Issue 59 - New Concepts in Global Tectonics

Transcription

New Concepts in Global Tectonics
NEWSLETTER
No. 59, June, 2011
ISSN: 1833-2560 Editor: Dong R. CHOI ([email protected])
www.ncgt.org
Editorial board
Ismail BHAT, India ([email protected]); Peter JAMES, Australia ([email protected]);
Leo MASLOV, Russia ([email protected]); Cliff OLLIER, Australia ([email protected]);
Nina PAVLENKOVA, Russia ([email protected]); David PRATT, Netherlands ([email protected]);
N. Christian SMOOT, USA ([email protected]); Karsten STORETVEDT, Norway ([email protected]);
Yasumoto SUZUKI, Japan ([email protected]); Boris I. VASILIEV, Russia ([email protected])
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
CONTENTS
From the Editor Plate tectonics – gone with the great Japanese earthquake and tsunami………………..…..……….…2
Letters to the Editor
Earthquakes and surge tectonics, Peter M. JAMES………………………………………………………………………4
The subduction delusion: An example from the Molucca Sea, Peter M. JAMES………………………………………..6
36-day solar-polar rotation drives Madden-Jullian Oscillation, Bruce LEYBOURNE………………….…………..……7
Articles
Evolution of the North Atlantic: Paradigm shift in the offing, Karsten STORETVEDT and Biju LONGHINOS…………9
(Global wrench tectonics is applied to account for the physiographic and tectono-magmatic history of the region with emphasis
on its late Cretaceous-Tertiary evolution)
Dykes, global tectonics and crustal extension, Cliff OLLIER……………………………………………………..……49
(Volcanism does not take place in compressive areas, yet volcanoes and dykes are extensive in the Pacific ‘ring of fire’ and in
island arcs. There is something wrong with the common assumption of compression in these areas of alleged subduction)
Geological analysis of the Great East Japan Earthquake, Dong R. CHOI………………………………………………55
(The Great East Japan Earthquake was caused by the reactivation of two Precambrian tectonic systems: 1) an ENE-WSW
planetary fracture system running through the mainshock area, and 2) a N-S trending ridge system)
March 2011 Great Offshore Tohoku-Pacific Earthquake from the perspective of the VE process, Fumio TSUNODA..69
(A large crustal layer in the eastern Honshu region had been upwarping due to regional thermal expansion of the lower crust and
the uppermost mantle prior to the occurrence of numerous romping earthquakes, which finally resulted in the M9.0 earthquake)
Radio wave anomalies, ULF geomagnetic changes and variations in the interplanetary magnetic field preceding the
Japanese M9.0 earthquake, Valentino STRASER………………………………………………………………………78
(Low frequency radio wave anomaly increased markedly from 1 March, plummeted on the day of earthquake, but again rose
sharply from the next day. Magnetic field observed by satellite also followed the same trend as the radio wave fluctuation)
9/56 year cycle: Record earthquakes, David McMINN………………………………………………………………....89
(Earthquakes in the Americas, Western Europe and Japan often fell within the same sector of the complete 9/56 grid)
9/56 year cycle: Hurricane, David McMINN…………………………………………………………………………..106
(Major hurricanes in the Atlantic and the East Pacific were clustered within certain sections of the 9/56 year grid, far more than
could be expected by chance. The sunspot cycle strongly influences weather activity and hurricane formation)
Essay Aspects of planetary formation and the Precambrian Earth, Karsten STORETVEDT………………..…………113
Publications
Cold Sun, John CASEY.....................................................................................................................................................137
Long period tidal force variations in the Earth-Moon planet system, Yu.N. AVSHYK and L.A. MASLOV....................138
Video: Alternative Geology Documentary, Alan HAYMAN...........................................................................................138
News Conferences: EDPD-2011, India; IGC34 Brisbane; Earth expansion, Italy..........................................................139
Obituary Claude Blot, Jean-Pierre BLOT.......................................................................................................................141
Corrigendum.....................................................................................................................................................................142
Financial contribution......................................................................................................................................................143
Advertisements
Nordic Geosolutions, Per MICHAELSEN.........................................................................................................................3
ClimateStat, Bruce LEYBOURNE..................................................................................................................................144
________________________________________________________________________________________
For contact, correspondence, or inclusion of material in the Newsletter please use the following methods: NEW CONCEPTS IN GLOBAL
TECTONICS. 1. E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], or [email protected], each file less than 5 megabytes; 2. Fax (small amount of
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format); 4. Telephone, +61-2-6254 4409. DISCLAIMER: The opinions, observations and ideas published in this newsletter are the responsibility of the
contributors and do not necessary reflect those of the Editor and the Editorial Board. NCGT Newsletter is an open, refereed quarterly international
online journal and appears in March, June, September and December.
New Concepts in Global Tectonics Newsletter, no. 59, June, 2011. www.ncgt.org
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FROM THE EDITOR
Plate tectonics – gone with the great Japanese earthquake and tsunami
I
n addition to the damage to human life, property and the economy, the historic M9.0 earthquake and
tsunami in northern Japan last March (Great East Japan Earthquake – GEJE) has brought about chaos
among Japanese seismologists who are heavily committed to plate tectonics. They failed to warn the
Japanese people in advance of this disaster after having spent a huge amount of money in the last four
decades on the “predicted” Great Offshore Tokai (western Japan) earthquake which has never occurred
(Geller, 2011; Uyeda, 2011). They are now facing a taxpayers’ revolt – people are venting their anger at
the seismological authorities. More seriously, seismologists have had to publicly admit that the prevailing
plate tectonic paradigm cannot explain the GEJE. Let’s examine their own problems with the GEJE, based
on an article by Ito that appeared in one of the major newspapers in Japan (Yomiuri Shinbun) on 10 April
2011:
Seismologists are puzzled by the extraordinary magnitude. M9.0 class trench-type quakes are believed to
happen only in relatively young oceanic crust with an age of less than several tens of thousands of years.
Because a new plate has a lower density, it subducts at a low angle, which generates greater friction, thus
accumulating stronger stress and triggering higher magnitude quakes. Conversely, an older plate (like the
northwest Pacific plate – over 100 Ma old) has a higher density, thus subducting at a higher angle – hence
causing less friction and smaller magnitude quakes. As the plate slab subducts at an angle of 10 to 30 degrees
at the Japan Trench, the expected magnitude has been estimated to be around M7.0.
The second puzzle for them is the vast extent of crustal movement – it affected a 450 x 200 km area [actually
700 x 200 km]. The crustal rupture occurred as a series of events. The succession of ruptures was believed to
occur in areas with strong frictional plate coupling (asperities) – where stronger stress can build up in a wide
area. But the intervening areas with weak frictional coupling can slip easily with a smaller stress. So why did
the intervening weak frictional areas not work as stress absorbers at the time of this earthquake?
There is one more problem: The unusually large ground movement – estimated to be 20 to 30 m horizontally
[partly proved by in-situ measurement]. The Pacific plate subducts at 8 cm per year at the Japan Trench.
Therefore, if the accumulating deformation is assumed to be 3 cm per year, it will take almost 1,000 years to
store energy powerful enough to move 20 to 30 m. So how can the landward plate hold for more than 1,000
years without rebounding?
As discussed in my paper in this NCGT issue (p. 55-68), these problems are easily resolved by geological
data. The strong magnitude and broad extent of this earthquake are due to the strong energy convergence
and accumulation in the upper mantle and regional structural high under the wide offshore area of north
Japan at the time of a solar cycle trough when stronger energy is discharged from the Earth’s outer core.
This better explains the recent spate of strong quakes, magmatic activities and extreme weather events
worldwide. The amount of ground movement is directly related to geological structure. The high frictional
plate coupling areas correspond to crustal high blocks.
All the problems haunting Japanese seismologists today come from the neglect of well-founded,
indisputable geological data. Northern Japan and its offshore area have been exhaustively studied by
numerous Japanese geologists and geophysicists, and their results are readily available. But as far as I am
aware, no one except us (the NCGT group) has referred to geological data in analyzing the GEJE. This
applies to most of the past great earthquakes worldwide too. As Hoshino (NCGT Newsletter, no. 57, p.
118-119, 2010) rightly points out, earthquakes are geological phenomena. Seismologists must work
together with geologists. Plate tectonics has been shattered by the Great East Japan Earthquake and swept
away to the Pacific Ocean by the retreating tsunami. Bye bye plate tectonics!
References
Geller, R.J., 2011. Shake-up time for Japanese seismology. Nature online. DOI:doi:10.1038/nature 10105.
13 April.
Ito, T., 2011. Commonly-accepted seismological theory does not work. Yomiuri Shinbun (Newspaper). 10 April,
2011 (in Japanese).
Uyeda, S., 2011. Japanese earthquake prediction, what should we do? Chuokoron, April 2011, p. 196-208 (in
Japanese).
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LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
EARTHQUAKES AND SURGE TECTONICS
S
•
•
•
everal published submissions the most recent NCGT issue, # 58, contain points that appear worthy
of comment:
The alleged effects of planetary/lunar/solar changes on the occurrence of earthquakes
The 9/56 cycle for earthquakes
The subject of surge tectonics
Taking these in order:Planetary/Lunar/Solar Effects.
Corroboration of a nexus between earthquakes and sun spot activity is claimed by Mr V. Straser
(Solar cycles and earthquakes in the NW Apennines, Italy, p. 3-8). However, the trends he postulates
in his Figs 2, 3 & 4 are difficult to accept as such corroboration; both low and high sunspot activity is
shown to be associated with similar numbers of earthquakes.
As pointed out by the paper's author, the Apennine events are generally shallow and of low to
moderate magnitude. Such events typically occur as a result of shear failure along discontinuities
(major joints, faults, etc.). It is difficult to see how mechanical shear stresses could be significantly
altered by sunspot activity. In contrast, the manner in which electromagnetic effects could influence
the behavior and/or upward migration of high temperature, high pressure volatiles from the mantle (as
envisaged by Claude Blot) is another matter.
Another causative factor (for earthquake activity) has recently been given an airing: the effects of the
positions of planets or the moon at apogee/perigee. Quantitative evaluation of what might be called
the planetary effect has unfortunately been absent. The following is an attempt to look at the relevant
effect of the moon's orbital variations on shallow earthquakes by comparing its effects with those of
reservoir induced seismicity (RIS).
RIS is more or less a global phenomenon that occurs as a result of the rise in water pressure in the
ambient rocks associated with the filling of a dam. This rise reduces the effective stresses along
discontinuities in the rock mass so that, when the rock mass is already under horizontal stresses that
differ significantly from the vertical (overburden) stress, this change in water (pore) pressure can be
enough to produce a shear failure, James (2000).
RIS is common in the 4 – 5 km depth range and typically for dams above 50m in height. It is virtually
unknown for dams below some 20 – 30 m in height. This suggests a lower limit might exist for the
artificial triggering of earthquakes even in highly stressed regions. For a dam some 30m in height
causing earthquakes in the 4 – 5km depth zone, the relative effect of impounding turns out to be no
more than of 0.4 – 0.5% of the insitu stresses at the earthquake depth. Obviously, for such a relatively
small change to be capable of inducing failure in the ambient rock mass implies that the rock mass
must already be in a state of incipient failure. (Of course, many large dams have been successfully
built without triggering RIS, but this can be explained by a more stable rock mass, that is, without any
preceding micro-seismic activity.)
So how does the above "minimum stress change" compare with the gravitational changes produced
astronomically, say by the major changes in the moon's orbit. A simplified estimation of the
gravitational changes caused by the moon at apogee or perigee comes out as being of the order of
0.001% of the moon's average gravitational force. This is very small but quantitative comparison with
the above RIS changes is beyond the present writer's capacity to evaluate. Some indirect evidence
might, however, be illustrative. For instance, oyster farmers in the south of Tasmania found that the
high/low tides during the recent lunar perigee varied around 20 cm from the tide chart predictions.
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There is also the evidence from groundwater monitoring and, as far as this writer knows, there is no
published data relating major changes in water levels to the moon's more extreme orbital paths. Nor is
the writer aware of any such observations in a thirty year monitoring program in central Queensland.
Intuitively, then, one would not anticipate that variations in the moon - or planets acting individually would be capable of producing earthquakes in the Earth's crust. The rare alignment of moon, Jupiter,
Saturn and the sun, expected in 2012, is perhaps another matter. Having said all that, however, it is
known that the frequency of moonquakes (all M ˂ 2) increases during the perigee, at least in certain
lunar regions.
The postulated 9/56 year cycle: California earthquakes
The paper on the above topic, by D. McMinn, appears to be an attempt to tie financial panics of the
past to a 9/56 year cycle of earthquakes in California and nearby. The majority of events in California
are shallow and the author restricts himself to earthquakes of magnitude M 6.5 and greater. However,
when the author's data were plotted on a graph as earthquake numbers for each year, there were
periods of non-conformance between earthquake activity and the proposed cycle. Perhaps one might
expect that, if the author's cycle system did occur, it would also involve many smaller events, say,
down to M 4.5. Inclusion of these could well be instructive. Moreover, some future comparison
between the author's cycles and that proposed by Dong Choi and Leo Maslov (Earthquakes and solar
activity cycles, NCGT # 57) could also be useful.
Surge Tectonics
The discussion paper by Ismail Bhat et al (Scientific logic behind the surge tectonics hypothesis,
NCGT # 58) implies I have not read surge tectonics. (The same accusation is hinted at for Professor
Storetvedt. Which would put me in good company, if both accusations were correct.) The fact is that I
did read the original surge tectonics dissertation by Meyerhoff et al, some nineteen years ago in the
Texas Tech. University Publication (New Concepts in Global Tectonics, Eds Chattergee & Hotton,
1992). I have found no reason to return to the topic – at least until now – when I find no reason to
alter my original comment (NCGT # 56) that the surge tectonics hypothesis relies basically on
morphology-type interpretations, without the follow-up quantitative analyses of the stresses required
to generate the postulated mechanisms.
The authors' above mentioned paper, in the final paragraph of page 51, states that surge tectonics is
principally based on cooling and contraction of the Earth body. But the Earth, at least since preCambrian times, would appear to have been a solid body with a brittle crust and surface temperatures
much as today. How much cooling has gone on in the interior, since then, is conjectural. Otherwise
the Earth's interior, whether plastic or liquid, would be imcompressible and the only way for such a
solid body to contract is through the expulsion of volatiles/liquids from the surface, analogous to the
consolidation process in soils. Some indication of the contraction available to the Earth might
therefore be obtainable from estimations of the volumes of gases/liquids released by global volcanic
activity, earthquakes, hot vents, and so forth. (Basalt flows and seamount production would also lead
to surface subsidence, but here the subsidence would partly be compensated for by the addition of the
lavas to the surface.)
Guides to the analysis of such a process of global contraction might be found in the work of M.A.
Biot, who analysed the consolidation of a spherical porous body (Jnl. Appl. Phys., v. 12, 1941; Jnl.
Appl. Mech., v. 23, 1956). Also Gauss's Lemma, relating deformation of a body to the flux across its
outside surface, might be useful. (Unfortunately, the writer of this letter no longer has these references
at hand, but the above exercise might better suit some younger researcher.)
One more point: - Surge tectonics also postulates that magma flows are strongly influenced by
Coriolis forces, probably the weakest Earth force available. Again, surely this is a matter that could be
analysed, balancing the magnitude of the Coriolis forces against the frictional resistance to flow of
magma in the postulated surge channels.
Peter M. JAMES
[email protected]
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THE SUBDUCTION DELUSION
An example from the Molucca Sea
T
he subduction concept of mobile plate tectonics requires continuity of a lithospheric plate in its
journey down to the upper mantle, via the Benioff Zones. Locations where this process is initiated
are alleged to be the deep oceanic trenches.
Some of the fallacies of this concept have been pointed out by numerous authors, namely: that the
oceanic trenches are often quite separate features from the shallow Benioff Zone; that there is
frequently a gap between the shallow and the deep Benioff Zone; that the latter zone is sometimes
separated from the deep earthquake regime by an aseismic zone. In other words, evidence for
continuity of a subducting plate is frequently missing. In addition, interpretations of seismic profiling
across active margins all around the Pacific, by the NCGT Editor and others, has revealed no solid
evidence of any subduction, while analysis of the alleged process by the present author (also available
in the NCGT newsletters) reveals that the mechanism of subduction could not physically get started,
let alone be capable of continuing.
Despite the weight of all this evidence, the concept remains solidly fixed in the mobilist culture. The
following example is therefore proffered as another illustration of the manner in which the criteria for
identifying subduction zones can lead to absurdity.
The region of the Molucca Sea is shown in Figure 1. Down the western flank of the region is the well
known line of deep (approx. 600 km) earthquakes, running from Mindanao Island to the north-west
corner of Sulawesi. Approximately two to three hundred kilometers to the east is a complex of
shallow earthquakes running a sinuous course but one partly sub-parallel to the deep earthquake
alignment. The shallow earthquake zone stretches from around 5° N to just south of the equator.
Between these two zones, medium depth earthquakes occur on typical Benioff Zones. Just to the
north-east of the shallow earthquake zone is the southern end of the Philippine Trench. This geometry
is shown on three approximately east-west sections crossing the region, Figures 2, 3 and 4.
Within the mobilist culture, such arrangements are accepted as defining subduction zones - although
little or no attention appears to be paid to the manner in which a rigid lithospheric plate might
accommodate itself to the non-linearities and non-parallelism involved in the alleged process. But
there is a more important conflict here.
On the eastern side of the shallow earthquake zone is another apparent subduction zone, with
earthquake activity occurring along a Benioff zone dipping to the east. This zone terminates at around
200km depth and, in the northern section, it terminates directly beneath the oceanic trench. The
immediate questions that arise from this are:
•
•
How would it physically be possible for subduction to proceed in two opposite directions
simultaneously, from a point source at the surface?
How could the Philippine Trench be part of the alleged major subduction process to the west,
when its path is truncated by the easterly dipping Benioff Zone?
The answer lies in the fact that Benioff Zones and ocean trenches have a markedly different origin
from that postulated in the mobilist framework.
Peter JAMES
Geotechnical Engineer/Engineering Geologist
[email protected]
7
Figure 1 (left). Molucca Sea between Mindanao and Sulawesi showing lines of earthquake events and
sections plotted on Figs. 2, 3 & 4.
Figure 2 (right). Section A–A events on an E-W section between Lat. 4–5deg N. M>4 (1973-2002)
Figure 3 (left). Section B-B events on an E-W section between Lat. 2.5-3.5deg N. M>4 (1973-2002).
Figure 4 (right). Section C-C events on an E-W section between Lat. 0.5-1.5deg N. M>4 (1973-2002).
********************
36-DAY SOLAR-POLAR ROTATION DRIVES MADDEN-JULIAN OSCILLATION
I
found in some reports that 36 days is solar rotation of the poles. Using this number to calculate the
time it takes for the Sun to make a complete rotation and catch back up to the Earth at the same
solar rotation meridian or point, since the Earth is moving forward in it's orbit... is as follows:
36days + [(36days/365days) * 36days] = 39.55 days.
It takes the Sun’s same sweep meridian 3.55 days extra to catch back up with the Earth after it rotates
around once.
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1 solar rotation + [(% arc of earth's yearly orbit during 1 solar rotation) * days rotating] = total
days.... if we use the actual number of approximate days it takes to catch up, the calculation goes like
this:
36days + [(39.55days/365days) * 39.55] = 40.29
either way it's close enough to the 40-day oscillation of the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) to make
an interesting hypothesis. Wonder if anyone has ever thought of this possibility before?
I don't think this is coincidental, and I think I know why it's linked to the MJO! The Krishnamurti et.
al. paper on “Space-time Structures of Earthquakes”, Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics, 2009, v.
105 (no. 1-2), p. 69-83, gives the clue needed to figure this out. If their analysis and this hypothesis
are correct it means earthquakes are stimulated electrically by solar magnetism and the polarity
oscillations of the solar sweep are what shift the electrical energy from north to south in the
pendulum motion.
It sounds simple because it is. The intensity and polarity shift gradually around the Earth as the Sun
rotates. This changes the plasma flow and conductivity of the poles controlling the timing and
geographical distribution of electrical discharges from the core-mantle-boundary linked to earthquake
stimulus. Further investigation should prove this out.
Bruce LEYBOURNE
[email protected]
20-June -2011
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ARTICLES
EVOLUTION OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC: PARADIGM SHIFT
IN THE OFFING
Karsten M. STORETVEDT
Institute of Geophysics, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
[email protected]
Biju LONGHINOS
University College, Trivandrum City, Kerala, India
[email protected]
– Yet, after 20 years…it [plate tectonics] seems in danger of loosing its simplicity and elegance. Violations of what the late
Norman D. Watkins used to call the “principle of minimum astonishment” are becoming quite common…[T]wo major
issues foreshadow its ultimate limits as a theory: the apparent pulse-like behaviour of at least some of the earth’s internal
processes, and the growing need for ad hoc hypotheses, a sign that the theory may not be able to keep its promise to be the
new “global“ tectonics. –
T. Van Andel (1985, p. 138 & 141)
Abstract: A critical examination of a range of geophysical and geological evidence exposes the inadequacy of
plate tectonics to account for the geological development of the North Atlantic. In an attempt to get out of the
present deadlock, the theory of Global Wrench Tectonics (Storetvedt, 1997 & 2003) is applied to account for the
physiographic and tectono-magmatic history of the region – with particular emphasis to its late CretaceousTertiary evolution. According to the new theory, the Earth had originally acquired a thick pan-global continental
incrustation which subsequently has been subjected to a long history of irregular sub-crustal attenuation and
related chemical changes, progressively running towards an oceanic mode – processes that reached its peak
during the Upper Mesozoic. On this basis, the multitude of variably submerged micro-continental masses in the
North Atlantic – including Iceland and the rest of the Shetland/Greenland Ridge, as well as the occurrences of a
large variety of continental rocks recovered from sites along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, are readily explained. The
accelerated loss of crustal material to the mantle during the late Cretaceous gave rise to events of moderate true
polar wander (changing the relative position of the equatorial bulge) and increase in the Earth’s rate of rotation –
regarded here as the principal dynamical triggers of the Alpine tectonic revolution. Latitude-dependent inertia
mechanisms, basically controlled by the Coriolis Effect, led to westward wrenching of the global palaeolithosphere. In this process, the thinned and mechanically weakened North Atlantic lithosphere broke up in
‘mid’-ocean position, giving rise to left-lateral shearing and the general structural obliquity observed along the
mid-ocean rift. As constituent parts of the Alpine lithospheric wrenching, Europe and North America underwent
relative clockwise rotations in situ, bringing their respective polar paths apart. Hence, the current separation of
the polar trails for the two continents does not require lateral continental separation – only relative changes of
their azimuths. There is no factual evidence that linear magnetic field anomalies represent the association of
geomagnetic polarity changes and isochrones of seafloor evolution as is currently believed. Instead, a variety of
evidence suggests that the marine magnetic linearity arises from a combination of fault-aligned magnetomineralogical changes giving rise to susceptibility contrasts and induction from the ambient geomagnetic field.
On the new global tectonic basis, the range of physiographic and tectonic features of the North Atlantic is
reinterpreted.
Keywords: palaeomagnetism, North Atlantic, aspects of lithospheric mobility, dismissal of seafloor spreading,
wrench tectonics, new evolutionary pattern
Introduction
y the late 1950s, palaeomagnetic studies had led to the conclusions that not only had the pole
shifted its position with respects to the continents, but the land masses had also moved relative to
one another. A systematic displacement of ~25 degrees of longitude between the polar paths of
Europe and North America was defined – soon to be considered prima facie evidence in favour of
Alfred Wegener’s long disbanded drift hypothesis. Though the alleged unification of the North
Atlantic continents had been facing long-standing matching problems, any alternative mobile plan –
B
10
potentially avoiding the physical fitting problems – was unfortunately not seriously considered (cf.
Storetvedt, 2003, p. 72 & 75). For example, the flat-topped and relatively barren trans-oceanic
Shetland-Faeroes-Iceland-Greenland Ridge – traditionally seen as a land bridge explaining the
exchange of fauna and flora between the North Atlantic continents – was a matter of some concern.
However, in the late 1950s the drift idea was in a progressive phase, and within less than a decade the
Earth sciences had been shunted into a trendy theoretical edifice – running impulsively in favour of
lateral continental drift and, from 1968, plate tectonic principles. In this conversion process, from
fixed to mobile continents, former con arguments were conveniently twisted into pro-cases (for
details, cf. Storetvedt, 1997, 2003 & 2010b).
Today it is well established that the trans-oceanic Shetland-Greenland Ridge has a 30-40 km thick
(continental-type) crust, and recent compilations of crustal magnetic field signatures show that this
trans-oceanic link-up has the bulky anomaly features characterizing the continents (Korhonen et al.,
2007; Maus et al., 2009). In this paper we present evidence which indicate that the North Atlantic land
bridge, a remnant of a former all-embracing North Atlantic continental crust, existed, periodically, as
an emerged ridge until the late Miocene – undercutting the hypotheses of lateral continental drift and
seafloor spreading. Hence, current ad hoc propositions that the Ridge has been subjected to sub-aerial
or shallow water seafloor spreading are dismissed as theory-infested artefact.
Nor can Iceland – the only mid-ocean ridge location in the world with noteworthy volcanic activity,
be regarded evidence of seafloor spreading. With the onset of Neogene volcanism in Iceland,
concurrent magmatic activity took place also in numerous locations across nearly the whole width of
the Central Atlantic. On the contrary, Miocene and younger volcanism north of Iceland is practically
absent – important aspects to which plate tectonics has no answer. Meeting the many challenges with
a string of diverse ad hoc propositions – in which the unconfirmed notion of seafloor spreading is
topped by a steady growth of other hypothetical adornments, for which the North Atlantic region is a
classical case – is not a sign of true scientific prosperity. With the benefit of hindsight, it does not take
much imagination to see that if the leading palaeomagnetists in the 1950s had opted for inertia-driven,
latitude-dependent, in situ Alpine age continental rotations – instead of lateral drift (see below) global
geophysics might well have taken an utterly different intellectual path.
Unfortunately, the habit of reiterating popular models – and ignoring evidence contradicting them – is
very widespread in science (cf. Brown 1977; Feyerabend 1988; Kuhn, 1970 & 1977; Lakatos, 1978).
For example, though all attempts to confirm the principal mechanisms of plate tectonics have failed
(for example Storetvedt, 1997, 2003 & 2010b, and numerous articles in the NCGT Newsletter)
alleged spreading histories of the world oceans – associated with a persistent flow of auxiliary
hypotheses mixed up with unjustified ad hoc refinements – continue to dominate the geo scientific
literature. In the present discussion, we shall therefore take a fresh look at some important
data/phenomena of the North Atlantic, including observations which in the past decades have been
largely ignored. Due to the apparent inability of plate tectonics to establish ready connections between
the ranges of diverse phenomena, it seems appropriate to go back to a Theoretical Square One
position in global tectonics.
The traditional idea of a hot, convecting mantle, currently needed to drive hypothetical plate tectonics,
does not explain the tangled web of pulse-like processes and phenomena building up geological
history. On the other hand, the fact that unoxidized hydrocarbons occur as inclusions in diamonds of
suggested lower mantle provenance, and that methane and other hydrocarbons are being emitted
continuously through the crystalline basement (e.g. Melton and Giardini 1974; Gold, 1985 & 1987;
Welhan and Craig, 1983; McLaughlin-West et al., 1999; Lupton et al., 1999) indicates that the overall
internal temperature is much lower than traditionally thought. Hence, it may be concluded that the
Earth have been out of thermo-chemical equilibrium throughout its history. In the natural process of
reaching such stability, internal mass reorganization – aided by buoyant volatiles – has probably been
at play since the dawn of the planet, giving rise to jerky changes in planetary rotation which in turn
has set off the progressive evolutionary course of intermittent geological activity. This forms the basic
11
foundation of the degassing-related Global Wrench Tectonics – GWT (Storetvedt, 1997& 2003)
employed in this study.
Irregular degassing and the associated internal reorganization of planetary mass would naturally have
caused changes of spin rate as well as episodic changes of spatial orientation of the body of the Earth
– thereby repositioning the equatorial bulge (a phenomenon known as True Polar Wander). The
governing principle of GWT is that the episodic changes of planetary dynamics provide the principal
drivers of surface physiographic, environmental and volcano-tectonic processes. In other words, the
geological history becomes intimately linked to pulse-like changes in Earth’s rotation. Accumulation
of volatiles in the topmost mantle, including chemical reactions and heat production – producing
pockets of melts – gradually built up an irregular low-velocity asthenosphere. During the Mesozoic,
accumulation of buoyant volatiles had generated a sufficient level of hydrostatic pressure to occasion
an effective transformation of granulitic and gabbroic rocks to the relatively heavier eclogite, paving
the way for accelerated sub-crustal delamination and attendant isostatic basin formation. Hence, an
advanced stage of crustal ‘oceanization’ (gradually producing a thin and chemically altered oceanic
crust) is a newcomer in Earth history – having existed only since the latest Cretaceous. At the end of
the Mesozoic the modern continental mosaic was basically in place, surrounded by the mechanically
weaker and more easily deformable oceanic tracts. By then the Earth was in a tectonically more
unstable state than ever before. Hence, the Alpine revolution – probably one of the most widespread
and forceful tectonic upheavals in Earth history – was on its way.
Inferentially, break up and thinning of the oceanic crust is linked to changes of the Earth’s moment of
inertia – following the principle of Conservation of Angular Momentum
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yAWLLo5cyfE). Inferentially, the increasing crustal attenuation
during the late Cretaceous, with inward motion of delaminated material, led to acceleration in the
Earth’s axial spin (cf. Creer, 1975). This change in the Earth’s rotation led to latitude-dependant
wrenching of the planetary shell (Storetvedt 2003). In response to this global torsion, the break up of
the lithosphere into tectonic units included mostly moderate inertia-driven rotations in situ. The
resulting tectonic boundaries are represented by the mid-ocean rift zones. The Alpine revolution,
constituting a number of distinct dynamo-tectonic pulses, affected the globe to well into the Lower
Tertiary. The irregularly distributed degassing from the outer core and lower mantle (reflecting in
some way the oceanic-continental configuration) is thought to be the origin of the deep mantle roots
beneath the continents. According to the GWT system of tectonic mobility, the continental blocks
have always stayed with their respective mantle roots.
Following to the dynamo-tectonic principles of GWT, the development of the North Atlantic would
naturally have spread from south to north. And similarly, the tectonic and physiographic
characteristics would be controlled by the fundamental orthogonal fracture pattern implanted into the
pan-global crust in Archean time. Continental rifting, margin volcanism, margin subsidence, and
seaward thinning of the crust are indisputable facts. But relating these observations to hypothesized
crustal ‘stretching’ can be dismissed as model-required speculations.
Palaeomagnetism and continental drift
During the late 1950s, it had become evident that fixed continental arrangement did not satisfy the
worldwide palaeomagnetic data base. It was appreciated that a significant part of the present
geomagnetic field arises from an internal mechanism closely associated with the Earth’s axial spin
(Elsasser, 1946). In addition, it had been known for centuries that the field undergoes relatively minor,
but systematic, changes in direction – known as geomagnetic secular variations. Following on from
these facts, Runcorn (1954 & 1955) proposed that the average field direction, spanning a few
thousand years, could be imagined as representing that of a dipole in the Earth’s core aligned coaxially with the planet’s rotation axis. The palaeomagnetic evidence that the polarity of the field had
repeatedly reversed within periods apparently spanning millions of years, without altering the
inclination of the overall magnetization axis, gave further grounds for believing that the orientation of
the Earth’s field is anchored to the rotation axis in some fundamental way (Hospers, 1955). From the
accumulating palaeomagnetic evidence, two important geophysical implications arose:
12
1) The characteristic overall palaeomagnetic declination of a particular rock formation (for which
secular variation effects presumably had been averaged out) would be aligned in the
palaeomeridian plane at the time the fossil magnetization was impressed;
2) The mean remanence (fossil) inclination would have a simple geometrical relationship with its
corresponding palaeolatitude.
Granted the validity of the geocentric dipole assumption throughout geological time, and provided the
secular variation field scatter had been averaged out, an estimated palaeomagnetic pole position
would correspond to the relative orientation of the palaeogeographical axis/poles at the time in
question. Plotting of age progressive pole positions in present geographical coordinates was therefore
regarded the best possible way to collate mean directions of magnetization from widely separated
regions (Creer et al., 1954). Based on this theoretical platform, a pioneering polar wander path,
connecting successive poles for rock formations spanning ages from modern times to the late
Precambrian, was established for Britain. In constructing this curve, it was taken for granted that,
apart from precession about the normal to the plane of the ecliptic, the spatial orientation of the
rotation axis had not changed throughout geological times. The fact that the polar trail for Britain was
in reasonable agreement with the palaeoclimatically-defined European polar wandering curve of
Wegener (1929) – initially proposed by Kreichgauer (1902) – gave further substance to the
palaeomagnetic interpretation. Alfred Wegener had undoubtedly been right about the phenomenon of
polar wander, so had he also been right about continental drift?
As palaeomagnetic measurements from other continents began to accumulate, it was obvious that the
potential of the palaeomagnetic method was not restricted to that of polar wandering. Thus, it was
soon realized that palaeomagnetic polar estimates for pre-Tertiary rocks from various continents did
not agree with one another; the individual pre-Tertiary polar wander paths had discrepant orientations
in present-day geographical coordinates. Hence, some sort of crustal mobility seemed to have been in
operation in a relatively recent geological epoch. From around 1957, the question of relative
continental motions had become an integral part of palaeomagnetic research. All of a sudden,
Wegener’s drift hypothesis, disbanded for decades, had made palaeomagnetism a promising line of
geophysical research. In the very optimistic atmosphere that then prevailed in the young
palaeomagnetic community, the traditional geological arguments against Wegener’s reconfiguration
of the Atlantic continents were regarded as ‘old-fashioned’ – former contrary arguments were simply
disregarded (cf. Storetvedt, 1997, 2003 & 2010b).
The longstanding physical and geological matching problems were clearly hypothesis-laden – a
product of force-to-fit operations associated with Wegener’s drift model. Nevertheless, the divergent
polar wander paths for Europe and North America (Fig. 1) were strong prima-facie evidence that
some kind of relative motion had taken place. But was it Wegener’s model of lateral drift that had
been in action, or was there some other mobile system that perhaps would fit the palaeomagnetic data
even better – and at the same time avoid the continental matching problems? The southward fanningout shape of the North Atlantic, as might be associated with the latitude-dependent Coriolis Effect,
ought to have been a matter of prime interest to the physics oriented palaeomagnetic community.
However, Wegener’s hypothesis of lateral drift was rapidly gaining popularity – nobody seems to
have bothered looking for any alternative solution (cf. Storetvedt, 2003, p. 72 & 75).
13
Fig. 1. The early palaeomagnetic-based polar wander paths for Europe and North America – from Runcorn
(1962). The general north-trending course of the two polar curves was regarded strong evidence in support of
Wegener’s paleaoclimatically-based polar tracks – underpinning the dynamical phenomenon of True Polar
Wandering. In other words, during geological times the Earth had repeatedly undergone episodic changes of its
spatial orientation (relative to the rotation axis). It was taken for granted that the longitudinal discrepancy of the
two polar wander curves had been brought about by lateral (E-W) continental separation. From now on,
Wegener’s drift hypothesis was gradually elevated to prominence.
As the majority of available palaeomagnetic data came from North America and Europe, the
discrepancy between the two polar trails was in the forefront of the debate. Though there were
uncertainties in timing the separation of the two polar paths, Runcorn (1962) seemed confident that
the palaeomagnetic evidence was broadly in accordance with Wegener’s schema; he doubtless
reasoned that some mutually contradictory data would disappear when more precise studies had been
carried out. But Runcorn’s expectation was not confirmed. For example, a decade later Jean Roy of
Ottawa published a palaeomagnetic comparison between Europe and North America, suggesting that
the marked shift of palaeolatitude he arrived at (~20°) had taken place between the two land masses
(Roy, 1972); a significant left-lateral shear along the North Atlantic, with North America having
swung clockwise relative to Europe, was clearly incompatible with the simple model of lateral drift.
Roy’s results came as a surprise to many palaeomagnetists but, due to entrenched biased
interpretations and the human propensity for hanging on to apparent perceptions endorsed by the
majority, the thriving drift/spreading community was apparently not prepared to deal with annoying
facts (Storetvedt, 2003). A longitudinal relative continental shift – superposed on a lateral closure of
the North Atlantic, which Jean Roy took for granted – seemed extravagant to most palaeomagnetists
at the time. In hindsight, however, it is not difficult to see that Roy’s analysis opened up the
possibility for an alternative mobile system. In fact, the longitudinal separation of the two polar paths
was not conditioned by lateral drift at all – the discordant polar curves could well be accounted for by
an inertia-driven relative clockwise rotation of the two land masses – the two continents maintaining
their present geographical separation. Relative to Europe, only a modest clockwise rotation of North
America, by about 25° about some continental ‘centroid’, would have been required. This alternative
mobile system would be consistent with the growing evidence of regional differences between
continental and oceanic upper mantles (MacDonald, 1964) – the aspect that continents have deep
mantle roots, now well established by mantle tomography, which was/is a serious obstacle to lateral
drift and sea floor spreading. But the alternative mobile system signalled that at least some relatively
minor tectonic deformation and re-shaping of the Atlantic basin might be expected. However, by the
14
early 1970s the inertia of the drift/spreading hypothesis was very strong, even though a number of
fundamental aspects with the new global tectonics seemed problematic. There was clearly a lack of
readiness to rock the boat (see below, and Storetvedt, 1997, 2003 & 2010b).
Strange as it seems, physical adjustment problems of conjugate shelves were no longer a critical
aspect in palaeomagnetic research. Traditionally, the Earth sciences community had accused Alfred
Wegener of manipulating and distorting critical continental fragments that would otherwise have
precluded his desired fit, but the computer version of Bullard et al. (1965), launched while the
hypothesis of lateral drift was in its progressive phase, was effectively no better (see Le Grand, 1988).
Of the many elevated North Atlantic submarine structures Bullard et al. included the Rockall Plateau
in their continental matching for the sole reason that it could be ‘fitted in’. But prominent structures
like the trans-oceanic Shetland-Faeroe-Iceland-Greenland Ridge – forming a nearly complete shallow
joint between NW Europe and Greenland, long regarded as a trans-oceanic land-bridge to account for
intercontinental biological migration – were excluded. Unfortunately, opportunistic approaches and
wishful thinking had become more important than strict scientific procedures (cf. Le Grand, 1988).
Though Wegener had been accused of taking some extreme liberty with the crust, he was clearly
aware of a number of fitting problems that his model created, such as the Azorean region. In fact, he
regarded the large Azorean massif as a real obstacle to a complete closing of the North Atlantic prior
to his postulated drift. From the work of Hartung (1860), it had been known for decades that pebbles
of a wide variety of continental rocks – including granite, mica-schist, quartzite, sandstone and
limestone – were scattered throughout the Azorean archipelago – in the form of xenoliths readily
observed in contrasting dark lava. Thus, Wegener (1929) submitted that the available geological
information from these islands indicated that they had a continental substratum. The original
observations of Hartung, suggesting that below a top layer of volcanics the Azorean Archipelago had
a continental basement, had been strengthened by the 1883 Talisman expedition – during which
dredges containing continental fragments such as quartzite, siliceous limestone and schist with
trilobite fossils had been obtained. Subsequently, Lower Palaeozoic sediments have repeatedly been
recovered from seamounts of the actual region (cf. Furon, 1949). Schneck (1974), discussing the
Talisman collection, concluded that the recovered continental material was likely to be more or less in
place. Hence, the sampled area seemed to evoke a mid-ocean continental zone submerged in a
relatively recent geological epoch. This view was, however, in contradiction with the long-held
opinion that the sialic crust constituted a layer of inert granitic scum which, due to the principle of
isostasy, was unable to sink into the heavier substratum – an idea which Wegener strongly supported.
Even so, he seemed to have considered the rock evidence from the Azores strong enough to make
compromises with the idea of isostasy.
Resolving the apparent contradiction of isostasy versus the evidence for subsided continental masses,
Barrell (1927) held that massive injections of magma, into the original granitic shell, would increase
crustal density to the extent that isostatic subsidence would ensue. According to Barrell’s oceanization
model the present land-ocean configuration was the product of variable crustal densification and
isostatic subsidence. In drawing an analogy with the physiographic features of the Earth-facing
surface of the Moon, Barrell regarded all oceanic regions as former continents – implying that
substantial amount of ‘undigested’ continental masses were currently submerged in deep water. For
example, his model of variable crustal basification could account for the surface profile from Baffin
Land, via Greenland, Iceland, the Faeroe Islands, the Hebrides to Scotland (Fig. 2).
15
Fig. 2. The model of crustal oceanization, according to Joseph Barrell (1927). Fragmentation of an original
trans-oceanic continental crust through processes of variable (regional) lithospheric densification had produced
isostatic subsidence, through basaltic magma injection and extrusive activity. The exemplified surface profile
runs from Baffin Land (B), via Greenland (G), Iceland (I), the Faeroe Islands (F), the Hebrides (H), to Scotland
(S). Numbers on left margin are: 1, crust; 2, granitic-dioritic lithosphere; 3, mean depth of isostatic
compensation; 4, upper part of the asthenosphere penetrated by magmas from below; 5, deeper part of the
asthenosphere, a thick solid layer of basic material with pockets of magma.
Though Barrell’s model of crustal evolution is incompatible with modern geophysical and geological
evidence, variable sub-crustal eclogitization processes and related gravity-driven delamination – in
association with isostatic subsidence – seems a realistic basis for understanding crustal thickness
variability in both continental and oceanic settings (see below, and Storetvedt, 2003). And the many
cases like Bald Mountain, a major barren seamount on the western flank of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge at
ca. 45º N, from which a diversity of sandstones, limestone, gneisses, granites, granodiorites, granulites
and amphibolites has been sampled (Aumento and Loncarevic, 1969), would then have a simple
explanation. The massive nature of Bald Mountain – from which radiometric age estimates of
dredged rocks range upwards to 1,550 Ma (Wanless et al., 1968) – suggests that it is a remnant of a
strongly assimilated continental crust, probably submerged in relatively recent geological time. A
little curiosity associated with this aspect, Beier et al (2007) have found anomalously high radiogenic
lead and strontium isotope ratios in lavas of the Nordeste region (São Miguel) – results that readily
could be ascribed to continental crust contaminants, and thus supporting models of sub-crustal
delamination. But these examples apparently only represent the tip of the Iceberg; along practically
the whole length of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a multiplicity of ancient and continental rocks have been
recovered (e.g. Udintsev et al., 1989-90: Yano et al., 2009) – suggesting that the remains of a strongly
attenuated continental crust exists beneath a variable cover of mid-ocean ridge basalts.
Iceland – another mid-oceanic puzzle
If the Azorean region indeed represents in situ remnants of a former continental mass – later cut by
the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, variably covered by late Tertiary lavas and submerged – what is then the
situation for Iceland? And not forgetting the thick-crusted trans-oceanic ridge on which Iceland sits –
the Shetland-Greenland transect? Long before the ideas of lateral drift and sea floor spreading took
hold in the late 1960s, unexpected xenoliths in surface volcanics of Iceland had been observed.
Triggered by the Surtsey eruption of 1963, upon which light-coloured xenoliths were readily spotted
in contrasting lavas and black volcanic ashes, Sigurdsson (1968) carried out a more extensive search
of xenoliths in Iceland. As granite xenoliths were found to occur in abundance, the question arises to
what extent all the acidic material is the product of differentiation (from a parent basic magma),
whether fusion of a deep-seated granitic/granulitic crust had been in operation, or whether the granite
xenoliths are fragments of the deeper crust, torn off during eruption. Sigurdsson (1968) considered
differentiation to be the likely source of the acidic material, although this is problematic from the
point of volume, because the acid rocks make up more than 10% of the exposed succession in eastern
Iceland. In addition, he pointed to the fact that some granite xenoliths have a composition that could
not have arisen as a consequence of crystal fractionation. Consistent with this latter aspect, Sigurdsson
16
mentions the discovery, in the volcanic ashes of Surtsey, of a xenolith consisting almost entirely of
recrystallized dolomite. Another xenolith from a basalt flow on Bredadalsheidi was described as
consisting entirely of quartz grains, with a texture resembling that of quartzite. Taken at their face
value, these foreign fragments are suggestive of ancient metamorphic sediments at depth, indicating
that the deep crust of Iceland is continental – capped by an unknown succession of Tertiary and
younger volcanics.
That Iceland has an anomalously thick crust, ranging upward to ~ 40 km, is now well established (e.g.
Darbyshire et al., 2000; Allen et al., 2002; Foulger et al., 2003; Gudmundsson, 2003; Björnsson et al.,
2005; Foulger, 2006). Fig. 3 depicts a recent representation of the regional seismic crustal
thicknesses. The bowl-shaped crust of the island, with maximum thicknesses in the centre, may be a
most important feature for understanding crustal evolution – in Iceland and elsewhere (see below).
Foulger (2006) suggests that at least part of the thick crust might be continental – representing a
southerly extension of the Jan Mayen micro-continent. In the context of the large thickness variation
of the Icelandic crust, sub-crustal eclogitization and related gravity-driven loss to the upper mantle
may be a most crucial factor for understanding the pulse-like dynamo-tectonic history of the Earth
(Storetvedt, 2003). Concordant with that proposition, Anderson (2005) has argued: “I suggest that
under certain circumstances the lower crust transforms to dense eclogite and delaminates. It then sinks
to the level of neutral buoyancy, which can be anywhere from about 300 to 650 km depth. There,
eclogite will comprise a low-velocity layer”. We fully agree. Variable eclogitization/delamination of
the lower crust is likely to be the most fundamental mechanism behind 1) the generation of deep
oceanic basins, 2) the presence of partly thinned continental crust in deep sea settings, and 3) thinned
crust beneath major sedimentary basins on land. In the North Atlantic, for example, the shallow and
aseismic trans-oceanic Shetland-Faeroe-Iceland-Greenland Ridge is likely to constitute a moderately
thinned and subsided continental fragment (see also below), making the sea floor spreading
hypothesis a physical impossibility.
Fig. 3. Seismic crustal thickness distribution in Iceland – from Foulger et al. (2003). Note the bowl-shaped
crustal structure of the region – with maximum thickness beneath the centre of the island.
The majority view holds that Iceland is cut by the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, albeit in a complex en echelon
manner, and subjected to lateral spreading – the excess magma and thickened crust allegedly being
fed by ‘hotspot’ volcanism rising from the deep mantle. On the other hand, seismic tomography of the
upper mantle seems to contradict this idea – referring the concentrated volcanic activity of Iceland to
an unusually fertile region within a relatively cool shallow upper mantle (Foulger and Anderson,
2005). Gillian Foulger is undoubtedly one of the strongest hotspot opponents today (Foulger, 2006 &
2007; Foulger et al., 2005), courageously speaking out: “We have to stop saying ‘hotspot’ if we are to
clear our minds of prejudice and make progress”, and further “Fresh ideas are needed, and
17
commitments to address the problems rather than reiterating models that cannot account for the
observations ignoring the elephants in the living room” (Foulger, 2007). After listing a number of
pressing problems – including the substantial and growing information that the mantle is
compositionally heterogeneous, the evidence in favour of a delaminated lower crust, and the
unquestionable fact that the North Atlantic contains several micro-continents with greatly variable
thickness, Foulger (2007) submits that “If we are to understand the tectonic history and current
behaviour of the region, we may need to abandon the simple model of a rigid lithosphere floating like
a layer of cork above a rheologically uniform asthenosphere”. After these wise words, inherently and
implicitly questioning some of the basic facets of plate tectonics, it is puzzling indeed that she still
regards seafloor spreading a viable mechanism (Foulger, 2010), without paying attention to its
persistent accumulation of ad hoc elaborations and the failure of critical tests of the seafloor spreading
hypothesis. In our view, to make real progress we really need to expose “the elephants in the living
room” in a much broader context (than plumes) and “clear our minds of prejudice” – so that the
observational facts are no longer confined to the strait jacket of plate tectonics.
Wrenching across Iceland
In response to the increasing popularity of lateral drift and sea floor spreading, Einarsson (1968) argued
that the tectonic situation in Iceland is incompatible with these ideas. He stressed that the axis of the
Reykjanes Ridge constitutes a side-stepping en échelon chain of elongate seamounts – which in its
continuations on the Reykjanes Peninsula forms a similar eastward-jumping tectono-volcanic sequence,
before terminating in the eastern-most neo-volcanic belt (Fig. 4). He also stressed that an orthogonal fault
system connecting the largely NE-SW striking volcanic zones – a necessary tectonic link-up of
hypothetical spreading segments – has not been identified. From Fig. 4 it can be seen that the westernmost
volcanic zone – along the Snæfellsnes Peninsula – is oriented nearly at right angles to the main volcanic
belts.
Fig. 4. The geological map of Iceland; the four post-glacial volcanic belts are marked in red. The three main
volcanic zones continue the same overall eastward side-stepping feature as the linear volcanic segments and
fracture zones along the Reykjanes Ridge/Peninsula – terminating in the easternmost, and main, post-glacial
18
extrusive province. A connecting fault, linking the major volcanic zones, has not been observed. Note also that
the westernmost volcanic district, along the Snæfellsnes Peninsula, runs at a steep angle to the other volcanic
sections. Map is reproduced from Sigmundsson and Sæmundsson (2008).
Owing to a significant amount of ashes and volcanic debris, covering the structural pattern of the
underlying pre-Pliocene plateau basalts, the regional network of characteristic orthogonal, and steeply
dipping, fractures is best displayed outside the postglacial lava fields. Fig. 5 depicts a typical example
– represented by the Langavatn region (SW Iceland). Statistically, these conjugate sets of rectilinear
rock rupture often display consistent orientations over large areas of the globe (e.g. Scheidegger, 1985
& 1995); despite their apparent universal nature, they are totally ignored by the plate tectonics
paradigm – representing another ‘elephant’ in the Pandora’s box. From the nearly orthogonal network
of volcanic zones and fault lines in Iceland, Einarsson (1968) suggested that they represent conjugate
shear planes in a general crustal stress field. Referring to a well-known fact in wrench tectonic
situations, he argued that “The alternation of yield between the two conjugate shear planes is also
quite normal: On one stretch the one direction dominates in the faulting; on the next stretch it is the
other direction that dominates”. With respect to the Reykjanes Ridge he concluded: “Just as the SWNE fractures on the peninsula reflect shear planes, so the Ridge corresponds to the direction of shear;
it is a major shear zone”. Referring the Reykjanes Ridge to a major shear boundary, at a time when
seafloor spreading along mid-ocean ridges was about to take a firm grip on geoscientific thinking, was
clearly provocative – and was therefore ignored. Notwithstanding this failure to acknowledge the
evidence from the Reykjanes Ridge, the subsequent Europe-North America palaeomagnetic
comparison of Roy (1972), indicating a component of shear along the North Atlantic, was indeed
consistent with the work of Einarsson. But nobody apparently saw that link.
Fig. 5. Google Earth photograph of the Langavatn region in SW Iceland. Note the predominant orthogonal
fracture pattern for which one of the sets, with NNE strike, is sub-parallel to the overall volcanic axes of South
Iceland. Einarsson (1968), and later Passerini et al. (1991) – the latter authors emphasizing in particular the
slickensided nature of the fracture planes, interpreted the rectilinear rupture sets as products of tectonic
wrenching.
In his review of the tectonics of Iceland, Einarsson (1968) noted that the recently active volcanic
zones, from the Snæfellsnes zone on the west coast to the Mývatn zone in the eastern region, turn up
in gentle synclinal depressions. And between these tectonic lows the volcanic layers have been cast
into 60-100 km-long anticlines. These fold trends, traversing the full length of the island, show dips
ranging from 5-20° – occasionally reaching 45º (Einarsson, 1965; Th. Einarsson, 1967). This largescale folding strongly supports Einarsson’s conclusions that the region has been subjected to
pervasive tectonic deformation – features that would be difficult to accommodate by the current view
of a seafloor spreading origin of the island.
19
Looking into the question of shear tectonics, Passerini et al. (1990 & 1991) – from their main study in
southern and western regions of the island, including the Langavatn area (cf. Fig. 5) – observed
slickensides (polished and striated rock surfaces resulting from friction along a fracture plane) on both
of the rectilinear fracture populations; hence, Iceland has apparently been subjected to pervasive
wrench deformation – consistent with the structural evidence summarized above. In line with the
observations of shear tectonics, Hast (1969 & 1973), based on in situ stress measurements, found that
the island is presently being subjected to a horizontal shear stress field, concluding that “characteristic
of stresses in the bedrock on Iceland is the prevailing direction of shear, with the tendency to shear the
whole island right across parallel to the direction of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge”. From Hast’s data on
rock stress, it would appear that the North Atlantic region is currently being subjected to horizontal
shearing stress in vertical planes oriented roughly NE-SW and NW-SE respectively. Referring to the
two characteristic rock fractures in Iceland, Einarsson (1968) called them the Reykjanes strike and the
Faeroe strike respectively, on the basis of prevailing dyke trends and tectonic lines in the two regions.
It should be stressed that the Faeroe strike of Einarsson corresponds to the bearing of the ShetlandGreenland Ridge.
Station motions based on modern space geodetic techniques could be expected to clarify the current
tectonic system in Iceland – whether the present volcano-tectonic system is a consequence of either 1)
‘E-W’ extension or 2) ridge-parallel shear – with localized transtension and related volcanism.
Unfortunately, velocity results from such studies are generally tied to current plate models – such as
NUVEL-1A (DeMets et al., 1994) or REVEL (Sella et al., 2002) – which in turn are based mainly on
the unconfirmed sea floor spreading hypothesis. In other words, the handling of raw velocity data is
strongly plate tectonics-driven, and the published velocities may therefore be of limited value in
critical regions. For example, in a recent study of GPS velocities in Iceland, the authors (Geirsson et
al., 2006) referred their observations to the station at Reykjavik which according to the REVEL model
moves in an easterly direction at some 10.5 mm/yr. Hence, their data were forced into the current
spreading model. In another study (Hreinsdóttir et al., 2001), however, it was shown that when
reducing the NUVEL-predicted motion for the reference station at Reykjavik, the GPS site velocities
for sites on the north-western flank of the Reykjanes rift, attained south-westerly motions – that is,
running parallel to the regional Mid-Atlantic Ridge (cf. their fig. 3c). From their data, Hreinsdóttir et
al. suggested that a left-lateral shear strain accumulation parallel to the Reykjanes Peninsula seismic
zone is currently taking place. Hence, it appears that the most reliable regional motion vectors for SW
Iceland – on the northern flank of the Reykjanes rift system – is directed southwest, parallel to the
Reykjanes Ridge.
Due to the fact that plate tectonics form an ‘invisible’ background for the processing of raw space
geodetic data, published global velocity information – such as presented by the Caltech/NASA map of
GPS site motions – may in part be a challenge for unorthodox tectonic studies, not least because data
from a number of critical tectonic junctions are not included (cf. Storetvedt, 2003). Furthermore,
continental blocks may undergo internal deformation, such as is indicated for North America. Argus
and Gordon (1996), discussing VLBI data for sites on the Colorado Plateau, gave an illustration of
that problem – concluding that “Together these site velocities suggest a slow clockwise rotation about
a pole near eastern Utah”. In fact, a variety of evidence favours individual Alpine-age clockwise
rotations of both Eurasia and North America (cf. Storetvedt, 2003 & 2010c). Being located in the
northern palaeo-hemisphere, the two continents would expectedly (as predicted by the GWT model)
have been subjected to inertia-driven clockwise rotations in situ, primarily affected by the latitudedependent Coriolis Effect.
For Eurasia, the clockwise rotation is further attested by modern GPS velocities – as, for example,
shown in the data compilation by Zemtsov (2007). Consistent with this clockwise rotation, it has long
been evident that sites all over Europe show horizontal velocity vectors directed NNE-NE. As in the
Caltech/NASA presentation of GPS site motions, the consistent north-easterly velocities in Europe
include also three sites in the north-eastern North Atlantic – the Faeroe Islands, the north-eastern tip
of Iceland, and Svalbard. It is important to note that the consistent NNE-NE motion of Europe and
20
adjacent oceanic tract – east of the Mid-Atlantic rift – is markedly at variance with the ESE-SE
directed motion predicted by the seafloor spreading hypothesis. Therefore, a shearing origin of the
North-Atlantic Rift/Ridge now seems much more likely. Taking the evidence referred to above for
SW Iceland at face value (based on Hreinsdóttir et al., 2001) – indicating a south-westerly motion of
that part of the island, it follows that Iceland is undergoing a left-lateral shear (cf. Fig. 6). This
conclusion is consistent with the tectonic studies and in situ stress measurements discussed above.
Within the inertia-driven wrench tectonics frame, one would expect to see a great deal of Alpine-age
structural deformation both in marginal and deep sea sedimentary settings. Consistent with such
expectations, the late Cretaceous-Tertiary sedimentary sequence along the NW European margin
contains numerous cases of anticlines, synclines, reverse faults etc. (e.g. Gabrielsen et al., 1997;
Vågenes et al., 1998). The compressed structures are commonly associated with a significant
component of shear deformation (e.g. Brekke and Riis, 1987; Doré et al., 1997) involving both NE
and the NW trending fracture systems. Observations like these are enigmatic for plate tectonics, but
within the wrench tectonics model they are just as might be expected.
Fig. 6. Qualitative presentation of regional GPS velocities for the North Atlantic region – based on
Caltech/NASA presentations. Note that the GPS vectors for Western Europe, the Faeroe Islands and NW
Iceland run parallel to the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. For SW Iceland, see discussion in the text. It is inferred that
Iceland is currently undergoing left-lateral shearing. Yellow arrows mark large scale crustal motions, for which
the counter-clockwise motion of the Middle East region is based on McClusky et al. (2000).
Central Atlantic and the pattern of marine magnetic anomalies
There is no factual evidence that deep sea basins of any importance existed prior to the Middle-Upper
Cretaceous. According to the degassing-related Wrench Tectonics concept, basin subsidence was
triggered by a long term build-up of upper mantle hydrostatic pressure, giving rise to sub-crustal
eclogitization with attendant gravity-driven delamination. In this process, which reached its peak
during the Upper Cretaceous, the initially thick continental shell of the Atlantic was turned into its
present mosaic of relatively thin-crusted oceanic basins interposed between partly-assimilated
continental ridges and plateaux. The loss of crustal material to the upper mantle naturally led to
changes in the Earth’s moment of inertia (including a certain increase in its spin rate) which in turn
triggered moderate in situ rotations of the developing lithospheric units. In this process, the latitudedependent Coriolis force naturally had its maximum tectonic shearing effect in palaeo-equatorial
regions – such as in the Central Atlantic, where a number of mega-scale transverse (transcurrent) fault
zones came into existence. Tectonic shear boundaries of first-order importance formed naturally in the
21
thin and mechanically weak oceanic regions – breaking up central rifts that later formed the location
of the ‘mid’-ocean ridges, which began to rise in the Upper Miocene. According to this global
tectonic scheme, the Mid-Atlantic Ridge would have originated as a shear boundary, primarily during
the latest Cretaceous – reactivating one of the old Precambrian rectilinear fracture sets. Inferentially,
the Miocene phase of global wrench reactivation and subsequent uplift processes (of the mid-ocean
zones) have produced the dominating transverse offsets characterizing the Central Atlantic. In this
explanation, the transform fault concept becomes a misnomer.
In contradiction to the traditional view, a critical evaluation (Storetvedt, 2010c) of the recently
published World Magnetic Anomaly Maps (Korhonen et al., 2007; Maus et al., 2009) has led to the
conclusion that the linear marine magnetic system is impressed by the ambient geomagnetic field; the
oscillating positive and negative anomalies are caused by lateral, fault-controlled, variation in ironoxide mineral alteration and associated changes of magnetic susceptibility. This is the susceptibilitycontrast model first alluded to by Luyendyk and Melson (1967) and Luyendyk et al. (1968). In this
latter interpretation, the linear marine magnetic belts outline prevailing tectonic shear grains, in which
the fault-controlled topographic lows are likely to be associated with the stronger shearing and hence
the more advanced degree of dynamo-metamorphic processes – converting iron-titanium oxides
(carrying original fossil magnetizations) into secondary silicates without remanence properties. As of
now, there is absolutely no factual evidence that the linear marine magnetic anomalies represent
age/geomagnetic polarity sequences – allegedly embodying isochrones of seafloor evolution – as
currently believed.
As can be seen from Fig. 7, the North Atlantic region displays an irregular magnetic anomaly matrix –
with a number of sharp discontinuities and related changes of the magnetic anomaly trend, as well as
regions without appreciable magnetic lineations. For example, one notices that the trans-oceanic
Shetland-Faeroe-Iceland Ridge has the irregular field signatures typically seen in continental regions.
Further, tectonic discordances are associated with changes in the bearing of regional anomaly
segments, for which the transition often is gradual (curved) rather than sharp. The North Atlantic
anomaly system eventually dies off in the eastern Arctic basin. According to the tectonic scenario
adhered to here, the latitude-dependent inertia-driven wrench forces increased towards the Alpine
palaeo-equatorial region which during the Alpine climax crossed the Central Atlantic. This wrenching
of the lithosphere produced a ca. 25° clockwise in situ rotation of North America relative to
Europe/Eurasia (Storetvedt, 1997, 2003 & 2010c) – a process which provided a significant
reactivation of the pre-existing orthogonal systems of fractures and faults, besides instigating a certain
re-shaping (a moderate E-W extension) of the evolving Central Atlantic basin.
22
Fig.7. Polar stereographic projection, extending down to latitude 40°N, of the NCDC World Digital Magnetic
Anomaly Map, by Maus et al. (2008). Note the irregular and continental-like magnetic anomaly band of the
Shetland-Greenland transect, and the southward fanning-out shape of the linear anomaly system. The Central
Atlantic region corresponds to the palaeo-equatorial zone during the Alpine climax within which lithospheric
wrenching, caused primarily be the Coriolis Effect, would have been at its maximum.
According to the new tectonic scenario, the western Central Atlantic would have been subjected to a
certain transtensive deformation in Alpine time – giving rise to enhanced crustal loss to the mantle
producing negative gravity and geoid anomalies off eastern North America, as demonstrated by the
Grace Gravity Experiment – Model 02 (see fig. 2 of Storetvedt, 2010a). The transtensive state along
the Atlantic basin off North America would have paved the way for upper mantle hydrous fluids to
invade and chemically transform the crust from the bottom upwards. Thus, the high hydrostatic
pressure of rising mantle volatiles would produce more effective eclogitization and gravity-driven
sub-crustal delamination; in addition, the strongly corrosive effect of super-critical hydrous fluids
would have further enhanced crustal thinning processes and related basin subsidence. In fact, recent
studies seem to indicate that regions of the Central Atlantic rift are completely without a crustal layer
(cf. www.sciencedaily.com/2007/03/07.0301112.htm) – over a relatively large area of the central rift
valley the mantle appears to be exposed at the seafloor.
In a degassing Earth model ultra-basic rocks of the uppermost mantle would readily undergo
widespread serpentinization, after which they would be prone to surface injections in the solid state
(in response to volume expansion and increased buoyancy – aided by wrench tectonic forces affecting
the asthenosphere). This suggestion is supported by the widespread occurrences of serpentinized
upper mantle material along the Central Atlantic Ridge as well as along transverse fault zones
(Bonatti, 1978; Cannat, 1993; Gracia et al., 2000; Beard et al., 2009, and many others). In fault zones,
exhumed mantle rocks as well as basalt frequently show extensive low-temperature alteration (e.g.
Schroeder and John 2004; Karson et al., 2006). Thus, extensively altered basalt from 116 metres subbottom of the TAG active hydrothermal mound, Central Atlantic Ridge (ODP Leg 158) is described
as highly chloritized rock with iron sulphide veins and quartz cement. The TAG active hydrothermal
mound, at 26ºN, has a central black-smoker complex (Rona et al., 1986). Similar smokers have been
observed along the Mid-Atlantic rift, more or less accidentally (for a summary, see Koschinsky et al.,
2006). A completely unexpected discovery – the Lost City Hydrothermal Field – was made in 2000
(http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/mar/); at 30ºN, approximately 15 km west of Mid-Atlantic Ridge, near the
23
summit of the Atlantis Massif (in water depth of ~780 m) and bounded to the south by the Atlantis
Fracture Zone, low-temperature venting of basic, 40-91ºC, metal-poor hydrothermal fluids with high
concentration of dissolved hydrogen, methane, and other light hydrocarbons are being observed
(Kelly et al., 2001; Ludwig et al., 2006). Volcanism is absent, but a 100 m thick zone of intensely
deformed altered rock occurs for more than 3 km along the top of the wall – attesting to the
importance of crustal thinning and long-term faulting in the generation of the Massif (Boschi et al.,
2006; Karson et al., 2006). According to the predictions of the Wrench Tectonic model, it can be
expected that following the serendipitous discovery of the Lost City vent many more similar
observations in the western Central Atlantic will be made.
The relatively low and scattered heat flow values of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge has been a puzzle since
the late 1960s – with many observations significantly lower than values predicted for cooling of
presumed young spreading-emplaced crust. However, in a degassing-related Earth model, being
without constraining mechanisms such as mantle convection and seafloor spreading, scattered and
overall low heat flow values along mid-ocean ridges would be just as might be expected. The inferred
Alpine age lithospheric deformation and transtensive conditions in the Central Atlantic have not only
enlarged the steeply dipping along-ridge regional set of conjugate fractures, but also reactivated the
orthogonal (ESE trending) group of lithospheric discontinuities. Therefore, the marine magnetic
anomalies of the Central Atlantic would not only display ridge-parallel signatures (caused by alongridge shearing), but rather delineate a network of rectilinear anomalies (Storetvedt, 2010c). Fig. 8
corroborates this prediction.
Fig. 8. Cut from the NGDC’s World Digital Magnetic Anomaly Map (EMAG3) demonstrating the orthogonal
network of marine magnetic anomalies for the western Central Atlantic – observations that contradict the view
that linear marine magnetic anomalies represent age isochrones of seafloor evolution (the Vine-Matthews
model).
24
As magnetite may form as a secondary product of serpentinization, as a dissolution-recrystallization
process, possibly favoured by intense shear stress (Ribeiro da Costa et al., 2008), crustal protrusions
of serpentinite might be a source of linear magnetic anomalies. Thus, from his studies along the
Central Atlantic Ridge, Bonatti (1976) argued that serpentinite protrusions, characteristically aligned
along major fracture zones, might be the source of linear magnetic anomalies and yet they constitute a
rectilinear pattern. As the oceanic serpentinites apparently are emplaced in the solid state, effective
thermo-chemical acquisition mechanisms for producing a fossil magnetization in these rocks, are
difficult to envisage. Again, it would most likely be the fault-controlled low-temperature mineral
alteration and related magnetic susceptibility contrasts that would form the basis of the band-like
negative and positive field anomalies – readily explaining cases of orthogonal anomaly patterns (see
also Storetvedt, 2010c).
From the degassing-wrench tectonic scenario of Earth evolution, it follows that linear topographic
lows correspond to fault-controlled, and more effective, delamination of crustal/lithospheric ‘bands’ –
producing belts of isostatic surface subsidence. Progressive shearing and mineral alteration along the
fault zones would then be liable to more effective depletion of the iron-oxide content, thereby lowering
the magnetic susceptibility which in turn leads to negative magnetic field anomalies. Conversely,
linear topographic highs – with lesser fracturing and therefore reduced crustal thinning – would be
associated with bands of a lesser degree of mineral alteration and therefore stronger magnetic
susceptibility, providing the prerequisites of producing positive magnetic field anomalies.
The V-shaped Reykjanes Ridge
From the mid 1960s, the linear magnetic anomalies along the Reykjanes Ridge was regarded a classic
example of the Vine-Matthews-Morley crustal mechanism – an integration of geomagnetic polarity
reversals and the Hess-Dietz concept of seafloor spreading; if correct, the axial portion of the ridgeparallel anomalies would give rates of crustal spreading over the past few million years of seafloor
history (Heirtzler et al., 1966). However, it was soon realized that in many ways the Reykjanes Ridge
departs from the classical image of mid-oceanic ridges. Instead of a central rift valley it has a central
horst, and crustal thicknesses are quasi-oceanic – decreasing gradually from ~22 km at the shores of
S. Iceland to 8 km some 500 km further south (Smallwood and White, 1998; Weir et al., 2001;
Foulger, 2006; Jacoby et al., 2007). For more than 700 km the Ridge lacks the transverse offsets
typical of mid-ocean ridges, and already 4 decades ago it was realized that the ‘perfect’ symmetrical
structure and geophysical pattern originally conceived were problematic (Vogt, 1971). The factual Vshaped topographic and gravity structures of the Reykjanes Ridge – the northward fanning-out shape
of sub-ridges, scarps and troughs – gives a frame for the longstanding puzzle. Fig. 9 outlines the Vshaped Ridge. Attempting to unfold the secrets of such structures, the Mid-Atlantic Ridge south of
Iceland has spurred numerous research efforts – apparently without reaching anything approaching a
ready solution. A recent contribution by Hey et al. (2010) summarizes the longstanding debate, and
readers are referred to that paper for references and the multitude of auxiliary proposals.
25
Fig. 9. Illustration depicts satellite gravity and tectono-topographic boundaries near Iceland. Note the V-shaped
gravity ‘stripes’ of Reykjanes Ridge, and the positive gravity belts of the margins of Iceland and Greenland. See
text for discussion. The thin-crusted Aegir Ridge in the Norway Basin is delineated as a well-defined curved
belt of negative gravity – abutting against the trans-oceanic Jan Mayen Fracture Zone to the north (upper right).
Diagram is from Sandwell and Smith (2009).
As demonstrated by Hey et al. (2010), the exact location of the ridge axis is somewhat ambiguous,
inasmuch as its detailed tectonic construction constitutes that of an oblique en echelon fabric (see
example of a finer scale structure in fig. 4 of Hey et al., 2010). Apart from differences of scale, this
gives strong associations to the tectono-volcanic features in southern Iceland – demonstrated by their
eastward side-stepping crater rows, uplifted ridges and volcanic belts. The evidence for 1-2 km crustal
thickness variations between bathymetric highs and lows of the Ridge (White et al., 1995; Smallwood
and White, 1998) – for which the crust along troughs is thinner than normal for the area and
associated with gravity lows – is consistent with predictions of Wrench Tectonics (Storetvedt, 2003).
According to that model, the most strongly sheared segments of the Ridge would be susceptible to
greater infiltration by hydrous mantle fluids, giving rise to the following sequence of processes: a)
more effective eclogitization of the actual segments of the deeper lithosphere, in turn leading to b)
more advanced gravity delamination, c) isostatic basin subsidence, and expectedly d) progressive
serpentinization of the peridotitic topmost mantle. In addition, crustal shearing would enhance mineral
alteration and associated reduced magnetic susceptibility – the likely cause of negative magnetic
anomalies (Storetvedt, 2010c). Therefore, topographic lows would expectedly be associated with both
gravity and magnetic lows. Conversely, topographic highs would correspond to less sheared
lithospheric segments potentially being related to positive magnetic and gravity anomalies.
As demonstrated by the Arctic Gravity Project and other studies, the continental margins of the North
Atlantic are framed by a belt of positive (free-air) gravity anomalies, for which a segment is depicted
26
in Fig. 9. Iceland, which in the present study is regarded another continental mass (see below), is
similarly framed by a positive gravity belt. Chains of elongated gravity highs, partly overlying thinned
crust of adjacent marginal basins, are in fact a very common feature along Atlantic-type continental
margins – for which plate tectonics have not afforded a satisfactory explanation. By implication,
anomalously dense crystalline material within the lower crust/upper mantle has to be present beneath
these gravity highs. In fact, the model of progressive eclogitization would provide a fitting
explanation of the observed margin anomalies (see also Neugebauer & Spohn 1981). In the Wrench
Tectonics schema, continental margins have developed along prominent lithosphere-cutting fault
zones, within which high pressure mantle fluids would have had natural escape routes – giving rise to
escalating eclogite production. Natural occurrences of granulite to eclogite transition demonstrate that
this metamorphic process is strongly impeded when hydrous fluids are absent (e. g. Austrheim, 1987;
Walther, 1994; Leech, 2001); in this context, Austrheim (1998) argued that, in order for these
metamorphic reactions to go forward, water-rich fluids are much more important than either
temperature or pressure.
In the same vein, Leech (2001) submitted that the related gravity-driven crustal delamination is
controlled by the amount of water available for the actual metamorphism-regulated density changes.
The model proposed by Leech is interesting in that it requires hydrous fluids rather than temperature
to drive eclogitization, sub-crustal delamination, and the ultimate tectonic collapse of the crust. It
follows that deep and broad fracture zones, which provide ready degassing routes for mantle fluids,
would be prone to produce sedimentary troughs – which in certain cases, such as is demonstrated
along the Atlantic margins of East Greenland and NW Europe may be associated with significant
volcanism. The extensive seaward-dipping basalt accumulations along the North Atlantic margins
(see White and McKenzie, 1989 for distribution), dating from around 60-55 million years ago, are
consistent with the oceanization model. In conclusion:
Besides a relatively distinct crustal thinning and associated down-to-basin faulting along the
developing continental margins, the boundary fault zone would naturally pave the way for enhanced
migration of mantle fluids – causing outer margin occurrences of gas hydrates, progressive fault zone
eclogitization, and volcanic activity.
Broader oceanic basins may be seen as regions characterized by a higher degree of fracturing and
internal deformation. In particular, such conditions ought to be prevalent in palaeo-equatorial settings
– such as in the Central Atlantic during the Alpine revolution – where torsion triggered by the Coriolis
Effect (and other inertia-driven mechanisms) would have been most effective. Also, a certain belt on
the landward side would inevitably have been affected, giving rise to a range of phenomena: moderate
crustal attenuation, margin subsidence, listric and down-to-basin faulting, and seaward-dipping
volcano-sedimentary strata. On the continental side of the marginal fault zone, part of the faultmigrating eclogite would naturally be unimpaired – providing a fitting explanation of outer margin
gravity highs. In cases of moderate narrow fault-bounded crustal delamination, such as along the
Iceland-Greenland Strait, gravity highs appear on both sides of the linear, fault-controlled and
isostatically subsided basin (Fig. 9). As an important aspect of this discussion, metamorphic reactions
during margin development would inevitably lead to a reduction of grain-size by some 10-15%
(Austrheim et al., 1996) – causing crack opening that enhances the ongoing eclogitization process
along margin faults – inferentially triggering increased migration of pressurized gases and associated
tectonic reactivation – such as co-seismic activity (Austrheim and Boundy, 1994; Hacker, 1997).
Thus, the recorded seismicity along Atlantic-type margins (Stein et al., 1989; Fujita et al., 1990)
seems to be readily explained by fault-migrating eclogitization.
Tectonic shearing across the thick-crusted Shetland-Iceland-Greenland Ridge
Owing to the gradual deepening of the oceanic basins during the Mesozoic, it follows that the
increasing tidal friction would have led to a definitive slowing of the planetary spin rate. However,
concurrently with the oceanic deepening, a substantial amount of the thick ‘primordial’ crust was lost
to the mantle, giving rise to an inertia based increase in rotation rate. In consequence, a net
acceleration in the Earth’s axial spin might be expected – a possibility sustained by fossil ‘clock’ data
27
(Creer, 1975). The resulting eastward planetary acceleration, peaking at around the CretaceousTertiary boundary, led to a westward wrenching (torsion) of the global palaeo-lithosphere – marking
the onset of the Alpine tectonic revolution. The maximum inertia-based shearing naturally took place
along the late Cretaceous-early Tertiary equatorial zone, which ran along the northern rim of the
Africa, across the Central Atlantic to the Caribbean region (see, for example, fig. 3a in Storetvedt,
2010b). Thus, the strong tectonic reactivation of, by then, the thin Central Atlantic lithosphere led to
effective degassing-driven crustal thinning – leaving only minor fragments of the Precambrian surface
layer, such as Bald Mountain and presumably also the Azorean basement, as ‘undigested’ remnants.
Due to the inertia-driven relative lithospheric rotations, the mid-ocean rift of the Central Atlantic was
broken up; hence, the course was sat for its progressive northward extension during the Lower
Tertiary.
Being located at intermediate palaeolatitudes, with reduced possibilities for inertia-based tectonic
reactivation and related processes of crustal attenuation, the North Atlantic could be expected to be
characterized by larger masses of continental crust, interspersed with relatively thick but overall
shallow late Mesozoic basins. Thus, Cretaceous depot-centres developed along the pre-set NE striking
structural grain. For example, resting on a partly thinned continental crust a thick fault-bounded
Cretaceous basin – interspersed between structural highs – developed along the Atlantic margin of
Norway, between ~62ºN and ~68ºN (e.g. Olafsson et al., 1992; Brekke, 2000; Roberts et al., 2009).
The physiographic seafloor map (Fig. 10) shows that between the British Isles and Greenland there is
a succession of three elongate NE striking deep sea basins – separated by the major continental
Rockall Plateau and the relatively thick-crusted Reykjanes Ridge: the Rockall, Iceland and Irminger
basins. As discussed above, the Reykjanes Ridge is in a kind of quasi-continental state – with
escalating crustal thinning southward, away from Iceland. The Rockall Plateau has long been
established as a continental plateau (for example, Scrutton, 1970; Robert, 1975; Bunch, 1979; Vogt et
al., 1998) with thickness estimates in the order of 30 km. Along the top of the Rockall Plateau sits the
Hatton Basin, again with NE orientation, for which a sediment thickness of ~4 km and a depth to
Moho of around 19 km has been calculated (Smith et al., 2005). Also, the sedimentary successions of
the Irminger, Iceland and Rockall basins seem to rest on variably attenuated continental crust –
thinning southward. Typically, the crust of the continental margins thins progressively towards some
central fault zone – such as seen in the East Greenland–Irminger Basin transect (Hopper et al., 2003).
For the Rockall Basin, the regional Moho is described as clearly asymmetric, with steeper gradients
along the eastern margin, while the topographic irregularity at the base of the sedimentary succession
is interpreted as relating to multiphase basin-aligned rifting (Morewood et al., 2005). The faultaligned basin development and associated crustal attenuation also cut into the thick-crusted ShetlandFaeroe-Greenland Ridge. Beginning in the late Cretaceous, a thick sedimentary sequence accumulated
along the NE trending Shetland-Faeroe Basin – consisting of a series of sub-parallel asymmetric
basement ridges with intervening sub-basins up to 10 km deep (Mudge and Rashid, 1987). Moho
reflections suggest a crustal thickness of around 18 km, implying that the basin is underlain by highly
attenuated continental crust (Hughes et al., 1998).
28
Fig. 10. ETOPO - 1 bathymetry of the North Atlantic demonstrating the association of deep sea basins and the
distribution of shallow and relatively thick-crusted continental fragments. Note the three elongate deep sea
basins south of the Scotland-Greenland Ridge – running in parallel with the higher standing Rockall Plateau and
the Reykjanes Ridge. All these submarine structures follow along the predominant NE-striking set of rectilinear
lithospheric fractures/faults. From east to west, these topographic structures are: Rockall Basin – R.B; Rockall
Plateau – R.P. (topped by the thick NE-oriented Hatton Basin – H.B.); Iceland Basin – I.B; Reykjanes Ridge –
R.R; and Irminger Basin – I.R.B. Note how the northward extension of the continental Rockall Plateau lines up
with the continental Faeroe Islands Plateau (cf. text). Similarly, the fault-bounded Rockall and Irminger basins
break across the Shetland-Faeroes-Iceland-Greenland barrier to form the deep water passages of the Faeroe
Bank Channel (F.B.C.) and Iceland-Greenland (Denmark) Strait (I.G.S.) respectively.
The Upper Mesozoic break-up of the Central Atlantic rift, gradually spreading northward in the
Lower Tertiary, was the product of relative rotations of adjoining lithospheric units (each of them
including both continental and surrounding oceanic tracts). With the North Atlantic being located in
the northern palaeohemisphere, both the Eurasian and North American tectonic units rotated in the
clockwise sense, instigating a left-lateral shear along their common boundary – the North Atlantic rift
zone. Hence, the inferred contemporary left-lateral motion along the North Atlantic Ridge, discussed
above, probably dates from around the K/T boundary (Alpine climax). During the Upper Cretaceous,
a major build-up of mantle gas led to uplift of oceanic basins, causing widespread sea-level
transgression over low-lying lands. Then, a major phase of crustal loss to the mantle, initiated a
relatively sharp sea-level regression accompanied with numerous tectono-magmatic events around the
world. Associated major gas blow-outs (cratering) and toxification of sea water led to the biological
catastrophe at the K/T boundary, some 65 million years ago (Storetvedt, 2003).
In response to the evolving shear regime, the northward progression of the Central Atlantic rift was by
no means a simple journey: the northward extension of the rift had to find its way through a rather
compact continental to semi-continental crust (see also below). The Lower Tertiary tectonic break
into the thick-crusted Icelandic region may have occurred along several fissures and through which a
thick plateau basalt sequence is likely to have accumulated – presumably covering a much wider area
than present-day Iceland, but hidden by extensive the Neogene-Recent volcanic layer and sediments
of the surrounding shelf. The V-shaped topographic-gravimetric structure of the Reykjanes Ridge as
well as the eastward en échelon shift of the tectono-volcanic belts of S. Iceland can be seen as
necessary mechanical diversions – the tectonic stresses breaking up into escape paths around the deep
crustal core of the island. It appears likely that the deep and curved Aegir Ridge of the Norway Basin,
with its south-westerly convexity, owes its origin to this tectonic process. In fact, Breivik et al. (2006),
in describing V-shaped gravity ridges along the Aegir Ridge, suggested that the ridge formed under
29
oblique shearing stress. In northern Iceland the diverting tectonic stresses describe a complex
association of north-south striking tectono-magmatic zones, before taking a relatively sharp, but
tectonically diffuse, westward swing – the structural elements subsequently re-bundling into a welldefined rift structure along the Kolbeinsey Ridge. Within the framework of plate tectonics, the
complex tectono-magmatic structure of North Iceland has remained confusing and undecided to this
day (e. g. Bergerat et al., 2000; Garcia et al., 2002). Adding further to the confusing tectonic picture,
the V-shaped ridges in the gravity field have also been reported from the Kolbeinsey Ridge region
(Jones et al., 2002).
In addition to breaking up the Mid-Atlantic rift zone through Iceland, the Lower Tertiary shearing had
a number of other pronounced effects. Thus, along the W. European and Greenland margins thick
sequences of basalt flows and sills, gradually giving rise to prominent seaward-dipping reflector series
– formed along sectors of the developing continental margins (e.g. White et al., 1987; Planke and
Eldholm 1994; Barton and White, 1997; Spitzer et al., 2008). Significant rifting across the shallow
European-Greenland continental barrier occurred in a few places – notably along the Faeroe Bank
Channel and the Denmark Strait, presently having water depths of 850 and 620 metres respectively.
The basalt pile of the Faeroes is another striking outcome of this shearing event. Also, in Iceland,
along the main North Atlantic rift, it is very likely that a thick succession of Lower Tertiary basalts
rests beneath the cover of Miocene and younger volcanics. Apart from a few more telling tectonic
penetrations, this shallow aseismic ridge shows little evidence of more densely spaced shearing. This
conclusion is supported by the fact that linear magnetic field anomalies across the ridge are very
weakly developed (cf. Smallwood and White, 2002) – observations which fit the hypothesis that
magnetic field linearity is conditioned by sufficiently advanced shearing metamorphism (Storetvedt,
2010c).
The variegated Norwegian-Greenland Sea basins
Within the seemingly universally acclaimed plate tectonics hypothesis, numerous studies have tried to
disentangle the alleged seafloor spreading history of the Norwegian-Greenland Sea (e.g., Talwani and
Eldholm 1977; Nunns 1983; Lundin & Doré 2002; Scott et al. 2005; Olesen et al., 2007; Mjelde et al.,
2008, and many others), albeit without arriving at meaningful answers. Over the years, increasingly
sophisticated mapping has added much detailed structural and other information, but as long as the
relatively complex regional magnetic field picture is being regarded as supportive of seafloor
spreading, introduction of unjustified ridge jumps wherever required by that model, our credulity is
being continuously strained. As ad hoc fixes and conflicting interpretations continue to flourish, the
time has clearly come to reconsider the facts with fresh eyes.
From the bathymetric-topographic picture of Fig. 11, the Norwegian-Greenland Sea consists of three
circular-to-oval shaped sub-basins: the Norway, Lofoten and Greenland basins, bounded by ridges
and continental margins. Based on the seaward dipping margin sequences, it is inferred that the
subsidence of the Norwegian-Greenland basin accelerated during the Lower Tertiary – in response to
intensifying, but variable, crustal oceanization. Along with the resistant Shetland-Faeroes-IcelandGreenland Ridge – forming a land bridge between NW Europe and Greenland as late as the Upper
Miocene (see below), the Vøring-Jan Mayen-Greenland ridge/fracture system might have served as
another trans-oceanic continental connection, at least in pre-Lower Tertiary time. The Vøring Spur, a
significant oceanic plateau and bathymetric high branching out from the Cretaceous Vøring Basin,
and bounded to the southwest by the East Jan Mayen Fracture Zone, is characterized by a clear
Bouguer gravity low and a crustal thickness of about 16-17 km (Gernigon et al., 2009). Within the
ruling plate tectonics philosophy interpretation of such features have generally vanished into thin air –
for example, referred to as atypical oceanic, the consequences of unspecified melt production, or
simply labelled intriguing. As shown by the work of Gernigon et al., the north-west trending Jan
Mayen Fracture system displays a number of narrow blocks with negative Bouguer anomalies,
interrupted by transverse fault zones. The simplest and most straightforward explanation of these
gravity lows are as the remains of former continental crust.
30
Fig. 11. Bathymetry and topography of the northern North Atlantic – modified after Olesen et al. (2007). Note
the continental Jan Mayen Ridge, extending southward from Jan Mayen Island, and the deep Jan Mayen Basin
along its western flank.
The Vøring Basin sits on thick crust, with a Moho depth of around 20 km, and according to seismic
and gravity data the basement is continental (Mjelde et al., 1997 & 1998). In a seismic line from the
Vøring Marginal High, across a faulted and bathymetrically V-shaped transition zone to the Vøring
Spur, the crustal thickness shows considerable thinning across the faulted region, to a Moho depth of
only 12 km (Gernigon et al., 2009). Such observations concur with the predictions of Wrench
Tectonics, to the extent that the processes of volatile-driven sub-crustal attenuation would have been
particularly effective in deep-faulted regions. In addition, the faulted zone between the Vøring High
and the Vøring Spur will predictably have undergone increased mineral alteration, including
decomposition of original iron-titanium oxides and thereby bringing about reduced magnetic
susceptibility – the inferred prerequisite of negative magnetic field anomalies. This prediction is in
fact borne out by aeromagnetic data (Olesen et al., 2007; Gernigon et al., 2009) – in terms of faultaligned magnetic lows featured along the tectonic sub-divisions of the Jan Mayen Fracture System.
It is important to note that the bathymetric depression along the East Jan Mayen Fracture Zone is
associated with both magnetic and free air gravity lows, observations that accord with our discussion
above regarding the topographic-magnetic-gravimetric features of the V-shaped Reykjanes Ridge. It
31
should be stressed that the Jan Mayen Fracture System not only has marked along-fracture magnetic
lows, particularly expressed along the southern boundary, but also – orthogonal to this pronounced
magnetic lineation – a number of fault-aligned magnetic lows cut across the relatively broad Jan
Mayen Fracture Zone. This is strong prima-facie evidence that wrench tectonic processes, producing
the fault-associated magneto-mineralogical basis responsible for magnetic field lineations, have been
in operation.
For more than four decades, the ~50 km wide Jan Mayen Ridge, extending southward from Jan
Mayen Island, has been subjected to a variety of geophysical studies (Eldholm and Windisch, 1974;
Talwani and Eldholm, 1977; Gairaud et al., 1978; Johansen et al., 1988; Kodaira et al., 1998, and
many others), from which a continental nature was acknowledged even at the early stages of
investigations. In the wake of the popular seafloor spreading model, the Ridge has generally been
thought of as a split-up fragment of the Greenland continental margin, though several unresolved
crustal issues have remained a stumbling block for spreading-related interpretations. For example, this
‘micro-continent’ has no clear outer boundaries; it exhibits large variations in lower crustal
thicknesses, and its southward extension is without a clear termination – a fact that has evoked a
number of ad hoc proposals (e.g. Kimbell et al., 2005; Fedorova et al., 2005). Perhaps the continuing
search for a structural and compositional distinction between the Jan Mayen Ridge and the
surrounding thinner crystalline basement is an artificial problem altogether – to the effect that the
various crustal ‘compartments’ have the same continental origin differing only in the degree of subcrustal delamination and related chemical changes?
In an attempt to unravel some of the unsolved problems surrounding the tectonic setting of the
magnetically quiet Jan Mayen continental block, Kodaira et al. (1998) carried out a detailed seismic
survey using OBS profiles, studying the crustal structure of the Ridge and the basin along its western
flank, with an extension onto the Iceland Plateau. In the study area, at about 69.5ºN, the Jan Mayen
block seems to have a keel-like crustal structure with a maximum thickness of around 20 km near the
ridge centre. Along the western side of the Ridge there is a deep sedimentary depression, up to 5 km
thick – the Jan Mayen Basin, characterized by magnetic quiescence and an extremely thin crystalline
crust (down to 3 km in places) within a 100 km wide zone. While the lower crustal layer beneath the
Ridge is about 12 km thick, it is nearly absent under the Basin. This N-S trending basin is apparently
fault-controlled, for which the nearly complete removal of the lower crust may bear a close
resemblance to the deep structure across the Parentis Basin, inner Bay of Biscay – crossing the North
Pyrenean Fault Zone. To explain the near depletion of the lower crust beneath the Parentis Basin,
Pinet et al. (1987), on the basis of a deep-seismic reflection profile, suggested a non-conservation
mass model in which eclogitized gabbroic-granulitic lower crust had been rendered gravitationally
unstable and, consequently, lost (delaminated) to the upper mantle.
Kodaira et al. (1998) suggested that the crystalline basement beneath the Jan Mayen Basin constitutes
attenuated continental crust, and the strongly faulted border zone to the adjacent Jan Mayen Ridge
was referred to as non-volcanic continental margin – formed at a time when the Ridge allegedly broke
away from Greenland. However, the faulted structure along the western Jan Mayen Ridge is more
likely a tectonic consequence of in situ processes – by way of an increasingly effective elimination of
sub-crustal mass and related basin subsidence, naturally leading to down-to-basin faulting along the
Ridge/Basin transition zone. Adding to these aspects, the crust to the west of the Jan Mayen Basin is
anomalously thick compared with that which is conventionally believed to be a ‘normal’ oceanic; on
the Icelandic shelf, crustal thickness is estimated to be about 12 km, and further along the Kolbeinsey
Ridge and neighbouring tracts the thickness is reduced to a relatively stable figure of around 9.5 km
(Kodaira et al. 1997; Hooft et al., 2006). It seems that the Kolbeinsey Ridge represents another case
for which the mid-ocean rifting cuts across semi-continental crust, and the evidence for V-shaped
gravimetric structures in the region of the Kolbeinsey Ridge (Jones et al., 2002) further underlines the
currently bewildered state of the art. It seems likely that the Early Tertiary rifting along the
Kolbeinsey Ridge apparently cut across a semi-continental basement capped by a relatively thick
sequence of shallow water Mesozoic and older sediments; since the early Tertiary tectonic break-up
of the partly thinned continental crust, the Kolbeinsey Ridge/Jan Mayen region has apparently
32
undergone further attenuation and isostatic subsidence – giving rise to a variable cover of Tertiary to
Recent sediments.
Taking a broader look at the physiographic features (Fig. 11) and magnetic anomaly picture (Fig. 12)
of the Norwegian-Greenland Sea, one cannot but be struck by the multitude of bent and wavy crustal
structures prevailing in this part of the North Atlantic. The general tectonic wrenching of this
relatively narrow oceanic tract is particularly noted in the changing magnetic anomaly pattern, for
which the Jan Mayen Fracture Zone forms a relatively continuous positive anomaly band across the
ocean. We note the broad region of magnetic quiescence centred on the Jan Mayen Ridge. And the
Jan Mayen Fracture Zone evidently represents a tectonic discontinuity; north of this tectonic divide
the magnetic anomaly system, centred on the curved Mohn’s Ridge, takes a distinctly more easterly
trend. The marked eastward offset of the mid-oceanic rift across the Jan Mayen Fracture Zone – from
the Kolbeinsey anomaly sequence in the south to the corresponding magnetic striping centred on the
Mohn’s Ridge to the northeast – is already ‘signalled’ by the pronounced eastward side-stepping
structure of the Kolbeinsey Ridge.
In the global wrench tectonic system, the relatively thin oceanic crust would be most receptive to
tectonic shearing processes and hence to the development of induced marine magnetic lineations. But
there is no compelling reason why the shearing and its magnetic effect should be completely cut off at
continental margins. Thus, Olesen et al. (2007) submit that linear magnetic anomalies running parallel
to the Mohns Ridge continue onto the continental shelf of E Greenland and then, on the Norwegian
side, climbs up the slope of the Vøring Plateau.
Fig. 12. Compilation of aeromagnetic data in the Norwegian-Greenland Sea area – from Olesen et al. (2007).
Note the curved and complex magnetic anomaly picture indicating significant shearing and tectonic deformation
in this part of the Atlantic.
33
As seen from Figs. 11 &12, the eastern sector of the south-bended Mohns Ridge, near the Barents Sea
margin, makes a marked northward swing that continue along the NNW trending Knipovich Ridge, a
major shear zone along the narrow ocean belt between Svalbard and Greenland. As discussed above,
the present left lateral shearing along the mid-ocean rift zone – indicated by GPS site velocities –
probably came about during the Alpine climax. But due to the regionally variable crustal thinning that
led to the inclusion of a number of resistant and relatively high standing continental fragments, the
wrench tectonic response in specific areas would be difficult to predict. Nonetheless, in transtensive
zones – within which hydrous fluids from the mantle would have found relatively easy escape routes
– the crust could be expected to be extremely thin. This situation seems to be the case for the Aegir
Ridge, SW Norway Basin, as well as the Mohns Ridge; in both cases crustal thicknesses of only 4 km
have been estimated (cf. Klingelhőfer et al., 2000; Greehalgh and Kusznir, 2007).
Consistent with a wrench tectonic origin of the Mohns Ridge, Dauteuil and Brun (1996) and Crane et
al. (1999) described a highly segmented rift valley, consisting of en échelon fault-bounded troughs
and deformation partitioning – the valley walls being dominated by strike-slip displacements. Horsts
or tilted blocks are regularly spaced inside the axial valley, and regarding the tectonic obliquity within
the central rift basin Crane et al. concluded that the “degree of non-linearity increases slightly with the
proximity to the Mohns-Knipovich bend”. In a subsequent study of the Mohns Ridge, Klingelhőfer et
al. (2000a & b) referred its unusually thin crust to a very modest lower crustal layer – a comment in
accord with the observations beneath the Jan Mayen Basin (discussed above).
The Arctic Ridges
The highly sheared crust of the narrow Svalbard-Greenland oceanic sector has given rise to a host of
plate tectonics inspired geodynamic interpretations (see Chamov et al., 2010 and references therein),
but its evolution has remained a matter of debate. The locus of the shearing process is represented by
the near-meridional striking Knipovich Rift – a well-expressed 15 km wide valley at water depths of
around 3,000 m – for which the bottom relief consists by a system of en échelon depressions
separated by NE-extended rises (Chamov et al., 2010). According to these authors, “the rift valley is
characterized by the V-shaped transverse profile with the inclination of western and eastern slopes
varying along the valley strike”. Hence, in terms of the tectono-physiographic origin of the Knipovich
structure there seems to be a close link to that of the Reykjanes Ridge. Fig. 13 gives a tectonotopographic display of the Knipovich region for which the obliquity of the Knipovich axis is a main
element. From their bathymetric results, Chamov et al. suggested that the structural patterns were
governed by two main strain systems – oriented NNW and NNE respectively. They noted that the
NNW oriented structures run sub-parallel to the Alpine tectonic belt along western Svalbard (striking
approximately 335º), while the NNE oriented (025º) structural grain formed a dominating set of
fractures traced across their entire study area. They were led to conclude that “the structural patterns
of the region indicate an influence of shear processes on the formation of the Knipovich Rift…The en
échelon arrangement of basins of the pull-apart type mapped by the bathymetric survey is
characteristic of continental rifts formed by a simple shear mechanism”. Hence, they questioned a
spreading origin of the Knipovich Rift – at least since Miocene time.
34
Fig. 13. Shaded bottom relief of the Knipovich Rift Valley, reproduced from Chamov et al. (2010). Note that the
en échelon tectonic structure covers a much wider region than the central rift valley itself.
Chamov et al. were puzzled by the fact that the NNE-striking fracture system of the Knipovich Rift
coincides with the regional magnetic field anomalies. However, the close association between the
dominant tectonic shear system and magnetic field linearity is only puzzling in the context of the
Vine-Matthews-Morley model. In the alternative explanation – in which shear-imposed mineral
alteration has led to bands of varying magnetic susceptibility – linear magnetic field anomalies are
impressed by induction from the ambient geomagnetic field. The northward swing of the Mohns
Ridge, and associated magnetic lineations, fit well into the alternative tectonic scenario.
The meridional trend of the Knipovich Rift is markedly offset by the Molloy Fracture Zone
continuing northward to the Molloy Deep (Fig. 14) – a deep nodal basin formed at the intersection of
the Molloy Fracture Zone and Lena Trough/Ridge. The 300-km Lena Trough runs along the Fram
Strait – the relatively narrow passage between the Svalbard and Greenland margins (Tiede et al.,
1990). As might be expected, linear marine magnetic anomalies have not been found in this strongly
sheared/disrupted oceanic corridor. The regional oceanic ridge/trough complex runs very close to
West Spitsbergen (the main island of the Svalbard Archipelago) for which the western margin has
traditionally been associated with Early Tertiary transpression involving a significant strike-slip
component (Harland, 1969). According to Lowell (1972), the prominent onshore and offshore fault
zones of western Svalbard constitute an overall transpressive setting – the West Spitsbergen fold- and
thrust belt – the deformation of which supposedly started in the Palaeocene with the maximum
tectonic straining being achieved during the Eocene (Steel et al., 1981; Braathen and Bergh, 1995).
Basalts are very rarely represented among the recovered material from the Lena Trough. Instead, an
assemblage of massive sulphide deposits, hydrothermal sediments, fragments of fibrous massive
asbestiform serpentinite, and mantle peridotite has been the most commonly sampled material (Snow
et al., 2001). In fact, the latter authors found altered peridotites, cut by late stage carbonate veins, in
all their dredge locations in the Lena Trough. Out of a total of seven successful dredge stations in the
Molloy Deep over the years, not a single sample of basalt or gabbros has been obtained – only
peridotite (Snow et al., 2001). From petrographic and geochemical evidence, they concluded that the
Lena Trough showed a very low degree of partial melting and, for that and other reasons, it
represented an enigmatic case within a seafloor spreading context.
35
Fig. 14. Perspective view of the mid-ocean rift system of the northern Norwegian-Greenland Sea and the Fram
Strait. From south to north, the various ridge segments are: Knipovich Rift – K.R; Molloy Fracture Zone –
M.F.Z; Molloy Deep (with rhombic outline) – M.D. and Lena Trough – L.T.
The Molloy Deep – the deepest point of the mid-ocean ridge system, ~5900 m – is bounded by high
ridges and 20º–30º dipping slopes (Fig. 14; Chamov et al., 2010). Its rhombohedral outline in plane
view is consistent with the strong shearing deformation which seems to have affected the narrow
Svalbard-Greenland transect – the region of the Molloy Deep having apparently experienced a
‘localized’ transtensive environment. With high pressure conditions and ready escape routes for
hydrothermal mantle fluids, we have satisfied the most important preconditions for crustal
delamination. In fact, the entire oceanic rift system between Svalbard and Greenland has to be
considered an oceanic valley formed by stress- and fluid-enforced lithospheric eclogitization and
crustal loss to the mantle. In this process, in the deepest part of this oceanic rift valley – the Molloy
Deep – crustal delamination has proceeded to completion so that the ultrabasic upper mantle is
currently exposed at the ocean floor.
At the northern end of the Lena Trough, the Mid-Atlantic Rift bends sharply to the east – continuing
eastwards as the Gakkel Ridge for over 1,800 km to the Siberian margin, ending in a broad zone of
continental rifting on the Laptev Shelf (Grachev, 1982). The Gakkel Ridge, which divides the Arctic
Basin into the Amundsen and Nansen sub-basins, has several anomalies that cannot be explained by
the current model of oceanic crustal formation (Snow and Edmonds, 2007). For example, there is a
much higher concentration of venting here than elsewhere in the North Atlantic. Emphasizing this
difference, Fig. 15 gives a summary of known hydrothermal activity on the Mohns Ridge, the
Knipovich–Lena Trough shear zone, and the western Arctic Ocean (Snow and Edmonds, 2007). In
fact, the entire length of the Gakkel Rift shows unexpectedly high levels of hydrothermal activity
(Edmonds et al., 2003), not the rare venting as the seafloor spreading model predicts. The Rift is
apparently serving as a central pathway for hydrous mantle fluids, giving rise to an effective regional
metamorphic transition to eclogite and related sub-crustal gravity-driven thinning of the crust – the
dynamic requisites of Wrench Tectonics. If this reasoning is correct, it follows – as first order
predictions – that the crust of the Gakkel central rift would be exceptionally thin, the rift valley deeper
36
than normal, and the basalts – being fed from the underlying asthenosphere – would contain absorbed
crustal contaminants.
Fig. 15. Summary of known hydrothermal venting on the Mohns and western Arctic ridges – reproduced after
Snow & Edmonds (2007). The box indicates the survey area of the AMORE 2001 cruise along the Gakkel
Ridge.
The Gakkel Rift which is more than 5,000 m deep in places has no cross-cutting fault zones anywhere
along its ca.1,800 km-long path. The rift valley is bounded by high-angle normal faults forming riftparallel ridges and troughs with up to 2 km of relief. Evidence of extrusive volcanic activity is limited
to just a few specific locations along the rift, and a subdivision of three magmato-tectonic regions can
be discerned (Michael et al., 2003; Dick et al., 2003). A 300-km-long central amagmatic division,
where mantle peridotites are emplaced directly on the ridge axis – just as for the Molloy Deep – is
flanked between abundant, continuous volcanism in the western domain, and large, widely spaced
volcanic centres in the eastern ridge segment. Fig. 16 depicts the bathymetry of the western Gakkel
Ridge – as surveyed by the AMORE 2001 cruise. At 3ºE, at a distinct but minor E-W offset, the rift
valley floor drops 1 km, and only peridotite was dredged for 80 km to the east (Michael et al., 2003).
A mixture of scattered volcanics and peridotites then dominates to 30ºE, after which basalt reappears
as the bulk of the recovered material. As readily noted from Fig. 16, the Ridge is crossed by a number
of bathymetric highs, features that gradually die off laterally – towards the Nansen and Amundsen
basins. The rift valley wall morphology is related to significant tectonic uplifts on high-angle normal
faults (Dick at al., 2003). “Between the volcanic centres there are long deep rift valleys (~ 4,600–
37
5,400 m) with weakly negative to slightly positive MBA [mantle Bouguer anomalies] and low
magnetic field intensity. Here the rift walls consist of long linear ridges or more irregular massive
block uplifts exposing abundant peridotites” (Dick et al., 2003). From such observations – including a
sporadic central magnetic anomaly (cf. Fig. 7) – we are tempted to conclude that the central Gakkel
Rift crust must be very thin or non-existent in places, the crystalline ocean floor possibly being
represented by serpentinized upper mantle.
Fig. 16. Gakkel Ridge bathymetry based on AMORE 2001 data – simplified from Snow and Edmonds (2007).
Note the sharp E-W tectonic offset of the ridge at 3ºE, and its wavy form at around 20ºE – indicative of alongridge shearing deformation. Red lines with numbers illustrate alleged spreading rates as indicated by the above
authors – regarded irrelevant in the present evaluation.
38
From the dredged rock material currently at hand, it has been inferred that the supply of magma along
the Gakkel Ridge is surprisingly low and insufficient to maintain a continuous volcanic axis; evidence
of extrusive activity appears to be limited only to a few specific locations, and the ridge axis is
generally marked by a tectonic valley rather than a constructional axial volcanism (Cochran et al.,
2003). Adding to these facts, Coackley and Cochran (1998) and Jokat et al. (2003) presented seismic
and gravimetric evidence that the crystalline crust, at least to the west of 60ºE, may be vanishingly
thin. In that case, it would be likely that considerable crustal material has been absorbed by the upper
mantle – producing crustal geochemical signatures in Gakkel Ridge volcanics. Looking into such
aspects, Goldstein et al. (2008) have studied Sr–Nd–Pb isotope ratios and trace elements in basalts
from the ridge axis, finding that basalts to the west of the amagmatic (central) zone display affinities
to the Southern Hemisphere Dupal isotopic province. After considering a number of possible
explanations, the authors concluded that the isotopic signature of the robust western volcanic zone of
the Gakkel Ridge came from an original sub-continental lithosphere mantle that had delaminated – to
be subsequently integrated in the regional asthenospheric melts.
Relating the tectonic processes to inertia-based latitude-dependent wrench forces – for which the
shearing intensity within thin-crusted ocean regions would diminish with increasing palaeolatitude
[during the Alpine revolution the relative geographical north pole was located in the northern Bering
Sea, see Storetvedt, 1997 & 2003] – accounting for the fact that linear magnetic anomalies along the
Arctic Basins are weak and patchy, compared to most other parts of the North Atlantic. The central
Gakkel Basin is unusually deep which, in turn, is consistent with an anomalously thin or non-existent
crust – sometimes with mantle rocks exposed at the seafloor, features that readily fit with the evidence
of the observed abundant hydrothermal venting along practically the whole length of the rift.
The rift axis is evidently experiencing transtensive conditions with moderate shearing; cases of
tectonic deformation, such as demonstrated by the E-W ridge offset at 3ºE and its markedly deformed
shape at around 20ºE (Fig. 16), may exemplify the along-ridge shearing regime along the North
Atlantic Ridge – supposedly in the left-lateral sense. However, the facts that a number of topographic
ridges cut across the Gakkel axis without obvious structural disturbances, and that these ridges are
sub-parallel with the Molloy Fracture/Lena Trough of the Fram Strait, signify an overall moderate
Alpine shearing deformation in these northern tracts. These features may also account for the weakly
developed marine magnetic anomalies in the Arctic Basin. Following the alternative development
pattern, with abundant hydrothermal venting and mantle rocks exposed at the surface, buoyant uplifts
by serpentinized peridotites might explain at least parts of the enigmatic ridge morphology. Consistent
with that view, Cochran et al. (2003) concluded that the gravity data showed that many enigmatic
bathymetric features of the Gakkel Ridge were likely to be of tectonic rather magmatic origin.
The North Atlantic Land Bridge
The Scotland-Faeroe-Iceland Ridge is a broad, aseismic, flat-topped, NW-trending ridge about 400 m
deep, cut by two shallow NE-trending bounding troughs (at the Greenland and W European margins).
It has traditionally been regarded as a biogeographic land connection between Europe and N America,
to account for the strong pre-Middle Tertiary fauna and flora relationship between the two continents
(for example, McKenna, 1975; Briggs, 1987). In support of that hypothesis, deep sea drilling on the
northern flank of the Faeroe-Iceland Ridge – at site 336, DSDP Leg 38 – encountered a 10 m thick
sequence of ferruginous lateritic paleosol interpreted as a deep subaerial weathering profile of MiddleUpper Eocene age (Nilsen and Kerr, 1976; Perry et al., 1976). As the paleosol sequence of this site
occurred at ~ 470 m sub-bottom and at water depths of another 500-1,000 m, it became obvious that
the Ridge has undergone considerable subsidence since the laterite layer formed. Nonetheless, the
Tertiary sub-tropical weathering horizon of DSDP site 336, as well as those of other locations of the
North Atlantic basalt province, accords with evidence from palaeoclimate (Wegener, 1929; Pomerol,
1982), palaeotemperature estimates (Burchardt, 1978) as well as palaeomagnetism (Storetvedt, 1990
& 1997); during the Early Tertiary (pre- 35 million years ago) the palaeoequator ran along the
northern rim of Africa.
39
In an attempt to fit the high standing Faeroe-Iceland plateau into the postulated spreading history of
the North Atlantic Talwani and Eldholm (1977) hinted at a shallow water or subaerial seafloor
spreading. Nevertheless, already in the 1970s, basement studies of the Faeroe-Iceland Ridge had
arrived at an unusually thick crust – favouring a continental basement beneath the Faeroe sequence of
plateau basalts (Bott et al., 1974; Bott and Gunnarsson, 1980). Later crustal studies along the FaeroeIceland Ridge (e.g. Staples et al., 1997; Richardson et al., 1998; Fedorova et al., 2005) have basically
confirmed the original conclusions. Artemieva and Thybo (2008) have compiled lithospheric
properties for northern Europe, Iceland and Greenland; their collected crustal thickness information
(Fig. 17) displays a number of illuminating aspects. Firstly, one notices how the continental crust
show gradual thinning towards adjacent oceanic regions – from the thick-crusted Baltic Shield
towards the North Atlantic, and from the thick interior crust of Greenland towards the markedly
thinner crust of the surrounding quasi-oceanic regions (Labrador Sea/Baffin Bay and North Atlantic).
We interpret these features as products of lateral spread-out of crustal delamination processes – that
is: degassing-triggered eclogitization and related accelerated gravity-driven delamination has not been
restricted to the developing oceanic regions but has also spread laterally, albeit with diminishing
vigour, beyond the continental margins. This development pattern apparently gives a neat explanation
of the boat-like shape of the Greenland crust – marked by a central keel. The same principle
apparently applies to the crust of Iceland (Fig. 3). Here, the original thick (apparently continental)
crust of the island has been affected by crustal delamination processes from nearly all sides, leaving
beyond the present bowl-shaped crust – with the deepest part in the centre.
Fig. 17. Crustal thickness distribution in Northern Europe, Iceland and Greenland, as compiled by Artemieva
and Thybo (2008). Red diamonds are seismic stations in Greenland not discussed here. Note the keel-like shape
of Greenland – with progressive crustal attenuation towards neighbouring oceanic regions – and the overall
rectilinear shape of the thinnest crust of the Norwegian-Greenland Sea, north of Iceland.
40
As is also noted from Fig. 17, the thinnest (quasi-‘oceanic’) crust of the Norwegian-Greenland Sea
has an orthogonal shape, with elements trending NW and NE respectively. This pattern follows a
simple tectono-physiographic rule: in response to sub-crustal attenuation and related changes of the
crustal layer, basin formation, surface morphology and tectonic lines will naturally be strongly
controlled by the old orthogonal fracture system (inherited by progressively younger surface strata).
We note further that the NW trending branch of the thin oceanic crust north of Iceland is parallel to
the Shetland-Faeroe-Iceland-Greenland Ridge – the latter being again sub-divided by ridge-parallel
fault zones, as for example demonstrated by sub-divisions and alignments of the individual islands of
the Faeroe Archipelago. Nonetheless, the 30-40 km thick crust of this relatively barren and flat-topped
trans-oceanic plateau – interrupted by the c. 18 km thick crust of the cross-cutting, NE trending
Shetland-Faeroe Basin (discussed above) – is in all probability the remains of an originally higher
standing continental barrier, for a long time representing a land connection for biotic migration
between North America and Europe. Propositions like subaerial or shallow water crustal spreading are
then hardly anything but plate tectonics-required artefacts.
During the Lower Teriary, the climate of eastern North America and Europe was subtropical with a
rich warm and wet forest vegetation (McKenna, 1983; Tiffney, 1985; Tiffney and Manchester, 2001)
– consistent with the position of the time-equivalent equator which passed along the southern rim of
the Mediterranean and further across the Central Atlantic to the southern Caribbean (cf. fig. 3 in
Storetvedt, 2010b). The warm conditions in northern Europe, Iceland and Greenland came to a close
around the Eocene-Oligocene boundary, some 35 million years ago, during which there was a drastic
cooling. This major environmental change was in response to a significant spatial shift of the Earth’s
body, bringing the globe to approximately its present spatial orientation for the first time in postPrecambrian history (cf. Storetvedt, 1997 & 2003). This major turning-over of the Earth, to be
regarded the terminal spasm of the Alpine climax, is well demonstrated by palaeontological and
palaeotemperature data. In addition, the resetting of the equatorial bulge altered the hydrostatic
pressure conditions of the asthenosphere triggering widespread tectono-magmatic activity across the
globe, notably in the oceans. On the continents, the Eocene-Oligocene boundary saw the eruption of
the Ethiopian flood basalts, in North America and Russia a number of larger-dimension volcanic
blow-outs (craters) dates from this time, and off the coast of eastern North America the 85 km
diameter Chesapeake Bay crater came into existence (see Storetvedt, 2003, and references therein).
The drastic cooling in Europe that took place some 35 million years ago, and continued throughout
the Lower and Middle Oligocene, is well demonstrated by palaeo-temperature studies of North Sea
sediments, see Fig. 18, upper diagram. This was a climatic deterioration that naturally must have
constituted a most important factor for biotic migration across the North Atlantic Land Bridge. The
sea-level low-stand in the Oligocene (as seen in the Exxon curve, Fig. 18, lower diagram) certainly
helped keeping the Greenland-Shetland migration route open, but the relatively cool climate of
Europe, Iceland and Greenland during most of the Oligocene certainly would have been the more
restrictive factor for between-continent migration.
From the end of the Oligocene, and notably during the Early Miocene, the Earth entered a new phase
of dynamo-tectonic unrest, and sea-level once more began to rise. An overall longer-term
transgression was interrupted by a couple of sharp regressive events before a more substantial sea
retreat occurred around 7-8 million years ago – as illustrated in Fig. 18, upper diagram. According to
Wrench Tectonics, sea-level variation is a direct consequence of ongoing Earth degassing with the
attendant build-up of hydrostatic pressure in the upper mantle – causing oceanic crustal elevation and
related transgression over lower-standing continental regions – intermittently punctuated by outbursts
of pressurized asthenospheric gasses and gas-driven magma. On the North Atlantic continents, the
mid-Miocene regressive events correlate with the origin of the Columbia River Basalt and with the
Ries and Steinheim craters of S Germany – all having ages around 15 million years old. In the North
Atlantic, the mid-Miocene tectono-magmatic event(s) affected broader regions of the ocean, including
the Cape Verde Islands, Canary Islands, Madeira, the Azores and Iceland – involving the onset of
Neogene volcanism in these regions. For the Macaronesian insular region (Canary Islands, Azores
41
etc) pre-volcanic tectonic uplifts, to heights of 400-500 m above sea level, are well established
(Mitchell-Thomé, 1976), and Neogene volcanic/intrusive activity is widespread elsewhere in the
Central Atlantic (cf Storetvedt, 1997).
In the Wrench Tectonics explanation, the principal mechanism behind the pulsating Earth history is
vertical mass transport and mantle/crust exchange processes – causing alterations in the planet’s
moment of inertia. Hence, the mid-Miocene Earth underwent a period of inertial instability after
which the relative equator was located across central Sahara and southern Arabian Peninsula
(Storetvedt, 1997 & 2003). The geological effects of such a dynamical shift can be recognized as
tectonic discordances and/or magmatic horizons – notably in palaeo-equatorial regions, features that
for example are readily spotted in the Neogene sedimentary succession of the Sinai Peninsula. In the
mid-Miocene latitudinal frame, the sub-tropical setting of the Mediterranean region is supported by
surprisingly shallow palaeomagnetic inclinations (e.g. Atzemoglou et al., 1994), and the attendant
heating trend proceeding northward in Europe is demonstrated by the mid-Miocene temperature peak
in North Sea sediments (Fig. 18, upper diagram).
Fig. 18. Upper diagram: Tertiary palaeotemperatures from fossil shells in North Sea sediments from oxygen
isotope studies. The two temperature scales refer to shifts in average isotope composition of (non-glacial) ocean
water before and after ice accumulation in Antarctica (present day). Simplified after Buchardt (1978). Note the
Eocene and Miocene temperature peaks, and the marked cooling in Europe during the Oligocene. Lower
diagram: The Exxon eustatic (global) sea-level variation since the Lower Miocene. Simplified after Haq et al.
(1987).
42
According to data from Miocene plant macrofossils in Iceland and evidence for time-equivalent
migrations between the North Atlantic continents, it seems that the trans-oceanic migration route was
open, at least for intervals, until nearly the end of that era. Thus, in a recent study of fossil plant
vegetation in Iceland, Denk et al. (2005), studying plant-bearing sediments interlayered in lavas of
four Middle-Upper Miocene formations, concluded that the flora had gradually changed from humid
temperate broadleaved (deciduous) to coniferous mixed forest, reflecting a shift from warm temperate
to cool temperate conditions over the actual time span. Denk et al. conclude that while there is
convincing evidence that plants colonized Iceland both from North America and Europe until 12
million years ago, the presence of fossil plants in the younger formations suggest they may have
migrated mainly from Europe. Hence, the evidence at hand is consistent with the dynamo-tectonic
development summarized above and indicates that the North Atlantic land bridge probably existed
until the latest Tertiary, undercutting the seafloor spreading concept – which is, of course, the basis of
plate tectonics.
The onset of Miocene volcanism in Iceland was not a mid-ocean ridge occurrence per se – numerous
locations across nearly the whole width of the Central Atlantic became magmatically active at around
that time; in comparison, Miocene and younger volcanism in the northern North Atlantic – north of
Iceland – is practically non-existent. This latitude-dependent variation is readily explained by Wrench
Tectonics but has no explanation in spreading-related hypotheses (Plate Tectonics or Earth Expansion
models). Apart from Iceland, and to a much lesser extent Jan Mayen and the Azores, Recent volcanic
activity is practically absent along other parts of the world-encircling mid-ocean ridge system. The
three North Atlantic manifestations are unique, occurring where the mid-ocean rift zone is cross-cut
by major tectonic structures: the Gibraltar Fracture Zone, the Shetland-Faeroes-Iceland fracturedefined ridge, and the Jan Mayen Fracture Zone.
Concluding remarks
It has gradually become abundantly clear that practically every aspect of a presumed seafloor
spreading origin of the North Atlantic Ridge is at variance with the expectations of that model. There
can be little doubt that the shallow, thick-crusted, trans-oceanic Shetland-Faeroe-Iceland-Greenland
Ridge represents a moderately thinned continental layer – a crustal feature making the seafloor
spreading process a physical impossibility. In addition, the extensive distribution of old and
continental rocks along the mid-ocean ridge suggests that the currently complex Atlantic crust is the
provisional end product of an attenuated and chemically modified continental cover. As of now,
meeting the many challenges with a string of ever increasing ad hoc propositions – in which the
unconfirmed notion of seafloor spreading is topped by a steady growth of hypothetical adornments –
is not sign of a true scientific prosperity. Obviously, the time has come to embark on a critical review
of the origin of mid-ocean ridges – and all other aspects of global geology, come to that. A new global
geological theory is clearly needed – accounting for the well-established pulse-like geological history
of the Earth. For the North Atlantic, the available evidence fits that of a fault-guided crustal
transformation/thinning structure, having had its principal development during Cretaceous-Lower
Tertiary time. This variegated crustal ‘oceanization’ has been superposed by inertia-triggered Alpine
lithospheric wrenching, producing the tectonic obliquity that characterizes the Atlantic and other midocean ridges.
Acknowledgements: We are greatly indebted to Chris Argent (London) for reading/correcting an earlier version
of this paper, Martin Hovland for constructive comments, Frank Cleveland for preparing some of the
illustrations, and Rune Andre Storetvedt for other assistance.
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49
DYKES, GLOBAL TECTONICS AND CRUSTAL EXTENSION
Cliff OLLIER
School of Earth and Environment, The University of Western Australia,
Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
[email protected]
Abstract: Dykes are extensional features in the Earth’s crust and the feeders of volcanoes. In some places
crustal extension can be quantified. Volcanism does not take place in compressive areas, yet volcanoes and
dykes are extensive in the Pacific ‘ring of fire’ and in island arcs. This suggests that there is something
wrong with the common assumption of compression in these areas of alleged subduction. Dykes have
accompanied crustal extension since the Archaean.
Keywords: dykes, extension, tectonics, volcanoes
Introduction
olcanic activity at the Earth’s surface results from eruption of lava, brought from deep in the
Earth mainly by dykes (also spelt dikes). Dykes connect the mantle to the Earth surface, and it is
generally accepted that the dykes require extension in the Earth’s crust. As a recent example, in the
blurb for his book on dyke swarms Srivastava (2011) wrote: “Dykes signify crustal extension and are
important indicators of crustal stabilisation events ...” Ji'an et al. (2004) wrote: “Dike swarms are
generally ascribed to intrusion of mantle-source magma result from extension.”
V
More positively Hoshino (1998) wrote: “Volcanism does not take place in the compressional crust.”
This truism requires much more emphasis.
Dykes and volcanoes
It has long been known that most lava is intruded as dykes. They may split into individual outlets at
the surface. In Hawaii eruptions often start along a linear ‘curtain of fire’ which in a matter of days
reduces to points of eruption. In other places it is thought that dykes give way to individual pipes that
reach the ground surface. But in older rocks where erosion has reduced the near-surface volcanic
features dykes are much more common than pipes. They are the dominant feeders of surficial volcanic
activity. Dykes commonly occur in ‘dyke swarms’ (Fig. 1) where many dykes are intruded, usually
roughly parallel suggesting a common tensional regime.
Fig. 1. Dyke swarm near Loch Leven, Scotland (from Ollier, 1988).
50
The dykes can be shown to be space-filling. Their matching walls have moved apart and lava filled
the space. This is described in many books, and a very readable account, with examples, is in Holmes
(1965).
In some places the amount of extension can be quantified. Holmes (1965, p.250) records: “Along a
fifteen-mile [24,140 m] stretch of the coast of Arran, for example, a swarm of 525 dykes can be seen,
the total thickness of the dykes being 5,400 feet [1647 m]. Here the local extension of the crust has
been more than one mile in fifteen [6.8%]”. The Mull (Scotland) dyke swarm has a total thickness of
over 1000 m and indicates a stretching of the crust in the affected region of 3.8 %.
Major dykes may be inferred from surface lineaments. The large volcanoes of South America occur
along distinct lines. Why the single chain of southern South America gives way to a double chain at
latitude 30oS is not clear, but there appear to be definite lines at depth governing the location of these
huge central volcanoes. Volcanoes in Mexico also fall onto two lineaments. One is E-W, including
Popocatepetl, Colima and Barcena (born 1952). The second lineament is NNE and includes Jurillo
and Paricutin (born 1943). Such lineaments suggest major dykes at depth.
It would seem that the volcanic intrusion is ‘permissive’, that is the dyke magma comes in to fill a
space created by tension. We should not imagine a thin dyke, just metres wide, forcing its way into a
crack and pushing aside a plate many thousands of kilometres across. It is not possible for a hot and
liquid or viscous dyke to push aside such a huge solid slab. It seems impossible that applied pressure
from a dyke, with a thickness of metres, could push a slab a few kilometres thick and thousands of
kilometres wide, despite friction and whatever obstacles are at the other end of the slab. Rather there
is some force pulling the plates apart and dykes come in to fill the space created when cracks appears.
In Iceland subsidence in the central rift contemporaneously with spreading suggests that the dykes are
permissively filling cracks as the island is pulled apart (Decker and Einarsson, 1971). The dykes are
not the driving force. It is also found that intrusion of dykes is sometimes periodic. In part of northern
Iceland an 80 km – wide fissure swarm underwent 5 km of extension between 1975 and 1985
(Steinhorsson and Thoraninsson, 1997).
The significance of dilational dyke intrusion
Dyke intrusion and dilation of the crust is common around rift valleys, mid-ocean ridges, and in
places like Iceland, and (at an earlier geological time) Scotland. These presumed areas of extension
present no problem.
But many volcanoes are found in areas which are regarded in the plate tectonic hypothesis as areas of
compression. The most obvious one is the Pacific “Ring of Fire” – a distribution recognized long
before the invention of plate tectonics (Fig. 2). All around the Pacific there are volcanoes, suggesting
that the Pacific Rim is a region of extension, not compression.
Evidence for extension in the Pacific Rim has been presented by many scientists. The dominant
feature of the western margin of South America is the Andes, of which Gansser (1973) wrote: “Above
all we lack indications of compression along the oceanic and continental crust interface. Along the
coastal belt block faulting has been the most important tectonic process since the Mesozoic...” In a
general paper on the tectonic style of Chile, Katz (1971) wrote: “Geological evidence ... indicates
extension in this area since at least the Miocene... extensional stress dominates the upper crust over an
area 200 - 400 km wide.” In North America the Basin and Range Province consists mainly of tilt
blocks rather than rifts, with extension of 850 km in the last 40 Ma (Elston, 1978). Extension in
China is reported by Teng and Lin (2004) who wrote: “In summary the Cenozoic China margin,
excluding the Cenozoic China Collision zone, appears to have been dominated by extensional
tectonics demonstrated by the omnipresent rift basins”.
51
Fig. 2. World distribution of active volcanoes (from Ollier, 1988). Note the concentration around the Pacific.
The second set of ‘anomalous’ volcanoes are those of island arcs, which have many volcanoes. In
plate tectonics these are attributed to subduction, but if Hoshino is right and volcanoes are not erupted
in a compressive regime we have to think of tension instead. Indeed there is a lot of evidence of
tension in island arcs, as they have lots of rifts, graben and half-graben, as shown in the following
examples.
In the Aleutian arcs there are both on-shore and off-shore graben. In Japan there are several instances
of large graben or rifts. The Beppu-Shimabara graben in cenral Kyushu and the Fossa Magna in
central Japan are associated with widespread volcanic activity and contain large calderas. The Fossa
Magna is a great rift lowland that traverses the widest part of Honshu from the Sea of Japan to the
Pacific. In the Philippines lies the Oas Graben and Mayon Volcano has its centre located on the
northern fault of the graben. On the island of Luzon the Cagayan Valley Basin is a graben 200 km
long and 40 km wide. Williams and Eubank (1995) wrote “The structural style in Central Sumatra is
produced by a tensional regime ... Compression does not appear to have been a dominant force.” Java
has a structural configuration of horst and graben. Borneo also has half grabens and grabens such as
the Mukah graben and the Igan-Oya graben.
Many island arcs have a back-arc basin behind them, which is an extensional area (Fig. 3). The
spreading pattern is often complicated and does not explain the curvature of the arc, which remains a
mystery. But the arcs are located between spreading back-arc basins and spreading oceans, so it
should be no surprise if the arcs are areas of extension too.
Ancient dykes
The dykes and dyke swarms described so far have been mainly Cenozoic, but dykes have been
intruded through most of the geological time. The oldest ones are from Greenland, and go back 3510
Ma (Nutman et al., 2004). The largest dyke swarm on Earth is probably the Mackenzie dyke swarm in
the Canadian Shield which is about 3,000 km long 500 km wide, and about 1270 Ma old. Also in
Canada are the Matachewan and Mistassini dyke swarms of about 2,500 Ma. A Canadian national
dyke swarm map compiled by Buchan and Ernst (2004) revealed 453 swarms with an age distribution
as follows: 35 Archean, 76 Paleoproterozoic, 60 Mesoproterozoic, 31Neoproterozoic, and 162
Phanerozoic (97 Paleozoic, 27 Mesozoic, 38 Cenozoic). In a proposal for a Russian dyke swarm map
52
it was said “we estimate that such a map of Russia and adjacent regions would likely contain more
than 700 swarms (>200 of Precambrian age and >500 of Phanerozoic age)”.
Fig. 3. A back arc basin – the Scotia Arc area (after Ollier, 1981). The youngest spreading is behind the South
Sandwich Islands, and older spreading sites with different orientation are further back. How the linear spreading
produces a curved arc is a mystery.
Ji'an et al. (2004) note that the dike swarms in the northern part of the North China Craton can be
divided into five age groups according to isotopic dating: 1800–1700 Ma, 800–700 Ma, 230 Ma, 140–
120 Ma, and 50–40 Ma. Extensional activities of the five groups of dike swarms are compared with
important tectonic events around the world during the same period. Wang and Jin (2006) describe
Late Paleoproterozoic (1,800 Ma) dyke swarms of part of the North China Craton, and they calculate
crustal extension at the time of 0.43%
Similar dyke swarms are found all over the world, and all seem to be regarded as indications of
extension. For example Luchia and Rapalinib (2002) describe the role of Middle Jurassic volcanism in
the evolution of Patagonia, Argentina. “Regional, structural, and, to a certain extent, petrological
evidence for the Middle Jurassic dyke swarms of the Sierra de Mamil Choique point to an extensional
intracontinental tectonic setting in which older structures controlled the development of the
volcanism”.
And so it seems that extension of the crust has been taking place since the Archaean, and dyke
intrusion may be the manner in which the crust grew. It would seem that dyke intrusion into cratons
was dominant until the Mesozoic, but at some stage seafloor spreading appeared as a new extension
mechanism. Different oceans originated at different times. This appearance of seafloor spreading
might correspond to an increase in the rate of global expansion claimed by some authors.
According to Wikipedia the number of giant dike swarms on Earth is small, only about 25, but they
go on to say that “ the primary geometry [presumably meaning the original number] of most giant
dike swarms is poorly known since plate tectonics are thought to destroy them”.
So dykes become a vital factor in deciding between continuous extension (and therefore an expanding
Earth), or subduction in a compressive regime.
53
How to explain dykes in ‘compressional’ areas
The plate tectonic literature generally ignores the problem of getting dykes into a compressional area,
but there is a problem and it should be faced. How might the many volcanoes in allegedly
compressional area be explained away? There seem to be two possible ways to explain volcanicity in
compressional areas: nondilational eruptions, or elaborate plate tectonic scenarios.
Holmes (1965, p. 263) refers to volcanic intrusions, mainly necks and plugs, with “walls or other
boundary surfaces that were not pushed aside and could never have been in contact” and describes
them as non-dilation intrusions, in contrast to the dilational intrusion of dykes with matching walls
that indicate extension. Some magma reaches the surface as pipes, most obviously in diamond pipes.
Their ascent is topped by gas-rich, fluidised magma and they virtually drill their way up. Such
intrusions are not the subject of the present paper, which is concerned with the vastly more common
dyke-fed volcanism.
It is not reasonable to appeal to such non-dilational eruptions to produce the volcanoes of the Pacific
Ring of Fire, or island arcs, and indeed dykes are well-known throughout these areas. The nondilational hypothesis fails to explain the linear arrangement of many volcanoes, and numerous
exposures of dykes in the Pacific borders and in island arcs.
A second possibility is to invent complex plate tectonic scenarios. An example is provided by Adams
et al. (2005) who describe an Eocene dyke swarm in British Columbia. In their abstract they first say
“These dykes were emplaced in a subvertical north-trending orientation coincident with inferred
Eocene crustal extension ..”, but later write: “Therefore, it is inferred that the subducting oceanic plate
influenced subcrustal mantle wedge metasomatism in the region. Decompression partial melting of
this metasomatised lithospheric mantle was initiated by coupled rapid unroofing, regional
transpression, slab rollback, and slab window development to the south.” I confess that I don’t really
understand this, but it sounds like special pleading to me. It is not an explanation that could be
applied in general around the Pacific and island arcs, and a myriad such ad hoc explanations would be
required.
Conclusion
The world distribution of volcanoes does not support the idea of subduction and compression around
the Pacific Ocean, or at island arcs. To maintain the view that volcanoes can erupt in a compressive
zone requires suspension of belief in the Hoshino dictum that “Volcanism does not take place in the
compressional crust.”
The plate tectonic hypothesis depends entirely on subduction at ‘active’ continental margins and
island arcs. Such subduction is presumed to cause enormous compression – compression enough to
cause metamorphism and to crush rocks into ‘fold mountains’.
But the distribution of dyke-fed volcanoes, actually concentrated on these margins, suggests that they
must be areas of extension. So I conclude that plate tectonics is impossible.
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55
GEOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF THE GREAT EAST JAPAN
EARTHQUAKE IN MARCH 2011
Dong R. CHOI
Raax Australia Pty Ltd, 6 Mann Place, Higgins, ACT 2615, Australia.
[email protected]; www.raax.com.au
Abstract: The massive earthquake and ensuing tsunami on 11 March 2011 (Great East Japan Earthquake GEJE) were caused by the reactivation of two Precambrian tectonic systems: 1) an ENE-WSW planetary
fracture system running through the mainshock area (= seismic source fault, whose movement triggered the
tsunami), and 2) a N-S trending ridge system under the continental shelf and the slope. The initial rupture along
the source fault proceeded from northeast to southwest. The fore- and mainshocks occurred at the junction of
these two trends. Subsequent aftershocks occurred in the younger (Cretaceous to Cenozoic), broad NW-SE
trending crustal high block in northern Honshu and its offshore area bounded by the Off Hidaka Uplifted Belt in
the north and an anticline connecting Sado and Choshi in the south (central Japan) – some 700 km in width.
Almost all of the shocks are located on the basement ridges, and along their margins and fault zones, indicating
that pervasive crustal block movement has taken place. Available crustal movement data, though limited, show
that the relief of the basement rocks was further accentuated by the movement; ridges rose and the lows
subsided – in harmony with the ongoing tectonic process since Cretaceous time, which formed the Pacific basin
and island arcs.
This monstrous quake with a regional extent is the result of thermal convergence of deep-Earth sourced energy
under the wide offshore area of northern Honshu including the continental slope, trench and deep ocean floor of
the northwestern Pacific. The deep forerunners appeared in 2005 to 2007 (during the declining period of solar
cycle 23) under the western part of the Sea of Japan/Russian Far East and western Honshu and its southern
extension in the Pacific. Additional energy was supplied from the south and west through Tsunoda’s MJ and PJ
routes. There is no evidence suggesting that the supposedly subducting Pacific plate was the cause of the GEJE.
Keywords: 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake, Precambrian ridge, planetary fracture system, crustal block movement,
seismic source fault
INTRODUCTION
I
mmediately after the devastating Great East Japan Earthquake (or the Tohoku-Oki Earthquake) and
ensuing tsunami on 11 March 2011, world seismological circles and mass media frantically
disseminated the idea that the supposedly subducting Pacific plate was the cause of this quake without
presenting any detailed regional and local geological/structural data.
The analysis of available geological and geophysical data by the present author, however, points to a
totally different picture: pervasive crustal block movement controlled by reactivated basement ridges
and fracture systems coupled with the movement of younger structures. The findings of this study –
geologically and structurally controlled seismic activities – provide valuable insights that can
contribute to a better understanding of great earthquakes. Here I’ll present a geologist’s viewpoint on
this monstrous, tragic earthquake.
REGIONAL GEOLOGY AND STRUCTURE OF NORTHERN HONSHU AND ITS
OFFSHORE AREA
Northern Honshu, Japan, represented by the Kitakami and Abukuma Mountains (Fig. 1), is a classic
field for Precambrian and Paleozoic sequences. Both onshore and offshore areas have been
intensively studied by many geologists and geophysicists especially since the end of the World War
II. The works have been included in a monumental book, “Geological development of Japanese
Islands” (Minato et al., 1965), and more detailed accounts were given in “The Japanese Variscan
geohistory of northern Japan – Abean orogeny” (Minato et al., 1979). Thanks to these and many other
studies, the presence of Precambrian sequences in northern Japan has been firmly established, and the
Paleozoic stratigraphy, structure and geohistory of northern Japan have been clarified.
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In the late 1960s and early 1970s, as one of the members of the Hokkaido University team, the present
author engaged in a comprehensive investigation of the Upper Paleozoics of the southern Kitakami
Mountains including stratigraphic, structural, paleontological, sedimentological and
paleogeographical studies with a focus on field geological mapping (Choi, 1973 &1976). The study of
conglomerates embedded in the Paleozoic to Jurassic sections led him to conclude that there were
once paleolands on both sides of the sedimentary basins – the present-day Pacific Ocean and Central
Japan (Fig. 2; Choi, 1972, 1984 & 1987; Choi et al., 1992). Similar provenances have been proposed
by Ichikawa (1951), Kano (1958) and Kamata (1979). These conglomerates contain Proterozoic
orthoquartzite clasts (Shibata, 1979) among many other lithologies (granodiorite, volcanic,
metamorphic, sedimentary rocks etc.), proving that the Proterozoic rocks together with Paleozoic
rocks had been exposed in the provenances during Late Paleozoic to Jurassic time in the present-day
northern Japan region. The eastern provenances coincide with the areas where there are gravity highs
today (Fig. 2), meaning that the gravity highs are composed of Precambrian and Paleozoic rocks.
Figure 1. Gravity anomaly map around Japan (Geological Survey of Japan, 2004). Major tectonic elements, the
distribution of the Great East Japan Earthquake fore-, main-, and aftershocks (M5+) superimposed (hypocenters
from NEIC). Inset map: Moment tensor solutions from Ide et al. (2011) and the foreshock loci from NEIC. The
regional extent of the M5+ quakes from 9 March to 21 April 2011 is surrounded by a dark broken line. The area
coincides with an overall gravity high occupying the offshore area of northern Honshu. The devastating M9.0
earthquake occurred at the junction of the basement (Paleozoic/Precambrian) ridge and an ENE-WSW
planetary-scale fracture zone. ◘ Earthquake preceded by vapor clouds on 18 April, 2010: 1 – 13 June, 2010.
M5.9, H=27 km; 2 – 4 July, 2010. M=6.3, H=27 km. Note; 1) many dredged Precambrian metamorphic and
granitic rock occurrences from seamounts and rises in the northwestern Pacific, and 2) continuation of the SadoChoshi Anticline to North Pacific Megatrend.
57
These findings are reinforced by dredging data obtained around seamounts in the deep Pacific Ocean
floor adjacent to the Japan Trench by Russian scientists, such as Vasiliyev (1986) and Vasiliyev and
Evlanov (1982); they reported the occurrence of continental rocks – including granitic and
metamorphic rocks, some Precambrian in age, as well as younger basalts and sedimentary rocks.
Figure 2. Top: Distribution of the Upper Permian Usuginu-type conglomerate and the Triassic basal
conglomerate with a clast size variation in the Kitakami Mountains (Choi, 1984). Bottom figure shows the
distribution of the Upper Permian Usuginu-type conglomerate with its supply direction and the provenances of
the Triassic basal conglomerate, both superimposed on the gravity anomaly map (Geol. Survey of Japan, 2004).
The eastern provenances coincide with the gravity highs (Precambrian ridges) in the east, but the western
provenances are deeply buried today under the Tertiary sediments, and are not readily recognizable in the
gravity map.
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In regard to the regional geophysical studies, Okada (1978) conducted an explosion seismic study of
northeast Japan and made an E-W crustal and upper mantle profile as shown in Fig. 3. He showed that
the Moho is 25 to 28 km deep under Honshu Island but becomes shallower under the Pacific and the
Sea of Japan to about 13 to 15 km. On the other hand, Geological Survey of Japan (2004) published a
gravity anomaly map of Japan and its surrounding region (Fig. 1). They depicted conspicuous N-S
basement highs in the offshore area of north Honshu. The ridges are dissected near the GEJE
mainshock area along a marked ENE-WSW line with the southern block largely down-thrown. As
stated earlier, these gravity ridges are composed of Precambrian and Paleozoic rocks, and were
exposed to the air during much of the Paleozoic to Mesozoic and supplied sediments to Paleozoic to
Jurassic basins developed in the west – where the Honshu island arc exists today.
The offshore area of northern Honshu started to subside in the Late Cretaceous to Paleogene/Miocene
in connection with the subsidence of the Pacific Ocean. This fact is confirmed by many submarine
studies; a mineral exploration study by Geological Survey of Japan off northernmost Honshu (2005)
showed the Upper Cretaceous-Paleogene sediments onlapping toward the basement highs or
prograding toward the present-day deep Pacific Ocean or troughs inside the continental slopes. An
offshore tectonic map around the Japanese Islands by Yoshida et al. (1981) mapped the Upper
Cretaceous (post-Neocomian) shallow-sea sedimentary provinces in the continental slopes off
northern Honshu. Further support comes from Shiba (1993) who documented the Middle Cretaceous
(Albian) shallow carbonate bank (900 m thick) which forms Kashima Daiichi Seamount. It is now
submerged at about 3,600-4,000 m depth. One of the DSDP drillings (site 439) occupied in the
continental slope off northernmost Honshu penetrated the complete Neogene and Paleogene sections,
which were underlain, with a marked unconformity, by a steeply dipping silicified claystone of Late
Cretaceous age that was a source of clasts and lithic fragments for the Oligocene and lower Miocene
units (von Huene et al., 1980). This particular area remained subaerial until the early Miocene.
To summarize the above, onshore geology, offshore gravity, the crustal/mantle profile, and submarine
dredgings supported by stratigraphic and paleogeographic data convincingly show that the offshore
N-S gravity highs (Fig. 1) correspond to Okada’s 6.6 to 7.0/km layer (Fig. 3); they are primarily
Precambrian structures. In addition, the following should be noted: 1) the surface relief of the
Precambrian (or lower crust) follows that of the Moho which best matches the overall gravity
anomaly distribution, and 2) the presence of relatively low-velocity mantle/lower crust developed
under central Honshu – an active Cenozoic tectonic belt – represented by the green tuff belt (Fujita,
1972). The good match between gravity and the relief of the lower crustal surface was also seen off
southernmost Java (Choi, 2006).
The basement structures have consistently exerted an influence on the subsequent tectonic
development of northern Japan. The GEJE cannot be understood without considering the basement
structures and the subsequent geological development throughout the Phanerozoic of northern Honshu
and the Northwest Pacific Ocean.
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Figure 3. Crustal profile across the Kitakami Mountains, northern Honshu and the projected GEJE earthquake
hypocenters from 9 March to 12 May 2011. The NEIC-registered earthquakes with magnitude 5.0 or greater
were selected in the rectangular area defined by longitudes 139o E and 145o E, and latitudes 37oN and 39oN. Pwave velocity profile adopted from Okada, 1978. Geological ages determined by the author in comparison with
geology in the Kitakami and Abukuma Mountains (Minato et al., 1979). Also referred to are submarine
geological data (Vasiliyev, 1986; Vasiliyev and Evlanov, 1982) and seismic profile interpretation across the
continental slope (Choi et al., 1992).
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EARTHQUAKES AND GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES
1. Mainshock hypocenter
There is a large discrepancy in the mainshock hypocenter determined by various seismological
institutions as listed below:
Table 1. Comparison of the GEJE mainshock hypocenter defined by various seismological organizations.
Organization
Univ. of Tokyo
JMA
EMSC
NEIC
Longitude
143.15 E
142.9 E
142.50 E
142.373 E
Latitude
38.03 N
38.1 N
38.30 N
38.297 N
Depth (km)
10
24
21.9
29
Magnitude
9
9
9
9
Two Japanese organizations (Univ. of Tokyo and Japan Meteorological Agency) placed the
mainshock hypocenter closer to the trench, whereas the western organizations (EMSC and NEIC)
closer to land. They are about 50 km apart (Fig. 5). Many subsequent studies adopted the Japanese
hypocenter, such as Harvard University (Kiser, 2011), Ide et al. (2011) and the Japan Coast Guard
(Sato et al., 2011). Foreshocks which occurred on 9 to 10 March also show a large discrepancy.
Because the NEIC hypocenters perfectly match the geological structures and energy release pattern as
seen in Figs. 1, 4 and 5, I use the NEIC archive data for this study – this also accommodates data
consistency. The JMA hypocenter has no major structural disturbance near the site. It is difficult to
60
imagine such a grand-scale ground movement occurring in the area without a past history of major
tectonic disturbances.
2. An ENE-WSW planetary fracture system – a seismic source fault
This fracture zone came to my attention after seeing the Geological Survey of Japan’s gravity
anomaly map (Fig. 1). All geological and structural data singularly point to the movement of this
planetary fracture system at the initial rupture of the GEJE. The foreshocks (located about 45 km
northeast from the mainshock) which occurred one to two days before the main tremor also occurred
along this fracture system (see inset map in Fig. 1). The mainshock falls perfectly on this line.
Undoubtedly this is the GEJE’s source fault. The moment tensor solution data of the fore- and
mainshocks by Ide et al. (2011) also suggest a high-angle, NE-SW fault activity with the southeastern
block down-thrown. This is a more reasonable interpretation conforming to the geological structure
than Ide et al.’s (2011) interpretation as a low-angle thrust.
The western extension of this trend was depicted in the southwestern corner of the Sea of Japan by
Shevaldin (1978) as one of the E-W, deep-seated, pre-Cenozoic fracture systems. It goes through
Noto Peninsula and south of Niigata and Sendai, where it gradually changes direction to ENE-WSW.
These areas belong to the green tuff belt where thick Neogene Tertiary sedimentary and volcanic
rocks are well developed (Fujita, 1972); there the deep fracture system is hidden deep under the thick
sediments. However, the fracture is traceable in the gravity map as the southern boundary of the
positive anomaly. The fracture system then passes through the GEJE mainshock and foreshock
region; there, a notable disruption of N-S basement ridges is observable (Fig. 1). It further extends
into the deep North Pacific Ocean floor where the Google map shows numerous paralleling low-relief
fractures.
Another paralleling fracture system is also visible much more clearly south of central Honshu – a
fracture running through a series of seamounts including the Kashima Daiichi and Ryofu Seamounts
east of Choshi Peninsula (Fig. 1). It is noteworthy that the latter is underlain by Precambrian granitic
and metamorphic rocks (Vasiliyev, 1986). This fracture zone is clearly affecting the seafloor
topography in the North Pacific as clearly seen on the Google map. It also extends westward into the
south of Honshu, obviously having affected the geological development of central to southwest
Honshu.
To summarize, this ENE-WSW fracture system in the mainshock region is the cardinal fracture
system formed in the early stage of the Earth’s history, and reactivated repeatedly in the geological
past, with the latest activity being in March 2011 as a seismic source fault of the GEJE.
3. Younger structural trends and seismic activity
The younger structural trends in the study area are typically NW-SE in direction, changing to ESEWNW/E-W in the Pacific sector. As stated earlier, these younger structures were formed in Late
Cretaceous to Cenozoic time in relation to the subsidence of the Pacific basin. The aftershocks which
reflect block movement are situated in the broad crustal high blocks bounded by the Off Hidaka
Uplifted Belt (Yoshida et al., 1981) in the north and an anticline connecting Sado Island and Choshi in
central Japan in the south (Fig. 1) – about 700 km in width. Regarding the latter, incidentally, Suzuki
et al. (2009) showed a distinctive difference in structural trend between the eastern and the western
Japanese Island arc at the boundary roughly coinciding with the Sado-Chosi Anticline; it continues
into the Pacific Ocean, forming a western arm of the North Pacific Megatrend (Smoot and Choi,
2003).
Also conspicuous is an anticlinal structure with an axial trough, particularly well developed in the
deep Pacific Ocean floor across the Japan Trench; the axial trough runs through Sendai in the west.
This trough is confirmed by a geological map on land (Fig. 4) and other published geological maps,
and is expressed as an overall topographic depression sandwiched by Paleozoic mountains on both
sides, Kitakami in the north and the Abukuma Mountains in the south. The boundary faults of this
trough are accompanied by Quaternary volcanoes on land, testifying to the youthfulness of the trough.
61
This trough has obviously affected the seismic energy release pattern published by Kiser (2011; Fig.
5).
4. Earthquakes and geological structure
Fig. 4 compares loci of strong seismic shocks (M6.0 or greater from 9 March to 21 April 2011) and
geological structures in the study area. This figure shows that earthquakes are distributed on the
basement ridges and along their margins and fault zones. Of particular interest is the important role of
the axial trough to the east of Sendai: While the seismicity generally distributes throughout the
shallow continental slope above 2000 m depth, a group of seismic events took place in the deep
Pacific Ocean beyond the Japan Trench. This is the area where both the axial trough and a branch of
the E-W basement ridge extend. Here attention should be paid to strong shocks over M6.5 located in
the northern flank of the anticline. These facts flatly reject the application of the plate subduction
model to the GEJE.
Figure 4. Major structural elements and epicenters of strong shocks (M6.0 or greater, from 9 March to 21 April
2011) of the Great East Japan Earthquake superimposed on a geological map (Geological Survey of Japan,
2007). The areal extent of the M6.0+ quakes is encircled by a pink line. Basement ridge drawn from gravity data
in Fig. 1. Note that all strong shocks are located on the basement ridges, and along their margins, major fault
zones and the E-W axial trough which extends into the Pacific beyond the trench. Daiichi Kashima Seamount
data from Shiba (1993), and dredged rocks from Vasiliyev (1986) and Vasiliyev and Evlanov (1982). NPM =
North Pacific Megatrend by Smoot and Choi, 2003. Water depth in meters.
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5. Energy release pattern and co-seismic crustal movement
Kiser (2011) illustrated a sequence of energy releases after the mainshock using the USArray
Transportable Array. The following figure (Fig. 5) shows the relative amount of energy release during
the first 25 minutes after the mainshock. Here we can see structural control on the energy release
pattern; the strongest release occurred southwest of the mainshock site – the northern flank of the
anticline where two fault zones meet. The rupture along the source fault proceeded from northeast
(foreshocks on 9 to 10 March) to southwest (mainshock and immediately following shocks within 25
minutes). There is another strong patch south of the trough. Both highs coincide with the gravity high
areas (Fig. 1). The subsequent energy release occurred on both sides of the trough, further north and
south, while the trough remained relatively quiet throughout the duration of GEJE (Fig. 4).
Figure 5. Relative amount of energy release from various locations that radiated energy during the first 25
minutes (darker orange showing higher energy releases) by Kiser (2011). Major structural trends are
superimposed. Foreshock (9-Mar-2011) is M7.3 and H=32 km, from NEIC. Direction of rupture moved
southwest along the fracture zone. Blue line - deep fracture zone, brown - Mesozoic-Cenozoic trough; both
obviously affected the energy release pattern. The original mainshock position displayed in the Kiser figure was
repositioned to conform to the coordinates given by JMA (Table 1). Note the very different hypocenters of the
mainshock determined by NEIC and JMA (about 50 km apart). The NEIC epicenters are harmonious with the
geological structure and energy release pattern.
An interesting co-seismic crustal movement study was made by Sato et al. (2011) based on the in-situ
seafloor geodetic observation system placed at five locations off north Japan (Fig. 6). They found the
ESEward horizontal co-seismic crustal movement in the range of 5 to 24 m, and the vertical
movement from -0.8 to +3 m, with the largest movement in the north of the axial trough. One of the
63
stations (MYGW) situated in the gravity low area subsided, but all other stations located in the gravity
high regions uplifted, indicating the accentuation of basement structure/relief by the GEJE (Fig. 6). A
land station situated at Oshika peninsula, east of Sendai also showed a similar trend – 5 m toward ESE
and about 1 m downward (Geospatial Information Authority of Japan, 2011; cited in Sato et al.,
2011). On a whole, the strongest movement occurred in the outer continental slope below the 2000 m
water depth immediately north of the axial trough, whereas the coastal and near shore areas subsided
(Geospatial Information of Japan, 2011).
However, caution must be applied in interpreting these numbers at face value, as we know that the
ground movement is oscillatory – with alternating periods of expansion and contraction (Iikawa and
Kobayashi, 2004). Whatever the amount of movement (although important), however, it should be
recalled that the movement has direct relevance to the geological structure – larger movement in the
north of the trough than the south – proving the impossibility of applying the oversimplified plate
subduction model to the study region. This is supported by other geological data as mentioned
elsewhere.
Figure 6. Seafloor movement during the GEJE obtained by direct measurement (Sato et al., 2011). Red star –
mainshock (NEIC), blue arrow – horizontal movement, and red arrow – vertical movement. Larger horizontal
movement is seen in the northern area of the axial trough. The MYGW station which subsided is located in the
gravity low area, but all others which uplifted are in the high areas.
DISCUSSION
The geological/structural information and seismological data described above provide us with a
penetrating insight into the relationship between great seismic events and geology, and thus contribute
to our understanding of the mechanism of great earthquakes.
1. Structural control on the occurrence of earthquakes and inapplicability of plate tectonics to
the cause of the GEJE.
This study clarified how earthquakes are controlled by geological structures:
1) Strong earthquakes occurred on the basement ridges, along their margins and fault zones (Fig. 4).
2) The area affected by the GEJE occupies the wide area off northern Honshu Island. It coincides with
a regional basement high block (Figs. 1 & 3).
3) The initial rupture along the source fault proceeded from northeast to southwest (Fig. 5).
4) Block movement is shown by the rise of the basement ridge and the subsidence of basins.
5) The initial energy release pattern was affected by major fault systems and an anticlinal structure
(Fig. 5).
6) An anticlinal structure with an axial trough extends into the deep ocean floor across the trench,
where strong seismic activities were concentrated (Fig. 4).
These facts suggest regional energy accumulation in the upper mantle and the lower crust under the
wide offshore area off northern Honshu as the cause of the GEJE, and the pervasive block movement.
64
2. Mechanism of earthquake generation
Another intriguing fact is that the unusually wide extent of the crustal movement – from central to
northernmost Honshu – a distance of about 700 km. The region as a whole forms a crustal high block
with a relatively shallow Precambrian basement. Blow et al. (2007) found seismic energy trapped in a
mantle high for the 2006-2007 Kuril Trench earthquakes, which led them to conclude that great
earthquakes are closely related to four factors: 1) major fault zone, 2) structural high, 3) actively
rising or subsiding tectonic regimes, and 4) upward-moving deep-Earth energy. These conclusions are
also applicable to many other great earthquakes including the 2004 Boxing Day earthquake in
Sumatra (Blot and Choi, 2004), the 17 July 2006 Great Southern Java earthquake (Blot and Choi,
2006), and the present GEJE as well. These facts imply that thermally-charged (and probably
electromagnetically-charged) gas and liquid are involved in the earthquake formation mechanism. The
trap structure may be somewhat comparable to that of hydrocarbons – one of the major differences
between them is that the former accumulates in the upper mantle and the lower crust, while the latter
in the upper crustal highs (but without major active faults). The process of energy movement and
accumulation has been discussed by Tsunoda (2010 & 2011).
3. Deep energy link, thermal energy flow, solar cycle, planetary effects and precursory signals
Deep energy link: This unusually strong magnitude earthquake is considered the result of the
convergence of deep Earth energy originating in the western part of the Sea of Japan/coastal area of
the Russian Far East and the on- and offshore area of central Japan along the Susongchon-Lake Biwa
Tectonic Zone. Their forerunners appeared in 2005 to 2007 (M5.5 to 6.8; depth – 350 to 640 km; Fig.
7) and transmigrated to the offshore northern Honshu in late 2010 to early 2011, according to Blot’s
(1976) ET formula. Tsunoda (this NCGT issue, p. 69-77, and 2010) discusses the energy flow routes
from the south and the west and their accumulation under the offshore region of northern Honshu. His
MJ and PJ routes must have provided additional thermal energy.
Solar cycle: As mentioned above, the deep forerunners appeared in 2005 to 2007 – a declining period
of solar cycle 23. These years also roughly correspond to the trough of the 44-year cycle starting in
1970, as well as much larger cycles – the 100-, 200- and 400-year cycles. The unusually strong
natural disasters in recent years including earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and extreme weather can be
attributed to the combined effects primarily originating from the enhanced discharge of Earth core
energy during a major solar cycle trough (Casey, 2010; Choi and Maslov, 2011).
Planetary effects: Other factors that deserve serious consideration are planetary influences –
particularly the Sun and the Moon, which may have worked as a trigger, or even enhanced the
magnitude of the GEJE: It is well known that the Sun discharged strong flares (coronal mass
ejections) several days before the disaster and the Moon was closest to the Earth at that time. Recent
studies (such as Kolvankar et al., 2010) clarified the role of the Moon in triggering earthquakes.
Further study is needed to fully understand these forces and their actual mechanisms in influencing
Earth’s geodynamic processes.
Precursory signals and prediction: Like many other disastrous earthquakes, the GEJE was preceded
by distinctive vapor clouds or geoeruption near the epicenter on 23 February – 16 days prior to the
mainshock (Shou, 2011). In addition, about 8 months before the GEJE there were signs of the thermal
activities occurring in the mantle under the offshore region of northern Honshu: Shou reported on his
website (http://www.earthquakesignals.com/zhonghao296/images_2008_1.htm) the appearance of
vapor clouds in two areas on 18 April, 2010 (Fig. 1): Relatively strong earthquakes actually occurred
after about two months in both areas. These facts are important in considering the process of thermal
accumulation in the mantle and the lower crust.
Another major sign was a sudden appearance of a very strong, super-long gravity wave anomaly on 7
March 2011 – four days prior to the mainshock – at the Global Network for the Forecasting of
Earthquakes’ monitoring stations in Turkey, Azerbaijan, Pakistan and Indonesia (GNFE, 2011). Based
on this sign, they informed their clients and uploaded their prediction to their website on 9 March
65
2011, two days prior to the main event of GEJE. Their prediction was of pinpoint accuracy as regards
time, magnitude and locality (http://www.seismonet.org/page.html?id_node=130&id_file=129). Straser
reports in this NCGT issue (p. 77-87) the variations of precursory signals in gravity and geomagnetic
fields before the GEJE. These facts show that major earthquakes are predictable on firm scientific
grounds today.
Figure 7. Relatively strong to strong (M5.5+), deep (300 km+) earthquakes around Japan from 2003 to 2008.
Maps generated from the NEIC website. From 2005 to 2007 several deep strong shocks occurred in western
Japan along a deep-seated fracture zone (Susongchon-Lake Biwa Tectonic Zone, Choi, 2003; Fig. 1) and the
Russian Far East/western part of the Sea of Japan. Energy released by these quakes reached the eastern offshore
area of northern Honshu in late 2010 to early 2011, according to Blot’s (1976) energy transmigration formula.
66
CONCLUSIONS
1. The Great East Japan Earthquake occurred as a block movement of the Precambrian basement (or
lower crust). The seismic source fault is the ENE-WSW planetary fracture system. Both fore- and
mainshocks occurred at the junction of this fracture system and a N-S trending Precambrian ridge
structure. The initial rupturing proceeded from northeast to southwest along the source fault.
2. Aftershocks occurred in the wide NW-SE crustal high block occupying the coast to the offshore
area of northern Honshu about 700 km in width. It has a central axial trough running through Sendai,
central northern Honshu, which extends eastward into the deep Pacific Ocean floor across the trench,
where, particularly on its northern flank, strong seismic shocks occurred. They are younger active
structural features formed since Late Cretaceous in connection with the deepening of the Pacific
Ocean and the rise of island arcs.
3. Almost all of the strong seismic shocks occurred on the basement ridges, along their margins and
along fault zones, showing that pervasive block movement has taken place.
4. This quake can be explained by regional thermal accumulation in the upper mantle and the lower
crust which form a broad structural high block under the eastern offshore area of northern Japan.
Three thermal sources are present: deep sources represented by deep earthquakes in 2005 to 2007 in
the western Sea of Japan/Russian Far East; Southwest Japan (along the Susongchon-Lake Biwa Deep
tectonic zone); and a relatively shallow mantle source – energy coming from the Izu-Bonin Island
chain and from west Japan (Tsunoda’s MJ and PJ routes).
5. The geological and geophysical data examined above (thermal accumulation in the mantle and the
lower crust highs, the planetary fracture system as a seismic source fault, Precambrian ridges, and
crustal block movement centered in the WNW-ESE axial trough which extends across the trench)
negate the application of plate subduction models to the GEJE.
6. The GEJE was accompanied by strong precursory signals such as vapour clouds and gravity
anomaly variation prior to the mainshock. These facts provide scientific grounds for forecasting future
great earthquakes.
Acknowledgements: I thank Fumio Tsunoda and Yasumoto Suzuki for their constructive comments, technical
support and information. My thanks are offered to; Mariko Sato of the Japan Coast Guard who provided coseismic ground displacement data, Eric Kiser of Harvard University for giving permission to cite one of his
figures, Akira Hasegawa of Tohoku University for providing references, Takashi Ito of Yomiuri Shinbun
Newspaper (staff writer) for permission to cite his article, and David Pratt for his linguistic support. Other than
these, this study was made possible by help of many of my friends in Japan, particularly Heonrok Oh
(documentary film maker), who provided precious information about the earthquake, tsunami and volcanic
activity appeared in public media.
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69
THE MARCH 2011 GREAT OFFSHORE TOHOKU-PACIFIC
EARTHQUAKE FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE VE PROCESS
Fumio TSUNODA
1–11–25, Kamifukuoka, Fujimino, Saitama, Japan
Dedicated to the memory of the victims of the Tohoku Pacific Earthquake
Abstract: This paper presents a new interpretation of the latest historic earthquake that occurred in the offshore region
of Tohoku, northern Honshu, Japan, in March 2011 viewed from the perspective of the author’s VE process. Great
thermal energetic capacity has been transmitted from the superplume in the South Pacific to Japan in the late 20th and
early 21st centuries. This process steadily increased the pressure in the Earth. Large volcanic eruptions and a number of
big earthquakes are able to reduce these ground pressures. However the eruption of the Miyakejima volcanic island
alone has not caused an effective decompression of the Earth pressure. A large crustal layer in the eastern Honshu
region had been upwarping due to regional thermal expansion of the lower crust and the uppermost mantle prior to the
occurrence of numerous romping earthquakes, which finally resulted in the M9.0 gigantic offshore Tohoku-Pacific
Earthquake.
Keywords: VE process, superplume, Offshore Tohoku-Pacific Earthquake, northing of thermal energy, VE chart,
aftershock
Introduction
ne of the key claims of plate tectonic is that ≧M8.0 earthquakes cannot occur in the Tohoku-Pacific
area. But this claim is wrong. The writer has pointed out that the thermal energy produced in the
Earth’s outer core rises along the superplume under the South Pacific and, though probably to a minor
degree, through major deep-seated tectonic zones. The volcanic and seismic activities (VE processes;
Tsunoda, 2009) caused by this thermal energy flow (Blot and Choi, 2004) have migrated to eastern Asia via
the circum-pan-Pacific belt, where volcanic and seismic zones are located today.
O
A cycle of great earthquakes lasts from 30 to 50 years (Tsunoda, 2009b). When the magmatic activities
peaked in 1994, the heat transfer from the superplume accelerated in Sumatra Island. When thermal energy
is accumulated, rock mass inflates regionally and romping earthquakes appear as harbingers of a great
earthquake (Tsunoda, 2010a). When the Hyogoken-Nanbu quake occurred in 1995, seismic romping
phenomena occurred on account of the swaying of the platy rock mass sitting on an unstable layer.
Moreover, enormous thermal energy had been transmitted to the Tohoku region (northern North Honshu)
prior to the M9.0 quake (Tsunoda, 2010b). Thermal energy transmigration is a key concept in explaining the
genesis of great earthquakes.
VE process under central and northern Honshu, Japan, prior to the Great East Japan Earthquake
Transmission of enormous volume of thermal energy: Thermal energy from the Earth’s outer core is
transmitted by way of the superplume and the PJ and MJ routes of the circum-pan- Pacific to the Japanese
Islands (Tsunoda, 2009b, 2010a & 2010b). As it is able to turn the seismic magnitude into thermal energy,
we can virtually take the variation in the number of M8.0 earthquakes as a guide to the amount of thermal
energy (Fig. 1). In this case, thermal energy is transmitted from the superplume of the southern Pacific (P-3)
to the northern hemisphere (P-2 and P-1), and to the southern hemisphere (P-4). The voluminous thermal
energy retains sufficient heat to produce the VE processes even after long-distance transmission (Tsunoda,
2009b). On the other hand, thermal transmission goes north from A-1 (African superplume) to A-2 (lower
part of Fig. 1). Here, however, we cannot recognize the flow going southward. Vigorous northing of thermal
flow can be seen twice in seventy years (Tsunoda, 2010a) - powerful volcano-seismic events will be
repeated roughly every forty years.
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Figure 1. Northing of thermal transmission. P-4 covers the Tasman Sea, New Zealand, the southeastern Pacific and
Antarctica. For direction of thermal flow of A-1 and A-2 from Africa see fig. 11 in Tsunoda (2010a).
Repetition of northing of the VE processes on the PJ route
The circum-pan-Pacific volcano-seismic belt in East Asia is characterized by composite volcanoes and large
calderas that are well aligned along the major axis of many island arc chains. A lot of the thermal energy
flows pass through this belt where they bifurcate into two flows: the PJ and MJ routes (Fig. 2). For example,
a M5.9 earthquake happened on Dec. 9, 2007 (E31; 2007/12/09 in Fig. 2) on the PJ route. Thereafter,
earthquakes moved northwards and are arranged in chronological order (E31 to E37 in Fig. 2). This
northward progression is called E3 and can be represented by a straight line in the VE chart (Fig. 3). The E4
northing shows the same pattern. These events will lead to a temperature rise that is accompanied by
migrating volcanic eruptions (V2 in Fig. 3). The repetition of the northward-moving VE processes is
represented graphically by several parallel lines in this chart. The northward movement of E4 takes place at
the rate of nearly 4 km a day.
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An outline of the north-going VE process is as follows: At first, the temperature of the heated area in the
Earth will be raised on account of thermal radiation generated in the outer core. Conduction of heat will
certainly originate from such a place. The forefront of the thermal expansion area where earthquakes happen
is the HT (heat front) line (Tsunoda, 2009b). Then the FT (fusion front) line (Tsunoda, 2010b) will emerge
in the form of a high rate of temperature rise. Magnification of the thermal expansion area will give rise to
the migration of the HT and FT lines. The velocity of these lines increases as the temperature rises.
Repetition of northing of the VE processes on the MJ route
An M5.7 deep-focus earthquake happened on Dec. 6, 1999 (M01 of the ME1 VE process in Fig. 2) on the
MJ route. Migration of earthquakes from M01 to M03 is illustrated in a chart as a thick line which inclines
to the left (right side of Fig. 4). The northing of the VE process implies that the thermal energy has moved to
the north. Accordingly, the Japanese Islands must have been supplied with waves of thermal energy five
times by the strongest VE processes since 1960.
Figure 2. Northward-moving earthquakes (● and ■) and volcanic eruptions (★).
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Figure 3. VE chart of the PJ route.
The VE process developed prior to the ultra-magnitude Great East Japan Earthquake
The first phase – accumulation of thermal energy: Transmission of thermal energy to the Kanto and Tohoku
areas by way of the PJ and MJ routes has taken place since 2000 (Figs. 3 &4). East Japan was subject to
frequent earthquakes during this period. Although various volcanic activities such as volcanic vents,
expansion of volcanoes, low-frequency seismicity and highly-heated craters are recognized at fifty-nine
active volcanoes in East Japan since 1995, only twelve volcanoes went into weak eruption. From these data
it may be inferred that the upper mantle and the crust under the Tohoku region has become hot and filled
with thermal and seismic energy. Seismic and weak volcanic activities cannot consume all these energies.
The result was a rapid increase in subterranean pressure and temperature owing to weak geostatic
decompression.
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.
Figure 4. VE chart of the MJ route
The second phase – signs of gigantic earthquakes: The granitic layer in the Tohoku region is thick inland but
thins toward the east and west (Fig. 5). In particular, the layer quickly thins far from the coast. Almost all of
the very shallow ≧M6.0 earthquakes have happened in and around this stiff and brittle rock layer since 2000
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(Choi, 2010). Rocks located beneath the granitic layer were subjected to repeated thermal flows resulting in
adiabatic expansion. In this period, the swarm of volcanoes in the Tohoku region (Akita-Yakiyama, Iwate,
Akita-Komagatake, Azuma, Adatara and Bandai) had sputtered, accompanied by vents, low-frequency
earthquakes, expansion of volcanoes and highly-heated craters. Only one steam explosion happened in the
Akita-Yakiyama volcano in 1997. Following the upward stresses this layer has been affected by upward
bending because of thermal expansion (Fig. 5). When a rock is compressed by pressure, it cracks in several
places. These fissures are generated in succession in a hippety-hoppety manner. Romping earthquakes are
much the same as this: Earthquakes with a magnitude of M6.0 or greater since 2000 rocked the eastern
Honshu and the Tohoku Pacific coastal areas (Fig. 6). Earthquakes in eastern Honshu are romping about in
its peripheral areas (A in Fig. 6). In the Kanto – Tohoku Pacific region (B in Fig. 6), big earthquakes
happened on the rim of an area enclosed by the broken line. Each hypocenter was situated at a spot
characterized by a sudden change in the thickness of the granitic upper crustal layer in the former case. On
the other hand, seismic centers were populated at the bottom of the upper part of this layer in the latter case.
Figure 5. Subterranean geostructure developed in the Tohoku Region.
The third phase – the earthquake source mechanism: According to Nagoya University’s hypocenter
determination, the earthquake source fault of the 2011 M9.0 quake is inclined at twelve degrees to the east
(Nagoya University, 2011). But this is the beginning of a great rupture. Almost all aftershocks developed in
the B crustal block which caused the M9.0 earthquake to be concentrated in the Earth’s lower crust and the
uppermost mantle (Fig. 7). A crustal and mantle transition zone is considered an inhomogeneous medium
where rigid layers alternate with elastic layers (Pavlenkova, 1997). Many boundary planes are very weak in
this zone and exfoliate easily in the event of crustal upwarping. This vast exfoliation surely brought on the
great quake. The following data confirm this idea. The ground of the Tohoku region has swelled, as shown
by a leveling survey (Geospatial Information Authority of Japan, 2011) and the sea bottom has been thrust
up, as shown by GPS-mounted buoys in deep water (Port and Airport Research Institute, 2011). Contrary to
a widely accepted view, the crustal block developed in this area had upheaved considerably (Fig. 5).
Therefore, the source fault of the M9.0 earthquake resulted from a sudden rupture due to swelling up of the
crustal layer (Fig. 7). The huge rock mass which thrust up and jolted weighs 0.44 million trillion tons.
Actually, most of the aftershocks which have arisen from the source fault block (B) have brought about the
swaying of this great massif (Fig. 8). Consequently, the great seismic chasm is able to burst open due to the
widespread buckling deformation of the Earth’s crust which has resulted from the extensive thermal
expansion (Fig. 7).
Figure 6. Foreshocks which had broken out prior to the M9.0 Great East Japan Earthquake.
Figure 7. Hippety-hoppety earthquakes originate from the expansion and upheaval of the granitic layer.
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Figure 8. Two swarms of aftershocks of an M9.0 earthquake in the Kanto and Tohoku Regions.
The fourth phase – aftershocks: Romping earthquakes will become visible because of the swaying of the
platy rock massif sitting on an unstable layer (Tsunoda, 2010b). The platy granitic massif is thick in the
central part and thinner toward the peripheral area in the Tohoku inland region. However, it is very thin in
the offshore Sanriku where the M9.0 earthquake was centered. The manner of seismic romping in the
offshore Sanriku area is somewhat different from that in the inland area before the M9.0 earthquake.
Romping earthquakes will become visible because of the swaying of the platy rock mass sitting on an
unstable layer (Tsunoda, 2010b). Seismic aftershock activity will not blow over within a year so that the
jolting of the extensive and very heavy massif will quieten down (B block in Fig. 9). In the future, I expect
that aftershocks with JMA scale M6-7 in the B block and in East Japan will occur at the margins of this
unstable granitic massif (Tsunoda, 2010b) such as the South Hokkaido, Hokuriku and South Kanto areas
(peripheral areas of A block in Fig. 9).
Figure 9. Aftershocks of A and B blocks are caused by the M9.0 earthquake.
Conclusions
The accumulation of massive thermal energy under eastern Japan caused intermediate-scale earthquakes to
romp through the Kanto and Tohoku regions because of regional inflation of the rock massif. Soon
afterwards, the boundary plane located in the crust–mantle transitional zone peeled off and shifted
considerably, causing the M9.0 earthquake. The jolting of the huge massif will not stop suddenly. Therefore,
we will probably have to wait another two years or so for seismic shaking to terminate.
Acknowledgements: I have obtained strong approval and encouragement from numerous Japanese people who read
my book Habits of earthquakes published by Kodansha, Tokyo in 2009. I am spurred on by the authors of papers which
appeared in New Concepts in Global Tectonics Newsletters. Above all, I would like to thank deeply Dong R. Choi for
his constructive, critical comments and encouragement. I would also like to thank David Pratt for English editorial
work on my articles.
77
References cited
Blot, C. and Choi, D.R., 2004. Recent devastating earthquakes in Japan and Indonesia viewed from the seismic energy
transmigration concept. NCGT Newsletter, no. 33, p. 3-12.
Choi, D.R., 2010, Global seismic synchronicity. NCGT Newsletter, no. 55, p. 66-73.
Geospatial Information Authority of Japan (GIAJ), 2011.
http://vldb.gsi.go.jp/sokuchi/level/KENSOKUSYUROKU/zenkokuzu.htm
Nagoya University, 2011. http://www.seis.nagoya-u.ac.jp/sanchu/Seismo_Note/
Pavlenkova, N.I., 1997. General features of the upper mantle structure from seismic data. Upper mantle heterogeneities
from active and passive seismology (Karl Fuchs, ed.). Kluwer Academic Publishers, p. 225-236.
Port and Airport Research Institute (PARI), 2011. GPS-mounted buoys in deep water.
http://www.pari.go.jp/files/items/3527/File/results.pdf
Smithsonian Institute, 2011. Global Volcanism Program (Volcanoes of the world).
http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cmf
Tsunoda, 2009a. Habits of earthquakes. Kodansha, Tokyo. 190p. (in Japanese)
Tsunoda, 2009b. Habits of earthquakes – Part 1: Mechanism of earthquakes and lateral thermal seismic energy
transmigration. NCGT Newsletter, no. 53, p. 38–46.
Tsunoda, F., 2010a. Habits of earthquakes – Part 2: Earthquake corridors in East Asia. NCGT Newsletter, no. 54,
p. 45–56.
Tsunoda, F., 2010b. Habits of earthquakes – Part 3: Earthquakes in the Japanese Islands. NCGT Newsletter, no. 55,
p. 35–65.
United States Geological Survey (USGS), 2011. Earthquake Research (Global research).
http://neic.usgs.gov/neic/epic.global.html
78
RADIO WAVE ANOMALIES, ULF GEOMAGNETIC CHANGES AND
VARIATIONS IN THE INTERPLANETARY MAGNETIC FIELD
PRECEDING THE JAPANESE M9.0 EARTHQUAKE
Valentino STRASER
94, Località Casarola - 43040 Terenzo PR, Italy
[email protected]
Abstract: From the results of monitoring carried out in Italy, analyses were made of radio wave anomaly data in
frequencies lower than 10 Hz and peaks between 55 microGauss and 0.3milliGauss which had preceded the M9.0
Japanese earthquake on 11 March 2011. From the 1 March onwards, the “trains” of interferences had already markedly
increased −a good 179 radio wave anomalies were measured, in comparison to 109 during the previous month,
February 2011. This series of data remained on the high side until plummeting to only 66 on the day of the earthquake,
then rising sharply again to 246 on the following day (12th March 2011). The magnetic field observed by satellite, both
before and during the earthquake, showed a pattern analogous to the number of radio wave anomalies measured on the
ground. Here too there was a dramatic fall when the earthquake occurred, followed by an abrupt rise. In Italy, just a few
minutes after the mainshock, the gravimeter registered a substantial reduction in the gravitational field, which has been
interpreted as a temporary swelling of the Earth’s crust due to the energy released by the seismic shock.
Keywords: short-range earthquake prediction, ULF geomagnetic change, changes in IMF, variations in gravity due to
strong earthquakes, radio wave anomalies
INTRODUCTION
he violent seism which occurred in Japan on the 11th March 2011 is only the latest in a series of
disastrous earthquakes that have devastated the terrestrial globe over the last few decades. The dramatic
consequences of the Japanese seism which led to the loss of tens of thousands of human lives and caused
vast damage to the economy and infrastructure, is a salient reminder, in view of what is at stake, that no
stone should be left unturned when it comes to finding methods to analyze seismic precursors.
T
This study will present and discuss data measured both on the ground (anomalies in the frequencies of the
radio wave band and variations in terrestrial gravity) and by satellite (variations in the interplanetary
magnetic field - IMF), both prior to and during the disastrous earthquake.
Examining the electromagnetic anomalies of pre-seismic phenomena has proved equally useful on the
occasion of other seismic events (Fenoglio et al., 1993; Fraser-Smith, 1990; Straser, 2010) in view of the
fact that certain electromagnetic signals almost always precede shocks reported by seismographs. At the
same time, satellite data too has been analyzed as well as the perturbations found in these on the occasion of
Japan’s seismic sequence, which were analogous to those recorded in other seisms of magnitude 6 or over
(Bhattacharya et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2009).
Indeed, it is thanks to techniques based on GPS satellite information that ionospheric anomalies have been
observed just prior to or during strong seisms above regions later struck by an earthquake, as Pulinets and
Boyarcuk (2004) and Fidani et al. (2010) have reported. Measurements taken during earthquakes with a
magnitude of 6+ have frequently shown that in the epicentre areas significant perturbations may occur in the
air due to ionization processes in the atmosphere, causing clouds of condensation created by the energy
released by crust stress.
In fact, in the lithosphere/atmosphere interface, perturbations in the electromagnetic fields in many cases are
generated in connection with high magnitude seismic events, which can extend as far as the magnetosphere.
Electromagnetic interference can also influence the stability of the Van Allen belts and trigger the release of
protons and electrons generating further anomalies measurable by satellites, since the latter have a privileged
observation point in space outside the Earth. It is on account of satellite data that we have been able to
79
measure in real time the speed of the solar wind, the flow of matter, and the interplanetary magnetic field,
which show quite evident alterations during the run-up to earthquakes.
Significant electrical and magnetic perturbations associated with strong earthquakes are also observable on
the ground, including interference in the radio wave band, which represent the Earth’s “background noise”
during the run-up to a major seismic event (Villante et al., 2001; Molchanov et al., 1992; Hayakawa et al.,
2007; Karakelian et al., 2002).
Radio wave interference measured in Italy and caused by a superimposition of electromagnetic waves in the
ELF and SLF bands (Schumann’s resonance) generated by endogenous phenomena, have been recorded
anywhere from a few minutes to some hours before the occurrence of destructive seisms on a global scale.
Findings from 2009 onwards have shown in many cases, but not all, that it is possible to observe radio wave
anomalies in the ELF band in concomitance with seismicities with magnitude 6+, and in some cases even as
low as 4, right across the globe. From experience gained in the field and analysis of data in the laboratory it
appears that the greater the magnitude of earthquakes, the greater the number of radio wave anomalies.
In this present case, the electromagnetic data recorded were compared with variations in gravity measured at
a second monitoring station (Rovigo – Italy 45°.05’ N; 11°.48’ E), as shown in Fig. 1, situated around 500
km from the principal one (Rome – Italy 41°41'4.27"N; 12°38'33.60"E). Measurements of variations in the
gravitational field following the seismic shock led to certain hypotheses regarding the behaviour of the
terrestrial crust prompted by the seismic stress.
Fig. 1. Index map. 1 – Gravimetric monitoring station (Rovigo); 2 – radio wave anomaly monitoring station.
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Radio anomalies frequencies
The sequence of radio wave anomalies during the first 10 days of March 2011
Interpretation of the radio wave anomalies during the first 10 days of March 2011, which had increased
markedly with respect to the previous months, turned out to be a pivotal element in identifying the run-up
phenomena of the Japanese seismic sequence (Fig. 2).
1-12 March 2011 (Days)
Fig. 2. In abscissa the first twelve days of March 2011, and in ordinate the pattern of radio wave anomalies recorded at
the Cecchina station, Rome, Italy.
In 2010, in the month of October, the spectrograms showing anomalies numbered 542, 657 in November,
and 304 in December. In 2011, the anomalies recorded during the month of January 2011 were 472, and 109
in February. In contrast, the first three days of March showed an abrupt rise in radio wave anomalies to as
many as 552, while in the following days the figure remained high. In detail, the radio wave anomalies were:
1st March 2011 = 179, 2nd March = 166 (where an increase in the intensity of certain individual emissions
was noted with respect to the previous day), and 3rd March = 207 (the increase in duration of some emissions
was some 2 to 10 times greater).
From previous instrumental observations carried out starting from 2009, it had been observed that, as a rule,
the greater the number of interferences in the radio band, the stronger the earthquake was. An increase in the
number of radio interferences measured with frequencies <10 Hz, has been interpreted as a premonitory
phenomenon of energy accumulating underground. The appearance of these frequencies, by now well
known in scientific literature, has also been recorded on the occasion of strong earthquakes over the last few
decades (Hayakawa et al., 1996; Hattori, 2004).
In the case of the monitoring results under discussion, the single signals or groups of signals observed were
of intensity between 55 microGauss and 0.3 milliGauss, but generally had a lower frequency. This fact too
represented a significant symptom of energy accumulating underground.
In parallel with the instrumental results on the ground, also the data from a GOES magnetometer – while
remaining within the normal range of IMF activity – showed a gradual increase over the first days of March
2011 (Fig. 3), as can be construed from the peaks relating to the magnetic field, which displayed a slightly
greater intensity with respect to previous ones.
Before the impressive seismic sequence in Japan, which included around 100 shocks with a magnitude of 5+
in just three days, culminating in the violent earthquake with a magnitude of M9.0 (near the East Coast of
Honshu, Japan; see: www.usgs.gov/), the anomalies recorded previously had also preceded the occurrence of
strong earthquakes with a magnitude of M6+:
Date/ Time
2011/03/06
12:31:58
2011/03/06
14:32:36
2011/03/07
Latitude
-18.115
Longitude
-69.391
Depth
101.3
Magnitude
6.2
Seismic Area
-56.387
-27.019
84.2
6.5
-10.334
160.739
37.9
6.6
South Sandwich Islands
Region
Solomon Islands
Tarapaca, Chile
00:09:39
2011/03/09
02:45:20
38.424
142.836
32.0
7.2
81
Near the East Coast of
Honshu, Japan
Fig. 3. Variations in the magnetic field observed by BGS’ Space Weather Monitoring centre from 7 to 11 March 2011.
(www.geomag.bgs.ac.uk/research/)
Instruments used
Spectrograms
The spectrograms obtained by the station were recorded every 10 minutes; i.e. 1 horizontal line every 1,600
milliseconds. The data of the Spectrum Lab setting are as follows:
Effect of FFT settings with fs = 44.1000 kHz:
Width of one FFT-bin: 21.0285 mHz
Equiv. noise bandwidth: 28.5988 mHz
Max freq range: 0.00000 Hz to1.37813 kHz
FFT window time: 47.554s
Overlap from scroll interval: 96.6%
82
Spectrograms
Colorimetric Scale
Using a colorimetric scale created by Gabriele Cataldi (Fig. 4), the spectrogram colours represent specific
values in relation to the type of signal produced. Normally, the so-called electromagnetic seismic precursors
(ESP or ESS) reach on average 60 nT at 10 MHz (Fraser-Smith et al., 1990), however it is possible to study
ESP at frequencies as low as 15 Hz (ELF and SLF bands), even if in practical terms, it is easier to study
these signals at 30 Hz, without looking for "MHz". The colorimetric scale shows signals that reach 30 nT in
red and in white those that reach 100 nT. In this way, all signals lower than 20 nT appear BLUE and can be
easily distinguished from the others. Between 20 to 30 nT the blue changes to red. A deviation of only 10 nT
between blue and red efficiently displays all those values of any significance on the one spectrogram. To
make a comparison, it is worthwhile recalling that 30nT is equal to three times the magnetic field produced
by an electric toaster measured from one metre away, which means that the value is undeniably significant
in studying ESPs. Radio wave anomalies in spectrograms are shown in yellow (all the shades of yellow until
becoming white), and surrounded by red. In this way we can be certain that we have before us a signal of
intensity no lower than 65 nT (the first shade of yellow, which corresponds to intensity greater than that
produced by a fluorescent tube 1 metre away).
Fig. 4. Colorimetric scale (courtesy of Gabriele Cataldi)
Satellites
Data from satellite tracking system (Orbitron) are as follows: (http://www.swpc.noaa.gov/Data/goes.html)
GOES 13 (Primary): orbiting at 35,809km; Long 74.5403° O; Lat 0.3317° S; Ht (km) 35 809.730; Azim
272.3°; Elev -10.7°; RA 12h 26m 24s; Decl. -7° 07' 04".
GOES 15 (Secondary): orbiting at 35,782km; Long 88.9147° O; Lat 0.0344° N, Azim 284.2; Elev -18.6°;
RA 11h 29m 43s; Decl. -6° 37' 18".
Gravimeter
Gravimetric measurements
The gravimeter has a device which is independent from barometric pressure variations and a pendulum with
low expansion rod to limit errors due to thermal dilatation. The oscillator with a position finder able to
produce a very precise synchronism signal suffers no electromagnetic interference and is connected to an
electronic clock which is precise to the eighth-ninth significant figure.
This system is controlled by a calculator. In one day, about 52 values of the Earth’s gravitational field are
obtained and data continue to be collected between one measurement and the next thanks to being recorded
on a disk. The relative error over 1,000 measurements is 0.000000089.
DISCUSSION
Analysis of satellite data has shown generalized shifts in the magnetic field on the approach of seisms with a
magnitude of M6+, characterized by a dramatic fall in values. This pattern is in line with the data observed
in the M7 earthquake which occurred in 1989 at Loma Prieta (USA), where a variation (upsurge) in the
natural low was observed a good 2 weeks before the seismic event, which then fell rapidly just a few hours
before (Molchanov et al., 1992).
83
The satellite graphs show considerable perturbations in the magnetic field corresponding to the seismic
outbreak between 6 to 14 March, i.e. coinciding with the increase in radio wave anomalies measured by the
monitoring station at Cecchina (Rome). The magnetic field observed by GOES 13 and GOES 15 on the
occasion of the violent M9.0 earthquake near the East Coast of Honshu, Japan (see: www.usgs.gov/), shows
a dramatic decrease, which coincided with the sharp fall in the rate of radio wave interferences (Fig. 5). A
similar pattern also prevailed during the M6.0 seism of the 14th of March 2011 again near the East Coast of
Honshu, Japan (see: www.usgs.gov/). Analogous perturbations were also observed for those seisms which
occurred on 6, 7 and 9 March 2011 in Tarapaca, Chile, South Sandwich Islands Region, Solomon
Islands, near the East Coast of Honshu, Japan, the New Britain Region, and Papua New
Guinea.(http://www.swpc.noaa.gov/Data/goes.html)
Fig. 5. Electromagnetic fields observed by GOES satellites 13 and 15, in relation to the seismic sequence in Japan from
8 to 14 March 2011.
The pattern of values measured by satellite and on the ground was compared with those from the HAARP
station (Fig. 6) on the occasion of the seismic sequence in Japan, which also confirmed a notable anomaly
during the main shock and the subsequent M7.1 seismicity.
(http://137.229.36.30/cgi-bin/magnetometer/gak-mag.cgi).
Fig. 6. Magnetic field as observed by HAARP, from 3 to 14 March 2011
(http://137.229.36.30/cgi-bin/magnetometer/gak-mag.cgi).
84
Further data relating to variations in the magnetic field were confirmed by BGS’ Space Weather Monitoring
centre (www.geomag.bgs.ac.uk/research/). These data too (Fig. 3) correspond to the frequency and pattern
of the radio wave anomalies which preceded the seismic event of 11th March 2011.
Summing up, therefore, it has been observed that during strong earthquakes:
1) Solar activity is greater
2) IMF activity is subject to variations (increases or abrupt reductions in intensity),
3) Seismicities are generally preceded by a reduction in the natural magnetic background. Clearly, this too is
subject to fluctuation.
Measurements made with a gravimeter, on the other hand, have allowed a comparison of the data with
anomalies of an electromagnetic type and the number of radio wave interferences in the low frequency
range.
This is not a datum recorded by seismograph, the result of a complex variation in an oscillating mass, but a
phenomenon which developed uniformly in a body lasting around 9 minutes; in practice, a semi-wave in
reduction in gravity, with subsequent settling (Fig. 7).
This is evidenced by the fact that the semi-wave was plotted and later defined by three measurements 135
seconds apart, which design a symmetrical cusp. This figure is significant, since it shows as an instrumental
datum, a measurement of the phenomenon with a regular pattern which reached its maximum at 07:05a.m,
Italian time.
The perturbations may therefore have given rise to a swelling towards the outside of the terrestrial crust,
which subsequently shrank during the relaxation phase. The data strongly suggest this interpretation,
however the phenomenon would have been more complex, provoking also modest accelerations in addition
to the lifting.
What remains striking about the gravimeter findings is the symmetry of the perturbation. From the values
found, and taking the time zones into account, the perturbation took 2 hours and 16 minutes to cover the
distance between Japan and Italy.
Fig. 7. Graph of variations in the gravitational field (see: www.astrofilipolesani.it), which followed the M9.0 seism of
11 March 2011 (6:50 a.m. Italian time; courtesy of Mario Campion). In abscissa the 19 measurements made at intervals
of 135 seconds for a total of 42.75 minutes, centred on the perturbation found, while the ordinate indicates the value of
the sensor period in seconds. The peak on the graph corresponds to a fall in the gravitational field which occurred at
07.05 a.m. Italian time (06:05 UTC).
85
CONCLUDING REMARKS
At least two types of conclusion may be drawn: The first concerns the pre-seismic signals manifested by the
radio wave anomalies and the interference in the interplanetary magnetic field which occurred in
correspondence with the earthquake (Fig. 8). The second concerns the effects provoked by the violent
earthquake on the crustal dynamic.
In the first case, “trains of interference” have always been found to precede the occurrence of earthquakes,
and the greater these anomalies, the greater the energy of the seism, with single or groups of signals of
intensity from 55 microGauss to 0.3 milliGauss and frequencies lower than 10Hz. The earthquakes
discussed in this work always occurred after a fall in IMF and sudden interferences recorded by satellite.
The second conclusion made use of the gravimeter to interpret the dynamic of the propagation of seismic
energy during the phase immediately following the main event which, in this case, showed a time lag
between the seismic event and the appearance of an anomaly (decrease) in the gravitational field, which may
be interpretable as a temporary swelling of the terrestrial crust.
Thus, observation of the electromagnetic anomalies which manifest before an earthquake could prove useful
in an interdisciplinary work aimed at monitoring seismic precursors, since radio wave anomalies and sharp
falls in the magnetic field have always preceded the mechanical effects of an earthquake reported by
seismographs.
Radio wave anomalies, in combination with satellite data concerning the magnetic field, have proved useful
in making short-range forecasts of strong earthquakes with magnitude 6.0 or greater.
Acknowledgements: I wish to express heartfelt thanks to Gabriele Cataldi and his team for their support and for
providing me with real time data on radio wave anomalies from the monitoring station at Cecchina (Rome), as well as
the GOES satellite data. Further thanks must go to Mario Campion and Jerry Ercolini for their constructive discussions
and for sending me the graph of variations in gravity relating to the earthquake in Japan on the 11 March 2011, as well
as to the anonymous reviewers for stimulating me to improve the paper with additional reflections and a correct
scientific dialogue. Lastly, my thanks and gratitude must go to Dong Choi for accepting this report, written just a few
days after the occurrence of the seism.
REFERENCES CITED
Bhattacharya, S., Sarkar, S., Gwal, A.K. and Parrot, M., 2009. Electric and magnetic field perturbations recorded
by DEMETER satellite before seismic events of the 17th July 2006 M 7.7 earthquake in Indonesia. Journal of
Asian Earth Sciences, v. 34, p. 634-644.
Fenoglio, M.A., Fraser-Smith, A.C., Beroza, G.C. and Johnston, M.J.S., 1993. Comparison of ultra-low frequency
electromagnetic signals with aftershock activity during the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake sequence. Bulletin of
the Seismological Society of America, v. 83, no. 2, p. 347-357.
Fidani, C., Battiston, R. and Burger, W.J., 2010. A study of the correlation between earthquakes and NOAA
satellite energetic particle bursts. Remote Sensing, v. 2, p. 2170-2184.
Fraser-Smith, A.C., Bernardi, A., McGill, P.R., Ladd, M.E., Helliwell, R.A. and Villard, O.G. Jr., 1990. Lowfrequency magnetic measurements near the epicenter of the Ms 7.1 Loma Prieta Earthquake. Geophys. Res.
Lett., v. 17, p. 1465-1468.
Hayakawa, M., Hattori, K., and Ohta, K., 2007. Monitoring of ULF (ultra-low-frequency) geomagnetic variations
associated with earthquakes. Sensors, v. 7, p. 1108-1122.
Hayakawa, M., Kawate, R., Molchanov, O.A. and Yumoto, K., 1996.Results of ultra-low frequency magnetic field
measurements during the Guam earthquake of 8 August 1993. Geophys. Res. Lett., v. 23, p. 241-244.
Hattori, K., 2004. ULF Geomagnetic changes associated with large earthquakes. TAO, v. 15, no. 3, p. 329-360.
Karakelian, D., Klemperer, S.L., Fraser-Smith, A.C. and Thompson, G.A., 2002. Ultra-low frequency
electromagnetic measurements associated with the 1998 Mw 5.1 San Juan Bautista, California earthquake and
implications for mechanisms of electromagnetic earthquake precursors. Tectonophysics, v. 359, p. 65-79.
Molchanov, O.A., Kopytenko, Yu. A., Voronov, P.M., Kopytenko, E.A., Matiashvili, T.G., Fraser- Smith, A.C.,
and Bernardi, A., 1992. Results of ULF Magnetic field measurements near the epicentres of the Spitak
(Ms=6.9) and Loma Prieta (Ms=7.1) earthquakes: comparative analysis. Geophys. Res. Lett., v. 19,
p. 1495–1498
Pulinets, S. and Boyarchuk, K., 2004. Ionospheric precursors of earthquakes. Springer, 315p.
86
Rodger, C.J., Thomson, N.R. and Dowden, R.L., 1996. A search for ELF/VLF activity associated with
earthquakes using ISIS satellite data. Jour. Geophys. Res., v. 101(A6), p. 369–378.
Straser, V., 2010.Variations in gravitational field, tidal force, electromagnetic waves and earthquakes.
New Concepts in Global Tectonics Newsletter, no. 57, p. 98-108.
Villante, U., Vellante, M. and Piancatelli, A., 2001. Ultra low frequency geomagnetic field measurements during
earthquake activity in Italy (September-October 1997). Annali Di Geofisica, v. 44, p. 229-237.
Zhang, X., Quian, J., Ouyang, X., Shen, X., Cai, J. and Zhao, S., 2009. Ionospheric electromagnetic perturbations
observed on Demeter satellite before Chile M7.9 earthquake. Earthquake Science, v. 22, no. 3, p. 251-255.
Postscript: Earthquake prediction
Precursory signals (whether physical, chemical or of another kind) typically manifest in the areas where the
seism is about to occur; what I wanted to suggest in this study, on the other hand, concerns a new class of
precursory phenomena that I prefer to define as “global seismic precursors”. This type of pre-seismic signal
indicates that “very soon” a strong seism on a global scale is going to occur, however, without specifying the
future epicentre. To obtain real efficiency in forecasting an earthquake and localizing the epicentre, it is
necessary to combine these indicators with other forecast methods, already tried and proven by the scientific
community.
Let’s take the seismic sequence in Japan that culminated in the earthquake of 11 March 2011 as an example.
1 – In the recent NCGT Newsletter, no. 58, on p.78, there is a photo taken from a satellite, sent by Zhonghao
SHOU, which shows “earthquake clouds” or a “geo-eruption” near the future epicentre; this appeared 16
days before the violent Japanese seism of 11 March 2011.
2 – Instead, in this study, an abnormal increase in radio anomalies was pointed out which began 11 days
before the M9.0 Earthquake mainshock.
The first precursory datum concerns the site of the future epicentre, but not the actual day when the
earthquake will occur, while the second provides a generic indication that a strong earthquake is about to
occur on a global scale, without, however, specifying the location of the epicenter.
By combining the two data it is possible to say that: “in the offshore area of northern Japan a violent
earthquake is about to occur”, while it is highly likely, according to experiments carried out by Shou (2007),
“that the magnitude of the seism will be fairly high and that the earthquake’s epicenter will be found near
the site of the geo-eruption.”
When exactly?
3 – The graphs of the satellite (GOES) data (Fig. 5) show that M6.0+ seisms occur when the line forms a
“ripple” characterized by an “S”, and the latter is associated with a radio anomaly. Instead, the various
magnetometers showed a significant variation in the magnetic field in the run-up to the strong M9.0 seism
and coinciding with it.
If we combine the three methods we can then hypothesize that: “within a few days, in the seismic zone near
Japan, close to the site of the geo-eruption, as shown by Shou (2011), a violent earthquake will occur, and
that it may conceivably happen in association with a significant variation in the magnetic field, especially
where this coincides with one or more radio anomalies.”
This is merely one example of integrating the three working methods, which could be supplemented by
variations in radon gas, temperature, or the concentration of gases in the atmosphere, as well as other
phenomena, in order to formulate more accurate hypotheses.
87
Only the existence of a truly international network or organization can provide proper integration and
comparison of findings in order to accurately forecast strong seisms, while what has been proposed in this
study might well constitute, within this complex working scenario, “the framework” of precursory signs.
Encouraging results, in this sense, have already emerged from experiments carried out over the last few
years, such as those of the Global Network for Forecasting Earthquakes (www.seismonet.org). This project,
which boasts international scientific cooperation, has shown a real application of the Method based on
instrument data, but also specific new technologies (Khalilov, 2007), in combination with a fresh approach,
at a global level, to the whole problem of forecasting earthquakes (Khalilov, 2008).
References
Shou, Z., 2007. The cloud of the M8.4 Indonesian earthquake on September 12, 2007. New Concepts in Global
Tectonics Newsletter, no. 45, p. 31-33.
Shou, Z., 2011. Geo-eruption before the Great East Japan Earthquake in March 2011. New Concepts in Global
Tectonics Newsletter, no. 58, p. 78.
Khalilov, E., N., 2007. About the possibility of creating an international global system for forecasting earthquakes −
“Atropatena”. Natural cataclysm and global problems of the modern civilization, Special edition of Transaction of
the International Academy of Science, p. 51-69. H&E. ICSD/IAS, Baku-Innsbruck, 2007.
Khalilov, E., N., 2008. Forecasting of earthquakes: the reasons for failures and the new philosophy. Science Without
Borders, Transaction of the International Academy of Science, v. 3 2007/2008. H&E, SWB, Innsbruck, p. 300-315.
88
Fig. 8. Plotting of the radio wave anomalies made by the Cecchina monitoring station (Rome, Italy), which preceded
the seisms of 9 March (M7.2, 03:45 hh:mm Italian time) and 11 March 2011 (M9.0, 06:50 hh:mm Italian time) both
occurring near the East Coast of Honshu, Japan, see: www.usgs.gov/.
89
9/56 YEAR CYCLE: RECORD EARTHQUAKES
David McMINN
Independent cycle researcher
[email protected]
Twin Palms, Blue Knob, NSW 2480, Australia
Abstract: The biggest earthquakes ever recorded in Hawaii and south western North America tended to occur within a
9/56 year grid (McMinn, 2011). Given such an unusual finding, it was hypothesized that record quakes in other regions
would also exhibit a 9/56 year effect. Various catalogues on historical earthquakes in the Americas, Western Europe
and Japan were assessed for such an outcome. Surprisingly, record seismic episodes often fell within the same sector of
the complete 9/56 grid, most notably in Sequences 25, 34, 43, 52 and 05. Sequence 52 was by far the most important 56
year sequence, as it contained so many US and Western European records. Why these patterns are apparent for record
earthquakes remains very puzzling and unexpected. It probably has something to do with Moon-Sun tidal triggering as
proposed by McMinn (2011), but that is all that can be stated. Seasonality was also pertinent in some of the findings,
suggesting that the Sun’s ecliptical position may have relevance in earthquake timing.
Keywords: record, earthquake, 9/56 year, cycle, USA, Western Europe, Japan
Introduction
ecord quakes in south western North America and Hawaii tended to cluster within a 9/56 year pattern
(McMinn, 2011). The obvious question emerged as to whether record quakes in other regions would
also group in a 9/56 year grid or was this something unique to California and Hawaii. This paper considers
the 9/56 year cycle and the timing of record seismic episodes in the Americas, Western Europe and Japan.
Surprisingly, these records often occurred in one sector of the complete 9/56 year grid around Sequences 25,
34, 43, 52 and 05. This was a common theme in the findings derived from this appraisal.
R
The timing and estimated magnitudes of historic quakes become more unreliable the further one goes back
in time. Additionally, the estimated magnitudes can vary considerably according to reference source, which
may give a range of records for a particular country or region. These problems made it difficult to assess the
early raw data properly, especially for Latin America. Ideally, the catalogues should be both comprehensive
and accurate, but this was often not the case. Unfortunately, little could be done to counter these difficulties,
apart from using reputable reference sources. Even then, distortions may easily arise in some samples.
The 9/56 year cycle consists of a grid repeating the interval 56 years vertically and 9 years horizontally. The
56 year columns have been called sequences and the 9 year horizontal rows sub-cycles. The 56 year
sequences have been numbered in accordance with McMinn (1993), with 1817, 1873, 1929, 1985 being
designated Sequence 01; 1818, 1874, 1930, 1986 as Sequence 02 and so forth. McMinn (Appendix 2, 2002)
presented the full numbering. Dates in some of the tables have been expressed as YYYYMMDD. The
National Geophysical Data Center has been abbreviated to NGDC, as has the US Geological Survey to
USGS. These were two of the main references used in the paper.
Records in South Western North America
McMinn (2011) established a 9/56 year cycle in the timing of record earthquakes in south western North
America. Crucially, the three 56 year sequences in Table 1 (Sqs 34, 43 & 52) experienced many record
events.
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Sq 34 - Record northern Californian quake (San Francisco. April 18, 1906. M8.25).
Sq 34 - Record New Mexico quakes happened in 1906 on July 16 and November 15 (both M5.8).
Sq 34 - Equal 1st rank Arizona quake (Flagstaff. Jan 25, 1906. M6.2).
Sq 43 - Record quake for Nevada (Pleasant Valley. Oct 3, 1915. M7.7).
Sq 43 - 20th century record quake for Baja California (Nov 21, 1915. M7.1).
Sq 52 - Record quake for western USA (Great Cascadia. Jan 26, 1700. M9.0).
Sq 52 - Record quake for Hawaii (Apr 2, 1868. M7.9).
90
*
Sq 52 - Record US volcanic eruption (ex Alaska) (Mt St Helens, May 18, 1980).
The notable exception was the biggest seismic event in southern California (Fort Tejon. Jan 9, 1857. M7.9).
Table 1
9/56 YEAR CYCLE: RECORDS IN SOUTH WESTERN NORTH AMERICA
Year beginning January 1
Sq 34
Sq 43
Sq 52
1700
Jan 26
1738
+9
1747
+9
1756
1794
+9
1803
+9
1812
1868
1850
+9
1859
+9
Apr 02
1906
1915
+9
+9
1924
Jan 25 (a)
Oct 03
Apr 18
Nov 21 (b)
Jul 16
Nov 15
1980
1962
+9
1971
+9
May 18
(a) The Arizona Earthquake Information Center gave two record Arizona quakes of M6.2 on January 25, 1906 and August 18, 1912.
(b) This was the record quake for Baja California until the recent April 4, 2010 quake
(M7.2).
Years in bold contained record events in Hawaii and south western North America.
Record quakes by US State
The USGS presented a listing of the record quake for each of the 50 US states (see Appendix 1), of which
19 occurred in the 12 months commencing April 1 of those years in Table 2 (significant p < .01). (NB:
California, Illinois, Nebraska, New Hampshire and Oregon were each listed as having two record quakes of
about equal intensity, all of which were included in the appraisal.) In Table 2, the greatest significance
appeared in five 56 year sequences (Sqs 34, 43, 52, 05 & 14), which experienced 12 state record quakes
(significant p < .01).
Sq
34
Table 2
9/56 YEAR CYCLE: RECORD QUAKES BY US STATE
Year beginning April 1
Sq
Sq
Sq
Sq
Sq
Sq
Sq
Sq
Sq
43
52
05
14
23
32
41
50
03
1756
1765
1774
1783
1130
1792
1801
Sq
12
1754
1810
1763
1819
1772
1828
1794
1850
1803
1859
1812
1868
0403
1821
1877
1115
1830
1886
0901
1839
1895
1848
1904
1857
1913
1914
0305
1866
1922
1875
1931
0816
1217
1884
1940
1220
1224
1906
0418
1115
1915
1003
1916
0221
1924
1933
1934
0312
1942
1951
1960
1969
1120
1978
1987
1996
1962
0410
1971
1980
0727
1989
1990
0113
1998
0925
91
2007
Years in bold contained US record earthquakes in the year beginning April 1 of those years
in the table.
Source of Raw Data: USGS. The Largest Earthquakes, State by State.
http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/states/state_largest.html
Record quakes by North American region
The record quakes by North American region were sourced from the USGS and the Geological Survey of
Canada (see Appendix 2) (NB: Two earthquakes of about equal magnitude were given for California Nevada.). Of the 13 records for US - Canadian regions, 6 occurred in Sequences 34, 43, 52, 05 & 14 (see
Appendix 3), whereas about 1.2 could have been anticipated. Most of these 13 records may also be
presented in 18/56 year and 36/56 year grids shown in Tables 3 & 4 respectively. Strangely, all four records
by Canadian region occurred in Table 4.
According to the USGS, the record Mexican quake for the 20th century took place on June 3, 1932 (M8.2),
which did not fall in either Tables 3 or 4. However, the second rank episode (Sep 19, 1985. M8.1) appeared
in Sequence 01 and in Table 4.
Table 3
18/56 YEAR CYCLE: RECORD QUAKES BY NORTH AMERICAN REGION
12.5 months ending September 1
Sq 32
Sq 34
Sq 52
Sq 14
1756
+ 18
1774
+ 18
1792
1755
Nov 18
1794
+ 18
1812
+ 18
1830
+ 18
1848
Feb 16
1850
+ 18
1868
+ 18
1886
+ 18
1904
Apr 03
Sep 01
1906
+ 18
1924
+ 18
1942
+ 18
1960
1959
Apr 18
Aug 18
1962
+ 18
1980
+ 18
1998
+ 18
2016
Record quakes by US region have been presented in bold.
Source of Raw Data: USGS, Canadian Geological Survey.
Table 4
36/56 YEAR CYCLE: RECORD QUAKES BY NORTH AMERICAN REGION
Year ending November 20
Sq 21
Sq 01
Sq 41
Sq 05
1765
+ 36
1801
+ 36
1781
1837
+ 36
+ 36
1821
+ 36
+ 36
1893
+ 36
1877
+ 36
1857
Jan 09
1913
+ 36
1949
Aug 22
+ 36
1817
1873
1872
Dec 15
1929
Nov 18
1985
Sq 37
+ 36
+ 36
+ 36
1853
1909
May
15
1965
92
1933
Nov 20
1989
+ 36
1969
+ 36
2025
+ 36
2005
Record quakes by US and Canadian regions have been presented in bold.
Source of Raw Data: USGS, The Geological Survey of Canada.
Record Western European Quakes
The 9/56 year layout in Table 2 for US state records was also assessed in relation to Western European
quakes (see Table 5). Record events for major countries in Western Europe were sourced from the USGS
and the NGDC (see Appendix 4).
The 9/56 year grid in Table 5 contained several Western European records since 1900.
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Equal 1st rank record Greek quake (Aug 11, 1903. M8.3).
1st and 2nd rank Italian quakes (Calabria. Sep 8, 1905. M7.9; Avezzano. Jan 13, 1915. M7.5).
Two equal 1st rank record Turkish quakes (Dec 26, 1939. M7.8; Aug 9, 1912. M7.8).
Record UK quake (North Sea. Jun 7, 1931. M6.1.).
Record quake for Portugal - Morocco (Feb 28, 1969. M7.8).
Record quake for the Azores Islands (Jan 1, 1980. M7.8).
Record quake for the North Atlantic (Nov 25, 1941. M8.3).
2nd rank German quake (Mar 14, 1951. M5.8)
Importantly, the Great Lisbon Quake fell in Sequence 52 and was the record seismic event for Western
Europe since 1700 (Lisbon. Nov 1, 1755. M9.0).
Table 5
9/56 YEAR CYCLE: RECORD WN EUROPEAN QUAKES 1900 - 2011
Year ending June 15
Sq
Sq
Sq
Sq
Sq
Sq
Sq
Sq
Sq
Sq
Sq
34
43
52
05
14
23
32
41
50
03
12
1906
1905
0908
1962
1915
1924
1933
1971
1980
0101
1989
1942
1941
1125
1998
1951
1904
1903
0811
1960
1913
1912
0809
1969
0228
1922
1931
0607
1978
1987
1940
1939
1226
1996
2007
Years in bold contained record quakes appearing in the year ending June 15.
Main Source of Raw Data: USGS.
Record Sequence 52
Sequence 52 was the most notable of all the 56 year sequences, as it experienced many records in the USA
and Western Europe (see Table 6) some of which were among the most famous seismic events in history. In
1700, 1756 and 1812, the earthquakes all took place in the four months to February 28. The Mount St
Helens eruption happened on May 18, 1980 and was the biggest US volcanic event to take place in the
contiguous 48 states.
The 19th century record quakes for South America (Arica. Aug 13, 1868. M9.0) and Puerto Rico (Nov 18,
1867. M7.5) showed up in this sequence, as did the record event for Venezuela (Caracas. Mar 26, 1812.
M7.7). The 20th century record for Algeria (El Asnam. Oct 10, 1980. M7.3) also occurred in Sequence 52.
93
Table 6
RECORD US & WESTERN EUROPEAN QUAKES IN SEQUENCE 52
Year ending August 15
Record
Sequence 52
M
Event
Jan 26, 1700
9.0
Great Cascadia
Record for North America (ex Alaska)
Nov 01, 1755
9.0
Great Lisbon quake
Record for Western Europe
Nov 18, 1755
6.3
Boston quake
Record quake in north east USA
Feb 18, 1756
6.3
Duren quake
Record German quake
Feb 12, 1812
7.9
New Madrid quake
Record quake in central USA
Apr 03, 1868
7.9
Hawaii
Record Hawaiian quake
Aug 13, 1868
9.0
Great Arica quake
19th century record for South America
Sep 01, 1923
8.4
Tokyo quake
The deadliest Japanese quake
Jan 01, 1980
7.3
Azores quake
20th century record for the Azores Islands
May 18, 1980
na
Mt St Helens eruption
Record US eruption (ex Alaska)
Source: McMinn, 2006
Record Japanese Earthquakes
A listing of major Japanese earthquakes since 1890 was sourced from the NGDC (see Appendix 5). Of the
top 10 Japanese earthquakes (M => 8.3), five appeared in Table 7 comprising only five 56 year sequences.
These five episodes all happened in the 3.3 months to March 5 and compared with an expected frequency of
about 0.3. The record quake for Japan (March 11, 2011. M9.0) did not fall in this 9/56 year pattern. Of the
three equal 2nd rank Japanese quakes (M8.7) since 1890, one took place in Sequence 43 and in this table
(Nov 24, 1914. M8.7). Kazuya Fujita listed the 20th century record Japanese quake as occurring on March 2,
1933 (Sq 05, M8.6) and the 3rd rank quake on September 1, 1923 (Sq 52, M8.3), both of which fell in Table
7 (6.2 months ending March 5).
Sq 25
1897
Feb 07
Feb 19
1953
2009
Table 7
9/56 YEAR CYCLE:
MAJOR JAPANESE QUAKES 1890 - 2011 (M => 8.3)
3.3 months ending March 5
Sq 34
Sq 43
Sq 52
1906
1915
1924
Jan 21
1914
Nov 24
1962
1971
1980
Sq 05
1933
Mar 02
1989
Major Japanese quakes (M => 8.3) appearing in the 3.3 months ending March 5 are
presented in bold.
Source of Raw Data: NDGC. Search parameters: Japan. 1890 to 2010. M: 8.3 to 9.5.
A notable 9 year sub-cycle was clearly evident, with all 6 events occurring in the half year ending March 2
(see Table 8).
Table 8
9 YEAR SUB-CYCLE & JAPANESE QUAKES
Half year ending March 2
9 YSC
Date
Location
1897
Feb 07, 1897
Japan
Feb 17, 1897
Japan
+9
1906
Jan 21, 1906
South coast Honshu
+9
1915
Nov 24, 1914
Volcano Islands
M
8.3
8.3
8.4
8.7
94
+9
1924
+9
1933
+9
1942
Sep 01, 1923
Tokyo
7.9 (a)
Mar 02, 1933
East coast Honshu
8.4
Nov 18, 1941
Shikoku
7.9
(a) Fujita listed this estimated magnitude at 8.3.
Source: NGDC. Search parameters: Japan. 1890 to 2010. M8.3 to M9.5.
Record Latin American Quakes
A listing of record earthquakes (post 1900) for Latin American countries was compiled from the NGDC (see
Appendix 6). The following records happened within an 18/56 year grid as presented in Table 9.
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Equal 1st rank Colombian earthquake (Jan 20, 1904. M7.9).
Record Central American quake (Dec 20, 1904. M8.3).
Two equal 1st rank Ecuadorian quakes (Sep 29, 1906. M7.9 & May 14, 1942, M7.9).
Equal 1st rank Caribbean quake (Dec 2, 1906. M7.9).
Equal 1st rank quake in Argentina (Jan 15, 1944. M7.8).
Record Chilean quake (May 22, 1960. M9.5).
2nd rank Peruvian quake (Aug 24, 1942. M8.2).
The 18/56 year configuration in Table 9 could only be produced using NGDC data, as the other historic
listings failed to yield such patterning.
Unfortunately, reference sources listing Latin American quakes varied considerably in the given magnitudes
and thus record events (see Appendix 6). According to Fujita, “Pre-1900 South American events listed in
some catalogs appear to have overestimated magnitudes” and were thus omitted from his compilations. The
unreliability of the early data created an assessment problem and no conclusions can be drawn on record
quakes for Latin America.
Table 9
18/56 YEAR CYCLE: RECORD LATIN AMERICAN QUAKES 1900 - 2011
Year beginning January 1
Sq 16
Sq 34
Sq 52
Sq 14
Sq 32
1904
Jan 20
Dec 20
1906
+ 18
1924
+ 18
1942
+ 18
1960
Jan 31
May 14
May 22
Dec 02
1944
+ 18
1962
+ 18
1980
+ 18
1998
+ 18
2016
Jan 15
2000
Record Latin American earthquakes denoted in bold happened in the year beginning January 1.
Source of Raw Data: NGDC. Search parameters: Relevant country. 1900 to 2010. M8.2 to M9.5.
Major World Quakes
Kazuya Fujita of the Michigan State University presented a catalog of the biggest earthquakes (M => 8.2)
occurring around the world from 1900 to 2010 (see Appendix 7). The Japanese quake of March 11, 2011
was inserted into this compilation. A total 50 events post 1900 were listed by Fujita, of which 19 happened
in October 31 ended years in Table 10 (significant p < .05). Much higher significance could be achieved
95
with the inclusion of the pre 1900 events also listed by Fujita. Of a total 73 major earthquakes since 1700, 31
showed up in this table (significant p < .001).
Sq
25
Sq
34
1719 1728
1785
1841
0517
1897
0612
0921
1794
1850
1953
1952
1104
1962
1906
0131
0817
Table 10
9/56 YEAR CYCLE: FUJITA WORLD QUAKES SINCE 1700
Year ending October 31
Sq
Sq
Sq
Sq
Sq
Sq
Sq
Sq
Sq
23
43
52
05
14
32
41
50
03
1707
1028
1700 1709 1718 1727 1736 1745 1754 1763
0126
1737 1756 1765 1774 1783 1792 1801 1810 1819
1755
0822
0616
1101
1803 1812 1821 1830 1839 1848 1857 1866 1875
1859 1868 1877 1886 1895 1904 1913 1922 1931
0813 0510
1915 1924 1933 1942 1951 1960 1969 1978 1987
1950 0522 0811
0414 0302
1209 0521
0626
1971
1980
1979
1212
1989
0523
1998
1772
Sq
21
1725
0201
1781
1828
1837
1884
1940
0524
1996
0218
1893
1949
0822
2005
0328
2004
1226
Sq
12
1716
2007
0912
2006
1115
2009
Dates expressed as YYYYMMDD.
The 56 year sequences are separated by an interval of 9 years.
Source of Raw Data: Kazuya FUJITA
World Mega Quakes
From Fujita’s catalog, the biggest world quakes (M => 8.5) were also evaluated. Table 11a gives a 54/56
year cycle for three of the five biggest quakes since 1900 – 1952 Kamchatka (M9.0), 2004 Indonesia (M9.0)
and 2011 Japan (M9.0). Table 11b shows the 54/56 year grid for the 1960 Chilean (M9.5) and 1964 Alaskan
(M9.2) mega quakes. Other major world quakes (=> 8.5) listed by Fujita have been included in both tables.
Table 11a
54/56 YEAR CYCLE: BIGGEST WORLD QUAKES SINCE 1900 (M => 8.5)
Sq 25
Sq 23
Sq 21
Sq 29
Sq 27
1895
+ 54
1949
2005
1897
+ 54
1951
+ 54
1950
Mar 28
Aug 15
2004
Dec 26
1899
+ 54
1953
+ 54
2007
1952
Nov 04
1901
+ 54
1955
+ 54
2009
1957
Mar 09
+ 54
2011
Mar 11
96
Table 11b
54/56 YEAR CYCLE: BIGGEST WORLD QUAKES SINCE 1900 (M => 8.5)
Sq 36
Sq 34
Sq 32
1904
1906
1960
+ 54
Jan 31
May 22
Aug 17
1908
+ 54
1962
+ 54
2016
1964
+ 54
2018
Mar 28
1963
Oct 13
Events in bold were among the top quakes (M => 8.5) recorded since 1900.
These 54/56 year patterns can be combined to produce a grid based on the intervals 9, 45 and 56 years as
shown in Table 12. This consists of repeating 9, 45, 9, 45… years on the horizontal and 56 years on the
vertical (denoted as a 9-45/56 year cycle). Although it only comprises 9 56 year sequences, all five world
mega quakes of magnitude => 9.0 fall in this pattern. Furthermore, of the top 17 major quakes listed by
Fujita (M => 8.5), an amazing 11 fell within Table 12, where as 2.7 could have been expected by chance.
Curiously, the two great quakes (M => 8.7) that did not show up in Table 12 were separated by an interval
of 45 years - Feb 4, 1965 (M8.7) and Feb 27, 2010 (M8.8).
Table 12
9-45/56 YEAR CYCLE: BIGGEST WORLD QUAKES SINCE 1900. M => 8.5
Sq 36
Sq 25
Sq 29
Sq 38
Sq 27
1908
+ 45
1953
1952
Nov 04
1964
1901
+9
1910
+ 45
1955
+9
+ 45
2009
Mar 28
1963
Oct 13
1957
+9
1966
+ 45
2011
+9
2020
Mar 09
Mar 11
Sq 34
+9
+9
Sq 23
1906
Jan 31
Aug 17
+ 45
1951
1950
Aug 15
+9
1962
2018
+ 45
2007
+9
Sq 32
1904
1960
May 22
+ 45
+ 45
Sq 21
1949
2005
Mar 28
2004
Dec 26
2016
Events in bold were among the top quakes (M => 8.5) recorded since 1900.
The USGS listed four major quakes (M => 8.7) for the pre 1900 era, three of which appeared in the strategic
97
Sequence 52 - 1700 Cascadia, 1755 Lisbon and 1868 Arica quakes (see Table 6). However, Sequence 52
did not integrate within the 9-45/56 year pattern presented in Table 12.
Record Quakes by Country
There were a total of 17 record quakes by country in Fujita’s listing, which have been denoted by a # in
Appendix 7 (NB: the two 1905 Mongolian earthquakes were treated as one event). Some 9 records by
country took place in the 8 56 year sequences in Table 13a, where as 2.4 could have been anticipated. A
further six record episodes fell in the six sequences in Table 13b and included the important mega quakes in
Alaska (1964) and Japan (2011).
Table 13a
9/56 YEAR CYCLE: RECORD BY COUNTRY 1900 – 2011 M => 8.2
Year ending June 30
Sq 25
Sq 34
Sq 43
Sq 52
Sq 05
Sq 14
Sq 23
Sq 32
1904
1906
1924
1960
1915
1933
1942
1951
0131
Jun 26
1950
May 22
Mar 02
1905
Aug 15
Jul 09
Dec 09
Jul 23
1953
1962
1971
1980
1989
1998
2007
1979
1952
Dec 12
Nov 04
2009
Table 13b
9/56 YEAR CYCLE:
RECORD BY COUNTRY 1900 – 2011 M => 8.2
12.2 months ending June 20
Sq 47
Sq 56
Sq 09
Sq 18
Sq 29
Sq 38
1908
1919
1928
1964
1937
1946
1955
Apr 30
Jun 17
Mar 28
1918
Aug 15
2011
1975
1984
1993
2002
2020
2001
Mar 11
Jun 23
Discussion
Interesting correlates have been established between record earthquakes and their propensity to cluster
within the 9/56 year grid, especially around Sequences 25, 34, 43, 52 and 05. This applied to North America,
Western Europe and Japan. Little can be offered to account for this observation, apart from stating that it
probably was caused by Moon-Sun tidal influences. McMinn (2011) provided background information on
this effect and showed how Moon-Sun cycles can be intimately linked with the 9/56 year configuration. Any
events grouping in a 9/56 year pattern will have the lunar ascending node in two restricted segments sited
approximately 180 degrees opposite on the ecliptical circle with no exceptions. Apogee will also be sited in
three ecliptical segments about 120 degrees apart with no exceptions. How the 9/56 year seismic cycle
actually functions in relation to record events remains completely unknown. Hopefully others with the
requisite skills in Moon-Sun tidal harmonics will be far more successful than the author in solving this
enigma.
The record quake in a particular region/country was more significant than the quake strength. Thus, the 1755
Boston quake (M6.5) in north east USA was given equal relevance as the 1906 San Francisco (M7.7) event
98
in California – Nevada or the 1949 Queen Charlotte Island quake (M8.1) in western Canada. What seemed
relevant was the record event in a particular region, regardless of its relative magnitude.
The 9/56 year grid is the only seismic ‘cycle’ known to the author that consists of precise time units - 9 years
on the horizontal and 56 years on the vertical. However, if listed chronologically, events in a particular 9/56
year pattern give the impression of randomness with no apparent mathematical structure. For example, the
south west American records in Table 1 fell in the series 1700, 1868, 1906, 1915, 1980 and 2010. The
Western European records in Table 5 happened in the years 1903, 1905, 1912, 1931, 1939, 1941, 1969 and
1980. The 9/56 year grid cannot be considered a ‘cycle’ in the traditional sense with events happening every
so many years, but something much more abstract.
The author’s research in both finance and seismology achieved good correlates, but often only by breaking
down the raw data into viable subsets for assessment. For example, record quakes in this paper were very
significant in the 9/56 year cycle, an effect that would have been overlooked if only samples of major quakes
were considered. Furthermore, major quakes (M => 6.9) in California – Nevada – Baja California were
much more likely to occur in one sector of the complete 9/56 year grid (McMinn, 2011). In contrast,
moderate quakes (=> 6.5 to =< 6.8) occurred in an 18/56 year pattern and in a completely different sector of
the 9/56 year grid. This could not have been observed, if major and moderate quakes were assessed as one
sample. Many other instances could have been given in finance (McMinn, 2004, 2009).
Since 1760, major US and Western European financial panics occurred most commonly in the 9/56 year
pattern as revealed in Table A, Appendix 8. Ten sequences in this table (Sqs 52, 05, 14, 23, 32, 41, 50, 03,
12 and 21) also appeared in the 9/56 year grid for major world earthquakes in Table 10. Something similar
could be repeated for records by US state (see Table 2) and records by Western European country (see
Table 5). The 9/56 year grid for major financial crises overlapped with those grids for major earthquakes.
The importance of seasonality in some of the findings indicated that the Sun’s position on the ecliptical
circle should have relevance in earthquake timing. A similar situation could also apply to the Moon’s
location on the ecliptic, although no supportive evidence has been offered in this paper.
How the 9/56 year cycle functions remains very puzzling. The best avenues for further research lie in the
varying angles between the Moon, the Sun, the lunar ascending node, apogee and the spring equinox point
(000 E°). The rising point may also be included assuming diurnal cycles of the Moon and Sun were
significant. (NB: For a particular location on the Earth’s surface, the rising point is the point on the eastern
horizon at a particular time.) All these Moon-Sun factors should be assessed collectively rather than
separately, although this may be difficult to undertake. Then the sunspot cycle also needs to be considered.
According to Choi & Maslov (2010), earthquake frequency for the period 1973 to 2010 was “closely related
to the solar [sunspot] cycle: the number of earthquakes increases during the declining/trough periods.” In
recent years, many papers have been published on the links between the sunspot cycle and seismic activity.
Again, it was a complete mystery how the 9/56 year Moon-Sun effect could merge with the sunspot cycle to
influence earthquake activity.
Conclusions
Record earthquakes in south western North America fell selectively in patterns of the 9/56 year cycle as
shown in Table 1, as did the record quakes in the 50 US states in Table 2. In both cases there was a strong
preference for record episodes being timed within five 56 year sequences – Sqs 25, 34, 43, 52 & 05. This
also applied to Japanese earthquakes (M => 8.3) since 1890. For some samples, significance was apparent
over a much larger section of the complete 9/56 grid, as for record quakes by Western European countries
(see Table 5) and by major world quakes post 1900 (see Table 10). Another curiosity was the tendency for
record regional events in North America to occur in 18/56 and 36/56 year sub-cycles (see Tables 3 & 4), as
well as 9-45/56 year cycles for the world mega quakes (see Table 12). For Latin America, a reliable listing
of early record quakes by country could not be sourced and thus no conclusions could be drawn.
99
Why so few sequences contained so many record seismic events remains puzzling, although Moon-Sun tidal
effects were firmly implicated by McMinn (2011). Overall, the findings on record earthquakes and the 9/56
year cycle are certainly of great interest, but very preliminary. Much more research is warranted in this area.
Acknowledgment: I would like to thank the editor Dong Choi for his support of the 9/56 year concept. It was very
much appreciated.
References
Choi, D.R. and Maslov, L., 2010. Earthquakes and solar activity cycles. New Concepts in Global Tectonics Newsletter,
no. 57, p. 85-97.
Gendzwill, D., 2006. Earthquakes in Saskatchewan and Canada. University of Saskatchewan.
www.usask.ca/geology/labs/seismo/quakenat.html
Geological Survey of Canada, Historic earthquakes in Canada.
http://earthquakescanada.nrcan.gc.ca/histor/index-eng.php
Fujita, K., Magnitudes of the largest events of the 20th Century.
www.msu.edu/~fujita/earthquake/bigquake.html
Instituto Nacional De Prevencion Sismica, http://www.inpres.gov.ar/seismology/linkppal.htm
Kindleberger, C. P., 1996. Manias, Panics & Crashes. John Wiley & Sons. 3rd edition.
McMinn, D., 1993. Financial Crises & The Number 56. The Australian Technical Analysts Association Newsletter.
p. 21-25. September.
McMinn, D., 1995. Financial Crises & The 56 Year Cycle. Twin Palms Publishing. 103p.
McMinn, D., 2002. 9/56 Year Cycle: Financial Crises. www.davidmcminn.com/pages/fcnum56.htm
McMinn, D., 2004. Market Timing By The Number 56. Twin Palms Publishing. 134p.
McMinn, D., 2006. Market Timing By The Moon and The Sun. Twin Palms Publishing. 158p.
McMinn, D., 2011. 9/56 Year Cycle: Californian earthquakes. New Concepts in Global Tectonics Newsletter, no. 58,
p. 33-44.
Universidad de Chile, Dept de Geofisica, Sismos Importantes Y/O Destructivos 1570 – Mayo 2005.
http://www.sismologia.cl/seismo.html
US Geological Survey, The Largest Earthquakes, State by State.
State
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Appendix 1
RECORD EARTHQUAKE BY US STATE TO 2010 – USGS
UTC
Lat
Long
Date
M
1916 10 18
22:04
33.5N
86.5W
1964 03 28
36:14.0
61.0N
147.7W
9.2
1959 07 21
17:39:29
36.8N
112.4W
1811 12 16
8:15
35.6N
90.4W
7.7
1857 01 09
16:24
35.7N
120.3W
7.9
1906 04 18
13:12:21
37.7N
122.5W
7.7
1882 11 08
1:30
40.5N
105.5W
1791 05 16
13:00
41.5N
72.5W
1871 10 09
14:40
39.7N
75.5W
1780 02 06
30.4N
87.2W
1879 01 13
4:45
29.5N
82.0W
1914 03 05
20:05
33.5N
83.5W
1868 04 03
2:25
19.0N
155.5W
1983 10 28
06:06.5
44.0N
113.9W
7.0
1968 11 09
01:40.5
37.9N
88.4W
5.3
2008 04 18
09:36:59.1 38.452N
87.886W
5.4
1909 09 27
9:45
39.8N
87.2W
1905 04 13
16:30
40.4N
91.4W
1867 04 24
20:22
39.2N
96.3W
1980 07 27
52:21.4
38.2N
83.9W
5.0
Intensity
VII
X
VI
XI
IX
XI
VII
VII
VII
VI
VI
V
X
IX
VII
VII
VII
V
VII
VII
100
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hamp
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
N Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
S Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
1930 10 19
1904 03 21
1990 01 13
1755 11 18
1947 08 10
1975 07 09
1931 12 17
1812 02 07
1959 08 18
1877 11 15
1964 03 28
1915 10 03
1940 12 20
1940 12 24
1783 11 30
1906 11 15
1944 09 05
1916 02 21
1909 05 16
1937 03 09
1952 04 09
1910 08 05
1993 09 21
1998 09 25
1976 03 11
1886 09 01
1911 06 02
1865 08 17
1931 08 16
1934 03 12
1962 04 10
1897 05 31
1872 12 15
1969 11 20
1947 05 06
1959 08 18
12:17
6:04
47:55.3
9:11:35
46:41.3
54:21.3
3:36
9:45
37:13.5
17:45
08:46.5
52:48.0
27:26.2
43:45.0
3:50
12:15
38:45.7
23:39
4:15
44:35.5
29:28.4
1:31:36
28:55.4
52:52.1
29:32.2
2:51
22:34
15:00
40:22.3
15:05:40
30:45.2
18:58
5:40
00:09.3
21:27
56:16.8
30.0N
45.0N
39.4N
42.7N
41.9N
45.5N
33.8N
36.5N
44.7N
41.0N
43.0N
40.5N
43.9N
43.9N
41.0N
34.0N
45.0N
35.5N
49.0N
40.5N
35.5N
42.0N
42.3N
41.5N
41.6N
32.9N
44.2N
36.0N
30.5N
41.7N
44.1N
37.3N
47.9N
37.4N
43.0N
44.7
91.0W
67.2W
76.9W
70.3W
85.0W
96.1W
90.1W
89.6W
111.2W
97.0W
101.8W
117.5W
71.4W
71.3W
74.5W
107.0W
74.7W
82.5W
104.0W
84.3W
97.9W
127.0W
122.0W
80.4W
71.2W
80.0W
98.2W
89.5W
104.6W
112.8W
73.0W
80.7W
120.3W
80.9W
87.9W
110.7W
4.3
7.9
7.3
7.1
5.3
5.6
5.5
6
2.1
7.0
6.5
5.9
4.5
VI
VII
V
VIII
VI
VI
VI
XII
X
VII
VII
X
VII
VII
VI
VII
VIII
VII
VI
VIII
VII
Felt
VII
VI
VI
X
V
VII
VIII
VIII
V
VIII
IX
VI
V
Felt
Years in bold contained US record quakes in the year beginning April 1 of those years in the Table 2.
Source: USGS The Largest Earthquakes, State by State.
Appendix 2
RECORD QUAKE BY NORTH AMERICAN REGION
Record Quake
M
Location
Country
US REGIONS
Alaska
California – Nevada
Central
Hawaii
North East
Pacific North West
Mar 28, 1964
Jan 09, 1857
Apr 18, 1906
Feb 12, 1812
Apr 03, 1868
Nov 18, 1755
Dec 15, 1872
9.2
7.9
7.7
7.9
7.9
6.5
7.2
Anchorage AK
Fort Tejon CA
San Francisco CA
New Madrid MO
Hawaii HA
Boston MA
Lake Chelan WA
South East
Western Mountains
101
Sep 01, 1886
Aug 18, 1959
7.0
7.5
Charleston SC
Hebgen Lake MT
May 15, 1909
Nov 18, 1929
Nov 20, 1933
Aug 22, 1949
5.5
7. 2
7.3
8.1
Saskatchewan
Offshore Newfoundland
Baffin Bay
Queen Charlotte Island
Jun 03, 1932
8.2
Jalisco
CANADIAN REGIONS
Central Canada (a)
Eastern Canada
Northern Canada
Western Canada
MEXICO
Mexico (b)
Events in bold occurred in the year ending November 20 of those years in Appendix 3.
(a) Source: Gendzwill (2006).
(b) Record event for the 20th century.
Sources: USGS. Historic United States Earthquakes.
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/states/historical.php
Geological Survey of Canada. Historic Earthquakes in Canada.
http://earthquakescanada.nrcan.gc.ca/history/index-eng.php
Appendix 3
9/56 YEAR CYCLE: RECORD QUAKE BY NORTH AMERICAN REGION
Year ending November 20
Sq
Sq
Sq
Sq
Sq
Sq
Sq
Sq
34
43
52
05
14
23
32
41
1756
1765
1774
1783
1792
1801
1755
Nov 18
1794
1803
1812
1821
1830
1839
1848
1857
Feb 16
Jan 09
1850
1859
1868
1877
1886
1895
1904
1913
Apr 03
Sep 01
1906
1915
1924
1933
1942
1951
1960
1969
Apr 18
Nov 20
1962
1971
1980
1989
1998
2007
Sq
50
1754
1810
Sq
03
1763
1819
Sq
12
1772
1828
Sq
21
1781
1837
Sq
30
1790
1846
Sq
39
1799
1855
Sq
48
1808
1864
1866
1875
1884
1893
1902
1911
1920
1922
1931
1940
1958
1967
1976
1978
1987
1996
1949
Aug 22
2005
56 year sequences were separated from each other by an interval of 9 years.
Quakes in bold happened in years ending November 20 within the table.
Sources of Raw Data: USGS. Geological Survey of Canada.
Sq
01
1817
1873
1972
Dec 15
1929
Nov 18
1985
102
Appendix 4
RECORD WESTERN EUROPEAN QUAKES SINCE 1900
WESTERN EUROPE
Date
M
Location
France
19090611
6.2
Vernegues
Germany
19920413
5.9
Roermond
Greece
19030611
8.3
Kythera
19260826
8.3
Rhodes Island
Italy
19050908
7.9
Calabria
North Atlantic
19411125
8.3
Atlantic Ocean
Portugal - Morocco
19690228
7.8
na
Azores (Portugal)
19800101
7.2
Azores Islands
Spain
19540329
7.9
Durcal
Turkey
19120809
7.8
Murefte
19391226
7.8
Erizincan
UK
19310607
6.1
North Sea
Years in bold experienced record earthquakes during June 15 ended years in Table 5.
Main Sources: USGS. Historic World Earthquakes.
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/world/historical.php
NGDC. Search parameters: Relevant country. 1900 to 2010. M: 7.0 to 9.0
http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/nndc/struts/form?t=101650&s=1&d=1
Year
1891
1897
1897
1898
1906
1911
1914
1933
2003
2011
Appendix 5
HISTORIC JAPANESE EARTHQUAKES 1890 - 2011 (M => 8.3)
Year ending December 15
Month
Day
Location
Lat
Long
10
28
Japan
35.5
137
2
7
Japan
40
140
2
19
Japan
38
142
6
5
Offshore east coast Honshu
38
143
1
21
Off south coast Honshu
34
138
6
15
Ryukyu Islands
29
129
11
24
Volcano Islands
22
143
3
2
Honshu: East Coast
39.2
144.5
9
25
Hokkaido
41.8
143.9
3
11
Offshore north east Honshu
M
8.4
8.3
8.3
8.7
8.4
8.7
8.7
8.4
8.3
9.0
Years in bold contained the Japanese quakes in the 3.5 months ending March 5 in Table 7.
Source: NGDC. Search parameters: Japan. 1890 to 2011. M: 8.0 to 9.5.
Country
Argentina
Brazil
Bolivia
Chile
Colombia
Appendix 6
RECORD QUAKES BY LATIN AMERICAN COUNTRY
1900 - 2010
NGDC
USGS
Fujita
Other
Date
M
Date
M
Date
M
Date
M
19440115
19440115
7.8
7.4
19501209
8.3
19491217
7.8
19491217
7.8
19771123
7.4
(a)
19500307
8.6
20030620
7.1
na
na
19571129
7.8
19940609
8.2
19940609
8.3
19600522
19600522
19600522
9.5
9.5
9.6
20100227
8.8
(b)
19000918
7.9
19700731
8.0
19791212
8.3
Ecuador
Peru
Venezuela
Central
America
Caribbean
Mexico
19040120
19060131
19071116
19001029
19041220
7.9
8.8
8.7
8.4
8.3
19000621
19061203
19020923
7.9
7.9
8.4
19060131
20010623
19970709
19420806
8.8
8.4
7.0
7.9
19060131
20010623
na
na
8.6
8.4
na
na
19460804
8.0
na
na
19320303
8.1
19280617
8.2
103
(a) Source: Instituto Nacional De Prevencion Sismica.
(b) Source: Universidad de Chile, Dept de Geofisica.
Earthquakes in bold contained record Latin American quakes in Table 9.
Main Sources: NGDC. Search parameters: Relevant country. 1900 to 2010. M: 7.0 to 9.0
USGS, Historic World Earthquakes. http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/world/historical.php
Fujita, K., Magnitudes of the Largest Events of the 20th Century.
Appendix 7
MAGNITUDES OF THE LARGEST SEISMIC EVENTS: 1900 – 2011
Kazuya Fujita (revised March 1, 2010)
Rank
1a
1b
1c
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
Date
1960.05.22#
1960.05.22
1960.05.22
1964.03.28#
2004.12.26#
1952.11.04#
2011.03.11#
2010.02.27
1965.02.04
1950.08.15#
2005.03.28
1933.03.02
1957.03.09
1906.01.31#
1963.10.13
1938.02.01
2007.09.12
1906.08.17
1923.02.03
2001.06.23#
1958.11.06
1922.11.11
1952.03.04
1977.08.19
2006.11.15
2003.09.25
1924.06.26#
1920.12.16#
1994.10.04
Location
Chile Mainshock
Chile “Precursor”
Chile “Afterslip”
Prince William Sound, Alaska
Offshore Northern Sumatra
Kamchatka (Russia)
Offshore Honshu Japan
Bio Bio, Chile
Aleutian Islands, Alaska
Assam, India
Offshore Northern Sumatra
Sanriku, Japan
Aleutian Islands Alaska
Ecuador-Colombia
Etorofu, Kurile Islands
Banda Sea, Indonesia
Offshore southern Sumatra
Valparaiso, Chile
Kamchatka
Offshore Peru
Etorofu, Kurile Islands
Atacama, Chile
Tokachi-oki, Japan
Sumbawa, Indonesia
Kuril Islands
Hokkaido, Japan
Macquarie Ridge
Kansu, China
Etorofu, Kuriles
Mw
9.6
9.5
9.0
9.2
9.0
9.0
9.0
8.8
8.7
8.7
8.6
8.6
8.6
8.6
8.5
8.5
8.5
8.5
8.5
8.4
8.4
8.4
8.4
8.3
8.3
8.3
8.3
8.3
8.3
104
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
48
49
50
1905.07.09#
Mongolia
1905.07.23#
Mongolia
1946.04.01
Aleutian Islands, Alaska
1979.12.12#
Colombia-Ecuador
1923.09.01
Kanto (Tokyo), Japan
1968.05.16
Tokachi-oki, Japan
1938.11.10
Alaska
1919.04.30#
Tonga
1994.06.09#
Bolivia
1950.12.09#
Argentina
1959.05.04
Kamchatka, Russia
1940.05.24
Peru
1918.08.15#
Mindanao, Philippines
1996.02.18
West Irian, Indonesia
1989.05.23
Macquarie Ridge
1949.08.22
Queen Charlotte Is, Canada
1928.06.17#
Oaxaca, Mexico
1918.09.07
Urup, Kurile Islands
1969.08.11
Shikotan, Kurile Islands
1960.05.21
Chile Foreshock
1966.10.17
Northern Peru
1970.07.31
Colombia
1924.04.14
Philippines
LARGE PRE 20TH CENTURY EVENTS - Fujita
1700.01.26
Great Cascadia
1703.12.31
Kanto, Japan
1707.10.28
Tosa, Japan
1725.02.01
Eastern Siberia, Russia
1730.07.08
Valparaiso, Chile
1737.10.17
Kamchatka, Russia
1751.05.25
Concepcion, Chile
1755.11.01
Lisbon, Portugal
1792.08.22
Kamchatka, Russia
1797.02.04
Ecuador
1819.06.16
Rann of Kutch, India
1841.05.17
Kamchatka
1843.02.08
Guadalupe, Caribbean
1843.04.25
Etorofu, Kuriles
1854.12.23
Tokaido, Japan
1854.12.24
Nankaido, Japan
1868.08.13
Chile - Peru border
1877.05.10
Iquique, Chile
1889.07.11
Chilik, Kazakhstan
1891.10.28
Mino-Owari, Japan
1896.06.15
Sanriku, Japan
1897.06.12
Assam, India
1897.09.21
Philippines
8.3
8.3
8.3
8.3
8.3
8.3
8.3
8.3
8.3
8.3
8.2
8.2
8.2
8.2
8.2
8.2
8.2
8.2
8.2
8.2
8.2
8.2
8.2
9.0
8.2
8.4
8.2
8.6
8.3
8.5?
8.7
8.4
8.3
8.3
8.4
8.3
8.3
8.4
8.4
8.5
8.3
8.3
8.3
7.0
8.0
7.9
105
# Denotes the record quake by country during the 20th century.
Years in bold experienced major quakes (M => 8.2) in October 31 ended years in Table 10.
Sources: Fujita, K., Magnitudes of the Largest Events of the 20th Century.
Appendix 8
9/56 YEAR CYCLE: FINANCIAL CRISES
Between 1760 and 1940, Kindleberger (Appendix B, 1996) listed some 30 major financial panics for the US
& Western Europe, 16 of which appeared in the 9/56 year grid shown in Table A (significant p < .001)
(McMinn, 2004). For the period 1940-1996, numerous international currency crises were included in
Kindleberger’s listing, only one of which appeared within the 9/56 year configuration. Even including the
currency speculations, 20 of Kindleberger’s 44 crisis years (1760-1989) fell in the 9/56 year pattern, which
was still significant (p < .01).
Table A
9/56 YEAR CYCLE: FINANCIAL PANICS 1760 – 1996
Year beginning March 1
Sq
52
Sq
05
Sq
14
Sq
23
Sq
32
Sq
41
Sq
50
Sq
03
Sq
12
Sq
21
Sq
30
Sq
39
Sq
48
Sq
01
1763
1819
1875
1931
1987
1772
1828
1884
1940
1996
1781
1837
1893
1949
2005
1790
1846
1902
1958
1799
1855
1911
1967
1808
1864
1920
1976
1761
1817
1873
1929
1985
1765 1774 1783 1792 1801 1810
1812 1821 1830 1839 1848 1857 1866
1868 1877 1886 1895 1904 1913 1922
1924 1933 1942 1951 1960 1969 1978
1980 1989 1998 2007
Years in bold contained major financial panics and crises as listed by Kindleberger (Appendix B, 1996).
Source: McMinn, 1995, 2004.
106
9/56 YEAR CYCLE: HURRICANES
David McMINN
Independent cycle researcher
[email protected]
Twin Palms, Blue Knob, NSW 2480, Australia
Abstract: The timing of major hurricanes in the Atlantic and the East Pacific was assessed in relation to the 9/56 year
cycle. These important weather events tended to cluster within certain sections of the 9/56 year grid, far more than
could be expected by chance. This was both unexpected and significant. The raw data for the Atlantic was broken down
into two eras 1851-1928 and 1929-2009, while the 1945-2009 era was assessed for the North East Pacific. Hurricane
events could be correlated with the 9/56 year grid for all three periods. This hurricane cycle was hypothesised to arise
from Moon-Sun tidal effects, about which very little is known. What seemed most important were the ecliptical
positions of the Moon, the Sun, the lunar ascending node and apogee. This implied that the angles between these
factors and the spring equinox point may offer clues as to how the 9/56 year hurricane effect actually functions. The
sunspot cycle strongly influences weather activity and hurricane formation. How the sunspot cycle is interrelated with
the 9/56 year hurricane cycle remained completely unknown.
Keywords: 9/56 year, cycle, hurricane, Atlantic, Pacific, Moon, Sun, sunspots
Introduction
9/56 year cycle has been established in patterns of US and Western European financial crises (Funk,
1932; McMinn, 1986, 1993 & 1995), as well as Californian earthquakes (McMinn, 2011). This paper
examines the prospect of a 9/56 year cycle in the timing of hurricanes in both the Atlantic and the East
Pacific. The raw hurricane data was sourced from UNISYS, which formed the basis of the assessment. Three
periods were examined 1851-1928 and 1929-2009 for the Atlantic, as well as 1949-2009 for the East Pacific.
A
What is the 9/56 year cycle? It consists of a grid with intervals of 9 years horizontally and 56 years
vertically, in which hurricanes tended to cluster into certain sectors. The 9 year intervals were called subcycles and the 56 year intervals sequences. The 9/56 year effect was hypothesised to arise directly from
Moon-Sun tidal effects. Studies supporting a link between lunar phase and hurricane formation were
undertaken from the mid-20th century onwards (Yaukey, 2009). Unfortunately, very little is known how
Moon-Sun cycles function in relation to the timing of extreme weather events, thus limiting the potential for
accurate forecasting. Please read McMinn (Appendices 4 & 5, 2011) for essential background information
on the relevant lunisolar cycles and the various terms used in this paper.
The plane of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun is represented by the 360 degree ecliptical circle, with 00 E°
being sited at the spring equinox point. The abbreviation E° was used to denote longitudinal degrees on the
ecliptic and was equivalent to the angle made to the spring equinox point. The 56 year sequences have been
numbered in accordance with McMinn (1995), with 1817, 1873, 1929 and 1985 being designated Sequence
01; 1818, 1874, 1930 and 1986 as Sequence 02, and so forth. McMinn (Appendix 2, 2002) presented the full
numbering.
Atlantic hurricanes
1851 to 1928. The complete 9/56 year grid in Table 1 was divided into four quarter segments of 14 56 year
sequences each. These quarter sectors have been labelled Grids A, B, C & D. Importantly, Grid D contained
12 of the total 27 Category 4 & 5 events (significant p < .05).
Grids B & D were combined to give 20 hurricanes out of a total 27 (significant p < .01). The years in these
two grids always had the lunar ascending node (as on July 1) sited between 055 and 145 E°, as well as
between 235 and 325 E° with no exceptions. These two 90 degree segments for the ascending node were
180 degrees opposite in the ecliptical circle.
107
Table 1
THE COMPLETE 9/56 YEAR CYCLE:
1851 – 1928 ATLANTIC HURRICANES Categories 4 & 5
Grid A
Sq
52
Sq
05
Sq
14
Sq
23
Sq
32
Sq
41
Sq
50
Sq
03
Sq
12
Sq
21
Sq
30
1902
Sq
39
1855
1911
Sq
48
1864
1920
Sq
01
1873
1929
1893
1886
1895
1904
1866
1922
1884
1877
1857
1913
1875
1868
1924
Sq
28
Sq
37
Sq
46
Sq
55
Sq
08
Sq
17
Sq
26
Sq
35
Sq
53
1869
1925
Sq
06
1878
Sq
15
1887
1907
Sq
44
1860
1916
1844
1853
1862
1871
1880
**
1889
1898
1900
1909
1918
1927
Sq
49
1865
1921
Sq
02
1874
1930
Sq
11
1883
1939
Sq
20
1892
1948
Sq
29
1901
1957
Sq
43
1859
1915
**
1971
Grid B
Sq
10
1882
Sq
19
1891
Grid C
Sq
24
Sq
33
Sq
42
Sq
51
Sq
04
Sq
13
Sq
22
Sq
31
1885
1894
1903
1905
1867
1923
1876
1896
1858
1914
Sq
40
1856
1912
Sq
56
Sq
09
Sq
18
Sq
27
Sq
36
Sq
45
Sq
54
Sq
07
Sq
16
Sq
25
1852
1861
1870
1879
1888
1897
Sq
34
1850
1906
1908
1917
1926
****
1935
1944
1953
1962
Grid D
Sq
38
Sq
47
1854
1863
1872
1910
1919
1928
1881
1890
1899
Years in bold contained at least one Category 4 or 5 hurricane.
* These years experienced more than one major hurricane.
Source of Raw Data: UNISYS Atlantic Tropical Storm Tracking By Year.
http://weather.unisys.com/hurricane/atlantic/index.html
1929 to 2009. The complete 9/56 year grid was again divided into four quarter sectors, each of 14 56 year
sequences (see Appendix 2) and then assessed in relation to Category 4 & 5 Atlantic hurricanes. This
produced a very similar pattern as presented in Table 1, with only a slight variation (ie: Grids A, B, C & D
in Table 1 very closely corresponded to Grids E, F, G & H respectively in Appendix 2). Amazingly, Grid E
Appendix 2 contained 16 Category 5 events of a total 30 (significant p < .001). Additionally, Grid G
experienced 31 Category 4 hurricanes, compared with a total figure of 78 (significant p < .01). Strangely,
Category 5 hurricanes were most likely to happen in Grid E, whereas Category 4 were most likely in Grid G.
Some 69 Categories 4 & 5 weather extremes appeared in Grids E & G (significant p < .01).
During 1851-1928, Category 4 & 5 hurricanes recorded the lowest frequency in Grids A & C in Table 1.
These grids very closely corresponded to Grids E & G respectively in Appendix 2, which contained the
maximum frequency of Category 4 & 5 hurricanes for the 1929 – 2009 era. Why there was a major shift in
hurricane patterns around the late 1920’s remains completely unknown. (NB: 13 of the 14 56 year sequences
in Grid A also showed up in Grid E, with the same situation applying to Grid C and Grid G.)
Years in Grids E & G in Appendix 2 always took place with the ascending node (as on July 1) sited between
135 and 215 E°, as well as between 325 and 045 E°.
East Pacific Hurricanes
1949-2009. UNISYS presented raw data on east Pacific hurricanes for the post 1949 era, which was
108
assessed for the possibility of a 9/56 year effect (see Appendix 3). Most notably, 40 major Categories 4 & 5
hurricanes occurred in Grid K of a total 109 (significant p < .01).
Discussion
Moon-Sun cycles are hypothesized to activate the 9/56 year cycle in the timing of major hurricanes over the
past 160 years. There are very close alignments of several Moon-Sun eclipse cycles at 9.0 and 56.0 solar
years. This has been fully covered by McMinn (2011) and thus will not be discussed here. Any event
grouping within one sector of the 9/56 year cycle will always have the lunar ascending node located in two
segments approximately 180 degrees apart on the ecliptical circle WITH NO EXCEPTIONS. The apogee
point will also be sited in three segments of the ecliptic 120 degrees apart WITH NO EXCEPTIONS
(Appendices 4 & 5, McMinn, 2011). This was a property of the 9/56 year grid generally. Both the ascending
node and the apogee point can be closely linked to Moon-Sun tidal effects on the Earth’s surface.
This work stresses the importance of studying cycles generally and looking at possible links between cycles
established for various phenomena. The 9/56 year cycle was first deduced from financial trends, then
earthquakes and now hurricanes. It would be very unlikely that a 9/56 year cycle would have ever have been
determined in seismic or hurricane activity without the input from market studies.
A key question must be asked whether the lunisolar cycles can be correlated with the landfall of hurricanes.
The crossing onto land is probably the most important event possible in the life of a hurricane and it
definitely has a major impact on humans. Although very speculative, it would still make an interesting study
to test the validity of this hypothesis. Virtually nothing is known about how the 9/56 year Moon-Sun effect
actually functions, a situation that can only be rectified by further advances in research.
According to Yaukey (2009), “Atlantic best-track observations from 1950-2007 displayed a pronounced
peak of both hurricane occurrence and mean cyclone wind speed half way between the new and full moon.”
Additionally, the rapid intensification of hurricane development was “concentrated around the new moon,
with a lesser concentration around the full moon.” Such approaches are very useful, but only consider one
lunisolar factor in relation to severe weather events. A superior methodology would be to appraise several
Moon-Sun influences simultaneously – the Moon, the Sun, the ascending node, apogee point, the spring
equinox point and the rising point. This could be highly relevant to the timing of extreme weather events.
There has been a general increase in the frequency and intensity of hurricane activity in North America over
the past century, presumably due to global warming. Until 1924, no Category 5 hurricanes were recorded in
the Atlantic (based on UNISYS data), although 8 were experienced during the 2000's.
Sunspot cycles have long been appreciated as influencing terrestrial weather cycles. Most recently, Hodges
and Elsner (2010) showed that the probability of three or more hurricanes hitting the US coast increases
markedly during the lows of the 11 year solar cycle. Years with few sunspots and above-normal ocean
temperatures experience greater atmospheric instability and thus more hurricanes. Low solar activity means
that the upper atmosphere remains cooler thereby creating a major temperature differential above tropical
storms that helps energize these storms into hurricanes. According to the researchers, the likelihood of three
or more hurricanes hitting the US coast rises from 20% to 40% in years when sunspot activity is in the
lowest 25%, compared with years in the highest 25%. During peak sunspot years, there is only a 25% chance
of one or more hurricanes hitting the USA, a figure that spikes to 64% in the lowest sunspot years.
Clearly, there must be some link between the hurricane frequency as determined by sunspot activity and that
determined by the 9/56 year Moon-Sun cycle. The answer to this problem lies well outside prevailing
paradigms in meteorology.
Conclusions
Three time frames were assessed for Category 4 & 5 hurricanes - 1851-1928 (Atlantic Ocean), 1929-2009
(Atlantic Ocean) and 1945-2009 (East Pacific). For the three eras, hurricanes occurred preferentially in
quarter sectors of the complete 9/56 year grid. For the 1851–1928 period, the minimum hurricane frequency
109
occurred in Grids A & C (see Table 1). These very closely approximated to Grids E & G in Appendix 2,
which contained the maximum hurricane frequency for the 1929 to 2009 era. The shift in hurricane cycles
around the 1920’s was presumably due to Moon-Sun tidal effects. Such behaviour was unusual and
inexplicable. For the 1929-2009 period, Category 5 hurricanes were most likely to happen in Grid E and
Category 4 hurricanes in Grid G (see Appendix 2).
East Pacific hurricanes also produced significance, as they tended to occur preferentially in one quarter
(Grid K) of the 9/56 year cycle (significant p < .01) (see Appendix 3).
A 9/56 year cycle was apparent in the frequency of hurricane formation. A few good correlates do not make
a theory and further research is essential before a 9/56 year hurricane effect can be fully supported. This
hurricane cycle most likely arises from Moon-Sun tidal effects as proposed by McMinn (2011). The sunspot
cycle also plays a key role in determining hurricane activity and thus it should have interrelationships with
the 9/56 year Moon-Sun effect. Nothing much more can be stated, as it is a new research area about which
very little is known.
References
Funk, J.M. 1932. The 56 year cycle in American business activity. Ottawa, IL.
Hodges, R.E. and Elsner, J.B., 2010. Evidence linking solar variability with US hurricanes. Journal of Climatology.
July 14. DOI: 10.1002/joc.2196.
McMinn, D., 1986. The 56 year cycles & financial crises. 15th Conference of Economists. Monash University.
The Economic Society of Australia. 25-29 August.
McMinn, D., 1993. Financial crises & the Number 56. The Australian Technical Analyst Association Newsletter.
p. 21-25. September.
McMinn, D., 1995. Financial crises & the 56 year cycle. Twin Palms Publishing. 123p.
McMinn, D., 2002. 9/56 Year Cycle: Financial Crises. www.davidmcminn.com/pages/fcnum56.htm
McMinn, D., 2004. Market timing by the Number 56. Twin Palms Publishing. 134p.
McMinn, D., 2011. 9/56 year cycle: Californian Earthquakes. New Concepts in Global Tectonics Newsletter,
no. 58, p. 29-40.
UNISYS. Atlantic Tropical Storm Tracking By Year. http://weather.unisys.com/hurricane/atlantic/index.html.
UNISYS. East Pacific Tropical Storm Tracking By Year. http://weather.unisys.com/hurricane/e_pacific.html
Yaukey, P., 2009. Hurricane rapid growth events & the lunar synodic cycle. Paper presented at Hurricanes III Climate
Dynamics & Biotic Response. Association of American Geographers 2009 Annual General Meeting. Las Vegas,
Nevada. March.
Year
1853
1856
1866
1878
1880
1882
1886
1893
1894
1898
1899
1900
1906
1910
Appendix 1
ATLANTIC HURRICANES 1851 – 2009
ATLANTIC HURRICANES: 1851 – 1928 Categories 4 & 5
Active
Rank
Cat
Year
Active
(a)
Aug 30 – Sep 10
3
4
1915
Aug 05 – Aug 23
Sep 20 – Oct 01
Aug 19 – Sep 12
1
4
Sep 24 – Oct 05
6
4
1916
Aug 12 – Aug 20
Sep 24 – Oct 08
7
4
1917
Sep 20-Sep 30
Aug 04 – Aug 14
2
4
1919
Sep 02 – Sep 16
Sep 27 – Oct 04
8
4
1921
Oct 20 – Oct 30
Oct 05 – Oct 15
6
4
1924
Oct 14 – Oct 23
Aug 12 – Aug 21
5
4
1926
Jul 22 – Aug 02
Sep 02 – Sep 24
Sep 27 – Oct 05
10
4
Sep 11 – Sep 22
Oct 11 – Oct 20
6
4
Oct 14 – Oct 24
Sep 25 – Oct 06
7
4
Aug 03 – Sep 04
3
4
1928
Sep 06 – Sep 20
Aug 27 – Sep 15
1
4
Aug 25 – Sep 12
4
4
Oct 09 – Oct 23
5
4
Rank
(a)
2
6
6
4
2
6
10
1
4
6
10
4
Cat
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
4
4
4
4
5
110
1929
1930
1932
1933
1935
1938
1939
1943
1944
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1969
1971
ATLANTIC HURRICANES: 1929 – 2009 Categories 4 & 5
Sep 22 – Oct 04
2
4
1979
Aug 25 – Sep 08
Aug 29-Sep 15
Aug 31 – Sep 17
2
4
Aug 12 – Aug 15
2
4
1980
Jul 31 – Aug 11
Aug 30 – Sep 13
4
5
1981
Sep 11-Sep 20
Oct 30 – Nov 14
10
4
1982
Sep 13-Sep 20
Aug 31 – Sep 07
12
4
1984
Sep 08-Sep 16
Oct 01 – Oct 09
18
4
1985
Sep 16-Oct 02
Aug 29 – Sep 10
2
5
1988
Sep 08 – Sep 20
Sep 19-Sep 30 Oct
Sep 10 – Sep 22
4
5
10-Oct 23
Oct 12 – Oct 18
4
4
Aug 19 – Aug 27
3
4
1989
Aug 30-Sep 13 Sep
10 – Sep 25
Sep 09 – Sep 16
7
4
Aug 24 – Aug 29
5
4
1991
Sep 04-Sep 14
Sep 12 – Sep 20
9
4
1992
Aug 16 – Aug 28
Oct 05 – Oct 14
5
4
1995
Aug 08-Aug 25
Aug 27-Sep 12
Sep 04 – Sep 21
4
5
Sep 27-Oct 06
Sep 04 – Sep 16
6
4
Oct 03 – Oct 16
8
4
1996
Aug 19-Sep 06
Sep 08-Sep 16
Aug 23 – Aug 31
2
4
Sep 27 – Oct 06
10
4
1998
Sep 15-Oct 01
Oct 22 – Nov 09
Aug 12 – Aug 22
1
4
Aug 30 – Sep 17
4
5
Aug 18-Aug 25
1999
Sep 08 – Sep 17
6
4
Aug 19-Aug 31
Sep 07-Sep 19
Aug 12 – Aug 23
3
4
Sep 11-Sep 23
Sep 02 – Sep 13
5
5
Nov 13-Nov 23
Oct 20 – Oct 28
7
4
Aug 28 – Sep 09
4
4
2000
Sep 21-Oct 04
Sep 28-Oct 06
Oct 05 – Oct 18
9
4
Aug 03 – Aug 15
2
4
2001
Oct 04-Oct 09
Sep 21 – Sep 30
10
5
Oct 29-Nov 06
Oct 30 – Nov 07
8
4
2002
Sep 21-Oct 04
Jun 25 – Jun 29
2
4
2003
Aug 27-Sep 09
Sep 02 – Sep 24
4
4
Sep 06-Sep 20
Aug 11 – Aug 22
3
5
2004
Aug 09-Aug 15
Sep 21 – Oct 04
8
4
Aug 25-Sep 10
Sep 24 – Sep 30
9
4
Sep 02 – Sep 24
Sep 16-Sep 28
Sep 20-Oct 02
8
4
Aug 29-Sep 14
5
5
2005
Jul 04-Jul 18
Sep 14 – Sep 17
6
5
Jul 11 – Jul 21
Aug 23 – Aug 31
4
2
Sep 02-Sep 12
Sep 18 – Sep 26
5
3
Sep 03 – Sep 16
Oct 15 – Oct 26
4
5
Sep 10-Sep 27
5
9
Oct 27 – Nov 01
2007
Aug 13 – Aug 23
Aug 31 – Sep 06
Sep 26-Oct 13
7
4
2008
Aug 25-Sep 05
4
5
Aug 20-Sep 05
Sep 01-Sep 15
4
6
Aug 28-Sep 16
Oct 13-Oct 21
4
9
Sep 13-Sep 25
Nov 05-Nov 14
4
10
Sep 28-Oct 05
Aug 27-Sep 13
3
4
2009
Aug 15 – Aug 26
Sep 21-Oct 11
9
4
Sep 05 – Sep 22
2
5
Aug 14 – Aug 22
3
5
Sep 05 – Sep 18
6
5
4
6
1
8
5
5
7
8
9
11
7
8
3
2
6
12
15
5
8
7
13
2
3
6
7
12
9
11
9
13
12
6
9
3
6
9
11
4
5
11
17
22
5
4
5
4
4
4
4
5
4
4
4
5
4
5
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
4
4
5
4
4
5
5
5
5
4
6
7
9
15
16
2
5
5
4
4
4
4
4
111
1974
1975
1977
1978
Aug 29-Sep 10
6
4
Sep 22-Oct 04
7
4
Aug 29 – Sep 03
1
5
Aug 30-Sep 05
6
4
Sep 13-Sep 20
8
4
(a) In a given year, the first hurricane of the season is numbered 1, the second 2, the third 3, the
fourth 4 and so forth.
Source of Raw Data: UNISYS Atlantic Tropical Storm Tracking By Year.
http://weather.unisys.com/hurricane/atlantic/index.html
Appendix 2
1929 – 2009 ATLANTIC HURRICANES Categories 4 & 5
Grid E
Sq
43
1971
#
Sq
52
Sq
05
Sq
14
Sq
23
Sq
32
Sq
41
Sq
50
Sq
03
1931
Sq
12
1940
Sq
21
1949
**
Sq
30
1958
#
**
2014
Sq
39
1967
#
Sq
48
1976
1924
1933
**
1942
1960
##
1969
#
1978
**
1987
1996
**
2005
####
*
1980
#
1989
#
*
1998
#
*
1951
#
*
2007
##
Sq
10
Sq
19
Sq
28
Sq
37
Sq
46
Sq
55
Sq
08
Sq
17
Sq
26
Sq
35
Sq
44
Sq
53
Sq
06
1936
1954
**
2010
1963
*
2019
1972
1981
*
Sq
40
Sq
49
Sq
02
Sq
11
Sq
20
1930
*
1986
1939
*
1995
***
1948
**
2004
#
***
Grid F
1929
*
1985
*
1938
#
1994
1947
#
2003
#
*
1956
*
2012
1965
*
1974
*
1983
1992
#
1945
**
2001
**
Sq
24
Sq
33
Sq
42
Sq
51
Sq
04
Sq
13
Sq
22
Sq
31
1934
1990
Grid G
Sq
15
1943
*
1952
*
1999
****
*
2008
****
1961
##
**
2017
1970
1979
#
*
1932
#
**
1988
#
**
Sq
47
Sq
56
Sq
09
Sq
18
1941
1959
*
1968
1977
#
1997
1950
#
**
2006
Sq
27
Sq
36
Sq
45
Sq
54
Sq
07
Sq
16
Sq
25
Sq
34
1935
#
1944
#
*
2000
##
**
1953
#
*
2009
*
1962
Grid H
Sq
29
Sq
38
1937
1957
1966
1975
1984
1993
1946
#
*
2002
1955
#
*
2011
1964
####
****
1973
1982
#
*
1991
#
*
2018
112
##
**
#
*
#
*
#
*
#
*
# Denotes a Category 5 hurricane in a given year.
* Denotes a Category 4 hurricane in a given year.
Source of Raw Data: UNISYS
Appendix 3
1949 – 2009 EAST PACIFIC HURRICANES Categories 4 & 5
Grid I
Sq
41
1969
Sq
50
Sq
03
Sq
12
Sq
21
Sq
30
1949
1958
1978
****
*
1987
**
1996
*
2005
*
2014
Sq
08
Sq
17
Sq
26
Sq
35
Sq
44
Sq
39
Sq
48
Sq
01
Sq
10
Sq
19
Sq
28
Sq
37
Sq
46
1956
1965
1974
*
1967
*
1976
****
1985
***
1994
##**
*
2003
2012
Sq
53
Sq
06
Sq
15
Sq
24
Sq
33
Sq
42
Sq
51
Sq
04
1952
1961
1970
1979
**
1988
**
Grid J
Sq
55
1954
1983
****
*
1992
****
***
2001
**
2010
Sq
22
Sq
31
Sq
40
1963
1972
*
1981
1990
****
1999
*
2008
*
2017
Sq
49
Sq
02
Sq
11
Sq
20
Sq
29
Sq
38
Sq
47
Sq
56
Sq
09
Sq
18
1957
*
1966
1975
**
1984
****
1993
****
***
2002
###
*
Grid K
Sq
13
1950
1997
####
****
1968
1977
1986
***
1995
***
2004
**
2013
Sq
45
Sq
54
Sq
07
Sq
16
Sq
25
Sq
34
Sq
43
Sq
52
Sq
05
Sq
14
Sq
23
Sq
32
1962
1971
*
1980
*
1989
**
1998
***
1951
2007
*
1960
1953
2009
#
**
2018
2006
***
Grid L
Sq
Sq
27
36
1955
1959
##
*
1964
1973
#
**
1982
*
1991
**
# Denotes a Category 5 hurricane.
* Denotes a Category 4 hurricane.
Source of Raw Data: UNISYS
2000
*
113
ESSAY
ASPECTS OF PLANETARY FORMATION AND
THE PRECAMBRIAN EARTH
Karsten M. STORETVEDT
Institute of Geophysics, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
[email protected]
Abstract: On present evidence, the traditional planetesimal theory as well as the inbred notion of an initially hot
molten Earth seems ripe for replacements. Ever since the core was discovered in 1906, evidence has been growing that
it is less dense than pure iron could be expected to be at pressures assumed to be typical of core depths. The velocity
anomalies of seismic waves travelling through the core suggest that it contains a relatively large fraction of lighter
elements – a density deficit which currently is explained by the presence of elements such as hydrogen, sulphur,
carbon, silicon and oxygen. There is every reason to assume that iron is the dominant constituent of the core, but
modern seismic studies indicate that this central body is chemically inhomogeneous as well as anisotropic. In addition,
the core is not in equilibrium with the lower mantle; seismic tomography continuously spring surprises regarding the
mantle’s compositional and structural irregularity – even the presence of significant volumes of water has been
reported. The bewildered state-of-the-art has resulted in a daisy chain of shifting ad hoc hypotheses. Hence, the old idea
of a primordial hot sphere of liquid rock, having subsequently experienced density-dependent differentiation into an
iron-rich core, an intermediately dense silicate mantle and a lighter granitic shell, is problematic. The Earth is
apparently still in a relatively un-degassed state, which may be the very reason for its ceaseless dynamo-tectonic
activity. Furthermore, the physico-chemical struggle towards internal equilibrium may be expected to have resulted in
episodic reworking of the primitive surface layer – in accordance with the variegated geological history.
In an attempt to get out of the present deadlock, the alternative proposal by Alistair Cameron (1962 & 1978) may
have much in its favour. Instead of the problematic idea of planetesimal growth from a nebular disk eddy, Cameron
proposed that isolated source clouds may have been expelled as relatively concentrated, but compositionally diverse,
proto-planets inserted into orbit close to the Sun’s plane of rotation. Thus, accepting the premise that the Earth began as
a relatively isolated sphere of cold gas (dominantly hydrogen), with a variable assortment of rock and ice constituents
and at temperatures up top of say 50ºK, we may envisage a development pattern markedly at variance with that
presently in vogue. Thus, centrifugal segregation with respect to grain size would expectedly occur in a rotating
granular mass. In this process larger elements like Uranium and Thorium would be concentrated at the surface of the
primordial Earth which would then be subjected to substantial radioactive heating, while the deep interior – expectedly
dominated by a larger fraction of cold gas – may not have experienced a significant rise in temperature from
radioactive decay. Hence, the embryonic Earth may have had an inverse temperature distribution: relatively cold in the
deep interior and hot in the outer regions. Leading on from that precondition, a brand new global development pattern
is outlined – consistent with the surface geological history. It is inferred that the original incrustation had anorthositicdioritic composition, being subsequently strongly altered through degassing-related granitization and mineralization
processes. Within the gas-filled proto-planet, incremental coalescence of ferromagnetic particles gradually led to
heavier concretions for which the gravitational influence outbalanced the centrifugal effect – gradually building up the
central iron-rich core. Reorganization of the interior mass led to periodic changes of the Earth’s moments of inertia,
responsible for its pulse-like tectono-magmatic history. The new portrayal of Earth formation supports the fission
hypothesis of lunar origin – by way of having originated as a flung off mass from the Earth in early Archeaen time,
when the planet was spinning much faster than now.
Keywords: planetary formation, primordial Earth, Precambrian history, lunar origin
Introduction
ypotheses or theories without a sound physical basis may be scientifically empty; they make no natural
phenomenological interlinking, cannot provide specific predictions, or, as is generally the case, the
theoretical frame is so filled with ad hoc provisions that it is untestable. In contrast, the characteristic
features of a functional scientific theory is its capacity to make specific predictions – establishing ready linkups between known phenomena and, of equal importance, ability to reveal facets of nature not previously
known or understood. It follows that any satisfactory theory of the Earth ought to account for its range of
H
114
evolutionary facets – encompassing dynamic, tectonic, volcanic, topographic, palaeoclimatic, space geodetic
and bio-geographic phenomena in terms of a coherent system – forming an extensive predictionconfirmation chain. When seen in isolation, any specific type of observations (such as tectonic structures)
can have a variety of possible explanations – the number of diverse ‘invocations’ being only limited by our
imagination. But, at best, only one of the possible ranges of theoretical propositions may apply to Nature.
It is only when diverse phenomena can be put into a conceptually coherent order that we may have a realistic
theory. Before discussing aspects of Earth evolution, and the internal motor for the pulse-like dynamotectonic processes, we should be reminded of the so called Occams Razor, meaning that the simplest and
most straight forward explanation with the fewest assumptions is likely to give the most relevant answer, or
as Newton put it: “We are to admit no more causes of natural things than such as are both true and sufficient
to explain their appearances. To this purpose…Nature is pleased with simplicity and affects not the pomp of
superfluous causes”.
The interior processes of the globe must provide the energy source for its dynamics and surface
physiographic and geological change. But, as it has turned out, unravelling the more detailed physicochemical state of the interior planet has not become an easy matter, and modern geophysical observations
put question marks on many classical opinions being kept alive only by the reiteration principle. During the
second part of the 19th century it was commonly accepted that the Earth is a hot globe of which an outer
layer has been rendered solid through cooling. Owing to the deduced overall high internal density and
pressure it was appreciated that some central core must be iron-rich and solid, but with a significant part of
the Earth’s body still remaining liquid; chemical differentiation had created a layering arranged in order of
decreasing density outwards. The first shot across the bows for this affectedly simple view of the Earth came
with Oldham’s discovery of the core-mantle boundary (Oldham, 1906), the seismological discontinuity for
which Gutenberg (1913) established a depth of about 2900 km. However, the large central core was lighter
than it was expected to be if it, as was generally believed, consisted of concentrated Fe-Ni alloys. Another
puzzle came from geology (see Heier, 1965 and references therein): how had heavy elements like U and Th
been concentrated in the upper crust, as geological observations afforded? As a matter of increasing fact,
lighter elements seemed to be residing in the central core, while some heavy elements had become
concentrated in the uppermost crust – observations that contradicted the conventional view of an early hot
molten globe undergoing elemental sorting according to density. These puzzles have continued grow, and
modern geophysical studies arrive at an Earth markedly out of thermo-chemical equilibrium.
Geophysical techniques provide the only means of sampling the deep planetary interior, but because we are
confined to observations at the surface, most of what we think we know about internal processes is based on
inversion techniques which have no unique solutions. Therefore, inferences about interior processes are
necessarily strongly model-dependent – resting on hypothetical mass/energy transfer processes as well
speculative proto planetary accretion scenarios (see below). It is not surprising, therefore, that to a large
extent the picture of the working of the planet has changed according to the current needs of whatever
particular hypotheses are invoked to explain surface geological phenomena. Regrettably, from time to time
dubious ideas become unimpeachable constraining facts in science, and so it has been with regard to global
geology and planetary evolution at large. Nevertheless, apart from the range of interpretative undecidedness,
decades of seismic mantle tomography have unfolded a fairly complex interior Earth; heterogeneity and
anisotropy at various scales characterize both mantle and core. A question of ultimate importance is the
mechanism of the geomagnetic dipole field currently related to processes analogous to a self exciting
dynamo within the outer supposedly fluid core. Since the 1960s, however, satellites exploring the solar
system have shown that Earth is the only terrestrial planets with a magnetic field, and that this physical
property is basically a hallmark of the major gas planets – which are dominated by hydrogen. So what if
hydrogen, in its metallic state (possibly solid), also represents the source of the Earth’s magnetic dipole
field? If so, it would sustain the longstanding seismological argument of a substantial amount of light
elements in the core (cf. Poirier, 2000), perhaps representing the bulk hydrogen store of the Earth – as
proposed by Okuchi (1997). Anyway, reconsideration of the planet’s core segregation – and the rest of the
interior planet come to that – seems a pressing issue.
115
The highest levels of 3D heterogeneity are found near the Earth’s surface and near the core-mantle
boundary. Thus, at the base of the mantle, a complex zone with widespread indications of heterogeneity on
many scales, discontinuities of variable character and shear-wave anisotropy have been revealed (for
example, Kennett & Tkalčić, 2008 for a summary). One might wonder, therefore, if there is a close
connection between processes at the core-mantle region and the highly variable composition and structure of
the crust and uppermost mantle. In particular, the longstanding attenuation of the crust is a question of
ultimate importance. Thus, for several decades, evidence has been growing that the present world oceans
were formerly land or shallow seas (for summaries, see Choi et al., 1992; Dickins et al., 1992; Storetvedt,
1997& 2003; Yano et al., 2009 & 2011); the crust has apparently been thinned/delaminated from the bottom
upwards, and chemically transformed (Storetvedt, 2003). In addition, the great abundance of altered rocks
(at various stages of dynamo-metamorphism), the surprisingly modest amount of fresh basalts in deep sea
settings, the commonly observed oblique shearing features along mid-ocean ridges, the overall low heat flow
and scarcity of volcanic activity in both oceanic and continental settings etc. are thought-provoking facts
waiting to be given a system-explanation within a comprehensive theory of the Earth. Unfortunately, due to
the reinforcement syndrome many old and antiquated ideas have had nine lives – having survived time intact
without being corrected by the growth of new scientific facts/insights. This is no better seen than with
certain popular hypotheses regarding the origin of the solar system.
Earth’s internal constitution – paradoxes abound
Until the middle of the 20th century, it was generally taken for granted that the accretion of the Earth had,
through some speculative process, formed as a hot sphere of liquid material having subsequently
experienced density-dependent differentiation into an iron-rich core, an intermediately dense silicate mantle
and a lighter granitic crust. However, since the late 19th century the inhomogeneous and complex build-up of
the crust was a matter of concern. In the first half of the 20th century, geological evidence unfolded that an
unknown mechanism had concentrated heavy radioactive elements in a thin surface shell, but on the whole
the internal chemical differentiation was regarded practically complete. The view of the Earth as a nearly
full-fledged body undergoing thermal contraction held sway not least because it was consistent with the
traditional notion of stationary continents. Opposing this view, Chamberlin (1887, see also Brush, 1987)
and, later, Urey (1952) reiterated the old view of Pierre-Simon Laplace and Immanuel Kant (late 1700s) that
the Earth and the other terrestrial planets had formed by aggregation of material from a flattened nebular
disk surrounding the Sun, comprising a cold mix of gas – predominantly hydrogen – and an assortment of
particulate matter. On this basis – due to the presumed cold initial state – Urey argued that chemical
differentiation of the Earth’s body, into a metallic core and silicate shells, could well be incomplete and
therefore still in progress.
Against the view of an initially molten sphere, presumably having resulted in a complete internal degassing,
surface observations told otherwise. The enormous ash ejections and gas blowouts of the 19th century,
namely Mt. Tambora in 1815 and Krakatoa in 1883, may have been reminders in this respect. Thus,
Ampferer (1942 & 1944) discussed the possibility of subsurface gas pressure powering vertical tectonic
phenomena, and Hixon (1920), noting the inadequacy of the contraction theory to explain many important
geological events, concluded that tectonic processes were diapiric phenomena caused by planetary gas
release. Although there is every reason to assume that iron is the dominant constituent of the core, it has
been known for decades that both the inner and outer core are less dense than pure iron could be expected to
be at pressures assumed to be typical of core depths (cf. Poirier, 2000). Thus, velocity anomalies of seismic
waves travelling through the core suggest that it contains substantial amounts of light elements, such as
sulphur, carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. And Okuchi (1997), on the basis of high-pressure studies of a wateriron-silicate mixture, suggested that hydrogen could be the most prevalent light element in the core, perhaps
representing the bulk hydrogen content of the Earth.
At high pressures, hydrogen readily enters a metal lattice structure, where the metal-hydrogen combinations
are known as hydrides and the metal is referred to as being hydridic or hydridized (e.g. Hunt, 1992). In any
case, the identity and relative abundance of lighter constituents of the core (amounting to some 10-15% by
mass) place important constraints on models of how the Earth began, besides being important for
understanding phenomena ranging from the origin of the geomagnetic field to the planet’s energy balance.
116
In the absence of direct rock evidence from deeper than say a few hundred kilometres, modern studies of the
composition and physical state of the Earth’s interior must rely on geophysical inversion techniques,
primarily based on seismological and geodetic observations, supplemented by high-pressure mineral physics
and chemistry experiments. Nonetheless, inferences about state and constitution of the interior must
necessarily be strongly model-dependent, resting on proto planetary formation scenarios as well as
hypothetical mass/energy transfer processes within the developing terrestrial body. Nevertheless, the
evidence from seismic mantle tomography has unfolded that the Earth’s lower mantle and core depart
significantly from the simple classical picture – that of homogeneous layers increasing in density inwards, a
view currently flourishing at all levels of the educational system. For example, in a study of inner core
seismic velocities, Shearer and Toy (1991) suggested that both anisotropy and heterogeneity seemed to be
present, and Creager (1999) concluded that the core is anisotropic by some 2-4% on average, and that 6090% of its volume seems to contain well-aligned crystals along the N-S axis.
It has long been accepted that the complex core-mantle boundary layer (CMB) may be of extreme
geodynamic importance; this seat of chemical reactions and energetic couplings between core and mantle
have a bumpy “topography” of significant amplitude (Morelli and Dziewonski, 1987). It seems to be
generally accepted that the core is not in equilibrium with the mantle, and that the transition zone must be a
chemically active and heterogeneous region (e.g. Stevenson 1981; Vidale and Benz 1993; Poirier 2000).
According to the results of Morelli and Dziewonski (1987), upstanding regions of the core-mantle boundary
layer correspond, when projected outward, to the deep oceanic depressions on the surface (Fig. 1). This may
hint at the possibility that processes at the outer core and/or lowermost mantle release buoyant masses that
on the surface of the Earth thin and transform the crust into an oceanic mode. On the whole, the growing
information on the Earth’s interior point in the direction of a planet out of thermo-chemical equilibrium; it is
apparently in a relatively undegassed state, in turn implying that the temperature of the deep interior may be
much lower than traditionally acknowledged. According to Fig. 1 the mantle below oceans and continents
ought to display systematic differences in composition and seismic velocities. In fact, data from seismic
tomography, which provide three-dimensional global-scale images of the interior (e.g. Dziewonski, 1984;
Dziewonski and Woodhouse, 1987; Forte et al., 1995), support earlier suggestions (MacDonald, 1964) that
there is a relatively clear seismic difference between continental and oceanic mantles, notably in the outer
few hundred kilometres of the Earth.
Fig. 1. The diagram, after Morelli and Dziewonski (1987), which is based on a combination of PKP- and inverted PcPresiduals, gives an early version of the ‘topography’ of the core-mantle boundary layer (CMB). Note the close
correspondence between the distribution of upstanding CMB regions and the arrangement of world’s oceanic
depressions.
The picture of relatively fast velocities for the upper continental mantle and correspondingly slow velocities
for oceanic mantle sections, as depicted in Fig. 2, is, by now, well established – underlining the wellexcepted concept of continental roots. Seismic tomography data are usually presented in the form of
deviations from the laterally-averaged depth profiles, following the common assumption that most of the
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variation in seismic velocities is caused by increase in pressure with depth. Lateral velocity variation is then
thought of as being primarily the result of temperature differences – allegedly brought about by convection –
for which lower seismic velocities are associated with higher temperatures and higher velocities with lower
temperatures. However, there are good reasons for believing that the Earth does not conform to these
presumptions; for a planet undergoing irregularly-distributed vertical degassing, one would expect lateral
variations of the confining pressure producing associated velocity variations. This means that lateral seismic
wave-velocity anomalies may arise from differences in both composition, temperature, and other physical
properties. Thus, for an Earth in a state degassing one would, for example, expect lateral velocity variations
due to differences in fracture spacing between the evolving continental and oceanic mantles: the oceanic
upper mantle would expectedly have the higher fracture volume, kept open by internal hydrostatic pressures
(see below), which in turn might be chiefly responsible for the reduced seismic velocities in these sectors of
the upper mantle. But before we take a closer look at the internal state and questions of mass transfer
processes, let us take an elementary ‘birds eye’ view on some crucial evolutionary aspects of the solar
system.
Fig. 2. The diagram demonstrates the concept of continental mantle roots. Diagram, which is after Dziewonski and
Woodhouse (1987), shows variations in upper mantle S-wave velocities along the 110º W meridian, depicted by the
central line in the upper panel, from the Moho to 670 km depth. The upper mantle section (lower panel) reveals
relatively fast velocities under the continents and slow velocities under the ocean basins. Vertical exaggeration is 20:1.
Queries about the origin of the Solar System
The 200 years old idea of a proto-sun with a co-rotating homogeneous nebula consisting of gases, mineral
debris and ices, accreting to become the bodies of the planetary system, is still a commonly accepted model.
It is hypothesized that, in the inner regions of the nebula disk, the high temperatures from the developing
Sun were emitting a strong solar wind which blew off the lighter gases and evaporated the ice constituents.
Left behind would have been a mixture of predominant solid rocky material that somehow fused to become
the four terrestrial planets – Mercury, Venus, Mars, and Earth with its satellite – the comets and asteroids.
This is the popular planetesimal theory. However, a variety of arguments has been raised about the
dynamical state of the nebula during the formation of the solar system and, indeed, about the very existence
of proto-planetary disks (Levy, 1987; Levy and Araki, 1989). The fundamental differences in composition
between the inner and outer planets and, indeed, the very existence of the outer giant gas planets do raise
critical questions as to whether the conventional planetesimal theory provides a realistic basis for planetary
formation. Thus, in discussing the multitude of unresolved problems regarding solar system evolution, Boss
(1990) wrote that although most planetologists “seem to be converging on a generally accepted model for
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Earth origin, it must be noted that Jupiter formation remains an outstanding problem in the accumulation
[planetesimal] theory, and until we believe that we also understand Jupiter’s origin, we must feel somewhat
uneasy about our current understanding of the formation of the Earth”. In recognizing this lack of insight
about the solar system’s evolution, there is every reason to consider new solutions for planetary formation.
In the popular accretion scenario, the fact that the orbits of the dense terrestrial planets are crowded and
close to the Sun, while the outer and much less dense gaseous planets, albeit with much larger masses, are
widely spaced at much greater distances from the gravitational centre of the solar system, has not been given
a satisfactory explanation. The inner part of the main asteroid belt – located between Mars and Jupiter –
tends to consist of stony-iron material while asteroids further out are richer in carbon (Asphaug, 2000). This
suggests that the overall density of asteroid bodies of the main belt decreases outward, consistent with the
generally decreasing densities of the inner planets outward from the Sun and their deficiency in light,
gaseous elements compared with the outer giant planets. This density trend may perhaps indicate that the
planetary bodies formed from separate nebula fractions.
The very existence of the main Asteroid Belt (Fig. 3), consisting of the order of 100,000 variably-sized
bodies of carboniferous, metallic and siliceous composition having not undergone predicted coalescence,
may throw into doubt the long-held view that the planets evolved through collision and amalgamation of
progressively larger planetesimal bodies. In an attempt to explain away the problem posed by the nonaccreted bodies of the asteroid belt, Asphaug (2000) wrote that “beyond Mars, gravitational resonances
Fig. 3. The main Asteroid Belt seen in conjunction with the terrestrial planets, plus the major gas planet Jupiter.
Diagram, which is not to scale, is after http://www.orderoftheplanets.org/asteroid-belt.html.
with massive Jupiter stirred the cauldron and prevented any body from growing larger than 1000 km across
– leaving un-accreted remnants to become the present asteroids”. This explanation can hardly be regarded
anything but an ad hoc escape to avoid complications versus the popular, but problematic, planetary
accretion model. And the thermal history of the asteroid belt, adumbrated by Gaffey (1990), poses another
problem for traditional accretion scenarios. Anyway, it is not a sign of a mature science if one has one model
for the inner terrestrial bodies and another incompatible mock-up for the outer gas planets. Problems like
these may indicate that we need an alternative ‘all-embracing’ formation mechanism of the planetary
system.
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What if the planets evolved from relatively isolated masses of variegated composition, segregated and
expelled from the primordial solar nebula? If so, it may be seen as a variant of the gaseous proto-planet
theory discussed by Cameron (1962, 1978 & 1985) and Cameron et al. (1982). In the latter view, a minor
fraction of the solar nebula may have undergone compositional fragmentation which, through excitation by a
combination of rotational and gravitational instability and/or magneto-hydrodynamic turbulence, might have
been expelled as relatively concentrated, but compositionally diverse, proto-planets inserted into orbit close
to the Sun’s plane of rotation. Following on from this idea, it may be envisaged that the forces of ejection
might have given rise to widely different angular momenta, and that it was the fastest rotating protoplanetary bodies which subsequently lost some fractions of their masses into co-existing satellites (moons).
Centrifugal segregation of icy and rocky constituents would most easily have taken place in the gasdominated proto-planets, and this may explain why practically all solar system moons are associated with
the gaseous (Jovian) planets. Of the terrestrial planets, only the Earth has a satellite of any significance,
suggesting that its original rotation rate may have been much higher than that of the other inner planets. In
fact, Alfven and Arrhenius (1976) suggested that the Earth’s primordial spin rate may have been as fast as 56 hours.
In the conventional disk model of planetary formation, the rotation axes of the various planets would be
oriented at right angles to the plane of orbit. Such a simple dynamical system is inconsistent with factual
observations in that the angle of axis inclination – relative to the plane of orbit – varies greatly, being 0º for
Mercury, 23º for Earth and 98º for Uranus. In the alternative scenario, however, the observed dynamical
variability between the planets can be expected; thus, in the presence of ionized gas, it has been suggested
that strong warping magnetic fields may have interacted with a rotating interstellar cloud in a complex way
that makes the distribution of mass and angular momenta (of expelled nebular cloud fractions) highly
uncertain (Cameron 1962; Stevenson 1989). Therefore, it seems quite possible that the proto-Earth may have
developed from the condensation of a rotating sphere of concentrated mineral dust mixed with an assortment
of gases and volatiles. Hydrogen and helium – the two elements with the greatest cosmic abundances, in
addition to other light elements (sulphur, carbon, silicon etc.) – are likely to have played an important role in
the evolutionary path of the Earth and other terrestrial planets, from their original state of condensation
through their subsequent histories of internal mass reconstitution.
It is commonly assumed that the pre-solar nebula was quite cold with temperatures up top about 50º K
(Kaufmann, 1988). This would be below the condensation temperature of substances like water, carbon
dioxide, methane and ammonia. Hence, ices of these substances would have been widespread across the
solar nebula in its early stages. So the question arises whether the proto-Earth evolved from a cold or a hot
state? The conventional accretion-impact scenario for the early Earth, eventually producing a magma ocean,
is still popular, but Ringwood (1989) looking at the relative abundance of a number of elements that should
have been noticeably altered in the first crust if they had formed on a molten Earth found no evidence of
such alteration in the oldest minerals (4200 Ma old zircons). Ringwood concluded therefore that there never
had been a terrestrial magma ocean – and no giant impacts, to create temperature rise and melting.
The fact that the core has a density deficit (compared with conventional expectation), implying that the ironrich core has an admixture of lighter elements such as sulphur, hydrogen, silicon, oxygen and carbon,
suggests that it is not in equilibrium with the overlying silicate mantle. Also, the heterogeneity unveiled for
the lower mantle may be compatible with low temperatures and slow reaction rates, implying that the lower
mantle, as well as the core, has not been subjected to a high degree of degassing since its formation. Today,
there is evidently no compelling reason for maintaining the traditional concept of a hot planetary interior. In
fact, the available evidence not only supports the view that the planet originated from a generally cold
nebular environment, but more significantly that no subsequent rise in temperature of the core and lower
mantle has reached a sufficient level to instigate an advanced chemical equilibrium of the deep interior.
In the context of existing facts, it seems that non-catastrophic scenarios of the proto-Earth have much in its
favour. Thus, it may be envisaged that the planet grew from a confined, probably fast-rotating, nebula sphere
enriched in mineral components, transforming into an early terrestrial body through progressive
accumulation of essentially small-sized condensates. The question is then how such a rotating mineral cloud,
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immersed in hydrogen-dominated gas, came to ‘rest’ in the early stages of the consolidation process. The
transfer of groups of particles from one location in the accreting mass to another would undoubtedly be
affected by a number of factors – involving dynamic, magnetic, electric and gravitational forces. But let us
first dwell shortly with the role of hydrogen.
Planetary magnetic fields: the role of hydrogen
Hydrogen, which in terms of abundance is many orders of magnitude above other elements in the solar
system, is the dominant constituent of the major low-density gas planets. The strong magnetic dipole fields
of Jupiter and Saturn are believed to be related to their relatively rapid rotation rates (about 10 hours) in
association with their expected metallic hydrogen interiors (Hartmann, 1983). In this context, interesting
experiments have been carried out at the Livermore National Laboratory where hydrogen was transformed
into a mono-atomic metallic fluid (Weir et al., 1996; Nellis, 2000). By using a gas gun, the liquid metallic
state of the compressed hydrogen was maintained for long enough to measure the rise in the material’s
electrical conductivity. Fig. 4 shows the corresponding reduction in electrical resistivity, σ, versus increasing
pressure. At around 140 giga-pascals, the hydrogen becomes metallic (Nellis, 2000). In the classical view,
this critical pressure level is attained at around the core-mantle boundary. This may suggest that, unless the
core’s hydrogen is exclusively bound to other elements, such as iron and carbon, metallic hydrogen could
occur within the core. In the gas gun experiment, the necessary high pressures were obtained by shock
waves that forces molecules together very rapidly, thus raising the temperature. However, one might
speculate as to whether a solid state metal would have been produced if the required high pressure had been
obtained in a more ‘gentle’ manner than with a shock wave.
Fig. 4. Results from the gas gun experiment at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory – simplified after Nellis
(2000). The electrical resistivity of hydrogen and deuterium drops as the pressure increases, and a metallic state occurs
at pressures above ca. 140 giga-pascals, which in the conventional view corresponds to the depth of the core-mantle
boundary.
Axial symmetry is a characteristic feature of the geomagnetic field, the dipole axis being inclined by a mere
11º relative the rotation axis. In the case of Jupiter, the dipole tilt angle has a similar value, while for Saturn
the angle between the dipole axis and the rotation axis is essentially zero. The Earth is the only terrestrial
planet with a magnetic field. By comparison, the dipole field of Jupiter is some 15-20 times stronger than
that of the Earth – a powerful indication that planetary magnetic fields are somehow intimately related to
hydrogen. But in that case, what about the popular dynamo theory of the Earth’s magnetic field? Is it
popular just because it has become conventional – promoted by the re-iteration principle?
To a first approximation, also the field of Uranus is that of a relatively strong dipole, but the magnetic axis is
inclined by about 60º from the rotation axis and the observed large higher-order terms can be represented by
displacing the dipole by about one third of the planet’s radius from the centre away from the sunlit side.
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Similarly, the magnetic field of Neptune can be represented by a tilted dipole inclined at 47º with respect to
the rotation axis, but displaced from the centre by more than half the planet’s radius (Jacobs, 1993). The
latter two cases, where the dipole axis is both non-aligned and offset relative to the spin axis, ought to
question the adequacy of the dynamo theory in general. It is important to stress that the dynamo theory of
the Earth, allegedly tied to magneto-hydrodynamic motions in the suggested fluid outer core, was invented
long before artificial satellites had acquired knowledge about the field of outer gas planets.
What if the origin of planetary dipole fields is due to permanent magnetization – in either iron alloys and/or
solid state metallic hydrogen – of some central cores, acquired at an early stage of planetary formation? If
so, the angle between the dipole axis and the planetary spin axis could depend on the degree of
electromagnetic coupling between the central body and adjacent portions of the interior. As an alternative
possibility, the unusual orientation of Uranus’ rotational and magnetic axes, the inclination of equator to
orbit being about 98º and the angle between the magnetic and rotational axes around 60º, has been
interpreted as a planetary ‘knock-over’ at an early development stage of the solar system (Kaufmann, 1988).
Anyway, palaeomagnetic studies suggest hat the dipole field of the Earth has been in existence since
Precambrian times, but during that long span of time the Earth’s body has repeatedly changed its spatial
orientation – a phenomenon known as true polar wander, being apparently a moment of inertia effect (see
below).
The question arises why the Earth, as the only of the terrestrial planets, has a magnetic dipole field. Gregori
(2001) linked this problem to the fact that the planets with a magnetic field have at least one satellite (our
Moon) – the gas planets have many. Gregori suggested, therefore, that planetary magnetic fields may be
tide-driven phenomena for which tidal heating is a prime energy source. But the evidence of an
inhomogeneous core, with a significant amount of light elements – suggesting that the core has not been
extensively degassed – argues against a significant amount of thermal energy in the Earth’s deep interior.
Thus, drawing on physical and seismological considerations, Tassos (2001) suggested that the original
plasma fraction of the deep Earth – ionized hydrogen gas – has maintained its initially cold state and that the
temperature profile of the Earth decreases with depth to a mere 100º C at the core-mantle boundary. So
perhaps tidal dissipation is not a significant internal energy source after all, and that planetary magnetic
fields are linked in some way to metallic hydrogen, first of all depending on internal pressure. Being the
largest of the terrestrial planets and the only of the inner planets with a magnetic dipole field (Venus which
is slightly smaller than the Earth is without a magnetic field), one might wonder if the Earth just happened to
have the critical size for metallic hydrogen to form in its deep interior – thereby providing the basis for the
planet’s magnetic dipole field.
Constitution of Earth’s primordial shell, and the Precambrian history
Considering the Earth to have started from a confined spherical gas cloud enriched in mineral components,
the next step is then how this primordial mass gradually developed into a more mature planetary body. In a
rotating gaseous mass, segregation processes of its constituent components – by way of size, density, shape
and other particle properties – is likely to have taken place at the initial stages. Thus, a number of
experiments on particle partition (Donald and Roseman, 1962; Cook et al., 1976; Fan et al., 1990; Hill et al.,
1997) have demonstrated that segregation with respects to grain size does occur in a rotating granular mass.
In addition to the rock- and ice-forming components, the probably cold and fast spinning proto planetary
body is likely to have contained a significant admixture of gas. With such a beginning, the centrifugal force
of rotation would expectedly have produced an overall segregation of the dust/particle mixture according to
size so that larger constituents, including the radioactive elements, became concentrated in the outer parts of
the proto planetary body. Therefore, one might envisage that substantial radioactive heating would have
affected the top layers of the Earth in Archaean times, while the deep interior may not have experienced a
notable rise in temperature from such sources. It is not unlikely that a significant fraction of the light gaseous
elements might have been entrapped in the central regions. A sketch of how the primordial Earth might have
evolved is given in Fig. 5.
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Fig. 5. Evolutionary model of the embryonic Earth. An assemblage of cold gas and particulate matter underwent
dynamo-gravitational mass segregation. Due to the centrifugal force of rotation, larger particles such U and Th were
concentrated in the outer regions of the planet where radioactive decay contributed to significant heating – while the
initially cold conditions were retained in the deep interior. Iron-dominated magnetic particles accreted to form larger
heavy masses, to be subjected to gravity settling and the building-up of a central core.
Following this line of thought, the Archaean crust and uppermost mantle – though it is unlikely that a
compositional distinction between crust and mantle existed at that time – was characterized by high
radioactive disintegration/heating (eventually involving pockets of melt) and relatively steep geothermal
gradients. Thus, Glickson and Lambert (1973), working in the Australian craton, found that radioactive
elements decreased with depth and increasing metamorphic grade, and similar results have been described
from other Archaean provinces (e.g. Eade and Fahrig 1972; Richter ,1985). As can be deduced from
komatiites – lavas from ultramafic, low-viscosity and magnesium rich melts, occurring as major constituents
of greenstone belts laid down between 3.5 and 2.5 billion years ago – the Archaean upper mantle
temperatures are thought to have been some 200º–300º C higher than now (Nisbet et al., 1993; Abbott et al.,
1994). Under such conditions – for which the high temperatures would have been produced by a
combination of radioactive decay, heat from chemical reactions, and frictional heating from tidal flexing
(see also below) – the rock material of the topmost planetary shell would have been relatively ductile and
therefore easily deformable. So under the influence of strong inertia forces affecting the partly cooled outer
‘layering’ – brought about by the presumed fast-spinning Archaean Earth – the markedly contorted rocks
and rock structures characterizing many old Precambrian terranes can be readily accounted for.
The Archaean is not characterized by large-scale linear tectonic belts or by low-temperature-high pressure
(blueschist) metamorphism. Hence, there is no evidence of strong tectonic compression in Archaean rocks
(Hamilton, 1998), but the high geothermal gradient in the outer shell gave rise to widespread formation of
granulite-facies rocks (Bohlen, 1987). However, by the late Archaean the outer geo sphere naturally had
been subjected to cooling, upon which a brittle surface layer in thermal equilibrium, must have undergone
compression and distortion (from the continued cooling below). The resulting ‘surficial’ stress field is
thought to have formed two deep large-scale dislocations approaching great-circle shapes, intersecting at
approximate right angles – one circumscribing the present Pacific and the other following along the
Alpine/Himalaya tectonic axis (Wilson, 1954) – named Benioff zones. Today, on a regional level these deep
fractures may depart markedly from that of great-circles – frequently they are bended into small-circles
currently named arcs, but the most significant departure from great-circle configuration is demonstrated by
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the knee-shaped and fragmented Benioff Zone along the Kermadec-Tonga-Vitiaz trenches of the SW
Pacific.
As it turns out, when corrected for Alpine age inertia-based torsion of the lithosphere (Storetvedt, 1997 &
2003) the more marked discrepancies from great-circle structure disappear – after which the circum-Pacific
Benioff belt forms a well-defined sub-division of the Earth into two palaeo-hemispheres. Similarly, the
horizontal lithospheric offsets for the Indonesian and Bonin arcs, first noted by Benioff (1954), are readily
accounted for by the predicted inertia-driven Alpine age tectonic distortions. Furthermore, for an Earth in
rotation, the differences in angles of dip and tectonic style, a contrasting appearance demonstrated between
the eastern and western Pacific Benioff zones, is likely to have been controlled by the Earth’s rotation
(Storetvedt, 1997 & 2003). Thence, compressive lithospheric stress and an unusually shallow angle of the
Benioff plane formed in the direction of planetary spin – i.e. in the eastern Pacific, presently exemplified by
the margins of S. America. On the opposite side of the globe, now best exemplified by the relatively
undisturbed margin off Japan, extension/neutral tectonic conditions along with a more steeply inclined
Benioff plane developed in the wake of the Earth’s rotation.
The high temperature komatiite magmas, forming major constituents of the Archaean greenstone belts, came
to a close at around the Archaean-Proterozoic boundary, some 2.5 billion years ago. By then, a relatively
thin surface layer had acquired a brittle state, thereby changing the manner in which it would respond to
tectonic stresses. It is likely that the prevalent stress-imposed signature in brittle material was in the form of
pan-global conjugate fracture systems (see Scheidegger 1963 for reviews), the bulk of which normally
constitute two steeply dipping and near-perpendicular sets of crustal rupture. The overall elongate shape of
the greenstone belts, having been formed basically along fault-bounded troughs, suggests that the outer skin
of the planet had become brittle well in advance of the Archaean-Proterozoic boundary. Fig. 6 gives a blockdiagram of a late Archaean greenstone belt – demonstrating the significance of the orthogonal fracture
network, but, as is normal in most regions, with one of the rupture sets in predominance. In the relatively hot
outer Archaean Earth, presumably undergoing significant degassing of its top few hundred kilometres, the
build-up of gas/volatile pressure at surface levels naturally gave rise to a certain degree of surface elevation
producing tensile fracturing of the evolving brittle incrustation.
It can be concluded, therefore, that the ubiquitous orthogonal network of crustal fractures was implanted in
the extensive surface regime of the Upper Archaean – having subsequently been dynamically implanted into
ever younger surface rocks, being intensified and enlarged throughout a long history of global tectonic
processes (see Storetvedt, 2003). The fact that the rectilinear fracture network not only characterizes the
surface of the Earth, but is also easily recognized on the Moon, Mars and Venus (e.g. Hast, 1973; Fielder et
al., 1976; Phillips and Hansen, 1994; Cattermole and Moore, 1997) underscores its fundamental importance
in the surface development of terrestrial planets. It is puzzling indeed that this basic fracture system – the
most important tectonic feature on the Earth – has been nearly completely disregarded in global tectonic
theorizing.
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Fig. 6. A block-diagram depicting evolving continental rift basins, such as the late Archaean greenstone belts. The role
of the pre-existing orthogonal fracture network is portrayed. Based on Cloos (1939).
If the idea of dynamo-gravitational sorting within the pre-planetary gaseous sphere is accepted, it should be
possible to make a qualitative, but informed, guess as to the overall chemical composition of Earth’s
primitive crust. In the order of increasing atomic weight, the main rock-forming elements (less oxygen)
range as follows: sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg), aluminium (Al), silicon (Si), potassium (K), calcium (Ca),
titanium (Ti), and iron (Fe). These elements are to be found in a few mineral groups of particular abundance
– feldspars (silicates of Al with a variable admixture of K, Na, of Ca), quartz, pyroxenes (a group of Mg, Fe,
Ca, Na, Al and Ti silicates) – making up the vast majority of surface rocks. According to the suggested
mechanism of centrifugal sorting, the dust of the larger and heavier iron is likely to have featured more
prominently than that of the lighter silicon. And as the evolving feldspars probably were Ca-rich
(plagioclase) rather than K-rich (orthoclase), it may be concluded that the initial crystalline cover of the
Earth is likely to have been anorthositic-dioritic, rather than granitic, in composition. Pyroxene and the
relatively dense ilmenite-titaniferous and magnetite-haematite associations commonly occur in the world’s
anorthosite masses (e.g. Gross, 1967; Geiss, 1971; Windley, 1995).
While a certain fraction of the iron particles were being dynamically forced outwards, contributing to the Ferich minerals of the evolving anothositic surface layer – to form pyroxenes, amphiboles and Fe-Ti oxides –
larger clumps of iron alloys, for which the inward-directed force of gravity outweighed the outward-directed
centrifugal effect, moved towards the proto planet’s centre changing its moment of inertia – predictably
giving rise to rotational acceleration, topping the suggested initial already fast rotation rate. The resulting
very rapid spin of the proto-planetary mass may have been the cause of the lunar mass being flung off Earth
early in the planets history (see below). However, in consequence of the growing, and relatively dense, Ferich core, the segregated silicate mantle became a good deal lighter (than core). In view of the redistribution
of interior mass – perhaps providing an initial stage of the current continental root ‘problem’ – the Earth was
brought into a dynamically unstable state – triggered by a major change of its axis of inertia (cf. Storetvedt
2003 and references therein). In order to regain rotational stability, a significant spatial reorientation (an
event of true polar wander that led to a significant repositioning the Earth’s equatorial bulge) took place;
this was probably the first major phase of relative polar shift affecting the Earth, instigating a fundamental
change in its geological history. This dynamical shift corresponds to the c. 2.5 billion year old ArchaeanProterozoic boundary. At this transition, the geological processes gradually took on a new course (e.g.
Windley, 1977).
The Archaean aeon which was characterized by features such as the relative abundance of komatiite
extrusions, a very thin fossil record (mainly bacteria), and a relative scarcity of red beds and carbonates, was
succeeded by the much more diversified geological record of the successive Proterozoic aeon. From now on,
the surface geology is progressively distinguished by large sedimentary basin rich in banded iron formations,
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pronounced tectono-magmatic belts, and living forms – which by now is much more abundantly recorded in
the surface inventory of carbonates – is gradually acquiring a more modern aspect (Nisbet, 1991). In the
Wrench Tectonic scenario the major shift in surface geology is related to an effective degassing of the
radiometrically heated upper few hundred kilometres of the Earth – resulting in a diversity of geological
processes, rocks and mineral segregations. Thus, released gasses and fluids from the heated outer geosphere
– including water, and a variety of hydrocarbons with their load of so-called organometallics – increased the
hydrostatic pressures at near-surface levels. Powered by the dynamo-tectonic unrest that swept the Earth
around 2.5 billion years ago, the proto-asthenosphere began a stepwise release of upper-Earth degassing
products to the surface – in the form of limestone deposits, sedimentary iron formation, plutonism,
mineralization, and major cratering events. For example, at around 2 billion years ago momentous internal
gas pressures gave rise to major blow-outs to form structures such as the Sudbury (Canada) and Vredefort
(South Africa) complexes. These craters are located within transtensive belts, running near-perpendicular to
the Lower Proterozoic palaeoequator, within which high-pressured mantle gasses would have found easy
escape routes (Storetvedt, 2003).
Hunt (1992b) presents a series of arguments in favour of an endogenous, degassing origin of the enigmatic
surface deposits of pure quartz sand and quartzites of Proterozoic age, underscoring the point that the mass
of quartz is often too large and too pure to be the natural product of surface denudation and winnowing of
local granites. He states that “The silane reaction, where water is available, can produce quartz sand slurried
in compressed steam and rich in hydrogen gas. This may debouch on the surface quiescently, convulsively,
or explosively, depending on volume and its charge of dissolved gas. The term ‘sands of endogeny’
appropriately depicts particulate quartz that has first crystallized after silane combustion as grains, and then
has been expelled”. On the other hand, slurried quartz grains may fill up the conduits, to become quartzite or
sandstone dykes forming irregular (pseudo-sedimentary) apophyses. In addition, Gold (1999) argues that
silicon is likely to form oils similar to hydrocarbon oils and that the two types of oil probably are soluble in
one another. If true, this would be a neat way of explaining the enigmatic occurrences of pure quartz dykes
sometimes injected into the ubiquitous rectilinear fracture network of the crust – occasionally having widths
of the order of tens of metres (e. g. Roday et al., 1995)
Banded iron formations of the oxide-carbonate-silicate-sulphide type, culminating at around 2 billion years
ago (early Proterozoic), occur within most greenstone belts. These banded ore deposits contain iron-rich
chert layers alternating with strata of haematite/magnetite, iron and magnesium carbonates, and ferrous iron
silicates. The accumulation of these iron ores in repetitive beds has remained enigmatic inasmuch as a
fluvial/erosion origin seem unlikely (e. g. Windley, 1977). On the other hand, Collins and Hunt (1992),
stressing the facts that these deposits are localized in trough-like depressions, having inclusions of volcanic
fragments and associations of meta-volcanic rocks, conclude that “the trough deposits [the banded iron ores]
are most easily visualized as volcanic exhalations from vents aligned along a fracture system in which
silane-bearing gases emerged with hydrous fluids containing carbon dioxide, iron, and magnesium”.
Carbon is a ‘sticky’ element to the extent that it easily combines with other elements in degassing processes
– in the form of so-called organometallics, largely depleting the heated upper mantle of its load of metallic
elements. As the classical hydrothermal hypothesis of metal deposition has been regarded quite unrealistic
(Krauskopf, 1982), Gold (1985, 1987 & 1999; Gold and Soter, 1982) emphasize that rising mantle
hydrocarbon fluids surpass water in both the capacity to hold metals in solution and the pumping power
needed in the energy-intensive leaching process. Thus, Thomas Gold argued that metals such as “gold has
been leached out of deep rocks and transported as an organometallic by an upwelling stream of
hydrocarbons. Because of changes in pressure and other conditions along the way, at some point the metal
dissociates from the hydrocarbon molecule. And as with coal deposits, eventually the hydrogen, too, escapes
from the carrier molecule, leaving behind carbon, or soot, which might then be carried some distance by
flowing water – hence the “black leader” has been formed. Gold (1999, p. 136-137) gives a number of
examples of metal mining being associated with fluid hydrocarbons, and that an iron mine in Newfoundland
having been stopped due to methane explosions. In this context, it is appropriate to mention the famous late
19th century hypothesis of Dmitrij Mendelejev (1837-1907) – founder of the Russian-Ukrainian hypothesis
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of abiogenic hydrocarbons – that the great majority of crude oil and natural gas are generated by hydration
of iron carbides upwelling from the deep Earth (see Dott and Reynolds, 1969).
The association of gold mineralization with hydrocarbons are well demonstrated in the Witwatersrand basin
of South Africa – the principal gold province in the world. The basin, which lies unconformably on a c. 3.1
billion years old granite-greenstone basement (Robb and Meyer, 1995), is apparently the remnant of an
originally much larger depositional centre which due to a central uplift – the Vredefort Dome – has been
reduced to today’s ring basin. The association of a variety of rock structures – shatter cones, striated rock
fractures, stress-induced planar deformation and massive pseudotachylitic breccias – have been ascribed to
both a violent internally-triggered gas explosion (crypto-explosion) and to a giant impact. It is an important
fact, however, that after the actual shock event that formed the Vredefort Dome, the Witwatersrand Basin
experienced widespread fluid activity. For example, some pseudotachylitic breccias of the basin are enriched
in gold and other remobilized metals in comparison to their host rocks (Reimold, 2001). On this question,
Barnicoat et al. (1997) concluded that “the gold (and associated uranium) mineralization is hydrothermal in
origin and post-dates a regional high-temperature alteration event. Alteration processes identified on a small
scale can be mapped out regionally as roughly strata-bound zones of acid metasomatism extending far into
the basin: the fluid flow responsible for this alteration was concentrated in small-scale structures localized
along lithological boundaries”. Barnicoat et al. further argue: “The widespread low-displacement thrust
systems marked by phyllonites, and the mineralized fracture systems containing uraninite, hydrocarbon and
gold, provide the first evidence of significant structurally controlled fluid migration pathways in the
system…Evidence for the post-depositional crystallization of gold, pyrite, uraninite and hydrocarbon, and
hence their origin from solution, is compelling”. Looking at the Witwatersrand Basin in a holistic way, it
then seems reasonable to conclude that a major internal gas blow-out created the Dome, opening up a
migration pathway from the mantle along which hydrocarbon-based fluid migration occurred – depositing
gold and other metals a route in surface strata.
In the Proterozoic, the buoyant masses from the heated and degassed outer geosphere must have led to
significant changes of the original anorthosite kindred crust through mineral transformation in situ. Hunt
(1992b) – discussing the longstanding problem of how older rocks are transformed into granitoid masses
through metasomatic and recrystallization processes – proposes that silane [SiH4, a degassing product]
activity, in which mafic cations are replaced by silica and silicates, diorites and gabbros become felsic and
silica-rich; hence, with the availability of potassium and water (other natural degassing products),
granitization of the Precambrian crust may be an early metasomatic transformation product – advanced from
below. If accepting this, coring into cratonic regions might encounter conditions indicating increasing
granitization with depth in the crust. In line with this prediction, the more mafic shield rocks penetrated by
the Kola super deep borehole was followed by light coloured granitic rocks at deeper parts of the drilled
section, but it was noted that even at higher levels of the borehole, with increasing depth in the Proterozoic
section, “granitization also becomes more intense, ranging from slight biotization on the surface to
migmatization at a depth of 6.8 km” (Russ. Acad. Sci., 1988).
Disregarding the current flora of plate tectonics-inflicted speculations about the Precambrian Earth (for a
review see Windley, 1995), the most intense period of volcanism, plutonism, metasomatism, crustal
transformation of pre-existing basement rocks, and mineralization processes seems to be largely over by the
late Proterozoic – around 1 billion years ago. From now on, large-scale tectonic belts, continental basin
formation, and regional swarms of basic dykes characterize the geological development. According to the
Earth’s origin and early development proposed here, it is suggested that in Precambrian time it was basically
the hot outer few hundred kilometres that were degassed and depleted in many elements – causing extensive
mineralization and severe transformation of the initial anorthositic-dioritic incrustation – yielding pockets of
basaltic magma and an overall peridotitic uppermost mantle. It appears reasonable to think that it is through
the persistent planetary degassing, with its upward elemental transport, and associated eclogitization of the
lower granulitic crust (see Storetvedt, 2003 and references therein) that the present Moho and ultrabasic
upper mantle have evolved. In fact, Ito and Kennedy (1970) suggested that the Moho might have formed in
this way.
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There is every reason to believe that Earth’s volume of surface water is of internal origin, having been
expelled as a result of degassing, and chemical reactions. In the Precambrian, surface basins had begun to
develop, but there is no evidence that deep oceans existed – the relatively modest amount of surface water
present at that time only formed relatively shallow epi-continental seas. The Earth’s principal store of water
(hydrogen), which according to the reasoning above is thought to exist at the still relatively cold deeper
levels of the mantle and core, had not been significantly degassed in Precambrian time. The limited supply
of hydrous fluids to the outer regions of the Earth may be seen as the principal reason why the Precambrian
Earth did not develop an advanced stage of crustal attenuation and associated isostatic basin subsidence (cf.
Storetvedt, 2003); neither were conditions right for extensive deep basins to form, nor was there sufficient
water to fill such basins had they existed.
A lunar comparison
The Moon has frequently been regarded a flung-out mass from some outer layering of the proto Earth.
Accepting that hypothesis along with the perception that the primordial Earth acquired an anorthositic
incrustation, one might predict that a similar chemistry might characterize the oldest surface rocks on the
Moon. In fact, samples from the Apollo missions have revealed that the lunar highlands, the most primitive
parts of the lunar surface, consist predominantly of low-density Ca-rich feldspars with relatively high Alconcentration, producing characteristic pyroxene-plagioclase rocks (Hargraves and Buddington, 1971; Guest
and Greeley, 1977; Spudis, 1996). Furthermore, virtually all of the samples from the lunar highlands are
breccias – partly-fused and broken rocks. If the lunar mass in fact was spun off from the crust/mantle
portions of the primordial Earth, at least its outer parts are likely to have attained a certain degree of
consolidation at the time of expulsion; the ejection of the lunar material probably took place in consequence
of increased acceleration triggered by the gravitational growth of the iron-rich proto-core. According to this
reasoning, the lunar body might be slightly younger than the Earth; yet both bodies are currently given
tentative ages around 4.5 billion years. Anyway, the bulk of samples from the lunar highlands are classed as
anorthosites or anorthosite kindred rocks, being consistent with the surface composition predicted here for
Earth’s primeval incrustation. But how could an expectedly disorganized flung-out mass from the Earth’s
proto-crust/mantle produce lunar crust-mantle segregation similar to that for the Earth?
Adopting the fission model, it can be presumed that the torn-off mass came from the crust and mantle parts
of the proto-Earth thereby accounting for the overall density difference between the Earth (5.5 gcm-3) and
that of the Moon which is only around 3.3 gcm-3 – the lunar figure being consistent with the density
estimate for the Earth’s mantle. Consistent with this view, Ringwood (1979) argued that there were strong
indications that the lunar material arose from the terrestrial mantle, inasmuch as the possible existence of a
small lunar core has remained questionable. However, during the lunar fission process the ‘solidified’ crust
would expectedly have contributed larger rock fragments than the more undegassed primordial mantle;
hence, in the rotating pre-consolidated lunar mass, material from the Earth’s crust would then be forced
dynamically to the outer region of the embryonic satellite. Furthermore, during the fission process, it is
likely that the concentration of radioactive material in some top layer of the Earth would have been
disseminated throughout the consolidating lunar mass. In addition, one would expect that tidal dissipation
was an important source of heat in early lunar history. It seems reasonable to infer therefore that the
combination of disseminated radioactive material throughout the early lunar body, along with expected heat
from tidal dissipation, would have set the scene for a much faster degassing history compared to that of the
Earth – continuously transforming the lunar crust, beginning with forceful degassing and crater production
and ending up with mega-scale basalt-covered marial depressions (see below).
At first glance, the Earth and the Moon appear markedly unlike, but the diversity of lunar surface features
may in fact be a consequence of its much shorter and more efficient degassing history. The Moon’s larger
surface-to-volume ratio could be expected to have provided a much more efficient degassing than for the
much larger Earth. Therefore, taking persistent internal degassing to be the principal source of energy
sustaining the geological activity of the Earth (see also below), the much more efficient (and therefore
shorter-lived) degassing of the Moon may explain why its geological history ended as early as in late
Archaean.
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Material recovered by several Apollo missions has revealed that the large lunar surface depressions – the
marial plains – are covered by basic lava for which isotopic dating have given ages between 3 and 3.8 billion
years (Spudis et al., 1994). Compared to the modest crater density of the maria, surfaces older than say 3.9
billion years are shown to be saturated with craters. Assuming the age of the Moon, and the formation of its
anorthositic highland crust, to be around 4.5 billion years, and accepting the isotopic ages of mare basalts
referred to above, it follows that the process that gave rise to the characteristic dense cratering of the lunar
surface occurred during the first 800 million years of the Moon’s history (Guest and Greeley, 1977). Then
followed the formation of the mare depressions, associated with basaltic flood plain volcanism, after which
the degassing-related cratering process gradually died out: Degassing and solidification of the lunar body
had apparently been completed. In terms of geological activity, the Moon has therefore been practically
‘lifeless’ for the last 3 billion years.
According to the above, crater formation is basically an indigenous process controlling the evolution of
terrestrial planets – not the result of accidental impacting events as commonly believed. Due to its
comparatively small size and high heat potential, the Moon’s degassing rate would have been relatively fast;
in the absence of major erosional agents the strongly cratered appearance of the lunar highlands is just as can
be expected. Also, for such a relatively small body, the frequency of violent gas blow-outs would have
decreased at a much faster rate than for the Precambrian Earth – the cratering process coming to a close by
the time the body had become out-gassed and/or internal thermo-chemical equilibrium had been achieved.
Consistent with this development scheme, the lunar geological history shows that the great majority of large
craters and ejecta material are found in the old rock systems, while very few larger craters, as well as a
relatively low overall crater frequency, characterize the younger marial plains. Adhering to the degassing
scenario, it would be natural to think that at least some of the major degassing vents would have displayed
recurrent blow-outs, forming multiple topographic rings for which the innermost structure, characterized by
a central peak, would represent the terminal and least violent escape of interior gas (in that particular vent).
The lunar multi-ringed Orientale (Fig. 7) and Schrödinger basins are prominent examples of this category.
Fig. 7. The multi-ringed lunar Orientale Basin, the outer topographic ring having a diameter of 900 km. The inner basin
is filled with mare basalt. Picture from NASA Lunar Orbiter IV, 187 M.
Other evidence in favour of lunar craters being an internal degassing phenomenon is afforded by examples
of crater chains distributed along tectonic lines. The Hyginus Rille may serve as an appropriate example.
Along this rift-like structure, depicted in Fig. 8, consisting of two individual branches, there are a series of
craters, each being several kilometres in diameter. From such a linear arrangement of craters it is unlikely
that they are products of impacts (Guest and Greeley, 1977). Another important feature is that the smallerscale ‘background’ craters tend to form an orthogonal pattern. As mentioned above, rectilinear fracture
systems apparently represent the most common tectonic structure on larger terrestrial bodies, but
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occasionally one observes, as in the case of the main Hyginus Rille branch, that fractures have developed
diagonally – with respect to the general rectilinear configuration. Adopting a degassing origin of the
Hyginus Rille craters, it should not come as a surprise that the largest crater in the series is located at the
intersection between the two rift branches; such a tectonic junction would naturally have provided the more
effective channel for the escape of interior gasses.
Fig. 8. A display of Hyginus Rille, a lunar rift structure with a superimposed chain of small craters. Note that the largest
crater, with a diameter of about 10 km, occurs at the junction between the two rift branches. Note also that the
structural background of rift structure is characterized by smaller-scale craters forming a rectilinear pattern. Such
observations can be regarded prima facie evidence of a degassing origin of the crater system. Picture is from NASA
Lunar Orbiter V 96 M.
Due to its pristine anorthositic incrustation, including a concentration of radioactive material, and its
predicted tidal heating at early stages of formation, the proto-Moon can be expected to have experienced
relatively high outer temperatures – consistent with conditions for the Archaean Earth. This would have
turned the surface material into a rather ductile state, blurring original surface features. Studies of lunar
craters are consistent with this prediction for they show that, with increasing age, the original forms display
an increasing degree of degradation until their almost total disappearance (Guest and Greeley, 1977). On the
Earth, the predicted early Archaean craters would, additionally, have undergone strong overprinting and
obliterating processes from surface erosion through the action of water and atmosphere. Both structurally
and chemically, the lunar highlands and marial plains can be regarded analogues to the Earth’s continents
and oceanic basins (e.g. Mason and Melson, 1970; Guest and Greeley, 1977), suggesting a close similarity
of their geological histories. Thus, the greenstone belts – representing the first major occurrence of
widespread mafic-ultramafic volcanism on Earth – are of the same general age as the extensive layers of
low-viscosity mare basalts. For both Earth and the Moon it took nearly 1 billion years from crustal
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consolidation to the appearance of the first lavas. In other words, the temperature rise and melt production
was fairly slow. Mare regions occur over larger parts of the Moon’s surface (e.g. Head, 1976), but it is on
the Earth-facing side that they had their most widespread development.
The lunar crust is relatively thick, but it has an interesting hemispherical dissimilarity; Meissner (1986)
gives the figure of 80-100 km for the far-sided highland crust and 50-60 km for the Earth-facing lowland
(mare-type) crust. A schematic cross-section is shown in Fig. 9. It seems reasonable to conclude therefore
that the terminal lunar degassing was associated with significant attenuation of the underlying anorthositic
crust, in association with isostatic subsidence and outpouring of extensive mare basalt volcanism – a process
that can be regarded equivalent to the formation of deep oceanic basins on the Earth in late Mesozoic time.
The much younger bipolarity of Earth’s surface features can be ascribed to its much larger size, low internal
temperatures and hence correspondingly slow degassing rate – being controlled by eclogitization and
associated gravity-driven sub-crustal delamination plus the decomposing action of supercritical hydrous
fluids (see below).
Fig. 9. Tentative cross section of the Moon. Note the dissimilarity in custal thickness between the basalt-covered mare
depressions (on the Earth-facing side) and that on the lunar far side (60 km vs. 100 km). It is a distinct possibility that
the relatively thin crust on the ‘front’ side is directly linked to the formation of the mare structures, probably implying
that these depressions are equivalent in origin to the Earth’s oceanic basins. The diagram is based on Kaufmann (1988).
The terraced and graben-like rims noted for many of the lunar mare depressions (Spudis, 1996) are then
likely to correspond to subsidence-related extensional features and listric faulting along modern continental
margins of the Earth. Observations of ultimate importance for a degassing-related lunar history are the
recent findings of water ice on the Moon (e. g. Spudis et al., 2010; Colaprete et al., 2010). In deep craters
near the lunar poles – in permanently shadowed and extremely cold areas, at conditions where water ice
would not sublime and therefore probably exist for billions of years – widespread and substantial amounts of
ice are currently reported. In addition to water, spectral bands of a number of other volatile components –
such as light hydrocarbons, sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxide – are also observed. These compounds are
comparable to current degassing products from the Earth’s mantle.
A pathway to Earth history
In the discussion above we have highlighted some of the fundamental problems with the old idea that the
planets evolved from a proto-planetary disk of gasses and particulate matter – the planetesimal theory. A
more relevant hypothesis is probably the alternative proposition by Cameron (1962, 1978 & 1985) that the
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planets of the solar system formed from isolated source clouds expelled during solar contraction –
compositionally diverse masses with varied rotation characteristics – inserted into orbit close to the Sun’s
plane of rotation. Based on Cameron’s idea, it may be envisaged that it was the fastest rotating protoplanetary bodies that lost fractions of their initial masses to form co-existing satellites – expulsion processes
that were particularly effective for the gas-dominated outer planets. Furthermore, there is no reason to think
that the terrestrial planets began as hot molten bodies or that they ever have been in that state. It seems more
realistic to think that the individual source clouds were quite cold, corresponding to the extremely low
temperatures of outer space, and that their dynamical state and internal constitution therefore have had a
very slow development.
It is envisaged that dynamical segregation of the cold primordial mass of the Earth, by way of centrifugal
sorting, led to accumulation of radioactive elements in the near-surface reaches of the proto-planet, while
magnetic attraction between iron particles gradually accumulated into larger iron-rich masses gradually
undergoing gravity settling to form a dense iron-rich core (Tunyi et al., 2001). A relatively inhomogeneous
mafic silicate-rich mantle was left behind, but according to Anderson (1989) the lower mantle could be
richer in silica and/or richer in iron than the upper mantle. Anyway, building on the unstable physicochemical state of the Earth and its slow internal mass reorganization, a chain of specific predictions follows
– prognoses that are in compliance with principal facets of the Precambrian geological history, as well as the
evolutionary course of the Moon.
It can be envisaged that a relatively thin outer layer was heated – by a combination of radioactive decay,
chemical reactions and tidal friction – and degassed. Subsequent Archaean cooling of this ‘carapace’ led to
two near-perpendicular great-circle dislocations whose variable angles of dip were controlled by Earth’s
rotation. By the early Proterozoic the outer part of the globe may had reached an advanced state of thermochemical balance, while the deeper parts (present-day lower mantle and core) – having maintained their
initial relatively cold state and therefore containing a substantial assortment of un-depleted lighter elements
– were markedly out of equilibrium. The relatively slow out-gassing from these deeper parts of the globe can
be regarded as the very reason why the Earth has been a dynamo-tectonically active planet to this day – in
consequence of its eternal mass reorganization to establish a state of chemo-physical balance. The possibility
of an un-degassed deep Earth has time and again been discussed in the geo-scientific literature. Urey (1952),
for example, thought that the initially cold primordial Earth had undergone long-term differentiation and
degassing thereby producing a steadily growing proto-core.
In contrast to the innate model of an early molten Earth undergoing chemical differentiation, modern
experimental studies suggest that the core is both inhomogeneous and isotropic. Ever since the core was
discovered (1906), its density deficit has been a puzzle. However, it is now known that lighter elements like
sulphur, carbon, silicon, hydrogen and oxygen easily dissolve in high pressure metallic mixes (Stevenson,
1981; Gottfried, 1990; Okuchi, 1997, and many others). These lighter constituents can easily be expected to
have followed iron alloys during their gravity settling into a cold core. As the gravitational pressure
increased, any fraction of free hydrogen may have been turned into a metallic state, adding further substance
to the well-established density deficit of the core. According to Gottfried (1990), the core is likely to be the
host of a significant amount of hydride-metal compounds while the silicate-rich lower mantle must include
an appreciable volume of silicides – notably silicon carbide (SiC).
With the many lighter elements now regarded as possible constituents of the deep Earth, it is of paramount
importance to consider the geodynamic and geological consequences of buoyant volatiles escaping from the
Earth’s core or lower mantle. If the overall composition of the mantle corresponds to that of the average
carboniferous chondrites, an idea that currently is widely believed, the question arises where their high
content of water has gone. Thus, in the case of an early molten Earth and the assumption that carboniferous
chondritic material being the original constituent, Turekian (1977) argued that the present volume of surface
water is considerable less than what might be expected if all water had been driven off. He suggested
therefore that most of the planets volume of water was not out gassed and therefore still residing in the deep
interior.
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If the planet at some stage had been molten, the low-density volatiles would have been degassed while, for
an originally cold body slowly heating up, degassing processes would be likely to continue as long as
internal temperatures are increasing in any part of the interior (Gold, 1985). Therefore, the perpetual flow of
un-oxidized hydrocarbon gasses rising through the crystalline crust – notable along deep mantle fractures –
suggests that the deeper Earth has overall much lower temperatures than is generally believed (Gold, 1999).
Melton and Giardini (1974), studying a range of natural diamonds of expected lower mantle provenance,
found that diamonds frequently contain inclusions of carbon-bearing fluids, mostly methane and carbon
dioxide. In the degassing context, Hunt et al. (1992) regard silicon, owing to its high abundance ratio, as one
of the more potentially important elements of the core’s metal hydrides.
Whatever buoyant phases are coming out from the core-mantle boundary region, Fig. 1 gives ground for
believing that, through phase changes and chemical reactions en route, the end product of the broad diapiric
upwellings is crustal attenuation and formation of oceanic basins. Thus, in the case of a post-accretion loss
of buoyant masses, the post-Archaean core is likely to have been diminishing – not growing – in size, but
due to expulsion of buoyant masses its density is likely to have increased throughout geological time. The
interface between the silicate-rich mantle and the outer core is commonly regarded as the most significant
physico-chemical boundary of the Earth (e.g. Young and Lay, 1990; Kendall and Shearer, 1995; Williams
and Garnero, 1996). But regarding the high pressures of the lower mantle, wouldn’t it be sensible to think
that the weight of the overburden would close all porosity? Traditionally, it has been acknowledged that,
except for a very shallow surface layer, fluid penetration within the Earth’s interior is impossible. However
for an originally cold Earth slowly heating up and degassing, the situation would be quite different (Hoyle,
1955, see chapter on Gold’s Pore Theory). Thus, at each depth level, rocks and fluids would be subject to a
common pressure – providing a kind of pressure bath situation – with fracture spaces being kept open just as
in near-surface rocks at low pressures. This principle has been well demonstrated for the two super-deep
continental boreholes (Kola and S. Germany); in both cases unexpectedly large fracture spacing, with free
flow of hydrous fluids, was found at depths of several kilometres – observations that contradict conventional
thinking in geology.
According to Hoyle (1955) and Gold (1999), a buoyant fluid occupying an existing fracture network at depth
would exert an outward pressure as great as the opposing pressure of the surrounding rocks, so any existing
fluid flow will be maintained. Hence, it is the pressure differential, not the absolute pressure level, that
decides the fate of fractures at depth. For that reason, fractures within a rock can be maintained at very high
hydrostatic pressures, but, at least in the outer parts of the Earth, rocks (being without significant tensile
strength) cannot withstand a fluid that comes up with a pressure greater than that exerted by the weight of
the overburden. The result is a variety of quiet as well as more violent events of fluid escape to the surface;
deep earthquakes, upward transmission of earthquake energy, and earthquake gasses – repeatedly reported in
this journal – are readily accounted for by a relatively cold deep Earth undergoing degassing. Water for the
hydrosphere and most of the atmosphere’s constituents are likely to have accumulated in this way and, in
cases of deep fractures (serving as ready escape routes to the surface) and high gas pressure at crustal and
upper mantle depths, volcanism as well as non-magmatic gas blow-outs are bound to have happened at
times. These processes were apparently in action during the Upper Archaean; the relatively high
temperatures of the crust and upper mantle at that time led to extensive out gassing of these upper levels of
the Earth leading to cases of high temperature volcanism, extensive mineralization, and crater formation.
With reference to Fig. 1, the upstanding regions of the core-mantle boundary layer correspond, when
projected to the surface, to Earth’s deep oceanic depressions. Hence, buoyant masses rising through the
mantle, – as hydrides, silicides, or as so-called organometalallics (Gold, 1985 & 1999; Hunt et al., 1992),
undergo phase changes and chemical reactions en route. As they ascend buoyantly through the mantle,
volatile hydrides deposit metals and rock-forming minerals, and in the upper mantle water may form through
a variety of chemical process (e.g. Hunt et al., 1992). At these depths water would be in its super-critical
state which has the ability to entrain solid matter producing mud. In volcanic and major hydrocarbon
regions, mud is frequently seen building up volcano-like structures – driven by juvenile volatiles from the
mantle, water vapour and flammable hydrocarbon gasses. Thus, in addition to water-inflicted sub-crustal
eclogitization processes, the crust readily becomes attenuated from the bottom upwards. In this regard
133
natural occurrences of the granulite-to-eclogite transition demonstrate that the process is strongly impeded
when hydrous fluids are absent (e.g. Austrheim, 1990; Walther, 1994; Leech, 2001). In order for these
metamorphic reactions to proceed, Austrheim (1998) argues that hydrous fluids, percolating through
fractured rock, are much more important than either temperature or pressure (see Fig. 10), and Leech (2001)
found that crustal delamination (sub-crustal gravity-driven thinning) is controlled by the amount of water
available for the deformation associated with the actual metamorphism-regulated density changes.
Fig. 10. Zone of eclogitization (greenish) forming a 20 cm broad section along a fracture in anorthosite (light coloured)
at Holsnøy, western Norway. Photo by courtesy of H. Austrheim.
To sum up, the degassing-related reorganization of internal mass is bound to have altered Earth’s moment of
inertia periodically, providing alterations of planetary spin rate as well as intermittent events of polar
wander. It is inferred that these dynamical changes are the drivers of the multifaceted upheavals representing
geological time boundaries. Thus, in mid-Precambrian time a most significant event of polar wandering
released upper mantle and surface processes defining the Archaean-Proterozoic boundary. Another
significant dynamo-tectonic revolution set the scene for the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary (cf. Storetvedt,
2003).
Concluding remarks
It can be envisaged that continual planetary degassing and related reorganization of interior mass has
modified the outer regions of the Earth progressively since early Archaean time – thinning and chemically
transforming the initially thick proto-crust and gradually producing the present crust-mantle interface –
besides having successively increased the volume of surface water. The gradual build-up of high hydrostatic
pressures in the outer geosphere led to eclogitization, gravity-driven sub-crustal attenuation, and related
isostatic subsidence, eventually (in the late Mesozoic) producing oceanic depressions. The deep oceans did
not only accommodate the steadily increasing volume of juvenile surface water, but provided also the
capacity to house the former extensive epi-continental seas – eventually giving rise to the present dry
continents.
The degassing-associated internal reorganization of internal mass is bound to have altered Earth’s moment s
of inertia periodically, instigating changes of planetary spin rate and/or intermittent events of spatial turnings
over of the globe (true polar wander). It is inferred that these episodic changes represent the dynamical
motor for the range of tectono-magmatic phenomena, crustal mineralization, as well as palaeoclimatic and
biogeographic changes. According to Fig. 1 of this paper, the Earth’s modern crustal mineralization would
predictably be found primarily in the oceanic basins – a prognosis that is confirmed by the abundance of
multi-metal concretions spread across the present deep sea floor.
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A degassing-driven Earth history leads to an extensive prediction-confirmation chain which ends with the
modern world in which we find the lofty mountain ranges and the ‘mid-oceanic’ ridges as the predominant
‘end’ products of a continuously changing physical world (Storetvedt, 2003) – the ‘peak’ of an evolutionary
process that has progressed in one direction only. In many ways, the new theory of the Earth represents a
novel formulation that changes many of the classical, but unconfirmed, theoretical generalizations. We are
handling the same bundle of observations as before, but, by employing a new physical beginning for the
proto-Earth, a new system of phenomenological interconnections can be established.
Acknowledgments: I am indebted to Frank Cleveland, my enthusiastic technical assistant for nearly 40 years, for his
help with the illustrations.
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137
PUBLICATIONS
Cold Sun
John L. CASEY
[email protected]
Published: May, 2011, 184p., ISBN: 9781426967917. Publisher: Traford Publishing. Perfect Bound
Softcover (B/W) - U$14.50; Dust Jacket Hardcover(B/W) - U$24.50. For book order contact:
www.trafford.com.
N
Ow, in this groundbreaking writing, Mr. John L. Casey, a former White House space program advisor,
space shuttle engineer, and consultant to NASA headquarters and Congress, tells us about his
desperate quest. He is trying to alert the world about the next climate change, one that has potentially life
altering consequences for everyone on the planet. In April 2007, Mr. Casey, independently discovered
important cycles of the Sun that govern our climate. He then became the first researcher in the United States
to accurately predict in advance, some of the most significant events in the history of climate science
followed by a highly public campaign to notify the people, the US government and the media of the dangers
of the next climate change. His predictions included the end of global warming, a long term drop in the
Earth’s temperature, a historic reduction in the Sun’s output - what he has named a “solar hibernation,” and
the start of 30 years of record cold weather producing the world’s worst subsistence crisis in history. He
extended the ill-effects of this hibernation of the Sun in May 2010, with his forecast for record earthquakes
and volcanic eruptions. This is not solely a telling of his amazing discovery but rather a forecast for the
future that all will have to endure in the difficult years ahead. His urgent message: Prepare!
138
Long period tidal force variations and regularities in orbital motion of the
Earth-Moon binary planet system
Yu. N. AVSYUK and L. A. MASLOV
Earth, Moon and Planets, v. 108, no. 1, p. 77-85, 2011. DOI: 10.1007/s11038-011-9381-8Online First™
Abstract : We have studied long period, 206 and 412 day, variations in tidal sea level corresponding to
various moon phases collected from five observatories in the Northern and Southern hemispheres.
Variations in sea level in the Bay of Fundy, on the eastern Canadian seaboard, with periods of variation
206 days, and 412 days, have been discovered and carefully studied by Desplanque and Mossman
(Proceedings of the 4th Bay of Fundy workshop Saint John, New Brunswick 2001, Atlantic Geol., v. 40, no.
1, 2004). The current manuscript focuses on analyzing a larger volume of observational sea level tide data as
well as on rigorous mathematical analysis of tidal force variations in the Sun-Earth-Moon system. We have
developed a twofold model, both conceptual and mathematical, of astronomical cycles in the Sun-EarthMoon system to explain the observed periodicity. Based on an analytical solution of the tidal force variation
in the Sun-Earth-Moon system, it is shown that the tidal force can be decomposed into two components: the
Keplerian component and the Perturbed component. The Perturbed component of the tidal force variation
was calculated, and it was shown that the observed periodicity, 206 and 412 days, of atmospheric and
hydrosphere tides results from variations of the Perturbed component of tidal force. The amplitude of the
Perturbed component of tidal force is 19 × 10−8 N/kg. It is the same order of magnitude as the amplitude of
the Keplerian component of tidal force: 58 × 10−8 N/kg. It follows that the Perturbed component of the
variation of a tidal force must always be taken into consideration along with the Keplerian component in
geodynamical constructions involving tides.
********************
Video: Alternative Geology Documentary - Trailer 1
Alan HAYMAN
[email protected]
T
his documentary (http://www.vimeo.com/25116857) will look at the world of alternative Geology
(involving non-Plate Tectonics concepts), including the lives of the scientists who pursue alternative
ideas and the struggles faced by educators who attempt to incorporate such ideas into the curriculum. It will
also attempt to answer the ultimate question: Can we finally predict earthquakes?
We need your help to get this film made, and there are many ways in which you can do so. To learn more,
visit www.altgeologydoc.blogspot.com
Exciting things are happening right now
We have been fast at work these last few weeks and I'm happy to say things are moving along. We have
completed a trailer, and our Kickstarter project is ready to go. At our Kickstarter project page, you can
receive rewards for donating, such as a free copy of the film when it is completed. These things will be
posted in the next few days, so look for them.
We would like to thank Biju, the coordinator of the Indian conference, for offering to give us quite a
discount for attending the event. We have also been invited to attend a post-conference field trip in the week
following the conference, to study some Precambrian terrain just north of Kanyakumari, where the
conference is taking place. This will be a rare opportunity to accompany scientists of diverse backgrounds
from all over the world.
Also to the various other members of the scientific community who have extended their support to the film,
not the least of which is Dong Choi, Editor-in-Chief of New Concepts in Global Tectonics (which is now a
journal), we thank you. And a big thanks to Karsten Storetvedt for inviting us to visit with him in Norway
139
after the conference.
We have also garnered the support of the famed John Taylor Gatto, whose efforts to investigate and explore
the various problems in the American public school system have been invaluable and, for us, will play a big
role in the education portion of our film.
We have learned more information pertaining to earthquake prediction than we ever could have imagined.
The more we learn, the more important this film appears to get. Two methods have been successful in
predicting earthquakes; one involving 'vapor clouds' and the other 'gravity anomalies. The Global Network
for the Forecasting of Earthquakes (GNFE) was successful in predicting the Sendai earthquake in Japan
using the latter method. Neither of these methods uses Plate Tectonic Theory. And, in the time since the
Sendai earthquake, at least one prominent Japanese Plate Tectonics advocate has gone on record saying that
generally accepted Plate Tectonics model is inapplicable to that earthquake.
Our intuition that this film will be important is becoming evident by the day.
Yet despite all of this good news, the conference is only 3+ months away, and the clock is ticking. I think we
can beat it, but we need your help to do it.
In the meantime, John Sears and I are going to get some interviews here in Tucson. Our first interview was
with Dr. Victor Baker, Regents' Professor and Professor of Geosciences in the Department of Hydrology at
the University of Arizona, and it was a huge success. Though a believer in Plate Tectonics, he nevertheless
has a love for new ideas and believes that the best breakthroughs come from studying, rather than ignoring,
anomalies.
____________________________________________________________________
NEWS
EDPD-2011 INDIAN WORKSHOP
21 to 25 September, 2011
www.transect.in/edpd/
Vivekananda Kedra, Kanyakumaari, Tamil nadu, India
T
he International Conference Earth Dynamics- Perceptions and Deadlock will be organized in September
2011 from 21st (evening) to 24th (night). The arrangements are made at YMCA - International Guest
House, Kanyakumari, India. A Week long geological field excursion will be organized between 25th
September and 30th September, covering some of the major geological occurrences in South India.
The call for the conference has received a good attention that researchers from different countries have
registered and are waiting for visa clearance from Ministry of Home, Government of India.
The abstracts accepted, so far, will be posted (with prior permission) in a secured online blog and will be
open for discussion from 1st of July 2011. Registered participants can use this blog to discuss about the
research work that will be presented in the Conference.
We welcome all participants to the Conference. Kindly inform the organizers about your travel plan, so that
they could track you and facilitate a nice trip and pleasant stay in India.
Prof. Biju Longhinos
Convenor
Transect
[email protected]
Prof. Ismail Bhat
Co-Convenor
NCGT-India
[email protected]
140
IGC34 BRISBANE, AUSTRALIA
5 to 10 August 2012
Conveners: M. Ismail Bhat, Dong R. Choi and Karsten Storetvedt
T
he NCGT session, “Pursuit of a new global geodynamic paradigm”, has been allocated to “Theme
37, Alternative Concepts”.
We will announce proposed program shortly and will be posted in the next NCGT issue, no. 60, September.
Please visit, www.34igc.org, for the second circular and general conference details.
********************
37th COURSE OF THE INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL OF GEOPHYSICS:
''THE EARTH EXPANSION EVIDENCE''
A Challenge for Geology, Geophysics and Astronomy
Erice, Sicily, Italy. 4-9 October, 2011
'Ettore Majorana' Foundation and Centre for Scientific Culture.
T
he workshop program is developing successfully. Some important new entries come from Physics and
these can suitably be linked to clues derived from Paleogeography, Paleontology, Life Evolution,
Climatology, ... etc.
It is perhaps of particular significance that these progresses in Physics, towards a material physical space,
will be presented at the Ettore Majorana Centre, considering that the uncle and mentor of Ettore Majorana
was Quirino Majorana, a physicist who performed several experiments with a view to revealing the material
essence of gravity.
A group of non-expansionist researchers in the fields of Geodesy, Oceanography and Seismology, have
accepted our invitation to deliver lectures to our community to clarify the limits and show up the new ways
that expansionists should consider while building their new interpretations. The Poster session is going to be
full of high quality presentations and also of papers by outstanding scientists 'in absentia', who will not be
able to come to Erice.
Enthusiasm is going up and we will make our best to transform the Workshop in a forum for sharing ideas
and for promoting the convergence of aims, but also -- given that we are the so-called 'heretics' in
Geosciences -- in the birthplace of new and original ideas, possibly destined to become the accepted
paradigms in the future.
You will find all the information, on the web page of INGV (http://www.ingv.it/eng/) in the section
'Conferences and seminars'.
Stefan CWOJDZIŃSKI
([email protected])
Giancarlo I SCALERA
([email protected])
141
OBITUARY
CLAUDE BLOT
1924 - 2011
Claude Blot in 1983 in his office at home following his retirement
C
laude Blot was born in Vietnam on 3 April 1924 and arrived in France in 1938 to continue his studies.
In 1942, during the difficult period of the Second World War, he began his university studies in
Marseille, at the Faculty of Sciences, where he majored in mathematics and mechanics.
In Paris in 1948, he specialised in meteorology at the French National Weather Bureau, and then began his
real career in 1949 at the Institute of Geophysics (I.P.G). As geophysicist, his first research, in 1950, took
him to Lomé, Togo in Africa. This marked the beginning of a long career outside mainland France on behalf
of the Office for Overseas Scientific and Technical Research (O.R.S.T.O.M) now known as the I.R.D,
French Institute of Research for Development.
It was in the Pacific from 1957 to 1965 that Claude Blot found his true calling as researcher in volcanology
by working in seismology. Nothing had yet been done in this area and no facilities existed at the time. So he
took charge of creating the first surveillance systems for Pacific island volcanoes.
In Noumea, he created the Seismological Observatory for the Global Seismological Network. He continued
his work in Tahiti by creating a permanent Geophysics Observatory, and then in Vanuatu (formerly New
Hebrides) by setting up, operating and using a network of seismic stations in Port-Vila, Luganville (Espiritu
Santo Island), and Lamap (Malakula Island). He then continued with the volcanoes of Sicily where he
created, together with the University of Catania (1966-1969) the first observatory on the island of Lipari,
thereby making it possible to monitor all the volcanoes in the arc, which includes Vulcano, Stromboli,
Vesuvius and Etna.
By creating these modern observation stations, he provided an undeniable new energy to volcanology, which
up to then had mainly remained a science of field observations, which explains why it evolved much more
slowly than other disciplines since it is difficult to conduct on-site study of active volcanoes, which are
generally inaccessible. As geologists-volcanologists and geophysicists-seismologists used different
techniques, volcano-related events and seismic events were kept apart. Often researchers noted their
142
coexistence in fracture zones and orogenic belts while persistently denying any correlation between
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions because these natural two disasters do not occur at the same time.
Claude Blot worked hard to prove that in these vast island arc regions, volcanic eruptions are closely related
to seismic events. And it was by widening the scope of his skills to the disciplines mentioned above and by
shaking established certainties that he carried out his work and published a synopsis of his work, in 1976, in
his dissertation for his Doctor of Science degree entitled “Volcanisme et sismicité dans les arcs insulaires...
Prévision de ces phénomènes” (Volcanic and seismic activity in island arcs: Predicting such phenomena), in
which he established the well-known energy transmigration (ET) concept.
After duty travel to New Zealand, he retired in 1979 on personal grounds but continued his research work
via the internet, which allowed him to pursue his passion by publishing papers in collaboration with certain
major research laboratories and individuals. He did so up until the time ill health forced him to stop, a few
months before his death at the age of 87 on 12 June 2011 at his home at La Farlede in the Var, South of
France leaving five children and numerous grandchildren. His wife Hélène, his faithful supporter during his
life, died in 2007.
Jean-Pierre Blot, Toulon, France
(Original text – French)
_______________________________________________________________________________________
CORRIGENDUM
I
n the Bhat, Smoot and Choi discussion paper in the last NCGT issue, no. 58, 2011 (p. 50-63) had an error
in the last two paragraphs of the text above Figure 10 (page 62). They should read as follows (corrected
version uploaded on the NCGT website on 14 April 2011):
A problem exists because expansion apparently does not occur in continental crust. At this latitude the only oceanic
crust available for expansion is the Pacific. The Indian Ocean does not exist at this latitude, the northern limit being
about 25oN. The East Pacific Rise stops at about 22oN with only the Juan de Fuca Ridge, a relatively minuscule
center, to the north of that. Therefore, for the expansion idea to work, the Pacific Basin must be growing by some
other means.
One has to ask: “how did the earlier, in fact, all of the expansionists come up with that growth size in the first
place?” Someone please take the time to give us a reasonable explanation based on some kind of scientific factsplease.
143
FINANCIAL SUPPORT
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ollowing suggestions from many readers, NCGT Newsletter has become an open journal. Now anyone can access
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6 Mann Place, Higgins, ACT 2615, Australia.
Bank account details for those who send money through a bank:
Name of bank: Commonwealth Bank (Swift Code: CTBAAU2S), Belconnen Mall ACT Branch (BSB 06 2913).
Account no. 06 2913 10524718.
Name of account holder: New Concepts in Global Tectonics.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
ABOUT THE NCGT NEWSLETTER
This newsletter was initiated on the basis of discussion at the symposium “Alternative Theories to Plate Tectonics” held
at the 30th International Geological Congress in Beijing in August 1996. The name is taken from an earlier symposium
held in association with 28th International Geological Congress in Washington, D. C. in 1989.
Aims include:
1. Forming an organizational focus for creative ideas not fitting readily within the scope of Plate Tectonics.
2. Forming the basis for the reproduction and publication of such work, especially where there has been censorship or
discrimination.
3. Forum for discussion of such ideas and work which has been inhibited in existing channels. This should cover a very
wide scope from such aspects as the effect of the rotation of the earth and planetary and galactic effects, major theories
of development of the Earth, lineaments, interpretation of earthquake data, major times of tectonic and biological
change, and so on.
4. Organization of symposia, meetings and conferences.
5. Tabulation and support in case of censorship, discrimination or victimization.
144
Climate-Stat
http://www.climatestat.com
Geophysical Forecasting and Modeling with G-MagTeleDyn
Climate Stat develops gravity/magnetic teleconnection dynamics climate models to account for short-term
(hourly to monthly and seasonal) and long-term (decadal and inter-decadal) geophysical variations affecting
electromagnetic, gravitational, and thermal coupling parameters to atmospheric forcing.
Weather Information Technology:
Preliminary research suggests a moderate likelihood that significant improvements to hurricane and weather
prediction models can be made. Geophysical modeling outputs are tested in historical atmospheric
circulation models to improve conventional models.
Products:
~Geoids & Magnetic Field Modeling
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Customized Visualization and Information Stream Packages: By subscrition to related institutions.
Left figure: Full Blown El Nino Feb. 1998 Sea Surface Temperature Signal.
Right figure: The Y structure in the Sea Surface Temperature Anomaly above as reflected in the sea floor
ridge geomorphology below.
Bruce Leybourne - CEO / Geophysicist
[email protected]

Issue 59 - New Concepts in Global Tectonics

Transcription

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