Columbian Blacktail Management Guide

Transcription

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THE COLUMBIAN BLACKTAIL
A guide for those interested in the care and monitoring of the Columbian Blacktail.
Produced by Stonegate
Issue date: November 2008
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Blacktail Producers
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THE COLUMBIAN BLACKTAIL
The Columbian Blacktail Brown Egg Layers are particularly well suited to the Free Range system of Egg
Production.
Columbian Blacktail characteristics are as follows:
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Easy to Manage – has an amenable temperament
Hardy – withstands disease and stress well
Adaptable – to different housing and management systems
Excellent Liveability – maximum number of birds in lay
Good Appetite – under-consumption not a problem
Early Sexual Maturity – no delay to egg production
High Egg Numbers per Hen Housed
Egg Size suits Free Range Market
Strong Egg Shells with Consistently Brown Colour
Outstanding Rate of Conversion of Feed into Eggs.
These characteristics lead to:-
HIGH PERFORMANCE AND PROFITABILITY
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CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
PREFACE
1. PREPARATION AND TRANSFER
TRANSFER TO FREE RANGE LAYER HOUSING
Preparation - Rearing Farm
Preparation - Laying Farm
Transfer
Arrival at Layer Farm
After Housing
2. COLUMBIAN BLACKTAIL FREE RANGE LAYER MANAGEMENT
Free Range Location - The Site
Housing
Static Housing (advantages) and (disadvantages)
Moveable Housing (advantages) and (disadvantages)
Housing Criteria
Size
Structure
Verandas
Pop Holes
Litter and Slats
Lighting
Pasture and its Management
Litter Management
Management Priorities
Floor Space
Water
Feed
Air
Biosecurity
Sympathy
Water Supply
Feed Supply
Insoluble Grit
Provision of Equipment - (drinking and feeding
Quantity
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Drinker provision & Type
Feeder provision and Type
Drinker and Feeder Distribution
Ventilation
Ventilation System - Inlets - Outlet or Exhaust
Air Circulation
Biosecurity
Biosecurity - Hygiene Programmes
Building Stocked
Water - Air - Ventilation - Reduction of Airborne Pathogens – Feed
Insects - Mites - Rodents – Personnel
Building Depopulated
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Terminal Hygiene
Terminal Hygiene Programme
Monitoring
Water Consumption - Feed Consumption
Egg Weight - Rate of Egg Production
Body Weight
Egg Shell Quality
Increased Mortality
Daily Inspection (Sympathy)
Nests
Floor Eggs
Nest Specification - Nest Space
Perch or Alighting Rails
Broodiness
Lighting Programme
Light Intensity
Feeding the Free Range Layer
Feeding programme
Nutrient Requirements of CBT Free Range Layers
Energy - Daily Requirements & Intake
Protein, Amino Acids - Calcium & Available Phosphorus
Phase feeding
Bird Behaviour
Normal Behaviour
Agression
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Crowding
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Parasites
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External Parasites - Internal Parasites
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Egg Care and Handling
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Conclusion
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Appendix 1 - Vaccination Programme
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Appendix 2 – Bodyweight Graphs - Rearing
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Appendix 3 – Bodyweight Graphs - In Lay
The performance data contained in this document was obtained from results and experience from our own
research flocks and flocks of our customers. In no way does the data contained in this document
constitute a warranty or guarantee of the same performance under different conditions of nutrition,
density or physical or biological environment. In particular (but without limitation of the foregoing) we do
not grant any warranties regarding the fitness for purpose, performance, use, nature or quality of the
flocks. Our company makes no representation as to the accuracy or completeness of the information
contained in this document.
PREFACE
The Free Range System of Poultry Keeping is not new. It was the most common system for production of table
eggs or poultry meat, as recently as the 1950s! During the ensuing years the cage layer system became very
popular for egg production, and the broiler industry developed very rapidly to produce poultry meat.
Not surprisingly the current Free Range System of egg production differs considerably from that of the past.
The most successful commercial farmers, in the former industry, had small houses which they moved regularly.
Now it is more usual to utilise large static houses, and as a result management techniques are quite different.
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There have been great advances in technology during the last 50 years, in particular in breeding and nutrition,
but also light control, resulting in performance being much improved and more consistent. However
accompanying the increase in the size of the national poultry flock (eggs and meat), there is now a much greater
threat of disease than in the past, necessitating precautions and controls which are grouped under the heading of
'bio-security'.
Nevertheless the basic concepts remain unchanged; the stock benefit from the sympathy and understanding of
their keeper, who will ensure that their basic needs of clean water and fresh feed are met.
Free Range management is not simple, it has many facets, and these are generally interrelated. Compared with
the cage system, free range has the additional factors of weather and range with which to contend. These should
never be underestimated!
The advice given in this guide is largely of a practical nature and is born out of experience.
farmers, whether their experience is limited or considerable, will find this guide of value.
It is hoped that
Should you have any queries arising from this guide, please do not hesitate to contact a Columbian Blacktail
technician for an explanation. Similarly, if at any time you need technical assistance, please do not hesitate to
contact your Columbian Blacktail supplier.
1. PREPARATION AND TRANSFER
TRANSFER TO FREE RANGE LAYER HOUSING
This is a stressful period for the birds; they are moved from controlled environmental conditions to free range
housing. In effect they experience two stresses, the handling and transport involved in movement from rearing
to laying facilities, and the change from rearing to laying environment.
TRANSFER REQUIRES CAREFUL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
Transfer should be completed within four weeks (ideally) and certainly no later than two weeks before egg
production commences, in order that recovery from the stress is complete, and does not depress the rapid
ovarian development which occurs prior to the commencement of egg production.
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Late transfer bears the real risk of damage to the birds, in particular to the ovaries. It is not unusual for late
transfer to lead to the condition of egg peritonitis, which can result in excessively high mortality for the life of
the flock.
The ideal time to transfer is when the birds are 16 weeks of age, this will enable them to be fully acclimatised to
the layer housing and facilities well in advance of the onset of lay. If birds are transferred too close to the onset
of lay, the subsequent risk of egg peritonitis is high. The reason is simple, movement of birds with mature
ovaries may cause rupture of yolk follicles, which are then deposited in the body cavity. These broken follicles
then deteriorate, become infected with bacteria, and the bird usually dies!
Late transfer may also result in floor egg laying, as the birds have not had sufficient time to become accustomed
to their new surroundings.
When transferred the stock should be fed a pre-lay or a layers ration - grower or developer rations must not be
used, as the nutrient density of these feeds is too low.
Preparation - Rearing Farm
There is an important preparatory period before transfer, during which time the stock are prepared for the
conditions they will encounter in the laying house, the following points should be considered:•
The birds should conform to the breed bodyweight. This should not simply be according to the age of
the birds per se, it should be according to age of sexual maturity.
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Initial lighting should be a minimum of 30-40 lux for the first 24-48 hours then down to a minimum
of 5-10 lux for the remainder of the rearing period.
• Light intensity should be increased, over a period of 2 to 4 weeks, to a level which equals that in the
laying house.*
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Rearing house temperature should be adjusted (usually to a lower level), also over a period of 2 to 4
weeks, in order that it becomes similar to that in the laying facilities.*
* These two changes should be completed no less than 1 week before transfer, in order that the stock are well
accustomed to the laying house conditions.
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•
During the two weeks prior to transfer the birds should not be handled, other than for routine
uniformity and bodyweight checks, or stressed in any way. They should have every opportunity to
grow during this critical period.
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Insoluble grit should have been provided for the flock, ideally during the entire rearing period, but at
least during the 2 weeks prior to transfer. At this time the grit should be 4.75mm to 6.35mm in size, and
provided at a rate of 4-5 g/bird/week.
Preparation - Laying Farm
The laying house should be prepared well in advance of the arrival of the new flock. The following points
should be considered:•
An appropriate terminal hygiene programme, in order that incoming stock do not suffer early disease
challenge.
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Maintenance and repairs completed before arrival of stock.
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Drinkers filled with fresh water the day before arrival of new stock. This is absolutely critical, as the
key to the successful start of the incoming flock is provision of water. The better the water quality, the
less the depression in feed intake following transfer.
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Drinkers should be filled to double the normal depth, and lowered to a height of 20cm (8 inches) above
litter or slat level, for the first two or three days.
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The house should be dried prior to the arrival of the new flock. Not only are wet houses very humid, (a
condition which is depressing for the birds), they are also cold - which is particularly noticeable during
winter.
Transfer
An ideal time for transfer is during the early morning. If the stock are unloaded in order that they are housed by
the time their day started on the rearing farm, disturbance to their routine of drinking and eating is minimised.
The flock should be transferred on one day, as this causes the least stress, and avoids the possible problem
(during cold weather) of low house temperatures (rearing and laying) due to houses being only part filled.
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The whole procedure should be as rapid as possible, with timing of bird loading, transport and unloading of
course conforming to any stipulations of free range organisations (for example Freedom Foods). Additionally
every effort should be made before and after transfer to maintain water and feed intake according to the normal
routine of the stock.
Precautions should be taken to minimise undue exposure to wind and rain/sun during transfer procedure - these
factors are very stressful - particularly in combination!
Arrival at Layer Farm
Unloading should be careful, but as rapid as possible into a house with the following provisions:1.
A dry house (and equipment) at a temperature of not less than 15°C (60°F), 18°C (65°F) is much
better, especially in cold weather.
2.
Drinking water only for the first two hours after unloading. In order to encourage water uptake, the use
of chelates in the drinking water is a good policy. Ideally feed should not be available at the time of the
birds' arrival, it should be given about 2 hours later, when the flock has had the opportunity to drink
(note however that to conform to Freedom Foods specification that the birds should not be denied
access to feed). During transport and handling the birds lose moisture, and it is essential that this is
restored as soon as possible after arrival - access to feed before water will delay this procedure.
Extra drinkers should not be provided at this time, as their removal may create a further problem (of
yet another change) for birds having identified with the 'extra' drinkers!
After Housing
The period of the first 48 hours after housing is a priority period; close supervision and observation is needed,
in order to ensure that the entire flock is behaving normally. The following points should be noted:•
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Water consumption - normal drinking habits, within 6 hours of arrival.
Feed consumption - increasing appetite/intake.
General attitude of the flock. At first it will be quiet, but should gradually become more active and
'talkative', but not frenetic or hyperactive.
House temperature - it is so important that the birds do not become chilled, but they must have
fresh air. If the stock tend to huddle, they are probably too cold.
If slats are incorporated in the house, the birds may need to be encouraged to roost during the dark
night period.
If the person responsible for the flock spends all their time with the birds for the first two days, observing
behaviour, water and feed consumption, the time will be very well spent. At the same time the birds will
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identify with this person, who will thus very soon no longer be a stranger, which is beneficial to the
relationship between the flock and its keeper.
The inspection of the flock at any time (but especially at the start) should not be limited to the daytime. Listening
to the birds after the lights have been extinguished can be very informative. Although unlikely at this stage,
sneezing as a result of a respiratory infection can readily be detected when the flock is resting.
Also during night inspection when the stock are more or less quiet, attention should be paid to the water system
- it is often possible to detect any leaking drinkers before a flood (and consequential ammonia production)
occurs.
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2. COLUMBIAN BLACKTAIL FREE RANGE LAYER MANAGEMENT
General
Free Range layer management, like any type of poultry keeping, is not simple. This is because there are so
many aspects to this subject and mostly these are interactive. Compared with the management of controlled
environmental caged layers, the free range system demands different skills. Success in the art of free range
management comes from the utilisation of a wide and varied combination of management and husbandry
techniques.
There is one tip that is always worth bearing in mind - it is that chickens do not like change!
So, if changes have to be made, they are best made gradually!
Free Range Location - The Site
There are points to consider, from the standpoint of the welfare of the birds, and also the logistics of feed
supply and egg transportation from the farm.
1.
Drainage.
The site should be well drained so it should not be situated in a hollow where rainwater is unable to
drain away rapidly. A site gently sloping away from the poultry house is ideal, with the poultry house a
little elevated above the surrounding area. It is advisable to drain the land within 50 to 100 metres of the
poultry house in order to facilitate rapid drainage of surface water from this area. Pasture quality will
not be well maintained if the roots of the grass are often immersed in water.
Furthermore, if the grass becomes worn away around the poultry house, a muddy bog will quickly
develop if drainage is inadequate. This is not only unattractive to the stock, it will also result in much
moisture being taken into the poultry house on the feet of the birds, which in turn will lead to wet and
smelly litter!
2.
Siting.
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Exposure to wind should be avoided. Chickens really dislike strong winds - it is clearly very stressful.
Furthermore windy sites will result in reduced house temperatures, leading to greater feed consumption
and reduced egg production - and lower operating margins!
If the site is in a windy location, then windbreaks are essential. Planting of coniferous 'barriers' is
advised, but care must be taken not to create ' wind tunnels', as these can result in even greater wind
velocities than the prevailing winds! Unbroken hedges do not necessarily provide the solution to the
problem. Planting of strategically placed groups of conifers, and even densely growing deciduous
shrubs can be effective.
3.
Location of Laying House.
It is normally necessary to position the house in order that the ranging birds have access to pasture from
both sides of the house. If this is not possible, the house will have to be of such a design that access to
pasture does not create problems of mobility or uneven flock distribution within the building.
4.
Stone Surround.
Surrounding the house, for a distance of approximately 3 to 5 metres, freely draining stone should cover
the ground. This should be to a depth of 20cm, with a minimum size of 20mm. This stone should be
round in shape so that it may be moved by the birds, and even manually by fork to assist drainage and
prevent accumulation of mud. A land drain should be laid beneath this area, laid sufficiently deep so as
not to be disturbed when the stone is replaced every 3 years. Smaller sized stone, gravel or any similarly
graded 'mixed' stone (a mixture including small dusty particles) should not be used, as it is not free
draining. The stone performs the following functions:•
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Prevention of 'bog' conditions in this 'heavy wear' area.
Assists cleaning and drying of the birds' feet before entry to the house.
Provision of shade/cover.
Exposure to the sun, without recourse to shade can be debilitating for the stock. Also without cover, the
risk and fear of assault by birds of prey is real, and this is stressful. Shade/cover may initially need
to be provided artificially, with areas of coarse netting (shade netting) suspended above the ground
(Freedom Foods specify 4 m2/1,000 birds). These artificial shades should not be permanently located,
they should be moved from time to time in order to maintain pasture condition. They should not be
moved more than a few metres at any one time,or the chickens may fail to identify the new position!
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In the long term the shade/cover will be best provided by the planting of trees. Evergreens such as holly
are ideal (but slow to establish), deciduous trees however are acceptable. Fir trees, which shed their
'needles' should be avoided (except for the use as windbreaks placed at some distance from the poultry
house).
6.
Fencing.
In order to restrict the entry of predators, such as badgers and foxes, and to 'contain' the flock, the field
in which the stock range should be fenced. The most popular and effective system currently employed is
an '8 strand fence'. Alternate strands are either electrified, or are earthed.
Spacing of strands is as follows:- 50mm between the 1st and 2nd strands, 75mm between the 2nd to 6th
strands and 150mm between the top 3 strands.
The vegetation in the area of the fence must not be allowed to grow to such a height that there is any risk
of a short circuit. The vegetation can of course be cut, but the most convenient method of control is by
the use of a chemical weed killer, such as 'Round Up', which only requires two or three applications
annually.
7.
Logistics.
The feed delivery truck needs unhindered access. If space is limited, and manoeuvring is difficult,
damage to facilities is almost inevitable. The truck collecting eggs, not only needs room to turn, but also
convenient access to the egg store. A level area is essential for egg loading. The access road needs to be
smooth if damage is not to occur to the eggs during transport. It is incidental that smooth well drained
roads cost less to maintain than those with potholes!
8.
General Facilities.
In addition to the housing of the stock, there are several other needs; feed and egg storage, storage of
tools and sundry small items associated with the farm, staff facilities and there should be a basic office.
Housing
Buildings are best if purpose built, and there are a number of specialist manufacturers, most of which have a
certain flexibility in what they are able to supply. These manufacturers are often able to supply some or all of
the equipment that is required in addition to the basic housing.
Static or Moveable Housing
Two types of housing are available:- static and moveable. There are points for and against each type of building.
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Static Housing (advantages)
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It does not have to be moved!
Location can be adjoining a hard surface service area.
Maximum economy in provision and operation of drinking, feeding and ventilation equipment.
Supply of water and electricity is permanent.
Supply of feed to the birds can be automated.
Collection of eggs can be automated.
Static Housing (disadvantages)
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It is difficult to maintain good grass cover in the area close to the poultry house.
There is a risk of the ground surrounding the house becoming 'fowl sick', with for example,
worm infestations.
A high standard of 'pasture management' is needed to obviate the above problems.
Moveable Housing (advantages)
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The birds should always have access to good quality pasture.
Risk of parasitic infection (worms) is minimised (subject to regularity of moving).
Moveable Housing (disadvantages)
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The houses have to be moved.
Resulting from the need to move the houses is the requirement for a heavy tractor.
The pasture must mostly be level.
More labour intensive than static housing, as a result of the need to:a) Transport feed to individual houses.
b) Utilise a manually filled feeding system.
c) Maintain connections with mobile electricity and water systems.
d) Transport eggs from the houses to an individual store.
e) Carry nesting materials to the houses.
Housing Criteria: - The points to consider as regards the house are as follows:Size
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This will be determined by the size of the land available, number of birds to be housed, and the stocking
density. In order to conform to the current Waitrose standards, free range egg production 1 hectare of
land must be provided for each 1,000 birds. The stocking density is 9 birds/square metre.
(1)
In calculation of floor area, the area of the floor (litter and/or slats) that is available to the birds for
drinking, feeding and general activity is that which should be used. Nesting area may not be included,
but when a covered automatic egg collection conveyor is included in the 'general bird area', this may be
included in the area available to the birds.
(2)
Slatted area - minimum 53% and maximum 67%.
In the case of moveable housing, maximum size will be limited by the ability to move the building. The reality
is that this type of housing will house between 1,000 – 3,000 birds per building, or the structure will be too
heavy to be moved.
Structure
The poultry house, whether static or moveable, should conform to a number of standards:1)
Interior surfaces should be smooth and with well sealed joints, in order that it is both
easily cleaned, and impenetrable to water, dust and dirt, and insects/beetles.
2)
Apart from the 'pop holes' the structure should be light proof.
3)
Insulation should be of a high standard, in order to minimise heat loss in winter and gain
in summer.
4)
The floor should be smoothly finished concrete incorporating a waterproof membrane,
in order to prevent rising damp.
In the case of moveable houses, the design should incorporate as many light weight materials as possible, in
order to minimise the weight of the building, and ease the problem of moving.
Verandas
These comprise covered littered areas, either running the length or even surrounding the static poultry house,
the feature is not applicable to moveable housing. There may also be a wire floored area outside the littered
veranda. Free range housing benefits considerably from the provision of verandas:1)
Additional covered area is available for the birds.
2)
The pop holes are protected against the entry of rain and direct sunlight.
3)
This facility enables convenient direction of the birds when the ranging system of
'paddock' rotation is practised.
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4)
If a wire floored area is incorporated, the birds' feet are quite effectively cleaned and
dried whilst returning to the housing, thus reducing the problem of litter management.
Pop Holes
In order to conform to the standards laid down for free range, pop holes must both be provided and
operated, allowing the birds access to pasture during daylight hours. Pop holes should be evenly
distributed, and the (minimum) provision per 600 birds should have a height no lower than 0.45m and
extend a total of 2m in length. Opening of pop holes must commence no later than one week after
housing. Daily closure should be before dusk, in order to prevent the entry of predators, and to help
maintain house temperature during the night.
Litter and Slats
Litter enables the birds to perform the natural functions of scratching and dust bathing, which most
welfare authorities deem necessary for bird well-being. There is no doubt that the presence of litter
enables the birds to be more relaxed. Slatted areas cover an enclosure, to which the birds are denied
access, for storage of manure. This separation of manure from the litter makes the task of maintaining
the litter in good condition much less onerous, particularly during wet and cold weather. The level of the
slats above the litter should not be more than 30cm, particularly if the nests are situated on the slatted
area. Any greater height presents an obstacle for the birds to overcome - which is something to be
avoided if at all possible. Indeed to assist the birds to move from the litter to the slats the provision of
one or more perch rails may be of assistance! Perch rails are generally preferable to 'ladders', as in the
area under ladders, birds may choose to lay their eggs, or even to crowd and smother.
The litter
adjoining the slatted area should be well lit, in order to deter floor egg laying. Moveable houses will
normally feature slatted, or wire mesh floors. Litter provision is not normally a practical proposition in
this type of building.
Lighting
The function of lighting is to provide sufficient time for the birds to consume feed, and at the same time
enable the birds and staff to be able to see! The house should be artificially lit and the entry of direct
sunlight prevented.
An essential feature of lighting is that the distribution should be uniform throughout the house.
Shadows should be avoided, particularly upon any littered area, as these may lead to floor egg laying.
However, it should be mentioned that the nests should not be subject to the entry of direct light. Birds
generally prefer a shady area in which to lay eggs.
Fluorescent bulbs or strip lights are a popular light source because they are economical to run. However
they do have a disadvantage, when used as a 'direct' light source, in as much as their distribution of light
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is not uniform - directly beneath the bulb or tube the intensity is generally too bright. However, it is
possible to use fluorescent equipment if the light is reflected, from ceiling and side walls on to the litter
and the slats. Indeed this system can provide more uniform intensity than conventional tungsten bulbs!
Pasture and its Management
The impression that pasture is simply grass, is a misconception that should be corrected. Pasture
comprises not only plants, that are mostly grasses, but also includes soil - which should have a certain
structure if the plant population is to flourish. The pasture has to be managed if firstly it is to thrive, and
secondly the birds are to find it acceptable.
The 'Paddock' grazing system, where the pasture is divided into 3 or 4 paddocks, and grazed alternately
for periods of 3 to 4 weeks, is most useful from several standpoints:1)
The plants have a recovery period, during which in the appropriate season, it is
possible to re-seed worn areas, in order to maintain good pasture quality.
2)
When paddocks are not stocked they may be mown, hay even may be taken.
3)
It is possible to chain harrow the pasture, breaking up any mat of dead herbage an essential feature of pasture management.
4)
Owing to the break periods, the ground does not become 'fowl sick'. In particular
the development of parasitic worms is kept under control.
The areas close to (within 50 metres) the poultry house suffer heavy wear, and will need to be repaired
from time to time. The ground may well need cultivating, prior to re-seeding, in order to improve soil
structure. Grass does not flourish unless the soil conditions are correct - the same as any other arable
crop.
It may be necessary to plough areas of ground, allowing exposure to frost and rain, during the winter
period, in order to repair soil structure. Reseeding would then be during the early spring. If reseeding
can be carried out during early autumn, this is generally preferable to spring planting. Autumn sowing
usually enables the plant population to become much better established, with deeper root growth, before
the dry periods that often occur during late spring and summer. Reseeding will normally be using hard
wearing ryegrass species - these are the most durable, and have the advantage that they are accepted by
other livestock. There are other hard wearing grass species, but some of these are not ideal for the use of
other stock.
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Litter Management
Litter like pasture needs management, it will not simply take care of itself! The objective is to maintain a
dry, friable and odourless (almost) material which is attractive to the birds for scratching and dust
bathing.
There are two materials which are popular - soft wood (white) shavings and chopped straw. Sawdust is
not a suitable material, as once moistened it compacts and becomes immovable, and consequently does
not release moisture to the atmosphere.
Neither material should be contaminated, and should not be stored on site from flock to flock of birds.
Both materials should be dry and uncontaminated when spread in the poultry house. Straw should be
chemically treated in order to ensure freedom from moulds, in particular aspergillus species.
Litter Management Points:•
The top priority is to keep the litter dry.
•
Litter should be friable and 'moveable'. The birds help to maintain this condition by scratching and dust
bathing. Scratching may be encouraged by providing a small daily 'scratch feed' of whole grain,
preferably good quality wheat.
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Water pressure in drinker supply lines should not exceed the maximum specified by the drinker
manufacturer.
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Drinkers should not be overfilled. Hanging plastic drinkers of the 'bell' type should contain no more
than 1.5cm depth of water. Furthermore these drinkers should be suspended at such a height as to
minimise the problem of spillage resulting when birds collide with them. If the birds can just reach to
drink (they have extraordinarily long necks!), and also be able to walk underneath these drinkers, the
height is ideal.
•
Where nipple drinkers are provided, they should be suspended so that the birds have to reach up to
drink. They should also be provided with (large) drip cups, in order to reduce spillage directly from the
nipples on to the litter.
•
Initial litter depth should be no more than 5cm. If more is provided it is a positive disadvantage, as any
amount exceeding 5cm in depth only becomes moist and soiled.
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•
Additional litter should be added, on top of the existing, in order that moisture content is kept low.
The requirement for additional litter is very low during the summer, but high during cold wet weather.
•
Wet patches resulting from water spillage should be promptly removed, and additional litter
provided.
•
During cold and/or wet weather, from time to time it will be necessary to work the litter with
a fork, in order to break up accumulating droppings, and to 'open up' any compacted litter.
Usually some fresh material will be added at this time.
•
Solid 'capped' areas should be removed, and additional litter provided.
Management Priorities
Six areas of interdependent priority may be listed:1
Floor space.
2
Provision of water.
3
Provision of feed.
4
Air.
5
Bio-security.
6
Sympathy.
Consider Floor Space - priorities numbered (1 to 5) as above :Consequences of lack of floor space 1 :Birds are tense and stressed depressed growth and/or production.
Consequences of lack of floor space 1 (example 2) :Bird mobility reduced poor access to water 2 and/or feed 3 ‹ poor growth and/or production.
Poor growth is unhealthy poor response to vaccination 5 risk of disease 5 even worse growth and
production.
Consequences of lack of floor space 1 (example 3):Birds overcrowded inadequate ventilation 4 increased risk of disease 5/higher than optimum humidity levels
poor growth and/or production.
If birds are overcrowded, the effect is clear to see, but there is a lack of sympathy 6!
It is clear to see the effect of overcrowding, or the need for floor space 1, takes a top priority position. It can
also be shown that the second priority is for water 2, and the third is for feed 3.
The other three priorities are equally and constantly important, and the needs of these must always be met!
Floor Space
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Layers need space to move away from each other, or they become tense and stressed, and this without the
influence of any other factor will depress performance. Space is also needed in order that birds may move
freely, in order to drink, eat, and if in production, to find the nests and lay eggs without harassment.
Water
If there is no water, there is no life! If water intake is limited, so is life, growth and production. In the same way
as we people enjoy good quality (cool) water, so do poultry. The number and position of drinkers is critical, if
too few, or not uniformly distributed or badly positioned, water intake and performance will be reduced.
Feed
Feed enables growth and production to take place. Good feed quality is essential, and so is an appropriate ration
at any particular time of life of the birds. Feeding equipment must allow all the birds to eat when they wish to
do so. This equipment must be in sufficient quantity, with good distribution, and appropriate position in order
that feed intake is properly maintained.
Air
A very basic need, all too often taken for granted. The minimum air requirement must always be supplied, even
if house temperature has to be reduced! The ventilation system supplies air that is needed, not just for
respiration, but also as an essential factor in hygiene. Ventilation is the only means to reduce the level of
potential pathogens such as viruses, bacteria and moulds in the poultry house atmosphere.
Biosecurity
A most expensive factor in the industry - disease. The prevention of disease is complex, and vaccination is only
a part, indeed a small part! The reduction of transmission, from farm to farm, or species to species is
biosecurity. It is much more than special clothing or showers for staff and visitors.
Sympathy
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Let us not overlook the fact that birds are alive! They have the daily needs of living creatures, but in captivity
they are dependent upon their keeper for their needs. They do not have a language as such, but they are able to
communicate very clearly as to whether they are satisfied or dissatisfied with their conditions or treatment.
Stock managers, or supervisors have to understand the birds, it is necessary to listen…….and hear; to
look…….and see - the signs which are clear to hear and/or see - all that is necessary is the interpretation.
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Water Supply
Water is such a critical nutrient that particular care must be taken in its provision and the recording of
consumption:•
There should be no contamination, by minerals or potential pathogens.
•
Should there be any doubt regarding quality of water, analysis should be carried out.
•
Storage Tanks should be:1)
Closed, in order that contamination does not occur.
2)
Underground, in order that water temperature is constant - and is cool. The ideal
temperature is approximately 18°C.
3)
If the tanks are not underground, they should be insulated (but this is only second best).
4)
Of sufficient capacity to supply the flocks’ water requirement for at least 1 day in the
event of supply failure.
•
Daily consumption should be recorded using a water meter. A drop in water consumption is
usually the first indication of an impending problem, and so measurement is an essential
diagnostic tool.
Feed Supply
Feed of course is also a critical input. The vast majority of nutrients are supplied, even to free range birds, by
the feed. The birds obtain very little from the range. So like water particular care must be taken in the provision
of feed.
•
Like water, feed should be uncontaminated, particularly by bacteria and moulds. Bacteria may lead to
infection of the birds, or the consumers of eggs, and moulds may lead to conditions of toxaemia in the
birds, often with serious accompanying drops in egg production.
•
Should feed quality be questioned, analysis should be carried out.
•
Feeder design should be such that birds cannot stand, scratch, dust bath or defecate therein, or
contamination will occur.
Feed may be supplied in four forms - pellets, crumbs, meal or whole grain. Each form has a
different purpose:-
•
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Pellets:- not generally used, but may be useful to encourage increased feed intake in birds with very low
appetite - this may apply to birds recovering from a very severe stress.
Crumbs:- feed in this form is quite frequently used to improve feed intake. Crumbs are usually used
with healthy birds, after transfer, during the onset of egg production, or during very hot or very cold
weather - they must not be dusty.
Meal:- this is the 'standard' feed which does not incur an extra production cost penalty. This form takes
longer to consume, which is useful as it results in the birds being occupied for a large part of the day.
Thus they do not become bored, and the (natural) risk of antagonistic behaviour is minimised.
Whole Grain:- This may be fed as a 'scratch feed' for two reasons; firstly to keep the birds occupied, and
secondly to encourage scratching in the litter, in order to maintain this in good condition. The preferred
grain is wheat, and quantity to be fed should be small - 3 to 5g/bird/day. The grain should be well
distributed and given directly upon the litter, during the period (afternoon) after egg laying has been
completed for the day.
•
Feed will normally be stored in bulk, in a custom made storage silo. This should be waterproof as
feed deteriorates very rapidly when wetted.
•
Bulk storage containers should be inspected from time to time, checking not only for water leaks,
but also for build up of fine particles (which sometimes occurs as a result of condensation) and for
presence of insects.
•
Feed consumption should be recorded on a daily basis. A drop in feed consumption is the second
'early warning' signal that there is a problem of some sort. During the period when egg production
increases very rapidly from zero to peak lay, adequate daily intake is most important. Indeed at this
time the intake should increase daily - so the record is invaluable.
As feed is almost always supplied in bulk, the daily consumption is not as simple to record, as
when it was provided in bags. However, there are two methods available:1)
Provision of a 'tippler weigher' in the supply line from bulk storage to feeder hopper.
This equipment weighs the feed as it is consigned to the feeding system.
2)
The use of 'load cells' located underneath the bulk feed storage tank supports.
These cells record the quantity of feed remaining in the storage, and it is thus a simple
matter to calculate feed fed on a daily basis. The more sophisticated systems make this
calculation automatically.
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Insoluble Grit
Free range birds have access to pasture, and will consume grass and other plants, all of which contain a higher
level of fibre than the main part of their diet. Insoluble grit will assist not only the digestion of this fibre, but
will also assist its passage through the alimentary tract by grinding the plant material as it passes through the
gizzard, where the grit is retained.
It is important that the grit is of a suitable size. If too small the material will fail to be retained by the gizzard,
and simply pass through the birds' alimentary system and be wasted.
Provision of Equipment - (drinking and feeding)
In the provision of drinkers and feeders there are several points to consider:•
•
•
Quantity: - number of drinkers, number or length of feeders, (it is almost always beneficial to
exceed the minimum recommendations of supply of drinkers and feeders).
Type of drinkers and feeders.
Distribution of the equipment.
Quantity.
Although there are recommendations which are generally accepted by the industry, these are the minimum
provisions, which have not been revised for about 40 years! The overriding factor is that it is necessary to
provide sufficient drinking and feeding space in order that at times of peak consumption, all the birds that wish
to drink and eat can do so.
It is good practice at times of peak consumption, to observe the flock particularly closely and note whether or
not there is undue competition for water and feed. For example, when ambient temperature is above 28°C
demand for water is greatly increased, and when ambient temperature falls below 12°C, as it will during the
winter under free range conditions, the intake of feed will be greater.
It may be, in the case of these two situations, that the flock would benefit from the provision of extra
equipment, it is with this in mind that the recommendations for minimum provision of drinkers and feeders are
made in this guide.
Drinker Provision and Type
Hanging Plastic 'Bell' drinkers…………….1 drinker per 80 birds.
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Nipple drinkers………………………….
1 nipple per 10 birds.
Drinker Provision and Management Notes
•
Water quality is best maintained in the poultry house by the nipple drinker system.
•
Water should always be available to the birds.
•
There is a priority requirement for unrestricted access to water after egg laying, thus drinkers
should be available near the nests.
•
Depth of water in hanging drinkers should not be more than 1.5cm, in order to minimise wastage.
This applies equally to drinkers placed over the slatted area and the litter.
•
Nipple drinkers should be provided with large drip cups, to minimise drip wastage.
•
Bell drinkers should be hung at a height which is relatively high, in order to minimise the risks of
spillage by allowing birds to pass underneath without colliding with the equipment. The birds should,
when standing erect, and with neck extended, just be able to reach the water in the drinker trough.
•
Drinkers hung over the litter area benefit from being suspended as above (relatively high), because this
will reduce the amount of contamination by litter when birds are scratching or
dust bathing.
•
The pressure of water supplying 'bell' or nipple drinkers should not exceed the manufacturer's
specifications, in order to avoid the risk of leakage.
•
It is important that regardless of where drinkers are located, that they do not spill. Not only does wet
litter present problems, so does wet manure beneath the slatted area. Wet manure produces smell mostly ammonia, which is very stressful for the stock, and is an attractive breeding area for flies of
various types!
Feeder Provision and Type
Tube or Pan Feeders……1 tube or pan/18 to 20 birds, allowing 4cm feed space/bird.
Chain Feeders…………..10 to 12cm per bird
16 to 20 birds per metre of trough.
Trough Feeders…………as chain feeders.
Feeder Provision and Management Notes
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•
The chain feeder is the most popular system. Not only is it well proven, but it also has the advantage
that the troughs may be emptied, which is essential in the maintenance of fresh feed, and minimising
selective feeding.
•
In the feeders, trough, tube or pan - depth of feed should be such that physical wastage by spillage into
the littered or slatted area is minimised. In general terms depth of feed will be low.
•
Feeders should be at such a height that the birds reach up, not down in order to feed. This will not only
reduce wastage by 'feed raking', but also reduce the risk of vent pecking, as the vent is less exposed
when birds reach up to feed.
•
Feeders should be more or less emptied before they are replenished. This is to ensure:1)
The feed is always fresh.
2)
The birds do not feed selectively. If feeders are never emptied, birds will select the coarse
particles which appear each time fresh feed is introduced (on top of the residue), and fine
particles will remain. Thus the birds will fail to consume a balanced ration.
•
The replenishing of feeders should be rapid, in order to reduce the possibility of selective feeding
selection of large particles). Thus chain feeders for example should run at a speed of not less than 10m
per minute, more ideally 20m per minute.
•
Automatic feeders should be operated for the length of time that it takes for all the feeder trough to be
replenished with feed. It is not good practice to run for extended periods, or for very short periods, as
both of these encourage selective feeding.
•
Priority feeding times are as follows:1)
The start of the day, when the house lights are illuminated. This is particularly so when
the weather is cold, and the birds are consequently very hungry at this time.
2)
Towards the end of the day. There is a particular need for the birds to eat sufficient food in order
to provide for their general needs during the night, and also the calcium required for egg shell
formation during the night.
•
There should be a short period, during the middle of the day when feeders are emptied. This applies to
manually and automatically filled feeding equipment. Not only does this ensure all feed remains in the
feeders for no more than one day, it also actually encourages feed consumption! This is especially
important at the start of lay, and during hot weather.
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Drinker and Feeder Distribution
There is of course little value in providing excellent quality water and feed, if these are not accessible by the
birds! The following points are advised:•
Drinkers and feeders should be provided in order that water and feed are easily accessible in all areas of
the house. Thus there should be provision both on slatted and littered areas.
•
Birds should have to move no more than 3 metres, in order to find water or feed. The character of the
birds is such that if too much effort is involved in seeking out water and feed, they will forego
consumption!
•
The birds have no 'obligation', or 'duty' to drink and eat, it is the function of management to overcome
this limitation! The birds most affected by any limitation on water or feed availability are of course the
less adventurous at the lower end of the 'peck order'!
•
The equipment should ideally be no less than 1 metre distant from other equipment or parts of the house
- for example drinkers should not be closer to nests than 1 metre; or a feeder trough should be
no closer to the side wall that 1 metre. This is in order to allow unrestricted access by the birds to the
equipment. Careful observation of the birds will soon reveal any immobility problems.
•
Drinkers, especially 'bell' type should not be suspended in a position where there is heavy traffic of
birds, or not only will spillage occur, but also because of the 'traffic' disturbance, these drinkers will not
be used as much as they should. Such a position would, for example, be in close proximity to a pop
hole.
Ventilation
The third management priority was the provision of fresh air. Like any living animal air is required for the
purpose of respiration. If the air in the poultry house is smelly - stuffy - humid - or laden with dust, then the
rate of air change is too low!
The minimum rate of air change, in order to supply the birds' respiratory needs is 0.425m3/hour/kg live weight.
In the poultry house there are other requirements than for respiration, for air change:•
Removal of excess moisture, both in the interest of bird health, and maintenance of litter quality.
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•
Removal of dust from the atmosphere. There is a strong association between dust particles and disease,
as disease organisms tend to associate with particles of dust.
•
Maintenance of sufficient oxygen supply.
•
Removal of gasses such as ammonia. In addition to the specific problem of 'ammonia
blindness', these gasses have a generally stressful and depressive effect on the birds.
Ventilation System
The free range house may be ventilated mechanically, or naturally, or by a combination of both systems.
Fundamental to any system is the provision of finely adjustable air inlets, usually at eaves level on both sides of
the house, and outlets in the apex of the roof - the ridge. Some houses, however, may be cross ventilated, with
inlets one side of the building and the extractor fans on the other side. Naturally ventilated houses should have a
minimum roof slope of 22.5°, in order that sufficient 'stack' effect is created. Roof slope is not as critical with
power ventilation, but it is useful to maintain a similar slope, to allow natural ventilation to take place during
very cold weather.
Inlets.
It is ideal that regardless of the extract system, that the inlets run the length of the poultry house. This leads to
the most uniform distribution of incoming air. The area of these inlets should be closely related to the rate of air
change. Inlet area should remain constant in relation to the rate of air change, in order that the rate of air flow is
also constant. Thus the greater the rate of air change, the larger the air inlet opening.
Air inlet area - 0.11 m2/1,000 m3/hour air change.
The adjustment of the air inlets should ideally be automatic, even with provision to compensate for the effect of
strong winds on one or the other side of the building.
The area of the pop holes is large, indeed larger than the minimum inlet area required in cold weather. Thus
when the pop holes are closed management of ventilation is quite simple, but when they are open, especially in
cold and/or windy weather, it is more difficult. In order to maintain good distribution of incoming fresh air it is
necessary to reduce the amount that the inlets are opened under these circumstances.
Outlet or Exhaust.
As with the inlet system, control should be automatic, and furthermore the inlet and exhaust system controls
should be interlinked, in order that inlet area is related constantly to the amount of air exhausted.
The number of fans, or the area of naturally ventilated outlet vent, should be conservatively estimated, allowing
extra to the theoretical capacity.
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Fans should be fitted with backdraught shutters, in order that when not operating air does not pass in the
opposite direction - thus in effect allowing exhaust ducts to become inlets.
Air Circulation.
When rate of air change is low, it is desirable that air is circulated for the following reasons:• Fresh air needs to be distributed to all parts of the house.
• If the warm air, from the higher level in the building is mixed with that at lower levels, the birds will enjoy a
higher and more acceptable temperature.
• This mixing of air will allow greater removal of moisture from the litter, helping to maintain this in drier
condition.
•
During hot weather, the effect of air moving over the birds is one of comfort, which can help mitigate the
effect of temperature being above the optimum.
There are a number of means to circulate air within the house, one of the least expensive, to purchase and to run
is the reasonably effective axial fan.
Biosecurity
The object of biosecurity is to maintain the good health of the birds. The most fundamental point is to have only
one age of stock at any one location. This enables complete depopulation of stock, and allows not only a rest
period, but also thorough and effective washing and sanitation between flocks of birds. When more than one
age of birds are kept at a single location there is never a break period when the farm is depopulated. There is a
constant risk, not only that infections may pass from flock to flock in perpetuity, but also that levels of ever
present potential pathogens may increase to such an extent that clinical disease may break out.
•
One of the most important bio-security 'tools' is ventilation. Air change is needed, regardless of the age of
the birds, in order that levels of pathogens are continually reduced.
•
People should wash hands before entering and upon leaving any poultry house. If working on more than
one farm, staff should at least wear clothing and footwear specific to the location. Visitors should be very
strictly limited. If entering a poultry house, visitors should wear freshly laundered clothing and clean,
disinfected footwear. Disinfectant foot dips, protected from sun and rain, should be provided at the entrance
to every poultry house. These foot dips should be unavoidable, and deep enough to completely immerse the
foot.
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• Wild/domestic animals and wild birds should be excluded from the buildings as far as is possible. Rodents
should be controlled by means of routine baiting with an approved poison.
•
Insects/beetles will invade the poultry buildings, it is inevitable. The first means of defence should be
avoiding the provision of an environment that these pests favour. Generally wet and
humid conditions,
especially wet manure and broken eggs should be avoided.
•
Materials which may have been exposed to contamination, for example on another farm, should not be
used. In particular second hand egg trays should not be brought on farm - not even to the egg handling area!
•
Vehicles should not come any closer to the poultry buildings than is absolutely necessary.
Hygiene programmes (see below) should be incorporated, both when houses are stocked, and un-stocked
after depopulation. Thus increase of pathogens during the life of the flock will be limited, and after
depopulation a thorough cleaning and disinfection will provide a suitable environment for the next flock of
birds.
Biosecurity - Hygiene programmes - Building Stocked
•
The purpose of the programme during this period is to limit the increase of pathogens and possible vectors of
disease. The main points that should be considered are as follows:Water
•
Clean water is fundamental (but may tend to be taken for granted!), both directly and indirectly
to
the health of the stock. It directly affects the birds, as a possible route for disease transmission.
Indirectly the effect is a little more obscure; if water quality is poor, feed consumption will be reduced,
and so will bodyweight. Underweight birds are not healthy, and as a result more susceptible to disease
infection!
•
Water storage tanks should not be able to be contaminated by airborne organisms - sealed tanks
are
ideal. If not sealed, the tanks should be covered at all times. If medication is being administered via an
unsealed water tank, the cover should be replaced after the water is dosed (better still to use a
medicator which introduces the treatment automatically!).
•
It should not be assumed that any water supply is always free from potential pathogens, it is necessary
to test incoming water at regular intervals. The presence of pseudomonas is not unusual in municipal
water supplies.
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•
Drinkers are a common source of contamination, especially trough or 'bell' types, where water is
exposed to both birds and atmosphere. Contamination may result from birds drinking, or by soiling
from litter or atmosphere. Cleaning/sanitising of this type of drinker is ideally daily! There is no need
for such regular cleaning and sanitising of nipple drinkers.
•
Quaternary Ammonium based detergents are commonly used for cleaning water systems, and chlorine
is generally effective for sanitising.
Air
Fresh air is a second fundamental (and also tends to be taken for granted!). Air change should be at a
rate of not less than 0.425m3/hr/kg live weight. Furthermore all parts of the poultry house should be
uniformly ventilated, which is not always simply achieved in a free range poultry house. To this end
axial fans may be of value, as they have the capability of air mixing, whilst not interfering with the
system of air change.
Ventilation - Reduction of Airborne Pathogens
•
•
•
If air change is insufficient, the level of airborne pathogens may increase to such a level that clinical
disease outbreak occurs.
Unfortunately it is when temperature drops and ventilation is reduced, during the winter or at night (for
most of the year!), that the levels of pathogens increase.
It is good practice to heat houses during colder weather.
A useful strategy is to 'air' the house twice daily. Employ the maximum rate of ventilation for 5 to 10
minutes both early and late in the day, causing a complete air change. The late air change is
particularly important, as at least at the start of the dark period pathogen levels will be low.
Feed
It is important that feed storage equipment remains in a sanitary condition. Bulk feed storage should not
suffer water leaks, nor the intrusion of insects (such as weevils or beetles seeking a feed source). It
should not be assumed that feed is never contaminated with such creatures, even though this problem is
unusual. Regular inspection of feed storage facilities is necessary, and prompt action taken to overcome
problems.
Insects
A precautionary policy is the best. If the environment is unsuitable for insects, notably flies(large and
small), they are generally not a problem. However, there are exceptions, and then prompt action is
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essential - before the problem develops to plague proportions - a particular risk in hot weather.
Generally it is necessary to provide a clean environment, both inside and outside the poultry buildings.
Mites
Mites are parasitic, and in the interest of stock welfare, need to be controlled. The most effective time for
control is during the house depopulation period. On the day of depopulation, immediately after the
removal of the stock, chemical spraying should be carried out. This should be repeated, after
disinfection but before restocking.
If mites invade during the life of a flock, it is important to act quickly before numbers increase. Weekly
inspection, of nests, slats and 'crevices' is recommended. As these creatures are nocturnal, it follows that
during the dark period is the best time to make an inspection. If chemical control is required, then the
nests and slats should be sprayed within two hours before the time of 'lights off'.
Rodents
•
•
Control can only be effected if baiting is continuous.
Bait stations should be established inside and immediately outside the poultry house. It may also be
necessary to bait in other locations on site, such as storage areas and ditches/hedgerows. The stations
should protect the bait from the weather, and deny access by children, poultry, wild animals/birds and
domestic animals.
•
Inspection of bait stations, and replenishment where necessary should be weekly. The area surrounding
the poultry houses should also be inspected, in order to recognise fresh runs, or
droppings of rodents on
farm.
•
The bait stations for mice are most important in egg handling and storage areas, and should be no more
than 4 metres apart.
•
In the areas surrounding poultry houses vegetation should be regularly mown, as rodents dislike this
sort of open territory, as they become visible when approaching the buildings, and are vulnerable to
birds of prey.
•
Also, as rodents seek 'cover', in the locality of the poultry house there should be no place for
rodents to hide, like discarded equipment, stacks of timber (firewood) etc.
•
Patches of weeds should not develop in the range areas - regular mowing is well advised.
Personnel
•
Staff and visitors alike should present no risk of contaminating the flock, and should observe certain
hygiene precautions. It is ideal that they should have had no contact with other stock, but as this is not
always possible, they should wash hands and then wear freshly laundered clothing (overall and hat)
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and clean sanitised footwear when visiting any part of the poultry house. When the visit is concluded,
soiled clothing and footwear should be divested and hands washed before departure.
Biosecurity - Hygiene programmes - Building Depopulated
The absence of stock permits unhindered access to all parts of the building and its equipment, in order that the
Terminal Hygiene programme of cleaning and disinfection may take place. As soon as the stock have been
depopulated, work should commence. The sooner the programme is completed, the greater the reduction in
potential pathogens prior to restocking.
Terminal Hygiene
There are two basic tasks to be carried out:1.
Cleaning - the purpose is to make all surfaces visually clean.
2.
Disinfection - the act of sanitising the 'clean' surfaces.
There are a number of suppliers of chemicals, and generally different products are needed for these two tasks,
detergents are used for cleaning, and disinfectants for sanitising. Some detergents (detergent sanitizers) do have
some disinfecting properties, but in the poultry house a suitably formulated disinfectant should still be used to
follow a detergent (sanitiser).
Terminal Hygiene Programme
Stage 1 - Removal
1.
Livestock.
2.
Deadstock - any carcasses.
3.
Feedstuffs - this can be minimised by careful planning.
4.
Moveable Equipment - to a hard surface area.
5.
Droppings and Litter - to as far as possible from the farm.
Stage 2 - Preparatory
1.
Drinking system - drain and refill with detergent solution.
2.
Soaking - all surfaces and equipment with detergent solution.
3.
Hand Cleaning - any non waterproof items.
Stage 3 - Washing
Pressure wash all surfaces with detergent solution. This should not be restricted to internal
surfaces - concrete access areas, air inlets etc, should also be washed.
Stage 4 - Re-assembly
Re-instate cleaned moveable equipment into the poultry house.
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Stage 5 - Disinfection
Spray all previously washed surfaces of building and equipment with disinfectant solution.
Stage 6 - Disinfestation
Spray all surfaces (especially nests and slats) with appropriate chemicals for insect and mite
control.
Stage 7 - Fumigation
Close the building before atmospheric fogging with formalin or a suitable disinfectant.
Stage 8 - Sanitary Break Period
The building closed, ideally for not less than 2 weeks. If maintenance work is to be carried out, normal
biosecurity precautions should be observed, and Stages 5, 6 and 7 repeated before the new stock
arrive.
Stage 9 - Preparation for arrival of New Stock
1.
Check function of all equipment.
2.
Supply drinking system with fresh water.
3.
Feeders should remain empty.
4.
Building should be heated prior to arrival of growing pullets, if house
temperature is less than 15°C.
Monitoring
The purpose of monitoring is to recognise any change in consumption of water or feed, productivity or
liveability, at the earliest possible opportunity. This in turn enables remedial action to be taken rapidly, possibly
before a minor problem becomes something major!
There is a sequence of events that accompanies most problems or stresses, which is as follows:1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Drop in water consumption.
Drop in feed consumption.
Fall in egg weight.
Decrease in rate of egg production.
Reduced body weight.
Egg shell quality deterioration.
Increased mortality.
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Water Consumption
This should be checked daily. It could be argued, with good reason that the most important monitoring check is
water consumption! The result from this check will indicate whether or not the water supply system is
functioning and/or whether the birds' daily intake is correct.
Growth and production depend upon an adequate intake of water, and both aspects suffer rapid depression
when water intake is reduced.
It is noticeable how rapidly consumption increases as ambient temperature rises.
Feed Consumption
This also should be checked daily. If there is a drop in water consumption this is likely to be followed by a drop
in feed consumption. If on the other hand there is little or no drop in water consumption, but there is a reduction
in feed intake, it may be that the feeding system has in some way failed, or that the feed is disliked by the birds.
Two checks on feed consumption are possible; firstly whether or not feeders are being emptied at the time that
would be expected, and secondly with reference to the feed weighing equipment.
If consumption is reduced, it may be able to be boosted by sprinkling a little water on to the feed in the troughs
- a tedious, but often effective remedy - especially during hot weather.
Should consumption remain reduced, and there is no simple explanation such as failure of the water or feed
supply systems, the reason should be promptly sought. It may well be that a veterinary examination or a feed
analysis will be necessary.
Egg Weight
Egg weight is largely dependent upon protein and amino acid intake, so it is no surprise that a reduction in egg
weight will occur very quickly after a drop in feed intake. Similarly, if egg weight gain is not according to the
breed standard, it may be that feed intake is marginal.
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The progress of egg weight is worthy of a twice weekly check during the early weeks of lay, hot weather, or if
a ration change is made later in the life of the birds. If samples of 200 newly laid eggs are weighed (always at
the same time of day), it is simple to check average egg weight.
Rate of Egg Production
The last production parameter to suffer is normally the number of eggs laid daily. Of course the daily check of
numbers of eggs collected should be at a particular time of day, or the information may be misleading. Small
downward changes in egg numbers should be ignored, unless they continue to fall. Small drops in production
are often followed by small increases.
Bodyweight
In order to achieve high peak production and well sustained rate of lay, it is essential that bodyweight increase
for free range layers, in relation to maturity, is as illustrated below:Production (Maturity)
2%
20 %
50 %
90 %
32/35 weeks of age
Bodyweight g
1,500
1,600
1,650
1,770
1,895
Checking bodyweight during the early laying period is well advised in order to monitor progress, and thus be in
a position to take action to remedy any shortfall in gain, should this occur. To this end 40 indoor birds whould
be weighed weekly and an average weight for the weighed birds calculated and checked against breed target.
Egg Shell Quality
The egg shell is quick to change colour and/or texture in the face of various stresses. Like egg weight, quality
should be observed twice weekly, and particularly when any problems are observed. The egg shell changes
quite quickly in response to respiratory virus challenge, and so should be treated seriously, and it may well be
that veterinary investigation will be merited.
Increased Mortality
Any increase in mortality should be noted and closely followed. If there is even the slightest doubt about the
cause of death, a veterinary post mortem examination should be carried out.
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Daily Inspection - (Sympathy!)
This is an important part of the stock keeper's routine, it is the key, together with prompt action to remedy any
arising problems, to maintenance of stock welfare and attainment of high levels of productivity. Important
aspects of inspection are as follows:•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
General attitude of the birds - is it normal? If not in what way does it differ - are the birds quiet
noisy, calm or lively, lethargic or active, with or without appetite?
If noisy, is the noise aggressive?
Is there any mortality?
If the attitude is abnormal, could the cause be located in the house?
Is the drinker system functioning - does it supply the birds' need at times of peak demand?
Has there been a flood, as a result of a fault in the water system?
Is the feed system working correctly?
What is house temperature, and what was it during the night?
Is the lighting time clock functioning correctly?
or
If there is a problem which you are unable to resolve, please feel free to call for assistance from a Columbian
Blacktail technician.
Nests
Egg collection should not be less than twice daily, at peak times more collections will be necessary, and timed to
avoid too many eggs on collection belts or in the nests at any one time.
At the risk of stating the obvious, the objective of the free range layer system is to produce and sell as many
first quality eggs as possible. It follows therefore, that it is not prudent to compromise in the matter of nest
boxes.
Nest boxes are available in two general types; individual and communal. Eggs may be collected from either type
manually or automatically.
Floor Eggs.
Any eggs laid on the floor, particularly at the start of lay, should be collected promptly in order that birds do not
associate the floor as a nesting place. It may indeed be necessary at the start of production, to place birds, which
accumulate on the floor looking for a nesting site, in or near to the nests in order that they become familiar with
the nesting facility. If there are eggs on the floor when the birds are first illuminated in the morning, it may well
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be beneficial to light them earlier, thus giving an opportunity for the birds to reach the nests in time to lay their
eggs.
Nest Specification.
It is ideal, and generally economically justified to utilise the following type of nest:•
Allowing eggs to automatically roll from the nest, away from the hen, on to a covered conveyor.
Thus the risk of damage and contamination is minimised, and cooling commences rapidly.
•
Equipped with a mechanical conveyor to carry the eggs to the selection room, reducing manual
handling, resulting in less cracked eggs, and eliminating a risk of soiling.
•
Provided with an automatically operated mechanical closure system, which ensures that birds do not
remain in the nests overnight. Thus the level of soiling is very much reduced - contributing of course to
improved product quality.
Nest Space
The following allocation should be made:Individual Nests - 20 to 24cm wide - 5 birds per nest.
Communal Nests - 120 birds per metre length of nest.
Perch or Alighting Rails
When nests are more than one tier high, the provision of alighting rails is important - indeed essential if birds
are to be encouraged to lay in the upper tiers of nests. The birds are clearly more comfortable if there is a rail on
which they can stand, before selecting and entering the nest of their choice. The rails are ideally made of timber,
and of course the edges should be rounded.
Broodiness
Although broodiness is not normally a problem with the Columbian Blacktail, there should be provision for
dealing with birds in this condition. It is not sufficient to rely upon the ejection of birds at the end of the day
from automatically closing nests to cure birds of broodiness.
The broody birds should be selected during the afternoon (when egg laying is finished) and enclosed separately
from the rest of the flock.
•
The freely moving flock is in full view of the broodies - frustrating for the broodies!
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•
Water and feed is supplied.
•
The birds’ cages are well ventilated, and well lit.
•
The birds' return to egg production can be observed.
The return to egg production is normally within 5 to 7 days, as long as selection is prompt. Long term broody
birds may take 2 or 3 weeks to return to full egg production!
Lighting Programme
During the period the birds are in the laying house daylength should not be decreased!
The 15 hour day
Normally the maximum daylength required for egg production is 15 hours. Once this length of day is reached,
it should not be varied. In the free range house it is not quite as simple, as although dark with pop holes closed,
the house is light when they are open.
In summer natural daylength exceeds the 15 hours which is the normal maximum provision in the layer house.
Avoid extension of the 15 hour day, as a result of entry of light through open pop holes. Thus if the birds are
illuminated early in the morning, it may be necessary to close pop holes before sunset during the months of
May, June and July, in order to avoid exposure to more than 15 hours daylight. Thus if for example the birds
are first illuminated at 6.00 am, pop holes will need to be closed by 9.00 pm.
Lighting Programme
This programme is for free range flocks maturing (2% production) at 19 to 19.5 weeks of age.
Age-weeks
Daylength-hours
Housing - 16
10
18
12
19
13
20
13.5
21
14
22
14.5
23
15
The programme assumes correct bodyweight at both housing (16 weeks - 1,360g), and at sexual maturity (2%
lay - 1,500g). The actual age of sexual maturity is normally 1 week later in birds reared for free range, than for
cage production. This is for two reasons, firstly in order to obtain higher early egg size, and secondly to allow
greater bodyweight gain than for cage birds.
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Should bodyweight be different from the standards outlined above, the programme may need to be amended. If
advice on this point is required, a Columbian Blacktail technician will be pleased to assist.
Light Intensity
Minimum light intensity requirement by Freedom Foods is 10 lux. At the time of housing, light intensity should
be brighter than this (15 to 20 lux), and the intensity in the rearing house should have been increased in order to
match this intensity 2 weeks before transfer.
This high intensity should be maintained at least until peak lay is reached and steadily sustained, and also if feed
consumption is in any way marginal. This is usually until 30 to 35 weeks of age.
After 35 weeks of age, opinion as to what is a satisfactory light intensity is divided. There is a school of
thought which suggests the maintenance of high intensity, and another recommending reduction of intensity!
The actuality is that observation of the birds is the best guide, and if they are calm and relaxed in their
attitude under high light intensity conditions, then there is no need to reduce intensity. If on the other hand the
birds are restless there may be a benefit in intensity reduction.
Feeding the Free Range Layer
Normally there is no risk of over consumption of feed by the Columbian Blacktail free range layers. Fortunately
a characteristic of the Columbian Blacktail is that the breed has good (but not excessive) appetite, but
nevertheless certain points should be observed in order to ensure that appetite is not depressed:•
Fresh water, ideally at a temperature of 18°C, should always be available.
•
Feed should not be predominantly dusty or it will be unpalatable. This applies to feed in meal form, and
also crumbs. The latter are generally used to boost feed intake, but should the
crumbs be dusty
intake is likely to be depressed!
Feed should be available when required by the bird - times of peak appetite.
•
•
Feed a ration which is appropriate to the stage of life of the bird, in order that nutritional balance is
correct.
•
During prolonged very hot weather it may be necessary to practice 'midnight feeding'. A light period of
1.5 (not less) to 2 hours duration should be provided, no sooner than 3 hours after 'lights off' at the start
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of the dark period, when of course an ample supply of water and feed
should be available. This
period should end no later than 3 hours before 'lights on' at the start of the next day.
•
See also the section entitled "Feeder Provision and Management Notes" on page 23.
Feeding Programme
Bird Age (Wks)
17 & 18
19 to 30/35 (2)
30/35 to 40/45 (2)
Type of Ration
Pre-Lay (1)
Layer 1 (3)
Layer 2
40/45 to end (2)
level (4)
Layer 3
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Approximate Specification
As layer 1 ration, but calcium level reduced to 2 %.
High Density Layer Ration
Reduced levels of protein/amino acids and
available phosphorus, but increased calcium
Further reduced levels of protein/amino acids
and available phosphorus, but increased calcium level (4)
This ration should be fed for two weeks only.
The age at which the change is made will depend upon the egg size that is required - in
general terms the larger the egg required, the later the change.
This ration should be first fed 2 weeks before the commencement of egg production.
Energy level should be maintained at the same level as layer 1, in layer 2 and layer 3 rations.
Nutrient Requirements of Columbian Blacktail Free Range Layers
It is not possible to give absolute values for the nutrient requirements of Columbian Blacktail free range layers,
for the following reasons:•
Feed Manufacturers' databases may attribute different nutrient values to raw materials.
•
Egg size requirements vary for different egg producers.
This guide is therefore a general basis for consideration.
Energy
At constant temperature, with good feather cover, the bird's requirement for energy does not vary during lay. If
on the other hand there is noticeable feather loss towards the end of lay, the requirement will increase as a result
of increased body heat loss.
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Under free range conditions there is considerable variation in temperature between summer and winter,
differences of 12°C to 15°C are not unusual. Although it is considered that the layer has the ability to adapt its
intake, according to temperature variation, it is advisable to provide rations with higher energy content in winter
than summer, if the seasonal difference in ambient temperature is 8°C to 10°C.
Daily Energy Requirements & Intake According to Ambient Temperatures
This table is prepared on the basis that layer ration ME is 2,800 Kcal/kg. (11.7 MJ/kg).
If a ration with an ME of 2,950 Kcal/kg was utilised during cold weather, when compared with the
consumption of the ration illustrated above (2,800 Kcal/kg), the increase in consumption (the change!) is much
less than if the above ration was retained during the cold weather.
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This illustration is based on a layer ration ME of 2,950 Kcal/kg. (12.3 MJ/kg).
Protein & Amino Acids
Protein and amino acid levels will change during the laying period, generally becoming lower as lay progresses.
The object is to maximise early egg size, and control later egg size according to the market requirement. The
levels given in the table may be varied, as they are only a general guide, and also the comments made on pages
19 & 20 should be born in mind.
Calcium & Available Phosphorus
The levels of calcium and available phosphorus will also change during lay, in order that shell quality is well
maintained. Calcium levels should increase, and available phosphorus levels decrease as the birds become older.
Calcium should be provided in the ration as calcium carbonate, in both powder and granular form.
Approximately 50% of the material should be particulate, with particle size in the range 3mm to 5mm. Particles
smaller than 3mm tend to pass through the birds, without being digested. The most acceptable form of calcium
is oyster shell, but unfortunately this is usually more expensive than other forms.
Phase Feeding
In order to accommodate the changes (in protein, amino acids, calcium and phosphorus) the technique of 'phase
feeding' should be practised. Normally 3 rations may be fed in sequence as illustrated in the table on the
following page.
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* Layer 1 ration is introduced 2 weeks before sexual maturity - 2% production.
When amino acid levels are reduced, care must be taken not to induce a deficiency, as this will result in
reduction not only of egg size, but also egg numbers.
Please refer to page 41 for details of the age at which to change from one ration to another.
When layer ration changes are made, it is ideal not to make the change abruptly (the birds do not react
favourably to change!!) but to feed a mixture of the current and the future ration for a period of about 2 weeks.
Bird behaviour
The behaviour of individual birds or the flock, is a characteristic that is indicative of a variety of conditions.
Behaviour is influenced by many factors, singly or more usually in combination.
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Normal Behaviour
The Columbian Blacktail is normally active, but at the same time a calm and placid bird, with a healthy appetite.
The bird can cope with moderate stress, such as temperature rise or fall, transfer from rearing to laying facilities,
or change of ration, etc.
It is important to recognise any change in behaviour, as this may indicate some problem, and it is better that this
is both recognised and remedied sooner rather than later. The most important behavioural characteristics to
recognise are aggression and crowding.
Aggression
The exhibition of aggressive behaviour by Columbian Blacktail layers is abnormal, but there are stressful
circumstances which may result in aggression. If some of the birds start pecking aggressively (not all pecking is
aggressive, much is occupational and non-damaging) it is usual to hear squawks of pain from the pecked birds.
This needs early identification, as it is abnormal; it is an indication that there is a serious stress affecting the
flock, and prompt remedial action is essential. Possible causes are as follows.
•
Parasitic infection
1.
Red Mite.
2.
Worms - usually ascarid, but capillaria infestation is possible if cattle graze the range.
•
Insufficient floor space
1.
Stress of overcrowding.
2.
Limited access to drinkers and feeders.
3.
Inadequate ventilation, leading to higher levels of humidity and smell (ammonia).
4.
Inability to access nests, resulting in floor laying - leading to pecking of exposed vents.
•
Shortage of water or feed
1.
Drinkers/feeders empty.
2.
Water or feed unpalatable.
3.
Insufficient drinkers/feeders.
4.
Poor distribution of equipment.
5.
Obstructed access to equipment.
•
Feed not suitable
1.
Incorrect ration.
2.
Faulty manufacture - for example, incorrect salt inclusion.
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•
Intensity of light too bright
1.
Light source generally too powerful.
2.
Direct light from fluorescent bulbs (especially) or tubes.
3.
Entry of direct sunlight into the poultry house.
•
Nests brightly illuminated - bird's vents targeted during egg laying.
As pecking is difficult to control once it has started, the objective is to be ahead of the problem in order to
prevent the outbreak, but if it does occur (bearing in mind that it is indicative of abnormal behaviour) the
objective should be to identify the problem promptly, and remedy the cause as quickly as possible.
Crowding
If crowding occurs, there is always the accompanying risk that smothering and death by suffocation may occur.
The reasons for crowding are sometimes obscure, but there are some well identified causes:•
•
•
•
House temperature too low.
Birds frightened resulting in panic.
Presence of cold draughts.
Stocking density too high.
There are housing features which should be avoided, and provisions that should be made, in order to minimise
the risk of smothering.
•
Minimise the number of corners, especially 'dog legs'. It is sometimes better to sacrifice a little floor
space, keeping a few less birds, in order to maintain straight line partitions.
•
Ensure that, apart from the nests, there are no shady areas in which birds may congregate.
•
Construct partitions with wire mesh, because of course birds crowded against a mesh partition are still
able to breathe, but may not be able to do this if the partition is solid.
•
Use wire mesh covered triangles in order to eliminate corners.
•
If crowding occurs during the evening, for example close to sunset, check that sunlight does not enter
the house through the pop holes. This is almost certain to attract too many birds into a small area!
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Parasites
Mention has already been made of parasites - the effect of these is debility and even death in extreme cases.
There are two categories to consider:External Parasites.
There is one main problem - the red mite. This creature gains its colour by sucking blood from its host, the
chicken. The young immature mites are almost colourless. During the day these pests live in crevices,
particularly around the nests and slatted area.
Elimination is best effected by chemical spray when there are no birds in the building. Some reduction in mite
numbers may be made by spraying nests and slats with birds present, but control is rarely achieved at this time.
The spraying is best carried out about 2 or 3 hours before the end of the day, before the birds go to roost.
It is important not to introduce these creatures to the layer house. Consider the following points:•
They can be carried on people, so it is important that any persons having contact with other poultry
should change their clothes before visiting or working with the flock. It is ideal that staff and visitors
shower before entry to the poultry house, and wear freshly laundered clothing.
•
Egg packing materials may be contaminated, and so only new materials should be used anywhere on the
farm.
•
It is possible that poultry transport equipment may be contaminated. It should therefore be washed and
sanitised before visiting the farm, either delivering pullets, or collecting spent hens.
•
Wild birds may be a source of mites, and so should be excluded from the poultry building.
Unfortunately wild birds cannot be excluded from the pasture, so the risk of transmission is ever
present.
Internal Parasites.
There are several species of worms that may infest the alimentary tract, and under free range conditions
the risk of infestation is ever present. The following points should be considered:-
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•
Replacement pullets should not be infested. They should be checked (by faeces sampling)
during rearing, and if necessary wormed before delivery to the layer farm.
•
Transport crates should be thoroughly washed and sanitised before being used to transport
replacement pullets.
the
•
All staff should enter the building after scrubbing their footwear, and totally immersing the
part of the boot in a disinfectant solution (foot dip).
'foot'
•
In the case of capillaria, the risk is very much reduced if cattle do not graze the range - as they also are
hosts to this parasite.
•
Rotational paddock grazing (changing paddocks every 3 or 4 weeks) will break the development
cycle of ascarid worms, thus reducing the risk of infection when grazing.
Egg Care and Handling
The overriding objective is to produce a human food grade commodity in a clean, whole and fresh condition!
There are several priorities:•
Maintain the flock in a healthy condition.
•
Avoid egg soiling by maintaining nests, egg conveyors and collection tables in clean condition.
•
Wash hands before handling eggs.
•
Only use clean materials for egg packing.
•
Take care, when eggs are handled manually or automatically that collisions do not occur.
•
Collect eggs frequently, avoiding delay before packing and transfer to the cool egg store.
Conclusion
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We must emphasise that this booklet is only a guide, and should not be regarded as a complete and definitive
work on the subject of management of free range egg layers.
No two farms are similar, and there are a number of other differing factors which might necessitate specific
recommendations. If you feel in the need of further advice, or wish to discuss any of the topics in this guide,
please feel free to contact your Columbian Blacktail representative.
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APPENDIX 1
COLUMBIAN BLACKTAILS
TYPICAL VACCINATION PROGRAMME
AGE
VACCINE
METHOD
Hatchery
Gallavac IBD (1/2 Dose)
Injection
1 Weeks
Gallavac SE
Drinking Water
21/2 Weeks
Gallavac SE
Drinking Water
31/2 Weeks
Gumboro + Ib primer(D78)
Drinking Water
51/2 Weeks
MA45+Clone 30 Variant IB(4/91)
Drinking Water or Spray
9 Weeks
ILT
Coarse Spray
11 Weeks
AE(1/3Dose) ART(Nemovac)
Drinking Water or Spray
13 Weeks
MA5 + IB4/91+ IB primer
Spray
At Transfer 16 Weeks
Inactive IB/ND/EDS/TRT
(Gallimune407)
Injection
* CONSULT YOUR VETERINARIAN AND/OR REARER REGARDING VACCINATION POLICIES
FOR YOUR OWN UNIT
APPENDIX 2 - Bodyweight In Rear. (see rearing supplement booklet for full detail)
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Age
(Weeks)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Body
Weight
55 g
110 g
185 g
270 g
385 g
475 g
580 g
670 g
760 g
850 g
940 g
1030 g
1120 g
1200 g
1300 g
1360 g
APPENDIX 3 - Bodyweight In Lay.
Age
Body
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(Weeks)
Weight
16
1360 g
17
1460 g
18
1500 g
19
1600 g
20
1650 g
21
1710 g
22
1770 g
23
1800 g
24
1810 g
25
1820 g
26
1830 g
27
1840 g
28
1850 g
29
1860 g
30
1870 g
31
1880 g
32
1885 g
33
1890 g
34
1895 g
35
1900 g
36
1905 g
37
1910 g
38
1915 g
39
1920 g
40-41
1930 g
42-44
1940 g
45-46
1950 g
47-51
1960 g
52-57
1970 g
58-65
1980 g
66-72
1990 g
Notes
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Notes
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Columbian Blacktail Management Guide

Transcription

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