The coral reefs of the Dominican Republic

Transcription

77
F r a n c i s c o X. G e r a l d e s
Centro de Investigaciones de Biologia Marina, Universidad Aut6noma de Santo Domingo
and Fundaci6n Dominicana Pro - Investigaci6n y Conservaci6n de los Recursos Marinos,
P.O. Box 748, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic
ABSTRACT: The Dominican Republic has a land area of 48,484 km 2, with a coastline of 1,389 km,
of these 166 km or 11% are coral reefs. The continental shelf, averages 7.5 km wide and covers 8,130
km 2. There are two submerged offshore banks, two barrier reefs, as well as many fringing reefs.
Dominicans in general recognize the importance of coral reefs as they provide safe ports, shelter and
habitat for biodiversity, food and beaches. The first report of reefs in the Americas was from
Hispaniola by C. Columbus in 1492, calling them "baxas" or "roqueiros". Other early naturalist
worked with specimens from this island, and research continues until our days. The reef setting varies
depending on the location and distance form the numerous river discharges. Dry areas and shallow
platforms are favorable for reef growth at: Montecristi, Macao-Punta Cana, Parque Nacional del Este,
Parque Nacional Jaragua, as well as the Silver Banks located some 170 km to the north of the island.
The coral coverage varies from 40% to 9%, reflecting not only natural causes, but also anthropogenic
impacts. There are reports of 64 coral species. The coastal marine habitats including the reefs of all the
marine protected areas in the country have been studied, cataloged and mapped, the information
produced have been important for their management and conservation. Some reefs are under threat by
development of ports such is the case of Boca Chica, the most studied reef site in the island.
Sedimentation along the coast has increased, and has become a threat to reef growth, occurring on 1/3
of the coastline, and now reaching reef sites such as Juan Dolio and Barahona. Coral bleaching has
been found mainly on areas near urban development. The 1980's mass mortalities occurred as in the
rest of the Caribbean. The reefs of the southern and eastern coasts of the Dominican Republic are
usually exposed to hurricanes. The reef tracks near urban development are more impacted by habitat
degradation due to physical damage and from nearby sources of pollution transported by currents.
Non-adequate beach use in some tourists centers have caused reef degradation in the past, lessons
learned have induced the tourism sector to become involved in reef conservation. The main problem
reefs are facing is overfishing of several essential species such as Strombus sp., Panulirus sp., and
fishes of the Serranidae, Lutjanidae, and Scaridae families. Several non-official institutions as well as
the recent created Secretaria de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (Ministry of the Environment
and Natural Resources) have programs for conservation of marine and coastal habitats, communities
and species.
1. I N T R O D U C T I O N
T h e c o r a l r e e f s o f the D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c are an i m p o r t a n t r e s o u r c e , a n d it is
a c k n o w l e d g e d b y the citizens that t h e y p r o v i d e safe ports, shelter, a n d food. C o r a l reefs
h a v e r e c e n t l y b e e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the t o u r i s m industry. W h i l e in the past, D o m i n i c a n s
t o o k c o a s t a l a n d m a r i n e r e s o u r c e s for granted, a n d c o n s i d e r e d t h e m e v e r l a s t i n g , t h e r e is
Latin American Coral Reefs, Edited by Jorge Cortrs
9 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
78
F.X. Geraldes
today an awareness of their fragility, and of the fact that they need care and good management to ensure their health and function. At present, coastal and marine environments,
as well as forest habitats, have national economic, political and aesthetic value.
Nevertheless, overfishing, pollution and urban growth still pose very relevant and real
threats to these ecosystems. In order to minimize these, the country has set aside four
large coastal regions as marine protected areas: Parque Los Haitises, Parque Montecristi,
Parque del Este and Parque Jaragua. The last three are located downstream of oceanic
currents and receive minimal river influence. In all coral reefs, seagrasses, and mangroves
constitute important habitat reserves. Other coastal features of the Dominican Republic
include emerged reef terraces, shorelines of terrigenous origin, estuaries and sandy
beaches.
This chapter includes a description of the coral reefs of the Dominican Republic, as
well as maps of the most important reef sites: two barrier reefs (Montecristi and MacaoBavaro-Punta Cana), and several fringing, hard base, high energy marine-coastal
communities. Finally, a short review of the environmental hazards that coral reefs face in
the Dominican Republic is presented.
1.1. Natural history
The island of Hispaniola, situated at 17040 ' and 19~
and 68020 ' and 70~
is
the second largest in the Caribbean (78,000 km2), and located in the north-central
boundary of the Caribbean Sea. The deep Windward Passage (4,000 m) separates it
from Cuba, to the north-northwest, and the Jamaica passage separates it from Jamaica, to
the west-southwest (3,000 m). It is separated from Puerto Rico, to the east, by the
shallow Mona Passage (350-400 m). Oceanic currents and winds are primarily governed
by the easterly trade winds. Hispaniola is politically divided into two countries: Haiti to
the west, and the Dominican Republic to the east (Fig. 1). The Dominican Republic has
a land area of 48,484 km 2, with a coastline of 1,389 km. Of these, 376.7 km (or 27%)
are mangroves, and 166 km (or 11%) are coral reefs. Emerged reef terraces and cliffs,
are the main coastal features found along the coast, especially on the southeastern region
of the island. The continental shelf has a mean width of 7.5 km, and covers an area of
8,130 km 2. There are two submerged offshore banks: La Navidad and La Plata, 70 and
150 km 2 respectively, located north of Cabo Saman~ (Fig. 1).
1.2. Geography
The island topography is diverse, with three large valleys and four mountain chains.
These have a directional trend northwest to southeast, with broad valleys in between.
Two outstanding features of the Dominican Republic are: that it contains the deepest
zone in the Caribbean (the Valle de NeybaJLago Enriquillo, at 48 m below sea level),
and the highest peak (Pico Duarte/La Pelona, 3,087 m above sea level) (De la Fuente
1976). The island also has a very complex tectonic and geological history, being
seismically active.
1.3. Climate and oceanography
The climate of Hispaniola is considered to be tropical marine dry, with an annual
average temperature ranging from 18 to 32~ at the lower elevations. There are regional
variations in climate and rainfall, influenced by the predominant northeasterly trade winds,
79
I
~.t
9 ........
69~
?~.;.-:.:::.......
:. 9 ~,~,~., ........
..:
ATLANTIC OCEAN
Sliver B a n k s
,,,:
:.............~
~lOOm
......... . .......... )
9
-
NavtdodShools
..::.~
.(2ayes Si'~tea~.mparelu e N,aclonal Punta
",H.errnanos
Rucla
9
d e Montedrlstl .....
*
.;
! ...,.".
.....
.:
9
"..~ r e e ~ t s
9
.
,
~,Lup
....
~
....
YC~l,
~].t"~ ~ ~
Puerto
,
-
~ -. m......'''-.
--;
., . . . . . .
9j
:
.......
HAl
~
~o~u~L~
/
"~"7~" ~ C a ~ ' ~
tk:lrah~ :''eels"
'
o
75~
"
MONA PASSAGE
:"..."'.
I ,
\\
c::V, e0"
~
~
i
~
:~'~i1~ . . . . . . . . .
9
.:
d'''''.'." ...... i'Jm
~sla~tt,
,/
;ee~
..."
IslaBeatq
Alto _"...... "lOOm
Velo
CARIBBEAN SEA
r
Fig. 1. Dominican Republic coral reef localities.
as well as cold fronts from the northwest, and sporadic hurricanes and summer storms
from the southwest. Rainfall tends to decrease from east to west. The annual average
rainfall is 980 mm, with May and November having the highest precipitation, and
December to April having the lowest. The oceanic circulation patterns in coastal waters
are dominated by the Northem Equatorial Current, which flows westward and divides
itself into northem and southem branches at Mona Passage (Metcalf et aL 1977).
Counter currents, usually associated with tides, are common near to the coast. Tides are
semi-diumal, with mean spring tidal ranges of 90 and 30 cm on the northern and
southem coasts respectively.
1.4. Culture, population, and development
The people of the Dominican Republic form an agricultural and farming society, which
is presently moving towards light industry and tourism. Historians indicate that deforestation and human intervention in the natural setting has occurred since the 15 th century.
Severe environmental changes occurred during the early to middle 20 th century, when
the sugarcane industry boomed and large areas of forest were cut down, increasing soil
erosion and sedimentation, and hence ultimately affecting the nearby marine ecosystems.
80
F.X. Geraldes
Another major impact to the environment has been the recent population rise, from 2.5
million in the 1960's to the present 8.5 million today. This rise has increased the degradation of watersheds, river systems, and marine and coastal habitats.
1.5. Coral reef research
The study of reefs in Hispaniola began in 1492, when Christopher Columbus described
these submerged structures as "roqueiros", "baxas" and "restringas" (confinements) in
his navigation log (Col6n 1492). Later, in 1525, Gonzalo Femfindez de Oviedo (in
Chardon 1949) mentions these strange formations on his Sumario de la Natural Historia
de las Indias. Several early naturalists, such as Carlos Plumier (1695 in Chardon 1949)
and George L. Leclerc (1770 in Chardon 1949) made collections for the Muse6 de
Historie Naturelle de Paris. In 1776, Luis Nicolson published his Essai sur l'Histoire
Naturelle de St. Domingue (Chardon 1949), where he mentions madreporaria, corals,
crustaceans, and other invertebrates. Also worth mentioning is the work of Moreau de
Saint-M6ry during 1796 (Chardon 1949) and his Description Topographique et Politique
de la Partie Espagnole de L'Ile de Saint Domingue. Later in the 19th century, more
works followed such as those of William Gabb (1868, in Chardon 1949), who published
"On the Topography and Geology of San Domingo". In the early 1900's, other scientists
such as Vaughan (Vaughan 1900; Vaughan et al. 1921), Wells (1956), and William
Hassler, who published "From Sea Base to Mountain Top at Santo Domingo" (1933, in
Chardon 1949), collected and worked either on living and fossil reefs of the Dominican
Republic. More recent studies, including those of Sir W. Halcrow and Partners's reports
on the environmental impacts at Boca Chica (1976); Geister's (1980), and Schubert and
Cowart's (1980) work on the paleontology of reef terraces on the south coast of the Dominican Republic; the studies of Galzin and Renaud-Mortand (1983) on pollution effects
on coral reefs; and the work on the reef conditions after hurricanes (Barnwell 1983).
Dominican contributors to reef studies include Bonnelly de Calventi (1974), who
published a taxonomic coral list. Gonzfilez-Nufiez (1974) located reefs sites and lists
species collected in "Operaci6n Madre Perla". In 1973, F. X. Geraldes began his research
on coral reefs, publishing in the local newsletters of the Museo Nacional de Historia Natural, Centro de Investigaciones de Biologia Marina, and the Herbario de la Universidad
de Santo Domingo. These early works included the first Dominican scientific reef study
with descriptions of reef types, species, and locations, the results of which were later
summarized and published (Geraldes 1976, 1978). Rathe (1981) produced the first systematic study of sponges in Dominican coral reefs. Geraldes (1982) also studied the
effects of hurricanes on Dominican reefs. More recent studies include reef characterizations, ecological assessments, and species lists (Geraldes 1994a, 1996a, b, c; Vega 1994;
Vega et al. 1994, 1997; Geraldes and Vega 1995a, b; Geraldes et al. 1997), as well as
reef conservation efforts made by creating volunteer networks for reef monitoring (Cintr6n
et al. 1994; Geraldes 1994b).
2. DESCRIPTION OF CORAL REEF AREAS
Most coral reefs of the Dominican Republic are fringing reefs. There are also two
barrier reefs, numerous patch reefs, and four large offshore banks; their distribution is
associated with the coastal profile and depth of the ocean platform. In places like Macao
81
-Puma Cana and Momecristi, broad platform barrier reefs are found. Not so in Palenque,
Saman~ Bay, and the Bahia Escocesa, where reefs are unable to establish due to the high
turbidity caused by numerous river discharges. There are also unnatural conditions that
are affecting the reefs such as increasing coastal development, pollution, untreated
waste, water discharges, and beach erosion. This chapter describe the reefs found in the
coasts of the Dominican Republic, starting with the offshore bank reefs (Silver Banks).
The coastal reefs are described beginning at the northwestern shores bordering Haiti at
Rio Masacre (Montecristi), and moving clockwise around the island to the southwestern
border with Haiti at Rio Pedernales.
2.1. Offshore bank reefs: The Silver Banks, National Sanctuary of Whales
The Silver Banks (Fig. 1), at 20~
69~ l'W, and 140 km north of Puerto Plata in
the Dominican Republic, have an area of 3,740 km 2. In the northern portion of this bank
the barrier is composed of a series of patch reefs bound together near the surface. This
area is shallower and shaped like a triangle. The reef extends for 30 km to the southeast;
it is exposed at low tide: on its ocean side to a great depth, over a distance of less than 100
m. The coral patches are pillars of cemented coral skeletons ascending from the rubble
and sandy base 15 to 25 m up the surface. The living coral species found here follow the
zonation pattems described by Goreau (1959). A. palmata is found occupying the top
portion of the reef down to the 6 m depth contour. Below that zone, most corals are
typical of the lower palmata and buttress zones. The substrate of the Silver Banks is
mainly sand and coral gravel. At the southern portion of the breaker zone, the mean
depth is 40 m, and corals grow only where suitable substrate is present. The turbidity of
the water tends to increase to the south and away from the reef crest. A reduction of
coralline columns or pillars is obvious to the south of the reef crest. The mean coral
cover in the Silver Bank is 40%. There is a low density of sponges (2%). Turf algae
covers 51% of the sampled substrate. The rugosity of this reef is relatively high (1.3%)
due to the magnitude of the coral columns or pillars, some of which reach the surface of
the water.
2.2. Coastal reefs
2.2.1. Montecristi barrier reef (Fig. 2.). The Montecristi region in the northern coast
of the Dominican Republic has the largest reef formation of the country with a length of
64.2 km, which grows on the nearshore areas of the Montecristi Shoals (1,181 km2). The
coastline consists of a low mountain range of sedimentary (Miocene) origin. At the
northwestern end is the landmark of E1 Morro (273 m) and the city of Montecristi, and
2 km to the west is the Yaque del Norte River estuary with its large mangrove forest.
The climate and land ecology of the area is dry to very dry tropical forest, conditioned
mainly by the lack of river runoff and the steady easterly winds (15 to 30 knots). The
reef begins at E1 Morro and extends westward reaching Punta Rucia. Along the coast
and protected by the barrier and lagoon, extensive nearshore seagrass beds and frondose
growths of red mangroves (Rhizophora mangle) thrive. The reef system of Montecristi
can be considered as a barrier reef in active expansion. High relief features and large
living coral colonies with sizes exceeding 10 m in diameter are common. The deep reef
82
~
c'-
0
0
0
0
0
tO
s
/
!,y
R
.~
o
F.X. G e r a l d e s
Z
~
/
9
m
z
D
NN~
,
~
o_
~
"~~
o
o
o
C
o~
o
-
-
. . . . . . . . .
~o
The coralreefs of the DominicanRepublic
83
has different characteristics depending on location and position relative to currents,
waves, wind direction, and tidal channels. A representative portion of this setting is
shown on Fig. 3, at Punta Mangle.
Reef lagoon: The reef lagoon can be between 20 m and 2 km wide, and up to 20 m
deep. In association with it there are sandy beaches, mangrove forests and terrigenous
cliffs. In hard base areas (1 to 5 m deep), small coral patches (5 to 800 m 2) are found
with Gorgonia spp. and Plexaura spp. as the dominant soft corals, associated with the
M. annularis complex, Diploria spp., Manicina spp., A. cervicornis, Porites spp. and
Millepora spp. The main feature in this lagoon is the dense to sparse seagrass beds of
Thalassia and Syringodium on a sandy or sand-mud base. Other coral species found in
the reef lagoons are: P. divaricata, M. areolata, S. siderea, S. radians and A. cervicornis.
Reef flat and back reef: There is an extensive and diverse back reef followed by a reef
fiat. In areas closer to tidal channels a more vigorous growth of corals occurs: Porites
porites, Porites divaricata, the M. annularis complex, A. cervicornis, A. palmata and
Millepora complanata are present with octocorals and sponges as well. Near to the reef
crest a harder, more consolidated base is found, where calcareous algae Amphiroa spp.
and Jania spp. are dominant. Thalassia and Syringodium grow in patches.
Reef crest: Skeletal remains of poorly lithified Acroporids form the reef crest. Millepora
is dominant although a few young A. palmata are also found. This change in dominance
patterns could be attributed to the Acroporid disease, with Millepora substituting the
previously dominant A. palmata and Porites spp. structures. In most of the reef area, the
crest is narrow and crossed by tidal channels. Here, the waves from oceanic swells
barely reach the reef. This may be due to the effect of the precedent shoal which reduces
their force. The energy here is mainly represented by wind-generated waves with a short
lifespan producing choppy seas, which conditions a low energy environment. On its
ocean side the crest abruptly drops to 6 - 10 m in less than 30 m, allowing a clear view
of its basal structure, which is composed of large skeletons of A. palmata, A. cervicornis,
Porites spp. and Montastraea spp. Some of these skeletons have broken loose and lie at
the base of the crest, serving as suitable substrates for future colonization, as well as
refuge for other reef inhabitants.
Outer reefs: In exposed areas, there is evidence of a lower Palmata zone consisting
mostly of large, dead colonies of A. palmata. Seaward is a low relief spurs and grooves
formation, with large colonies of the dominant Montastraea complex are also found.
There are variations to this zonation pattern: when tidal channels divide the reef crest,
there is usually a portion of the breaker zone, facing away from the predominant forces
(wind and waves); this creates a very calm and protected portion on the reef. In this
setting, the reef crest can sometimes abruptly drop into a sandy channel with seagrass,
often down to 30 m deep. As this portion receives some of the ocean's energy, the coral
growth can be found forming patches 10 to 5,000 m 2 in size. This set-up then continues
either towards the shore where it connects to the backreef, or seaward, where it is
followed by spurs and grooves or hard grounds. In the majority of the cases for
Montecristi, the reef crest slopes towards a hard base (10 m deep), where octocorals are
84
I
,
, ,
, ::,..~:iii,
~
,
'
'
'~
F.X. Geraldes
C
Z
~
0
._m
2
0
0
.,o
Z
85
dominant. The hard base ends in a wall, dropping to the 25 m contour where large coral
colonies are found. The M. annularis complex, M. cavernosa, Diploria spp. and
Agaricia spp. amongst others cover most of the bed, with a total coral cover exceeding
60%. In these places, the colonies form gigantic structures, some occupying up to 100
m E, formed by coral heads of multiple colonies forming a single structure. Among these,
broad caves and deep crevices (14 m) are common. In the deepest portion (30 m), coral
pinnacles are found. Live corals and other hermatypic organisms use the large boulders
and debris that have precipitated down from shallower regions as substrate to grow
vertically in a pillar-like fashion. When several of these pinnacles grow close together,
they sometimes join to create a larger base. In most cases the dominant species is
Montastraea, and it covers all previous growth. In other cases some of these are
dominated by octocorals and coralline algae such as Halimeda goreaui, Halimeda
discoidea and Dyctiota spp. The encrusting octocoral, Erythropodium caribaeorum, and
the red calcareous algae Porolithium caribeaeum are also common features of the pillars
at the Montecristi reefs.
Another type of reef formation found here are deep reefs, which form buttress systems.
These are characterized by large to very large dominating colonies of the M. annularis
complex, as well as M. cavernosa, Siderastrea spp., D. strigosa, D. labyrinthiformis, D.
stokesiL Madracis spp., M. meandrites, A. agaricites, A. cervicornis and the sponge
Cliona langae. These buttress systems are usually found in association with the tidal
channels located throughout the extension of the reef.
Offshore keys
Punta Rucia keys. In the eastern end of the Montecristi Barrier Reef at Punta Rucia,
there are 16 offshore coral keys. These are small (800 to 5,000 m2), submerged, mountlike features that rise from a sandy platform 45 to 100 m deep. They have an arch-like
shape, with the convex side facing the incoming winds. There is a significant difference
in coral growth pattern between the exposed and protected sides of these keys. On the
protected side of the keys, at 15 m depth, there is sparse marine vegetation, with
Syringodium and fleshy algae dominating; as this reaches the flat, a back reef may form.
Here P. caribaeorum, and the corals P. astreoides, D. strigosa and M. annularis are
found with small colonies. In these places the long-spined black sea urchin Diadema
antillarum is common, hiding amongst the crevices of the healthy reef found here.
Moving towards the reef crest, on its windward side and at 2 m deep, a breaker zone is
evident; species diversity increases, as do organisms adapted to stronger waves and
currents. On some of the keys the breaker zone occupies the entire key. The dominant
species found here are: A. palmata, Millepora spp. the, M. annularis complex and D.
strigosa. In some of the other keys in these high-energy areas, there are large areas of hard
substrate without any coral growth; instead, large algae mats of Lobophora sp. and other
algae cover most of the area. The frontal reefs usually end at approximately 12 m depth,
sometimes followed by a sand plateau or by a forereef slope to deeper waters.
Hermatypic corals dominate this reef slope. Numerous healthy colonies of the M.
annularis complex, A. palmata, M. cavernosa, P. porites, A. agaricites, together with the
sponges Cliona langae and Aplysina fistularis are found. Due to currents induced by
heavy swells at the base of the exposed side (forereef slope), a detrital area is found.
86
F.X. Geraldes
Here octocorals such as Plexaura homomalla, P. americana and P. flexuosa and the
coral M. alcicornis become dominant species.
Siete Hermanos keys. These keys are not part of the Montecristi barrier reef system.
They are located 25 km west of El Morro, at the western and distal end of the Montecristi
Shoals, on a ocean floor rise (5-30 m deep) and at the edge of the Manzanillo submarine
canyon (>800 m deep). The keys occupy an area of 10 km 2, and vary in size between
3,000 to 40,000 m z. All are composed of sand and unconsolidated coral debris with arid
vegetation, where nesting populations of Tula leucogaster (buN) are commonly found.
Water turbidity and salinity show influences of the Yaque del Norte river estuarine
system about 20 km upstream. The sea bed is sand-mud. Despite these conditions, the
shallowness of these seven shoals offer enough light penetration for fringing reefs to
form on the windward sides, as well as patches on the leeward sides of the keys. In
shallow areas between the keys, there are numerous patch reefs. In some cases these are
vaguely connected and form large structures, especially between Cayo Rata and Cayo
Muerto. Coral reef formation is least at Cayo Tourur6, this being the most easterly key
and thus closer to the estuary. Nevertheless, the river plumes can reach as far away as
Cayo Arenas, located furthest to the west. It is considered that water quality, mainly its
turbidity and salinity, have influenced this region to conform a unique reef formation.
The coral structure on these keys is of a l~inging reef type down to 20 m, consisting of a
sandy beach followed by a narrow reef flat 10 to 50 m wide. The species composition on
the back reefs is similar to Punta Rucia back reefs. The breaker zone, however, presents
differences between the keys. Most of them rise from a sand-mud base at 10 - 12 m. In
keys facing surf and currents, the hard base substrate is bare and covered by cementing
and boring sponges, and octocorals. In those keys where the currents and surf are not as
strong, vertically growing species are found together with large to gigantic coral
colonies. These grow sparingly, and are surrounded by finger-like corals such as Porites
spp. Sometimes, gigantic round coral forms can be found which comprise most of an
area, with very few if any other accompanying benthic species.
Biodiversity of the Montecristi barrier reef
Recent studies done in Montecristi (Geraldes 1996a, b, c; Geraldes et al. 1997) have
produced updated information about this area, a community and substrate map
(1:40,000) of the coastal region, and the first biodiversity list for the region's marine and
coastal habitats. The biodiversity sampled here includes 22 Classes, 285 Families, 525
Genera, and 742 species. The highest species richness is found in the hard base
communities, which is related to substrate rugosity and complexity. Of these hard base
community types, coral patches, high relief spur and grooves, and reef keys represent the
refuges for biodiversity.
2.2.2. Luper6n reef, Luper6n Bay, Puerto Plata. Eastward of Montecristi, the coast
is characterized by a diversity of habitats: a reef terrace extends from Punta Rucia to
Luper6n, and the coast is then mainly of terrigenous origin until it reaches Puerto Plata.
Luper6n Reef is a fringing reef located 250 m offshore. It grows over a narrow drowned
reef terrace, which borders a shallow submarine canyon at the entrance of a bay (Bahia
de Luper6n), where mangroves and a small town are found. The reef grows on a hard
base, with low relief and high gorgonian cover up to 10 m deep. The reef slope ends at
The coral reefs of the DominicanRepublic
87
40 m depth near a submarine canyon. Coral cover is 12%, with algae dominating (67%).
The growth is mainly of hard and smooth substrates, with very little reefrugosity (1.04%).
2.2.3. Playa Dorada reef, Puerto Plata (Fig. 4.) Patchy coral growth with low cover
by live corals, dominated by encrusting turf and fleshy algae, are characteristics of a
sedimentary coastal region of calcareous origin, which is washed by numerous torrential
streams that form sedimentary plumes; rip currents are common here. Offshore (18 m
deep) a hard basal community grows on top of a sandstone substrate. In areas where coastal
features provide shelters, like Playa Dorada, the coast was originally fringed by healthy
mangroves and marshes (now replaced by golf courses and hotels), which acted as sediment and nutrient barriers, and allowed the formation of patch reefs. These often formed
small mounts and pillars, with rose vertically from a 15 m base to the surface. A small fringing
reef of A. palmata and Porites sp. developed. These structures protected the coast and
created a large stretch of beach, which is now intensely utilized by the tourism industry.
At present, this reef is severely degraded due to environmental misuse by the resorts
(over 5,000 rooms) and the golf course built here: all these infrastructures have exceeded
their sanitary infrastructures capacity, thus streams and ground water pollution, together
with nutrient runoff, have seriously affected the nearby reefs and coastal regions. There
is little hope of recovery unless the activities that maintain this present level of pollutants
are controlled. Studies shows that there is an 80% coral mortality, and that 92% of the
basal and reef substrate is covered by algae, especially Gracilaria spp., Dyctiota spp.,
Turbinaria spp. and Codium spp.
Eastward of Playa Dorada, the coastal features of the coast change to reef terraces
followed by a narrow flinging reef that extends eastward for 3 km. The distance from
shore to the reef crest reef varies from 10 to 200 m away, where the breakers begin; A.
palmata skeleta are found here covered with algae. Millepora spp. now dominates this
breaker system. In deeper water (15 - 25 m), irregular sandstone structures with many
crevices and pillars, covered with scattered coral growth, rise up to 5 m high from the
sandy beds.
2.2.4. Sosfia reef, Puerto Plata. SosOa reef is located in a small bay open at the northeast.
The base is composed of beach rock. The calm waters and white sandy beaches off the
coast make this a preferred tourist destination. High reef terraces encompassing a unique
view surround the beach. Underwater, a patch reef surrounded by sand occupies approximately 30% of the center of the small bay. A prairie of octocorals with sparse growth of
A. palmata, M. alcicornis, D. clivosa, and D. cylindrus begins at the 4-m contour.
Deeper, at the 10 m contour, the diversity and cover by coral species increases, covering
28% of the substrate. Intense visitation by tourists has caused severe impacts on this site.
Continuous visitation creates large sediment plumes. Algae cover is 43%, possibly due
to some undetermined nutrient input. In terms of species diversity, the absence of large
predatory fish species is noticeable. The sponges occupy 6.4%, and are mainly of the
encrusting and burrowing types.
2.2.5. Reefs of the northern shore of the Samanfi Peninsula
Reef Las Ballenas keys. This reef surrounds a carbonate outcrop in the coast of Las
Terrenas, on the northern shore of the Samanfi peninsula. The base is a hard pavement
88
9
&
~_~
:....
O
L'NI
N3
.x,,x,
,:x x x,,
..,---,
-2""2
~!
x ~.
.,,,~
t,,,,
~.
..:..:r
.\x,,xx
., ,, x x "< "i
-.-.-.:-
c
0
E
o
o~
F.X. Geraldes
1!
~5
_Q
4"t'-4'-J:"'"
,_Q
~
"O
J"~; rs
O
Io
O
~
c-
o~
r
cD
d'
-::I
r.~
O
r162
O
!
t~
M
89
eroded relict reef, where sparse medium-sized coral colonies, mainly of Diploria spp.
and Meandrina, establish themselves in crevices and grow. There are also octocorals,
and a thick carpet of fleshy and turf alga covers this basic substrate. The species richness
is not high, and comprises 11 species of algae, 9 sponges, 9 octocorals and 2 hard
corals.
E! Portillo reef. This reef is located on the northern shore of the Saman~i peninsula.
The coastline is composed of high and steep carbonate mountain slopes and terraces.
The climate is very humid. Since the 1940s, most of the coastal lands have been turned
into coconut farms, deforesting the area in the process. The reefs here are fifnging, growing
very close to shore in sparse patches with a tendency to close at the breaker and to form
lagoonal environs. On these lagoons, and very close to the shore in shallow waters, the
patches have coral remains of A. palmata, the M. annularis complex, Millepora spp., and
Diploria spp. Most are fully covered by fleshy and turf algae; very few, if any, live
corals are found on them (Geraldes and Vega 1995b). Further out to sea, approximately
9 km offshore, there are numerous shoals (15 m deep), that rise from the surrounding
oceanic waters. These are carbonate terraces, eroded either by bioerosional processes or
by exposure to weathering during past geological times. The species of corals found in
these shoals are few and low in coverage (11.7%). More dominant is turf algae (44%),
fleshy algae (20%), and encrusting sponges (18%) (Geraldes and Vega 1995b). The lack
of large predators and the scarcity of large herbivores and sea urchins are affecting coral
recruitment on these reefs, giving the opportunity for more active erosional processes to
Occur.
Puerto Escondido. This site is the northermost shore in the east of the Saman~i peninsula. It is located very close to a terrigenous rocky shore with falling boulders, and to the
edge of the narrow continental shelf. Corals here grow without any apparent anthropogenic
influences. Runoff and springs in the past, which are now reduced, have created small,
narrow, protected coves where corals flourish, and where A. palmata grows vigorously.
In deeper waters, on a terrigenous base, a young fringing reef can be found with 25 coral
species, 15 species of sponges, 11 species of octocorals and 18 species of algae (Geraldes
and Vega 1995b).
Cabo Cabr6n reef, Las Galeras. The reef near Cabo Cabr6n offers a spectacular
wall dive. It is located at the tip of the Saman~ peninsula. The coastal region is formed
by Tertiary rocks (marble), and is steep and high (400 m). The water depth right off the
coast surpasses 150 m. In some areas where landslides have occurred, narrow terraces
can be found formed by large boulders. In those places coral grows from the surface to
50 m deep in a 30 ~ incline. The coral forms are of the encrusting and massive type, and
coral cover is approximately 40%. Tube sponges follow with a 28% coverage (Geraldes
and Vega 1995b). Large fish are frequently found here. During winter, humpback whales
are often encountered, here and in the Portillo and Terrenas reef sites.
2.2.6. Miehes reef. This region on the eastern coast of the Dominican Republic is very
humid. Numerous rivers and streams loaded with sediments join the ocean near Miches.
The Yuna river system discharges to the west in Saman~ bay, and together with the Los
Haitises and the Sabana de la Mar watersheds, they form the largest estuarine system of
the Caribbean islands. The waters in the entire region are generally murky due to the high
loads of sediments, limiting coral growth. Near the town of Miches, at Punta Hicacos, a
90
F.X. Geraldes
68115,
Punta
Atlantic Ocean
Swamps
.....
o. . . .
,.
'",,,,
-pry F<xe~
SwarrMp~
-~
,
Bavaro
Reef Terraces
~]
Sandbeaches
Sand
9. 2 0 m
......
. ~
Mona Passage
Man, ores
Seagrass
~-~
Reef Flats
~
b'eakers
9 " -..
'..,,
".
~Deep
Cabo Engano
Dry Forest
~
"" .
Punta
Cana
m
reefs
lOOm
HardBottom Communities
Caribbean
Sea
O-
15t~n
Fig. 5. Macao- Bavaro- Punta Cana.
small fringing reef has developed. To the west there are small patch reefs. Extending towards the center of the bay to the north, there are offshore shoals, which are dangerous for
navigation and where important 16 th century wrecks are found (Tolosa and Concepci6n).
This coral region has not been documented.
2.2.7. Bfivaro- E! M a c a o - Punta Cana barrier reef system (Fig. 5). On the Eastern
shores of the Dominican Republic, facing the Mona Passage, is the B~ivaro-E1 MacaoPunta Cana barrier reef system. This portion of the island has a configuration resembling
a bold arrowhead. B~ivaro faces northeast into the Atlantic, E1 Macao is to the east
(Mona Passage), and Punta Cana to the southeast (the Caribbean). The coastline is sandy,
with mangroves, coastal lagoons, and swamps behind the coastal dune. These humids
drain into the sea through numerous outlets or underground springs. The watershed is a
coastal plain in the B~varo region. At E1 Macao and Punta Cana, reef terraces are usually
found close to shore mainly at Cabo Engafio and near the airport.
The reefs of E1 Macao, B~ivaro and Punta Cana extend for 70 km. There are marked
structural differences between them. While E1 Macao and B~varo face northeasterly
winds and high swells, Punta Cana faces southeasterly winds and waves. Thus E1 Macao
and B~ivaro are high energy reef complexes with hard bases and eroded profiles, while
Punta Cana has the characteristics of a low relief reef.
91
El Macao (Arena Gorda) reef. This reef is located in the north central portion of
the Mona Passage, close to Cabo Engafio, and has Atlantic reef characteristics. Its appearance is similar to the one described for Puerto Plata and E1 Portillo in Saman~t. The
smooth and solid limestone rises from the sandy surroundings up to 10 m, forming a high
relief reef. There are no spur and groove formations here: the rocky formations are more
like reef relicts from the late Quaternary period. The substrate where the reef has established itself is covered with algae (23%, of which 1.3% are encrusting and boring algae).
The basal reef rocks of this reef have become brittle through bio-erosional processes,
forming sediments and sand and creating temporary sediment plumes that affect coral
recruitment and growth. This explains the low coral coverage (5.5%), most of which
consist of small colonies no larger than 20 cm in diameter.
B~ivaro reef. The breaker zone at B~ivaro can be as far as 3.5 km from shore, creating a
wide lagoon (2-5 m deep) with coral patches and an extensive seagrass bed, followed by
a broad porous and shallow back reef that reaches gradually onto the reef fiat. Coral
species commonly found in this area are P. porites, P. astreoides, S. radians, M.
complanata, A. cervicornis, Diploria spp., C. natans and the M. annularis complex. A.
palmata skeletons covered with algae in association with Millepora sp. dominate the
windward side of the breaker zone, which is narrow and steep. At 4 m, there are large
dead stands of A. palmata as well as large boulders of the M. annularis complex and
Diploria sp. Reaching the 13 m depth there is an irregular and wide sand channel, ending
on its seaside in a rise of 8 m, which continues to form a smooth sandstone shoal, mostly
covered by turf algae; during stormy events, this area becomes the first breaker region
on the reef complex. These shoals are uneven, with crevices 2-5 m deep. Between them,
shallow sand pockets appear and interconnect with others. Towards the deeper regions
and on the frontal face of this shoal, the 10 m contour is reached with a gentle slope. The
reef base then flattens and low-relief spurs (1.5 rn high) with sand and rubble-filled
grooves begin to extend for 800 m or more, to about the 18 m depth. The coral cover for
this portion of the reef is 16%.
Punta Cana Reef. This reef is located in the southern portion facing the Mona Passage,
and begins on its northern side following the cornering of Cabo Engafio by deep seas.
Here, isolated patch reefs may be found close to shore. The Punta Cana reef grows closer
to shore, characteristic of the fringing reef type, and is oriented towards the southeast.
This zone is frequently hit by hurricanes. The Punta Cana sandy beaches are interspersed
with low coral cliffs, which tum into high escarpments towards the south where the reefs
end and there are deep nearshore waters. The reef lagoon region is shallow with rubble
and sparse seagrasses. Several freshwater springs discharge underwater, thus influencing
the type of biological diversity found here. The breaker zone at 5 m is narrow and composed of large, compacted skeletons of A. palmata; algae cover is high and few live
corals are present. Seaward of the breaker zone, there is a sand and rubble area, with
large boulders comprising the base of this frontal structure. The spur and groove area is
of low profile and highly eroded. The 50 rn contour line is very close, and there are
some areas where it is possible to find features used as dive destinations.
The Macao-B~ivaro-Punta Cana Barrier Reef is now facing large impacts and threats
from a steadily growing tourism industry. In a 30 km stretch of coast, about 11,000 hotel
rooms have been constructed. The intense use of some hotel front sites and dive destinations has inflicted obvious damage on the reefs. In those areas close to shore, coral cover-
92
F.X. Geraldes
I
68o36 '
9
,'" . . . . . . . .
, .... . ...............
.'''.
a
18o15 , -
~algae l,~.~., 2...t_.T~.:.~..ngrove 1~ ~ . . . . . . .
~:] ManQ,oves
~ Canalde Catuano
I~
I~Punt~" ~
Soft Bottom ~ : : ~
Isla
Catuano ~
seagrassand algae ~.Jk.~Catalinita
{~
~
t
'
Balaju
Punta
;
0
",I
15 kr'n
~
""'~
El Cuerno
Caballo
Blanco Shoals
Fig. 6. Parque Nacional del Este.
age is less than 5%, and the seagrass beds as well as the lagoon patch reefs and backreefs
are clearly degraded. There has been a rapid and unplanned development, without environmental impact assessments on the potential impacts of several activities, such as
dredging and intense beach use creating sediment plumes, which mainly affect the
backreefs, the reef flats, and the reef crests at Macao, B~ivaro and Cabeza de Toro.
There are other impacts that have affected this reef, such as anchors, environmentally
unconscious diving and snorkeling, and increased fishing pressure. The result of these
actions has induced the algae growth, which has reached to 58% of substrate cover. Beside the sediment effect described above, there exists no control over the release of
detergents and other water treatment chemicals that are usually associated with hotel
operations. The evidence of a stressed system is clear, and there is an unusually noticeable
presence of the black band disease, affecting several coral species.
93
2.2.8. Reefs of Parque Naeional del Este (PNE) (Fig. 6). The reefs of this protected
area are basically low relief systems, found either as small, fringing, deep (20-30 m deep)
patches, or as banks. Most of them are on the leeward side, protected by a land mass of
Pleistocene and Recent reef terraces. Southeasterly trade winds are dominant. The reef on
the leeward side can be divided into two distinct areas: that along the southern coast of
Saona Island (influenced by oceanic currents,) and that along the western side of the
Catuano Passage (more protected). The bases of the Saona reefs are consolidated hard
bases and octocorals and sponges dominate the benthic communities. Hard corals are
abundant only at the specific places where they concentrate, forming small, dispersed coral
patches. Here the waves and currents are strong, and are in part responsible for
sculpturing the reefs. The reefs west of Catuano mainly have sandy bases with patch
reefs. Large amounts of sediment and biogenic sands are transported from the Catuano
Passage and deposited along this coastline towards the west, with large seagrass meadows
covering most of the nearshore areas. Corals mostly grow in patches from 12 to 30 rn
deep. Further to the west, away from the influences of the Catuano Passage, coral patches
increase in frequency and grow as deep-water fringing reefs, these being the most common
reef structures of the southern coast of the Dominican Republic.
Parque Nacional del Este (PNE) is the most studied marine site in the Dominican
Republic (Vega 1994; Vega et al. 1994, 1997). Six categories of hard base substrate have
been identified for this area: low relief spur and groove formations, reef flats, transitional
reef communities, patch reefs, low relief rocky shoals, and rocky coasts. The basal substrate for these formations is consolidated carbonate reef, in addition to sediments and
rubble.
Fringing Reefs
Catalinita reef (Fig. 7.). This reef is located at the eastern end of a channel that
separates the mainland f~om Saona Island. The base rises abruptly at the edge of the
channel. In the deep portions, high relief spurs and grooves with large, rounded coral
forms are common, while in shallower areas a hard base virtually without sand deposits,
serves as a substrate for a large octocoral prairie. Following the 10 m contour depth, the
base is covered by a wide frontal section of large skeletons ofA. palmata which project
to the surface. In some areas where live colonies still exist, patches of Montastraea spp.
and M. complanata form, mainly on the leeward side of the breaker zone and near
Catalinita Island, which is a deposit of coral debris.
Arreeife del Troneo (Catalinita reef). This is a leeward reef located to the north of
Pasa Grande and south of Catalinita Island. Porites sp. is the dominant species at 0.5 m
depth. At 3 m coral diversity increases. Algae (27 species) cover 50% of the area,
sponges (16 species) occupy 5% of the area, octocoral (7 species) growth is sparse, and
corals (14 species) cover 25% of the benthos. P. fureata is the dominant species. This
setting forms a low frontal wall that ends in a narrow sand-gravel base, colonized by a
dense seagrass bed of T. testudinum.
Reef Crest, Catalinita Reef. Due to the act that this reef geographically faces the
westbound currents, it is common to fred large amounts of solid waste from the heavy
traffic of the Mona Passage and other offshore territories to the east. Dominating the top
of the crest in 0.2 rn of water, is the short leaf type of Thalassia. There are also some live
colonies of A. palmata, A. cervicornis, M. complanata, D. strigosa, M. areolata and S.
F.X. Geraldes
94
!
18o12'
Hard bottom
0
1.5kin
Punta Alglbe
, _- .7 - _- c.;;" ...............
68o27. --
,'"
Reef
l ~ Terraces
,iiiiiiiiiiii!iii!iiiii ; ,
Isla Catalinita
[:~ Breakers
[~] Reef fiats
20 m
.....:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
Back Reefs
~ ] l',,lecushore
Corrcr~nities
[ ~ Mangroves
~
Deep reefs
Seagrass
;q~-'iiiiiiiiiiiii!ii!i!i?ii?ii?ii!:
~
Son.mud/algae
7~ Hard bottom
corrcnunities
f J / / f / / / d / / J J / / / / J / P
J / /
Hard bottom ~
Punta Baliiu
ISLA SAONA
Fig. 7. Catalinitareef, ParqueNacional del Este.
radians. Below this, large, unconsolidated pieces of A. palmata lie like non-cemented
tiles. At the 2 m deep, a patchy seagrass bed is established on top of coarse gravel (>25
cm diameter) substrate. In this zone, 8 species of algae cover 50% of the base. Sponges
and octocorals are rare: There are 5 species of sponge and 3 species of octocoral. Hard
corals are represented by 10 species, growing sparsely as small colonies.
Adamanay Reef. This narrow fringing reef starts at E1 Faro to the West, and runs
very close to shore along the village of Mano Juan, ending at Canto de la Playa in the
central southern portion of Saona Island. The reef crest is separated by a shallow and
narrow (30-50 m) sandy channel with seagrasses. Sporadic coral aggregations form the
narrow reef fiat, which then continues into a Acropora-Montastraea zone; this is the
basal structure of the breaker. In the seaward direction lies a hard carbonate platform,
where gorgonians and coral grow in depths and configurations similar to other Saona
Island sites. The Adamanay Reef protects the only human settlement in Saona Island,
which dates back to the 1700s as a pirates' village, and is now a fishing settlement and a
tourist destination.
95
Low relief spur and groove communities
The low relief spur and groove communities are mainly found to the west of Mano
Juan, in a somewhat protected region of PNE, and in the south of Saona Island. They are
located between 0.5 - 3 km away from the coast at 15 to 30 m deep. Sponges are dominant, as are octocorals and algae. Coral colonies are medium-sized and scarce.
M A M M A ' s reef. This reef begins 18 m in front of Punta E1 Faro. The reef system is
a continuation of a patch reef near the coast, in 3 to 8 m of water, dominated by live A.
palmata and the M. annularis complex. Going seaward from this patch reef, a broad
sand channel occurs, ending where the spur and grooves begin, with an orientation
facing East towards the incoming waves and winds. Coral cover is low (7.5%),
octocorals are the dominant benthic forms (17% coverage), and algae occupy 25% of
the base.
Parque Naeional. This reef is located westward of the mainland, at 15 m depth. It
has small, narrow spurs (6-9 m wide and a length up to 25 m), and the grooves are narrow
(3-5 m wide) and filled with fine sediments. The basic orientation of this reef is east to
west. The algae are dominant with 15 species, forming patches with Halimeda opuntia
and H. tuna as the dominant species. Twenty-nine species of sponge have been documented, with ,4gelas, Xestospongia and Verongula constituting the most common genera.
Octocorals are abundant with 10 species, Pseudopterogorgia acerosa and P. americana
being the most common species. Twenty-five species of hard corals have been observed,
with relatively low coverage. The most common species are medium sized colonies of
D. labyrinthiformis, S. siderea and M. cavernosa.
El Pefi6n (CARICOMP/site). E1 Pefi6n has a hard base, with sparse sand-clay sediments at 15 m. This eroded spur and groove formation gently slopes towards a 2 m cut
reminiscent of ancient shores, and into a sand channel where seagrasses grow. The dominant benthic fauna are the octocorals, with 18% coverage and 16 species, Briareum,
Eunicea and Pseudopterogorgia being the most common genera present. Sponge
coverage is 11%, with a diverse sponge composition (36 species), Agelas, Verongula,
and Xestospongia being the most common. The corals account for 8% of basal coverage
with 26 species (the highest species count for the whole PNE). Algae cover is significant; 24%, with 15 species represented. This location has been chosen as the CARICOMP
permanent reef monitoring station for the country.
Arrecife de Rub6n. This reef lies on the 20 m contour line that extends from Mano
Juan westward. The reef's loose substrate is formed by sand, clay, and rubble. The benthic
biodiversity is dominated by algae, with 14 species covering 25% of the substrate. Sponge
diversity is also high, with 34 species covering in some cases up to 50% of surveyed areas.
The most common genera present are again ,4gelas, Verongula and Xestospongia. Coral
coverage is low (5%), and only 18 species have been documented.
El Toro. This reef is found in the southwestern shore of Saona Island, at the 20 m
contour depth. The orientation and position of this site faces the incoming currents and
seas from the southeast. A spur and groove system forms its basic design, ending abruptly
in the cut of an old shore terrace at 26 m depth, where large gravel and reef debris
accumulate from the bioerosional processes occurring in the living portion of the reef.
Algae cover (50%) is dominant, followed by octocorals with 22 species. Corals (25
species) grow, but cover no more than 5% of the base.
96
F.X. Geraldes
Bayahibe Reef. This reef is located at the northwestern limit of Parque Nacional del
Este, 800 m away from shore, on top of a submerged terrace 18 m deep. It has a welldef'med spur and groove system, with relief up to 2 m high. The reef orientation is eastwest, perpendicular to the shore. The coverage by corals is 34%, with 25 species; sponges
11% with 37 species; and algae 35%, with 16 species.
Hard base carbonate reef flat communities
This reef type is characterized by a hard base flat carbonate substrate. These reefs are
low relief, and are associated with high energy seas and currents. They are most common
in the eastern portion of the park facing the incoming surge and waves from the open
seas. In terms of diversity, turf and brown algae, and/or a co-dominance of algae and
corals dominate them.
Pasa Grande (Catalinita Reef). Algae, with 36 species, dominate this hard base.
The most conspicuous genera are Dictyota, Turbinaria, Stypopodium and Halimeda.
Coral colonies grow sparsely forming large individuals. Octocorals are few in number,
represented by Gorgonia ventalina, Pseudoplexaura poros and Plexaura flexuosa: all
are species adapted to high-energy conditions. Seven sponge species are present, encrusting and boring forms (Chondrilla nucula and Cliona langae) dominating. The corals
are more diverse with 12 species, the most common being A. palmata, D. clivosa, P.
astreoides and P. porites.
Transitional reef communities
E! Faro. To the northwest of the Adamanay reef crest, somewhat protected by an
extension of the southern coast of Saona Island, a low relief-high energy occurs at 7 m
depth, mostly colonized by: algae, corals, and octocorals. It may be considered a transitional reef with accumulations of sediments and rubble. There are 24 species of algae,
with Halimeda, Dictyota and Amphiroa dominating, and a cover from 25 to 50%. There
are 22 octocoral species, with Eunicea, Plexaura, Plexaurella and Pseudopterogorgia
being the most abundant, and encompassing 25% of the basal coverage. Hard corals are
present, with 23 species growing scattered along the fiat bottom, covering 5% of it.
Patch reef communities
These are located in protected waters in the western portion of the leeward side of the
park, and inside the Catuano Passage, protected by the fringing reef and reef crest of
Catalinita Island.
Arrecife del Angel 1. This reef is located in shallow water (1.8-5.4 m), in the
western entrance of the Catuano Passage, and is surrounded by a large seagrass bed. The
structure is dome-shaped, with a diameter of 30 m, and is collapsed in its middle
portion; hence the name that reminds one of a halo. In this middle portion Porites rubble
accumulates. In its most exposed portion, large coral heads are found, with a tendency to
link to the back reef by a rubble and deposition bed. Algae is the dominant form here
with 50% coverage representing 21 species, the common ones being Halimeda opuntia,
Caulerpa racemosa, Titanoderma sp., Stypopodium zonale, Amphiroa tribulus and
Dictyota sp. Sponges here are scattered with a 5% coverage, but with 20 species present,
of which Cliona langae and Iotrochota birotulata are the most obvious ones. Octocorals
are very sparse, with 7 species found only in the periphery of the patch structure. Corals
97
represent >5% coverage with 11 species present. P. porites, the M. annularis complex
and M. cavernosa are the most common.
Arrecife del Angel 2. Again in the Catuano Passage, at 5 rn depth, there is a patch
reef with low relief, surrounded by a seagrass bed, sand, and gravel, with spotted and
patchy coral colonies. Algae are dominant with 50% coverage and 15 species. Sponges
have only 5% coverage with 18 species, with C. langae, Amphimedon compressa, I.
birotulata and Aplysinafistularis being the most commonly seen species. Besides algae,
the most dominant group is octocoral, with 13 species and large colonies (>50cm) of
Eunicea, Plexaurella, Pseudoplexaurella and Pseudopterogorgia. Here coral cover is
>5% of the substrate, with 15 species. There are moderate to large colonies (> 25 cm) of
the M. annularis complex, M. cavernosa, D. labyrinthiformis and S. siderea. There are also
acroporids present.
Los Flamencos. This reef is located near E1 Faro reef, in the protected waters of the
small cape which the coastline forms here. The reef is at 6 m depth and consists of a
series of coral patches separated by sediments and rubble. The physical relief is medium
to low in a hard substrate, where corals congregate to form outcrops of growth with large
heads intercepted by the sand channels surrounding them. In some cases A. cervicornis
is found, initiating the settling process and patch formation. Algae are represented by 21
species, dominated by Dyctiota sp. Octocoral fauna is common, with Eunicea,
Plexaurella, Pseudoplexaurella, Pseudopterogorgia and Pterogorgia being the most
commonly seen. Also common are the hard corals with 23 species. There are large (>2
m diam.) colonies of A. palmata serving as a basal structure for other species to settle
on, such as A. tenuifolia and the rare M. squarrosa. Large numbers of Montastraea,
Colpophyllia and Dendrogyra are also found in these coral patches.
Hard base carbonate platform communities
Arrecife de Los Cocos. At 4 m depth, in the western portion of the Catuano Channel,
there is a tidal channel frequently washed by strong currents generated from tides and
winds, which structures the benthic community. Due to the strong currents, the dominant
biota found are algae and octocorals, and in a lesser quantity, sponges and corals. Algae
cover is above 50%, with 29 species present, the most common being Hypnea cervicornis,
Acanthophora spicifera, Jania rubens and Laurencia intrincata. Of these, H. cervir
represents more than 25%. Halimeda opuntia, H. tuna, Coelothryx irregularis, Amphiroa
brasiliana and Galaxaura oblongata are also common. It is notable that the red algae
are dominant in this location. Sponges are sparse around this reef site, occupying 5% of
the base with 28 species. It is interesting to note that some of them can reach sizes up to
1.2 m, and the most commonly found species here are Amphimedon compressa, Pandaros
acanthifolium and Callyospongia vaginalis. Octocorals are the most conspicuous group
on this reef, with some individuals reaching up to 2 m high. They are well represented by
23 species, the largest number of species found in the park nevertheless their basal attachment or foot only covers 5% of the base. The common species are: P. acerosa, E.
clavigera and E. calyculata, representing 60% of the total. Corals cover 1% of the base,
with small colonies (<100 cm 2) of 14 species growing mainly in aggregations surrounded
by rubble. The dominant species found are: M. alr
P. astreoides, D. stokesii and
D. labyrinthiformis, which represent 90% of the population.
98
F.X. Geraldes
2.2.9 Playa de la Isla Catalina reef, La Romana. On the southern coast of the
Dominican Republic, to the south of the town of La Romana is a small island named
Catalina, with two reef sites: one is a leeward reef, the other is a wall. The leeward reef
lies seaward after a seagrass bed, sloping to 5 m depth; then a spur and groove system
begins, ending at 14 m. Below this is a wide sandy area with coral patches. Recently this
area has been turned into a cruise ship and tourist port, impacting the reefs there. Open
water anchoring structures were deployed to tie these large vessels. Assessment studies
have found a reduction of more than 80% in the overall benthic cover, due to the physical
effects of these structures. Here, coral cover has been reduced from 12% to 4%; similar
values have been found for sponge and octocoral cover, and algal cover increased from
15 to 27%. The solid reef platform has been transformed into rubble substrate. In general
terms, this reef site is one of the most affected and damaged in the country. In nearby
undisturbed areas, the average coral cover is 8%, with 31 species; octocorals cover 3%,
with 14 species; sponges cover 8%, with 33 species; and algae cover 21%, with 19
species (Geraldes 1994b).
The wall site is located on the northern tip of Catalina island, and extends some 500
m along the shore. It is separated from shore by a narrow (20 m) and shallow (2-3 m)
zone. At 2-5 m depth a dense and healthy coral conglomerate is found, where A.
palmata, the Montastraea complex, Diploria spp., M. decactis, Porites spp., M.
miriabilis, many sponges such as Xestospongia spp. and Cliona spp. and octocorals
cover most of the base. The wall starts abruptly at the eastward margin, and vertically
extends over 40 m, ending at a sandy base. On the wall Halimeda spp. and plate forms
of Agaricia spp., together with P. astreoides and Montastraea spp., are common. In the
deeper areas, anthipatharian and octocorals are also common, in crevices and along the
vertical hangings.
2.2.10. Reefs of Juan Dolio - Guayacanes, San Pedro de Macoris
On the south coast and 25 km to the west of the Higuamo and Soco rivers is the
fringing reef of Juan Dolio-Guayacanes, extending for 10 km, close to the shore. This
reef protects a narrow sandy beach on a low-laying terrace. Due to the proximity of major
cities, tourist installations have been developed along this coast in excess of its carrying
capacity. In turn, beach intervention has deteriorated the reef setting and created conflict
between users of this region.
Tunnel Reef. The coastline near this reef is composed of porous and calcareous reef
terraces, and sandy shores. The Higuamo River influences the area. This reef is made up
of a crest, with sparse patches. Seaward from the reef crest and parallel to it there is a
rubble and sand channel; upon reaching 7 m depth, a high relief spur and groove system
begins with relatively healthy coral growth covering 33% of the base. This is one of the
few places in the country where coral cover surpasses algal cover (26%).
Villas del M a r - Juan Dolio reefs. The breaker zone of this area is composed of A.
palmata, D. strigosa, the M. annularis complex, M. complanata, P. porites and P.
astreoides. Most are dead colonies covered by turf algae. They are not cemented, but are
placed in situ. They are heavily used by beach goers and are usually covered by free
sediments and detritus, together with solid waste and garbage. Encrusting and boring
sponges, such as Anthosigmella varians and C. langae, thrive here. The deterioration of
this reef crest has created a stronger shore current, which has increasing beach erosion and
99
sand transport inside the reef lagoon. The lower Palmata zone has started to receive
large amounts of sediment coming from the lagoon region, where the presence of
encrusting and boring organisms has also increased. Towards the deeper region (12 m),
the reef has not yet suffered, due to the buffering effect of an 80 rn sand channel. A high
relief reef begins with the following basic benthic composition: coral 33%, 8%
octocorals, 2% sponges, and 26% algae. Stresses are evident due to bleaching and black
band disease being present in some of these colonies.
Punta Garza. This system is a unique reef front formed by a Porites-Montastraea
association, without acroporids. It grows towards the shoreline and connects with it by a
very shallow and often exposed (at low tides) sand accumulation, where Syringodium
dominates. Eight species of algae, 10 species of octocorals, 7 species of sponges, and 21
corals represent the most common benthic organisms there. This region is being severely
impacted by dredging and jetties deployed to sustain the development of tourism. This
has also increased the turbidity of the coastal waters, and it is now common to find large
amounts of sediments covering coral colonies, with discoloration and death of organisms
found in some cases.
Guayaeanes Reef. The conditions of the shore near this reef are similar to the ones
described for the other reefs in this coastline" they are severely impacted, due to urban
and tourist development. The reef is divided into two portions. The eastern portion is a
very shallow (0.2 - 1 rn deep) reef fiat hard platform (10 - 40 m wide), that connects to
the beach. The cemented remains of Porites and Montastraea are the main components
of the base of this reef crest. Seaward, this platform drops abruptly (2 m) to a hard substrate, which continues into a shallow sand channel; there, MiHepora and octocorals appear. Further east, at Punta Cadillo, this reef type changes back to a typical A. palmata
breaker, although it is equally highly impacted and covered by algae such as
Mycrodictyon sp. and A canthophora sp., in addition to zoanthids (Zoanthus pulchellus).
2.2.11. Boca Chica reef, Bahia de AndrOs, Santo Domingo (Fig. 8)
This reef has the longest history in the country, as a study case. The Boca Chica reef
is located in the center of a bay, and has a south-southeasterly orientation, facing
dominant winds and swells. The coast is a dissolution basin of the carbonate terraces
that are characteristic of the south coast. At this site, several underground springs
emerge from the Rio Brujuelas, creating a shallow sand deposit suitable for a f~ingingbarrier reef establishment. In the mid-1930s the lagoonal area of this reef was dredged,
and the material used as landfill in the coastal mangrove swamps, to reclaim the land
and convert this into a resort town. Since then, hotels, sugar mills, and port facilities
have been installed, sheltered by the reef barrier. In this process, Isla la Piedra was
created using the by-products of port construction and dredging. There is also a small
natural mangrove key called La Matica. Today, the region hosts 150,000 permanent
residents and 5,000 hotel rooms, in a stretch of less than 3 km of coast, thus creating
intense pressure and impacting the coastal and marine resources and habitats found here.
The reef of Boca Chica may be described as an eroded spur and groove formation,
with a clearly defined zonation pattern as regards depth: sandy beach, back reef lagoon,
reef crest, breaker zone, lower palmata zone, spurs and grooves, sand channel, buttress
zone, and drop-off. All these reef regions are impacted either by natural stresses (3 hurri
canes in 25 years) or by anthropogenic activities (overfishing, coral extraction, dredging,
1O0
F.X. Geraldes
Boca Chica
~:,.:.,:,:,,:,,:::,,:,,:,,:,:.,:,,:,,:,,:,:,:.,:,,:,,:,,:,,~--;
~'*'~' ',',', ', ',',',','| ',',
-
La Maflca ~
~V ,r
, f . V ,r
f / ~, .;" :rr~" /%,"..
I
~,~.~__~_~.
~".~;:i:~.~<~.~ ~ ~-;
9
'
~ " " "
~
-~
___ ~_%%%~.~--~
~
Sand rubble
lOOm
~.~.;~
18~
~
~ Deepreefs
t
~ ReefFlats
' --
Breakers
~ Mangrove
I ~ Reel'terraces ~ Landfill
!
69o37 '
I
Fig. 8. BocaChica, Bahia de Andr6s.
pollution, divers, etc.). The regions where this is most evident are: La Matica key, the
backreef, reef fiat, the breaker zone, and the spurs, which in some places are well eroded
and have a slow cementation. At approximately 10 m depth, there are large concentrations
of loose rocks and reef debris, with rubble covering 20% of the base. Nevertheless, this
reef's benthic composition still has a predominance of coral coverage with 20%. Sponges
are also present, with a 5% cover. Algal cover is high (56%). The major groups of benthic
organisms found here are represented by: 12 species of algae, 6 species of octocorals, 22
sponges and 30 corals. Agaricia spp. and the M. annularis complex are the most
common species found. Algae such as Laurencia sp., and encrusting sponges (Cliona sp.
and A. varians) are also common. In the shallows, at the breaker zone (1-4 rn deep),
large colonies of A. palmata, the M. annularis complex surrounded by P. astreoides, P.
divaricata, P. porites, M. complanata, and G. flavellum, are still present. Nevertheless,
the seascape seems catastrophic. Pieces of coral lie all around, and degradation by
physical with bioerosional processes is obvious. Diadema antillarum and tunicates,
boring sponges, and large amounts of turf algae cover all available basal surfaces.
Amongst all this, small colonies of A. palmata appear. At the breaker zone, the Acropora
barrier is dead, but still in place and functional. Encrusting algae (Porolithon
pachydermun) and zoanthids fill the surface area of this zone. The reef crest and reef fiat
contains large amounts of reef debris. The intense erosional process found here produce
sand for the Boca Chica beach.
In deeper waters, at about 30 m, plate forms of Agaricia spp., the M. annularis
complex, C. natans, M. meandrites, M. angulosa and Mycetophyllia spp. accompany a
The coral reefs of the DominicanRepublic
101
massive growth of Halimeda sp. and Amphiroa sp. At 20 m, Erythopodium spp. appear
with the encrusting sponges C. langae and Ectyoplsia ferox. Some large Xetospongia
muta are also found. Corals are not the dominant features in this seascape, but there are
well-developed colonies of A. cervicornis, D. cylindrus, P. astreoides, P. furcata, M.
alcicornis and Agaricia spp.
2.2.12. Parque Nacional Submarino La Caleta, Santo Domingo. This is an 18 krn2
marine protected area located on the leeward side of the Caucedo Peninsula. Rocky
shores surround the area. Nearshore, there is a sandy base with patchy corals. This continues into seagrasses, and at 10 m spurs and grooves appear. At greater depths (18 m)
there is an abrupt drop to 25 - 40 rn, where there are low and medium relief spurs and
grooves. Here, there are hard base reef-fiat carbonate platforms, reef walls, and sunken
structures deployed there to serve as artificial reefs and fish aggregation devices. The main
benthic organisms recorded for this area are: 32 species of coral, (A. agaricites, D.
strigosa, L. cucullata, M. decactis, M. meandrites, M. alcicornis, M. cavernosa, P.
astreoides, S. siderea and Stylaster roseus, amongst others), 20 species of octocorals (G.
flabellum, is the most common, followed by E. caribaeorum and P. bipinnata, together
with P. homomalla and P. americana), 50 species of sponges (Amphimedon compressa,
Aplysina cauliformis, Ircinia strobilina and Pseudoceratina crassa are found at almost
all depths, followed by Agelas conifer, Callyospongia vaginalis, Ectyoplasia ferox,
Iotrochota birotulata and Xetospongia muta), and 45 species of algae. The benthic
coverage is as follows: algae 41%, sponges 13%, octocorals 13%, and corals 28%
(Geraldes 1994a; Geraldes and Vega 1995a).
2.2.13. Najayo-Palenque Reef. On the southem coast, a large open bay is found between
Punta Caucedo to the East (La Caleta) and Punta Najayo to the West, where the NajayoPalenque Reef is located. The site sits after the Ozama - Haina- Nigua river complex.
These three rivers discharge in Santo Domingo's (Capital City) coastline, which is composed mostly of reef terraces until reaching the Nigua River. These rivers do not form a
tree estuary, due to the great ocean depth found nearshore (>300 m). The water discharged
is polluted, and enriched with sediments from the cities of Santo Domingo and San
Crist6bal and the surrounding sugar cane and farm areas. The coastal currents flow
westward towards the Najayo-Palenque Reef. These reefs are typical of high energy
conditions, with low profiles dominated by a hard, current swept base, and sparse octocoral
growth. It is assumed that the substrate is non-uniform due to tectonics or erosional
processes caused by catastrophic events that have altered it, leaving boulders and uplifted
tile-like structures where corals attach in the leeward domain.
2.2.14. El Derrumbao Wall, Las Salinas, Bani. From Najayo and Palenque westward,
the climate changes to very dry. The Derrumbao Wall is located near a coastal desert
with large sand dunes. The shore is composed of dark sand and coarse gravel of
terrigenous origin. Through bio-cementation processes, sandstone is found close to the
shore, serving as appropriate substrata for corals and other life forms to establish
themselves. This shallow, seagrass-dominated feature terminates some 30 m from shore,
where there is an abrupt drop towards a submarine fault (> 1,500 rn deep). Cemented sand
rectangular blocks, measuring 3-5 m by 2 m, form the wall. Madracis sp., P. porites, P.
102
F.X. Geraldes
I
70049 '
Mangroves
Seagrass
Reef Debris
Fill
~
Sand bar
~]
PortTransit
Channel
Salado
Vieja Elena
Swamps
Reef Flat
Breakers
Deep
i-,--.-,,,..,_
.~
Reef
Hard b o t t o m
communffles
.:i!i!iiiiiiii!i!iii
~;,:iiii!?ii?ii!i!!iii?'"
-=:7-::=i=:.7-:z
,11~__.~-,-.....~-....,_"...,_
. "..
Isla
Los Prirr~s
............ !?iiii!i?iii!!
18o20 `
El
Morro
Caribbean Sea
t I~L I--'LJ
0
:
i
1.5km
Fig. 9. Puerto Viejo, Azua_
the M. annularis complex, M. cavernosa, C. natans and Siderastrea siderea are
common species found in the first 10 m. Then at this depth, an overhang occurs and
cryptic species abound. Several large sponges, such as Cliona sp., E. ferox and X. muta
can also be found. After the overhang, the wall turns into sand, with a large angle of
slope, which is usually covered with f'me sediments that are easily stirred by divers.
2.2.15. Puerto Viejo, Azua, Bahia de Oeoa (Fig. 9). This reef site lies in a dry region
on the southwestern coast. The reef forms a small barrier with an 8 km 2 lagoon. Due to
its sheltering features, it has been used as a natural port since the 1500s. In 1957, a modem
port was built which altered the reef. At the breaker zone there are several keys formed
by reef deposits that are now colonized by mangroves. Near the shore tidal fiats with
Halodule and Syringodium are common. Corals are found in the sand depressions or
erosional pits, the most common being M. aerolata, P. porites, P. divaricata, S. radians
and D. strigosa.
The lagoon has a variable depth of 0.5 to 14 m, and T. testudinum is dominant. Corals
grow in patches, and Diploria spp. and Siderastrea spp. dominate. Others, such as A.
cervicornis, M. complanata, P. astreoides, A. agaricites, P. furcata and the rare
The coralreefs of the DominicanRepubBc
103
Acropora prolifera are sparsely found. Strong tidal currents flow and influence the
circulation of this lagoon, enhancing coral growth especially in the back reef, where A.
cervicornis, P. astreoides, P. divaricata, D. strigosa, S. siderea, M. areolata, S. radians
and M. alcicornis are the common species. The reef fiat is dominated by zoanthids
growing on top of coral debris. Corals like P. astreoides, D. clivosa and very large
colonies of Acropora palmata dominate in the breaker zone. In deeper waters (10 m), a
hard basal carbonate platform is found, with sand pockets. Large tree-like colonies of A.
palmata, as well as large boulders of C. natans, are found here creating intricate structures
where other reef creatures seek refuge and nourishment. These coral patches tend to
grow closer together in deeper water. At 13 m deep, they usually merge to form low
relief spurs and grooves.
2.2.16. Barahona reef. The reef at Barahona is a fringing reef that has not been
thoroughly studied. It consists of a well developed spur and groove system, breaker
zone, reef fiat, and islets that surround a lagoon, which has been converted into a port.
The reef barrier was cut, dredged, and enlarged to allow for port transit and ship
movement. On the protected coast lies the town of Barahona. Nearby and upstream there
is the Yaque del Sur River estuary with considerable sediment loads that sometimes
reach this reef and affect it.
2.2.17. Parque Nacional Jaragua. Parque Nacional Jaragua is located at the southwestern
end of the Dominican Republic. This is a dry region, where cacti and desert-like vegetation
dominate. No rivers or surface runoff is found in these Pleistocene carbonate reef terraces.
On its windward side strong seas, medium-sized cliffs, and high energy pebble and pocket
beaches with fringing reefs are found. On its leeward coast, protected by high cliffs, sheltered, long, white sandy beaches are common, with consolidated hard carbonate offshore,
where coral cover and density is high. There is not a well developed fringing or bank
reef in most of the zone, except near Cabo Rojo (Weil 1997). At the southern tip Beata
Island is found, and further out is Alto Velo Island. Moving towards the southwest, at the
edge of the continental shelf, there is an elevation of the seafloor called Los Frailes Shoals.
Other descriptive studies of this area are included in Borrell (1981) and Vega (1981).
Beata Island reefs. This island is formed by reef terraces and has a low relief. On its
windward side at its northeastern end, coral reefs are located offshore forming bank
reefs (Weil 1997). On the leeward side there are seagrass beds, followed by a hard
carbonate base with sparse coral, sponge, and octocoral growth, and with a high cover of
algae. The most abundant corals are Porites, Undaria (Agaricia), Diploria, S. siderea
and M. cavernosa.
Alto Velo Island. This small island, located 20 km. away from the mainland, is an
oceanic island of volcanic origin. Its slopes are bare and drop steeply into the ocean
depths. In the shallows on the leeward side (west), one can find large boulders and
caves/crevices formed by land slides. Here, cryptic reef creatures, mostly of crustose and
flattened forms, are sparsely located.
Los Frailes Shoals. Located 12 miles southwest of Cabo Rojo, Los Frailes shoals is a
seafloor intrusive elevation, that rises from the seafloor, and surfaces in a similar manner to
Alto Velo Island. These rock outcrops receive clean oceanic waters, which allow the
establishment of a diverse community. There are boulders and submerged walls 10 m
104
F.X. Geraldes
high, covered by Tubastrea aurea. Large Montastraea, Diploria and Colpophyllia colonies, as well as sponges, are present on the other side (Weil 1997).
Cabo Falso to Bahia de Las Aguilas. In the Beata Canal, where there is protection
from the incoming ocean lies a platform that reaches a depth of 18 m. It is covered with
algae, hydrozoans, gorgonians and Cliona, as well as some A. palmata colonies (Weil
1997). The deeper areas have a highly diverse community associated with large
boulders, where octocorals, zoanthids, and sponges predominate. At Lanza Zo to the north,
in 15-25 m of water, there is a bank reef located some 800 m offshore which runs parallel
to the shoreline. Here algae such as Dyctiota, Lobophora, and Halimeda are abundant.
Sponge diversity and abundance is also significant, but corals are sparse. At Bahia de Las
Aguilas the reef has a higher coral diversity and coverage, with Montastraea, Porites,
Undaria (Agaricia) and Agaricia being dominant. Rare species such as Mycethophyllia
reesi are uncharacteristically abundant (Weil 1997).
Cabo Rojo. This reef is located a few kilometres northwest of Cabo Rojo, where the
continental shelf forms a submarine canyon. The reef begins at 18 m on a wide platform
covered by seagrasses. The reef then drops to 45 m, to a sandy base. There is a large degree
of cover by the plate-like Montastraea, Agaricia, and Undaria, and large Colpophyllia
colonies can be found. The blue-green algae Schyzothrix is also abundant between 13 and
18 m. Octocorals are scarce and scattered along the slopes. Sponges are abundant and
diverse. Millepora is common in the shallow areas, where A. cervicornis patches are
common. Signs of white band disease are present. M. franksi and A. lamarcki are the
dominant coral species in the deep area of the reef (Weft 1997).
3. NATURAL DISTURBANCES
3.1. Sedimentation
The Dominican Republic occupies a fairly large land mass. There are large rivers and
streams washing extensive watersheds, and there are usually no coral formations directly
downstream from them. The Caribbean coast is basically composed of carbonate reef
terraces, allowing shallow fringing reefs to develop. On the northeastern region there are
mountainous terraines close to the shore, associated with increased rainfall, which in
turn cause short torrential streams that drain into the adjacent sea, loading it with sediments, and limiting reef growth. This occurs for approximately one third of the coastline.
Along the rest of the coast, reef growth is of the fringing or barrier type. These usually
occur in association with the dry regions of the country, where waters are clear. Nevertheless, even in these dry regions there are three places that have natural sediment inputs
and restrict reef settlement: Punta Martin Garcia in Barahona, Punta Salinas in Peravia,
and El Morro in Montecristi.
3.2. Coral bleaching
Coral bleaching events have been associated with abnormal water temperatures and
other undetermined stresses. There has not been a country-wide study of bleaching for
the Dominican Republic. There are, however, reports of its occurrence at most reefs, the
most evident being the reef sites near major urban settlements which are more heavily
visited or overfished, such as Puerto Plata, Sos~a, Las Terrenas, Macao, B~ivaro, Guayacanes, Boca Chica, and La Caleta.
105
3.3. Mass mortalities and other stresses
The mass mortalities of A. palmata and D. antillarum have triggered major ecological
changes in the coral reef ecosystem. These no longer resembles the classical description
of coral reefs by Goreau and Goreau (1973). The breaker and lower palmata zones have
been specially affected by the mortality of this coral. This causes, the urchin to die off,
and this in association with overfishing and increased nutrient pollution has enabled algae
to flourish and cover the eroding reef environment, which perpetuates reef erosion. In
some reefs Millepora sp. and Zoanthus sp. are seen at the breaker zone, substituting for
A cropora.
3.4. Hurricanes and tropical storms
Hurricanes and tropical storms are common in Hispaniola. There have been more than
200 of these events recorded since the fifteenth century. These phenomena are more
common for the Caribbean southern coast, rarely affecting the Atlantic coast. Nevertheless, all major reef sites have been affected by at least one of these events. The major
direct effect is the initial impact and there is massive destruction of the coral stands. Large
portions of living material are usually transferred and deposited on top of the reefs. This
debris accumulation later turns into suitable substrate for furore colonization of corals,
and may form islets on the reef fiat, to be colonized by a succession of mangroves and
other coastal vegetation. In the deeper portions the debris is accumulated in two regions
of the reef: at the deepest portion of the spur and groove in the sand channel, and at the
end and deep portion of the buttress zone. This debris is either consolidated, serving as
base for future growth, or bioeroded and turned into sand and pebbles. Other effects are
those caused by the increment in water turbidity and reduced salinity, due to the large
volume of downpour rains and excessive runoff due to deforestation on the nearby watersheds. This increases river flooding as well as sediment loads, which reach distant reef
sites. In these locations, it is common to f'md stresses in corals, where bleaching and
other stress-related symptoms are obvious amongst the reef inhabitants. These reefs
usually remain in a delicate condition. For their mitigation, there is a need for ample
reforestation programs of the watersheds, as well as an integrated approach to coastal
zone management. Reefs that are in this situation and described in this work are: Juan
Dolio-Guayacanes, Boca Chica, E1 Portillo, Playa Dorada, and Puerto Viejo reefs.
4. ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS
Destruction and degradation of coral reefs now appears near most human settlements,
due to the increase in negative environmental impacts to the aquatic and coastal environments. There is also clear evidence that some of these impacts are caused by remote human
activities such as agriculture, animal husbandry, and industrial development. In general,
land-based fertilizers, pesticides, domestic and industrial trash, and wastes from the mining
industries are all reaching the river mouths, estuaries, and adjacent marine ecosystems
like coral reefs (Puerto Plata, Sosua, Las Terrenas, Miches, Juan Dolio-Guayacanes,
Boca Chica, La Caleta, Palenque) via runoff. Coastal development has led to the destruction of wetlands and mangroves for landfills, coastal construction, and dredging.
Ports and shipping activities, recreational boats and marinas, some localized and rare
reef-based coral mining, can also be found in Montecristi, Luper6n, Puerto Plata, Sosua,
106
F.X. Geraldes
Las Terrenas, Macao, B~ivaro, Punta Cana, Bayahfbe, Guayacanes-Juan Dolio, Boca
Chica, La Caleta, Palenque, and Barahona.
Overfishing is also heavily affecting Dominican reefs. Overharvesting of commercially important species such as Strombus gigas, S. pugilis, Panulirus argus, and fish of
the Serranidae, Lutjanidae, and Scaridae families, is a problem. Lately, there has been
an increase in the harvesting of other reef creatures such as black corals, hermit crabs,
and omarnental reef fishes, starfish, sea urchins, and live-rocks for the souvenir industry.
Most of these activities are prohibited or regulated by Dominican laws, but there is a
lack of political and financial support to achieve the proper enforcement and personnel
training. In order to minimize the negative effects on reefs, non-government organizations have contributed with conservation actions.
5. CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT
Actions in this regard have been implemented since 1962, due to efforts of the Centro
de Investigaciones de Biologia Marina of the Universidad Aut6noma de Santo Domingo,
which is the pioneer institution on marine and coastal issues and studies in the country.
Later, in 1984, the Fundaci6n Dominicana Pro-Investigaci6n y Conservaci6n de los
Recursos Marinos (MAMMA), promoted conservation actions on behalf of coastal and
marine resources, especially issues regarding coral reefs and fisheries. All these activities
motivated the Government to decree the presidential act (No. 112/96) that specifically
protects coral reefs in the Dominican Republic. The Governmental bodies in charge of
protecting this natural resource are: the Dominican Navy and its Coast Guard unit, the
Subsecretaria de Recursos Naturales of the Ministry of Agriculture, and the Instituto
Nacional de Protecci6n Ambiental (INPRA). As part of the country's conservation efforts,
there exist on its coasts three relatively large representative coastal-marine protected
areas, with big tracks of coral reefs, in good natural conditions, however they are under
fishing pressure. These parks are: Montecristi in the North shore, del Este in the Eastern
portion, and Jaragua in the South West; all shelter important biodiversity resources, and
create nurseries for economically species of interest as well as unique tropical marine
and coastal habitats and representative ecosystems.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am particularly grateful to my wife and colleague M6nica B. Vega for her help in
review and editing of this manuscript, as for her companionship on field expeditions. I
would also like to thank Enrique Pugibet, Rub6n Torres, Yira Rodrfguez, Kathleen
Sullivan, John Tschirky, Mark Chiappone, as well as the staff of CIBIMA and Fundaci6n
MAMMA, Inc. for their support.
REFERENCES
Bamwell, F.H. 1983. Impacto del Hurac~ David (1979) sobre los corales de la cresta
del arrecife de Boca Chica, Bahia de Andr6s, Repfiblica Dominicana. Contribuciones
del CIBIMA, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic 15: 1-10.
107
Bonnelly de Calventi, I. 1974. Corales P6treos de la Rept~blica Dominicana. Estudios
Biologia Pesquera. Colecci6n Ciencia y Tecnologia, UASD 1" 1-3.
Borrell, P. 1981. La Isla Beata: 111-123. In: Investigaciones en las Islas Beata y Alto
Velo. Museo del Hombre Dominicano y Marina de Guerra. Editora Amigo del Hogar,
Repfblica Dominicana.
Chardon, Carlos E. 1949. Los Naturalistas en la Am6rica Latina. Tomo I. Secretaria de
Estado de Agricultura, Pecuaria y Colonizaci6n. Ciudad Trujillo, Repfblica Dominicana. 386 p.
Cintr6n G., J.R. Garcia & F. Geraldes. 1994. Manual de m6todos para la caracterizaci6n
y monitoreo de arrecifes de coral. World Wildlife Fund, Washington, D.C. 67 p.
Col6n, C. 1492. Diario de Navegaci6n. In: Los Precursores 1: Crist6bal Col6n Diario de
Navegaci6n y Otros Escritos. 1988. Biblioteca de Cl~isicos Dominicanos I. Ediciones
de la Fundaci6n Corripio, Inc. Santo Domingo, Rep~blica Dominicana. 370 p.
Femandez de Oviedo, G. 1950. Sumario de la Natural Historia de las Indias (1525).
Edici6n Biblioteca Americana serie Cronistas de Indias. Fondo Cultura Econ6mica,
Mexico D.F. 279 p.
Galzin, R. & J. Renaud-Momant. 1983. Le lagon de "la Bahia de Andr6s" a Saint
Domingue et son eventuel desequilibre (extraction de sediment, pollution). Contribuciones del CIBIMA 37: 1-19.
Geister, J. 1980. Pleistocene reef terraces and coral environments at Santo Domingo and
near Boca Chica, south coast of Dominican Republic. IX Conf. Geol. Carib. 2: 14.
Geraldes, F.X. 1976. Ecologia y taxonomia de los arrecifes de coral Dominicanos 1:
Costa Sur. Thesis, Departamento de Biologia, Facultad de Ciencias, Univ.
Aut6noma de Santo Domingo. 124 p.
Geraldes, F.X. 1978. Los arrecifes de coral de la costa sur Dominicana. In: Conservaci6n y
Eeodesarrollo. Editora Alga & Omega. Santo Domingo. 125 p.
Geraldes, F.X. 1980. Arrecifes f6siles de la costa sur de la Repfiblica Dominicana. IX
Conf. Geol. Carib. 2: 6.
Geraldes, F.X. 1982. Los efectos del Hurac~n David y la Tormenta Federico en el
arrecife de coral de Boca Chica. Contribuciones del CIBIMA 27: 1-8.
Geraldes, F.X. (Ed.). 1994a. Inventario y elaboraci6n del plan de manejo del Parque
Nacional Submarino La Caleta. Primer informe parcial. Fundaci6n Dominicana ProInvestigaci6n y Conservaci6n de los Recursos Marinos, Inc. (MAMMA). Documento
de proyecto. PRONATURA/FMAN/PNUD. 150 p.
Geraldes, F.X. 1994b. Iniciativa para la conservaci6n de los arrecifes coralinos del
Caribe. Informe Final CIBIMA/WWF. 150 p.
Geraldes, F.X. 1996a. Los ecosistemas costeros marinos del litoral de la Provincia de Montecristi, lnforme Segundo Semestre, Proyecto CIBIMA-UASD/GEF-PNUD/ONAPLAN.
Centrode Investigaciones de Biologfa Marina, Univ. Aut6noma de Santo Domingo.
Geraldes, F.X. 1996b. Bit~icora del Crucero Montecristi 96. Proyecto CIBIMAUASD/GEF-PNUD/ONAPLAN. Centro de Investigaciones de Biologfa Marina, Univ.
Aut6noma de Santo Domingo. 35 p.
Geraldes, F.X. 1996c. Reporte sobre los sistemas arrecifales del litoral de la provincia
de Montecristi. Crucero Montecristi 96. Reporte Proyecto CIBIMA-UASD/GEFPNUD/ONAPLAN. Centro de Investigaciones de Biologfa Marina, Univ. Aut6noma
de Santo Domingo. 65 p.
108
F.X. Geraldes
Geraldes, F.X. & M. Vega. 1995a. Evaluaci6n ecol6gica, pesquera y socioecon6mica.
Plan de Manejo del Parque Nacional Submarino La Caleta. Informe Final Proyecto
FMAN/PNUD/PRONATURA. Fundaci6n Dominicana Pro-Investigaci6n y Conservaci6n de los Recursos Marinos (MAMMA). 152 p
Geraldes F.X. & M. Vega, 1995b. Reporte sobre evaluaciones ecol6gicas en los
ambientes arrecifales y zona costero-marina de Las Terrenas, E1 Portillo, Puerto
Escondido, y Cabo Cabr6n, Peninsula de Saman,-i, Repfiblica Dominicana, 24-25 de
septiembre del 1995. Fundaci6n Dominicana Pro-Investigaci6n y Conservaci6n de
los Recursos Marinos, Inc. 54 p.
Geraldes F.X., M. Vega, V. Alvarez, E. Pugibet, L. Alm~inzar, T. Vargas, H. Ramirez,
C. Mateo, Y. Rodriguez, R. Torres, A.L. Franco, V. Rivas & R. Castellanos. 1997.
Reconocimiento e inventario de las principales comunidades del litoral de
Montecristi. Crucero MC96. Informe de 2do. Semestre. Proyecto GEF-PNUD/
ONAPLAN, CIBIMA-UASD. 350 p.
Gonz~lez Nffiez, C. 1974. Operaci6n Madre Perla (1960). Bol. Soc. Dom. Geo. 4:13-31.
Goreau, T.F. 1959. The ecology of Jamaican coral reefs I: Species composition and
zonation. Ecology 40: 67-90.
Goreau, T.F. & N.I. Goreau. 1973. The ecology of Jamaican coral reefs II:
Geomorphology, zonation and sedimentary phases. Bull. Mar. Sci. 23: 400-464.
Metcalf, W.G., M.C. Stalcup & D.K. Atwood. 1977. Mona Passage drift bottle study.
Bull. Mar. Sci. 27:586-591.
Rathe, L. 1981. Estudio sistem~itico de las esponjas (Porifera) del litoral de la Rep~blica Dominicana. Thesis, Departamento de Biologia, Univ. Aut6noma de Santo Domingo. 123 p.
Schubert C. & J. Cowart. 1980. Terrazas marinas del Pleistoceno a lo largo de la costa
suroriental de la Repfblica Dominicana. Cronologia preliminar. IX Conf. Geol.
Carib. 2: 8.
Vaugham, T.W. 1900. The stony corals of Porto Rican waters. Bull. U.S. Fish Comm.
20:291-319.
Vaugham T.W., W. Cooke, D.D. Condit, C.P. Ross, W.P. Woodring & F.C. Alkins.
1921. Geological survey of the Dominican Republic I. U.S.G.S., Gibson Brothers
Press, Washington, D.C. 268 p.
Vega, B. 1981. Aspectos hist6ricos de las Islas Beata y Alto Velo: 13-16. In:
Investigaciones en las Islas Beata y Alto Velo. Museo del Hombre Dominicano y
Marina de Guerra. Editora Amigo del Hogar, Santo Domingo, Rept~blica Dominicana.
Vega, M. 1994. Evaluaci6n ecol6gica r~ipida del ~ea marina del Parque Nacional del
Este, Repfblica Dominicana. Informe Final, Acuario Nacional. 100 p.
Vega, M., G.A. Delgado & K.M. Sullivan. 1994. Rapid Ecological Assessment. Parque
Nacional del Este, Dominican Republic. 151 p.
Vega M., M. Chiappone, G. Delgado, R. Wright & K. Sullivan 1997. Evaluaci6n
ecol6gica integral del Parque Nacional del Este, Rep~blica Dominicana 2: Recursos
marinos. The Nature Conservancy Media Publishing, Bahamas. 93 p.
Wells, J.W. 1956. Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology F. Coelenterata. 328-444. Geol.
Soc. Amer., Univ. Kansas Press.
Weil, E. 1997. Coral, octocoral and sponge diversity on reefs of the Jaragua National
Park, Dominican Republic. Report to Grupo Jaragua, Project Marine Biodiversity of
the Dominican Republic, GEF-PNUD/ONAPLAN. 9 p.
TAXONOMIC LIST OF STONY CORALS
OF THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
Class Hydrozoa
Order Athecatae
Family Stylasteridae
Stylaster roseus
Family Milleporidae
Millepora alcicornis (Linnaeus)
M. complanata Lamarck
M. squarrosa Lamarck
Class Anthozoa
Order Scleractinia
Family Astrocoeniidae
Stephanocoenia michelinii Milne Edwards and Haime
S. intersepta
Family Pocilloporidae
Madracis decactis (Lyman)
M. formosa Wells
M. mirabilis Wells
M. pharensis (Heller)
M. pharensis (Heller) forma luciphilia Wells
M. senaris Wells
Family Acroporidae
Acropora cervicornis (Lamarck)
A. palmata (Lamarck)
A. prolifera (Lamarck)
Family Agariciidae
~
Agaricia agaricites forma agaricites (Linnaeus)
forma carinata Wells
forma danai Milne Edwards and Haime
formapurpurea (Lesueur)
A. fragilis forma fragilis Dana
A. humilus Verrill
A. lamarcki Milne Edwards and Haime
A. grahamae Wells
A. tenuifolia Dana
Leptoseris cuculIata (Ellis and Solander)
Family Siderastreidae
Siderastrea radians (Pallas)
S. siderea (Ellis and Solander)
Family Poritidae
Porites astreoides Lamarck
P. branneri Rathbun
P. porites (Pallas)
P. furcata Lamarck
P. divaricata Lesueur
Family Faviidae
Colpophyllia natans (Houttuyn)
C. breviserialis
C. amaranthus
Diploria clivosa (Ellis and Solander)
D. labyrinthiformis (Linnaeus)
D. strigosa (Dana)
Favia fragum (Esper)
Manicina areolata forma areolata (Linnaeus)
109
110
F.X Geraldes
forma mayori Wells
The Montastraea annularis complex (Ellis and Solander)
M. cavernosa Linnaeus
M. franksi
Solenastrea bourmoni
Cladocora arbuscula (Leseur)
Family Rhizangiidae
Astrangia solitaria (Lesueur)
Phyllangia americana Milne Edwards and Haime
Family Oculinidae
Oculina difussa Lamarck
Family Meandrinidae
Dendrogyra cylindrus Ehrenberg
Dichocoenia stellaris Milne Edwards and Haime
D. stokesi Milne Edwards and Haime
Meandrina meandrites forma meandrites (Linnaeus)
M. memorialis
M. braziliensis Milne Edwards and Haime
Family Mussidae
Isophyllastrea rigida (Dana)
Isophyllia sinuosa (Ellis and Solander)
Mussa angulosa (Pallas)
Mycetophyllia aliciae Wells
M. danaana Milne Edwards and Haime
M. ferox Wells
M. lamarckiana Milne Edwards and Haime
M. ressi Wells
Scolymia cubensis Milne Edwards and Haime
S. lacera (Pallas)
S. wellsi
Family Caryophylliidae
Eusmilia fastigiata (Pallas)
Family Dendrophylliidae
Tubastrea coccinea Lesson
T. aura
Rhyzosmilia maculata

The coral reefs of the Dominican Republic

Transcription

Similar documents

full program - Whitsunday Reef Festival

Terumbu Karang dan Perubahan Iklim Coral Reefs

Scuba Dogs at Escambrón Marine Park

ecoPortal case study - Christmas Island Phosphate

biographies - Waukesha Public Library

VELVET ADOW FECT - Reef Cosmetics SA

Hawaiian Skin Diver Magazine, Jan 2013

Hawai`i Wildlife Watching Guide

Reef Check Malaysia

Wavedancer - Quicksilver Cruises