this view, the increase
in terrorism was going to happen
regardless of the policies of Western
nations who are now engaged in
extensive counterterrorism efforts.
Another possibility is what I will
call the “one-process” theory of
terrorism. Another name for this is
“blowback.” Blowback implies that
the increase in terrorism is a direct
reaction to the policies of governments who are now fighting against
it. Such actions include current
counterterrorism efforts but also
functional contextualist perspective, bogging down in historical
analyses of terrorism doesn’t really
matter. Remember our analytic
goals: the prediction and influence
of behavior. An in-depth historical
analysis of terrorism is analogous
to a behavior analyst exploring
the detailed histories of a client’s
relationship with their parents as a
psychoanalyst would do. Our analysis of history emphasizes creating
new histories as a function of our
interventions aimed at predicting
and influencing behavior, in this
case predicting and influencing the
reduction of terrorism. The before-cited data shows just
the opposite is occurring.
Thus, it is clear that more
can be done.
Anthony Biglan (2015), a
leader in large-scale applications of behavior analysis
to social issues, recently
advocated for the use of
Randomized Controlled
Trials (RCTs) to evaluate
counterterrorism efforts,
primarily via prevention
ELL-R-BROWN / FLICKR
programs. He cites only
two existing studies in this area.
historical alliances that had uninIn the first, hundreds of Afghan
tended consequences, such as the
Mujahideen acquiring weapons and villages were randomly chosen to
participate in an aid program. Those
combat experience through U.S.
efforts to fund Afghan fighters after villages were later shown to have
a decrease in security incidents,
the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan
compared to villages that did not
in the 1980s (Bergen & Reynolds,
receive aid. The second study suc2005).
cessfully demonstrated the effects of
an information campaign to reduce
As behavior analysts, historical
pre-election violence in randomly
influences on behavior are central
selected Nigerian villages compared
to our analysis. However, from a
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to control villages.
To any behavior analyst reading
this, they are immediately confronted with a problem—the RCTs don’t
“look like” behavior analysis. No
preference assessments, functional
analyses, or rein“RCTs
forcers are anywhere
to be seen. Yet the
majority of applied
behavior analytic research today has
one or more of the latter elements.
Moreover, the RCTs target large
groups rather than the behavior
of individuals. In other words, no
within-subjects data is to be found
anywhere in these studies. Because
all of our principles are centered on
the behavior of individuals, a
member of the social sciences
might justifiably ask “how is
behavior analysis relevant to
social issues?”
The answer to that question
strikes at the core of behavior
analysis’ identity as the field
progresses through, what
many would say, an identity
crisis brought on by the huge
successes in developmental
disabilities and autism. However, if we keep ourselves
firmly rooted in our pragmatic philosophy depicted in modern
form through functional contextualism (Hayes, Barnes-Holmes, and
Wilson, 2012), our path forward
will be clear. Our analytic goals
are the prediction and influence
of behavior. Thus, the practice of
behavior analysis is really a “formless” practice in that our goals are
not defined in terms of procedures.
Our procedures are only “true” to
the extent that they contribute to
our goals. Thus, any procedure that
facilitates such goals can become a
behavioral technique.
which any procedure that enables
the prediction and influence of
behavior may be applied. He stated
that cultural selection differs from
operant selection in that the latter
operates at the group level rather
than that of individual behavior. Skinner was never very
don’t ‘look like’ behavior analysis”
clear on what he
meant by this, but
revisiting his earlier
We are identified not so much by
work, he tells us that practices are
what we do, in terms of our actions, influenced primarily by controlling
but in what we achieve in terms of
agencies, such as governmental inthe effects of our behavior on the
stitutions or other regulating bodies
behavior of those we serve. That
(Skinner, 1953). Regulating bodies
doesn’t mean behavior analysis is a
aren’t interested in the behavior of
disorganized “bag of tricks.” Rather, individuals. They are interested in
the core of our identity is in our
what Biglan (1995) calls incidence
(the rate of a practice in
a given population) and
prevalence (the number of
people engaged in a practice in a given population).
Take texting and driving as
an example. A government
doesn’t care who texts and
drives, but they do care
about the rate of the practice (incidence) and how
many people engage in the
practice (prevalence).
Skinner (1953) was never so
explicit as to say his analysis
of culture was an interdisciplinary
concept, but he did acknowledge
the potential benefits of collaborating with other social sciences.
Incidence and prevalence measures
mask the behavior of particular
individuals. In fact, examining the
behavior of particular individuals
regarding social issues like terrorism
would be counter-productive as the
SOLDIERSMEDIACENTER / FLICKR
principles of behavior change and
in our subject matter. If the latter
two are not precisely articulated
then we lose our identity as a field
and we lose our way in breaking
new ground for the field.
Skinner (1981) gave us an initial
conceptual framework for the
analysis of cultural practices, to
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behavior of particular individuals
isn’t the problem so much as the
practice as a whole. Certainly the
behavior of individuals participates
in practices, but an analysis of the
incidence and prevalence of practices in relation to larger
societal-level conditions is often times
“...if
more useful.
terrorists (Ward, 2009). Reciprocally, however, the analysis of individual behavior can be beneficial if the
analysis focuses on the behavior
of influential leaders in a terror
group and its effects on the group’s
In closing, many people are already
working on terrorism and security
issues and nearly all of them have
never heard of behavior analysis.
This is evidenced from a paper I
presented at the International Studies Association conference on maritime
piracy (see Ward,
we keep ourselves firmly rooted
2009). I was part of
a group of 30 other
in our pragmatic philosophy...our path
As I stated in a preresearchers tackling
forward will be clear.”
vious paper, the analthe problem, yet
ysis of societal-level
the Association for
relations allows us
Behavior Analysis
to do something that is a necesoperations (Houmanfar, Rodrigues, conference had zero people working
sary prerequisite to predicting and
& Ward, 2010; Ward, 2009). In
on this or related issues. Stepping
influencing behavior—predicting
Skinner’s (1953; 1981) framework,
into these types of areas demands
an influencing the very contextual
a terror network may be thought
that we know who we are as behavconditions that occasion behavior at of as a controlling agency which
ior analysts, and I don’t think we
the individual level, such as govaffects the incidence and prevalence do. n
ernmental policies and the influx of of terror attacks to the extent that
weapons into a country which then
its leaders issue policies regulating
occasion the behavior of individual
such attacks.
Bergen, P., & Reynolds, A. (2005). Blowback revisited. Foreign Affairs, December 2005. Retrieved on March 15, 2015 from http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/61190/peter-bergen-and-alec-reynolds/blowback-revisited
Biglan, Anthony (1995). Changing cultural practices: A contextualist framework for intervention research. Reno, NV: Context Press.
Biglan, Anthony (2015). Where terrorism research goes wrong. The New York Times, March 6, 2015. Retrieved on March 15, 2015 from http://www.nytimes.
com/2015/03/08/opinion/sunday/where-terrorism-research-went-wrong.html?smid=fb-share&_r=3
Hayes, S.C., Barnes-Holmes, D., Wilson, K.G. (2012). Contextual Behavioral Science: Creating a science more adequate to the challenge of the human condition.
Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 1, 1-16.
Houmanfar, R., Rodrigues, N. J., & Ward, T.A. (2010). Emergence & metacontingency: Points of contact and departure. Behavior and Social Issues, 20, 122-146.
Mattaini, M.A. & Luke, M. (2014). Editorial: “Saving the world” with a matrix. Behavior and Social Issues, 23, 1-4.
Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York: Free Press.
Skinner, B.F. (1981). Selection by consequences. Science, 213, 501-504.
Ward, T.A. (2009). Piracy in Somalia: Interbehavioral assessment and intervention. Behavior and Social issues, 18, 136-154.
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Behavior analysis’ leaders advocate using our science in solving the world’s
problems. While we celebrate successes in some areas, limited mainstream
acceptance is seen as failure to achieve the sweeping goals set by our pioneers.
One definition of “success” could include engaging in behavior-analyticallyinformed behaviors as a consistent practice. I set out to find examples of behavior
analysts engaging in behavior analytic practices outside of their occupations.
LIVE IT!
Chelsea Wilhite / University of Nevada, Reno
Social Interactions
I am one of those behavior analysts who drags my non-behavior
analysis spouse to most of my
work’s social functions (e.g., holiday parties, the ABAI social, and
the traditional graduation roasts).
Though my husband is not a behavior analyst, he, fortunately for me,
has always been quick to grasp the
concepts and principles on which
our field is founded. During the
drive (or walk) home from social
events with behavior analysts, we
inevitably fall into discussion about
how our conversations with people went throughout the evening.
And while our interactions at these
gatherings are overwhelmingly
positive, those post-event talks got
me thinking about how behavior
analysts incorporate behavior analytic techniques and principles into
more difficult social settings. So, I
talked with Dr. Scott Herbst about
how he approaches social situations,
specifically tense ones, from the
perspective of a behavior analyst.
“If you approach what people say
behavior analytically,” Herbst said,
“there’s no good or bad in what they
said, there’s just what they said.” I
could reinterpret this as something
along the lines of “it is difficult to
remove one’s own emotion from
a charged situation, but you can
acknowledge your own emotions
without them ‘dictating’ your overt
behavior.” Now, I know behavior
analysts tend to shy away from the
“E” word because covert behavior is
difficult to study objectively. But in
our everyday interactions, all that
covert behavior we wrap up and
label “emotion” exists. We might as
well deal with it.
Herbst went on to explain that
if you extend the concept, what
anyone says is just a result of the
contingencies under which s/he is
operating. Of course, any behavior analyst, when asked the same
question, would answer in a similar
way, but many of us have trouble
actually approaching our own social
situations in this fashion. One
reason I chose to discuss this topic
with Herbst is I have observed him
actually put this approach to work
in very successful ways. And in full
disclosure, Herbst was the officiant at my wedding and someone I
consider a good friend.
“If you can set aside that what they
said is personal to you – or means
something good or bad about you –
then you can get interested in what
else is controlling their response.” If
there is some level of excitement or
upset in the interaction, one vari-
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able to consider is emotion. “There’s
probably some extinction or punishment going on,” Herbst continued. “If so, what was the reinforcer?”
Often times in social interactions,
the punisher or missing reinforcer is
some sort of verbal stimulus. Herbst
says if you can identify what they
said, tact the emotion, guess the
reinforcer, and acknowledge those
three things, generally what happens is the person is left with the
feeling of being heard and, Herbst
said, that is “probably the reinforcer
for talking.”
What happens in the post-reinforcement pause following the
“being heard” feeling is the opportunity for new verbal behavior.
Sometimes, Herbst said, it is more
verbal behavior regarding the initial
topic or problem, but eventually
something new can emerge. And
this new verbal behavior provides
opportunity for a more productive
interaction.
By engaging in this behavior
analytic approach to high-tension social situations, Herbst is:
1) assessing the variables at play,
2) implementing a simple intervention, and 3) allowing for new
behavior to be reinforced. In short,
he is living it.
FROM THE LAB
Oftentimes the basic and applied domains seem as though a large
chasm separates the two. But each has something to inform the
other. In From the Lab, we take work done in the basic domain and
show how it applies to treatment, conceptualization, and everyday life.
Benjamin N. Witts / St. Cloud State University
Blocking, Overshadowing, and the Difficulties
in Teaching Impaired Learners to Read
I’m a new father to two wonderful children. As of this writing,
they’ve just turned 4 months old.
My twins, Lincoln and Lucy, prove
to be a wonderful distraction from
work (of which my wife says I do
too much… but I digress). We sing
songs, play peek-a-boo, bounce
on daddy’s knee, and yes, we read
a LOT of books. Well, I should
clarify that we read a lot, though
sometimes the books don’t rotate
as frequently as I’d like. Each child
clearly has a favorite book. Lincoln
loves a black-and-white book with
some simple statements
about each picture, while
Lucy enjoys being read a very
repetitive book about saying
hello to a bee who has anatomically impossible eyes.
It was somewhere around the
16th or 17th time of reading
these books in the same day
that I began to wonder about
writing children’s books. My
thought is children’s books
are either simple to write, or
they are deceptively simple
(I’m guessing the latter). Cute pictures, word repetition, and a general
poetic tempo to reading seem to remain consistent across most of the
books for infants that I read. In the
more stripped-down books, a single
picture is accompanied by one to
three short words. For example, you
might see on one page a blue dog
and on the other page a green dog.
The words “Blue dog” and “Green
dog” are printed and correspond
with the appropriate picture. I
suspect my kids have spent little to
no time fixed on the words, opting
instead to allocate their time to
looking at the pictures.
But this makes me wonder: in
terms of teaching reading skills, is
there any benefit to putting words
with the pictures when kids will
likely attend to the pictures first?
For most kids, I don’t think there’s
too much of an issue, as reading
tends to take hold relatively easy
with some persistence. Review-
ing the behavioral literature on
impaired learners, however, gives
us a much different story for this
particular population.
Picture Interference of Reading
An early lesson in reading might
start with learning sight words.
Sight words are those words that
are memorized without any necessary understanding of the rules of
reading. For example, a child might
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learn to say dog in the presence of
the written stimulus “Dog.” Given
the written stimulus “D,” the child
would struggle to produce its sound,
even though he or she is capable of
saying dog to a stimulus that contains the “D.” So in learning sight
words, the word is learned, but not
necessarily its component parts.
I have to emphasize again that for
typical learners, pairing pictures and
sight words might not be an issue.
The repetitive nature of children’s
books, along with repeated readings,
is likely to help the child
anticipate what word comes
next. The continued pairing
of words and the child saying the word, perhaps before
the parent does, is likely to
result in the word having
some degree of stimulus
control. The test is simple
enough: present the word
independent of the book at
a later time and see if the
child responds correctly.
A series of investigations
were conducted on the influence
pictures-as-prompts have on hindering impaired learner’s acquisition of sight words. The most recent
effort is an investigation aimed at
decoding just what this influence is
(Dittlinger & Lerman, 2011). I’ll
unpack this study in a moment, but
first a quick lesson on how picture prompts might lead to slower
learning.
There are at least two identified
FROM THE LAB
means by which antecedent stimuli
can influence how impaired learners
acquire sight words. Both come to
us from the respondent literature
(think: Pavlov). The first is blocking
and the second is overshadowing.
olate dessert, attempting to savor
the bitter chocolate smell over the
powerful whiffs of peppermint. I eat
the dessert, and low and behold, 5
minutes later my stomach is killing
me. So much for dessert.
Blocking
But what about the dark chocolate
smell? I LOVE dark chocolate, but
wouldn’t we predict that the smell
of dark chocolate paired with the
smell of peppermint would lead me
to find dark chocolate disgusting?
In this case, the answer is, “no.” Because the CS effect on peppermint
was well established before being
paired with dark chocolate, the
peppermint smell blocks the ability
of the dark chocolate smell to elicit
similar conditioned responses in the
Blocking is perhaps best explained
with an example. I dislike most
mints; peppermint especially. It’s
odd, I know, and the winter holidays are nearly unbearable with
peppermint everything sold at
stores. You see, eating mint-flavored
food tends to give me a stomachache. As you can guess, the smell
of peppermint alone is enough to
make me grimace. To get technical,
the smell of peppermint was once
neutral (an NS in respondent
terms), but through being
correlated with eventual
stomachaches (unconditioned response; UR) after
ingesting foods containing
the mint (unconditioned
stimulus; US), it became a
conditioned stimulus (CS)
that elicits feelings of disgust
(conditioned response; CR).
Now, let’s say it’s the winter
holiday season and I’m at
a faculty gathering where
my department chair has
prepared a series of desserts, all
containing some form of peppermint. If I find myself in a situation
where I must eat something as a
sign of appreciation (or at least to
avoid offending her), I would likely
try to find some dessert that might
compete with the peppermint. So
I would reach for anything with
really dark chocolate. I love dark
chocolate; the bitter smell is so aromatic. Therefore I grab a dark choc-
one and take a big bite. But just
before my teeth rip off a piece,
the distinct smell of coconut and
hazelnut hit my nose and I realize
that she’s tried some other recipe.
Much like with peppermint desserts, I find my stomach in knots
after a few minutes. Now, I don’t
eat much coconut or hazelnut, and
so these are distinct smells for me.
What remains to be seen here is
whether coconut, hazelnut, or both
smells will come to elicit feelings of
disgust on future occurrences. If one
odor is particularly strong, it might
overshadow the other. For example, if the coconut were especially
strong, on some future occurrence
coconut, but not hazelnut, would
bring about some feelings of disgust.
So what does this have to do
with Reading Sight Words?
Dittlinger and Lerman
(2011) extended past
research on the potential
blocking effect that pictures
might have on acquiring sight words. In their
study, three young children
receiving behavior-analytic services were asked to
learn 16 unfamiliar sight
words. These 16 words were
AMYLOVESYAH / FLICKR
taught across one of four
future. Thank goodness, too, because conditions (4 words per condition):
1) the unfamiliar word presented
I wouldn’t know what I’d do if I
couldn’t have the occasional hunk of without its corresponding unfamiliar picture (i.e., the child did not
dark chocolate with a strong port.
know what the picture was), 2) the
unfamiliar word presented without
Overshadowing
its corresponding familiar picture,
Let’s stick with holiday desserts to
3) the unfamiliar word presented
help shed light on overshadowing.
along with its unfamiliar picture,
This time I find myself at a family
and 4) the unfamiliar word presentholiday party and I see my Aunt
ed along with its familiar picture.
Mary’s bourbon balls. Oh man,
Teaching consisted of asking the
those things are good! So I grab
8
VOL. 1 / NO. 1
FROM THE LAB
child to touch the correct card
with the picture. Thus, a case for
Of course, this doesn’t mean that
(containing the word or word+picovershadowing was had.
pictures and words should not be
ture) out of an array of 6 cards
presented together, or that count(target + 5 distractor cards). Each
Additionally, when words were
less children’s books could never
session included each target word
presented alone, those words that
be used for young children with
being presented 5 times. There are
did not correspond to a familiar
learning impairments. Indeed the
additional details
goal would be for
concerning each sesany child to learn
sion and the experto read even with
“We have a better understanding
imental design, but
pictures, familiar or
I’ll try to stay focused
not, present. Instead,
today...and it’s all thanks to a firm
on the take-home
we might need difgrasp on our basic research.”
point here.
ferent instructional
techniques, such
Dittlinger and Leras better emphasis
man’s (2011) findings reveal some
picture were acquired more quickly
on the written words or additional
interesting patterns about teaching
than their familiar-picture counprompts. There is much to be done
sight words with and without picterpart. In other words, if the child
in this area, for sure, but we have
tures. When pictures were includknew the picture but not the word,
a better understanding today than
ed alongside the sight word, the
the sight word was more difficult to we ever have, and it’s all thanks to a
picture interfered with sight word
learn. This latter effect is evidence
firm grasp on our basic research. n
acquisition. This effect was seen
for blocking.
regardless of the child’s familiarity
Dittlinger, L. H., & Lerman, D. C. (2011). Further analysis of picture interference when teaching word recognition to children with autism. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 44, 341-349.
9
VOL. 1 / NO. 1
OUR VERBAL BEHAVIOR
Sometimes learning a scientific language can be just as difficult, if not
more so, than learning a foreign language. Our Verbal Behavior explores
some of the intricacies of our scientific language with an emphasis on
developing correct stimulus control over each term covered.
Why We Don’t Reinforce People!
“If she does a good job, be sure to
reinforce her for it. We want to see
that again.”
“I was going to reinforce him, but
the trial was a bit sloppy. Maybe I
should have, it would have prevented the meltdown.”
These two quotes come from real
conversations I had in the weeks
preceding my writing of this column. Both quotes come from BCBAs. One even had a “D” attached
to the end of that title. By the end
of this article, you’ll know why both
individuals were wrong for saying
what they did.
Definitions of reinforcement are not
hard to find in the
behavioral literature.
The general definitional theme is some
event follows some
behavior and because of that relation the behavior followed will be
more likely to be produced in the
future. Simply put, reinforcement
makes behavior more likely.
escape or avoidance of withdrawal
symptoms maintain all the responses that led to its use. In other words,
the drug and its effects are types
of reinforcement, and continued
responding might be unhealthy or
even deadly. In this light, we might
be mistaken in saying that “reinforcement is good.” On the flip side,
the dealer’s behavior is maintained
by reinforcement as well, and we
might not be so quick to label this
as “good” either. Of course, opinions
on drug use and access differ, but
the point is that “good” and “bad”
are culturally-bound; what’s good or
bad changes between cultures and
within cultures over time.
with saying that you’ve reinforced
someone. For example, if a colleague does a nice job with running
session or you see a parent properly
conducting an extinction procedure
in a candy aisle, we might be quick
to say, “Be sure and reinforce him/
her for the good work!” much like
my quoted colleagues did above.
Can you spot the issues?
First, when we say to reinforce
someone we often mean to give
him or her things that are liked.
But giving “good” things for “good”
behavior doesn’t mean it’s reinforcement. As we have seen, for some
people, “bad” things
reinforce “bad”
behavior (depending on your point
of view, that is).
Often, we are not as
concerned with the
effect on behavior as
we are with pointing out a job well
done. Reinforcement is an historical
account, meaning we can only call it
reinforcement after we see a change
in responding.
“...for some people, ‘bad’ things
reinforce ‘bad’ behavior.”
To be sure, reinforcement doesn’t
need labels like “good” or “bad.” Using these terms might be fine when
talking to a parent, teacher, or other
community members, but they
stand to muddy our science. Consider the drug user who must produce many responses in getting and
using the drug of choice (getting
money, locating a drug dealer, buying the drug, preparing paraphernalia, etc.). The drug itself and the
When we speak of reinforcement,
what we are concerned with is
the initial change in frequency
and whether that change maintains. Of course, we can add other
variables to the mix. Antecedent
stimuli present before the behavior
now take on new roles in evoking
behavior, and current states of affair
influence whether those antecedents even evoke behavior at all
(we call these SDs and motivating
operations, respectively).
But let’s get back to the central
issue: to reinforce.
Second, and perhaps more serious,
the definition states that reinforcement increases the frequency of
behavior that precedes it. Some
speak of this as strengthening, making more probable, and so forth.
The point is, you expect to see it
more often. Let’s take an example
with a definitional interpretation to
illustrate the issue:
There are two major issues I see
“Reinforce correct responding with
10
VOL. 1 / NO. 1
OUR VERBAL BEHAVIOR
access to preferred activities”
Translation: Making access to
preferred activities contingent on
correct responding will increases
the likelihood of correct responding
in the future.
Now, let’s substitute behavior for a
person:
“Reinforce him with access to
preferred activities if he makes a
correct response”
Translation: Making access to
preferred activities contingent on
correct responding will increase
the likelihood of the client in the
future.
WHAT??!!! Increase the likelihood of the client in the future?
Yes. That’s what happens when you
reinforce people. To be certain, the
probability of you “occurring” is
100%. I cannot change that. No one
can. You existed yesterday, you exist
today, and if I’m playing the odds,
11
VOL. 1 / NO. 1
you’ll exist tomorrow.
Reinforcing people only works if
either a) we can make more of you
in the process, or b) you tend to pop
in and out of existence.
As neither of these is the case, I’ll
stick to reinforcing behavior, which
is the way it should be! Now the
next time you hear a colleague talk
about reinforcing someone, you can
let them have it (the definition, that
is). n
RECOGNITION
From: Chelsea J. Wilhite
Recognizing: Scott Herbst, PhD, Assist. Professor,
The Chicago School
Thank you for your recent article on bSci21.org. Taking
Responsibility for What We Don’t Know as Behavior
Analysts is a reminder of why we must refrain from
making claims or predictions not supported by empirical data. You also provide encouragement to continue
pursuing investigations in areas traditionally beyond
the scope of behavior analysis.
Recognizing: Behavior Analysts working on Nevada’s
School Climate Transformation Project
Thank you for using the science of behavior to improve
school environments for thousands of children and in
the process helping disseminate our science to experts
in other fields of science and education. The more
people who see the results behavior analysis can bring
about, the more impact we can have on our world.
Recognizing: Anthony Biglan, PhD, Oregon Research Institute Senior Scientist, Promise Neighborhood Research
Consortium Co-Director
Thank you for your tireless push toward a better world.
With the recent publication of The Nurture Effect, you
demonstrated your dedication to improving humankind. Furthermore, by targeting a lay-audience, you
are making decades of research more accessible to the
everyday person.
From: Benjamin N. Witts
Recognizing: Joseph Cautilli
Thanks for taking 2 hours out of your day to talk to and
inspire some unknown schmuck (i.e., me)
Recognizing: Kimberly A. Schulze Professor St. Cloud
State University
Thank you for modeling dedication to students, staff,
colleagues, and the program. And for not getting mad
when I don’t know what the hell I’m doing…
Recognizing: Jerry Mertens, Professor St. Cloud State
University
For inviting me into your work and your home. You’ve
shaped this field, and you continue to help shape my
behavior. If I achieve 1/10thof what you have and inspire 1/100th as many as you have, I will have accomplished more in this life than I ever imagined.
From: Julie Ackerlund Brandt
Recognizing: Sarah Jenkins
Congratulations to Sarah Jenkins, a doctoral student
from the University of Kansas. She is finishing up her
dissertation and will be graduating this year! I’m so
excited for you, Sarah, you have a wonderful and bright
future ahead of you!
Submission Instructions:
• Limit your SR+ to 450 characters or less (including spaces)
• Include your full name, the full name or title of the person, program, business, etc., you are SR+ing
• Provide specifics what your SR+ is for, descriptive feedback is the most effective
• Email Daniel Reimer to submit your SR+ at [email protected]
12
VOL. 1 / NO. 1
Picky Eating: Treatment Options from
Behavior Analysts and Speech Pathologists
ALEXIS C. WALDIN
JOY A. MCKENZIE
BENJAMIN N. WITTS
ST. CLOUD STATE UNIVERSITY
ALEXIS C. WALDIN
I
t’s common for children to have
favorite foods. When a child’s favorite food is eaten to the exclusion
of other foods, he or she might have
a problem. This selective eating, or
“picky eating,” affects approximately
50% of toddlers and infants (Carruth, Ziegler, Gordon, & Barr, 2004).
Picky eating can involve an aversion
to texture, temperature, flavor,
color, or any food presentation
(Twachtman-Reilly, Amaral,
& Zebrowski, 2008). Picky
eating is a serious concern
as a picky eater’s diet might
be nutritionally unbalanced,
leading to health-related (e.g.,
malnutrition, failure to thrive)
and developmental concerns
(Bachmeyer, 2009).
We may not always know
what led to a child’s picky eating, but we have an arsenal of
cross-disciplinary tools at our
disposal. However, before jumping in
to treatment, professionals must consult with a pediatrician to rule other
possible medical issues (e.g., reflux,
metabolic disorder, allergies) (American Speech-Language-Hearing Association [ASHA], 2014; Professional
and Ethical Compliance Code for
Behavior Analysts, 2014). Once you’re
in the clear, it’s time to get to work!
Behavior analysts (BAs) and speech
and language pathologists (SLPs)
have been effective in treating picky
eating, though often through distinct
means. The fact that each field has
developed unique treatments means
either a) one field has it right and the
other is wrong, b) neither have it right,
or c) both are right, and both could
therefore benefit through collabora-
tion. Regardless of a, b, or c, working
together can only improve how we
deal with our picky eaters.
Behavior Analytic Treatments
Here, BAs are concerned with the interaction between the picky eater and
his/her environment (cf. Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007). The BA looks
toward antecedent and consequent
events, and does so with consideration to motivational and contextual
13
VOL. 1 / NO. 1
JOY A. MCKENZIE
BENJAMIN N. WITTS
variables. BAs have developed a host
of treatments, including altering reinforcement, punishment, and extinction contingencies all in the pursuit of
getting someone to eat more varieties
of foods, and more often (e.g., Bachmeyer, 2009). Treatment variations
include differential reinforcement
of alternative behavior, non-contingent reinforcement, stimulus
fading, high probability-low
probability, simultaneous presentation, and escape extinction (Bachmeyer, 2009).
Differential reinforcement of
alternative behaviors (DRA)
and non-contingent reinforcement (NCR) are procedures selected when the child’s
picky eating is presumed to be
maintained by socially-mediated positive reinforcement. DRA and NCR both
deliver functionally-equivalent stimuli (i.e., reinforcement), but
each producing differing effects on
behaviors. DRA is a procedure used
to increase the future frequency of
producing the desired behavior. DRA
provides reinforcement contingent
upon the individual producing the
desired behavior (e.g., accepting food,
picking up the presented cup) and
withholding reinforcement (extinction) for other non-acceptable types
of behavior. NCR is a procedure used
to decrease the future frequency of the
picky eating, and does so by delivering
the maintaining reinforcement on a
fixed-time schedule (i.e., independent,
or regardless, of the behavior being
produced). To help differentiate between the two, let’s use an example of
a child eating broccoli. With DRA, if
the child eats the food they are given
access to reinforcement, but if the food
is refused, no reinforcement is delivered. With NCR, regardless of if the
broccoli is eaten, reinforcement will
be delivered on some time schedule
(e.g., every 3 minutes).
Stimulus fading (SF), high probability-low probability (HP-LP) and
simultaneous presentation (SP) are
procedures to condition non-preferred
foods/liquids as preferred foods/liquids. SF slowly increases the presentation of non-preferred foods while
slowly reducing the presentation of
preferred foods. For example, you
might start off with a big glob of
pudding and a single sliver of carrot,
but before long, you’re eating whole
carrots and nibbling on a smudge
of pudding (see also Groff, Piazza,
Zeleny, & Dempsey, 2011; Hagopian,
Farrell, & Amari, 1996). HP-LP is a
procedure that involves a series of food
presentations for which compliance is
likely, followed by a food presentation
for which compliance is not likely.
Essentially, the picky eater is given a
running start before being asked to
eat disliked foods. SP is a procedure
in which a less preferred food/liquid
and a more preferred food/liquid are
presented at the same time. Such presentations could include the foods/
liquids on/in the same spoon or cup
and/or on top of one another (e.g.,
Ahearn, 2003), or sequential presentations (e.g., Piazza et al., 2002). Think
of this like putting lots of veggies on
a hot slice of pizza.
Escape extinction (EE) is a procedure
in which escape from, or avoidance of,
the demand of eating or drinking is
withheld (Cooper et al., 2007). This
procedure is used when a child’s picky
eating is presumed to be maintained
by escape and/or avoidance (i.e.,
negative reinforcement; Bachmeyer,
2009). Examples of EE include the
non-removal of the presented food/
liquid (e.g., Dawson et al., 2003) or
physical guidance to consume the
food/liquid (e.g., Freeman & Piazza,
1998). Parents might refer to this as
“my way or the highway” approach
to eating.
tional profile (ASHA, 2001). Toomey
(2002) noted six prerequisite skills
that must be achieved for an individual to be successful with eating.
Five however, are pertinent to the eater: (a) postural stability to consume
foods/liquids; (b) oral-motor skills to
eat table foods and suck liquids; (c)
jaw skills to suck, munch, and rotate
chewing motion to break down varies
textures of foods and liquids; (d) sensory skills to feel the food inside of the
mouth; and (e) hand-to-mouth skills
to self-feed. The sixth prerequisite skill
is more specific to the parent’s contribution to their child’s eating habits.
The behavior analytic approach to
treating picky eating depends on operant contingencies surrounding the
picky eating. Reinforcement is used
to increase the future frequency of
the desired behavior and extinction is
used to decrease the future frequency
of the undesired behavior. Used alone
or combined, the behavioral treatment
methods have demonstrated to be
an effective method of treatment for
picky eating.
Similarly, Bruns and Thompson
(2010) noted that there is a progression of milestones one typically follows in the development of oral-motor
and jaw skills. Bruns and Thompson
indicated that it begins with a liquid
diet (i.e., breast milk or formula), then
semi-solid foods (e.g., baby food),
then soft solids (e.g., bananas, cheese)
and finally, foods that are hard and
crunchy (e.g., meat, chips, crackers).
This progression corresponds with
the development of the oral-motor
muscles central to the SLP approach
(Toomey, 2002).
Speech-Language
Pathologists Treatments
SLPs are often a pediatrician’s first
stop when a medical etiology is ruled
out (ASHA, n.d.), and their approach
considers the strength and movement
of the muscles in the mouth to be
particularly important in picky eating.
For example, the individual’s swallowing ability, tongue muscle and/
or movement, cheek muscle, posture
during speaking or eating, and mandible muscle development could all be
factors in determining what and when
a picky eater eats (ASHA, 2001).
Much like BAs, SLPs review the individual’s current regimen to observe
preferred textures, flavors, foods/liquids, eating habits, and current nutri14
VOL. 1 / NO. 1
Before beginning a treatment,
speech-language pathologists consider where their client stands within
those five prerequisite skills and what
types of foods/liquids they are currently consuming. This consideration
leads the speech-language pathologist to determine if the treatment
approach will be sensory-, motor-,
behavior-based, or a combination of
these approaches. Treatments that
address the sensory, motor, and/or
behavioral needs of the child include
(a) sequential-oral-sensory approach
([SOS]; Toomey, 2002), (b) oral-motor treatment based on hierarchical
development, and (c) food chaining.
The most prevalent technique is the
SOS approach. SOS is a 12-week
program based on the typical feeding progression (Toomey, 2007).
SOS is primarily a desensitization
program that encourages the individual to explore, interact, and eventually
consume new foods (Toomey). The
six phases of SOS are: (1) tolerating
the food/liquid being in front of the
child, (2) interacting with the foods
during play, (3) smelling the food
and (4) touching the foods without
the expectation to consume it. Once
they are willing to touch, smell, and
play with the food/liquid, they will
be encouraged to (5) taste it and (6)
to eat/drink it. (Toomey).
The second approach to addressing
feeding skills for picky eaters involves
the oral-motor system. This system’s
from motor because both systems interact simultaneously). Foods that are
hard, chewy, or have multiple textures
require developed oral motor skills,
disassociated tongue/jaw movement,
tongue lateralization, and rotary chew
movement to form a cohesive bolus
safe to swallow. Typical treatment
methods include external support to
jaw and cheeks (e.g., Arvedson, 2010;
Chapman, 2001), lip/cheek tapping
(e.g., Manno, Fox, Eicher, & Kerwin, 2005), tongue stimulation, and
jaw and tongue range of motion and
strengthening (e.g., Beckman, 2009;
Bruns & Thompson, 2012; Chapman,
2001; Groher & Crary, 2010).
The third technique is Food Chaining.
Food Chaining is a method designed
to expand the individual’s food repertoire with sensory integration and be-
aligned with the target food item. For
example, if a child readily consumed
french fries and the target food goal
was chicken pot pie, the progression
of food would follow a sequence
similar to this: (1) french fries, (2)
waffle fries, tator tots, hash browns,
(3) potato wedges with cheese sauce/
ranch dressing/ketchup, (4) baked potatoes with melted cheese/sour cream,
(5) mashed potatoes with gravy, (6)
mashed potatoes with ground meat
and gravy, and finally (7) chicken pot
pie (Fishbein et al., 2006). Fishbein
et al. (2006) evaluated this procedure
with 10 children referred to a feeding program for food aversion. The
procedure was unanimously effective
for all of the participants and their
food repertoire continued to expand
following completion of treatment
procedures.
An SLP’s treatment methods emphasize the importance of desensitization
and progression of food repertoires.
The techniques and treatment considerations have been overall effective
(ASHA, n.d.). Without the prerequisite skills that SLPs account for, the
individuals receiving the treatment
could be at risk for choking, aspiration,
or correlating feeding as an aversive
condition.
Disciplinary Summary
Figure 1. Differences and Commonalities between Behavior Analysts and Speech-Language Pathologists
approach focuses on the child’s ability
to consume various types and textures of foods. This approach is used
when a child is refusing food due to
an inability to motorically manage
the food in his/her oral cavity. In other words, the individual just cannot
chew or swallow the food (while the
focus is on the motor component, one
cannot completely separate sensory
havior modification techniques (Fraker, Fishbein, Cox, & Walbert, 2007).
The technique expands the variety of
foods/liquids in a child’s diet by using
incremental steps to chain one food
to another (Fishbein et al., 2006). The
treatment begins by selecting foods
the child readily consumes and food
goal targets. Throughout treatment,
the foods presented become more
15
VOL. 1 / NO. 1
BAs are involved when the behavior is
believed to be maintained by operant
contingencies. Such as, when a child
is presented with a non-preferred
food, they emit picky eating behavior (e.g., throwing, crying, whining)
in an attempt to escape eating the
non-preferred food. However, the
non-preferred food could be aversive
due to being correlated with a weak
oral musculature. This could incidentally be overlooked by a BA as their
specialty lies in behavior, not in the
oral musculature development.
SLPs specialize in the oral-musculature development and are not specifically trained in addressing behavioral
contingencies surrounding the picky
eating. Therefore, although the child
may initially have developed picky
eating due to weak oral musculature,
operant contingencies may have developed because they were given access
to preferred foods/liquids when they
refused certain foods. Figure 1 shows
the particulars of BAs and SLPs.
Proposed Collaboration
Orientation and etiology aside, BAs
and SLPs share the same goal; they
both want to increase the amount and
variety of food/liquid consumption.
Both disciplines rule out medical
etiologies first, use reinforcement
to increase desired behavior, and try
to remove the aversive condition of
eating. This article is not looking
to highlight the ideal technique or
method, rather it is looking at the
differing viewpoints and techniques
to the treatment of picky eating in an
attempt to emphasize the importance
of an interdisciplinary collaboration.
BAs should consider the prerequisite
skills to consume various foods, and
SLPs should consider the operant
contingencies that might maintain
picky eating. Through interdisciplinary collaborations, our clients can have
the safest, most effective, and most
efficient treatment possible. Thus, a
collaboration between the two disciplines is not only appropriate, it is
essential. To accomplish this, we need
to see that we each have a great deal
to learn from one another. n
Ahearn, W. H. (2003). Using simultaneous presentation to increase vegetable consumption in a mildly
selective child with autism. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 36, 361-365.
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2001). Roles of speech-language pathologists
in swallowing and feeding disorders: Technical report. Retrieved from: http://www.asha.org/policy/
TR2001-00150/. doi: 10.1044/policy.TR2001-00150.
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (n.d.). Feeding and swallowing disorders (dysphagia) in children. Retrieved from: http://www.asha.org/public/speech/swallowing/feeding-and-swallowing-disorders-in-children/.
Arvedson, J., Clark, H., Lazarus, C., Schooling, T., & Frymark, T. (2010). Evidence-based systematic
review: Effects of oral motor interventions on feeding and swallowing in preterm infants. American
Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 19(4), 321-340.
Bachmeyer, M. H. (2009). Treatment of selective and inadequate food intake in children: A review and
practical guide. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 2, 43-50.
Beckman, D. (2009). Beckman oral motor assessment and intervention. [Conference Notes]. CentraCare Health Plaza, St. Cloud, MN.
Bruns, D. A. & Thompson, S. D. (2010). Feeding challenges in young children: Toward a best practice
model. Infants & Young Children, 23, 93-102.
Bruns, D. A. & Thompson, S.D. (2012). Feeding challenges in young children: Strategies and specialized interventions for success. Baltimore, MD: Paul H Brooks Publishing Co.
Carruth, B. R., Ziegler P. J., Gordon A., & Barr S. I. (2004). Prevalence of picky eaters among infants
and toddlers and their caregivers’ decisions about offering a new food. Journal of American Dietetic
Association, 104, 57-64.
Chapman Bahr, D. (2001). Oral motor assessment and treatment ages and stages. (pp. 125-128).
Needham Heights: A Pearson Education Company.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
Dawson, J. E., Piazza, C. C., Sevin, B. M., Gulotta, C. S., Lerman, D., & Kelley, M. L. (2003). Use of
the high probability instructional sequence and escape extinction in a child with food refusal. Journal
of Applied Behavior Analysis, 36, 105-108.
Fishbein, M., Cox, S., Swenny, C., Mogren, C., Walbert, L., & Fraker, C. (2006). Food chaining: A
systematic approach for the treatment of children with feeding aversion. Nutrition in Clinical Practice,
21, 182-184.
Fraker, C., Fishbein, M., Cox, S., & Walbert, L. (2007). Food chaining: The proven 6-step plan to stop
picky eating, solve feeding problems, and expand your child’s diet. New York: Marlowe & Co.
Freeman, K. A. & Piazza, C. C. (1998). Combining stimulus fading, reinforcement, and extinction to
treat food refusal. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 31, 691-694.
Groff, R. A., Piazza, C. C., Zeleny, J. R., & Dempsey, J. R. (2011). Spoon-to-cup fading as treatment
for cup drinking in a child with intestinal failure. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 44, 949-954.
Groher, M. E. & Crary, M. A. (2010). Dysphagia: Clinical Management in Adults and Children. Maryland Heights, Missouri: Mosby Elsevier.
Hagopian, L. P., Farrell, D. A., & Amari, A. (1996). Treating total liquid refusal with backward chaining
and fading. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 29, 573-575.
Manno, C., Fox, C., Eicher, P., & Kerwin, M. (2005). Early oral-motor interventions for pediatric feeding problems: what, when and how. The Journal of Early and Intensive Behavioral Intervention.
Piazza, C. C., Patel, M. R., Gulotta, C. S., Sevin, B. M., & Layer, S. A. (2002). On the relative contributions of positive reinforcement and escape extinction in the treatment of food refusal. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 36, 309-324.
Professional and Ethical Compliance Code for Behavior Analysts. (2014). In Behavior Analyst
Certification Board. Retrieved on October 29, 2014, from http://www.bacb.com/Downloadfiles/
BACB_Compliance_Code.pdf
Toomey, K. (2002). Feeding strategies for older infants and toddlers. Pediatric Basics, 100, 2-11.
Toomey, K. (2007). An introduction to the SOS approach to feeding. Pediatric Feeding and Dysphagia
Newsletter, 8, 2-10.
Twachtman-Reilly, J., Amaral, S. C., & Zebrowski, P. P. (2008). Addressing Feeding Disorders in
Children on the Autism Spectrum in School-Based Settings: Physiological and Behavioral Issues.
Language, Speech & Hearing Services In Schools, 39, 261-272.
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Behavioral Science Needed in Ebola Outbreak
LAURA ADLINGTON
ST. CLOUD STATE UNIVERSITY
Bo, Sierra Leone – The current Ebola outbreak has been mainly viewed as a medical crisis.
However, as the disease is spread through human contact (read: behavior), could behavioural
science not offer valuable information in helping people take greater precautions?
E
bola is a typically rare and deadly vide all solutions to an epidemic that to Commit and Act’s progress in his
virus and is causing worldwide is much more complex. For example, blog on The Huffington Post. Comconcern during what is the largest when the cultural burial methods in mit and Act achieves success through
Ebola epidemic in history. According West Africa consist of washing and use of Acceptance and Commitment
to the Center for Disease Control kissing the dead, there is much more Therapy (ACT). The clinic was started
and Prevention (CDC), 4,546 deaths than knowledge of transmission need- in 2010 by the non-profit organization
have occurred in West Africa as a reed to change practices that are deep Commit and Act. The clinic provides
sult of the 2014 Ebola outbreak thus seeded in the community’s beliefs an example of collaboration with lofar. Worldwide concern has grown as and values. Behavioral science offers cal health care workers on the use
cases have been diagnosed in
of ACT in combination with
Spain and the United States
evolutionary science. Since the
(where one death has already
clinic was already in operation
occurred). While transmission
when Ebola hit “an indigeonly occurs through contact
nous resource was there, ready
with the blood or bodily fluto make a difference” (Hayes,
ids of a person who is sick or
2014). The local clinicians
deceased from Ebola (CDC,
work with residents to un2014), the high death rate
derstand Ebola and to modhas caused widespread fear
ify traditional burial rituals.
in people across the world.
So far, the data is supporting
Presently, the Ebola epidemic
their model. The Bo district
has claimed the lives of 52% of
fell from the fifth most inthose infected (CDC, 2014).
fected district to the seventh,
With international travel an
with the ninth lowest increase
Commit and Act group communicating the message that “Ebola if Real” in a
everyday occurrence, govern- way that the community can accept and understand.
in cases of the eleven districts
ments, health ministries and
in Sierra Leone (Hayes, 2014).
hospitals worldwide have already a unique approach to this problem, in Despite this living example of the
started preparing for the inevitable that we can analyze and manipulate importance of behavioural science,
spread of Ebola across the globe.
stimuli to change or create healthier Dr. Hayes notes the lessons learned
habits.
are not being fully utilized.
Just as is the case with any biological
epidemic, the majority of resources Commit and Act, a non-profit orga- ACT is a psychological intervention
deployed are centered on medical sci- nization, operates a clinic in Sierra based on behavioural science, namely
ence. Medicine helps us understand Leone and is demonstrating that be- Relational Frame Theory. According
incubation periods, spread of illness, havioural science can have a measur- to the Association for Contextual Bebest treatments and best practices for able impact on the spread of Ebola. Dr. havioral Science, ACT makes use of
prevention. However, it does not pro- Steven C. Hayes has drawn attention acceptance, mindfulness, commitment
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and behaviour change strategies to
increase psychological flexibility. ACT
targets the processes of language that
are hypothesized to be involved in
psychopathology, thus working toward
achieving greater psychological flexibility. Through establishing increased
psychological flexibility the individual
is then better able to change or maintain existing behaviours based on their
values and what the situation affords.
I reached out to Dr. Hayes for further
information on the role of behaviour
analysis in social issues, where as a
field he thinks we can improve, and
what lessons we need to note from the
success of the clinic in Sierra Leone.
He was kind enough to respond, and
his answers are thought provoking
(personal communication, October
9, 2014).
Steven C. Hayes, Ph.D.
Nevada Foundation Professor at
the Department of Psychology at
the University of Nevada
Addlington: Skinner describes behaviorists as mainly talking to behaviorists. Is
this still accurate and how does this affect
our ability to impact social issues such as
the Ebola crisis?
Hayes: I think if we want to be careful
as scientists we have to distinguish between the different kinds of language
that we’re using in different contexts
and the purposes of those ways of
speaking. Skinner viewed language essentially as a behavioral tool in which
meaning was use and if that’s really
what you believe it’s not very smart
to try to use technical terms in all
contexts. One of the things that the
ACT and contextual behavioral science wing of behavior analysis have
done that I think is important is that
we’ve pretty carefully distinguished
between technical terms and what we
call middle level terms which are ways
of speaking that orient you to a domain and help you know how to apply
supersets of functional analyses to a
given domain but are not themselves
technical terms. Acceptance, defusion,
values and so on are such things. It
isn’t just a matter of translation. Often
translational efforts feel very awkward
and when you try to reinterpret common sense language using behavior
analytic language when talking to non
behaviorists it can actually get in the
way of communication. Instead, if you
have multiple interrelated language
games to play there’s no reason just
to be talking to behaviorists anymore.
We can be talking to behaviorists in
technical ways when we want to work
out how to think through different
problem areas in behavioral terms but
if the purpose of all that is to make a
difference in peoples lives we have to
find a way of speaking that is true to
our purposes that is much more accessible and common sense sounding
to the average person or to opinion
leaders. We’ve consciously done that in
the CBS community and we received
some heat for it from some who see
these terms as mentalistic etc but I
think it’s just an embrace of the radical
functionalism of Skinnerian thought,
bought forward into the present. Behavior analysis has sort of managed
to work its way into a ghetto and that
makes no sense to me. This tradition
is meant to be at the center of societal
concerns. But we have to change to do
that ... we need an analysis of language
that works, first and foremost -- I
think RFT gives us that -- and then
we need the interest and flexibility to
reach out, find friends, and get going.
A: You have participated in numerous
media outlets to disseminate information on behavioral science and ACT (e.g.
The Blog on the Huffington Post, www.
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psychologytoday.com, Twitter, YouTube,
published books and articles in peer reviewed journals). What changes would
you recommend to those in the field for
how we disseminate information to the
general public?
H: I would add to that list starting
Context Press; selling it to a major
publisher; writing trade books; starting scientific societies; doing workshops around the country; starting
a training company; getting grants;
helping to start a journal; and forming
major alliances with non-behavioral
intellectual leaders. I add to the list
because it makes clear how many
things we can do to be part of the
larger conversation. If you want to
change the world you need to be in
the game. But it is not just me. The
CBS culture has put dozens of folks in
that position. So part of it is wanting
to be reaching out ... looking outward
more than inward. I did that from day
1 of my career. I was a political activist
and environmentalist before I became
a psychologist. I debated the mayor
of San Diego; I disrupted Chamber
of Commerce meetings; I learned
that all you really needed to begin to
make a difference was a clear voice
and a strong heart. When I became
a psychologist I swore I would never
forget what I was there to do ... which
was to make a difference in the lives
of those we serve. But dissemination
is the wrong way to think about this
issue. Dissemination suggests that
we have the answers and all we need
to do is to get them in the hands of
other people and make sure that they
follow the information and guidance.
In fact what we need to do is to listen as well as speak and to work with
others who have knowledge that we
need. So for example our clinic in
Sierra Leone is applying a method
we developed, in combination with
methods being studied at the Evo-
lution Institute headed up by David
Sloan Wilson that were originally
developed by Elinor Ostrom, and in
combination with the creativity and
insights of indigenous therapists on
the ground in Bo, Sierra Leone. That
is not “dissemination” -- I frankly hate
that word. It is arrogant and prideful.
We need to work with colleagues to
the help meet the needs of others.
Focus on the good of others and you
will not be content doing research
that matters only to an in crowd; you
will not be bouyed up by the grants
and the promotions and the applause.
You will want the real thing: making
a difference. 99% of the science work
we do as a field is ignored. The solution isn’t to make people care ... the
solution is for US to care and then to
change the work we do in a way that
reflects that change of focus.
A: In your Huffington Post blog Behavioral Science and Local Empowerment
Are Needed to Help Solve the Ebola Crisis, you say we have a “living example on
the ground in West Africa. It is time to
learn the lessons it provides”. What do
you see as the most important lessons we
need to learn and what barriers do you
foresee in using this knowledge to make a
difference in the Ebola crisis worldwide?
H: The specific lessons there are that
you can use behavioral science to help
people engage their values and make
room for their fears, and then walk
through the process of creating a social
support process that will help people
manage their own affairs. That means
our challenge in western Africa is supporting the people there in rising to
the challenge of this disease. Western
behavioral science is as relevant as
medical science ... but we need to put
knowledge into these countries in a
way that comports with their local
values. The other lesson is that the
time to do that was years ago; and
since time does not go backwards, we
need to start now. In CBS we did that
as a world community and because
of things we did 4-5 years ago in developing an intellectual and practical
infrastructure in Sierra Leone, knowledge we’ve helped to produce is able
to be of use now, in the ebola crisis.
If we want to be ready for the next
epidemic we need to be there now.
A: Finally, what contingencies need to be
in place to change the value of behavioral
sciences for health administrators and
policy makers?
H: We are the problem, not them.
Remember “the rat is always right”?
Take that phrase to heart! This is a joke
I heard many years ago -- how do you
turn a behaviorist into a mentalist?
Answer: ask him to explain why his
work is ignored. Suddenly it’s “because
they don’t understand behaviorism”
yadda yadda. Oh please. If your science
does not tell you how to be successful
with people who disagree with you,
and you are a behavioral scientist,
doesn’t that mean your science is inadequate? It is on you dude. Here is
my formula:
• Listen to others.
• Make friends with others.
• See the world through their eyes.
• Speak in ways that lead to
understanding (reserve behavioralese
for behaviorists)
• Reach people through their hearts
first ... let their heads and hands follow.
• Do research the way your audience
wants it done (if they want RCTs,
freakin do RCTs ... don’t quote
Siman to them!)
• Make a difference and participate.
Stay in the game. (And by the way
that is what I’m doing now in
responding to someone I do not
know for a class project! I don’t care.
You never know. 25-30 years ago Dermot Barnes-Holmes wrote
me a letter as an undergrad and I
responded ... now he’s the backbone
of RFT, and it is in part because
of that response. I wrote a letter to
Skinner as a beginning grad student
... he responded. And it cemented
me as a behaviorist. So I hope you
find this interview useful, Laura. I
will look forward to seeing where
you go with it. Maybe it will have
some tiny role in furthering your
thinking and your career.
I hope so. n
Association for Contextual Behavioral Science. (NO DATE?). ACT. Retrieved October 21, 2014, from: http://contextualscience.org/act
Association for Contextual Behavioral Science. (NO DATE?). About ACT. Retrieved October 21, 2014, from: http://contextualscience.org/about_act
Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2014). 2014 Ebola Outbreak in West Africa – Case Counts. Retrieved October 21, 2014, from: http://www.cdc.gov/
vhf/ebola/outbreaks/2014-west-africa/case-counts.html
Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2014). Transmission. Retrieved October 21, 2014, from: http://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/transmission/index.html
Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2014). Outbreaks Chronology: Ebola Virus Disease. Retrieved October 21, 2014, from: http://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/
outbreaks/history/chronology.html
Hayes, S. C. (2014, October 3). Behavioural science and local empowerment are needed to help solve the Ebola crisis. [Blog post]. Retrieved October 6, 2014
from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/the-blog/
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Fear and Loathing of ABA
(With apologies to the ghosts of Hunter S. Thompson and B.F. Skinner)
RANDALL BACHMAN
Randall W. Bachman is a licensed psychologist, the director
of AXIS Healthcare, and Chairperson of the Autism Recovery
Foundation. He can be reached at [email protected]
Years ago as a young whipper-snapper
I worked as an early childhood consultant. While visiting a preschool,
an older veteran teacher talked to
me about Johnny. Johnny was having some behavior problems. Fresh
out of college and eager to apply my
book-learning, I developed an action
plan based on rewards and a token
economy. When presented
to the teacher her reaction
was: “This looks like behavior modification.” Well, yes,
I replied, it is based on the
principles of behavior modification. Her reply: “I don’t
believe in behavior modification.” Oh. Well.
While the teacher did not believe in behavior modification,
I am sure in her career she
had plenty of experience in
modifying behavior of young
children. Maybe she was just
playing me and wanted to take the
college boy with a Master’s degree
down a notch. Or maybe she truly
thought behavior modification was
some nefarious methodology that
turned children into robots.
I posit four reasons for objections to
behaviorism:
1. Belief in free will
2. Belief in genetic determinism
3. Belief in the medical model
4. Belief in eclecticism
Belief in free will: B.F. Skinner, the
founder of “radical behaviorism” and
one of the most influential and controversial psychologists of the twentieth
century, believed that human free will
was not a phenomenal reality, but the
who believe that free will was given to
humans by God. After all, if human
behavior is merely the mechanistic result of the organism’s reinforcements,
then how can he or she be responsible
for his or her behavior?
In defense of behaviorism, I don’t
believe that behaviorists think that
human beings lack dignity, nor
do I believe that they think
irresponsible behavior should
be excused. What I do think
is they leave the fundamental philosophical and religious
questions about the purpose
of humankind, inherent dignity and worth, the intent of
the Creator, or even whether
there is a Creator, the meaning
of existence, original sin, and
other lofty questions to the
philosophers and theologians.
JAYNEANDD / FLICKR
results of how his or her behavior was
shaped by its consequences. He wrote
a book with the provocative title: Beyond Freedom and Dignity. That sure
gets attention. What could be beyond
freedom and dignity?
His proposition flies in the face of
those who believe that human actions
are the result of inner forces that he
or she controls. In other words, free
will. It also flies in the face of those
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The principles of behaviorism also upset those who believe that
there is something called the mind
that exists outside the physical brain.
They would contend that the mind
is something supernatural that exists
outside the physical constructs and
activities of the human brain. It is
interesting to note the following online dictionary definition of the mind:
1.The human consciousness that
originates in the brain and is
manifested especially in thought,
perception, emotion, will, memory,
and imagination.
2.The collective conscious and
unconscious processes in a sentient
organism that direct and influence
mental and physical behavior.
tation leads to a specific trait or disease. An individual’s genetic makeup
may reveal whether he or she may be
more prone to a specific cancer. However, it is doubtful that an individual’s
genetic profile will predict what make
and model automobile he or she will
purchase in the future.
Note the origination in the brain that
manifests all those valued aspects of
thought, perception, emotion, will,
memory and imagination. Also note
the reference to collective conscious
and unconscious processes. The fundamental question is whether or not all
of these processes we value, that make
us human, can emanate from a mechanical and electrical process in the
brain, or if there must be something
beyond the corporal body that exists.
The hope for some genetic breakthrough in diagnosing and treating
complex behavioral conditions like
autism motivates researchers. While
this research may lead to insights that
could lead to effective interventions,
or even prevention, to date there has
been no magic bullet found. Skeptics
would hold there is no magic bullet,
or bullets. Even if genetic pre-dispositions can be discovered, the question
remains, what then?
Again, to behaviorists, the question
of whether or not forces exists
outside the physical realm is a
philosophical and theological
question, not an empirical one.
The interest for behaviorists is
applying scientific principles
of observation, intervention,
assessment, and learning to
the process of shaping behavior. While some may be
offended by thinking that they
are more than an organism
that has been shaped by his or
her environment, behaviorists
would consider this belief to
be irrelevant, and, like it or
not, behavior is shaped by its consequences.
All this raises the age-old “nature
Belief in genetic determinism: Billions of dollars have been spent researching the genetic determinants
of disease. Some of this research has
led to breakthroughs in diagnoses and
treatments. To date, however, most of
the breakthroughs have been where
the discovery of a specific gene or mu-
applying reinforcement so that behavior is shaped in the desired direction?
Whether the organism is genetically
programmed to respond to certain
stimuli, or does so as a cumulative
result of environmental learning is
immaterial.
That said, it is conceded that for some
organisms it is easier to shape behavior
in a direction that appears to be a
“natural” behavior for it. For example,
it is easier to get a dog to “sit” than
to get him to walk on his front legs
alone, although I imagine this too has
been done. Certainly natural selection
over millennia has created organisms
that are “programmed” to do certain
things. However, that programming
does not necessarily prevent it from
learning new things, although I concede that an amoeba may never be
capable of learning calculus. (Some
of us who may be capable may
never learn it, either.)
A frequent argument put forth
by determinists goes something like this: While behavior
modification may be beneficial
for X group or Y condition, it
is less effective with A group
or B condition. Indeed, it may
be contra-indicated as harmful for Z condition. A behaviorist would counter that we
wouldn’t know unless we tried.
MICAH BALDWIN / FLICKR
Besides, fear of harm is overblown, particularly in modern
vs. nurture” controversy. Most would ABA practice that discourages the use
agree it is not either-or, but both and. of aversive techniques.
Determinists would lean toward the
nature side, and developmentalists Belief in the medical model: The
would lean toward the nurture side. term medical model is used widely,
I believe behaviorists would basical- but may mean different things to difly see the question as irrelevant. For ferent people. For starters, here is the
them, the fundamental question is definition from the on-line dictionary:
how does the organism respond to
stimuli, what is the outcome of that “the traditional approach to the diagnoresponse, and what can we learn by sis and treatment of illness as practiced
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by physicians in the Western world…
The physician focuses on the defect, or
dysfunction, within the patient, using
a problem-solving approach. The medical history, physical examination, and
diagnostic tests provide the basis for the
identification and treatment of a specific
illness. The medical model is thus focused
on the physical and biologic aspects of
specific diseases and conditions.”
Note the focus on diagnostic tests
and deficits, which form the basis for
treatment recommendations. While
accurate diagnosis of a specific acute
illness is an important step in developing a treatment protocol, the
medical model process is also applied
beyond the scope of acute illness. For
example, in the field of mental health,
psychologists and psychiatrists assess
historical and presenting conditions
of the patient through standardized
testing, gathering of historical
information, and observation.
From there a diagnosis based
on that assessment is made,
which usually leads to a label
from the DSM or ICD-10.
This leads to the completion
of a profile on the five axes
of the DSM, which purports
to give a picture of a person’s
mental and physical profile,
leading to the development
of a treatment plan. The field
of social work has also been
influenced by the medical
model, as social workers are
trained to assess, and develop service
plans based on the assessment.
The medical model has penetrated
several fields, and after all, seems like
a straightforward, scientific approach.
The medical model is also the paradigm for determining medical necessity, which is the standard by which
treatment programs paid by third
parties are authorized. So what are
the problems with the medical model?
First, with such focus on diagnostics and labeling, more time could be
spent on admiring the problem than
developing effective solutions. Diagnostic assessments that ascribe labels
are traditionally required before any
treatment interventions are applied.
While on the surface this protocol is
meant to safeguard against the application of inappropriate treatments, in
reality the process of getting an evaluation from a qualified professional can
create bottlenecks and unfortunate
delays to treatment. Also, even after
a diagnosis is made and confirmed, in
many cases the prescribed treatment
is based more the practitioner’s orientation and training, than specifics
directed by the assessment.
Second, ascribing a label can lead to
forts at treatment towards recovery
are idealistic and futile. In fact, people
can and do recover from autism. How
can that be?
Behaviorists do not discount the need
for an assessment, but rather the focus is on assessment of functioning
versus assessment to categorize or
label. Once a functional assessment
is done, behavioral treatments are
implemented with a constant evaluation of impact. This continual loop
of assessment, treatment, and re-assessment is a scientific approach based
on observable, empirical data. While a
person may have an underlying medical or genetic condition that limits
the progress of behavioral approaches,
even with those conditions typically
a behavioral approach will result in
progress. The course of treatment may
be labor intensive, but the application of ABA has been shown
to result in progress, and has
been recognized as an effective
treatment notwithstanding
diagnostic categories.
Belief in eclecticism: When
I was in graduate school decades ago we learned about
various counseling theories
grounded in different philosophical schools of thought.
We learned about Client
Centered Counseling, RaNICOLAS RAYMOND / FREESTOCK
tional Emotive Therapy, Psychoanalysis, Gestalt Therapy,
the implication that the condition is Behaviorism (not sure it was called
permanent and intractable. For exam- ABA back then), and on and on. We
ple, if we diagnose some as “mentally studied Freud, Rogers, Perls, Ellis,
retarded”, the implication is that this Adler, and other giants from the pancondition is not amenable to rehabil- theon of human development. Later I
itation and therefore it is a waste of learned about Transactional Analysis
time to try and improve functioning. (I’m OK, You’re OK. OK), NeurolAnother example is someone diag- iguistic Programming (NLP), and a
nosed with autism. The implication variety of other new age approaches
is that, as with “mental retardation”, that blossomed in the 60s, 70s and 80s.
the condition is intractable and ef- I also took courses in early childhood
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development and monkeyed with
the fascinating experiments of Jean
Piaget. Earlier in my undergraduate
course in psychology I got a rat to
push a lever to get a food pellet using
operant conditioning. Later in life I
did a short-term stint as a part-time
therapist after getting my license as a
psychologist. When someone would
ask me about my approach I would
say something like: “I’ve studied many
different approaches but like to tailor
my approach to the individual. I try
to take the best features from what
I’ve learned and develop an individualized plan. I guess you would call
my approach eclectic.”
There may be an underlying assumption that individuals who seek out
a therapist are looking for someone
to help them change their behavior.
While that would be a reasonable
assumption, in my experience, many,
if not most, are not looking for that.
Many are just looking for the intimacy of confidentially sharing their
hang-ups and dilemmas with someone
other than friends or family—who
likely would just give them advice
they don’t want to hear anyway. Some
are looking for justification. Some are
looking for validation. Some are looking to see if they can pull one over on
Mr. Smartypants who reminds them
of their school principle they hated.
There are valid reasons for not really
wanting to change.
But if someone is looking to truly
change behavior, then I know of two
effective ways to do that: religious
conversion (I include AA in that); or,
see a behaviorist. I will not get onto
the religious conversion path, because
I’ve not seen Buddha on the side of the
road yet. However, if behavior change
is what you’re after, then it makes sense
to see someone trained in behavioral
principles, whatever brand.
So what does all this have to do with
fear and loathing of ABA? While in
academia there is a lofty principle
that we should all seek the truth and
use scientific principles in that pursuit, there is also a counter-veiling
force that creates an atmosphere of
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acceptance for a whole grab-bag of
philosophies and approaches. They
hold a belief that no one approach can
possibly have a corner on the truth,
particularly when applied to the social sciences. After all, we wouldn’t
want to put all our eggs in one basket,
or hurt anyone’s feelings, would we?
People who fear ABA are reacting to
the perceived arrogance of those who
practice it.
Finally: ABA is not a philosophy of
life, a religion, nor are its practitioners
members of a cult. While acknowledging that much of human behavior
is determined by his or her environment, most would acknowledge that
humans are born with certain inherited traits, inherent abilities and predispositions. ABA is a methodology
that can be applied to shape behavior notwithstanding those inherited
traits, abilities or predispositions. It is
a scientific approach, whose methods
are constantly being evaluated and
improved. If behavior change is the
goal, then ABA is the method. n
Julie Ackerlund Brandt, Editor
Give Choice a Chance
Rocio B. Cuevas
Whether you are a practitioner
or student, chances are you have
come into contact with Discrete
Trial Training (DTT) either as an
instructor or as a learner. We are
all too familiar with the consistent
presentation of each step. Make
sure you know your SDs, have an
operationally-defined target behavior, know if, when, and at what level
to prompt the behavior, and have
the reinforcer, that you’ve carefully
selected form a preference assessment, ready to be delivered. DTT
is widely used to teach a plethora
of skills. Now imagine adding the
element of choice to your trials.
While it may seem to contradict
the rigid nature of DTT, allowing
choice to be a component may in
fact improve the effectiveness of
this teaching strategy.
The act of choosing refers to how
individuals allocate responding
among concurrently available
alternatives (Fisher & Mazur,
1997). Recent studies have sought
to understand the value of choice
and whether the act of choosing
is reinforcing in and of itself (e.g.,
Fenerty & Tiger, 2010; Kern,
Mantegna, Vorndran, Bailin, & Hilt
2001; Schmidt, Hanley, & Layer,
2009; Tiger, Hanley, & Hernandez, 2006;). Most of these studies
presented identical reinforcers and
measured whether participants
preferred to choose the reinforcer
or have the reinforcer be selected
by the experimenter. What they all
found is that choice conditions are
preferred over no-choice conditions.
The value of choice as a component within teaching strategies is
that it goes beyond the fact that
choice reinforces correct responses
in DTT; choice, it seems, can even
help to reduce problem behavior
resulting from task presentations!
For instance, allowing individuals
to choose the sequence in which
to complete assigned tasks has
been found to successfully reduce
problematic behavior and increase
desirable ones (Kern, et al., 2001).
Furthermore, choice of reinforcement conditions has been found to
be more preferred than no-choice
conditions, even when the choice
conditions required more work
from the participants (Tiger, et al.,
2006).
Choice can be imbedded in numerous teaching approaches, DTT
included. If your student loves to
eat Skittles, consider allowing him/
her to choose one from an array of
identical Skittles before you reach
for and select one yourself. If you
have several tasks to get through,
allow the child to select the order
in which they will be presented. If
you need the child to complete a
worksheet, let him/her select which
problem to work on first. n
24
VOL. 1 / NO. 1
Fenerty, K. & Tiger, J. (2010). Determining
preschoolers’ preferences for choice-making
opportunities: Choice of task versus choice of
consequence. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 43, 503–507
Fisher, W. & Mazur, J. (1997). Basic and applied
research on choice responding. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 30, 387–410
Kern, L., Mantegna, M., Vorndran, C., Bailin, D.,
& Hilt, A. (2001). Choice of Task Sequence to
Reduce Problem Behaviors. Journal of Positive
Behavior Interventions, 3, 3-10
Schmidt, A., Hanley, G., & Layer, S. (2009). A
further analysis of the value of choice: Controlling
for illusory discriminative stimuli and evaluating the
effects of less preferred items. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 42, 711–716
Tiger, J., Hanley, G., & Hernandez, E. (2006). An
evaluation of the value of choice with preschool
children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,
39, 1–16
The Overjustification
Effect: Fact or Fiction?
Jeremy W. DaShiell
Pennsylvania State University Harrisburg
The overjustification effect (OJE)
holds that a behavior will occur less
frequently than it did before reinforcement once reinforcement has
been terminated. OJE researchers
have asserted that extrinsic rewards
(i.e., socially-mediated reinforcement) undermine initial interest in
an activity (see Deci, 1971; Deci,
1972; Lepper, Greene, & Nisbett,
1973). Deci (1972) argues from
a social/cognitive psychological
perspective that “a person is intrinsically motivated [has intrinsic
motivation] if he performs an activity for no apparent reason except
the activity itself ” (p. 113). Because
of the power of reinforcement,
people in positions that encourage
productivity or learning employ
the principle of reinforcement to
increase behavior. However, if we
are to believe the OJE, reinforcement programs could actually turn
out to have a detrimental effect on
desirable behaviors.
However, we can re-examine the
OJE in behavioral terminology. Engagement in an activity can be defined behaviorally as the duration or
frequency of responding on a task.
In behavioral terms, “extrinsic motivation” may be described as external
(or socially-mediated) reinforcement for responding. Receiving an
A would be an example of extrinsic
motivation for studying hard for
an exam. Intrinsic motivation can
be defined as responding in the absence of the external reinforcement
(i.e., innate preference for a task).
An example of intrinsic motivation
would be someone playing a guitar
simply because he or she enjoys
playing guitar. We can evaluate
levels of intrinsic motivation by
measuring baseline responding on
a task; if responding is high in the
absence of external reinforcement,
the client is likely intrinsically
motivated, but if responding is low
they are not intrinsically motivated
to engage in that task. To evaluate
the overjustification effect behaviorally, one must examine responding
first in the absence of socially-mediated reinforcement (i.e., baseline),
then during a period of socially-mediated reinforcement (i.e.,
reinforcement phase), and finally,
again in the absence of socially-mediated reinforcement (i.e., return to
baseline). By examining behavior in
this way, one can determine intrinsic motivation or task preference
during the initial baseline, how
responding changes during rein-
forcement, and the effects reinforcement has on behavior once it is
discontinued (i.e., whether the OJE
is evident) during the subsequent
baseline.
More research on OJE is highly
warranted as research on the OJE
is conflicting and employers and
educators need a clearer demonstration of when and how these procedures pose possible detrimental
side effects. It is possible that the
OJE is more likely to occur when
large or inappropriate amounts of
reinforcement are used, and less
likely if praise or intermittently
reinforcement is used. Future research should employ single subject
designs with repeated measures to
allow for examination of individual
responding and the trend of responding over time, and to ensure
that internal validity is achieved.
Additionally, future research on
OJE should include multiple follow-up assessments of responding,
preferably weeks or months after
the experimental sessions to enable
investigation of the possible transience of OJE. In conclusion, OJE
has wide-reaching implications
given the current use of incentive
and grading programs in vocational and educational environments.
Clearer results from research investigating levels of responding during
returns to baseline after periods of
reinforcement will help resolve the
controversy surrounding OJE and
lend further insight to employers
and educators around the world. n
Deci, E. L. (1971). Effects of externally mediated
rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 18, 105-115.
Deci, E. L. (1972). Intrinsic motivation, extrinsic
reinforcement, and inequity. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 22, 113-120.
Greene, D., & Lepper, M. R. (1974). Effects of extrinsic rewards on children’s subsequent intrinsic
interest. Child Development, 45, 1141-1145.
25
VOL. 1 / NO. 1
Children with
Disabilities Learn
From Their Peers
Morgan deLuna
Peer modeling is one way to teach
response chains. Children with
disabilities are often placed in
special education classrooms where
educational practices tend to be
based on teacher instruction. Werts,
Caldwell, & Wolery (1996) wanted
to observe if children with disabilities could be taught response chains
by their peers in general education
classrooms.
Fifteen elementary school students,
three of whom had disabilities, were
chosen for this experiment. These
three students were chosen because
they had no inappropriate interactions with other students.
All three children were observed
in general education classrooms.
Charlie would sit at his desk, on
the floor, or at the computer in the
front of the room. James was strictly
at his desk. Eleanor was on the
floor in the front or a round table at
the back.
The observers were measuring two
different types of behavior (appropriate and inappropriate), three
different types of interactions (no
interaction, instructional interaction, and social interaction), and
the percentage of steps performed
correctly. Baseline and training sessions were conducted in the same
location. There were five different
response chains (spelling last name
with letter tiles, playing an audiotape, using a calculator, sharpening
a pencil, and sequencing number
tiles) and three were assigned to
each child. The students with dis-
abilities were individually probed
on their three response chains.
During the training phase, the peer
modeled the response chain for
the student with disabilities and
described each step while performing the task. Afterward, the student
with disabilities was probed again
on the same response chain.
The completion of tasks increased,
but the social interactions stayed
at a constant 4.9%. This indicated
a change was demonstrated for the
six different response chains, but
not for social interactions between
peers. The students completed the
response chain tasks more effectively after the peer modeling. There
was some generalization after these
tasks were mastered. Some limitations included the adult cooperation with the observations and
the verbal explanations from peers
while tasks were being completed.
For future research it would be beneficial if the peers were consistent
over the days and that reinforcement contingencies might need to
be in place. n
Werts, M., Caldwell, N., & Wolery, M. (1996). Peer
modeling of response chains: Observational learning by students with disabilities. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 39, 53-66.
Promising Tool
Emerges Within
Human Services Field
David Hughes
Auburn, AL – Anyone who is a
manager in the human services
industry can tell you about the
overwhelming challenges inherent
in his or her work. Demanding
expectations, low pay, and minimal
education requirements can turn
staff performance management into
an ever-present balancing act.
With these problems in mind, Dr.
James Carr and a crack team of
behavior analysts (2013) explored
an existing method for improving
job performance and redesigned
it, tailor-fit to the human services
industry. The PDC-HS (Performance Diagnostic Checklist-Human Services) put a new spin on
a pre-existing technology. Where
former renditions of the PDC were
used to pinpoint factors responsible
for poor performance in job sectors
ranging from coffee house baristas to department store clerks, the
current checklist aimed to improve
performance in the troubled human
services sector.
The PDC-HS splits factors that
bring down employee performance
into four main categories: lack of
training, materials and resources,
clarity of tasks, and consequences
for quality of work. After collecting
and analyzing the data, consultants
or administrators using the checklist can develop a clearer picture
of where the problems lie and are
supplied with a roadmap of where
to go next.
Carr (2013) and his team tested
the effectiveness of the checklist at
an intensive treatment program for
children with autism. Researchers
were able to complete direct-care
staff assessments through one-onone interviews with administrative
staff as well as thorough examining
classroom conditions.
Results suggested poor employee
performance was related to a lack of
training for specific tasks. Additionally, a dearth of clear and timely
consequences for the quality of
work may have influenced unsatisfactory performance. As a result, an
intervention consisting of increased
training and daily feedback for
26
VOL. 1 / NO. 1
completed tasks was implemented.
Following the onset of intervention,
performance among staff improved
drastically and immediately.
The intervention’s improvement was
significant enough that the school
continued using the PDC-HS even
after study’s completion. A staff
member at the school commented
that the checklist could help her assess how to best help her employees
complete their job responsibilities
in the future.
The findings of the checklist are
promising. However, they are
restricted to the setting of the small
school. Eager researchers interested
in replicating the study are encouraged to explore implementation
within larger organizations of 50
direct-care staff or more. Hopefully,
in the future more organizations
will adopt the functional methods
of the PDC to safely and effectively
increase employee performance in a
scientifically proven manner. n
Carr, J. E., Wilder, D. A., Majdalany, L., Mathisen,
D., Strain, L. (2013). An assessment-based solution to a human-service employee performance
problem: An initial evaluation of the performance
diagnostic checklist. Behavior Analysis in Practice,
6(1), 16-32.
The Big Bang Theory
Gets it Right
Martin Ivancic
On October 5, 2009 the CBS
TV program The Big Bang Theory made a misleading statement
about negative reinforcement
(“The Golthowtiz Deviation”), and
many people complained about the
inaccuracy. After consultation with
the B.F. Skinner Foundation, they
used behavior principles again in
a new episode, “The Focus Attenuation,” which aired Monday,
October 13, and they not only got
negative reinforcement exactly
right (the removal of punishment),
but they helped people make the
discrimination by having Sheldon
explain the non-example, positive
punishment (the application of
punishment). Positive punishment is what most people call negative reinforcement. Sheldon also
chided those who “get [negative
reinforcement] wrong all the time”
with a Ghostbusters clip that used
negative reinforcement incorrectly.
Based on how I hear undergraduate psychology students describe
behavior principles, The Big Bang
Theory did more for the understanding of behavior principles in 30 sec
than many introductory college
classes ever accomplish. In addition,
their eventual application of these
principles in the show was a cogent
statement about typical behavior
management. After showing that
they understood what behavior
principles were, they unwisely
selected punishment (ripping duct
tape off the hair on the back of
their arms for infractions) to increase their attention to their work
and demonstrated that punishment
often elicits aggressive punishment
and counter punishment until
all responding breaks down. The
incident reminded me of the plans
many countries come up with for
solving problems between themselves. Sheldon may know what
negative reinforcement and positive
punishment are, but he isn’t ready
for Secretary of State. n
A Brighter Future for
Clinical Behavior
Analysis
Tyler Loy
Imaculatta University
The term ‘clinical behavior analysis’
refers to the use, by some clinicians,
of radical behaviorism to explain
how verbal interactions with clients
help improve daily life. Clinical
behavior analysis (CBA) has a
checkered past with its closely related field, applied behavior analysis
(ABA), but seems to be returning to
its behavioral roots. Because of its
checkered past, CBA is often overlooked as a type of applied behavior
analysis. This is understandable
considering the boom of cognitive
based approaches that gained much
traction within the field of clinical
psychology during the 70’s and 80’s.
In the 60’s and early 70’s, however,
it was commonplace for clinical
psychologists to apply behavioral
techniques in an outpatient setting.
So what changed?
According to Kohlenberg, Bolling,
Kanter, and Parker (2002), the
reason for CBA’s abandonment
was due to behavior therapists
wanting to work with adults in a
psychotherapy environment, the
differences between problems being
observed by typical adult clients
and problems that applied behavior
analysts typically dealt with, and
the belief that operant techniques
could not effect target behaviors
outside of the therapeutic session.
The “cognitive revolution” was
received so well by many therapists
because it was specifically created
with the therapeutic environment
in mind, whereas applied behavior
analysis typically involved the natural environment.
An important point in realigning
with its behavioral roots was CBA’s
realizing that behavior in a therapeutic setting is not much different
for a client than behavior outside of
a therapeutic setting. Thus, it would
make it possible for therapists to
use operant conditioning during
sessions through verbal behavior.
Another discovery was that in27
VOL. 1 / NO. 1
structed behaviors, as compared
to shaped behaviors, are less likely
to be effective with programmed
contingencies (e.g., Wulfert, 2002).
This implies that telling a client
how to behave will be less effective
than shaping the client’s verbal
behavior regarding the target response. Lastly, it was found through
stimulus equivalences that when
one is taught relations between
stimuli that involve verbal events,
additional relations can emerge
spontaneously (Wulfert).
From these and other discoveries,
CBA was reborn. During the 90’s
came some of the most notable
approaches in the form of 1) Acceptance and Commitment Therapy
(ACT) created by Steve Hayes and
2) Bob Kohlenberg’s Functional
Analytic Psychotherapy (FAP).
These approaches are both based on
verbal behavior being the driving
force for change in therapy.
Advances like ACT and FAP mean
clinical psychologists can use behavioral-based treatments that are
functional and empirically tested.
Also, it has been found that using
behavioral interventions with other
forms of psychotherapy (Cognitive
therapy) can improve the efficacy of
treatment (Kohlenberg et al., 2002).
Thus it is important that applied
behavioral analysts work together
with clinical behavioral analysts
to further cultivate this return to
behaviorism, and in moving forward there needs to be a dramatic
increase in the practice and research
of CBA. n
Kohlenberg, R. J., Bolling, M. Y., Kanter, J. W.,
& Parker, C. R. (2002). Clinical behavior analysis:
Where it went wrong, how it was made good
again, and why its future is so bright. The Behavior
Analyst Today, 3, 248-253. doi:10.1037/h0099988
Wulfert, E. (2002). Can contextual therapies save
clinical behavior analysis? The Behavior Analyst
Today, 3, 254-258. doi:10.1037/h0099984
Football and
Domestic Violence
Quinn Murray
Minneapolis, MN – Ray Rice,
Adrian Peterson, Greg Hardy, Ray
Mcdonald. These names have two
major themes in common: football
and domestic violence.
Much attention has been given
to the National Football League
as of late due to the number of
football players accused of domestic violence. The extensive number
of news stories regarding football
players and violence may lead one
to wonder about a potential correlation between the two. Skinner
(1953) discussed the prominence of
behavior when there is a connection
between emotional predisposition
and a contingency of reinforcement.
Skinner related this concept to
the saying, “a man’s heart is in his
work” referring to one’s work being
reinforcing through one’s heart, or
emotional predisposition. Skinner
used the example of how one with
an aggressive predisposition may
access reinforcement through his/
her work by engaging in work
which allows this aggressive predisposition to be acted upon, such as
through police or military work.
Perhaps many football players
in the National Football League
have this aggressive predisposition.
Therefore, many players could potentially be accessing reinforcement
playing football, which is a socially-acceptable means of behaving
aggressively. This would suggest that
aggressive behavior among these
individuals may increase through
playing football. This might shed
light on the correlation between
domestic violence and playing
football, as aggressive behavior may
be maintained through continuous
positive reinforcement. Is it fair to
say that football could be considered a causal factor for the ongoing domestic violence among its
players? This is a controversy that
will likely continue for decades to
come, and completely accurate data
on domestic violence rates between
football players and the general
public would certainly be difficult
to come by. n
Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and Human Behavior. New York: MacMillan.
Communication...
I Want It and I Want
It Now!
Molly Ann Reed
What is communication?
Colloquially, communication is
the use of words, signs, sounds, or
behaviors to express or exchange
information. Most of us learn to
communicate fairly easily. But what
happens when one is nonverbal or
can’t vocally communicate? Specifically, how do you evoke an effective
form of communicative responding
in children who are nonverbal?
Carbone and colleagues (2010)
identified that previous research
demonstrating the effectiveness of
manual sign training, prompt delay,
and vocal prompting all increased
vocal responses, though never had
all been used together. So the team
decided to take it a step further.
They asked the question: Does the
use of manual sign mand training
along with prompt delay and vocal
prompting increase the production
of vocal responses in non-vocal
children with development disabil28
VOL. 1 / NO. 1
ities?
Tony, Ralph, and Nick, ages 4-6
years old, all had some kind of a
developmental disability, a limited
repertoire of manual signs, and
were nonverbal. The experimenters documented the occurrence of
unprompted and prompted vocal
responses (including speech sounds,
word approximations or adult word
forms) in each child’s classroom.
During baseline, if the participant
declared motivation for an item
and emitted the target manual sign
mand request within 5 seconds of
the item’s presentation, the instructor delivered the item immediately
while saying the item’s name. These
items were selected based on a
pre-experimental assessment for
which each participant had shown
motivation.
When the boys demonstrated
motivation for the item and signed,
the instructor did not immediately
deliver the reinforcers; instead, they
had a 5 second prompt delay. The
instructor implemented a prompt
sequence for the manual sign, and
then paused if the child emitted a
sound without the sign. If there was
any vocal response the manded item
was delivered immediately. If no
vocal response occurred the items
were presented two additional times
with a 2 second delay before doing
so.
The multiple baseline design across
the three boys provided support of
the effectiveness of the independent
variable, with Tony showing the
most increase of unprompted vocal
responses and all boys increasing
prompted responses.
Teaching vocal verbal skills to children with disabilities is highly valuable. This will provide them with
a sense of independence and give
them the ability to communicate
more efficiently without producing
any negative behaviors because they
cannot do so. n
Carbone, V. J., Sweeney-Kerwin, E. J., Attanasio, V., Kasper, T. (2010). Increasing the vocal
responses of children with autism and developmental disabilites using manual sign mand training
and prompt delay. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 43, 705-709.
A Brief Review
of Behavioral
Interventions for
Selective Mutism
Megan A. Rhett
Individuals with selective mutism
only engage in social interactions in
certain settings, and only with certain people. It is most common for
the mutism to occur outside one’s
home, in public or social settings,
such as school. Selective mutism
has been determined to be rather
difficult to treat, possibly due to the
negative reinforcement provided
for the behavior (Kolvin & Fun-
dudis, 1981). For example, parents
and peers often speak for the mute
individual. Although difficult to
treat, behavioral interventions
such as contingency management,
extinction, shaping, self-modeling,
or treatment packages that encompass several interventions have been
shown effective at increasing vocal
behavior for this population.
Contingency management can be
combined with extinction where
non-vocal gestures, such as head
movements, are placed on extinction and reinforcement is implemented contingent on vocal-verbal
behavior, which might need to
be shaped (e.g., Piersel & Kratochwill, 1981. Another treatment
for selective mutism is parent and
peer training. As previously stated,
parents and peers often reinforce
the lack of speaking by speaking for
the mute individual, or by accepting
non-vocal responses when vocal
responses would be more appropriate. Teaching parents and peers
the importance of having the mute
individual speak for him/herself
loud enough for others to hear
increases the success and progress
of the interventions.
Incorporating multiple components
produces the greatest increases in
vocalizations. Placing non-vocal
behavior on extinction and reinforcing audible vocalizations along
with using prompts such as “are you
telling a secret?” as a self-monitoring or regulation tool can create an
effective intervention package as
well. n
Kehle, T. J., & Owen, S. V. (1990). The use of
self-modeling as an intervention in school psychology: A case study of an elective mute. School
Psychology Review, 19, 115-121.
Kolvin, I., & Fundudis, T. (1981). Elective mute
children: Psychological development and background factors. Journal of Child Psychology and
Psychiatry, 22, 219-232.
Piersel, W., & Kratochwill, T. (1981). A teacher-implemented contingency management package
to assess and treat selective mutism. Behavior
Assessment, 3, 371-382.
Rye, M. S., & Ullman, D. (1999). The successful
treatment of long-term selective mutism: A case
study. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 30, 313-323.
The digest accepts reviews of journal articles of interest to behavior analysts. Review articles should be written in the active
voice and be understood by non-behavioral readers. Typically, digest articles are written in the “newspaper style” with catchy
titles, location of the story, and frequent use of action words and phrases.
- Limit all digest articles to 500 words or fewer
- Do not include graphical reprints from the journal article
- Articles must be published in the last 5 years
- Include full reference in APA style
- No more than 3 references per article
Submit your Digest article to the digest editor at [email protected]
By submitting your article for consideration to BAQ, you agree to BAQ’s right to alter your article’s text, primarily grammar, to fit its current needs.
29
VOL. 1 / NO. 1
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