play songs and lullabies: features of emotional communication and

Transcription

PLAY SONGS AND LULLABIES: FEATURES OF
EMOTIONAL COMMUNICATION AND
DEVELOPING MOTHER -INFANT ATTACHMENT .
Alison Liew Creighton, BMus(MusEd), MCMT, GCRS, RMT
Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
University of Western Sydney
2014
Acknowledgements
I am very thankful to those who contributed to the development and
completion of the thesis. I am especially appreciative of my supervisors Emeritus
Professor Michael Atherton and Dr. Christine Kitamura. They provided me space to
think and explore in my own way; strategies to seek answers and perspective;
guidance and direction during uncertainty; examples of fortitude, resilience and
grace; reassurance of my potentials; and support and love throughout the entire
journey.
I am thankful to Veronica Rivera for her blind coding and Professor Zeynep
Biringen for her training and supervision of the Emotional Availability Scales.
I am thankful to the BabyLab team for their support; friendly welcome;
lunch-time discussions, heart to hearts and overall lovingness. I am also grateful to
my fellow students at the MARCS institute for the chats, breaks, laughs and stories.
I am thankful to Bonny Cotter, Dr. Alan Lem, Robin Howat and the Golden
Stave Music Therapy team for their early contributions, encouragement and support
of my research.
I am thankful for my friends and family who helped to support, motivate and
encourage me along the way. Mum and Dad, despite your pain I know you are
always there for me. Neil and Di, your interest and support are appreciated. Kirstin
and Jamaella, we share the highs and lows of research and life. Together we can
achieve! Charmaine, thank you for listening to every detail of my progress. My dear
husband, Ben, I am beyond thankful for your support, especially amongst the
sacrifice, grief, stress, distress, worries, frustration, celebrations and joy that the last
few years have brought us. In God's grace we endure and find hope.
Lastly, I am very thankful to the dedicated women who generously
participated in the study. I thank them for welcoming me into their world and for
their time and honesty. You are all 'supermums' in my eyes.
i
Statement of Authentication
The work presented in this thesis is, to the best of my knowledge and belief, original
except as acknowledged in the text. I hereby declare that I have not submitted this
material, either in full or in part, for a degree at this or any other institution.
................................................................
(signature)
ii
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... i
Statement of Authentication ...................................................................................................... ii
Table of Contents ..................................................................................................................... iii
List of Tables........................................................................................................................... xii
List of Figures ....................................................................................................................... xvii
Abstract ................................................................................................................................ xviii
Publications arising from this work ....................................................................................... xxi
Journal publications............................................................................................. xxi
Conference presentations .................................................................................... xxi
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................1
Personal Reflection ...........................................................................................................1
Research Purpose ..............................................................................................................3
Design Overview ..............................................................................................................5
Chapter Outline.................................................................................................................9
CHAPTER 2 – BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY ...............................................................11
Emotional Communication and attachment ...................................................................12
Mother-Infant Attachment.....................................................................................12
Mother-Infant Emotional Communication ............................................................16
The Musicality of Emotional Communication ...............................................................23
The Musical Nature of Infants ..............................................................................24
The Musical and Communicative Nature of Infant-Directed Speech ...................25
Play songs and Lullabies as Emotional Communication ......................................29
Mother-Infant Singing as Intervention ..................................................................39
iii
Summary ...............................................................................................................45
Research aims .................................................................................................................46
CHAPTER 3 – METHODOLOGY .........................................................................................48
Participants .....................................................................................................................49
Materials .........................................................................................................................51
Music materials .....................................................................................................51
Emotional Availability Scales ...............................................................................52
Procedure ........................................................................................................................62
Groups ...................................................................................................................62
Video recording .....................................................................................................65
Interview with mother ...........................................................................................68
Qualitative interview analysis ...............................................................................69
Emotional Availability analysis ............................................................................71
Transcriptional Music Analysis ............................................................................72
Convergence and interpretation ............................................................................73
Methodological considerations .......................................................................................74
Bias ........................................................................................................................74
Epoché ...................................................................................................................74
Summary .........................................................................................................................75
CHAPTER 4 – INDIVIDUAL EXPERIENCE OF SINGING INTERACTION ....................77
Alice & Cindy .................................................................................................................78
Ratings of Emotional Availability.........................................................................78
Interview Findings.................................................................................................79
iv
Conclusion.............................................................................................................82
Kelly & Lucas .................................................................................................................83
Conclusion.............................................................................................................88
Beth & Rita .....................................................................................................................88
Conclusion.............................................................................................................92
Jane & Juliet ...................................................................................................................93
Conclusion.............................................................................................................97
Tammy & Wendy ...........................................................................................................98
Conclusion...........................................................................................................102
Skye & Marley..............................................................................................................103
Ratings of Emotional Availability.......................................................................103
Interview Findings...............................................................................................104
Conclusion...........................................................................................................107
Kay & Adeline ..............................................................................................................108
v
Conclusion...........................................................................................................111
Trudy & Kayla ..............................................................................................................112
Conclusion...........................................................................................................116
Sasha & Shari ...............................................................................................................117
Conclusion...........................................................................................................122
Holly & Ophelia ...........................................................................................................123
Conclusion...........................................................................................................128
Tullia & Mark ...............................................................................................................129
Conclusion...........................................................................................................133
Karen & Colin ..............................................................................................................134
Conclusion...........................................................................................................138
Chapter summary ..........................................................................................................139
vi
CHAPTER 5 - INDIVIDUAL EXPERIENCE OF NON-SINGING INTERACTION.........141
Julia & Luke .................................................................................................................142
Conclusion...........................................................................................................145
Simone & Sasha............................................................................................................146
Conclusion...........................................................................................................150
Macy & Sandra .............................................................................................................150
Findings of Emotional Availability .....................................................................150
Conclusion...........................................................................................................154
Yasmin & Otto..............................................................................................................155
Conclusion...........................................................................................................158
Tegan & Levi ................................................................................................................159
Conclusion...........................................................................................................163
Maxine & Cara .............................................................................................................164
vii
Conclusion...........................................................................................................168
Rayna & Ellie ...............................................................................................................169
Conclusion...........................................................................................................176
Marian & Owen ............................................................................................................177
Conclusion...........................................................................................................181
May & Jacinta ...............................................................................................................182
Conclusion...........................................................................................................186
Diana and Edmund .......................................................................................................187
Conclusion...........................................................................................................191
Jodie and Tilly ..............................................................................................................192
Conclusion...........................................................................................................196
Chapter summary ..........................................................................................................197
viii
CHAPTER 6 - GROUP EXPERIENCE OF SINGING AND NON-SINGING
INTERACTION .....................................................................................................................198
Emotional Availability Ratings ....................................................................................199
Interview Findings - Singing Condition .......................................................................201
Composite Themes ..............................................................................................202
Final global description of the sample’s experience of singing songs with
their infant ...........................................................................................................203
Interview Findings - Non-singing Condition................................................................211
Composite Themes ..............................................................................................211
Final global description of the sample’s experience of interacting with
their infant (non-singing) ....................................................................................212
Interview Findings – Group Comparison .....................................................................215
Commonalities ....................................................................................................215
Differences ..........................................................................................................219
Discussion ...........................................................................................................223
Conclusion...........................................................................................................231
Chapter Summary .........................................................................................................233
CHAPTER 7 –MUSICAL AND BEHAVIOURAL FEATURES OF SINGING
INTERACTIONS ...................................................................................................................234
Section 1 - Transcriptional Music Analysis..................................................................235
Alice and Cindy...................................................................................................236
Skye and Marley..................................................................................................248
Beth and Rita .......................................................................................................262
Holly and Ophelia ...............................................................................................272
ix
Jane and Juliet .....................................................................................................284
Tullia and Mark ...................................................................................................297
Discussion ...........................................................................................................310
Section 2 - Deriving the Musical Principles .................................................................321
Parental Sensitivity ..............................................................................................321
Parental Structuring .............................................................................................324
Parental Non-intrusiveness ..................................................................................326
Parental Non-hostility .........................................................................................328
Child Responsiveness ..........................................................................................329
Child Involvement ...............................................................................................331
Discussion ...........................................................................................................332
Conclusion...........................................................................................................343
Chapter Summary .........................................................................................................344
CHAPTER 8 – CONVERGENT DISCUSSION ...................................................................345
Research purpose revisted ............................................................................................345
Summary of findings ....................................................................................................346
Main findings of the mother's subjective experience of using play songs
and lullabies.........................................................................................................347
Main findings of the quality of interaction during the use of play songs
and lullabies.........................................................................................................348
Main findings of the behavioural and musical features of optimal and
less-optimal singing interactions .........................................................................349
Converging the findings ...............................................................................................350
x
A Convergent Interpretation................................................................................352
The Implications for Theory ...............................................................................353
The Implications to Music Therapy Research.....................................................356
The Implications to Music Therapy Practice ......................................................357
Future directions ...........................................................................................................358
Limitations ....................................................................................................................361
Methodological challenges ...........................................................................................363
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................367
References ..............................................................................................................................370
Appendices ........................................................................................................ see attached disc
xi
List of Tables
Table 1: Summary of the abridged version of the Emotional Availability Scales, 4th Edition (Biringen,
2008b). .................................................................................................................................... 61
Table 2: Summary of Alice and Cindy’s Emotional Availability scores. ........................................... 79
Table 3: Alice’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs ................................................................................................................................ 80
Table 4: Summary of Kelly and Lucas’s Emotional Availability scores. ........................................... 84
Table 5: Kelly’s meaning units are they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs ................................................................................................................................ 85
Table 6: Summary of Beth and Rita’s Emotional Availability scores. ............................................... 89
Table 7: Summary of Beth’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998)
attachment constructs .............................................................................................................. 90
Table 8: Summary of Jane and Juliet’s Emotional Availability scores. .............................................. 94
Table 9: Jane’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment constructs
................................................................................................................................................ 94
Table 10: Summary of Tammy and Wendy’s Emotional Availability scores. .................................... 99
Table 11: Tammy’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs .............................................................................................................................. 100
Table 12: Summary of Skye and Marley’s Emotional Availability scores. ...................................... 104
Table 13: Skye’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs .............................................................................................................................. 105
Table 14: Summary of Kay and Adeline’s Emotional Availability scores........................................ 109
Table 15: Kay’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs .............................................................................................................................. 109
Table 16: Summary of Trudy and Kayla’s Emotional Availability scores. ....................................... 113
Table 17: Trudy’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs .............................................................................................................................. 114
Table 18: Summary of Sasha and Shari’s Emotional Availability scores. ........................................ 118
xii
Table 19: Sasha’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs .............................................................................................................................. 118
Table 20: Summary of Holly and Ophelia’s Emotional Availability scores. .................................... 124
Table 21: Holly’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs .............................................................................................................................. 125
Table 22: Summary of Tullia and Mark’s Emotional Availability scores. ........................................ 130
Table 23: Tullia’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs .............................................................................................................................. 131
Table 24:- Summary of Karen and Colin’s Emotional Availability scores. ...................................... 135
Table 25: Karen’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs .............................................................................................................................. 136
Table 26: Summary of Julia and Luke’s Emotional Availability scores ........................................... 143
Table 27: Julia’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs .............................................................................................................................. 143
Table 28: Summary of Simone and Sasha’s Emotional Availability scores ..................................... 147
Table 29: Simone’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs .............................................................................................................................. 148
Table 30: Summary of Macy and Sandra’s Emotional Availability scores ....................................... 151
Table 31: Macy’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs .............................................................................................................................. 152
Table 32: Summary of Yasmin and Otto’s Emotional Availability scores. ...................................... 156
Table 33: Yasmin’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs .............................................................................................................................. 156
Table 34: Summary of Tegan and Levi’s Emotional Availability scores. ........................................ 160
Table 35: Tegan’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs .............................................................................................................................. 161
Table 36: Summary of Maxine and Cara’s Emotional Availability scores. ...................................... 165
Table 37: Maxine’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs .............................................................................................................................. 166
Table 38: Summary of Rayna and Ellie’s Emotional Availability scores. ........................................ 170
xiii
Table 39: Rayna’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs .............................................................................................................................. 171
Table 40: Summary of Marian and Owen’s Emotional Availability scores. ..................................... 178
Table 41: Marian’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs .............................................................................................................................. 179
Table 42: Summary of May and Jacinta’s Emotional Availability scores ........................................ 183
Table 43: May’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs .............................................................................................................................. 184
Table 44: Summary of Diana and Edmund’s Emotional Availability scores. ................................... 188
Table 45: Diana’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs .............................................................................................................................. 188
Table 46: Summary of Jodie and Tilly’s Emotional Availability scores .......................................... 193
Table 47: Jodie’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs .............................................................................................................................. 193
Table 48: Mean score of each sample group and summary of t-test results. ..................................... 199
Table 49: Singing condition's composite themes as they relate to Condon & Corkindale's (1998)
attachment constructs ............................................................................................................ 202
Table 50: Non-singing condition's composite themes as they relate to Condon & Corkindale's (1998)
attachment constructs ............................................................................................................ 211
Table 51: Summary of Alice and Cindy's behavioural and musical features as they relate to
dimensions of Emotional Availability .................................................................................... 237
Table 52: Summary of Skye and Marley's behavioural and musical features as they relate to
Table 53: Summary of Beth and Rita's behavioural and musical features as they relate to dimensions
of Emotional Availability ...................................................................................................... 263
Table 54: Summary of Holly and Ophelia's behavioural and musical features as they relate to
Table 55: Summary of Jane and Juliet's behavioural and musical features as they relate to dimensions
of Emotional Availability ...................................................................................................... 285
xiv
Table 56: Summary of Tullia and Mark's behavioural and musical features as they relate to
Table 57: Summary of the occurrences of pitch contour associated with increasing arousal in play
songs ..................................................................................................................................... 312
Table 58: Summary of the occurrences of pitch contour associated with decreasing arousal in lullabies
.............................................................................................................................................. 312
Table 59 - Common musical characteristics of the analysed play songs and lullabies ...................... 314
Table 60: Summary of the behavioural and musical features of optimal and less-optimal Sensitivity
during singing interaction. ..................................................................................................... 322
Table 61: Summary of inherent and implemented musical principles of optimal and less optimal
Sensitivity during singing interaction. .................................................................................... 323
Table 62: Summary of the behavioural and musical features of optimal and less-optimal Structuring
Structuring during singing interaction. ................................................................................... 325
Table 64: Summary of the behavioural and musical features of optimal and less-optimal Nonintrusiveness during singing interaction. ................................................................................ 327
Table 65: Summary of the inherent and implemented principles of optimal and less optimal NonIntrusiveness during singing interaction. ................................................................................ 327
Table 66: Summary of the behavioural and musical features of optimal and less-optimal Non-hostility
Table 67: Summary of the inherent and implemented principles of optimal and less optimal Nonhostility during singing interaction. ....................................................................................... 329
Table 68: Summary of the behavioural and musical features of optimal and less-optimal Child
Responsiveness during singing interaction. ............................................................................ 330
Table 69: Summary of the inherent and implemented principles of optimal and less optimal Child
Responsiveness during singing interaction. ............................................................................ 330
Involvement during singing interaction. ................................................................................. 331
xv
Involvement during singing interaction. ................................................................................. 332
xvi
List of Figures
Figure 1 – The factors contributing to the mixed methods design, adapted from Hesse-Biber, S. N.
(2010). Mixed methods research. New York: Guildford Press ................................................... 8
Figure 2 – Diagram outlining the research process. ........................................................................... 65
Figure 3 – Diagram of the BabyLab recording room showing the position of the mother, infant and
cameras ................................................................................................................................... 67
Figure 4 – Image of the 4-way camera capture of the BabyLab recording room. ............................... 67
Figure 5 - Comparison of the Emotional Availability results (means and standard deviations) for the
singing and non-singing condition. ........................................................................................ 200
Figure 6 - Diagram outlining the interconnections between the pleasure in proximity, need
gratification and tolerance/acceptance constructs experienced by mothers during singing
interactions. ........................................................................................................................... 206
Figure 7 - Diagram outlining additional interconnections between the need gratification and
tolerance/acceptance constructs experienced by mothers during singing interactions. ............ 207
Figure 8 - Diagram outlining the full idealistic ‘flow of influence’ experienced by the mothers during
singing interactions................................................................................................................ 210
Figure 9 - Diagram outlining the interconnections between the pleasure in proximity, need
gratification and knowledge acquisition constructs experienced by the mothers during nonsinging interactions................................................................................................................ 214
Figure 10 – Diagram illustrating the hypothetical emotional connectedness feedback loop of the
mothers' experience of singing. .............................................................................................. 230
Figure 11 - The contour form and function in infant-directed speech according to Papoušek (1996),
presented by Falk (2011) ....................................................................................................... 311
Figure 12 - Diagram outlining the convergence of findings in relation to the main research question
.............................................................................................................................................. 352
xvii
Abstract
The aim of this thesis was to increase understanding of how singing play
songs and lullabies facilitate emotional communication and contribute to motherinfant attachment. The study employed a mixed methods design to examine
subjective, behavioural and musical facets of live singing interaction between
mothers and their 5-9 month old infants.
Twenty-three typical mothers participated in the study, twelve in a singing
condition and eleven in a non-singing control condition. Mothers in the singing
condition were videoed singing songs with their infant in a dedicated recording room
and then interviewed about their experience of singing interactions. Mothers in the
non-singing condition were videoed interacting without singing that is, speaking to
their infant and playing with toys. These mothers were also interviewed about their
experience of non-singing play interactions. Three analyses were conducted. Firstly,
individual and group themes were derived from the interview transcripts and
compared to Condon & Corkindale's (1998) four maternal constructs of attachment,
including: (1) pleasure in proximity, (2) tolerance/acceptance, (3) need gratification
and protection, and (4) knowledge acquisition. The group themes for the experience
of singing were also compared to group themes of the experience of non-singing play
interactions. Secondly, video footage of mother-infant interaction was used to rate
the quality on interaction according to Emotional Availability Scales (Biringen,
2008b). Also, the scales ratings for singing interactions were compared to the ratings
for non-singing play interaction. Lastly, excerpts of singing interaction from a subset
of singing mothers were transcribed from the video footage and the music analysed
xviii
to explore how mothers facilitate optimal and less-optimal song-based emotional
communication.
Interview findings revealed that the mothers' experience of singing and nonsinging interaction facilitated various positive emotional and mental states related to
three of the four maternal constructs of attachment. However, singing and nonsinging groups’ experience was related to different sets of constructs. The experience
of singing was related to pleasure in proximity, need-gratification and
tolerance/acceptance whereas the experience of non-singing interaction was related
to pleasure in proximity, need-gratification and knowledge acquisition. This indicates
that the experience of singing and non-singing interactions provided unique
contributions to mother-infant attachment.
On the Emotional Availability Scales, both singing and non-interactions were
rated similarly, except for the scale of Non-Intrusiveness where mothers in the
singing group were rated slightly lower than the non-singing group. These findings
illustrate that the simple act of singing does not automatically equate to optimal
interaction. The third analysis of the musical features revealed that underlying the
singing interactions were particular musical principles that facilitate optimal and
less-optimal dimensions of emotional availability. These principles were both
inherent to the musical composition and behaviourally implemented by the mother.
Importantly, it was the mothers' responsive manipulation of musical elements that
primarily facilitated emotional availability. In other words, it was the way in which
mothers sang in response to the context that facilitated optimal or less-optimal
singing interaction.
This study contributes to knowledge by conceptualising and explicating the
inner processes involved with facilitating emotional communication and how this
xix
impacts on maternal attachment constructs. The findings enhance understanding and
further support and clarify the use of singing as a potential therapeutic tool for
attachment intervention in the first year of life.
xx
Publications arising from this work
Journal publications
Creighton, A; Atherton, M. & Kitamura, C. (2013) Singing play songs and lullabies:
Investigating the subjective contributions to maternal attachment
constructs. Australian Journal of Music Therapy
Creighton,
A.
(2011).
Mother-infant
musical
interaction
and
emotional
communication: A literature review, Australian Journal of Music
Therapy, 22, 37–59.
Conference presentations
Creighton, A., Atherton, M. & Kitamura, C. (2012, September). How does singing
songs contribute to the mother-infant relationship? Paper presented at
the 39th National Australian Music Therapy Conference, Sydney,
Australia
Creighton, A., Atherton, M. & Kitamura, C. (2012). Play songs and lullabies:
Features of emotional communication and developing mother-infant
attachment. In Cambouropoulos, E., Tsougras, C., Mavromatis P
Pastiadis, K. (eds), Proceedings of the 12th International Conference
on Music Perception and Cognition, and 8th Triennial Conference of
the European Society for the Cognitions Sciences of Music,
Thessaloniki, Greece, p. 230.
xxi
Creighton, A., Atherton, M. & Kitamura, C. (2011, October). Why use a mixed
methods approach? A rationale behind my study. Paper presented at
Arts & Health Foundation conference, Camperdown, Sydney
Creighton, A., (2010, September). Music and mother-infant attachment. In K.
Stevenson, Music Therapy: Directions in Music Therapy and music
and wellbeing research and training at University of Western Sydney.
Symposium conducted at the UWS Mental Health Wellbeing
conference (Annual The MHS conference), Darling Harbour, Sydney.
Creighton, A., (2010, September) Musical interaction and mother-infant attachment.
Paper presented at the 37th National Australia Music Therapy
Conference, Melbourne, Australia
xxii
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
"It's not so much I'm giving her her only opportunity to be happy by singing, it's
more like I get to be a part of that happiness (...) 1 it [singing] makes me feel like ...2
it's about the connection ... it makes me feel more like she's mine than just a baby I'm
taking caring of"
Tammy, first time mother, interview conducted on 13th September, 2011
PERSONAL REFLECTION
For the past ten years new parents and growing families have surrounded me.
Most of my friends and family have started a family and I have had the privilege of
observing and sharing in their experiences of parenthood. When I talk to these
parents, discussions often focus on the health of the children, parenting concerns,
current struggles, parenting strategies, heart-warming moments and hilarious
parenting stories. What is particularly apparent is that parents often feel they should
intuitively know how to raise a child. Yet, on a rational level, they realise the
pressure to be instinctively all knowing is unrealistic and absurd. It is also apparent
that all parents are in need of guidance and support. Parents frequently talk about
helpful advice and tips provided by health professionals, other parents and parenting
resources. Every parent I know has communicated relief, thankfulness and
appreciation for any help and support that has been received. For any individual,
1
2
(...) denotes missing text
... denotes a pause
1
parenthood is a new transition full of challenges and I truly believe all parents are
deserving of support.
The intimacy of mother-child relationships has always interested me. When I
am holding a newborn baby, rocking him gently in my arms, humming and/or
singing to him, time seems to stand still. I experience a sense of calm and
contentment. Although the baby is not my own I feel an intense feeling of love and
affection whilst being engrossed in our moment of intimacy. If the baby were my
own, how much more intensity and affection would I feel? What actually would it
feel like to be 'mum'? Many assure me, that there is simply nothing like a mother's
love for her child and experiencing the unique mother-child relationship.
My interest in mother-child relationships grew exponentially during my
music therapy studies. As I progressed through student placements I came to realise I
felt 'at home' in early intervention and most enjoyed making music with families with
young children. I began to read about the importance of parent-child relationships for
early childhood learning and development. I also found myself wanting to learn more
about how to develop positive and healthy mother-child relationships and the role
music could play in this relationship.
It is perhaps not surprising then, that I have spent a lot of time observing
mother-child interactions and dynamics. I have a clear memory a little 18-month girl
happily mounting her rocking horse. Before she starts to rock she bounces up and
down and looks at her mother with excitement and expectation. Her mother says,
"She loves this" then begins to sing, "This is the way the ladies ride ..." The little girl
rocks back and forth on her horse as her mother sings with a wide smile on her face.
Love emanates from mother and daughter as they lock eyes and beam with delight.
2
As I think of my past music therapy sessions I am flooded with other
memories: a mother beaming with delight and pride as her toddler counts "one, two"
for the first time; mothers cuddling their infant, smiling and swaying as they sing a
favourite song and most of all, mothers and children simply enjoying fun quality
time together. I always feel I have done my job when mothers are able to put away
their schedules, relax, join in the fun and simply take joy in their child.
All of my observations and experiences from the past ten years have
strengthened my belief that there is something positive and distinctly special about
mother and child connecting through music. I believe that musical interaction may
create an intimacy and positively shared experience that can strengthen the parentchild bond and every parent and child is deserving of such experience. Yet, part of
me feels too 'unknowledgeable' and inexperienced to establish my own program
dedicated to strengthening early mother-infant relationships through music. Thus, my
beliefs, experiences, fascinations and desire for more understanding influenced my
pursuit of research with the goal of establishing new programs that promote positive
parent-child musical interaction and strengthen parent-child relationships for many
years to come.
RESEARCH PURPOSE
The aim of this study is to increase an understanding of how singing play
songs and lullabies facilitate mother-infant emotional communication within the
broader context of bonding and attachment. The study employs a mixed methods
design to examine subjective, behavioural and musical facets of live singing
interaction between mothers and their 5-9 month old infants.
3
Emotional communication involves the sharing and modulating of emotional
states and is a key contributor to attachment and an infant’s future social, emotional
and cognitive development (e.g., see Gardner & Goldson, 2002; Lenz & von Moreau,
2004; Pip-Siegel, Brown, Easterbrooks, & Harmon, 1995; Raikes & Thompson,
2008; Siegel, 2001; Steele, Steele, & Croft, 2008; Weinfield, Sroufe, Egeland, &
Carlson, 2008).
Previous research has established that mothers and infants engage in
emotionally communicative vocal interactions, which arouse, sustain or reduce infant
attention (Ainsworth, 1963; Aitken & Trevarthen, 2001; de l'Etoile, 2006b;
Dissanayake, 2000; Malloch & Trevarthen, 2009; Nadel, Carchon, Kervella,
Marcelli, & Réserbat-Plantey, 1999; H. Papoušek, 1996; Trevarthen & Malloch,
2000). Play songs and lullabies are structured songs that are ‘musically analogous’ to
emotional vocal interactions; play songs arouse and engage the infant whereas
lullabies soothe and relax (Bargiel, 2012; Trainor, 1996; Trehub, Hill, &
Kamenetsky, 1997; Trehub & Schellenberg, 1995).
Research demonstrates that both play songs and lullabies are effective,
positive and enjoyable forms of emotional communication (Baker & Mackinlay,
2006; de l'Etoile, 2006b; Vlismas, 2007; Vlismas, Malloch, & Burnham, 2012).
However, there is limited understanding of how these songs facilitate emotional
communication and in what ways the experience of singing contributes to
attachment. Furthermore, few studies examine singing or song-based interactions
specifically in the first year of an infant's life (Longhi, 2009; Vlismas, 2007;
Vlismas, et al., 2012). Further research is required to gain deeper insight into the
intrinsic characteristics and therapeutic value of singing to enable music therapists to
4
better intervene and strengthen mother-infant relationships in the first year of life
(Edwards, 2011a; 2011b; Longhi, 2009).
Thus, the aim of this study is to investigate holistically, multiple facets of
song-based mother-infant emotional communication. The main research question is
"how do play songs and lullabies facilitate emotional communication and contribute
to the mother-infant relationship?" Answering this question involves exploring the
live use of play songs and lullabies in relation to maternal attachment constructs
(Condon & Corkindale, 1998) and emotional availability (Biringen, 2000, 2008a,
2008b). More specifically, the study aims investigate: (1) the mother’s subjective
experiences of using play songs and lullabies with her infant. This will be examined
by the use of a qualitative interview analysis, (2) the quality of mother-infant singing
interactions using play songs and lullabies. This will be measured by Biringen's
(2008b) Emotional Availability Scales, and (3) the musical and behavioural features
of optimal and less-optimal singing interactions. These features will be explored by
transcribing excerpts, and analysing the musical features of mother-infant singing
interactions.
It is hoped that the findings of the study expand current understanding of how
play songs and lullabies facilitate emotional communication and positively contribute
to attachment and thus inform the development and improvement and relationshipfocussed music therapy early interventions for mothers with you infants.
DESIGN OVERVIEW
Multiple facets of song-based mother-infant emotional communication are
examined to expand current understanding and inform the development of
5
relationship-focussed music therapy early interventions. The motivation to contribute
to the music therapy field and the author's 'therapeutic lens', shaped the research
question, design and interpretation of findings.
The study employs a mixed methods convergent parallel design, also known
as a triangulation design (Creswell, 2009; Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011; HesseBiber, 2010) within a framework that includes both an experimental and control
condition. This design is described throughout the thesis as a convergent parallel
mixed methods design and involves the collection of different but complementary
data within the same study. The combination of qualitative and quantitative data
provides a more comprehensive means of collecting detailed evidence and providing
insight into the research question/s than either approach alone (Boulton-Lewis &
Wilss, 2007; Creswell, 2009; Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011). Also, by comparing
singing and non-singing interaction in the experimental and control conditions the
researcher can determine features of emotional communication unique to the live use
of play songs and lullabies. The analyses involved in the study include:
1. Qualitative analysis of interviews of mothers regarding their experience of
singing or non-singing play interaction, which are related to the attachment
constructs of Condon & Corkindale (1998). More specifically, a
phenomenologically inspired process of analysis was employed to determine
themes and summaries of each participant’s experience of singing or nonsinging interaction, as well as each sample group as a whole. The themes
were then compared to the attachment constructs of Condon & Corkindale
(1998)
2. Quantitative analysis of the quality of dyadic interaction using the Emotional
Availability Scales (Biringen, 2008b; Condon, 2010) These numerical scales
6
comprise of four parental and two child dimensions of interaction. Both
mother and infant were rated and the scores of each dimension were
summarised as optimal, high, mid or low emotional availability.
3. Qualitative analysis of the musical features of a subset of mother-infant
singing interaction in relation to the scales of Emotional Availability
(Biringen, 2008b; Condon, 2010). Essentially, a structural musical analysis
was conducted and the data organised and discussed according to the
Emotional Availability framework.
Mixed methods designs are driven by research question/s derived from
research evidence, gaps in knowledge and paradigmatic stance (Hesse-Biber, 2010).
In this case, the review of literature provides support for the use of play songs and
lullabies but also identified gaps in our understanding of this phenomenon,
particularly in
regard
to
how
infant-directed
songs
facilitate
emotional
communication and contribute to attachment. Additionally, the literature illustrates
the complexity and subjective nature of mother-infant singing interactions. For
example, it is context-based, multi-modal. Also, mothers manipulate their vocal
deliverance of singing to distinguish between play songs and lullabies and the
subjective experience of singing impacts maternal perception of attachment (see
Chapter 2 for further details). Thus, examining infant-directed singing holistically
with the intention of increasing understanding requires a paradigmatic stance that
embraces the complex and subjective nature of the phenomena under study, known
as subjectivism. (Benton & Craib, 2001; Denzin & Lincoln, 2005; Ferrara, 1984;
Walker, 2005). Subjectivism focuses on understanding life as it is actually
experienced. It acknowledges many aspects of life are too complex to observe or
7
measure and that there is no 'one truth' of reality. This acknowledgement and
acceptance of subjectivity allows the essence of life experience to be more accurately
captured and understood. In other words, the subjectivist paradigm is conducive to
the intentions of the current study.
Overall, the cross-disciplinary review of literature (presented in Chapter 2),
the desire to contribute to music therapy by increasing understanding of the value of
play songs and lullabies and the subjectivist orientation, led to the overarching
research question: “how do play songs and lullabies facilitate emotional
communication and contribute to the mother-infant relationship?” The need to utilise
various methods to examine multiple facets of mother-infant singing interactions
then guided the construction of a mixed method design, as shown in Figure 1 below.
Orientation toward subjectivist
paradigm
Desire to contribute to music
therapy
Literature: (play
songs/lullabies, emotional
communication, attachment,
musical interaction, gaps)
Research question: How do
play songs and lullabies
facilitate emotional
communication and contribute
to attachment?
Convergent parallel design
Discussion and Interpretation
Figure 1 – The factors contributing to the mixed methods design, adapted from Hesse-Biber, S. N.
(2010). Mixed methods research. New York: Guildford Press
8
CHAPTER OUTLINE
In this chapter a brief overview of the study and research design was
provided. In the following Chapter 2, the review of literature concerning singing,
play songs, lullabies, attachment, emotional communication and music therapy
intervention will be presented. Current gaps in knowledge will be highlighted
followed by a justification of the main research question and aims.
In Chapter 3 the research methodology, design and analyses will be described
and explained. The details pertaining to the research protocols will be outlined
throughout the chapter.
From Chapter 4 to Chapter 7 the research findings will be presented,
discussed and interpreted. More specifically, Chapter 4 presents individual interview
findings concerning the behavioural and subjective features of singing interactions.
Chapter 5 presents individual interview findings concerning the behavioural and
subjective features of non-singing play interactions. Chapter 6 presents the group
Interview and Emotional Availability findings, including: the overall Emotional
Availability ratings for singing and non-singing interactions, and the group
subjective experience of singing and non-singing play interactions. Also, the
commonalities and differences between singing and non-singing interaction
experiences are explored. Chapter 7 presents the findings of six detailed music
analyses of play song and lullaby interaction and the musical principles underlying
the mother-infant singing interaction. Lastly, in Chapter 8, all the findings will be
converged and discussed with the view of providing an overall account of motherinfant singing interactions. The discussion also includes the limitations of the study,
methodological challenges encountered as well as the implications of the research
project to theory and music therapy practise. Ideas and directions for future research
9
involving play songs and lullabies, mother-infant attachment and music therapy will
be suggested and final conclusions presented.
10
CHAPTER 2 – BACKGROUND TO THE
STUDY
"It makes me feel good that it's something she enjoys doing with me ... the fact that
she does settle when I sing to her I means that (1) she enjoys it, but (2) it's a comfort
thing. like she's comforted by me singing to her ... it's definitely a positive thing for
your relationship"
Beth, mother of two, interview conducted on 4th August, 2011
This chapter provides an overview of the pertinent literature in regard to
emotional communication, attachment, mother-infant interactions, play songs and
lullabies. Literature from a range of fields is discussed with the purpose of setting the
research context and the derivation of research aims. To accomplish this purpose
while maintaining a music-focussed perspective, the review is divided into two main
sections. The first section 'Emotional Communication and Attachment' presents a
brief overview of the literature concerning attachment and emotional communication
generally. Important theories, concepts and implications concerning emotional
communication and attachment are introduced. The second section, 'The Musicality
of Emotional Communication' presents the musical side of emotional communication
and attachment. The musical nature of emotional communication is considered but
with particular focus on play songs and lullabies. Literature that provides insights
into how play songs and lullabies facilitate emotional communication, impact
attachment and may be used as an intervention tool is discussed. Finally, the chapter
11
concludes with the presentation of the main research question and specific research
aims.
EMOTIONAL COMMUNICATION AND ATTACHMENT
In this section, an overview of mother-infant attachment and emotional
communication are presented. First, the theory of attachment, attachment styles and
attachment constructs are introduced. The impact of attachment on infant
development is also considered. Second, the theories of emotional communication,
affect attunement and emotional availability are introduced. The prevalence of
emotional communication during the first year of life, the impact of emotional
communication on infant-development and the relation between attachment and
emotional communication is also discussed.
Mother-Infant Attachment
The emotional or affectional bond between caregiver and child is known as
attachment (Bowlby, 1969; Cassidy, 2008). This enduring relationship is primarily
formed throughout the first year of the infant’s life and is developed and reflected
through patterns of parent-child interaction (Beebe et al., 2010; Boris, Aoki, &
Zeanah, 1999; Bowlby, 1969, 1988; Campbell & Taylor, 1980; Cassidy, 2008;
Hesse-Biber, 2010; Schore, 2001, 2003; Woodhouse, 2010). The emotional
availability, appropriateness, sensitivity and consistency of a parent’s response to
infant cues and signals determines the style or quality of attachment that is developed
(Bowlby, 1969; Egeland & Erickson, 1999). Parents who are emotionally available
and provide prompt, sensitive and appropriate responses to the infant facilitate a
secure or high quality type of attachment, whereas parents who are emotionally
12
unavailable, imperceptive and provide inconsistent, insensitive, rare, intrusive or
inadequate responses facilitate insecure types of attachment (Ainsworth, 1979; Boris,
et al., 1999; Steele, et al., 2008).
Attachment classifications
More specifically, there are four classifications of attachment: secure,
insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant and insecure-disorganised (Ainsworth, Blehar,
Waters, & Wall, 2004; Boris, et al., 1999). These classifications are determined
according to the pattern of behaviours demonstrated by the infant during episodes of
play, separation and reunion to their caregiver, known as the Strange Situation
(Ainsworth, et al., 2004). Infants classified as secure show interest in proximity to or
contact with the caregiver and seek comfort from the caregiver upon reunion. Infants
classified as insecure-avoidant demonstrate gaze aversion or movement away from
the caregiver upon reunion. These infants show more interest in toys and objects
rather than responsiveness to the caregiver and actively ignore or avoid the caregiver.
Infants who are insecure-resistant show a mixture of behaviours including a desire
for proximity or contact with the caregiver in combination with anger and resistance
toward to the caregiver. Infants classified as insecure-disorganised show a variety of
behaviours at reunion suggesting a difficulty in managing the stress of separation and
reunion.
Essentially, the attachment styles reflect the quality and nature of caregiverinfant interactions, which, in turn, develop expectancies within the infant. Infants
who are securely attached develop expectations of, and confidence in, their mother's
ability to be available and respond appropriately to the infant's needs and emotions in
a consistent manner. Infants who are insecurely attached develop an expectation of
their mother's ability to be inconsistently available and/or inconsistently/rarely
13
appropriate in response to infant needs and emotional cues (Bowlby, 1969, 1988;
Cassidy, 2008; Cassidy et al., 2005). These expectancies become integrated within
the infant and in turn, influence the infant's developing ability to cope with stress and
emotions (Bowlby, 1969, 1988; Steele, Steele, Croft, & Fonagy, 1999). In other
words, the quality and consistency of caregiver-infant interaction, which develop
certain expectancies and attachment security, also impact upon the infant's socioemotional functioning.
Impact of attachment security on infant development
Many developmental researchers have examined the relation between
attachment security and a child's socio-emotional health/competency. Empirical
studies show that compared to insecurely attached children, children with a secure
attachment in the early years of life exhibit greater understanding of emotions,
greater ability to recognise and judge emotions, more competent social problemsolving skills and are less lonely in later childhood (Meins, Fernyhough, Russell, &
Clark-Carter, 1998; Pip-Siegel, et al., 1995; Raikes & Thompson, 2008; Steele, et al.,
2008; Steele, et al., 1999; Thompson, 2008). The growing evidence clearly reinforces
the link between mother-infant interactions, attachment and child development, and
that the same interactions that contribute to attachment also influence the future
socio-emotional development of a child (Gardner & Goldson, 2002; Mazokopaki &
Kugiumutakis, 2009; Schore, 2001, 2003; Siegel, 1999b; Teti & Cole, 2011).
Maternal perception of attachment
There is a body of research which explores the subjective experience of
attachment. Of particular importance is the work of Condon & Corkindale (1998;
Condon, 2010) who focused on the mothers' perception of attachment in the first year
14
of the infant's life. They developed a self-report questionnaire that asks mothers to
objectively report on the frequency and intensity of their thoughts, feelings and
behaviours involving their infant. The results provide an overview of the mother's
perception of attachment to her infant. However, the quantitative nature of the
questionnaire minimises the depth of information that can be acquired. For example,
the reasons behind the mother’s responses cannot be explored.
Importantly, Condon & Corkindale (Condon & Corkindale, 1998) derived four
indicators of maternal attachment from previous research (such as, Ainsworth, 1979;
Bowlby, 1969; Emde, 1980) to form the basis of the questionnaire. These indicators
are referred to as attachment constructs and include:

Pleasure in proximity – desire to interact with the infant, pleasure in
interaction

Tolerance/acceptance – sense of baby as own, the ability to tolerate
frustrating/irritating behaviours, level of resentment due to personal sacrifice
or degree of ‘burdensome’.

Need-gratification and protection – a desire to identify and meet the infant’s
physical and emotional needs. This includes the notion of being ‘available’
and ‘responsive’ to infant needs.

Knowledge acquisition – a desire to understand the infant, curious about
‘what goes on’ inside the infant
Given that reliability and consistency testing of the questionnaire are acceptably high
(Condon & Corkindale, 1998), the four attachment constructs offer a valid means of
considering a mother’s subjective experience of interaction with her infant from an
attachment perspective. In this study, mothers are interviewed about their experience
of interacting with their infant. The themes derived from the interview are compared
15
to and grouped according to how they relate to the four attachment constructs.
Essentially, the attachment constructs offer pre-determined categories from which to
view interview data enabling better understanding of how the experience of singing
relates to internal indicators of attachment (see Chapter 3 for more details regarding
the interview analysis).
Mother-Infant Emotional Communication
Emotional communication involves the sharing and modulation of emotional
states, including (1) sharing and amplifying positive emotions, (2) soothing distress
or negative emotional states, and (3) taking joy in the child (Schore, 2001, 2003;
Siegel, 1999a, 1999b). Essentially, emotional communication relies on mutual
relatedness or the alignment of affective states, known as affect attunement
(Abad & Williams, 2007). Three conditions are required for the feeling states of
mother and infant to be knowable to one another and for relatedness to occur. First,
the mother must be able to read the infant's feeling state from the infant's behaviours
and cues. Second, the mother matches the infant's emotional state. This does not
necessarily involve strict imitation of the infant's behaviour but usually involves the
mother’s behaviour being of a similar intensity, rhythmic patterning or shape to the
infant’s behaviour. For example, an infant may express excitement over a toy
through an energetic motor movement and the mother may reflect the infant’s
excited feeling state with a matching vocal and facial expression. In other words, the
mother's response is theme-and-variation-like rather than a strict repetition. Third,
the infant must be able to perceive the maternal response as reflecting their feeling
state. When the three conditions are fulfilled, the mother and infant experience
shared emotional resonance, which lays the platform for emotional communication.
16
Once both partners match states and experience emotional resonance, the
mother and infant simultaneously adjust their social attention, stimulation and
accelerating arousal to each other’s responses (Schore, 2001, 2003; Siegel, 1999a).
These adaptive and flexible ‘adjustments’ are known as reciprocal or synchronous
interpersonal interaction (Campbell & Taylor, 1980). When the mother is attuned to
the infant she will maintain the child’s arousal within a moderate range; high enough
to stimulate the child up from low arousal states but not too intense as to cause
distress and avoidance (Schore, 2001, 2003; Siegel, 1999a). Maintaining reciprocity
therefore, allows for sustained lengths of emotional communication. In other words,
attunement is an essential component in establishing and sustaining emotional
communication.
Importantly, emotionally attuned communication is at the core of motherinfant attachment (Siegel, 1999a, 1999b). Attunement involves the mothers’
awareness of and respect for the infant's changing needs for a human-to-human
connection. With such awareness and respect a mother may facilitate emotionally
available, appropriate and sensitive interactions in a consistent manner. As discussed
above, such interactions develop positive expectancies of the caregiver within the
infant and form a secure attachment. Thus, emotional communication is considered
to be the "heart of attachment" (Siegel, 1999b, p. 80)
Emotional communication in the first year of life
During the first year of life mother and infant frequently engage in emotional
communication. Emotionally attuned mother-infant interaction is experienced during
both need-based and pleasure-based mother-infant interactions. Need-based
interactions are characterised by the mother's recognition and response to infant cues
that signal basic needs, known as collaborative communication (Gardner & Goldson,
17
2002; Wallin, 2007). For example, if a baby cries to communicate hunger, the
appropriate response is to feed the baby. When the infant’s hunger is satisfied the
infant associates the caregiver with need satisfaction and comfort, which instils trust,
and over time, this develops a sense of trust in self and others. The infant learns he
will not be emotionally abandoned and that is okay to have needs and to have them
met. Alternatively, if the caregiver does not meet the infant’s needs, the infant will
associate the caregiver with need dissatisfaction and mistrust, and consequently
develop low self-concept, low self-esteem and a sense of helplessness (Cozolino,
2010; Gardner & Goldson, 2002; Wallin, 2007). Importantly, when a mother is
attuned or connected to her child’s feeling states, collaborative communication
creates a shared interpersonal experience. The established connection that
accompanies recognition and appropriate response to infant cues allows mother and
infant to ‘feel felt’ by the other, providing a wealth of interpersonal closeness
(Siegel, 2001). In this way, the emotional resonance that is experienced during
collaborative communication contributes to the emotional bond between mother and
infant while simultaneously contributing to the infant's developing sense of self and
trust.
An
example
of
experiencing
attuned
pleasure-based
emotional
communication is the use of shared and mutually pleasurable motion-generated
experiences, known as kinaesthetic bonding (Hatch & Maietta, 1991). The
kinaesthetic bond begins during pregnancy when the mother and baby are sensing
each other’s movements and adjusting to each other accordingly. The shared motiongenerated sensory experience creates a mutual reality for mother and her baby
through motion (Hatch & Maietta, 1991). After birth, however, kinaesthetic bonding
requires a mother to be attuned to her infant and skilled in using space, timing and
18
effort to match her movements to her baby. The infant also needs to synchronise to
the mother’s movements so that the interaction becomes mutual (Hatch & Maietta,
1991). It is through motion-generated synchronisation that a mother may express her
attunement to her child, share a sense of vitality with her infant and bond with her
child in the early months of the infant’s life.
From five or six months of age, infants are gaining considerable gross and
fine motor control as well as developing a sense of balance, allowing them to sit
unaided and enjoy a greater variety of physical movements such as being held up
high, turned upside down and swung (Ford, 2007). This progression in the infant’s
development allows for increasing variations in movement and expands opportunities
for mother and infant to share many new types of motion-generated experiences.
Considering this, the use of shared movement may be a particularly pleasurable form
of emotional communication in the second half of the infant’s first year of life.
Emotional availability
Developmental researchers are interested in better understanding the
mechanisms
of
emotional
communication,
particularly
those
features
of
communication which lead to secure parent-child attachment. Past theorists have
highlighted key characteristics of emotional communication as follows: (1) maternal
sensitivity or attunement to the child to perceive and respond to cues and signals
(Ainsworth, et al., 2004; Bowlby, 1969), (2) a supportive maternal presence or a
secure base from which the child can explore and practice autonomy (Bowlby, 1969,
1988; Mahler, Pine, & Bergman, 1975), and (3) responsiveness of both parent and
child to the negative and positive emotions of one another (Emde, 1980).
More recently, Zeynep Biringen, a professor and child psychologist
developed the theory of Emotional Availability (Biringen, 2000; Easterbrooks &
19
Biringen, 2000) which describes emotional communication as four parental and two
child dimensions, including:

Parental Sensitivity – behavioural style of the parent and the degree of
pleasure and amusement with the infant

Parental Structuring – the appropriate degree of structuring by taking care to
follow the child’s lead

Parental Non-intrusiveness – the ability to be available to the child without
being intrusive to him/her; emotional presence

Parental Non-hostility – the degree of background discontent, impatience and
anger as well as covert and overt forms of hostility

Child Responsiveness to parent – the child’s eagerness or willingness to
engage with the parent and pleasure in interaction

Child Involvement with parent – the degree to which the child attends to and
engages the parent in play
According to the construct, infants who experience positive emotional availability
with caregivers should be better able to regulate their own emotions (Easterbrooks,
Chaudhuri, & Gestsdottir, 2005).
Furthermore, Biringen (2008b) created an assessment tool to allow
researchers to examine and rate emotional communication, known as the Emotional
Availability Scales (EAS). The EAS comprises of linear scales; one scale for each
emotional availability dimension. The assessor is required to observe parent-child
dyadic interaction and make clinically sensitive judgements about the behavioural
contributions of both parent and child while scoring either the mother or the infant
20
(Ziv, Aviezer, Gini, Sagi, & Koren-Karie, 2000) thus, multiple facets of emotional
transactions are captured.
It is important to clarify that Emotional Availability and attachment are
related, but not identical constructs. Emotional availability encapsulates the dyadic
emotional communication between individuals and therefore, overlaps the
attachment construct (Easterbrooks & Biringen, 2000). Studies have demonstrated
consistent links between attachment and emotional availability (Biringen et al., 2000;
Biringen et al., 2005; Biringen, Matheny, Bretherton, Renouf, & Sherman, 2000;
Easterbrooks & Biringen, 2000; Easterbrooks, et al., 2005). Two such studies have
examined the relationship between emotional availability and attachment during the
first two years of an infant's life. Firstly, Swanson, Beckwith & Howard (2000)
examined the correlation between intrusive caregiver behaviours and attachment
style in prenatally drug-exposed toddlers. Mother and toddler emotional availability
was assessed before the mother left the room during the Strange Situation assessment
procedure. The results showed that toddlers with a disorganised-insecure attachment
were more likely to have intrusive caregivers, whereas toddlers with a secure
attachment were more likely to have non-intrusive caregivers. In a second study, Ziv
and colleagues (Ziv, et al., 2000) examined the relation between the Strange
Situation classifications and emotional availability as measured during free play
interactions between 12-month infants and their mother. Secure attachment was
positively related to maternal Sensitivity, Infant Responsiveness and Infant
Intrusiveness. More specifically, mothers of secure infants were rated higher on these
scales than mothers of insecure-ambivalent infants.
21
Impact of emotional communication on infant development
Experiences of emotional communication are important contributors to an
infant’s developing ability to control, modulate and self-regulate emotional responses
(Mazokopaki & Kugiumutakis, 2009; Schore, 2001, 2003; Weinfield, et al., 2008).
Before birth, infants can recognise the different emotional states and arousal they are
experiencing (Lenz & von Moreau, 2004). After birth, being hormonally and
physically separated from the mother, the infant needs to learn to rely on himself for
emotional regulation (Lenz & von Moreau, 2004). However, infants are ill-equipped
to regulate their own emotions and turn to their caregivers to cope with their
experiences of emotions such as distress, anger and fear (Weinfield, et al., 2008).
Infants communicate their emotional states using only the behaviours
available to them, for example, kicking, crying and eye-contact, but are dependent on
others to correctly understand and react to them (Lenz & von Moreau, 2004). Infants
learn to regulate their emotions through their experiences of the consistency and
repetition of the caregiver-infant interaction (Beebe, Lachmann, & Jaffee, 1997;
Lenz & von Moreau, 2004; Mazokopaki & Kugiumutakis, 2009). These early
experiences of emotional communication provide the “… guided experience with
managing stressful emotions and … the foundation to self-regulation” (Weinfield, et
al., 2008, p. 84).
Overall, the attunement of emotional states provides the connection between
mother and child that is essential for the infant to acquire the capacity to organise
himself more autonomously and develop self-regulation (Abad & Williams, 2007;
Siegel, 1999a). Early interpersonal experiences can affect the structural organisation
of the developing brain and result in adaptive or non-adaptive behaviours in later life
(Schore, 2001). When a mother-infant dyad experiences emotionally attuned
22
communication the mother is continuously monitoring and responding to her infant’s
shifting arousal levels and emotional states. These experiences of emotional
communication shape the neural connections and structure of the infant brain that
mediate coping and self-regulation, which in turn form the foundation for good selfregulation and the development of later socio-emotional functioning. Thus, it can be
argued that some emotionally communicative interactions that influence the
development of the infant’s brain and regulatory systems also determine attachment
style, and by extension, later socio-emotional development (Gardner & Goldson,
2002; Mazokopaki & Kugiumutakis, 2009; Schore, 2001, 2003; Siegel, 1999b; Teti
& Cole, 2011). In other words, attachment, emotional communication and infant
development are linked.
THE MUSICALITY OF EMOTIONAL COMMUNICATION
In this section, the musical side of emotional communication is presented.
First, the musical nature of infants and their auditory preferences are considered.
Second, the discussion turns to infant-directed speech as a common form of motherinfant
emotional
communication
with
particular
focus
on
the
musical,
communicative and multi-modal nature of infant-directed speech. Third, there is a
discussion of play songs and lullabies as a vehicle of emotional with particular
focuses on infants' preference for maternal singing, the distinctive features of infantdirected play songs and lullabies and how singing as a form of emotional
communication may impact attachment. Finally, the use of play songs and lullabies
as a tool for music therapy intervention is considered, together with suggested
23
models of mother-infant relationship intervention and gaps of knowledge are
considered.
The Musical Nature of Infants
Infants are essentially musical beings (Trehub, 2001; Trevarthen & Malloch,
2002). Even prior to birth an infant is primed for musical experience with an ability
to perceive and process fundamental musical qualities (M. Papoušek, 1996). As early
as eighteen weeks gestational age loud sounds cause the foetal heart to increase
(Standley, 2003). By the beginning of the third trimester, a baby's auditory
perception is consistently present enabling the infant to hear auditory signals in the
womb (Birnholz & Benacerraf, 1983; Standley, 2003).
After birth infants demonstrate increasing musical capacity. For example, sixmonth old infants demonstrate the ability to discriminate between dissonant and
consonant music, showing also a preference for consonant over dissonant music
(Trainor & Heinmiller, 1998). Nine to eleven-month olds can recognise melodies that
have been transposed up or down in pitch (Trehub, Thorpe, & Morrongiello, 1987).
According to Trehub (2001) “… infants do not begin life with a blank musical slate.
Instead, they are predisposed to attend to the melodic contour and rhythmic
patterning of sound sequences, whether music or speech” (p. 11).
Infant preferences.
An infant’s musical predisposition is particularly evident in their preference
of vocal stimuli (Gardner & Goldson, 2002). Infants prefer voices that are familiar
and have demonstrated a preference for their mother’s voice over other female voices
(Standley & Madsen, 1990). For example, newborn babies younger than three days
old can discriminate between its mother’s voice and another female voice.
24
Additionally, the newborn is capable of learning to suck in a particular pattern and
alter sucking patterns accordingly to trigger an audio recording of their mother’s
voice over other female voices (DeCasper & Fifer, 1980).
Research has also shown that infants prefer high-pitched voices (female) over
low-pitched voices (male), as well as higher pitched singing over lower-pitched
singing (Gardner & Goldson, 2002; Trainor & Zacharias, 1998). It is well known that
children and adults modify their speech instinctively when interacting with infants to
appeal to their preference for higher frequencies by using a ‘music-like’ speech that
contains expanded, larger pitched contours, higher pitch and rhythmic patterning,
known as infant-directed speech, motherese or baby talk (Gardner & Goldson, 2002;
Kitamura & Burnham, 2003; Nicholson, Berthelsen, Williams, & Abad, 2010; H.
Papoušek, 1996; M. Papoušek, 1996; Shoemark, 2007; Shoemark & Grocke, 2010).
The Musical and Communicative Nature of Infant-Directed Speech
H. Papoušek and M. Papoušek (1996; 2000; 1996) believe that parents
intuitively modify their infant-directed speech to construct an emotionally
communicative code consisting of universal characteristics, including: smooth,
continuously gliding pitch contours, simple unidirectional, bidirectional or bellshaped contours, one-syllable utterances and prolonged vowel sounds (M. Papoušek,
1996). Endless variations of these vocalisations are created which tends to affect
infant arousal and attention in three ways (1) build-up of arousal and tension; (2)
release of arousal and tension, and (3) playful elaboration of a high level of arousal
(M. Papoušek, 1996)
Kitamura & Burnham (2008) further examined the communicative intent of
infant-directed speech across the first year of life. Adult-raters listened to excerpts of
mothers speaking to their infants at 3, 6, 9 and 12 months and rated four types of
25
affective intent, including: express affection, comfort and soothe, direct infant
behaviour and attract attention. The findings showed that comforting/soothing infantdirected speech was most apparent at birth and decreased as age progressed;
directing behaviour increased significantly from birth to 12 months but particularly
peaked at 9 months and; expressing affection generally increased as age progressed
but peaked at 6 months, declined at 9 months and increased again at 12 months. In
other words, infant-directed speech did not simply develop in a linear fashion as the
infant matured. The authors suggest that mothers intuitively adjust their patterns of
speech to communicate various affective intent according to their infant's age, phase
of development and level of responsiveness. Overall, the findings reinforce that there
is a communicative code embedded in infant-directed speech and that the infant's
needs and development influence a mother's communicative intent.
It is also well known that mother and infant are mutually engaged in
emotional interpersonal communication as early as when the baby is two months old,
by looking at and listening to each other, responding sympathetically to one
another’s intricate rhythmic patterns, multimodal signals, vocal imitations and facial
and gestural expressions (Aitken & Trevarthen, 2001; Gratier & Apter-Danon, 2009;
Malloch & Trevarthen, 2009; Mazokopaki & Kugiumutakis, 2009; Powers &
Trevarthen, 2009; Stern, Jaffee, Beebe, & Bennett, 1975; Weinberg & Tronick,
1994). Additionally, nine-week old infants have expressed distress at mistimed or
‘unmutually sympathetic’ maternal expressions, no matter how positive, joyful or
playful they were (Marwick & Murray, 2009; Weinberg & Tronick, 1994). These
findings confirm that infants are responsive to their mother's initiations in that their
emotional expressions are well organised and systematically related to the
environmental elements. In other words, infants are reciprocal partners in the dyadic
26
exchange. They are sensitive to, responsive to and consciously appreciate the
emotionally communicative intentions of infant-directed speech (Aitken &
Trevarthen, 2001; Beebe, et al., 2010; Nadel, et al., 1999).
Interestingly, Bergeson & Trehub (2007) may have discovered a new
communicative characteristic of infant-directed speech. Mothers were recorded
talking to their infant on two occasions approximately one week apart. Bergeson &
Trehub (2007) found that mothers produced 'signature tunes' in their speech. Even
though the occurrences of speech were separated by a week, mothers used the same
pitch and melodic rise/fall contour on several occasions. Additionally, an individual
mother's signature tune was distinct from the other mothers in the sample. As
Bergeson & Trehub (2007) state, "no mother produced tunes exactly like those of
any other mother" (p. 653). It was proposed that signature tunes act as distinct
markers of maternal speech, which may influence infant ability to recognise their
mother’s voice. If this is the case, signature tunes may enhance the emotional tie
between mother-infant and be potentially advantageous to mother-infant bonding.
Importantly, infant-directed speech involves more than just vocal production.
It
is
commonly accepted
that
infant-directed
speech
contain emotional
communicative messages conveyed through a combination of pitch, touch, facial
expressions, gestures and vocal tone (Aitken & Trevarthen, 2001; Dissanayake,
2000; Milligan, Atkinson, Trehub, Benoit, & Poulton, 2003; Stern, et al., 1975;
Trainor, 1996; Trainor & Heinmiller, 1998; Trehub, Hill, et al., 1997; Weinberg &
Tronick, 1994). Dissanayake (2000) suggests that the combination of sound, gestures
and facial expressions is a multi-modal form of emotional communication which
progresses according to the baby’s developing needs and abilities. In the first three
months of the baby’s life, mothers will touch, hold, cuddle, rock and pat babies while
27
looking at their faces, smiling and performing repetitive infant-directed vocalisations.
The baby gradually produces vocalisations, eye contact, touches, smiles and nods.
From about two and half months onward the mother adjusts her sounds, movements
and gestures to suit the baby’s changing needs and growing abilities by gradually
moving from the more gentle cooing to more animated play. Her vocalisations and
facial expressions become more exaggerated, formed more slowly, held for longer,
given more dynamic intensity and variety and punctuated with behavioural silences.
The baby responds by producing larger smiles, more active movements and a larger
range of sounds and the mother in turn responds with greater exaggeration of mood,
movement and tempo.
Trevarthen & Malloch (2009; 2000, 2002) believe that the multi-modal
mother-infant vocalisations stem from the desire to engage in emotionally
communicative interactions and are a reflection of the innate abilities within all
humans that expresses emotional communication known as communicative
musicality. Communicative musicality between mother and child is expressed
through an exchange of spontaneous and improvised vocal narratives created from
the parameters of pulse, pitch, timbre, volume and gestures. By being attuned to the
infant’s state of arousal and attention and attentively listening to the infant’s
vocalisation the mother may respond sympathetically by imitating the pitch contour
or repeating the vocalisation with variation, usually through exaggeration or by
answering with a contrasting pitch contour accompanied by facial and behavioural
gestures. When the mother and infant respond and adjust to each other, they engage
in reciprocal musical or vocal narratives sustaining a “…co-ordinated relationship
through time” (Trevarthen & Malloch, 2000, p. 6). Trevarthen & Malloch (2000)
28
describe this attunement and reciprocal interaction as ‘dancing’ in emotional
communication.
Dissanayake (2009) believes that the early operations of communicative
musicality, as witnessed between mother and infant, serve to coordinate behaviour
and emotion and by doing so, bond the pair. This musical communication serves
each individual who need each other for their own reasons; the baby for survival and
the mother, for reproductive success. These operations of communicative musicality,
also known as protomusic, are the origins of capacities later used by humans in
making and responding to music, such as in ceremonial practices. In other words,
communicative musicality, as expressed through the mutuality of mother-infant
interactions, is an essential aspect of the human experience, with a particular function
of reinforcing concord, communion and conjoinment.
Play songs and Lullabies as Emotional Communication
Infant-directed singing
In addition to preferring their mother's voice, the literature demonstrates that
infants prefer infant-directed singing over infant-directed speech. Nakata & Trehub
(2004) presented 6-month old infants with audiovisual episodes of their mother's
infant-directed speech or singing. The infant's attention to the stimuli was recorded
and analysed. The results showed that infants exhibited more sustained attention to
an audiovisual presentation of their mother's singing voice than to an audiovisual of
their mother's speech. It was postulated that singing acts as a synchronisation device
to promote cohesion between mother and infant. Considering this possibility, the
sustained attention that maternal singing facilitates may enhance the interpersonal tie
29
between mother-infant that is unique and different to the way that infant-directed
speech engages the infant.
Furthermore, maternal infant-directed singing has been documented to
modulate infant arousal levels (de l'Etoile, 2006b; Shenfield, Trehub, & Nakata,
2003; Walworth, 2009). Shenfield, Trehub & Nakata (2003) measured the salivary
cortisol levels in 6-month old infants before and after listening to maternal singing.
The results showed that individual infant cortisol levels converged toward a common
intermediate level. In other words, singing led to elevations in arousal for infants
with low initial levels and reductions for infants with higher initial levels. Thus,
maternal infant-directed singing appeared to promote arousal levels that are optimal
for sustained infant attention.
Overall, the literature illustrates that a mother’s singing voice is a preferred
and engaging auditory stimulus capable of sustaining infant attention and modulating
the infant’s arousal level. Considering that infant-directed singing sustains infant
attention for longer than infant-directed speech, as well as the ‘dance’ of
communicative musicality, forms of infant-directed singing, including the more
structured infant-directed songs, may be considered as more effective in promoting
sustained and pleasurable emotional communication and in this way contribute to the
development of mother-infant attachment.
Distinctive musical and expressive features of play songs and lullabies
Play songs and lullabies are two types of songs known to facilitate emotional
communication. Each form serves an emotional regulatory purpose: play songs
arouse and engage the infant in play whereas lullabies soothe and relax the infant
(Bargiel, 2012; Trainor, 1996; Trehub, Hill, et al., 1997; Trehub & Schellenberg,
1995). They also have distinctive musical and expressive features (Rock, Trainor, &
30
Addison, 1999; Trainor, 1996; Trehub & Schellenberg, 1995). Play songs are
playful, tend to be sung with a ‘smiling tone’, capture the lyrics by exaggerating the
rhythm and rhythmic groupings and impart feelings of joy. In contrast, lullabies are
soothing, sung with a breathy tone, capture a sense of flow or ‘smoothness’ and
convey affection and tenderness. The rhythmic character of a lullaby is not
determined by the text, but rather the accompanying rocking or swaying movements.
Additionally the lyrics of lullabies characteristically urge infants to sleep, whereas
play songs are games and vehicles of enculturation; they encourage particular
behaviours such as brushing teeth, counting and culturally specific features of the
spoken language.
Despite contrasting musical characteristics, there is one feature that both play
songs and lullabies share; that is, both are accompanied by rhythmical movements
such as swaying and knee jogging (Rock, et al., 1999; Trainor, 1996; Trehub &
Schellenberg, 1995). This suggests that play songs and lullabies may facilitate
sustained ‘musical kinaesthetic bonding’ experiences which may assist in the
development of mother-infant attachment (Edwards, 2011a; 2011b; Vlismas, 2007;
Vlismas, et al., 2012).
Play songs and lullabies are also viewed as “… musical analogues of
soothing and playful ‘baby talk’ or ‘motherese’ ” (Trehub, Hill, et al., 1997, p. 385).
Research has found similarities between infant-directed songs and infant-directed
speech. For example, the vocal deliverance of both infant-directed speech and infantdirected songs contain similar exaggerated enunciation of lyrics/words (Trehub, Hill,
et al., 1997). et al., 1997). Also, as with the comparison between infant versus noninfant directed speech, infant-directed versions of songs are distinctly different to
non-infant- directed versions. More specifically, research shows that infant-directed
31
versions of songs are sung in a more engaging manner and soothing or playful tone
of voice than non-infant-directed versions. For example, Trainor (1996) recorded
mothers singing a song to their infant and again in their infant's absence. Adult-raters
listened to the recordings and accurately distinguished between the infant-directed
and infant-absent versions sung by the same mother. Another group of adults listened
to pairs of singing samples (one infant-directed, the other infant-absent) and were
asked to choose which version rendered the most loving tone of voice. Critically, the
infant-directed versions were rated as more loving 82.7% of the time. A third group
of adults listened to the infant-present versions and rated whether the singing was
attempting to put an infant to sleep (a lullaby) or arouse and play with an infant (a
play song). The results showed there was a high consistency among raters
inaccurately classifying the soothing or arousing function of the song. In other
words, lullabies were perceived to be sung in a more soothing and relaxing manner
whereas play songs were perceived to be sung in a more arousing and playful
manner.
Similarly, Trehub & colleagues (1997) recorded mothers singing in their
infant's presence and in their infant's absence. Adult-raters listened to the recordings
and accurately distinguished between the two versions. In a subsequent experiment
another group of adult-raters evaluated the emotional engagement of the singing
samples. The results showed that infant-directed versions of singing were rated as
more emotionally engaging than non-infant-directed versions.
Infants also behave differently when listening to play songs and lullabies.
Rock & colleagues (1999) recorded mothers singing the same song in a play song
style and lullaby style. Infants were videotaped listening to the two versions of
singing style. The results showed that infants demonstrated more outward focus of
32
attention when listening to the play song style and more inward focus of attention
when listening to the lullaby style. The authors concluded that distinctive features of
play song and lullaby singing convey different emotional messages to infants and
that the infants respond accordingly. In other words, mothers communicate various
emotions during infant-directed songs, and importantly, infants are sophisticated
listeners capable of detecting changes in musical stimuli and decoding their mother’s
singing accordingly (de l'Etoile, 2006a).
Research suggests that infants are 'biologically wired' or predisposed to listen
to the distinctive, musical, expressive and emotionally communicative features of
infant-directed songs over adult-directed songs. Masataka (2000) showed this
preference in 2-day-old infants who were born to congenitally deaf parents. Since the
parents used sign language as their first language, the newborns had no prenatal
exposure to maternal speech/singing before the study. The results showed that the
newborns newborns looked at a visual stimulus for longer when listening to infantdirected singing over adult-directed singing. In other words, despite the lack of
prenatal exposure to maternal speech and singing, the infants were attracted to infantdirect singing. It was argued that logically, prenatal exposure to maternal
speech/singing is not necessary for newborns to exhibit a preference and thus, infants
are born with the preference for, and 'wired' to attend to, the expressive and
communicative features of infant-directed songs.
How play songs and lullabies facilitate emotional communication
Musical interaction has been shown to contain communicative characteristics
conducive to emotional communication. Mualem & Klein (2012) recorded mothers
and their 12-month old infants engaging in music-related activities followed by toyrelated activities. Mothers chose the nature of the musical activity and whether or not
33
to use musical instruments or accessories. Multiple aspects of the mother-infant
interaction were analysed and the results showed that during musical interactions,
compared to play interactions, mother-infant dyads experienced significantly longer
durations of eye contact, significantly longer communicative chains of interaction,
and significantly less incompatible behaviours or asynchrony. In other words, the
mother and infant maintained joint attention for longer periods of time and the
interactions were more synchronised during musical then play interactions. While
this study provides evidence for the use of musical interactions to promote motherinfant emotional communication, there are few studies that directly examine the
effects of play songs and lullabies in relation to mother-infant emotional
communication.
The effect of music and movement on the quality of mother-infant interaction
has been examined by comparing mothers who participated in a music and
movement program and those who did not over a 5 week period (Vlismas, et al.,
2012). 2012). In the music and movement program, healthy first-time mothers with
healthy infants between two to four months old learnt a variety of play songs and
lullabies as well as various ways to hold and move with their baby. In one
experiment, mothers were videoed playing with their infants for six minutes before
and after the 5-week period. Two blind raters rated the dyadic reciprocity of the
interaction using The Mother-Infant/Toddler Play scale (Chatoor et al., 1985). The
results showed that dyadic reciprocity increased for mothers who experienced music
and movement whereas dyadic reciprocity decreased for those who did not
experience music and movement. Demonstrably play songs and lullabies are
effective facilitators of reciprocal emotional communication but there is little
understanding of how or why this is the case.
34
An examination of the acoustic properties of infant-directed songs provides
insight into how mothers convey different emotional messages and thus, facilitate
emotional communication. When Trainor et al., (1997) examined the acoustic
differences between infant-directed and non-infant-directed singing, they found that,
irrespective of whether the song was a lullaby or a play song mothers sang at a
slower tempo, sang with more energy in the lower frequencies, used longer interphrase pauses and sang with greater intensity of emotions in the infant-directed
compared to non-infant-directed versions. More recently, Tsang & Conrad (2010)
investigated the function of pitch in 6 and 7-month old infant preferences for
lullabies and play songs. The results showed that infants preferred high-pitched over
low-pitched versions of play songs but low-pitched over high-pitched versions of
lullabies. In other words, the affective nature of music had an effect on infant pitch
preferences which suggests that infants recognised the affective state that play songs
and lullabies communicated. Both studies provide evidence that acoustic
modifications made during infant-directed singing serve to communicate different
emotional messages to the infant.
Studies that analyse the musical and expressive elements of infant-directed
songs also provide insights into the emotive quality of song-based communication.
Delavenne, Gratier & Devouche (2013) recorded mothers singing a popular native
play song to their infant at 3 and 6 months then explored the temporal elements of
the mothers' infant-directed singing. The findings showed that mothers used specific
expressive timing cues at both infant ages including marking the final phrase of each
verse by slowing down the tempo and marking the end of the verse by lengthening
the final syllable. The authors suggested that the timing cues stress the hierarchical
35
levels of the verse and act as important cues to help infants better perceive and attend
to the structure of the song.
Similarly, Longhi (2009) examined the temporal structure of twenty-seven
play songs all with an 8-beat phrase structure, sung live by mothers to their infants.
The results showed that mothers emphasise the upbeats, particularly the last beat of
the phrase, by lengthening the duration of the upbeat accompanied by gestural
behaviours. behaviours. It was argued that these expressive temporal cues help
infants process and segment the musical event into smaller units, helping them to
anticipate the following downbeat. Such patterning in the timing structure would
encourage the infant to engage and time their participation to match to the relevant
beats of the song. In other words, the temporal elements of play songs may help to
assist mother- infant synchrony. While this one aspect of songs may encourage
synchrony, there may be other melodic, harmonic, rhythmic and performance
elements that also promote infant engagement and sustained dyadic communication.
More research is needed to better understand how the musical and non-musical
features of play songs and lullabies facilitate emotional communication (Reyna &
Pickler, 2009).
How play songs and lullabies contribute to attachment
Despite the growing evidence to support the engaging and communicative
nature of play songs and lullabies only one known study has examined the
experience of singing songs in relation to attachment. In a second experiment,
Vlismas et al., (2012) examined the effect of a 5-week music and movement program
on the perception of attachment of mothers by comparing mothers who experienced
music and movement to those who did not. The mothers completed Condon &
Corkindale’s (1998) Maternal Attachment Questionnaire before and after the 5-week
36
period. The results showed a significant increase in the overall quality of attachment
for mothers who experienced music and movement and a decrease in attachment in
the absence of music and movement. To reiterate, the Maternal Attachment
Questionnaire (Condon & Corkindale, 1998) asks mothers to objectively report on
the frequency and intensity of their thoughts, feelings and behaviours involving their
infant and is based on four indicators or constructs of attachment, including: pleasure
in proximity, need-gratification, tolerance/acceptance and knowledge acquisition.
The oppositional results suggest that all attachment constructs are associated with
music and movement interactions in some way. However, the questionnaire
quantifies the responses to provide an overall summary or overview of the
participant’s perception of attachment. Consequently, the actual thoughts or feelings
that the mothers experienced could not be examined nor could the reasons behind the
mother's rating. Thus, more research is required to determine (1) whether the
constructs are associated with music and movement experiences for mothers with
infants above four-months old, (2) if specific constructs are more effected by musical
interaction than others, (3) if there are other thoughts and feelings specifically related
to play songs and lullabies, and (4) if there are thoughts and feelings unique to either
play songs or lullabies.
Baker and Mackinlay (2005, 2006) examined the subjective experience of a
lullaby education program by analysing diary entries of participating mothers. The
data demonstrated that singing lullabies was beneficial to the mother’s wellbeing,
providing a ‘lift’ in moments of despair as well as increasing their sense of
empowerment and control. The feelings of success as a result of lulling their baby to
sleep validated thoughts and feelings of being a ‘good’ mother and providing a sense
of pride, renewed confidence and self assurance in their capacity as a mother.
37
Although Baker and Mackinlay (2005, 2006) did not examine attachment
specifically, they suggest the described positive experiences are vital for mothers
who may be struggling to cope with the daily demands of mothering and therefore,
lullaby singing has the potential to be a preventative measure in “… what could
otherwise become a spiralling cycle of negative feelings leading to the potential for
post-natal depression and mother-infant detachment” (Baker & Mackinlay, 2005, p.
86).
Findings from studies examining the subjective experience of singing
suggests that singing may be a vehicle for the transmission of maternal love
(Escandón, 2008; Likierman, 1998). Through singing a mother may transmit her own
feelings of love and care to her infant and the infant ‘picks up’ on the quality of
feeling in the mother’s interactions. Likierman (1998) calls this emotional
transmission positive projective identification. Mothers need to have her feelings
received and appreciated by another; she “... needs to know not only that she is a
responsive care-giver, but also a nice person to have for a mother, someone whose
personal rather than functional mode of loving is wanted” (Likierman, 1998, p. 31).
Consequently she transmits her good, loving and caring parts of herself not to intrude
upon the infant, but to offer pleasure or emotional goodness which is not of the
infant’s own making, like an unexpected gift. This not only meets the mother’s needs
to be wanted it also provides the infant the experience of receiving instead of
demanding pleasure. In other words, positive projective identification provides the
infant with an experience of being wanted, rather than catered for (Likierman, 1998).
Another study, inspired by psychotherapy and ethnography discusses a
mother’s musicality in positive projective identification using data collected by
observing a mother-infant dyad on a weekly basis over a two year period (Escandón,
38
2008). The mother was often observed singing and dancing and her infant would stop
his current playing, look to the mother, kick his legs, shake his hands, smile and
laugh in pleasure and joy. Escandón (2008) suggests that the mother was using
musical expression to transmit the ‘good parts’ of herself which were felt by the
infant as if he were penetrated by pleasure. Over time the regular experience of
positive projective identification became internalised in the infant as a representation
of the positive union or bond between mother and child combined with a sense of
reassurance and containment. Escandón (2008) proposes that the infant uses this
internal representation to defend himself against the anxiety of separation from the
mother. In this way, regular singing interaction may contribute to the development of
the mother-child attachment bond by reinforcing and internalising the positive
mother-child union which may be used later in the infant’s life to cope with the stress
of separation anxiety (Cozolino, 2010).
Mother-Infant Singing as Intervention
The literature clearly supports the use of play songs and lullabies for mother
and infant to engage in emotionally communicative interaction. Surprisingly, the use
of live musical practices by parents appears to be decreasing (M. Papoušek, 1996;
Young, 2008). Vlismas & Bowes (1999) found that only two of thirty-nine mothers
had sung lullabies to their young infants before participating in a formal music
program and Baker & Mackinlay (2006) found only four of forty-two mothers had
sung to calm or engage their babies before participating in a lullaby program.
There are many potential contributors to the decreasing use of singing
including:
39

Technology - One study in the United Kingdom found that live singing is
being replaced or blended with music technology such as music CD’s and
DVD’s (Young, 2008). It is possible that such trends are also occurring in
Australia.

Lack of time - Over one third of Australian parents interviewed in 2005 felt
that they do not spend enough time with their children and three out of four
found balancing work and family difficult (Tucci, Mitchell, & Goddard,
2005). With decreasing time availability, the amount of time that may be
dedicated to daily one-on-one singing interactions may also decreases (de
Vries, 2007; Vlismas, 2007)

Lack of confidence in musical abilities, particularly singing – Lack of
confidence causes parents to substitute their own live music-making with
music CDs and DVDs. Parents have indicated they would like to play musical
games and engage in music-making with their child but felt they lacked the
skills and experience to do so (de Vries, 2007); and

Limited knowledge of infant-appropriate repertoire - Parenting resources do
not seem to guide or support the use of music, leaving parents to learn songs
through children’s television programs or recordings (Trehub, Hill, et al.,
1997; Vlismas & Bowes, 1999). This suggests that mothers’ practice of music
activities with their infants is not recognised as an important part of daily
caregiving (Vlismas, 2007).
The majority of parents believe that how they were raised by their own
parents is very influential in their own parenting practices (Tucci, et al., 2005).
Parents who recall their mother singing to them are more likely to sing songs to their
40
own children than parents who do not recall this experience (Custodero & JohnsonGreen, 2003). There is a danger that knowledge of play songs and lullabies and
associated musical practices will continue to shrink through lack of generational
exposure unless parents are supported to expand their repertoire of songs and
encouraged to use music as a vehicle of interaction with their babies. As pointed out
by Vlismas (2007) “…if parents’ practise of musical interactions are sustained and
become part of families’ nurturing home environments during the early childhood
years, it is likely that this practice will form part of their children’s valuable
memories which they, in turn, will then practise as parents” (p. 248).
Early intervention is defined by Dunst (2000) as the provision of support and
resources to families of young children from informal and formal support networks
that both directly and indirectly influence child, parent, and family functioning.
Music therapy is defined by the Australian Music Therapy Association as the
intentional use of music and music-making to actively support people as they strive
to improve their health, functioning and wellbeing (Australian Music Therapy
Association, 2014). Music Therapy early intervention therefore, is the use of music
and music-making to actively support and influence the health, functioning and
wellbeing of families and/or family members in the early childhood sector.
Considering this definition, the term ‘music therapy intervention’ in this thesis refers
to all types of formal and informal music therapy provided to all parents, carers and
children aged under 6 years (including those with/out disability, special needs, ‘at
risk’ circumstances etc).
Music therapy interventions offer varied and rich possibilities to encourage
positive musical parent-child interactions, support positive attachment and remediate
attachment difficulties (Pasiali, 2013). Music Therapy with premature infants and
41
mothers in the Neonatal Unit, for example, appears to positively impact mothers’
well-being and coping behaviour and motivation to sing with their infant (Haslbeck,
2012, 2014). In the Cevasco (2008) study, mothers of premature infants in the
Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) recorded a personalised CD of their singing
playsongs and lullabies to play to the infant to be used during hospitalisation and at
home, after discharge. Mothers reported that knowing their infant listened to the CD
of their singing helped them to cope with their infants’ stay in hospital, especially
when their ability to visit was hindered to employment and medical complications.
Haslbeck (Haslbeck, 2012, 2014) believes that training mothers in singing
offers them an opportunity to encourage homeostasis and improve wellbeing in the
infant (by minimising sensory deprivation and overstimulation, for example) while
also providing an enjoyable activity for mother and infant to engage in. Experiencing
such positive interaction addresses negative feelings of guilt, stress, fear and loss of
self-esteem in the mother which may cause attachment difficulties. Empowering the
mother to engage in attuned singing interactions therefore, may promote a healthy
mother-infant relationship while providing developmentally beneficial support for
the infant.
Group community music therapy early interventions such as Sing & Grow
have been offered to families with children up to five years of age who are at risk of
marginalisation. Benefits of these programs include: an expansion of childappropriate repertoire, providing opportunities for mother and child to experience
positive dyadic interactions, an increase in the parents’ frequency and enjoyment of
musical interactions with their children, an increase in parents’ confidence in sharing
music with their infant, self-reported strengthening of the parent-child relationship;
Shoemark, 1996). Participating in group music therapy programs may provide the
42
supportive, non-threatening, motivating and enriched environment necessary to
promote positive and emotional musical companionship and regenerate the tradition
of musical practise (Vlismas, 2007). However, only few known studies have
employed more rigorous evaluation designs and methodologies of such programs
(Nicholson, Berthelsen, Abad, Williams, & Bradley, 2008; Nicholson, et al., 2010;
Vlismas, 2007; Vlismas, et al., 2012).
Trolldalen (1997) examined the musical processes or interplay of mothers
with children aged 2-4 years old in a 10-week music therapy program. The therapist
used songs/singing and improvisation to provide a flexible framework for motherchild interaction in which any initiation by the mother and/or child were immediately
incorporated into the music-making. Trolldalen (1997) argues that musical interplay
provides opportunities for sharing meaningful moments, that is, where mother and
child meet each other through affective exchange, mutual recognition and sharing of
joint attention, also known as intersubjectivity (Stern, 1985; Travarthen, 1985).
These moments in turn, encourage positive development, for example, by promoting
sense of self and self-esteem, while deepening the mother-child relationship by
providing musical companionship.
Most early intervention music therapy programs are offered to families with
children up to five years old and only a few known studies focus on musical
interaction during the first year of the infant’s life specifically (Baker & Mackinlay,
2006; Cunningham, 2011; Vlismas, 2007; Vlismas, et al., 2012). In one such study,
Baker and Mackinlay (2006) conducted an educative music therapy program for
healthy first-time mothers and their healthy babies. The mothers were taught how to
effectively settle and calm their baby by singing lullabies in a way that first matched
the baby’s emotional state and then calmed and soothed the baby. The mothers learnt
43
to reflect their baby’s distress by singing a faster and more up-tempo lullaby with a
stronger vocal timbre and volume and then lower the emotional intensity of their
singing by using a sweeter, gentler, quieter voice and decreasing the tempo to soothe
and calm the infant (Baker & Mackinlay, 2006). Using this technique the mothers
learnt the skill of reading and responding to their baby’s cues as well as emotional
regulation resulting in mothers who were better able to settle their babies after the
educative program. This suggests that individualised educative music therapy
programs may positively influence the emotional communication between mother
and baby through lullaby singing. However, more research and empirical evidence is
needed to support this suggestion.
Bargiel (2004), believes that the utilisation of parental singing, particularly
play songs and lullabies may support the emergence and/or consolidation of a secure
attachment. She suggests an individualised attachment intervention approach where
the therapy is based not on therapeutic work through the medium of sound, as is the
case with many therapeutic approaches, but rather the reproduction of real-life
situations. The therapist creates a supportive environment while also modelling and
facilitating musical interaction so that the parent may (1) become conscious of
changes in the affective state and levels of anxiety and arousal of the baby, (2)
develop and practise their vocal responses to the baby’s sounds, signals and cues, (3)
recognise the baby’s needs for increased or limited stimulation, (4) enrich his/her
lullaby and play song repertoire, and (5) maintain sustained interaction with the
baby. The success of the intervention, in terms of influencing attachment then, is the
continuation of sensitive and attuned musical interaction outside of the therapeutic
setting.
44
De l’Etoile (2006a) also suggests an individualised ‘coaching’ approach
where (1) the therapist models interaction, (2) the mother describes her infant’s
responses, (3) the therapist assists the mother with interpreting her infant’s
behaviour, (4) the therapist guides the mother to understand the connection between
her infant’s cues and specific musical elements and (5) assists the mother to sing in a
style that is most appropriate to the infant’s current needs. She believes the
intervention should focus on recognition of the infant’s responses and various
configurations of musical elements. In this way, mothers may learn to modify
musical elements while singing in order to elicit the infant’s attention and match
and/or alter the infant’s current mood and arousal level.
Despite two suggested models of intervention, there is need for more research
on the ways in which music therapy promotes emotional communication and secure
attachment. De l’Etoile (2006a) suggests that future research should examine live
musical interactions in order to reveal both the mothers’ and infants’ most natural
and genuine reactions and be conducted with typically-developing infants and
healthy mothers to establish possible behaviour ranges. She also states that “...
additional studies are needed to clarify the non-musical aspects of ID (infantdirected) singing ...” (p. 27). Evidently, more information is needed about the
musical and non-musical processes involved in promoting and developing
attachment via song and in understanding the intuitive interactions of healthy
mother-infant dyads.
Summary
The literature clearly supports live singing as a vehicle for emotionally
attuned mother-infant communication. It has been shown that play songs and
45
lullabies facilitate emotional communication and positively contribute to attachment.
However, little is understood about the musical and non-musical mechanisms
involved in facilitating song-based emotional communication, and by extension, how
singing interactions contribute to the development of mother-infant attachment. More
research is needed to examine the intrinsic characteristics of mother-infant singing
interactions, specifically in relation to the facilitation of emotional communication
and the promotion of attachment. Such understanding would provide further insights
into the therapeutic potential of singing songs and enable music therapists to better
intervene and strengthen the security of mother-infant relationships.
RESEARCH AIMS
Hatch and Maietta (1991) state, “Before much can be done to intervene and
affect the quality of parent-infant interactions, the functional efforts that make up
these activities and contribute positively or negatively to the parent-infant bond must
be better understood” (p. 254). This study examines the ‘functional efforts’ of
mother-infant singing interaction to expand current understanding of how play songs
and lullabies facilitate emotional communication and positively contribute to
attachment. The primary research question is: “how do play songs and lullabies
facilitate
emotional
communication
and
contribute
to
the
mother-infant
relationship?” To address this question multiple aspects of play songs and lullabies
are examined by employing both qualitative and quantitative methods. The mixed
methods approach focuses on the following research aims:
(1) To examine the mother’s subjective experience of using play songs and
lullabies with their infant - this will be achieved by conducting a semi-
46
structured interview with each mother focussing on the thoughts and feelings
mothers experience during singing interactions with their infant,
(1) To examine the quality of interaction during the use of play songs and
lullabies - this will be achieved by videoing mothers singing songs with their
infant and rating the dyadic interaction using the numerical Emotional
Availability Scales (Biringen, 2008b), and
(1) To examine the behavioural and musical features of optimal and less-optimal
singing interactions during the use of play songs and lullabies – this is
achieved by transcribing and musically analysing case studies of optimal and
less-optimal singing interaction in relation to attributes of interaction
specified in the emotional availability framework (Biringen, 2000, 2008a,
2008b).
In this chapter the literature concerning singing, music, attachment and
emotional communication were reviewed, particularly in regard to how play songs
and lullabies relate to the theories of emotional communication and attachment. In
the next chapter the mixed methods research design and analysis will be discussed.
47
CHAPTER 3 – METHODOLOGY
"[Singing] is an opportunity for me to focus on her as much as it is the other way
around too"
Tammy, first time mother, interview conducted on 13th September, 2011
In the previous chapter the literature review was presented followed by the
research aims. In this chapter the convergent parallel mixed methods research design,
procedures and analysis processes are outlined in detail. In total, twenty-three
mother-infant dyads participated in the study. Twelve dyads were in the singing
condition and the mothers videoed singing songs with their infant. Eleven dyads
were in the non-singing control condition and the mothers videoed playing and
interacting with their infant without singing (non-singing interaction). Firstly, all
mothers were interviewed about their experience of either singing or non-singing
interaction with their infant. Secondly, the video footage of all 23 mother-infant
interactions was rated according to the Emotional Availability Scales (Biringen,
2008b). Lastly, a subset of six mother-infant singing interactions were musically
notated and analysed in relation to the scales of Emotional Availability to explore
how
mothers
facilitate
optimal
and
less-optimal
song-based
emotional
communication. The findings and discussions of the qualitative and quantitative
analyses are presented in the following chapters and converged to form the thesis
conclusion.
48
PARTICIPANTS
The participant sample included 23 mothers aged between 25 and 39 years
(mean age 32.4 years). All the mothers were married, the primary caregiver of the
infant, reported English as their first language, and scored < 8 on the Edinburgh PostNatal Depression Scale and reported to be in good health. The infants were aged
between 5.2 - 7.9 months old (mean age 6.3 months) and all were reported to be born
full-term without hearing impairment or other disability. Two additional mothers
were recruited for the study but withdrew participation due to unforeseen
circumstances.
The study was advertised to mothers through MARCS BabyLab3 and
community playgroups (see Appendix A). Interested parties contacted the present
author who sent them a questionnaire, Edinburgh Post-Natal Depression Scales,
participant information sheet and consent form (see Appendix B, C, D and E). The
initial selection criteria for the mothers included:
1. Aged between 23 and 39 years as mothers outside this bracket are at higher
risk of depression and their children are at higher risk of developmental
problems which may influence the behaviour of the mother and/or infant
(Khoshnood et al., 1998);
2. Mother of an infant aged 5-8 months old
3. Scored below 12 on the Edinburgh Post-Natal Depression Scale (scores of 12
or above indicates the likelihood of post-natal depression) as depression
3
MARCS is a research institute of the University of Western Sydney
49
effects the quality of mother-infant interactions and the mother’s perception
of attachment (Paris, Bolton, & Weinberg, 2009).
4. Currently not diagnosed with depression. Mothers who were previously
diagnosed with depression but scored before 12 on the Edinburgh Post-Natal
Depression Scale were eligible to participate
5. Completed year 12 of High school and speaks English as the first/main
language, allowing the mothers to clearly express themselves during the
interview;
6. Comfortable singing in front of a camera. This criterion was only necessary
for the singing condition. If a mother was uncomfortable singing but
otherwise eligible, she was automatically assigned to the control condition.
No mothers were excluded from the study due to mother age, infant age, Edinburgh
Post-Natal Depression Scale scores, current depression, High School qualification or
language. One mother was uncomfortable singing in front of a camera, but otherwise
eligible and therefore, automatically assigned to the control condition. All other
eligible mothers were randomly allocated to the singing or non-singing condition by
lottery. The present author wrote ‘singing’ and ‘non-singing’ on separate pieces and
placed them in a container. She then drew a piece of paper and allocated participants
to either the singing or non-signing condition according to the condition drawn.
Mothers in the Singing condition also had to meet the following additional
criteria:
1. Demonstrate she can sing each song correctly (without looking at the lyric
sheet and independent of the present author).
50
The purpose of being able to demonstrate the ability to sing each song fluently was to
maximise the spontaneous nature or naturalness of the interaction. If the mother was
not completely comfortable singing a song, that is, did not know the words or
melody, this might have interfered with the naturalness of the mother-infant
interaction being videoed and examined. One mother did not meet the additional
singing criteria completely. There was one lullaby that she did not know. However,
this was not due to memory difficulties. It was simply because she did not like the
particular lullaby and preferred singing other songs and it was agreed that she
continue participation without the particular lullaby in her repertoire.
MATERIALS
Music materials
The repertoire of ten songs taught to the mothers was chosen from resources
created by early childhood educators and professional artists including Mary Lee,
Lynn Kleiner and songs from the Wee Sing (book series). The repertoire was
purposefully chosen from sources of information that are not prominently accessible
through television or retail stores to increase the likelihood that the mothers will be
learning new repertoire thus, expanding the amount of songs that would be observed
while also providing a potentially desirable motivation to participate in the study.
A preliminary music analysis of the songs was completed to ensure there
were musical elements to facilitate synchrony, engagement and emotional regulation
(arouse attention, maintain attention, or soothe, calm and relax). The repertoire also
51
contained a range of play songs that involve a variety of movements (e.g. tickling,
kissing, knee-jogging, dropping or lifting). The final selection is as follows4:
1. Acka Backa Soda Craka by Mary Lee (tickly, kissy and knee-jogging play
song)
2. Jig jog by Lynn Kleiner (knee jogging play song)
3. Belly Button. Traditional poem arranged by the present author, registered
music therapist (tickly/kissy play song)
4. Trot Trot to Boston by Mary Lee (dropping/lifting play song)
5. Going to the moon by Mary Lee (knee-jogging and dropping/lifting play
song)
6. Hush-a-bye, baby-bye (traditional lullaby)
7. Sleep baby sleep (traditional lullaby)
8. Cradle Song by Schubert (traditional lullaby)
9. Suogan (Traditional lullaby)
10. Stroke your hands by Robin Howat, registered music therapist5 (soothing
song).
Emotional Availability Scales
The Emotional Availability Scales used in this study comprise of six
emotional availability dimensions. The four parental dimensions include: Sensitivity,
Structuring, Non-intrusiveness and Non-hostility. The two child dimensions include:
Responsiveness to mother and Involvement of mother. Each parental and child
4
Effort was made to trace sources and copyright owners. Songs of unknown authors/copyright holders
were retrieved from www.maryleemusic.com, Merrily Merrily … A book of songs and rhymes for
babies and young children, published by the Australian Breastfeeding Association and Wee Sing for
baby by Pamela Conn Beall and Simone Hagen Nipp, published by PSS! Price Stern Sloan.
5
Included with kind permission from the late Robin Howat
52
dimension includes seven subscales. For each dimension, the first two subscales are
rated from 1-7, and the third to seventh subscales are rated from 1-3. A summary of
type of observable behaviours/qualities the assessor considers for each subscale are
provided below.
Parental Sensitivity
(1) Affect – is there a clear enjoyment of the child? Is the parent’s affect genuine,
relaxed, balanced, bland, cool or detached, depressed, withdrawn, aggressive
or traumatised?
(2) Clarity of perceptions and appropriate responsiveness – is the parent aware
of infant signals and responds easily and correctly? Is the parent willing to
respond in an appropriate and prompt manner? Or, is the parent inconsistent
in the perception and/or responsiveness of infant signals or unaware of
oblivious to subtle cues but aware of blatant communications?
(3) Awareness of timing – is the parent aware of timing, seems off in timing at
times or lacks awareness of the importance of timing?
(4) Flexibility, variety and creativity in modes of play or interaction – is play fun
with lots of enjoyment or are there some playful times but the play seems
repetitive or is there little play, variety and enjoyment? Is the adult flexible or
is there little flexibility seen?
(5) Acceptance – does the parent speak/act in respectful ways, with occasional
disrespect with clear disrespect or does not speak/interact at all?
(6) Amount of interaction – was there enough, minimal or very little/no
interaction given the context and/or directions?
(7) Conflict situations – is the parent skilful in moving, not skilful in moving or
does not try to move conflicts toward resolution?
53
Parental Structuring
(1) Provides appropriate guidance and suggestions – does the parent use
preventative (proactive) guidance and suggestions, make subtle and varied
suggestions/comments that lead the child along the right path for the
situation? Or, is the parent inconsistent in providing preventative guidance or
vacillates between too much and too little guidance or is there little or no
guidance observed? Is there an emotionally scaffolding and enveloping
quality of the inputs that creates a ‘holding environment’ for the child that
leads the child in a positive way?
(2) Success of attempts to structure – Are the attempts successful in that they
move the child to a higher level and the child receives the inputs or are the
attempts not successful (although plentiful) or are the attempts repetitive and
do not seem to influence the child or take child’s reactions into account or is
there no/minimal interaction?
(3) Amount of structuring – does the parent use just the right amount, less than
ideal or too little structure tried (adult may talk and interact but no structuring
per se or an avoidance of structuring)?
(4) Limit setting, setting boundaries proactively - does the parent set limits and
boundaries appropriate to task/situation, or are there no limits to set in the
context? Or, does the parents set limits on occasion or not at all?
(5) Remaining firm in the face of pressure – does the parent remain firm but
continue to maintain a connection to child or the child does not put pressure
on the adult or there is no pressure observed? Or, is the parent inconsistent
with remaining firm, caves in sometimes or caves in easily?
54
(6) Verbal vs nonverbal structuring – are both channels used to structure or only
verbal/non-verbal or is neither used much?
(7) Peer vs adult role – is the adult clearly the adult (‘oler’ and ‘wiser’) and uses
a gestural system to indicate difference in an appropriate way or does the
adult and child sometimes/usually seem like age mates/at the same level or is
there too little interaction to judge?
Parental Non-intrusiveness
(1) Follows child’s lead – does the adult let the child lead and follows the child/s
lead or generally let the child follow in play or assume the lead role with
regard to child or become overly protective/suggestive even if benign? Or,
does the adult lead, over-mentor, over-parent and expect child to follow?
(2) Non-interruptive ports of entry into interaction – does the adult wait for
optimal breaks to enter the interaction or sometimes just enters the interaction
or clearly interrupts or abruptly interrupts and very frequently with lots of
‘don’ts’/physical intrusions?
(3) Commands, directives – does the adult use ‘do’s’ sparingly, occasionally or
create a situation of constant demands?
(4) Adult talking – is talking used as communication and part of dialogues, used
to overpower, lecture of over teach, for the adult’s sake only or is there
minimal talking?
(5) Didactic teaching – does the adult teach a great deal but in a way that does
not ignore relating or occasionally does not take into account the presence of
an interactive partner or teaches as if the child is an object/has a lot to catch
up on or there is little teaching of any kind?
55
(6) Physical vs verbal interferences – are there few verbal interferences or,
occasional, usually verbal, interferences, or physical interferences?
(7) The adult is made to “feel “ or “seem” intrusive – does the child never or
sometimes indicate the adult is intrusive, or does the child seem to
rebuff/move away to indicate adult is being intrusive?
Parental Non-hostility
(1) Adult lacks negativity in face or voice – does the adult not use negative
words/phrases/tone of voice and has good emotional regulation? Or, does the
adult demonstrate many subtle signs of negative emotion/stress such as
huffing, puffing, easily irritated or is there negativity in voice/face?
(2) Lack of mocking, ridiculing, or other disrespectful statement and/or
behaviour and general demeanour, whether obvious or subtle – is there
evidence of mocking/ridiculing or does the adult begin to say/do something
but stops self or seems aware of the disrespect? Or, does the adult say things
in a joking way or demonstrate behaviour that is disrespect, mocking,
ridiculing?
(3) Lack of threats of separation – does the adult never, begin to use but then
stops self, or clearly use threats of separation?
(4) Does not loose cool during low and high challenge/stress times – does the
adult maintain composure during stressful times or lose cool during
challenging contexts but able to remain stably calm/positive or lose cool
under low challenge times and easily?
(5) Frightening behaviour/tendencies – does the adult show no evidence of
physical/verbal assaultive behaviours or is the adult’s face/voice frightening
56
in some subtle way or become verbally/physically abusive or demonstrate
other clearly overtly frightening behaviour?
(6) Silence – is the adult not silent very much, use the silent treatment when in a
discipline situation or talk so little that the tone of interaction seems
deadened?
(7) Themes or play themes hostile – is the play appropriate to the materials
with/out malevolent themes/resolution or is the play violent or containing
disturbing themes?
Child Responsiveness
(1) Affect/emotion regulation/organisation of affect and behaviour – is the
child’s affect positive, genuine (not a people pleasing way), is the child able
to regulate emotions well and demonstrate emotional range appropriate to the
context? Or, is the child’s affect generally positive but with a quality of
inappropriateness and demonstrates occasional dysregulation, inconsistency
or under-regulation or an over-reliance on adult for regulation? Or, does the
child seem emotionally shut down, not connected to the adult emotionally,
over-regulated and avoidant of emotions? Or, is the child’s affect sad,
irritated, depressed, threatening, aggressive, confused, traumatised and is
disorganised easily?
(2) Responsiveness – when the adult initiates, is the child likely to respond
verbally and/or nonverbally or does the child have an over-responsive quality
or qualities that are less than optimal (but still responsive) or is the child
likely not to respond and seems oblivious or the adult does not initiate much?
(3) Age-appropriate autonomy-seeking and exploration – does the child seek out
opportunities to be exploratory and autonomous or show some but not very
57
clear signs of autonomy seeking for age or seem passive, stay very close to
adult or show too much autonomy?
(4) Positive physical positioning – does the child mould to the adult’s body and
seek if physical contact appropriate for age or seek physical contact that may
not be healthy such as physical proximity indicating that the child may be
overconnected or does the child, rarely, if at all, seek physical contact or
seem avoidant of the adult?
(5) Lack of role reversal/over responsiveness – does the child show no signs of
role reversal (parentified behaviours) or show minimal signs of role reversal
or show clear/distinct signs of role reversal?
(6) Lack of avoidance – is the child attentive to play/activities but not to the
exclusion of the adult? Or, is the child not avoidant but also not connected to
the adult? Or, is the child seemly avoidant of adult?
(7) Task oriented/concentrate – is the child focussed on the object play but does
not, occasionally or usually excludes the adult?
Child Involvement
(1) Simple initiative – does the child show initiative in bringing adult into
interaction by looking, talking etc or initiate some of the time? Is the child’s
initiating positive or negatively involving or combined with anxiety? Is the
child quite uninvolving and seem task-oriented or does not initiate at all?
(2) Elaborative initiative – does the child involve in a way that creates a
positively elaborated interaction rather than simple exchanges or is the child
connecting with the adult around an object or moderately elaborative in
initiative (simple exchanges) or not seen elaborating and engaging after
making initiatives?
58
(3) Use of adult – does the child go to adult for emotional and playful exchanges
or use the adult both emotionally and instrumentally, or does the adult seem
more like a tool that child uses to get instrumental, rather and emotional
needs met?
(4) Lack of over-involvement – is there no evidence of negatively involving adult
or only rare involvement through distress/anxiety etc or is the child clearly
over-involving?
(5) Eye contact, looking – does the child show involvement through multiple,
few of no instances of nonverbal channels?
(6) Body positioning – does the child involve through positioning body toward
adult or rarely/never positions body facing adult?
(7) Verbal involvement – does the child involvement through babbling/talking
and frequently? Or, involves only on few/scarce instances or not at all?
Summary of the Emotional Availability Scales
The Emotional Availability Scales provide a holistic assessment of dyadic
interactions because judgements of Emotional Availability encompass the parent's
understanding of the child's emotional experience, together with the child's responses
to the parental bids (Biringen, 2000, 2008a, 2008b). To examine the quality of
interaction between mother and infant, trained assessors are required to observe
video footage of the interaction and make clinically sensitive judgements about the
behavioural contributions of both mother and child. Before actually rating the
interaction, the assessor first considers the overall health of the relationship. The
assessor asks, “Is there an emotional connection or not?” and “is it a healthy
connection or not?” Various relationship qualities are described by Biringen (2008a,
2008b). For example, a relationship may appear to be optimally emotionally
59
available and securely attached. Any stressors are dealt with optimally, both adult
and child are emotionally recruitable and demonstrate good emotional regulation.
The affect of both adult and child are genuine, positive and relaxed. However, a
relationship may appear less than optimally emotionally available and, rather, ‘good
enough’. Both adult and child seem generally positive and there is an emotionally
recruitable quality to the relationship, but with less of a spectacular quality. Another
type of relationship comprises of a mis-match or separation. For example, the adult
may appear to use emotional availability skills quite well but the child lags in terms
of the child’s side of emotional availability or seems to have a complicated emotional
availability, perhaps due to disability. In other words, the child does not match the
child’s emotional availability.
An “apparently” healthy relationship quality is another different type of
emotional connection described by Biringen (2008a, 2008b). The adult-child
relationship is observed to be good in many ways with a connection and good times,
but the connection does not seem entirely healthy. There seems to be something
lacking or not completely relaxed about the relationship. The caregiver’s affect may
seem exaggerated or pseudo-positive (ingenuine) or the adult may seem warm but
nurture/encourage dependency. Perhaps the adult is working hard to engage the child
and draw affect out and the result is a seemingly tiring, effortful and draining
relationship. Overall, both adult and child are enjoying each other, but it is difficult
to give a ‘clean bill of health’ to the relationship.
Other relationship qualities involve a separation or detachment between adult
and child. For example, the adult is detached but the child is still seeking some
connection with the adult or both adult and child appear detached, unavailable, cool,
distant, avoidant and ignoring of one another.
60
Once the overall emotional connection is considered, the assessor moves on
to the actual rating of the dimensions. The assessor observes the video footage as
many times as necessary to complete all the ratings. Additionally, for this study, the
author designated rating categories of emotional availability for use with the music
analysis. The categories were determined by particular divisions of scores as outlined
in the scoring materials for the Emotional Availability Scales (Biringen, 2008b),
including optimal (29), high (20-28), mid (11-19) and low (7-10). A summary of the
dimensions, subscales and rating categories is provided in Table 1.
Table 1: Summary of the abridged version of the Emotional Availability Scales, 4th Edition (Biringen,
2008b).
Dimension
Description
Subscales
Rating Categories
Parental
Sensitivity
Sensitivity refers to the
adult's positive affect,
ability to be emotionally
responsive to their child and
behavioural style.
29 – optimal sensitivity
20-28 – high
11-19 – mid
7-10 – low (non-optimal
sensitivity)
Parental
Structuring
Structuring refers to an
adult’s ability to provide an
adequate frame or scaffold
for interactions such as the
ability to follow the child’s
lead and set limits for
in/appropriate child
mis/behaviour.
Parental Nonintrusiveness
Non-intrusiveness refers to
the mother's ability to
provide autonomy for the
child whilst being an
available and supportive
frame i.e. ability to be
available to the child
without being intrusive to
him/her
Non-hostility refers to the
ability to regulate negative
emotions such as
impatience and anger. It
includes both covert and
overt forms of hostility such
as background discontent
and signs of negativity
Affect (1-7)
Clarity of perceptions and appropriate
responsiveness (1-7)
Awareness of timing (1-3)
Flexibility, variety and creativity in modes
of play or interactions (1-3)
Acceptance (1-3)
Amount of interaction (1-3)
Conflict situations (1-3)
Provides appropriate guidance and
suggestions (1-7)
Success of attempts to structure (1-7)
Amount of structuring (1-3)
Limit setting, setting boundaries proactively
(1-3)
Remaining firm in the face of pressure (1-3)
Verbal vs nonverbal structuring (1-3)
Peer vs adult role (1-3)
Follows child’s lead (1-7)
Non-interruptive ports of entry into
interaction (1-7)
Commands, directives (1-3(
Adult talking (1-3)
Didactic teaching (1-3)
Physical vs verbal interferences (1-3)
The adult is made to “feel “ or “seem”
intrusive (1-3)
Adult lacks negativity in face or voice (1-7)
Lack of mocking, ridiculing, or other
disrespectful statement and/or behaviour
and general demeanour, whether obvious or
subtle (1-7)
Lack of threats of separation (1-3)
Does not loose cool during low and high
challenge/stress times (1-3)
Frightening behaviour/tendencies (1-3)
Silence (1-3)
Themes or play themes hostile (1-3)
Parental Nonhostility
61
29 – optimal structuring
20-28 – high
11-19 – mid
structuring)
29 – optimal nonintrusiveness
20-28 – highly
11-19 – mid
7-10 – low (highly intrusive)
29 – optimal non-hostility
20-28 – highly
11-19 – mid
7-10 – low (highly hostile)
Child
Responsiveness
to parent
Responsiveness refers to
the child's positive affect,
ability to regulate emotions,
overall demeanour when in
interaction with the adult as
well as eagerness or
willingness to engage with
the parent
Child
Involvement with
parent
Involvement refers to the
degree to which the child
attends to and engages the
parent in play i.e. attempts
to involve the parent in
interaction. It involves both
positive and negative forms
of involvement
Affect/emotion regulation/organisation of
affect and behaviour (1-7)
Responsiveness (1-7)
Age-appropriate autonomy-seeking and
exploration (1-3)
Positive physical positioning (1-3)
Lack of role reversal/over responsiveness
(1-3)
Lack of avoidance (1-3)
Task oriented/concentrate (1-3)
Simple initiative (1-7)
Elaborative initiative (1-7)
Use of adult (1-3)
Lack of over-involvement (1-3)
Eye contact, looking (1-3)
Body positioning (1-3)
Verbal involvement (1-3)
29 – optimal responsiveness
20-28 – highly
11-19 – mid
responsiveness)
29 – optimal involvement
20-28 – highly
11-19 – mid
7-10 - low (non-optimal
involvement)
PROCEDURE
Groups
There were two groups of participants, a singing group and a non-singing
group. All mothers were aware that the basic aim of the study was to examine how
singing songs contributes to the mother-infant relationship. They were also aware
that they would be assigned to either a singing or non-singing group and would be
videoed and interviewed about their experiences, according to the group they were
assigned.
Singing Condition
In the singing condition, and before the study began, mothers participated in
four singing sessions in which they practiced a set of songs (see Music Materials
above). Each session lasted approximately forty-five minutes and was facilitated by
the present author. The rationale for introducing repertoire to participants was
essentially precautionary. As discussed in Chapter 2, the literature suggests that
parents’ musical interaction with their children is decreasing (Baker & Mackinlay,
62
2006; de Vries, 2007; M. Papoušek, 1996; Vlismas & Bowes, 1999; Young, 2008),
There was also a concern that the recruited mothers could have had a limited
knowledge of play songs and/or lullabies or an unbalanced repertoire (e.g. a mother
may know some nursery rhymes, but not any lullabies). Therefore, to maximise the
amount and variety of songs to be observed, mothers were first taught a small, but
varied set of infant-appropriate repertoire containing five play songs and five
lullabies.
Data from the pre-selection questionnaire reveals that mothers were already
engaged in daily musical interactions with their infant. Eleven of twelve mothers in
the singing condition reported singing every day to their infant. Only one mother
reported to sing weekly but also commented that she mainly hummed, rather than
sang songs directly to her child, and that these songs were mainly popular songs from
the radio. Most mothers also reported they sang both play songs and lullabies, listing
classic nursery rhymes such as, Old MacDonald had a farm, Incy Wincy, Row, row,
row your boat and Twinkle Twinkle little star and traditional lullabies such as Hush
little baby, Rock-a-bye baby and Brahms lullaby. Generally, more play songs were
listed than lullabies which may suggest an unbalanced knowledge or play songs
versus lullabies. Overall though, the concerns that participants may have limited
repertoire of songs was somewhat unfounded (See Limitations, p. 361 for further
discussion). However, the participants often verbally expressed their desire and
enthusiasm to learn more songs. At the very least, the set of songs provided to the
participants served as an attractive motivator for participating in the study.
As a teaching aid, the mothers were given an audio CD containing a
recording of each song. To create the CD, the present author re-recorded the songs
using the recording program Protools. The present author recorded her own voice
63
singing the melody and instrumental accompaniment for harmonic support.
Playsongs were accompanied by acoustic guitar 6. Lullabies were accompanied by
synthesised strings and harp, recorded via keyboard, performed by the present
author7. The mothers were also given a lyrics folder containing the lyrics and
suggested movements for each song (see Appendix F). To create the lyrics folder, the
present author simply retyped the lyrics and movements into a word document. The
author explained that the CD was not to be used as an accompaniment to interaction
or to replace live musical interaction during the period of the study; it was a teaching
aid only.
During data collection mothers visited the MARCS BabyLab three times
approximately a fortnight apart. During the first and second visit the mothers were
videoed singing songs with their infant. The mothers were asked to, “sing songs and
interact as you do at home” and to use any songs in the learnt repertoire but were free
to sing other songs that they already knew. Generally, mothers were told that the
songs should be sung spontaneously, and that they should not feel restricted in how
they expressed themselves when singing. Mothers were also allowed to bring any
toys they felt necessary (many chose not to). Immediately after the second video
session the mothers participated in a semi-structured interview. During the third visit,
the mothers were asked to verify the accuracy of the interview analysis. This process
involved the mothers reading through the interview transcript and analysis and
providing comments about the analysis (see Appendix G for the verification sheet
that each participant completed).
6
A professional guitarist, Daniel Stewart, donated his time to record the guitar accompaniment, as
directed by the present author.
7
Copyright holders are unknown for many songs (see Footnote 4). Therefore, the recordings and full
score of the repertoire have been excluded from the thesis. However, the lyrics and suggested
movements of the songs (as provided to the participants) have been included in Appendix F.
64
Control Group
The mothers in the control group were not required to learn the songs.
Mothers visited the BabyLab three times, but instead of being videoed singing songs,
they were videoed interacting/playing freely with their infant. Mothers were provided
a small box of baby toys and were allowed to bring in their own toys into the room as
well. Mothers were asked to, “interact and play as you do at home”. The videoing
sessions took place in the same dedicated recording room in the MARCS BabyLab.
Below is a diagram outlining the research process for both the experimental and
control group:
Singing Condition only
4 weekly singing sessions learning songs
Both singing and control groups
Visit 1 – Interaction video session 1
Visit 2 – Interaction video session 2 plus interview
Visit 3 –Interview verification
Figure 2 – Diagram outlining the research process.
Video recording
Mother and infant were video recorded in a dedicated interaction room at
MARCS BabyLab for 20 to 25 minutes. The BabyLab recording room was 2.4 x 2.1
meters and contained a high chair reclined at a 45 degree angle (to encourage eye
contact with the mother) and an adult sized chair about 30 centimetres away from the
high chair. Four hard-disk camcorders were placed on the walls of the room. The
65
camera set up is shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4. Camera 1 was mounted high up on
the wall to capture any interaction that occurred while the mother was
standing/dancing. Camera 2 was mounted mid way up the same wall as Camera 1 to
capture a side view of both mother and infant while interacting in the chairs or on the
floor. Camera 3 was mounted high up on the opposite wall and pointed downwards
to capture a bird-eye view of the interaction. This angle captured a variety of
interaction, such as when the mother stood up, walked around/danced or when
mother and infant interacted on the floor. Camera 4 was mounted high up another
wall to capture more views of the infant while in the high chair or being lifted into
the air. The purpose of having the multiple cameras placed in various positions
around the room was to ensure that all dyadic interaction was captured e.g. when
mothers were sitting and when they were standing their heads might be out of frame
of one camera but would be captured by another. Also, due to the size of the room,
each camera was fitted with a wide angle 0.7x magnification lens. This wide-angle
lens allowed a broader view of the room and the mother and infant to be captured.
All four cameras were connected to a 4-channel video mixer, which allowed all
video angles to be displayed simultaneously on a computer monitor in the control
room. Downloaded videos were saved as '.dv' files using iMovie for the purpose of
exporting to the video editing software, Adobe Premiere Pro 5. Editing included
increasing volume and removing footage at the beginning and end of the video,
especially video of an empty room. A diagram of the recording room and a picture of
the recording room, as captured by the 4-way cameras in Figure 3 and 4 below:
66
Curtain hiding camera
cords and glass
window
Camera 3 – high up on wall
Camera 4 – high up in
Camera 2 – mid
corner
way up wall
Door
Camera 1 – high
up on wall
Figure 3 – Diagram of the BabyLab recording room showing the position of the mother, infant and
cameras
Figure 4 – Image of the 4-way camera capture of the BabyLab recording room.
Mothers and infants were seated in the recording room, and instructed to
interact freely (for specific instructions see Participant Groups above). Mothers either
sang infant-directed songs to their infant (singing condition) or interacted freely with
their infant (control group) for 20-25 minutes. Mothers completed two video
sessions, two weeks apart.
67
Interview with mother
After the second video session the author conducted a semi-structured
interview with each mother in the same room. The infant remained in the room with
the mother but an assistant cared for any older siblings that were present. The
purpose of the interview was to (1) investigate the mother’s experience of using play
songs and lullabies, (2) to identify the attachment-related and bonding constructs
experienced during such interactions, and (3) explore the differences between the
experience of using songs versus non-singing play interaction i.e. what does the live
use of songs provide that non-singing interaction does not?
Each interview began with an open-ended question. The mothers in the
singing condition were asked: “What is your experience of singing songs with your
child?” Mothers in the non-singing condition were asked “What is your experience
of interacting/playing with your child?” For both the singing and non-singing
condition, the interviewer referred to, but was not limited to, a set of pre-prepared
questions/prompts to encourage mothers to expand on their responses and ensure
consistency across the interviews (see Appendix H for full list of questions). These
questions were deliberately open-ended to prompt mothers to consider various
aspects of their experience such as: how the mother feels during play songs and
lullabies specifically; whether the mother is conscious of any thoughts or decisionmaking processes while interacting and what these thoughts are; the reason behind
choosing/continuing/changing a particular song or play activity; how the experience
of interacting impacts on the mother and what the experience of interacting provides
the mother-infant relationship. The interviewer reflected back summarised responses
68
and asked for clarification of meaning throughout each interview to ensure the
mother's experience was properly understood.
Since mothers were aware of the basic aims of the study the mothers focused
their responses on either singing or non-singing interactions and also distinguished
between singing and non-singing interactions in their responses. Mothers in the
singing condition would talk about non-singing interactions, and the mothers in the
non-singing condition would talk about singing interactions, and outline how each
type of interaction was perceived and experienced by them.
Each interview was video recorded and transcribed. The transcription was
then analysed. On the mothers' third visit to the BabyLab, the mothers were asked to
read the interview transcription and a summary of their analysis and confirm that is
was a correct interpretation of what they said and believed.
Qualitative interview analysis
The interview data was analysed using an eleven-step phenomenological
process adapted from Grocke (1999) who examined the subjective experience of
receptive music therapy. The transcript of each participant was analysed (step 1-7) to
determine meaning units (or themes) and summaries of each participant's experience
of singing or non-singing interaction. Once all the individual summaries were
verified by the participants a group analysis was conducted across each group to
determine composite themes and a group summary of the experience of singing and
non-singing interaction, using the following steps:
1. Each interview transcript was read through to gain a sense of the overall
experience.
2. The transcript was read again, and key statements were underlined.
69
3. The key statements were placed together and grouped into themes, termed
meaning units. Each unit was given a category heading.
4. The meaning units for each transcript were transformed into a summary (also
known as a distilled essence) of experience.
5. The interview transcript (with key statements underlined) and the summaries
were verified by the participant on the mother's third visit.
6. Any changes, omissions, additions and comments made by the participant
were noted. If necessary, editions were made to the analysis and the mother
was asked to verify the summary again. When the mother determined the
summary was accurate this step of the analysis was deemed complete.
7. The meaning units were compared and grouped according to Condon and
Corkindale‘s (1998) attachment constructs e.g. meaning units related to
pleasure in proximity were grouped under the heading ‘Pleasure in
Proximity’. The new groupings clearly demonstrated which constructs were
associated to the mother’s experience of interaction. Any meaning units not
related to the attachment constructs or the mother's perception of her
relationship with the infant or her experience of singing with her infant (e.g.
comments about her relationship with an older child or how the experience of
parenting in general have changed the mother's perspective on life) were
grouped under the heading 'Other'.
8. Once step 6 and 7 had been completed for each participant, the common
meaning units across all interviews (per sample) were paralleled to complete
a group comparison analysis, also known as a horizontal distilling process.
Any meaning units under the heading 'Other' (as discussed above in step 7)
were not relevant to the aim of analysing the mother's experience of singing
70
with her infant and how it relates to attachment. Therefore, meaning units
under 'Other' were not included in the analysis.
9. The meaning units from each participant were compared. The common
meaning units were grouped together and transformed into composite themes.
10. The composite themes were distilled into four composite essences - one
essence/summary for each attachment construct (Condon & Corkindale,
1998)
11. The composite themes that were shared by at least 50% of the sample were
then transformed into a final global description of the experience of motherinfant singing or non-singing interaction.
12. Finally the composite themes (that were shared by at least 50% of the
participants) for the singing and non-singing condition were compared to
determine how the experience of singing interactions differs to non-singing
interactions.
As a result of this analysis process the author distilled data about the subjective
experience of using play songs and lullabies (or non-singing play interactions) for
each dyad separately as well as across each sample as a whole.
Emotional Availability analysis
The 20 -25 minutes of video footage of each mother-infant dyad was coded
by the present author and external expert using the Emotional Availability Scales
(EAS), as outlined in 'Materials'. Both the present author and expert coder were
trained and supervised by Zeynep Biringen. The present author coded all videos and
for purposes of evaluating reliability, the second expert rater coded 40% of the
videos. The expert rater was independently contracted and unaware of the aims of the
71
study or the dyadic groupings. Any ratings with an initial difference of more than +/1 were negotiated and typically, coding was more aligned with the expert rater.
Overall inter-rater reliability was r = 0.94 (Pearson’s correlations). Means of each
emotional availability dimension and correlations between the groups were
calculated.
Transcriptional Music Analysis
The video footage of six mother-infant dyads in the singing condition was
selected to extract musical and behavioural features of mother-infant singing
interactions. The selected cases demonstrated varying degrees of emotional
availability to ensure that both optimal and less-optimal interactions were analysed.
The cases were analysed as follows:
1. The video footage for each case study was viewed multiple times and notes
were taken. The author focussed on the dimensions of emotional availability
and noted when clear examples of each emotional availability occurred (e.g.
infant becomes still and silent during lullaby singing [Video 1 - 05:38]).
2.
From the notes, three or four excerpts of interaction demonstrating different
aspects of emotional availability were chosen for transcription. An excerpt
consisted of a song, including repetitions of the song and any infant-directed
speech occurring before, during, after and inbetween repetitions of the song.
At times it was difficult to determine when a song interaction began and
ended due to the occurrences of infant-directed speech. Generally, speech that
was related to the song (e.g. the mother asking "do you want to sing a song?"
or commenting "that was fun") was included in the excerpt of interaction. The
excerpts were transcribed into musical notation using the computer program
72
Sibelius. The mother’s voice, infant’s voice and movements/actions were
included in the score.
3. Once a transcription was completed the author listened to the footage again
while reading over the notation. Any errors were corrected.
4. The excerpts were then analysed according to the structural elements of
music: structure/form, pitch, rhythm, tempo, tone/timbre, dynamic and
expressive techniques. Since there was only one vocal line the elements of
harmony and instrumentation were irrelevant to the analysis.
5. The musical motifs, themes and characteristics were grouped in a table
according to the emotional availability dimension they related to and once
completed the findings were compared to derive musical principles of
optimal singing interactions.
Convergence and interpretation
The final stage of a convergent parallel mixed methods design is the
convergence and interpretation of all the analysed data (Creswell, 2009; Creswell &
Plano Clark, 2011). This involves considering each data set individually and
collectively to gain a holistic understanding of the experience of singing songs and
non-singing interactions, in regard to the research aims. By interpreting each data set
individually and in combination, many insights into the multi-faceted nature of
mother-infant interaction and attachment may be achieved. Consequently the
analyses and discussion in this study focus on understanding either: (1) a particular
aspect of the experience of singing or non-singing interactions, (2) the overall
experience of singing songs or non-singing interactions, or (3) how the experience of
singing songs differs from (is unique to) non-singing interactions. Finally,
73
conclusions are drawn from the multiple interpretations with the purpose of
providing an overall account of how singing was found to facilitate emotional
communication and promote secure attachment.
METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Bias
It might be considered that there was a bias in relation to teaching the
mothers a set repertoire of songs. Mothers did not participate in an intervention
program where they are coached in reading infant signals and manipulating the
musical elements to respond accordingly. Instead, they were merely helped to learn a
set of songs. There was no expectation that the songs be performed in any particular
way or indeed that they were used. Mothers were free to behave how they liked in
their interactions with their infants during video recording.
Epoché
It is important for every researcher to consider the trustworthiness or validity
of a study. Qualitative methodologies, particularly phenomenology, require a
researcher to immerse herself into the research process (Broido & Manning, 2002;
Creswell, 2009; Denzin & Lincoln, 2008; Moustakas, 1994). There are many
strategies that may be employed to increase the trustworthiness or validity of a study
(Creswell, 2009; Grocke, 1999; McMurray, Pace, & Scott, 2004). One strategy is the
use of a member check or participant validation which is incorporated into the
phenomenologically inspired transcript analysis. Another strategy is to undertake a
process of reflection that facilitates the awareness of, acknowledgement and
74
understanding of personal bias called an epoché, or examination of bias (Creswell,
2009; Moustakas, 1994). The researcher reflects on how her own background,
culture, history and experiences may influence the interpretation of data. The
renewed awareness of self allows the researcher to consciously suspend biases
throughout the data collection and analysis processes, allowing an uninhibited flow
of information (Erlandson, Harris, Skipper, & Allen, 1993). Philosophers and
researchers recognise that the epoché does not imply an absence of presuppositions,
but a consciousness of one’s own presuppositions (Grocke, 1999). In other words the
researcher cannot eliminate, only suspend bias (See Appendix I for the completed
epoché).
SUMMARY
In this chapter the mixed methods research design, procedure and analysis
were outlined. In essence, employing the convergent parallel design allows the
author to examine multiple facets of dyadic interaction simultaneously and thus,
achieve a more holistic investigation. From the following chapter, the findings from
each data set will be presented. The next chapter (Chapter 4) will present the
Interview and Emotional availability findings of each participant from the singing
condition. Chapter 5 presents the Interview and Emotional Availability findings of
each participant from the non-singing condition. Chapter 6 presents the findings at
the group level of analyses for both the ratings of Emotional Availability qualitative
interviews. In Chapter 7, the musical and behavioural features of singing interaction
will be explored. This will include the presentation of the findings from the six
detailed music analyses and the derivation of musical principles of the mothers'
75
optimal and less-optimal singing interactions. Lastly, in Chapter 8, all the results will
be merged in a final discussion considering all data sets followed by the thesis
conclusions.
76
CHAPTER 4 – INDIVIDUAL EXPERIENCE
OF SINGING INTERACTION
"The fact that I make him stop crying when I'm singing, that's huge. I don't have to
feed him or anything, I just sing and it's enough (...) if he's just going to stop crying
because I'm singing him a song, and he could be really distressed, and it'll calm him
down to the point where he's like falling asleep almost. I think that's, to me,
really powerful"
Tullia, mother of two, interview conducted on 7th December, 2011
The purpose of this study is to gain a deeper understanding of how singing
songs facilitates emotional communication and contributes to the mother-infant
relationship. Multiple aspects of dyadic singing and non-singing interactions were
analysed. This chapter presents the findings on a case by case basis for the singing
condition. Specifically, Chapter 4 includes individual summaries of the findings from
(1) the ratings of Emotional Availability which provides behavioural indicators of the
quality of dyadic interaction, and (2) the semi-structured Interview which reflect the
subjective experience of the mother during her singing interactions with her infant.
The analysis of the Interview is structured to provide an explication of the meaning
units or themes that arose during the interview, and how they relate to Condon &
Corkindale's (1998) attachment constructs, which is subsequently discussed, and
related back to Emotional Availability ratings. It should be noted that all names have
77
been changed to protect the privacy of the mothers and infants who participated in
the study.
ALICE & CINDY
Alice is the mother of two children, Ethan and Cindy (her second born).
Cindy was 5.5 months old at her first video session. In this session, Cindy was
flushed, distressed, and seemed to be in pain from teething. Alice spent most of the
session trying to calm and soothe Cindy's distress. At her second video session,
Cindy was 6 months old and remained happy for the duration of the video session
with no signs of her previous distress. Although the first video session was stressful
for mother and child, the comparison of the video sessions demonstrate Alice’s use
of songs in two very different situations.
Ratings of Emotional Availability
The ratings of Emotional Availability were averaged across the two sessions.
Overall, Alice's scores are categorised as high, according to the division of scores
outlined in the 'Materials' section of the Chapter 3 (see p. 52). As shown in Table 2,
she scored between 26 and 27 on the dimensions of Parental Sensitivity, Structuring,
Non-Intrusiveness and Non-Hostility, despite the distress shown by Cindy in the first
session. Cindy also had high scores on both child dimensions. Averaged across the
two sessions, Cindy scored 25.5 for child Responsiveness and 25.5 for Child
Involvement. Overall, Alice and Cindy are highly emotionally available.
From observation, Alice was relaxed, warm and appropriately animated
without being ‘over-the-top’. She demonstrated enjoyment of her child and
responded appropriately and promptly to Cindy's cues. When Cindy was distressed
78
Alice spent a great deal of time gently modulating her negative emotions. Overall
Alice’s structuring positively guided Cindy as she followed Cindy’s interests and
reactions in a non-hostile manner. Even in the stressful situation of the first video
session (Cindy’s distress) Alice remained calm and showed minimal signs of
negative stress.
Cindy’s affect was generally positive. She responded well to Alice’s
initiations and demonstrated a range of positively and negatively involving
behaviours. She demonstrated more anxious behaviours in session 1 and therefore
received a lower Child Involvement score for this session. However, even when she
was distressed she demonstrated an ability to be regulated; an equally important
indicator of high emotional availability.
Table 2: Summary of Alice and Cindy’s Emotional Availability scores.
Emotional Availability
Scale
Total score ( / 29)
Mean total score
Category of EA8
Sensitivity
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
27
High
26.5
High
26
High
27
High
25.5
High
22.5
High
Structuring
Non-intrusiveness
Non-hostility
Child responsiveness
Child involvement
27
27
26
27
25
27
27
27
25
26
21
24
Interview Findings
Verification was given by Alice who agreed that the transcript and summary
was an accurate reflection of her interview. Both the transcript and verified summary
are found in Appendix J. The only concern she had was that people may think Cindy
8
EA is an abbreviation of Emotional Availability. This abbreviation is used throughout the summary
tables in Chapter 4 and 5
79
is an unhappy baby and was glad that Cindy's usual happy demeanour was captured
in the second video session.
The overall meaning units/themes from Alice's interview are shown in the
second column of Table 3. These meaning units were related to three attachment
constructs (Condon & Corkindale, 1998): (1) pleasure in proximity, (2)
tolerance/acceptance, and (3) need gratification and protection, shown in the first
column of Table 3. Other meaning units are also included such as, how singing helps
Alice and Cindy to bond more, looks after both Alice and Cindy’s well-being, and is
beneficial for the whole family.
Table 3: Alice’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs
Attachment
Constructs
Pleasure in
proximity
Meaning Units/Themes







Tolerance/
acceptance



Need
gratification/
protection








Alice feels happy when she sings songs with Cindy
It’s fun to see Cindy squeal with delight during songs
Singing is a pleasant, happy and peaceful experience for Alice. She experiences a
more active peacefulness during play songs and a more trance-like peacefulness
during lullabies
Singing is quality time (as opposed to quantity time) – they are doing something
together - they experience a connection or sense of togetherness
When Cindy is showing signs that she’s happy and enjoying herself then both feel
happy and enjoy interacting (neither feel bored)
Singing songs creates a spiral of happiness where Alice and Cindy feed off each
other’s happiness
Singing songs stops a spiral of grumpiness by turning a potentially grumpy spiral
into a spiral of happiness
Singing is a tool that makes mothering easier
Singing has a calming effect on Alice. It has positive benefits for her well-being as
well
Even if Cindy is not calming down, singing helps Alice to feel less helpless,
particularly in stressful situations such as Cindy crying in the car
Singing has helped Alice and Cindy to bond more.
Alice often thinks about all the things she needs to do, however once she starts
singing all previous thoughts disappear (are forgotten) and she becomes focussed
on Cindy
Alice’s awareness of Cindy’s cautious nature influences the shape of the
interaction. Alice will often repeat songs a few times until Cindy has indicated
whether he likes or dislikes a song
Cindy’s changing tolerance for movement also influences how Alice will use the
songs e.g. she does not like going up too many times so she will mix up the
directions or change the words of the song to accommodate a different direction
Feelings of boredom will influence how Alice sings songs. If Cindy is looking
bored Alice will change songs
When Cindy is showing signs that she’s happy then Alice will continue to repeat a
song
Cindy’s emotional state will influence Alice’s speed of singing
Cindy’s reactions determine the direction of the interaction. If Cindy is looking
happy and calm then Alice will continue repeating a song trying to get her more
excited or more calm
80









Knowledge
acquisition
Other


When Alice sings songs with Cindy she is focussed on Cindy and nothing else.
Songs are used when Cindy is bored, in stressful situations (such as Cindy crying
in the car) and when Alice is available (not in the middle of something) or toys do
not make her happier
Cindy responds positively to Alice singing the same repertoire of songs. She
becomes less wriggly, more still, focussed and attentive and she starts to smile and
giggle.
When Alice starts singing Cindy’s boredom is turned into happiness. Songs also
stop her crying and screaming and calm and settle her down
There’s something nice about using the same repertoire. It provides Cindy with
familiarity which seems to contribute to her overall positive experience of songs.
Singing is another tool which makes Cindy happy or calm
Alice will often repeat songs a few times until Cindy has indicated whether he
likes or dislikes a song
Songs are used anywhere, anytime e.g. at Jonathan’s soccer practise.
Alice will sing throughout the day – there is no set ‘singing time’ – it just depends
on what they’re doing at the time
NONE
The calming effect of singing lullabies in stressful situations (such as Cindy crying
in the car) has positive benefits for the whole family e.g. instead of Jonathan
echoing phrases of frustration (e.g. “stop crying Cindy”) he will model Alice’s
singing by singing his own version of a lullaby to help Cindy clam down
Discussion
Central to Alice's interview was the statement, “If I had to sum it [singing] up
in one word, it would be ‘peaceful’. Even the active happy ones [play songs]”9. Alice
describes slipping into a ‘singing zone’ characterised by peacefulness and being
totally focussed on Cindy. This combination of characteristics seems to envelop or
contain Alice and Cindy in their interactions. In other words, Alice and Cindy
become absorbed in each other. In turn, the involving/interactive nature of singing
facilitates a sense of togetherness or quality one-on-one time.
The peacefulness that Alice experiences is also associated to maternal health
and well-being. She describes sharing in a spiral of happiness (which prevents a
spiral of distress) and feeling less helpless and stressed by singing. Thus, the ‘singing
zone’ facilitates a frame of mind which enables Alice to calm herself down and
reduce negative feelings while simultaneously meeting Cindy’s needs. In other
words, singing serves a dual function: it effectively meets Cindy’s need for
9
All quotes in the discussion were extracted from Alice’s interview which took place on June, 20,
2011.
81
emotional modulation while also helping Alice to better cope with the demands of
mothering.
The spiral of happiness is also important in terms of emotional
communication. By sharing in Cindy’s emotional modulation Alice is able to amplify
positive emotions and take joy in her daughter. These two elements are equally
important as soothing distress to positively impact infant health and demonstrate
emotionally availability (Biringen, 2008b; Schore, 2001, 2003; Siegel, 1999a,
1999b).
It is interesting to note that singing has extra familial benefits, particularly in
regards to Ethan, Alice’s eldest son. During moments when Cindy is distressed Ethan
copies Alice’s singing behaviour. Instead of becoming frustrated he attempts to
modulate Cindy’s emotions by singing his own version of a lullaby. Such behaviours
may increase family connectedness and functioning. However, further analysis and
exploration is beyond the scope of this study. Perhaps future research could examine
the benefits of singing to all family relationships, including siblings.
Conclusion
Comparing the Interview and Emotional Availability findings demonstrate
that Alice’s peaceful and focussed frame of mind may have helped her to achieve
high emotional availability. The Interview findings reveal that Alice calmed herself
by singing (which reduced feelings of stress, helplessness and hostility), was
focussed on Cindy while singing and consciously thought about responding to
Cindy’s cues and signals. The Emotional Availability scores reveal that Alice
implemented sensitive and prompt singing responses to Cindy’s cues and signals.
She also appeared to easily interpret and respond to Cindy’s cues. Together, the
82
findings suggest that Alice’s peaceful and focussed frame of mind helped to facilitate
highly sensitive, non-intrusive and non-hostile singing interactions. Also, the positive
contribution that singing made to Alice and Cindy's bond was perceived to be very
distinct and unique.
KELLY & LUCAS
Lucas is Kelly’s first child. At the first video session he was 7 months old and
very tired. He had periods of happiness but became unsettled and upset during the
session. At the second video session Lucas was 7.5 months old and remained quite
happy for the duration of the session.
Overall, Kelly's scores are categorised as high. As shown in Table 4, she scored
between 23.5 and 26.5 on the dimensions of Parental Sensitivity, Structuring, NonIntrusiveness and Non-Hostility, despite Lucas being unsettled in the first session.
Lucas also had high scores on Child Responsiveness (23.5) but was borderline
between mid and high scores for Child Involvement (20).
Kelly showed a clear enjoyment of Lucas, responded promptly to his cues
and her affect was positive, warm and animated. Nonetheless, there was a slight
ingenuity or ‘performance quality’ to her affect, perhaps due to the pressure
associated with recording her interactions for research. Kelly tried to provide positive
and preventative structuring. Her attempts led Lucas in a positive way and were
mostly successful. She was generally non-intrusive and tried to follow Lucas’s lead.
83
She also demonstrated emotional regulation and non-hostility e.g. she did not mock
or ridicule Lucas and showed very minimal signs of negative stress and irritation.
Lucas scored differently in the two child dimensions. His involvement scores
were lower than his responsiveness scores. Lucas’s affect was generally positive
although he showed some difficulties with self-regulation. However, he was
expressive and likely to respond positively to Kelly’s initiations. Lucas’s
involvement was less optimal than his responsiveness and tended to show only
simple means of initiating and elaborating interactions. He also used both positively
and negatively involving behaviours throughout both sessions.
Table 4: Summary of Kelly and Lucas’s Emotional Availability scores.
Scale
Total score ( / 29)
Mean total score
Category of EA
Sensitivity
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
24
High
26
High
23.5
High
26.5
High
23.5
High
20
Borderline high/mid
Structuring
Non-intrusiveness
Non-hostility
Child involvement
24
24
26
26
23
24
27
26
24
23
21
19
Interview Findings
Verification was given by Kelly who agreed that the transcript and summary
was an accurate reflection of her interview. Both the transcript and summary are
found in Appendix K. She also provided some written comments describing her
enjoyment of reading the summary and how certain songs have spread to extended
family members and encouraged singing interaction amongst the whole family.
The overall meaning units/themes from Kelly’s interview are shown in the
84
column of Table 5. Other meaning units that relate to the mother-infant relationship
focus on how singing provides a connection, is beneficial to both Lucas’s and
Kelly’s well-being, is an effective parenting tool in Kelly’s absence, may be
implemented anywhere and at any time of day and provides opportunities for Lucas
to bond with his other carers.
Table 5: Kelly’s meaning units are they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs
Attachment
Constructs
Pleasure in
proximity



Tolerance/
acceptance







Need
gratification/
protection










Singing is a happy pleasant experience, particularly when Kelly sees Lucas being
happy
It creates a spiral of happiness, Singing helps Kelly and Lucas feel happy and
Kelly feels happier seeing Lucas happy. Moods are contagious – Lucas’s bad
mood can put Kelly in a bad mood. Singing lifts both Kelly’s and Lucas’s mood
(bad moods are turned into happy moods via a spiral of happiness). Singing makes
both Kelly and Lucas happy
Singing helps Lucas to feel connected to Kelly even when physically separated
(e.g. in different sections of a room)
Singing calms Lucas down which provides Kelly feelings of relief
Moods are contagious – Lucas’s bad mood can put Kelly in a bad mood. Singing
lifts both Kelly’s and Lucas’s mood (bad moods are turned into happy moods via a
spiral of happiness). Singing looks after both Kelly’s and Lucas’s wellbeing
Kelly often thinks about the things she needs to do or how she’d like a nap too
while lulling Lucas to sleep
Singing songs helps Kelly to cope with being a mum and looking after Lucas 24
hours a day. It provides relief from his screaming and gives her something positive
to do besides housework.
Having a larger repertoire of songs has helped Kelly to feel less helpless
Singing songs will calm Lucas down which provides Kelly relief
Variations of songs minimise Kelly’s boredom allowing her to continue singing
without going crazy
Singing helps Lucas feel connected to Kelly even when physically separated
Singing calms Lucas down, even if they are physically separated and in different
parts of the room Kelly will sing to keep Lucas happy and calm
When playing, Kelly is thinking more about teaching Lucas something in
particular. During lullabies she thinks about getting Lucas to sleep and during play
songs she’s thinking about the two of them or trying to make Lucas happy
Kelly will use Lucas’s favourite song (Acka Backa) before others because she
knows it will work
Singing variations prevents Kelly from feeling bored which means she can keep
singing to Lucas without feeling crazy
Singing changes Lucas’s grumpy mood to a happy mood
Singing helps Lucas to stay calm, preventing him from screaming in distress
Moods are contagious. Lucas’s bad mood or distress will upset Kelly – it can be
like a negative spiral. Plus the more upset he gets the harder it is to calm him
down. Singing disrupts this cycle.
Singing helps Lucas to learn e.g. songs are used to help him learn the skill of
chewing and swallowing
Kelly will create variations of songs to suit what she’s trying to teach Lucas at the
time e.g. chewing food
85






Knowledge
acquisition
Other





Songs have developed particular associations with specific caregiving routines
based on how effectively they were previously e.g. Belly button while changing
nappies – the songs helped keep Lucas happy, calm distracted/engaged in the past
so were consistently used. Over time associations were developed
Kelly uses specific strategies when Lucas is starting to go over the edge. She
combines a particular holding position with lullabies to help calm his distress
Kelly’s family (who mind Lucas the most) all know his favourite songs. Plus she
leaves the CD and lyrics for other carers who mind Lucas on a short-term basis so
they can sing the same repertoire in Kelly’s absence. Kelly believes that the songs
are an effective tool in keeping Lucas happy.
Singing is another effective strategy to keep Lucas calm and happy
Words are modified to suit the movements she’s currently doing e.g. walking,
rocking
Kelly has a creative background which means she is very comfortable with
changing things and improvising. She creates variations of songs spontaneously
and based on behaviours she sees during or shortly after a song.
During play songs she’s thinking about the two of them (focussed on each other)
Generally Kelly sings whatever songs come into her head at the time.
NONE
Kelly will sometimes choose songs according to what movements she can do with
Lucas e.g. when he’s sitting on her lap she will sing horsey songs because sitting
position in conducive to the trotting motion
Songs offer Lucas’s other carers something else to do with Lucas other than watch
and supervise him. She believes singing songs offers her family opportunities to
bond with Lucas and that they will look back on singing as ‘happy times’ together
Discussion
The two key features of Kelly’s experience of singing songs are that: (1)
singing serves a dual function of modulating emotions and helping Kelly cope with
motherhood, and (2) there is a difference between the experience of play and singing
and between play songs and lullabies.
One function of singing is that it is an effective tool for keeping Lucas calm
and happy. Kelly describes singing as a method of disrupting a spiral of distress
when Lucas starts crying. It also modulates Kelly’s mood by providing relief and
lifting her spirits. It also helps Kelly to better cope with motherhood by (1) providing
something to look forward to that is positive and fun to do with Lucas, (2) reducing
feelings of helpless because she worries that she is not doing as much as she could
with Lucas and singing provides an interpersonal activity that addressed this concern,
and (3) Singing provides a creative outlet. For example, Kelly develops variations of
songs or improvises new lyrics. By being creative with her singing Kelly’s boredom
86
is minimised and this enables longer periods of singing which meets Lucas’s needs.
Thus, the intrinsically fun and interactive nature of singing combined with its ability
to modulate emotions characterises the dual function of singing.
For Kelly, there is a distinct difference between the subjective experience of
play and singing. She also differentiates between play songs and lullabies. Play is
characterised by an external focus of attention, one that concerns Lucas’s
development and teaching him skills. Play song interaction is characterised by a twoway or reciprocal focus of attention; both Lucas and Kelly focus on each other and
experience quality “us” time. Lullaby interaction is characterised by a one-way focus
of attention; Kelly will focus on Lucas’s need for sleep and fulfilling that need and
she sees this as a one-way interaction. This finding provides another perspective on
previous research. Rock, et al. (1999) found that infants demonstrate more outward
focus of attention (to their caregiver) when listening to play songs and more inward
focus of attention during lullabies. However, the infant’s direction of attention may
also impact the mother’s subjective experience of singing. According to Kelly's
interview, lullabies feel more like a mothering task that meets Lucas’s needs whereas
play songs feel more like quality one-on-one “us” time and therefore facilitate
feelings of togetherness. The contrasting experience of play songs and lullabies has
interesting implications for Kelly and Lucas’s relationship. Since lullabies do not
provide the same sense of togetherness as play songs, it is even more important for
Kelly and Lucas to engage in play song interactions regularly to experience the
benefits of focussed “us” time.
87
Conclusion
Comparing the Interview and Emotional Availability findings reveal that
Kelly tried very hard to be sensitive, non-hostile and structure her interactions. The
Emotional Availability scores reveal that Kelly demonstrated generally high but not
optimal emotional availability. The Interview findings reveal that Kelly thought
about modulating Lucas’s emotions and believed singing benefited her well-being in
multiple ways which, by extension, benefited her relationship with Lucas and ability
to cope with motherhood. By reducing stress, minimising boredom and providing a
fun creative outlet, singing promoted positivity and non-hostility. Together, the
Interview and Emotional Availability findings illustrate that Kelly is enthusiastic
about learning about parenting and doing the best she can for Lucas and that she
made a conscious effort to be emotionally available.
BETH & RITA
Beth is the mother of two daughters Sandra and Rita. Rita, her second child,
was 6.7 months old at her first video session and 7.1 months old at her second video
session. During both video sessions Rita appeared very happy and relaxed.
Overall, Beth's scores are categorised as high. As shown in Table 6, she scored
between 26.5 and 28 on the dimensions of Parental Sensitivity, Structuring, NonIntrusiveness and Non-Hostility. Rita also scored highly for Child Responsiveness
88
(25.5) and Child Involvement (22.5). Overall, Beth and Rita are highly emotionally
available.
Beth's affect was genuinely relaxed, warm and appropriately animated
without being ‘over-the-top’. She clearly enjoyed Rita, was aware of cues and
responded appropriately and promptly. Beth structured interactions in a way that led
Ruby positively and contained an emotionally enveloping quality. They were mostly
successful and very non-intrusive. By recognising and following Rita’s interests and
attention cues Beth provided a spacious quality to the interaction. Beth was also nonhostile. She was always respectful to Ruby and demonstrated only slight signs of
irritation.
Rita's affect was generally positive and she was able to regulate her emotions
well. She was likely to respond to Beth’s initiations positively and she demonstrated
a range of positive emotions. She was a little less involving than she was responsive.
Due to her age Rita had a limited range of communicative faculties to initiate and
elaborate interactions. However, Rita frequently used simple modes of involvement
throughout each session.
Table 6: Summary of Beth and Rita’s Emotional Availability scores.
Scale
Total score ( / 29)
Mean total score
Category of EA
Sensitivity
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
28
High
26.5
High
28
High
27.5
High
25.5
High
22.5
High
Structuring
Non-intrusiveness
Non-hostility
Child involvement
28
28
26
27
28
28
28
27
26
25
23
22
89
Interview Findings
Beth agreed that the transcript and summary of the interview was accurate,
and made no written comments. Both the transcript and summary of the interview are
found in Appendix L. The overall meaning units/themes from Beth's interview are
shown in the second column of Table 7. These meaning units were related to three
attachments (Condon & Corkindale, 1998): (1) pleasure in proximity, (2)
column of Table 7. Other meaning units are included such as, how Rita's current
position may influence which song Beth chooses to sing.
Table 7: Summary of Beth’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998)
attachment constructs
Attachment
Constructs
Pleasure
proximity
Tolerance/
acceptance
in








Need
gratification/
protection









Beth experiences an affectionate type of positive and emotional response to
singing – it is similar to cuddling
She particularly enjoys seeing Rita smile and giggle.
Beth experiences a sense of closeness to Rita when she sings. She feels a loving
soothing closeness during lullabies and a fun, happy playful closeness during play
songs
Beth enjoys the quiet one-on-one lullaby experience more than the play songs
Learning new songs has helped to minimise feelings of boredom created from
singing the same nursery rhymes over and over again
Singing breaks up the monotony of baby routines. It adds something else to the
day
Beth feels satisfied and pleased that she can provide something Rita enjoys
Beth feels pleased and proud that Rita associated Beth with a source of comfort (as
opposed to another adult)
Singing allows Beth to settle Rita’s teething grizzled without needing to use
panadol
When Rita looks like she is enjoying herself Beth will continue to repeat a song. If
Rita looks like she’s getting bored then she will switch to something else.
Singing is another parenting tool that is particularly useful because of its
portability and therefore can be used anywhere, anytime
Play songs are used to excite and engage Rita or to encourage her to interact.
Lullabies are used to calm, relax and prepare Rita for sleep
Other play activities such as reading is more focussed on an activity whereas
singing is more focussed on Rita and bonding
Beth has observed positive and calming responses to her singing e.g. singing
Stroke your arms while rubbing sorbelene cream onto Rita after bath time relaxes
Rita or when Rita is cranky in the car singing will settle her down.
Singing lullabies before bed time helps Rita to relax enough to fall asleep once
she’s put into bed.
Beth observes reactions e.g. smiles and leg kicks to determine if she is feeling
happy or bored.
Beth is focussed on Rita when singing songs, however the thoughts experienced
during play songs and lullabies differ. During play songs Beth will sometimes
90

Knowledge
acquisition
Other


have thoughts (about jobs/chores etc) pop into her head whereas during lullabies
she is totally focussed on Rita and will think affectionate thoughts such as “my
baby is beautiful”
Songs are integrated into everyday life – they are sung at various times of the day
depending on what Beth and Rita are doing at the time
NONE
Rita’s position will influence what song to do next e.g. if Rita is n Beth’s lap it is
easy to do songs like Acka Backa and Zoom Zoom or if she’s lying down it’s easy
to do Stroke Your Arms
Discussion
The key feature of Beth’s experience of singing is that songs are an effective
and portable parenting tool to keep Rita happy and calm while also impacting
positively on Beth and Rita’s relationship. The success of effectively modulating
Rita’s emotions provides Beth with feelings of satisfaction and pride that
simultaneously reinforce Beth’s role and function as primary caregiver. In other
words, Beth feels very satisfied that she, as opposed to another adult, is the principal
source of comfort and happiness for Rita. These feelings in turn, reinforce and
validate Beth’s perception of herself as Rita’s mother and ‘true’ primary caregiver.
Singing also impacts Beth and Rita’s relationship by providing a sense of
affection and closeness that is distinct from other activities such as reading and toy
play. In her interview Beth says:
I think I tend to have more of a ...10 emotional response, type of response when I’m
singing as opposed to if we’re reading books or just um, playing with toys on the floor. I
think ... for me singing is the same kind of reaction I get if I’m cuddling her. 11
She also expands on her thoughts by saying:
I think when I’m singing I tend to think more of the affectionate type things like what I
said before, “she’s a beautiful baby” and all that sort of stuff. But I don’t know. I don’t
10
... denotes a pause in all quotations from interviews.
All quotes in the discussion were extracted from Beth’s interview which took place on August, 4,
2011.
11
91
know if I think the same sort of things when I’m reading. I think when I’m reading I’m
more focussed on the book than on my relationship with her
For Beth, singing is an opportunity to be entirely focussed on Rita (rather than on an
external object) and experience unique feelings of affection, closeness and bonding.
Conclusion
that a positive and highly emotionally available relationship may also benefit from
singing interactions. The Interview findings reveal that singing provided Beth with
positive feelings of closeness and affection as well as reinforcement and validation of
being ‘mother’. Additionally, songs were integrated into day-to-day life. Therefore,
Beth experienced these unique positive feelings on a regular basis. The Emotional
Availability results reveal that (1) Beth and Rita’s relationship was healthy, positive
and warm, and (2) Beth intuitively sang songs with very high sensitivity, structuring,
non-intrusiveness and non-hostility. Together, the Interview and Emotional
Availability
findings
illustrate
that
singing
songs
facilitated
emotional
communication by providing a medium for Beth to amplify and share positive
emotions, soothe distress and take joy in her daughter while reinforcing a sense of
togetherness, closeness and self as ‘mother’. It is unclear what Beth’s perception of
attachment would be without the contributions of singing. However, this case
demonstrates that the subjective experience of singing is distinctly valuable and
beneficial to an already healthy, positive and secure mother-infant dyad.
92
JANE & JULIET
Juliet is Jane’s second child. She was 6.3 months old at her first video session
and 6.7 months old at her second video session. She was a bit ‘sniffily’ and quiet
during both video sessions but otherwise appeared quite happy.
Jane scored highly in all the parental dimensions, although her sensitivity score was
lower than the other dimensions. As shown in Table 8 she scored between 22 and 26
on the dimensions of Parental Sensitivity, Structuring, Non-Intrusiveness and NonHostility. Juliet was borderline between mid and high scores for both Child
Responsiveness (20) and Child Involvement (20).
From observation, Jane's affect was mostly bland and neutral but she also
demonstrated enjoyment of Juliet. She seemed aware of Juliet’s cues and signals but
at times appeared to have difficulty interpreting and responding to them
appropriately. Jane and Juliet appeared to have an emotional connection and good
moments together, but there was something lacking or ‘off’ about the quality of the
relationship. The relationship appeared ‘apparently’ healthy, rather than entirely
healthy as outlined in the Emotional Availability Scales (Condon, 2010). Generally,
Jane structured interactions positively by following Juliet’s lead and was
appropriately non-hostile, respectful and calm.
Juliet’s affect was generally positive, although there were instances of
confusing affect (half laughing half crying) and dysregulation. Also, there were times
when she seemed task-oriented rather than emotionally connected. Juliet’s
93
involvement was simple and fairly frequent. However, there was a mixture of
positively, negatively, emotional and instrumental involving behaviours, thus
lowering her involvement scores.
Table 8: Summary of Jane and Juliet’s Emotional Availability scores.
Scale
Total score ( / 29)
Mean total score
Category of EA
Sensitivity
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
22
High
25.5
High
24.5
High
26
High
20
Borderline high/mid
20
Borderline high/mid
Structuring
Non-intrusiveness
Non-hostility
Child involvement
21
23
25
26
24
25
26
26
19
21
20
20
Interview Findings
Verification was given by Jane who agreed that the transcript and summary
found in Appendix M. The overall meaning units from Jane’s interview are shown in
the second column of Table 9. These meaning units were related to three attachment
tolerance/acceptance and (3) need gratification and protection. Other meaning units
focus on how songs have provided Ethan another mode of interacting and bonding
with his baby sister as well as how Jane finds it difficult to plan one-on-one time
with Juliet.
Table 9: Jane’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment constructs
Attachment
Constructs
Pleasure in
proximity

Tolerance/



Singing makes both Jane and Juliet happy e.g. if Jane is feeling blue or grumpy
singing songs will make Juliet happy and seeing her happy makes Jane happy
Jane feels a sense of closeness and bonding when she sings to Juliet
Jane experiences a unique positive feeling when she sees Juliet respond. It’s a
combination of pride, love, amazement and awe that she has created a little being
with her own mind
Jane feels a sense of relief when singing Sleep Baby Sleep puts Juliet to sleep
94
acceptance



Need
gratification/
protection














Knowledge
acquisition
Other




Jane feels a sense of closeness and bonding when she sings to Juliet
The unique positive feeling she experiences is a combination of pride, amazement
and awe that she has created a little being with her own mind.
There is also a sense of validation when she sees Juliet responds – that there is a
positive result to her efforts
While singing Jane will often think about whether Juliet is reacting to a song or if a
song is affecting Juliet n any way.
Jane sings Sleep Baby Sleep to calm Juliet and help her to sleep. Jane has been
wanting a ‘sleep song’ to fill in a gap in the sleep routine.
Songs relax Juliet
Songs generally keep Juliet happy, even when she’s twisting around in the car and
Jane cannot touch her, singing will capture her attention and keep her happy and
calm
Songs capture Juliet’s attention
Singing interactions are based on Juliet’s reactions e.g. if Juliet looks happy then
she likes a song. Therefore Jane will repeat a song. If Juliet looks disinterested
then she’ll try something else
Is Juliet’s responses change (e.g. after a few repeats of the same song) Jane will
try to interpret Juliet’s behaviour to work out what to do next
The choice of song is determined by Juliet’s current type of distress
Looking after a 3 year old tends to push Juliet’s needs to the back burner
Jane has witnessed how singing teaches children sounds, words and rhythms by
watching her first son’s development. She hopes singing will also encourage
Juliet’s development
Jane will sing to teach Juliet something
Singing with animation and actions captivates Juliet more
When Juliet’s reaction changes Jane thinks of the reason behind her behaviour to
determine what to do next.
Jane will sing randomly throughout the day, depending on what she and Juliet are
doing
NONE
Singing is one of the few things that infants can respond to
Jane finds it difficult to plan regular one-on-one time with Juliet due to a lack of
routine
Recently, Ethan has wanted to sing to Juliet his own – it’s as if he wants the
opportunity to bond with his sister through song
Discussion
One of the key features of Jane’s experience of singing is that it provides a
pleasurable bonding experience by creating a sense of closeness. Jane has also
observed her eldest son seeking this sense of closeness with his sister. After
describing Ethan singing songs to Juliet, Jane says, “It’s like he wants to um bond
with her too kind of thing”12. As mentioned in Alice’s discussion exploring sibling
relationships is beyond the scope of this study. However, it is interesting to note that
12
All quotes in the discussion were extracted from Jane’s interview which took place on September,
7, 2011.
95
Jane both feels and observes the sense of closeness during familial singing
interactions.
A somewhat perplexing element of Jane’s sense of closeness is that it also
contains elements of satisfaction, pride and amazement. Jane describes this feeling as
a sense of awe that she has created a little unique being. This feeling is relatively new
and tends to occur when Juliet responds to Jane’s singing. It seems that getting a
response back from Juliet is viewed as the positive result of Jane's self-sacrificial
efforts to interact with and care for Juliet. In other words, Juliet’s interactive
responses provide Jane positive reinforcement of her mothering efforts and validate
her sense of being Juliet’s creator, carer and ‘mother’.
Another key feature of Jane’s interview is that she distinguishes the
experience of play songs and lullabies. She will experience emotional modulation
while singing play songs, but not during lullabies. Also, she will feel relief when
singing lullabies, but not during play songs. Jane says, “I guess it’s a good feeling
when you sing happy songs and it makes her smile and stuff … and the putting to
sleep thing is a relief, it’s not really a good feeling, it’s sort of a ‘whatever works’ ”.
In other words, lullabies have an association to need-fulfilment that play songs do
not have.
Another key feature of Jane’s experience of singing concerns sensitivity. Jane
described frequently thinking about interpreting and responding to Juliet’s cues. She
repeats/changes songs according to Juliet’s signs of interest and spends time
interpreting Juliet’s cues in order to determine how best to respond. However, her
efforts are not entirely successful or prompt. In her interview she says, “It [singing]
doesn’t always work” and her inconsistent success is illustrated by her near
borderline sensitivity scores. Jane’s conscious thought processes demonstrate a
96
difficultly in understanding, responding to and meeting Juliet’s needs. In other words,
she is willing to respond appropriately, but does not interpret and communicate
easily. Such difficulty results in inconsistent perception and responsiveness to cues.
Furthermore, Juliet’s borderline responsiveness scores further demonstrate Jane's
difficulty with sensitivity. Juliet’s confusing affect and dysregulation indicate there is
a quality of inappropriateness and unpredictability within the relationship which
explains the ‘off’ or ‘not-entirely-healthy’ quality to the relationship (discussed
above, see p. 93).
Conclusion
that being ‘typical’ (or not ‘at risk’) does not guarantee a healthy mother-infant
relationship. Despite her high categories or scores, the Emotional Availability
findings reveal that Jane did not intuitively interact in an optimal manner. The
Interview findings demonstrate that Jane experienced unique positive feelings of
closeness, satisfaction, amazement and validation of being ‘mother’. The findings
also reveal her difficulty and efforts to understand, recognise and interpret Juliet’s
cues and signals. Together the findings illustrate a mother who understood basic
concepts of emotional availability (e.g. responding to cues) and tried to be highly
emotionally available. However, the dyad showed concerning signs of an
‘apparently’ healthy emotional connection. Interestingly, despite the ‘apparently’
healthy connection Jane still experienced benefits of closeness and validation. This
suggests that mothers in need of intervention, but not receiving intervention may still
experience some sort of positive impact to the attachment constructs by singing
songs.
97
TAMMY & WENDY
Wendy is Tammy’s first child. She was 5.7 months old at her first video
session, appeared a little tired and occasionally became restless, particularly at the
end of the session. At the second singing session Wendy was 5.9 months old and
appeared much more relaxed, settled and happy.
Overall, Tammy's scores are categorised as High, although her non-intrusiveness
score is lower than the other dimensions. As shown in Table 10, she scored between
22.5 and 26.5 on the dimensions of Parental Sensitivity, Structuring, NonIntrusiveness and Non-Hostility. Averaged across the two sessions, Wendy scored
highly for Child Responsiveness (21) but had Mid scores for Child Involvement
(17.5).
Tammy was generally positive, warm and animated although there was a
slight ingenuity or inappropriateness to her affect. She clearly enjoyed Wendy but
was slightly inconsistent in her recognition and response to cues. Generally, Tammy
structured interactions positively and successfully. However, there were few
instances where she ‘lost’ Wendy. Tammy was also mostly non-intrusive but there
were some instances of intrusiveness, which consequently lowered her total
intrusiveness score. Tammy was also appropriately non-hostile; she demonstrated
good emotional regulation and minimal signs of negative stress and irritation despite
Wendy's fatigue.
98
Wendy scored differently in the two child dimensions. She was more
responsive than she was involving. Her affect was generally positive although there
were times when she seemed over-responsive and task-oriented; she did not seem
avoidant but not always connected to Tammy either. Wendy also appeared to become
dysregulated easily and quickly. Wendy used simple methods of initiating and
elaborating interactions, although not that frequently. There were also some instances
of Wendy rolling away from, instead of positioning herself toward, Tammy. At times
she appeared more interested in her toys than in involving Tammy emotionally, thus
she received lower involvement scores.
Table 10: Summary of Tammy and Wendy’s Emotional Availability scores.
Scale
Total score ( / 29)
Mean total score
Category of EA
Sensitivity
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
23.5
High
24.5
High
22.5
High
26.5
High
21
High
17.5
Mid
Structuring
Non-intrusiveness
Non-hostility
Child involvement
23
24
25
24
23
22
26
27
20
22
16
19
Interview Findings
Verification was given by Tammy who agreed that transcript and revised
summary were an accurate reflection of her interview. The transcript, original
summary and revised summary are found in Appendix N.
The overall meaning units from Tammy’s interview are shown in the second
column of Table 11. These meaning units were related to three attachment constructs
(Condon & Corkindale, 1998): (1) pleasure in proximity, (2) tolerance/acceptance,
and (3) need gratification. Other meaning units focus on how Tammy would use the
99
songs anywhere, anytime and how finding the opportunity to learn songs during the
day is difficult due to the multi-tasking nature of mothering.
Table 11: Tammy’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs
Attachment
Constructs
Pleasure in
proximity





Tolerance/
acceptance





Need
gratification/
protection












Knowledge
acquisition
Other



Singing is a fun enjoyable experience for Tammy, particularly when she sees
Wendy smile and giggle
Singing is an enjoyable, pleasurable experience for Tammy which makes both
Tammy and Wendy happy. Happiness bounces off each other – singing will make
Wendy smile and seeing her smile makes Tammy happy
Tammy feels tenderness and love when singing lullabies
The connection while singing is different to other play interactions because Wendy
reacts more and maintains more eye contact with Tammy
Singing provides an opportunity for Tammy to share in Wendy’s happiness and
something to do together.
Learning new songs has provided Tammy more variety when she sings,
minimising feelings of boredom from repeating the same song over and over
again.
The better Tammy knows a song the more she can improvise while singing to
create spontaneous versions of songs – this provides variety and a fun creative
outlet
Tammy desires to bond with Wendy. Singing songs, by creating a connection
helps to strengthen the sense of bonding which creates more of a feeling that
Wendy is her own child rather than a baby she’s taking care of
The repetitive singing of Sleep Baby Sleep also calm Tammy down and reduces
her stress levels – it is almost like a mantra in a stressful sleeping situation
Singing creates a connection between Tammy & Wendy. The combination of a
physical and emotional connection makes singing unique to other interactions
Singing makes Wendy happy and smile, even if she’s in a bad mood.
Tammy will sing when Wendy is squirmy or fussy to calm her down or excite and
engage her
Singing captures Wendy’s attention. This is helpful e.g. when Tammy is wanting
Wendy to stop wriggling while changing nappies or focus on feeding
Tammy will sing lullabies when Wendy has trouble getting to sleep. Sometimes
Wendy will cry and become more and more hysterical.
Singing distracts Wendy and disrupts the progression of her distress. Once Tammy
has Wendy’s attention, the lullaby will help Wendy to calm down and fall asleep
Singing the cyclical song ‘Sleep baby sleep’ acts as a mantra for Tammy when
Wendy becomes hysterical. By calming herself down she is able to calm Wendy
down
Wendy’s reactions and level of interest/attention shape the direction of the singing
interaction. If Wendy is reacting and enjoying herself then Tammy will continue to
repeat a song. If not, she will song another song or do something else.
Tammy changes how she sings lullabies to turn them into happy action songs to
sing to Wendy
Tammy and/or Wendy’s physical positioning influences what song Tammy will
choose to sing e.g. if standing up at the dog park Tammy will sing a song
conducive to standing like Humpty Dumpty
Tammy believes singing will help Wendy to develop
Singing pushes out other thoughts e.g. about groceries. Singing focuses Tammy’s
throughs on singing and Wendy
Singing provides an opportunity for Wendy and Tammy to focus on each other.
When playing with toys Tammy and Wendy focus on the object they are playing
with rather than each other.
Tammy will sing whatever pops into her head throughout the day
NONE
Tammy mostly uses play songs because she gets more of a reaction from Wendy
during these songs. If Wendy reacted more to lullabies Tammy would consider
100




using them more.
Tammy tends to use Sleep Baby Sleep because the round nature of the song makes
it easy to sing over and over again (conducive to lulling)
Tammy and/or Wendy’s physical positioning influences what song Tammy will
choose to sing e.g. if standing up at the dog park Tammy will sing a song
conducive to standing like Humpty Dumpty
Learning songs on her own takes a lot single-focus brain power whereas most of
Tammy’s day requires multi-tasking. The opportunity for focussed attention
(which is required to learn new material) is difficult to find. Tammy enjoyed
expanding her repertoire via this study
Tammy really dislikes a lot of the modern kids songs and has enjoyed learning
more traditional style play songs
Discussion
What is striking about Tammy’s essence is the quadruple function of singing
songs. Firstly, singing songs is considered an effective and reliable tool to capture
Wendy’s attention, calm her down and keep her happy. Tammy says, “But singing,
she’ll actually stop and focus on you for the longest period of time out of
anything”13. The attention-grabbing characteristic of singing also stops a spiral of
hysteria which then enables Wendy to settle and fall asleep. Tammy explains, “If I
sing to her it’ll help break up the crying. She’ll just stop to listen me (…) 14 it’ll be
enough to disrupt the hysterical acceleration”.
Secondly, singing modulates Tammy’s emotions. Lullabies calm her down
and reduce her stress levels whereas play songs provide an opportunity for Tammy
and Wendy to share in each other’s happiness. Tammy says, “it’s not so much I’m
giving her her only opportunity to be happy by singing, it’s more like I get to be a
part of that happiness”.
Thirdly, singing provides a creative outlet for Tammy. She improvises and
spontaneously changes the lyrics of songs. By learning new songs and developing
13
All quotes in the discussion were extracted from Tammy’s interview which took place on
September, 13, 2011.
14
(…) denotes missing text in all quotations from the interview transcripts.
101
new versions of songs she expands the variety of musical experiences available to
her which in turn, minimises boredom and adds fun and pleasure to her day.
Fourthly, Tammy experiences a focus of attention while singing. Singing will
push other thoughts out of her mind whereas she finds herself multi-tasking during
other play activities. Importantly, the focus of attention is reciprocal. Tammy says,
“It’s [singing] an opportunity for me to focus on her as much as it is the other way
around”. This focus of attention simultaneously facilitates a feeling of connection.
Tammy says, “It’s [singing] about the connection … It makes me feel more like
she’s mine than just a baby I’m taking care of” Singing is described as an
interpersonal activity that involves each party and demands focussed attention. This
focussed involvement creates a sense of connection, which in turn, reinforces the
sense of Wendy being Tammy’s own baby (conversely Tammy’s sense of being
Wendy’s ‘mother’). Indeed, the sense of connection is a crucial component of the
tolerance/acceptance construct. Therefore, it is logical to assume that Tammy’s
perception of being ‘mother’ would be significantly altered if she were to stop
singing. In other words, singing seems to provide a unique positive contribution to
Tammy and Wendy's attachment.
Conclusion
that a generally positive and healthy relationship may benefit from singing songs.
The Emotional Availability findings reveal that Tammy was generally highly
emotionally available but did not intuitively sing in an optimal manner. The
Interview findings reveal that Tammy's experience of singing provides unique
contributions to the mother-infant relationship by facilitating a sense of connection
102
and simultaneously modulating Tammy and Wendy’s emotions and providing a fun
creative outlet. Together, the Interview and Emotional Availability findings illustrate
that an overall positive dyad not receiving intervention may still benefit from singing
songs and value its distinct contribution to the mother-infant relationship.
SKYE & MARLEY
Skye is the mother of two boys. Her youngest son Marley, was 5.8 months
old at his first video session and appeared very happy and content. At the second
video session he was 6.3 months old and appeared happy but a little tired. As the
video session progressed he became a little unsettled and restless.
All of Skye's scores are categorised as high. As shown in Table 12 she scored
between 27 and 27.5 in the dimensions of Parental Sensitivity, Structuring, NonIntrusiveness and Non-Hostility. Marley also scored highly scoring 27 for Child
Responsiveness and 24 for Child Involvement. Overall, Skye and Marley were very
highly emotionally available.
Skye’s affect was genuine, warm, relaxed and appropriately animated. She
was aware of Marley’s signals and responded appropriately and promptly. She led
Marley positively by providing proactive and appropriate guidance and an
emotionally enveloping quality to the interaction. She successfully followed
Marley’s lead and created a spacious quality to the non-intrusive interaction. She was
also very non-hostile and showed only minimal signs of negative stress.
103
Marley’s affect was positive and relaxed and he appeared to regulate his
emotions well. He was likely to respond to Skye’s initiations and demonstrated a
range of appropriate emotional expressiveness. Marley initiated and elaborated
interactions through simple modes such as eye-contact and smiles and he used these
communications frequently throughout each session. Overall, he was as involving as
he could be considering his age and developmental abilities.
Table 12: Summary of Skye and Marley’s Emotional Availability scores.
Scale
Total score ( / 29)
Mean total score
Category of EA
Sensitivity
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
27.5
High
27.5
High
27.5
High
27
High
27
High
24
High
Structuring
Non-intrusiveness
Non-hostility
Child involvement
27
28
28
27
27
28
27
27
27
27
24
24
Interview Findings
Verification was given be Skye who agreed that the transcript and summary
found in Appendix O.
The overall meaning units/themes from Skye’s interview are shown in the
constructs (Condon & Corkindale, 1998)
(1) pleasure in proximity, (2)
tolerance/acceptance and (3) need gratification and protection. Other meaning units
focus on how songs are used anytime, anywhere and are simply integrated into her
family’s everyday life.
104
Table 13: Skye’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs
Attachment
Constructs
Pleasure in
proximity
Tolerance/
acceptance
Need
gratification/
protection
















Knowledge
acquisition
Other





Singing is a fun and enjoyable experience, particularly when Skye sees Marley’s
positive, happy responses.
The fun catchy nature of the songs make Skye feel happy when she sings them
Before the study Skye didn’t sing to just Marley very much. Singing Marley’s
songs has impacted positively on Skye and Marley’s relationship by providing an
opportunity to share quality one-on-one “us” time together (sense of
togetherness/connection)
Singing lullabies at bedtime calms Skye down, particularly when they help calm
Marley
Changing songs keep Skye entertained (minimises feelings of boredom)
While singing, Skye’s thoughts tend to be focussed on Marley and on singing and
nothing else. Only when she needs to watch over Griffin while singing with
Marley will Skye multi-task. Otherwise singing itself is enough to occupy the
brain.
Singing is a means or distracting and entertaining both Marley and Griffin when
they are bored, restless or cranky
Singing calms Marley down, even if he is in the car. If he becomes frantic,
however (e.g. feeling very hungry), not much will calm him down except feeding.
The new songs have provided another means for Skye to focus on just Marley and
share a positive play activity together
Sometimes Skye is forced to multi-task while singing with Marley (e.g. also
keeping an eye on Griffin) but it tends to be solely focussed on Marley.
Enjoyment is the main factor in shaping the singing interactions, if Marley and/or
Skye are enjoying themselves Skye will repeat a song.
The interaction is also shaped by Marley’s cues and behaviours. Skye will respond
to Marley’s cues and sing songs to influence Marley’s moods (help him be happy
or calm)
Quality time is when Skye is focussed on Marley and when the interaction isn’t
about meeting ‘a need’. Singing is one way of having quality time with Marley
Skye will sing songs in various places at any time of the day e.g. at home, in the
garden or while taking a walk with the kids
Singing happens at any time during the day – it isn’t planned, it’s spontaneous
spontaneous inspirations also influence what song Skye will sing e.g. seeing a
spider in the garden will prompt Skye to sing Incy Wincy spider
NONE
Skye considers singing to be a specific and unique type of play item/activity that is
simple integrated into her family’s everyday life and enjoyed by the whole family.
There really isn’t an alternative to singing.
At the moment singing songs is more about Griffin and his current enjoyment of
(and frequent requests for) songs
The songs learnt in the study Skye considers as Marley’s as opposed to Griffin’s
songs
The length of the song also influences whether Skye will repeat a song or not
Discussion
A key feature of Skye’s experience is that singing has a very clear purpose,
role and function. It serves as an effective parenting tool to keep Marley happy and
calm while also providing an opportunity for quality focussed ‘us’ time. This quality
time is particularly important for Skye. She describes how she may have plenty of
105
time with Marley during the day, but it is experiencing the one-on-one focus of
attention that facilitates ‘us’ time.
So yes, it’s [singing] quality time because it’ll be, you know, one-on-one face time and
really focussed on him rather than trying to talk to him while trying to unload the
dishwasher as well (…) Yeah, cause you spend, I spend all day with them but not all of it
is quality time15
Skye elaborates and further distinguishes quality time from other interactions by
saying:
But sometimes the one-on-one time is not quality time because they’re cranky and you’re
trying to do something else but you get of forced into doing kind of, face time. Sometimes
there’s that close face time but it doesn’t feel like quality time because you’re feeling a bit
harassed and forced into it rather than choosing to do it
In other words, there is a clear distinction between singing as a caregiving tool versus
a medium for sharing a sense of fun. It is when the interactions are pleasure-based,
rather than need-based that one-on-one interactions feel like quality ‘us’ time.
Skye’s quality time with Marley is also influenced by her differentiation
between ‘Marley’s songs’ and ‘Griffin’s songs’. A certain set of repertoire has a
stronger association to Marley. Therefore, when Skye sings these songs she feels a
sense of ‘our fun’, something that is uniquely shared by only Skye and Marley. In
this way, Skye experiences a sense of togetherness when she sings.
Skye goes on to describe the positive affect that the focused quality ‘us’ time
has on her relationship with Marley by saying, “I think I said I didn’t do much
singing with him before this [the study] so it’s given us that, you know, activity
which is a really enjoyable one (…) So it’s had a positive impact on our
15
All quotes in the discussion were extracted from Skye’s interview which took place on October, 13,
2011.
106
relationship”. Overall, singing provides Skye and Marley a pleasurable, focussed and
shared experience which contributes to Skye's sense of togetherness.
Conclusion
that singing songs served an important function and purpose for a highly emotionally
available relationship. The Interview findings reveal that singing songs was a
valuable medium for emotional communication, particularly experiencing shared
pleasure in each other. The Emotional Availability findings reveal that Skye sang
songs with almost optimal emotional availability. Her sensitivity is further illustrated
in the Interview by comments such as, “I might change [songs] in terms of trying to
manage him” and, “You know, in a particular situation there might be some kind of
cue that leads me to sing something”. Demonstrably, Skye knew her son well and
could easily recognise, interpret, and appropriately respond to Marley’s cues.
Together, the Emotional Availability and Interview findings illustrate that songs
were experienced as, and perceived to be, an important part of mothering. Singing
fulfilled a unique role of providing focussed ‘us’ time which in turn, facilitated a
sense of connection and togetherness. Thus, by ingraining songs into day-to-day life
and singing them with high emotional availability, singing contributed positively and
uniquely to Skye and Marley’s relationship.
107
KAY & ADELINE
Adeline is Kay’s first child. She was 6.5 months old at her first video session
and 7.1 months old at her second video session. Adeline was happy and relaxed
during both the video sessions, although she was quite preoccupied by the high chair
in the recording room.
Overall, Kay's scores are categorised as High. As shown in Table 14 she scored
between 25 and 27 on the dimensions of Parental Sensitivity, Structuring, NonIntrusiveness and Non-Hostility. Adeline scored highly for Child Responsiveness
(24) but was borderline between mid and high scores for Child Involvement (20.5).
Kay appeared generally warm and animated, although at times, her face was a
little bland. She seemed to enjoy Adeline and was generally aware of her cues.
However she seemed a little more concerned with singing songs than with staying
emotionally connected to Adeline, perhaps due to the pressure associated with
recording interaction for research. Kay tried to structure well by providing nonintrusive guidance and following Adeline's interests, responses and cues. Kay was
also very non-hostile and showed only slight signs of negative stress near the end of
the sessions.
Adeline was more optimally responsive than she was involving. Her affect
was relaxed and positive and she mostly responded positively to Kay’s initiations.
Adeline was occasionally dysregulated but was able to regulate her emotions
quickly. Adeline used simple methods of initiating and elaborating interactions and
108
fairly frequently and used a combination of positively and negatively involving
behaviours.
Table 14: Summary of Kay and Adeline’s Emotional Availability scores.
Scale
Total score ( / 29)
Mean total score
Category of EA
Sensitivity
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
25
High
26.5
High
25.5
High
27
High
24
High
20.5
Borderline mid/high
Structuring
Non-intrusiveness
Non-hostility
Child involvement
24
26
27
26
26
25
27
27
23
25
20
21
Interview Findings
Verification was provided by Kay who agreed that the transcript and
summary was an accurate reflection of her interview. Both the transcript and
summary are found in Appendix P. Kay verbally commented that the felt lucky to
participate in the study and reaped benefits from learning new repertoire.
The overall meaning units/themes from Kay’s interview are shown in the
second column of Table 15. These meaning units related to the following three
attachment constructs (Condon & Corkindale, 1998): (1) pleasure in proximity, (2)
tolerance/acceptance and (3) need gratification and protection, as shown in the first
column of Table 15. Other meaning units focus on how singing occurs spontaneously
throughout the day.
Table 15: Kay’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs
Attachment
Constructs
Pleasure
proximity
in




Singing songs with Adeline is a happy, positive and fun experience
Emotions seem to bounce off Kay and Adeline. When Adeline is calm then Kay
feels relaxed and when Adeline is content, Kay feels content
Singing has two purposes – to have fun happy time together and to soothe Adeline
Songs are an opportunity to focus on each other and have fun quality time
109
Tolerance/
acceptance

together. In this way singing brings us closer together – sense of togetherness
Singing is an opportunity to have fun happy time together
Singing is a way of communication or holding a conversation with Adeline
Seeing the positive effect of singing (e.g. turning crankiness into happiness or
soothing Adeline) provides Kay feelings of satisfaction and validation that she is
doing the right thing and is a good mother
Kay feels very happy and content when she can see that she has made her baby
happy (as opposed to another adult)
It is an opportunity to spend fun quality one-on-one time together. In this way
singing brings us closer together.
Adeline’s temperament also influences what type of song Kay will sing
Once the associational thought has passed Kay will focus on Adeline and on
adapting the songs to make Adeline happy and have fun
There are instances when the only way to calm Adeline is to sing a particular song
that Kay has been singing to Adeline since she was born. Even if she is in the car
singing will calm Adeline down
Singing soothes Adeline’s distress or crankiness and helps her relax
Singing can turn disliked routines such as nappy changes into a happy activity for
Adeline
Singing has two purposes – to have fun happy time together and to soothe Adeline
Songs may be used in a variety of ways – as a distracter when Kay is busy but also
an opportunity to focus on each other and have fun quality time together.
Singing is a way of focussing on each other and having quality one-on-one time
together. It is an opportunity to spend fun quality time together.
Singing is a dependable parenting tool that Kay knows will make Adeline happy
when she is upset or cranky,
Kay hopes that talking and singing to Adeline a lot will help Adeline’s language
development
Songs are used as a distracter when Kay is busy
Kay will sing a song that pops into her head. This is influenced by what she and
Adeline are doing and what is in her view e.g. seeing a picture of a rainbow will
inspire Kay to sing the Rainbow Song
Kay sings throughout each day. She often switches between singing, playing and
talking interactions
NONE

For a split second Kay will have an associational thought linked to a song





Need
gratification/
protection













Knowledge
acquisition
Other
Discussion
A striking feature of Kay’s experience is that singing serves a very clear and
distinct dual function. Firstly, it is a dependable parenting tool to soothe or distract
Adeline. For example, Kay says, “There’s been one or two times and crying and
nothing will calm her down except for a song” 16 While singing fulfils Adeline’s
needs, it simultaneously modulates Kay’s emotions. When Adeline is calm, Kay
feels calm; when Adeline is happy, Kay feels happy.
16
All quotes in the discussion were extracted from Kay’s interview which took place on November, 2,
2011.
110
Secondly, singing is a medium to share fun happy times together. Kay
describes how singing involves a focus of attention and sense of togetherness by
saying, “So it’s just something for me to … not just sitting there and I’m just doing
something over here while she’s playing, I’m still … I feel like … we’re engaging in
some kind of conversation [while singing]” In other words, Kay and Adeline aren’t
in the same room doing separate things side by side. Instead, singing involves both of
them in a joint activity which in turn creates a feeling of closeness and connection.
She says, “I guess it brings us closer together because we’re communicating and
talking together through singing (…) Yeah I think it brings us closer together cause
it’s time we’re spending together doing … interacting together”.
The dual function of singing also benefits Kay’s maternal well-being. When
she sees the positive responses of her singing Kay experiences feelings of
satisfaction and reassurance. By acknowledging her success in achieving Adeline’s
happy and calm state, Kay feels reassurance of her mothering ability which in turn,
validates her perception of self as ‘good mother’.
Conclusion
that singing songs served an important function and purpose for a positive
emotionally available relationship. The Emotional Availability findings reveal that
Kay intuitively sang songs with high emotional availability. The Interview findings
reveal that singing songs was perceived to be a dependable medium for meeting
Adeline’s needs and sharing fun communicative interactions. Additionally, the
success of her singing validated Kay’s sense of ‘good mother’.
111
Together, the Emotional Availability and Interview findings illustrate that
songs were experienced as, and perceived to be, an important part of mothering. Kay
felt confident in her ability to meet Adeline’s needs by singing. Simultaneously, the
frequent success of her interactions provided Kay with frequent validation of being a
good mother. The reciprocal involvement that singing demands also provided
feelings of closeness and togetherness. By ingraining songs into day-to-day life, and
singing them with high emotional availability, Kay experienced multiple and
frequent benefits to the mother-infant relationship.
TRUDY & KAYLA
Trudy is the mother of one child, Kayla. Kayla was 7.5 months old at her first
session, was very hungry and appeared to be preoccupied by the curtains in the
recording room. At the second video session Kayla was 7.9 months old and very
interested in both the curtains and high chair in the recording room.
Overall, Trudy's scores are categorised as high, although her sensitivity score was
lower than the other dimensions. As shown in Table 16, she scored between 22 and
26 on the dimensions of Parental Sensitivity, Structuring, Non-intrusiveness and
Non-Hostility. Kayla scored a high score of 21 for Child Responsiveness and a mid
score of 18 for Child Involvement.
Trudy's affect was warm and generally positive. However, she seemed to
have to work hard to draw out affect and enthusiasm from Kayla. She had a slight
112
‘performance’ quality to her affect and demonstrated a degree of inflexibility, which
lowered her total sensitivity score and gave the impression that the relationship was
not entirely healthy, according to Emotional Availability (Biringen, 2008a, 2008b).
Generally, Trudy structured interactions positively but sometimes she 'lost' Kayla or
the interactions lacked a holding/emotionally enveloping quality. Trudy was also
appropriately non-intrusive and non-hostile and showed only some signs of negative
stress (such as yawns and sighs) during each session.
Kayla scored differently in the two child dimensions. Her responsiveness
score was at the bottom of the high-scoring range. Her affect was generally positive,
however there was little expressive range observed. She was not avoidant e.g. she
was likely to respond to Trudy’s initiations but with less expressiveness. Kayla was
also slightly less involving than she was responsive. She showed some simple and
elaborative involvement but not with consistent frequency throughout each session.
Table 16: Summary of Trudy and Kayla’s Emotional Availability scores.
Scale
Total score ( / 29)
Mean total score
Category of EA
Sensitivity
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
22
High
24.5
High
24.5
High
26
High
21
High
18
Mid
Structuring
Non-intrusiveness
Non-hostility
Child involvement
23
21
25
24
25
24
26
26
21
21
19
17
Interview Findings
Verification was provided by Trudy who agreed that the transcript and
113
summary are found in Appendix Q. Trudy also provided a written comment that she
really enjoyed the study and that learning new songs added variety to her day.
The overall meaning units/themes from Trudy’s interview are shown in the
second column of Table 17. These meaning units were related to the following three
column of Table 17. Other meaning units focus on how singing is simply a part of
play time, is integrated into day-to-day life and helps the day to run smoothly by
keeping Kayla happy.
Table 17: Trudy’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs
Attachment
Constructs
Pleasure
proximity
in




Tolerance/
acceptance



Need
gratification/
protection









Knowledge
acquisition
Other




Singing with Kayla is a fun and pleasurable experience
Seeing Kayla happy makes Trudy feel happy
Trudy enjoys singing. Having something to do that she enjoys and is interested in
adds pleasure to her day
There is something special about singing because it’s something that only Trudy
and Kayla have – it’s their own activity.
Being able to calm and relax Kayla by singing provides Trudy feelings of relief
Singing lullabies calm Tracy down which then helps to calm Kayla down. Trudy
will focus on her own voice, rather than Kayla’s screaming to calm herself down.
Learning new songs and being able to sing a greater variety of songs has been a
pleasurable experience and has helped to minimise boredom from singing the
same set of songs over and over again.
When interacting with Kayla, Trudy will think thoughts about trying to make
Kayla happy e.g. “what can I do to entertain you?” “how can we make this fun?”.
Sometimes she will think about the things she needs to do and while trying to calm
Kayla down e.g. “I’ve got things to do, let’s get you to sleep and get you calm and
get you happy and then I can go and do what I’ve got to do”
If Trudy is having a casual day at home her attention tends to be focussed on
Kayla, however during days she is busy and has appointments she will be focussed
on trying to time Kayla’s sleeps etc so that we can get to your appointment on time
Songs are portable and can be used outside the home e.g. in the car
Wheels on the Bus is the number 1 distraction song. As soon as Kayla hears it she
will stop her grizzling and listen
Kayla will use Going to the moon to capture Kayla’s attention, engage her and
make eating solids fun
Trudy sings Belly Button to teach Kayla about body parts
Trudy sings lullabies to help Kayla settle
Trudy tends to sing whatever comes to her mind at the time. She’ll repeat a song if
Kayla looks like she enjoyed it (e.g. giggles)
Singing is a part of play time. It is integrated into day-to-day life
NONE
Keeping Kayla happy helps the day run smoothly. Singing songs helps to achieve
this smoothness.
She tends to use Sleep Baby Sleep because she likes the song
114
Discussion
Trudy’s interview leaves an impression of simplicity. To Trudy, singing
songs is simple: it’s enjoyable, an effective and portable parenting tool, and
beneficial to her own well-being. Throughout the interview, Trudy describes singing
play songs as intrinsically “fun”. For example she describes deriving extra pleasure
from singing due to her personal background and interest in music, saying “It’s just
nice to have singing back in my life again, like a reason for it” 17. There is also a
sense of something ‘special’ when Trudy directs her singing to Kayla. Since she is
the only adult who sings to Kayla, play songs and lullabies provide something unique
that only the two of them share. Overall, singing songs provides a pleasurable
experience that reinforces a sense of ‘our songs’ or ‘our shared enjoyment’ which
contributes to Trudy’s sense of togetherness with Kayla.
Trudy describes the effectiveness of singing as capturing Kayla’s attention.
She says, “As soon as you start singing that [The Wheels on the Bus] she stops the
grizzly grumbly um and just listens to you”. She also describes how singing
modulates emotions. Play songs provide happy and pleasurable feelings for both
herself and Kayla whereas lullabies calm Trudy and Kayla down. Once Trudy is
calm, she is better able to meet Kayla’s need to be soothed. Subsequently, when
Kayla is calm, Trudy will experience feelings of relief. She says, “And [I feel] relief
when she’s tired and grizzly and she relaxes to my voice and songs”.
Trudy does not reveal much about her inner thought processes during the
interview. She talks about meeting Kayla’s needs generally, but rarely refers to
specific cues or situations. In one instance she describes repeating a song according
17
All quotes in the discussion were extracted from Trudy’s interview which took place on November,
24, 2011.
115
to interest cues, by saying “I’ll repeat it [a song] if I’ve really enjoyed singing or if I
can tell that she’s enjoyed it”. In another instance she describes choosing a song
according to Kayla’s needs, saying, “I use songs as a distraction sometimes (…) so if
she’s starting to get grizzle … so as a distraction [I sing]” and “to calm her down we
use one of the slow songs”. However, she does not expand on her thoughts and
intentions any further. This gives the impression that her understanding of
responding to cues (whether it is in general or of Kayla’s cues specifically) is
somewhat limited.
Conclusion
that a simplistic application of songs may provide some benefits to maternal wellbeing, even if the relationship is not entirely healthy. The Emotional Availability
findings reveal that Trudy intuitively sang songs with generally high emotionally
availability.
However, Trudy and Kayla demonstrated factors to suggest their
emotional connection was ‘apparently’, rather than entirely healthy (Biringen, 2008a,
2008b). 2008b). The Interview findings reveal that play songs and lullabies had a
clear and simple function: to make Kayla happy or calm. However, Trudy’s
understanding of sensitivity and/or its application via song appeared somewhat
limited in that her demonstration of singing as a communicative tool was less than
ideal. Importantly, despite her lower sensitivity, and the 'apparent' health of her
relationship with Kayla, Trudy still had a positive experience of singing and valued
its role in her mothering.
116
SASHA & SHARI
Shari is Sasha’s second child. During the first video session Shari was 5.7
months old. She became restless and tired and about half way through the session
and fell asleep in Sasha’s arms. At the second video session Shari was 6.4 months
old, appeared happy and alert then became hungry near the end of the session.
Sasha's scores are categorised as high. As shown in Table 18 she scored between
26.5 and 28 on the dimensions of Parental Sensitivity, Structuring, Non-Intrusiveness
and Non-Hostility. Shari also scored highly for both Child Responsiveness (22.5) and
Child Involvement (22).
From observation, Sasha was warm, calm, relaxed and animated in her own
way. She interpreted cues accurately and responded appropriately and promptly. She
used preventative and positive guidance to lead Shari positively and was very nonintrusive and non-hostile. She waited for optimal breaks to enter the interaction and
followed Shari’s reactions and cues to develop and initiate interactions. She had good
emotional regulation and demonstrated a lack of ridiculing, ‘burdensome’ and
irritated behaviours.
Shari showed slight disorganisation when falling asleep in video session 1
and occasional dysregulation in session 2 but generally had a positive and relaxed
affect. She was likely to respond to Sasha’s initiations and showed a range of
emotional expressiveness. Shari was also quite involving. She used simple verbal and
117
non-verbal means to initiate and elaborate interactions and used a combination of
positive and negatively involving behaviours.
Table 18: Summary of Sasha and Shari’s Emotional Availability scores.
Scale
Total score ( / 29)
Mean total score
Category of EA
Sensitivity
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
27.5
High
26.5
High
27
High
28
High
22.5
High
22
High
Structuring
Non-intrusiveness
Non-hostility
Child involvement
28
27
27
26
27
27
28
28
23
22
22
22
Interview Findings
Verification was provided by Sasha who agreed that the transcript and
summary are found in Appendix R. Sasha also provided a verbal comment that the
summary was perfect.
The overall meaning units/themes from Sasha’s interview are shown in the
second column of Table 19. These meaning units were related to the following three
column of Table 19.
Table 19: Sasha’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs
Attachment
Constructs
Pleasure in
proximity
Tolerance/
acceptance





Sasha enjoys singing with Shari
Sasha feels she shares Shari’s excitement, particularly during the pinnacle
moments of play songs
Singing is a way of communicating with Shari.
Sasha feels a sense of satisfaction when she can put Sasha to sleep using lullabies.
She feels she is a better mother
Sasha feels that singing songs has created a closer bond with Shari because she has
118


been singing to her since she was young
Sasha feels calmer when she sings lullabies.
Sasha feels quite relaxed about putting Shari to sleep. She has consciously avoided
certain sleeping habits that caused her eldest son to have difficulties sleeping
anywhere outside his normal room, lighting and dummy. Even if out at dinner,
Sasha is confident that Shari will fall asleep to a lullaby which then allows Sasha
to rejoin the adults
If singing lullabies still isn’t working Sasha will put Shari down, take 3 deep
breaths to calm herself down and try again. She then closes her eyes and focuses
on relaxing. Once Sasha is calm Shari will gradually settle down
Sasha will think about in what order to sing lullabies according to Shari’s level of
sleepiness e.g. if Shari has been quite excited then Sasha will start with a softer
play song like Twinkle twinkle and gradually work her way to lullabies like sleep
baby sleep. Sleep baby sleep tends to be the very last song that Sasha will sing to
put Shari to sleep
Sasha feels calmer when she sings lullabies and therefore Shari feels more relaxed
and calm
Often Sasha will sing lullabies to settle Shari down enough to fall asleep on her
won. But if Shari is upset Sasha will rock and sing Shari to sleep.
Singing lullabies will gradually settle Shari from active playtime to sleep.
Singing lullabies puts Shari to sleep faster than rocking on its own.
Sasha will sing particular songs at particular instances during the day e.g. she will
sing food type songs while breastfeeding to help Shari become familiar with
caregiving routines
Songs can be used anywhere, anytime e.g. at home, in the car or at a dinner party
Sasha will get rid of all the toys when she sings play songs with Shari so that she is
not distracted by anything and will pay attention to Sasha and the songs
When she compares Shari to her eldest son, Sasha has noticed a difference in how
Shari communicates back to her. Shari will babble a lot more than her son did at
the same age and Sasha feels it is because she is singing so frequently to Shari
After bath time Sasha tends to feel a little stressed and will rush massaging and
dressing Shari. Consequently, Shari will pick up on her stress and feel a bit upset.
However singing songs after bath time helps Shari to feel calmer
Sasha will sing to Shari when they are in separate rooms. It is her way of letting
Shari know that mummy hasn’t gone and is still around. Shari seems happier when
she sings which reassures Sasha that Shari is alright where she is – she doesn’t
need to be worried or checking up on her. It crosses physical barriers
Shari’s reactions, expressions and responses determine the direction of the singing
interactions. It is mainly Shari’s enjoyment of the interaction that will determine
what to do next e.g. if Shari is smiling and enjoying herself then Sasha will repeat
a song
Sasha will consciously build up the sense of anticipation by beginning singing in a
plain way and becoming more excited as she approaches the pinnacle of the song
(the part that Shari likes the most). She also changes the actions or movements of a
song to match what Shari would prefer to do e.g. instead of having Shari sit and
bounce on her knee Sasha will help Shari stand during a song
Before singing play songs, Sasha will approach Shari in a way that lets her know
it’s playtime
Shari will consciously try not to make eye contact with Shari when singing
lullabies as this indicates awake playtime. Often Sasha will close her own eyes to
avoid eye contact and help Shari settle
Sasha tends to sing whatever comes into her head throughout the day
NONE

NONE


Need
gratification/
protection
















Knowledge
acquisition
Other
119
Discussion
Sasha is a quietly confident mother. What is apparent from her interview is
that she put a lot of thought into how to parent Shari. She considered the pros and
cons of how she had cared for her eldest son, considered the consequences of her
actions and carefully decided on how to approach parenting with Shari. As a result
Sasha has a very clear focus on what, when and how to use songs as well as the
reason behind these decisions, particularly in terms of Shari’s health and welfare.
Four of the most striking elements of Sasha’s interview are (1) the
differentiation between the experience of talking and singing, (2) the use of lullabies
as Shari’s one and only association to sleep time, (3) Sasha’s confidence that she can
lull Shari to sleep anytime and anywhere, and (4) the conscious thought processes
and structuring to achieve/maintain Shari’s happy/calm state.
Sasha clearly expresses a difference between her experience of talking and
singing. She says:
And I try to talk to her and tell her, you know, I’m changing your nappy but I just feel
like I’m talking to myself. But when you’re singing it’s like she seems more happier, as if
she’s understanding (...) it’s like a way of communicating to her through singing 18
Talking is described as rather ‘one-way’. It is as if Sasha is thinking out loud rather
than directing her thoughts to another person. Singing on the other hand, is expressed
as “communication”, something that is directed to Shari and is received and
acknowledged. The communicative aspect of singing also creates a feeling of
closeness. Amazingly, Sasha feels she has a closer bond with Shari than her elder son
due to the greater amount and frequency of singing interactions. She says, “I started
18
All quotes in the discussion were extracted from Sasha’s interview which took place on December,
9, 2011.
120
singing at an earlier age [with Shari] and it’s like we’re more interacting and with
more of a bond”
Lullabies have a particular purpose of calming Shari down and preparing her
for sleep. Once Shari is sung into a relaxed state, Sasha will put Shari to bed and fall
asleep independently. Sasha has three particular lullaby strategies. Firstly, lullabies
are the only association to sleep time. Sasha consciously avoided training Shari to
become dependent on certain lighting or quietness to fall asleep. Secondly, she
consciously avoids eye-contact while singing lullabies to avoid interpersonal
stimulation. Thirdly, she either sings lullabies straight away or starts with play songs
then merges into lullabies with the intent of gradually moving Shari from an active to
a relaxed state conducive to sleeping.
Evidently, Sasha is proud of and confident in her ability to calm and relax
Shari by singing lullabies. She describes in detail the trouble she had with her eldest
son and how she was determined not to replicate the same mistake. Sasha also
describes how using lullabies as her only sleep strategy allows her to enjoy adult
socialisation while also attending to Shari’s needs:
I feel relaxed, because I know if we’re going out for dinner with a lot of people ... I know
with my son [when he was a baby] he can get over tired and there’s so much going on,
but he needs to be in his room and I rock him to sleep or give him a dummy, he depends
on this and it has to be very quiet (...) With her I planned it so that I still have the lights on
and there’s still noise. Like if there’s noise I don’t want it to be too quiet so that she gets
used to it. So I can just take her in a room, sing lullaby and settle her down and she’ll go
to sleep and I can still be part of the dinner. She won’t cry or anything. I sort of learnt
from the past mistake in a way (...) And depending on where we are I know she can sleep.
We don’t need a specific room or lighting or dummy
121
Sasha openly shares the inner thought processes behind her singing. For
example, she describes how Shari’s degree of interest determines when to repeat a
song or not, by saying, “When we’re doing the play songs I look for the expression
on her face and how she is responding, like if she’s smiling or if she’s blank then, ok
I won’t bother singing it twice” She also intentionally increases the sense of
anticipation during play songs to match and share in Shari’s excitement. Evidently,
Sasha consciously follows, interprets and responds to Shari’s cues to achieve and
maintain Shari’s happy/calm state.
Sasha’s consideration and conscious application of songs has one key benefit
to the tolerance/acceptance construct. She describes the positive feelings of
observing her interaction success by saying, “I feel like it’s satisfying, I feel like I’m
being a better mother as well”. In other words, seeing the positive results of her
singing provides reassurance and satisfaction that she has achieved her goal of
improved mothering. Thus, singing songs validates Sasha’s perception of self as
good and better mother.
Conclusion
A comparison the Interview and Emotional Availability findings illustrate a
mother taking conscious action to achieve better mothering success and fulfilling her
objective by singing songs. Play songs and lullabies were deliberately chosen to be a
crucial component of her improved parenting approach and were clearly valued in its
role in achieving/maintaining Shari’s happy/relaxed state.
The Interview findings reveal that Sasha consciously and carefully thought
about sensitivity and structuring while singing. The Emotional Availability findings
reveal that Sasha responded to Shari’s cues and signals with accuracy and ease and
122
intuitively sang songs with almost optimal emotional availability. Together the
findings illustrate congruence between Sasha’s intentions and behavioural
interactions. Her awareness and understanding of sensitivity combined with her clear
intentions demonstrate highly appropriate and successful singing interactions.
In Sasha’s case, first-hand experience with her eldest son, trial and error and
careful consideration acted as an ‘education intervention’. With experienced-based
education and conscious effort Sasha improved her parenting approach and achieved
high emotional availability. Sasha demonstrates that singing songs may fulfil a
fundamental mothering role. When sung with high emotional availability, clear
intention and congruence play songs and lullabies may effectively meet an infant’s
needs and provide confidence in a mother’s ability to consistently meet her infant’s
needs. Simultaneously, the experience of singing may facilitate a sense of closeness
and provide validation of being ‘good mother’.
HOLLY & OPHELIA
Holly is the mother of one child, Ophelia. At the first video session Ophelia
was 5.4 months old. She was a little cranky throughout the session and seemed
determined to explore the two chairs in the room. At the second video session
Ophelia was 5.9 months old. She appeared refreshed and happy but as the session
progressed became more restless and grizzly.
As shown in table 20, Holly scored 19 on the dimension of Parental Sensitivity,
123
which is categorised as borderline between mid and high scores. She also scored
between the high scores of 23.5 and 25.5 on the dimensions of Parental Structuring,
Non-Intrusiveness and Non-Hostility. Ophelia scored a high score of 21.5 for Child
Responsiveness but was borderline between mid and high scores for Child
Involvement (20.5).
Holly's affect was positive but not entirely relaxed; at times she appeared
overly animated. Holly clearly enjoyed Ophelia but had an ‘over the top’ and rushed
quality to her interactions. She was also slightly inconsistent in interpreting and
responding appropriately to Ophelia’s cues. These observable qualities suggest that
Holly and Ophelia’s relationship was ‘apparently’ healthy rather than entirely
healthy, according to Emotional Availability (Biringen, 2008a, 2008b). Generally,
Holly structured interactions in a positive and non-intrusive manner but sometimes
she was made to feel intrusive. She was generally respectful and non-hostile and
demonstrated only a few signs of frustration, irritation and impatience during
Ophelia's restlessness.
Ophelia's affect was generally positive but she became dysregulated
occasionally and demonstrated difficulty in regulating her emotions. Although she
responded to Holly’s initiations, she was also quite task-oriented. Also, Ophelia used
simple verbal and non-verbal modes to initiate and sometimes to extend interaction.
However, there were frequent negatively involving behaviours throughout each
session, which lowered her Involvement scores.
Table 20: Summary of Holly and Ophelia’s Emotional Availability scores.
Scale
Total score ( / 29)
Mean total score
Category of EA
Sensitivity
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
19
Borderline mid/high
25
High
23.5
High
Structuring
Non-intrusiveness
20
18
25
25
23
24
124
Non-hostility
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Child involvement
26
25
22
21
20
21
25.5
High
21.5
High
20.5
Borderline mid/high
Interview Findings
Verification was provided by Holly who agreed that the transcript and
summary are found in Appendix S.
The overall meaning units/themes from Holly’s interview are shown in the
second column of Table 21. These meaning units were related to all four attachment
constructs (Condon, 2010; Condon & Corkindale, 1998): (1) pleasure in proximity,
(2) tolerance/acceptance, (3) need gratification and protection and (4) knowledge
acquisition, as shown in the second column of Table 21.
Table 21: Holly’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs
Attachment
Constructs
Pleasure in
proximity



Tolerance/
acceptance






Need
gratification/
protection






Singing is a fun and enjoyable experience
Holly feels happy when she sings play songs. When singing silly songs she gets
excited herself. Holly’s happiness then helps Ophelia to feel happy.
Singing is focussed one-on-one bonding time together. They are doing something
together
Singing settle both Holly and Ophelia down.
When Holly is feeling upset with Ophelia she will sing to relax herself
By helping Ophelia slow down Holly also has a chance to slow down
By providing Ophelia a bit of independence (physical separation from Holly)
Holly was and is still able to experience some personal space and more energy to
do other things with Ophelia.
Singing is bonding time together.
Learning what Ophelia likes and doesn’t like via singing contributes to the
bonding nature of singing.
Relaxing herself helps Ophelia to settle
Holly doesn’t think about much when she’s singing. Any thoughts are focussed on
what will make Ophelia happy.
Holly’s choice of song depends on Ophelia’s current mood e.g. if Ophelia is happy
she will start with a silly song but if she is cranky Holly will start with a softer
song like Twinkle twinkle then build up to a more excitable silly song.
Sometimes the only way of settling Ophelia down is by meeting the physical need
(e.g. hunger and tiredness) that is causing her distress
Ophelia is a very busy baby with a short attention span. Holly needs to change
songs frequently to capture and maintain her attention.
By capturing Ophelia’s attention, singing songs settles Ophelia and gives her a
chance to slow down.
125










Knowledge
acquisition
Other



Ophelia can also become upset if she continues her fast busy pace for an extended
period of time. Providing settling time via singing therefore prevents Ophelia from
becoming distressed
Singing will grab Ophelia’s attention
However Ophelia needs to be in the mood for singing to enjoy it e.g. sometimes
Ophelia needs to express her crankiness before she is interested in an activity
Holly hopes singing will help Ophelia to learn and encourage her talk. She has
since a difference in toddlers depending on whether their parents sing to them or
not. Being aware of the difference motivates Holly to sing
Singing has helped Ophelia to deal with physical separation by providing a
transition from clinginess to physical independence (this is achieved by building
up the excitement of songs and by gradually moving Ophelia out of Holly’s arms
to the floor). This helped Ophelia to be happy enough to stay separated from Holly
and be distracted by a toy.
Singing is bonding time because it is focussed one-on-one time together. Instead of
concentrating on a toy Holly and Ophelia are concentrating on each other. This
attention of each is characterised by eye contact and doing something together
rather than side by side.
Holly sings outside of the home e.g. in the car to settle Ophelia if she is upset
The only time Holly doesn’t really sing is at Ophelia’s bed time the singing seems
to excite her rather than relax her
If Ophelia is enjoying a song then Holly will continue singing. If Ophelia is not
paying attention then Holly will stop and let Ophelia do what she wants
Sometimes Ophelia becomes disinterested in a song. When this happens Holly will
stop singing it for a week or so and then reintroduce it to Ophelia.
Holly sings spontaneously throughout the day
Singing provides a way for Holly to learn what things Ophelia likes and doesn’t
like.
NONE
Discussion
What is striking about Holly’s case is that she devised her own intervention.
During the months of Ophelia’s constant clinginess, she discovered a way to achieve
physical separation by singing play songs. Holly describes this process by saying:
I had a lot of trouble with her till about 2 months ago. The only thing she wanted was to
be picked up. So I had to carry her the whole day (…) She’s really clingy, I start singing
with her. I start soft and I go more silly songs and I can actually put her down ‘cause then
she’s happy and she’s getting more happy and then she’s, I can just leave her on her floor
for a minute because I can get her distracted, like with the toys after. [Interviewer: But
you couldn’t go straight to the toy?] No 19
By increasing the excitement of the songs Holly guided Ophelia to an ever increasing
state of happiness and gradually enabled physical independence. In turn, Holly’s
19
All quotes in the discussion were extracted from Holly’s interview which took place on December,
5, 2011.
126
well-being was being addressed. Holly explains, “Before I was just … I felt like a
drained feeling; no space, no nothing” Achieving even temporary physical separation
therefore, provided her much needed and appreciated personal space and relief.
The key component of Holly’s singing process is emotional modulation.
Achieving physical separation was dependent on Ophelia’s happy state. Interestingly,
Holly’s perception of the purpose of the emotional modulation changed over time.
When she described using songs to achieve physical independence, the emphasis was
on her own need for personal space; the primary function of the singing was to
address her own health and well-being by achieving a happier state in Ophelia.
Currently, when Holly describes singing, she mainly speaks of fulfilling Ophelia’s
need for modulation and the emphasis is on Ophelia’s well-being. Holly also
describes how singing play songs also helps her own well-being being feeling more
positive. However, she expresses this benefit as a ‘bonus’ or extra benefit of singing
songs rather than being the main purpose of singing. In other words, Holly’s
perception of songs changed from being a means of experiencing personal space and
addressing her own needs to addressing Ophelia’s modulation needs.
Now that Ophelia is coping with physical separation, singing serves a dual
function: to meet Ophelia’s needs for modulation as well as facilitate pleasurable
quality one-on-one time. Previously, Holly and Ophelia’s one-on-one time was based
on Ophelia’s negatively involving and exhausting behaviours. Presumably, the need
for physical separation overrided any enjoyment that singing may have otherwise
provided. Without the need for physical separation, one-on-one singing time is now
experienced as a pleasurable opportunity to engage in a joint activity and promote
bonding and a sense of togetherness.
127
It is interesting to note that the additional function of facilitating quality
bonding time occurs only after Ophelia’s clingy phase. This suggests that the current
health of a relationship influences how a mother experiences singing interactions and
consequently, the extent to which attachment constructs are impacted upon. For
example, Holly does not mention experiencing validation of self as ‘mother’ during
the interview and it is unclear why this is the case. One could speculate that the relief
of finally passing through a clingy phase would be of more prominence than feelings
of satisfaction and mothering competence. Or perhaps Holly has not yet experienced
enough consistent singing ‘success’ with Ophelia to experience such validation. As
demonstrated by her borderline sensitivity score, she was inconsistent in her
recognition and response to Ophelia’s cues. Perhaps this inconsistency influenced the
lack of validation experienced. Evidently, more research is necessary. It would be
valuable for future studies to compare the subjective experience of singing for
mothers in optimal versus ‘apparently’ healthy versus ‘over-dependent’ relationships.
Understanding the perceived function and value of singing within various
relationship dynamics would provide insights into the role of singing as a therapeutic
intervention for specific types of emotional connections.
Conclusion
Comparing the Interview and Emotional Availability findings suggest that
singing may serve important and various functions according to the health of the
mother-infant relationship. The Interview findings reveal that during a period of
clinginess, singing served an important function of achieving temporary physical
independence. However, once the clinginess diminished, singing served as a
mothering tool to modulate Ophelia’s emotions and to provide quality one-on-one
128
bonding time. The Emotional Availability findings reveal that after experiencing a
period of clinginess, Holly and Ophelia’s relationship was generally positive but not
entirely healthy (Biringen, 2008a, 2008b). Presumably, without therapeutic
intervention, Holly and Ophelia’s relationship merged from a clingy or overdependent relationship to an ‘apparently’ healthy emotional connection.
Together the Interview and Emotional Availability findings illustrate that the
health of a relationship influences the perceived function of singing. Also,
experiencing benefits such as focussed quality time may be contingent on a certain
degree of relationship health. Holly’s case suggests that the range of impacts to the
attachment constructs is restricted and influenced by the current health of a
relationship. Furthermore, Holly was a mother who needed help. To her credit, she
devised her own singing process to better cope with Ophelia’s clinginess. However,
without intervention, Holly and Ophelia’s emotional connection did not improve to
an entirely healthy state. Holly’s case demonstrates that a mother not classified as ‘at
risk’ may require support and guidance to achieve a healthy and secure attachment
and enhance maternal health and well-being.
TULLIA & MARK
Mark is Tullia’s second child. He was 6 months old at the first video session.
As he entered the recording room he appeared well-rested, happy and excitable,
although as the session progressed he became a bit cranky and upset. At the second
video session he was 6.4 months old. He appeared happy for most of the session but
became quite tired by the end.
129
Tullia's scores as categorised as high. As shown in Table 22, she scored between 25
and 27 on the dimensions of Parental Sensitivity, Structuring, Non-Intrusiveness and
Non-Hostility. Mark scores a highly for Child Responsiveness (24) but was
borderline between mid and high for Child Involvement (19.5).
Tullia's affect was positive, warm and appropriately animated. She also
recognised and responded to Mark’s cues appropriately and promptly. Tullia
structured interactions positively and in a respectful and non-hostile manner. She
also followed Mark’s interest cues and only rarely did he indicate her to be intrusive.
Mark scored differently on the child dimensions. His affect was positive and
relaxed. He was likely to respond to Tullia’s initiations with a range of
expressiveness and demonstrated only some dysregulation, usually at the end of the
session when he was becoming tired. Mark was less involving than he was
responsive. He would initiate some of the time using mainly non-verbal modes of
communication (e.g. looking and smiling) but also spent time turning away from
Tullia to explore the room. He also used both positively and negatively involving
behaviours in each session which contributed to his lower score.
Table 22: Summary of Tullia and Mark’s Emotional Availability scores.
Scale
Total score ( / 29)
Mean total score
Category of EA
Sensitivity
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
25
High
25.5
High
25.5
High
27
High
24
High
19.5
Borderline high/mid
Structuring
Non-intrusiveness
Non-hostility
Child involvement
24
26
25
26
26
25
27
27
24
24
19
20
130
Interview Findings
Verification was given by Tullia who agreed that the transcript and summary
found in Appendix T. Tullia also commented that she had a positive experience
during the study and expressed thanks for the opportunity to participate and learn
new songs to sing with her son.
The overall meaning units/themes from Tullia’s interview are shown in the
tolerance/acceptance and (3) need gratification and protection, as shown the first
column of Table 23. Other meaning units relate to how Tullia is looking forward to
having more one-on-one time with Mark when her older daughter goes to school.
Table 23: Tullia’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs
Attachment
Constructs
Pleasure in
proximity






Tolerance/
acceptance










Singing is a fun enjoyable experience for Tullia.
She particularly loves singing to Mark at night – it is a sweet loving experience
She feels closer to him when she sings
Singing makes Tullia feel happy or calm which then makes Mark feel happy or
calm. Singing makes Mark feel happy and seeing Mark happy makes Tullia feel
happy.
Tullia feels a sense of peacefulness and serenity when she sings.
Singing adds a special element to Tullia and Mark’s relationship because it is
something only they enjoy together. No other adults sing to Mark
Being able to see how Mark responds to her singing (e.g. feeling calmer and
happier) provides Tullia with feelings of satisfaction. By being the person who
provides him with comfort makes her more special and significant to Mark. This
has a huge impact on Tullia and her perception of being ‘mum’
Singing bonds Tullia and Mark.
Being able to stop Mark’s crying and distracting him with singing has a huge
positive impact on Tullia. It also provides feelings of relief that she has stopped his
crying
Singing calms both Tullia and Mark down.
She feels relief that the crying has stopped.
Tullia feels like a better mum knowing that she is doing something that is good for
Mark’s development (by singing)
If Tullia is getting bored of singing the same song over and over again she thinks
“come on, come on, one more and he’ll be asleep”
Tullia feels a lot of guilt when she compares how much more time she spent
Melayna (first child) when she was Mark’s age.
Having quality singing time also helps to ease her guilt as she feels she is doing
something to spend quality time with Mark
Once Mark has fallen asleep she feel satisfied that she kept singing and could
131
Need
gratification/
protection













Knowledge
acquisition
Other


make Mark feel calm and settled and fall asleep
Tullia is very conscious of singing when she can to Mark.
Tullia is focussed on Mark and nothing else when singing.
Singing is a powerful tool to distract Mark and keep him calm and happy.
It is useful even in the car to stop his crying and when he is very distressed.
Open shut them is the number 1 distraction song that Tullia will use to capture his
attention and make him happy
Tullia finds it difficult to sing to Mark when Melayna (first child) is around the
house. If she hears them singing she wants to join in and the interaction becomes
centred on Melayna rather than Mark.
Singing is such a good parenting tool because it’s portable, always available and
easy to use – it is not something she needs to pack, look for or stress about if she
can’t find it. She can use it anytime, anywhere.
Tullia tries to sing Mark a variety of songs to stimulate his brain development
Tullia will choose songs based on Mark’s current needs (e.g. sleepy)
Tullia will repeat a song is Mark is enjoying it.
Tullia will repeat lullabies over and over because she can see it is calming Mark
down.
Even if she is getting a little bored of singing a lullaby over and over again she
reminds herself that it is helping Mark.
Tullia tends to sing whatever pops into her head throughout the day which, usually
are her favourite songs such as You are my sunshine
NONE
Tullia is looking forward to when Melayna (1 st chid) goes to Kindergarten for 2
days so that she can enjoy having more one-on-one time with Mark
Discussion
The personal impact to well-being is one of the most important aspects of
singing for Tullia. Firstly, singing calms Tullia down and provides feelings of
peacefulness. Secondly, by calming herself down she is able to calm Mark down.
Once Mark is calm she feels relief. Thirdly, Tullia feels a sense of satisfaction when
she successfully calms Mark down. She says, “The fact that I make him stop crying
when I’m singing, that’s huge. I don’t have to feed him or anything, I just sing and
it’s enough”. Tullia feels a greater sense of relief and satisfaction when it has been
more difficult to calm Mark down. She says:
it’s hard because sometimes I just don’t want to sing it again but it’s helping. It’s making
him feel better. So even if it’s boring to sing it so many times it helps him. Then I feel
better anyway because he’s calmer
132
In other words, Tullia is confident that continuing to sing will calm Mark down and
she feels satisfied with herself for continuing her singing, despite boredom, to
achieve Mark’s calm state.
The achievement and satisfaction of successfully modulating Mark’s emotion
also helps her to bond with Mark and feel significant to him. She explains:
Well, it definitely makes us closer. It makes me more, um, what’s the word? Um … I
guess it makes me more, I don’t know if this is the right word: valuable to him? As in,
I’m the one that sings to him and I’m that person that comforts him with singing and
stuff. It makes me more special to him
In other words, her success in modulating Mark’s emotions reinforces her sense of
connection with Mark as well as her sense of self as ‘mother’.
Furthermore, Tullia describes how singing minimises feelings of guilt about
not spending as much time with Mark as she did with Melanya when she was Mark’s
age. Tullia describes taking advantage of moments in between Melayna’s demands to
sing with Mark and how experiencing quality focussed time helps to balance out the
lesser quantity of one-on-one time available with Mark. She says, “But yeah, it’s that
second child thing, I feel so much guilt. That’s probably why I like music. Like,
when I sing to him I feel better because, you know, you have that guilt but then
you’re doing something”. In other words, intentionally experiencing quality time
with Mark via singing minimises Tullia's guilt.
Conclusion
that singing songs played a key role in caring for the modulation needs of an infant
as well as maternal well-being. The Emotional Availability findings reveal that
Tullia intuitively sang songs with high emotional availability. The Interview findings
133
reveal that by effectively modulating both Mark’s and Tullia’s emotions, singing
greatly impacted Tullia’s mental health and well-being. Together, the Interview and
Emotional Availability findings illustrate that singing was experienced and perceived
to be an important part of mothering and maternal health. It is unclear what Tullia’s
well-being and emotional availability would have been like without the contributions
of singing. However, this case demonstrates that singing served distinctly valuable
functions for a positive and emotionally available mother-infant dyad.
KAREN & COLIN
Karen is the mother of three children. Colin, her youngest was 5.7 months old
at first video session and appeared alert, attentive and happy. He was very interested
in the orange high chair and become very tired near the end of the session. At the
second video Colin was 6.3 months old. He was tired buy happy and fell asleep near
the end of the session.
Overall, Karen's scores are categorised as high, although her sensitivity score was
lower than the other dimensions. As shown in Table 24, she scored between 22 and
27.5 on the dimensions of Parental Sensitivity, Structuring, Non-Intrusiveness and
Non-Hostility. Colin scored highly for Child Responsiveness (21) but scored a mid
score of 18.5 for Child Involvement.
Karen's affect was warm and animated. She clearly enjoyed Colin and
generally responded to Colin’s cues appropriately and promptly. However, she
134
seemed so focussed on continually singing songs. Possibly, the pressure associated
with being videoed for research compromised her emotional connection with Colin.
Also, Karen’s structuring provided Colin with positive guidance and it generally had
an emotionally enveloping quality to it. However, due to her almost constant singing,
some of her structuring was ignored by Colin. Generally, Karen followed Colin’s
interest cues and reactions in a non-intrusive and non-hostile manner.
Colin showed some instances of dysregulation but was generally positive and
relaxed and likely to respond to Karen’s initiations. However, he could have
demonstrated more emotional range in his expressiveness. Colin also used simple
means to initiate and extend interaction. However, he not elaborate interaction as
much as he initiated it. He was slightly task-oriented and used both positively and
negatively involving behaviours, warranting a lower involvement score.
Table 24:- Summary of Karen and Colin’s Emotional Availability scores.
Scale
Total score ( / 29)
Mean total score
Category of EA
Sensitivity
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
22
High
25.5
High
24.5
High
27.5
High
21
High
18.5
Mid
Structuring
Non-intrusiveness
Non-hostility
Child involvement
22
22
25
26
24
25
27
28
21
21
19
18
Interview Findings
Verification was given by Karen who agreed that the transcript and summary
found in Appendix U.
135
The overall meaning units/themes from Karen's interview are shown in the
column of Table 25.
Table 25: Karen’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs
Attachment
Constructs
Pleasure in
proximity




Tolerance/
acceptance









Need
gratification/
protection












Some play songs just make Karen feel happy.
Singing is a fun, enjoyable loving and affectionate experience for Karen
Colin responds positively to singing e.g. he will smile and get excited and make
noises. Sometimes he will mimic Karen by moving his mouth and tongue.
Observing these reactions add to the enjoyment of singing interactions
Karen sometimes has affectionate, loving thoughts such as “I could play with you
all day”
Singing is quality one-on-one time with Colin
Singing helps Karen to feel less helpless in certain situations e.g. when in the
hospital singing helps Karen feel she is doing something to help Colin feel better.
Singing has calmed Karen to such an extent that she has fallen asleep while
singing lullabies.
Singing does more than just calm Karen down. It gives her ‘time out’ from her
busy day and allows her to reflect and become more self-aware about everything
e.g. she is able to be in the moment and appreciate Colin rather than letting the
baby phase whizz by.
Singing is important to Karen as a person, not just as a mum or parent because it
provides her time to be calm, reflect and become aware.
The fact that Karen is also calmed (when settling Colin) helps her to feel better
about the whole calming process.
Karen remembers when she didn’t know to sing and the difference it made to her
own wellbeing as well as her care of Eva (first child)
And knowing that she has spent quality time with Colin means she doesn’t feel
guilty about not spending tie with just him
Karen feels satisfied with her achievement of calming Colin, which then reinforces
the feeling that Karen is a good parent. Singing provides a win-win situation
When Karen sings with Colin previous thoughts about work or studies are pushed
aside or ‘shelved away’ and she becomes focussed on Colin and ‘in the moment’
Once focussed on Colin Karen will think about his reactions
Karen sometimes has other thoughts while singing e.g. she may think about trying
to get him to sleep such as “ok, go to sleep, calm, come on”
Singing calms Colin down when he’s feeling upset, sleepy or uncomfortable (e.g.
in the hospital)
Colin will stare, watch and listen attentively, especially during the soft lullabies
Singing calms both Karen and Colin down. Singing will calm Karen down which
then helps Colin to calm down.
Karen will sing to Colin at night when he wakes up. She will hold him close, look
at his face and sing him a lullaby. Colin will stare back and then go to sleep.
Singing makes settling Colin easier to achieve because it calms Karen and Colin.
Singing works faster than anything else to calm Colin
Singing provides Karen an effective parenting tool and quality time with Colin
Karen sings in the car when Colin is getting distressed. She finds singing useful
because she cannot touch Colin to calm him down while driving. Singing crosses
that physical separation to calm Colin down
Singing is Karen’s main way of spending quality time with Colin. She will sing
maybe 4 or 5 times a day with just Colin, even if it’s just one song, it’s still quality
136




Knowledge
acquisition
Other




time with him
Singing captures Colin’s attention, engages him and makes him happy. Singing is
more effective at engaging Colin than talking.
Karen will tend to sing songs that both she and Colin enjoy. When he is looking
straight at Karen (giving her attention) and smiling and laughing then Karen knows
he is enjoying himself and she will continue singing.
If Colin looks disinterested or is not responding as much to the happy songs Karen
knows she needs to change songs or stop singing.
Karen sings spontaneously throughout the day. She sings songs without even
realising it
NONE
Since that first experience of singing Karen has gotten used to singing everyday
and encourages her friends to sing to her children
At this young age there isn’t much else Karen can use to communicate with Colin.
Karen will sing lullabies over and over again because the repetition suits the songs.
Discussion
Two key features of Karen’s experience of singing resonates strongly
throughout the interview, including: (1) her belief in singing is an effective and
reliable tool to modulate emotions, and (2) the benefit of singing to Karen’s wellbeing.
Karen often talks about modulating Colin’s emotions by singing. For example
she says, “It [singing] does actually stop him from going all frantic”20. She also
describes singing as working faster than other parenting methods. “He definitely
seems to enjoy it and respond to it whether he’s tired or whatever, he’ll still stop,
whereas if I talk to him when he’s beside himself he won’t always stop” and “I’ll just
hold him up close and sing to him and it might take a minute and a minute doesn’t
sound like very long but it is when they’re like that, they will work a lot faster than
anything else” Evidently, Karen believes singing is the most effective tool for
modulating Colin’s emotions.
Singing is particularly important for Karen’s well-being. Firstly, singing will
calm both Karen and Colin down. Also, when Karen is calm she is better able to
20
All quotes in the discussion were extracted from Karen’s interview which took place on December,
8, 2011.
137
calm Colin down. Secondly, the success of calming Colin down provides a sense of
achievement and mothering competence. The process of calming Colin down helps
Karen to feel calmer and satisfied with her mothering while also validating her sense
of self as ‘good mother’. Thirdly, singing provides an opportunity to experience
pleasurable and focussed quality time with Colin. Fourthly, experiencing the quality
of singing interactions reassures Karen that she is making the most of any one-onone time with Colin and minimises feelings of guilt that arise from having to divide
her attention amongst her three attention. Lastly, singing provides an opportunity for
self-reflection and awareness which in turn allows Karen to better enjoy Colin’s
current baby phase. Karen explains:
But I know for me it’s not just about calming, it kind of centres you a little bit and it
makes you take that time out. And I do know, when I have some of those moment I think,
‘Ok, he’s going to grow up soon’. You just have those flashes of like he’s growing up
soon and you’re going to miss it. (…) I think it’s important for me, even if it’s just as a
person, not even a parent or a mum, just to kind of do that calm because otherwise I don’t
always get time to do it and have a bit of reflection (…) that’s what I was trying to say
before, a bit of that reflection as well as self-awareness
On a personal level, singing provides a valuable opportunity to promote mindfulness.
By adopting an ‘in the moment’ frame of mind, Karen is able to calmly self-reflect
and take joy in her son.
Conclusion
that singing served an important function in addressing both Karen’s and Colin’s
emotional and mental needs. The Interview findings reveal that Karen advocated
singing for its effectiveness in modulating emotions and providing multiple benefits
138
to her well-being. The Emotional Availability results reveal that Karen and Colin’s
relationship was generally positive and Karen intuitively sang songs with generally
high emotional availability. Together, the Interview and Emotional Availability
findings illustrate that a generally emotionally available dyad experienced and
perceived songs to be an important part of mothering, health and well-being. The
positive experience of singings songs was unique, multi-layered and distinctly
valuable. By ingraining songs into everyday life and singing with high emotional
availability, singing positively and uniquely contributed to Karen’s and Colin’s
relationship.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
The purpose of this chapter was to analyse (1) each mother’s subjective
experience of using play songs and lullabies, and (2) the quality of each dyad’s
interaction during the use of play songs and lullabies. The findings illustrate that all
mothers experienced something positive from singing songs but also, that each
mother had a unique subjective experience of singing. For some mothers, the benefit
to well-being was particularly important and prominent, for others it was the ability
to reliably modulate her infant’s emotions. Similarly, each dyad scored differently on
the Emotional Availability scales. Some dyads scored highly in all of the Emotional
Availability dimensions whereas some scored a range of high and mid scores across
the dimensions. Some dyads appeared to have a healthy and positive connection,
others less so. In other words, the analyses and discussions highlight the individuality
and complexity of each dyad. Interestingly, despite the individuality of the dyads, all
mothers experienced some sort of positive contribution to the mother's perception of
139
attachment and benefit to maternal well-being. In the next chapter the analysis of the
subjective experience and quality of non-singing interactions will be presented and
discussed.
140
CHAPTER 5 - INDIVIDUAL EXPERIENCE
OF NON-SINGING INTERACTION
"I'll just hold him close and sing to him and it might take a minute and a minute
doesn't sound like very long but it is when they're like that, that [singing] will work a
lot faster than anything else"
Karen, mother of three, interview conducted on 8th December, 2011
In the previous chapter, the individual findings of the Interview and
Emotional Availability findings for the singing condition were presented. The
findings demonstrated that the experience of singing and the degree of Emotional
Availability was different for each dyad. This chapter presents the findings on a case
by case basis for the non-singing condition. It includes individual summaries of the
findings from (1) the ratings of Emotional Availability which provides behavioural
indicators of the quality of dyadic interaction, and (2) the semi-structured Interview
which reflect the subjective experience of the mother during her non-singing play
interactions with her infant. The analysis of the Interview is structured to provide an
explication of the meaning units or themes that arose during the interview, and how
they relate to Condon & Corkindale's (1998) attachment constructs, which is
subsequently discussed, and related back to Emotional Availability ratings. It should
be noted that all names have been changed to protect the privacy of the mothers and
infants who participated in the study.
141
JULIA & LUKE
Julia has two sons, James and Luke. Second born, Luke was 7.9 months old
at his first video session and appeared very happy and relaxed. At the second video
session he was 8.1 months old and appeared quite restless.
Overall, Julie's scores are categorised as high, according to the division of scores
outlined in the 'Materials' section of Chapter 3 (see p. 51). As shown in Table 26, she
scored between 24 and 27.5 on the dimensions of Parental Sensitivity, Structuring,
Non-Intrusiveness and Non-Hostility. Luke also scored high scores on both child
dimensions. Averaged across the two sessions, Luke scored 27 for Child
Responsiveness and 23.5 for Child Involvement. Overall Julia and Luke have a
highly emotionally available relationship.
From observation, Julia's affect was animated and although she seemed
slightly ‘over-the-top’ at times, she clearly enjoyed Luke and responded to his cues
promptly and appropriately. Julia tried hard to structure positively and successfully
but occasionally was a little intrusive. Generally, she followed Luca’s cues and
interests in a non-intrusive, non-hostile and respectful manner.
Luke demonstrated good emotional regulation and was very responsive and
expressive. He was likely to respond to Julia positively and generally looked happy
and relaxed. Luke was also very involving. He frequently looked to his mother,
142
sustained eye-contact, babbled and smiled. On occasion he also reached out to his
mother and imitated her.
Table 26: Summary of Julia and Luke’s Emotional Availability scores
Scale
Total score ( / 29)
Mean total score
Category of EA
Sensitivity
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
24.5
High
27
High
25.5
High
27.5
High
27
High
23.5
High
Structuring
Non-intrusiveness
Non-hostility
Child involvement
24
25
27
27
24
27
27
28
27
27
24
23
Interview Findings
Verification was given by Julia who agreed that the transcript and summary
found in Appendix V. Julie also commented that she enjoyed participating in the
study as it provided exclusive one-on-one time with Luke and found it surprising that
so much of her interaction is an unconscious behaviour.
The overall meaning units/themes from Julia’s interview are shown in the
second column of Table 27. These meaning unites related to all four attachment
tolerance/acceptance, (3) need gratification and protection and (4) knowledge
acquisition, shown in the first column of Table 27. Other meaning units are also
included such as, how having children has impacted Julia's life generally.
Table 27: Julia’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs
Attachment
Constructs
Pleasure
proximity
in

Julia feels excited and proud when she’s interacting with Luke and witnesses Luke
make new developments and discoveries.
143
Tolerance/
acceptance
Need
gratification/
protection













Knowledge
acquisition
Other






Interacting with Luke is a fun and enjoyable experience
Julia does not experience negative feelings when interacting with Luke
The reactions from Luke is what makes the interaction fun
Getting positive reactions match or counterbalance the other bad times e.g. getting
up at night
Interacting with Luke is easy in that he reacts a lot with smiles and giggles.
Julia is very conscious about making sure her attention is divided evenly between
her two boys i.e. both Luke and James will have one-on-one quality time with her
When Julia notices Luke figuring something out she will consciously try to
encourage and extend certain behaviours e.g. when he started to touch the baby
book she encouraged his touching to continue
Signals from Luke shape the interaction e.g. arms up means he has had enough
Julia makes note of Luke’s responses during interactions e.g. Luke starting to copy
her
During interactions Julia often thinks about what will work or what she can do to
continue preoccupying Luke and keeping him happy
Julia will sometimes consciously learn new material (e.g. Timmy song) because
Luke has reacted positively to it.
Julia will remember what has made Luke happy in the past and incorporate these
things into the current interaction. She also tries to remember new things that he
found enjoyable for the future.
Luke’s reaction drives the direction of the interaction. If he enjoys something Julia
will continue doing it, if not Julia will try something different. A positive reactions
means the interaction is working
Interacting with Luke is about getting a reaction from him and preoccupying him
When Luke is happy it means that the interaction is working
Julia wonders what Luke is thinking and what goes on in his mind
There is something automatic about the interactions e.g. Julia will not make a
conscious decision to sing but when she starts rocking she automatically starts to
sing. She also doesn’t plan it just comes out at any time.
The feelings toward her own children is unique to her feelings toward her relatives
Having children has opened up a new sense of empathy towards parents around the
world
Discussion
Julia had a very positive and validating experience when she verified the
interview analysis. When reading, writing and verbally expanding on her comments
she expressed a sense of pleasure and pride in her mothering. However, these
feelings of mothering pride were not experienced during the play itself, only upon
reflection once removed from the experience. It was particularly validating for Julia
to realise how much she thought about responding to Luke’s reactions. For example,
she made mental notes about things that Luke had enjoyed in the past with the
intention of utilising them again in the future, saying, “I think because I’ve sneezed
144
once and he laughed so it’s just yeah, I keep doing it (…)21 if you get that reaction
you sort of keep going or remember that it works” 22. Interestingly, Julia did not seem
to be conscious of these thought processes during the play experience, only during
the verification process.
The key feature of Julia’s subjective experience of playing and interacting is
Luke’s reactions. Observing Luke’s reactions facilitates two things: (1) positive
feelings of pleasure and (2) curiosity and thoughts about what going in Luke’s mind.
When Julia observes Luke’s reactions she describes experiencing feelings of pleasure
and fun, saying, “Just getting that reaction makes it …23 I mean I try to get the
reaction I suppose, I guess, it’s what makes it fun and enjoyable to do”. Observing
Luke’s reactions to discovery provides additional feelings of pride and amazement.
Furthermore, Julie thinks about what is going on in Luke's mind and the reason
behind Luke’s actions and reactions. For example, she says, “I always think, I
wonder what they think about, what ticks over”. Evidently, Julia thinks a lot about
Luke’s reactions as well as the intention behind his actions during play interactions.
However, it is the combination of these thoughts and feelings of pleasure, fun,
amazement and pride (of Luke) that characterise the experience of non-singing
interactions for Julia.
Conclusion
that Luke’s reactions formed the basis of Julia’s behavioural and subjective
experience of non-singing play interactions. The Emotional Availability scores
21
In all quotations from the interview, (...) denotes missing text.
All quotes in the discussion are extracted from Julia’s interview which took place on June, 15, 2011
23
In all quotations from the interview, an ellipsis denotes hesitation, not missing text.
22
145
reveal that Julia intuitively interacted with high emotional availability. The Interview
findings reveal that Julia thought about scaffolding interactions according to Luke’s
reactions and that feelings of pleasure, amazement and pride (of Luke) stemmed
from observing Luke’s positive reactions. Together, the Emotional Availability and
Interview findings illustrate that emotionally available interactions require
observations of, and thought processes about, the infant’s communications and
responses. Even though Julia was not totally aware of it, her prioritisation of infant
reactions was a prominent part of her facilitation of emotionally available
interactions. In turn, Luke’s positive reactions to her interaction success facilitated
positive thoughts and feelings related to the attachment constructs and thus,
positively impacted Julia and Luke’s relationship.
SIMONE & SASHA
Simone is the mother of two children, Tom and Sasha. Second born, Sasha
was 7.8 months old at her first video session and 8.3 months old at her second video
session. During both sessions Sasha appeared fairly settled and relaxed.
Overall, Simone's scores are categorised as high. As shown in Table 28, she scored
between 25 and 27.5 on the dimensions of Parental Sensitivity, Structuring, NonIntrusiveness and Non-Hostility. Sasha also scored highly for Child Responsiveness
(23) but was borderline between mid and high scores for Child Involvement (20.5).
146
From observation, Simone's vocal tone sounded gentle and warm but, during
the first session, interacting on video seemed to have influenced her affective
expressions, which appeared a little bland and tense. During the second session, she
appeared more relaxed, demonstrated more structuring and a clearer enjoyment of
her daughter. Generally, Simone structured interactions positively and successfully,
although attempts were short in duration. She followed Sasha’s cues and interests in
a non-intrusive and non-hostile manner, demonstrated good emotional regulation,
respect and minimal signs of negativity.
Sasha scored differently on the two child dimensions. Although not avoidant
or emotionally shut down, she was not very expressive either, particularly in the first
session. This is despite her overall relaxed demeanour. She also tended to appear
task-oriented and gave the overall impression of not being totally emotionally
connected to her mother. Sasha was less involving than she was responsive. She
demonstrated some simple initiatives but did not elaborate much. For example,
smiling and babbling were infrequent, particularly during the first session. Overall,
Simone and Sasha appear to have a generally positive relationship, but they also
demonstrated factors to indicate that their emotional connection is not entirely.
Despite the overall high scores, their relationship appears to be 'apparently' healthy,
according to Emotional Availability (Biringen, 2008a, 2008b).
Table 28: Summary of Simone and Sasha’s Emotional Availability scores
Scale
Total score ( / 29)
Mean total score
Category of EA
Sensitivity
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
26.5
High
25
High
27
High
27.5
High
23
High
20.5
Borderline high/mid
Structuring
Non-intrusiveness
Non-hostility
Child involvement
26
27
23
27
27
27
28
27
22
24
19
147
Video 2
22
Interview Findings
Verification was given by Simone who agreed that the transcript and
summary are found in Appendix W.
The overall meaning units/themes from Simone's interview are shown in the
tolerance/acceptance, and (3) need gratification and protection, as shown in the first
column of Table 29. Other meaning units are also included, such as how Simone’s
speech background impacted her interaction and her thoughts about play.
Table 29: Simone’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs
Attachment
Constructs
Pleasure in
proximity
Tolerance/
acceptance
Need
gratification/
protection
















Knowledge
acquisition
Other


Interacting with Sasha is a lovely happy and nice experience
Simone feels a sense of pride and happy surprise when she sees Sasha do
something new or different
It’s particularly lovely to see Sasha laughing during interactions
It’s particularly lovely to see Sasha reaching new developmental milestones
It’s pleasant having a non-busy day to spend with Sasha
Simone enjoys true one-on-one time with Sasha
Sasha does not experience negative feelings when interacting with Sasha
Simone experiences positive thoughts when interacting with Sasha e.g. isn’t it nice
she’s an easy going baby
Sasha has a very settled and easy going temperament (e.g. she sleeps well) which
means Simone doesn’t feel as exhausted as when Tom (her eldest) was a baby
At home Simone is preoccupied with thoughts e.g. jobs that need to be done
Simone’s preoccupation with jobs to be done and scheduling appointments means
she’s not always in the moment
Simone will note the different things Sasha does during play
Simone particularly notices new developments and will often think about whether
Sasha’s development is on par with her age
It’s difficult finding true one-on-one time
Simone’s experience of competing for one-on-one attention with her own mother
has influenced her desire o dedicate one-on-one time with her kids.
Simone consciously thought about letting Sasha lead the play etc during the video
sessions
NONE
Play happens so often that Simone feels she is frequently playing with the kids and
supervising their pay. It happens so often she hadn’t really thought about what play
is or how she plays with Sasha before the video sessions
148

Interaction in the video sessions is different to home
Discussion
A key feature of Simone’s experience of interacting with Sasha is pleasure.
Observing Sasha being happy during play (e.g. smiling and laughing) in turn sparks
positive thoughts and feelings in Simone. Furthermore, Simone particularly enjoys
the opportunity to have one-on-one time with Sasha. With the demands of caring for
another child, working and maintaining a household, Simone rarely has time to spend
playing with Sasha on her own. She says, “It’s also just nice getting a day with her
and not being so busy (...) It’s lovely spending time with her and playing” 24
Another key feature is that Simone experiences developmental and
structuring focussed thoughts during play. For example, she thinks about whether
behaviours are indicative of developmental age. Simone expands on her thought
processes by describing her conscious effort to scaffold child led play. She says, “I
have tried to let her lead the play and pull out what she wants or pause and give her
time to say things”. Interestingly, Simone says she does not put in the same
conscious effort at home because she is preoccupied with work and home related
responsibilities. She says, “(...) at home I’m pretty much preoccupied actually, as in,
like maybe not always there in the moment, like maybe thinking, ‘gosh it’s 2 o’clock
not and in a couple of hours I’ll have to go and do this’”. Importantly, Sasha scored
highly in all of the parental dimensions. This suggests that her conscious efforts to
follow Sasha’s lead and structure interactions according to Sasha’s responses helped
to facilitate high emotional availability.
24
All quotes in the discussion are extracted from Simone’s interview which took place on July, 4,
2011.
149
Conclusion
that Simone thought about, and implemented child-led play. The Emotional
Availability scores reveal that Simone interacted with high (not quite optimal)
Emotional Availability by following Sasha’s lead and positively scaffolding
interactions according to Sasha’s cues and responses. The Interview findings reveal
that Simone consciously tried to be emotionally available by intentionally
implementing principles of child-led play. She also experienced feelings of pleasure,
enjoyment and fun by seeing Sasha being happy during play. Together, the
Emotional Availability and Interview findings illustrate that Simone’s conscious
effort to be ‘in the moment’ and follow Sasha’s lead helped to facilitate high
Emotional Availability. Also, experiencing emotionally available one-on-one
interaction facilitated thoughts and feelings which contributed positively to the
mother-infant relationship.
MACY & SANDRA
Sandra is Macy’s first child. At the first video session she was 7.5 months
old, a little hungry but otherwise happy and relaxed. At the second video session she
was 8 months old and appeared a little unhappy and restless.
Findings of Emotional Availability
Overall, Macy's scores are categorised as high. As shown in Table 28, she scored
between 26.5 and 27. on the dimensions of Parental Sensitivity, Structuring, Non150
Intrusiveness and Non-Hostility. Sandra also scored highly for Child Responsiveness
(24.5) and Child Involvement (22.5).
From observation, Macy’s affect was warm and animated, although slightly
‘over-the-top’ at times. She was aware of Sandra’s cues and consistently responded
promptly and appropriately. Macy structured interactions positively and successfully
and she followed Sandra’s lead by guiding interactions according to Sandra’s interest
cues in a non-intrusive and non-hostile manner.
Sandra appeared generally happy and relaxed and demonstrated a range of
affect and expressiveness. She was likely to respond positively and showed only
some dysregulation but was able to be regulated quickly and easily. Sandra was also
quite involving for her age. She frequently looked at Macy, imitated her actions,
babbled and smiled. She demonstrated some negatively involving behaviours in
session 2 which lowered her overall involvement score.
Table 30: Summary of Macy and Sandra’s Emotional Availability scores
Scale
Total score ( / 29)
Mean total score
Category of EA
Sensitivity
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
26.5
High
26.5
High
26.5
High
27
High
24.5
High
22.5
High
Structuring
Non-intrusiveness
Non-hostility
Child involvement
27
26
27
26
27
26
27
27
26
23
24
21
Interview Findings
Verification was given by Macy who agreed that the transcript and summary
found in Appendix X.
151
The overall meaning units/themes from Macy’s interview are shown in the
acquisition, as shown in the first column of Table 31. Other meaning units are also
included such as how singing is naturally integrated into everyday life.
Table 31: Macy’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs
Attachment
Constructs
Pleasure in
proximity
Tolerance/
acceptance
Need
gratification/
protection













Knowledge
acquisition
Other







Interacting with Sandra is a happy and rewarding experience for Macy, especially
when she sees Sandra is working something out and her expressions
Macy feels happy when she sees Sandra is happy
Macy can feel frustrated when she is having trouble working out why Sandra is
upset.
Sandra loves hearing the same songs being sung, however Macy is feeling a need
to expand her repertoire. She feels a bit bored of the songs she knows and would
like to learn some new songs for herself
When Sandra is upset she wishes she could do something to help Sandra feel
happier
When Sandra is upset Macy will think of what could be causing her distress. She
wants to help Sandra and will think of what she can do to help her child feel
happier.
Playschool have Macy ideas about the manner in which to sing songs (in a manner
engaging to an infant)
Interacting and caring for Sandra is all about trying to make her happy. Being a
mum is doing whatever will make Sandra happy.
Sandra’s reactions drive the direction of interactions. If Sandra is enjoying herself
Macy will continue doing the same thing. If Sandra is not looking interested she
still try something else.
Sandra’s enjoyment or interest in certain things inspire interactions e.g. enjoyment
of making noises inspired Macy to make a shaker
Sometimes Macy will try a range of different things to see if it makes Sandra
happy
Sandra is having trouble sleeping so Macy is considering learning lullabies or
using music to help her sleep more easily.
Singing calms Sandra’s distress and makes her happy e.g. Stopping her crying the
car
Macy is fascinated and curious by what makes Sandra tick and how she learns
things. It’s amazing to watch the development
Macy found the BabyLab environment and interacting on chairs was quite
restricting. (She would normally pick Sandra up more and dance around).
Singing comes very naturally to Macy now. At first she used to sing along to a CD
but now that she knows the songs she sings them live
Singing is simply integrated into everyday life. Sometimes songs are sung
randomly throughout a day and other times Macy will have a longer one-on-one
time with Sandra
Sandra loves music. When she hears an ad jingle she looks up.
She particular loves songs with actions and movements
Sandra’s facial expressions indicate she recognises songs
152
Discussion
For Macy, the goal of interacting is to make Sandra happy. Consequently, her
thoughts are often concerned with achieving the happiness goal. She thinks about
how Sandra is feeling (e.g. happy, distressed, bored etc), interprets behaviours to
work out what’s wrong and judges what to do based on Sandra’s expressions, cues
and responses. For example, Macy says, “Yeah, like her reaction. Like yeah,
obviously if she’s loving it then you keep going” 25 and “Yeah, you know your own
child, you do usually work out what she wants”. The impression she gives is that she
is able to interpret and respond to Sandra’s cues and signals and do so easily.
The experience of interacting is emotionally contagious; when Sandra is
happy, Macy feels happy. Also, when Macy observes Sandra’s developmental
growth she experiences additional feelings of fascination and amazement. She says,
“Well I’m fascinated by her, like um, just to see her work things out I just um, I’m
kind of amazed that a little person is learning things for the first time”. Overall, a
combination of pleasure, contagious happiness, fascination and amazement
characterise the experience of interacting for Macy.
Importantly, singing is not entirely differentiated from non-singing play
interactions; it is simply integrated into everyday life and mother-infant interactions.
Macy does not discuss if/how her own experience of singing is different from nonsinging interactions. However, when Macy talks of singing, she describes singing as
having a particular purpose in keeping Sandra happy. For example, she says:
For a while there the Wheels on the bus was the only song that would shut her up in the
car. Yeah, ‘cause she used to hate the car so there was a lot of singing done in the car
25
All quotes in the discussion are extracted from Macy’s interview which took place on July, 11,
2011.
153
and sometimes that was the only thing that would stop her from crying so you had to
constantly sing
From Macy’s descriptions, singing songs is distinctly more reliable (than non-singing
interactions) to soothe Sandra’s distress; she does not mention other tools capable of
achieving such modulation in the way singing does. Thus, Macy does differentiate
singing from non-singing interactions by considering it to be a particularly effective
tool for modulating Sandra’s emotions.
Conclusion
that Macy’s intentions were to maintain Sandra’s happy state and that she was able to
achieve this goal by interacting with high emotional availability. The Interview
findings reveal that Macy often thought about Sandra’s cues, signals and behaviours
and experienced a combination of positive feelings during interactions such as
pleasure, happiness, fascination and amazement. The Emotional Availability scores
reveal that Macy interacted with high, almost optimal, emotional availability. She
easily interpreted and responded to cues and did so non-intrusively and with nonhostility.
both singing and non-singing interactions were required to achieve Macy’s infant
happiness goal. Singing was distinctly more effective and valued than non-singing
methods to modulate Sandra’s distress, yet considered a naturally integral component
of everyday mother-infant interaction. This suggests that when singing is ingrained
into everyday life and integrated with non-singing play interactions, it may serve a
unique and important function in meeting infant needs.
154
YASMIN & OTTO
Otto is Yasmin’s first child. He was 5.6 months old at his first video session
and 6.1 months old at his second video session. During both sessions Otto appeared
very happy and content.
Overall, Yasmin’s scores are categorised as high. As shown in Table 32, she scored
between 25.5 and 28.5 on the dimensions of Parental Sensitivity, Structuring, NonIntrusiveness and Non-Hostility. Otto scored highly for Child Responsiveness (23.5)
but was borderline mid and high scores for Child Involvement (19.5).
From observation, Yasmin was warm, genuine and clearly enjoyed her child.
She responded to Otto’s interests and cues promptly and structured interactions
positively and successfully. Yasmin followed Otto’s lead and patiently provided him
as much choice as possible in a highly non-hostile manner. Even when she was sick
during the second video session she remained energetic, enthusiastic, warm and
positive.
Otto demonstrated an overall happy and relaxed demeanour and good
emotional regulation. He was also likely to respond positively to Yasmin and showed
frequent positive expressiveness. However, Otto was less involving than he was
responsive. He frequently demonstrated behavioural initiative e.g. looking and
smiling but only occasionally utilised vocal means of initiative such as babbling.
155
Table 32: Summary of Yasmin and Otto’s Emotional Availability scores.
Scale
Total score ( / 29)
Mean total score
Category of EA
Sensitivity
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
26
High
25.5
High
27.5
High
28.5
High
23.5
High
19.5
Borderline high/mid
Structuring
Non-intrusiveness
Non-hostility
Child involvement
26.5
25
25
26
28
27
29
28
24
23
20
19
Interview Findings
Verification was given by Yasmin who agreed that the transcript and
summary are found in Appendix Y.
The overall meaning units/themes from Yasmin’s interview are shown in the
acquisition, as shown in the first column of Table 33. Other meaning units are also
included such as how having Otto has impacted Yasmin’s life generally.
Table 33: Yasmin’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs
Attachment
Constructs
Pleasure in
proximity






Tolerance/

Yasmin feels a positive satisfied feeling when she interacts with Otto, sees his
smiles, giggles and development
Yasmin feels positive feelings particularly when she sees he is more interactive
and happy than other babies
Yasmin feels happy knowing that Otto is happy
Playing and interacting offers Yasmin and Otto something other than mechanical
caregiving routines. It provides time to have fun together.
Yasmin also likes interacting when she doesn’t have to think about what to do next
e.g. swimming relieves some pressure to think while providing time to have fun
together
The time since Otto’s birth has gone quickly. She is used to being with him
constantly to the point where she misses him a little e.g. after a long sleep.
Yasmin can feel frustrate when she is having difficulty working out what Otto is
156
acceptance
Need
gratification/
protection










Knowledge
acquisition
Other



trying to communicate
Yasmin experiences a very happy positive feeling knowing that she can make Otto
feel happy e.g. morning routine.
Yasmin observes Otto’s behaviour to work out what he wants
Otto’s growing expressions helps Yasmin feel more confident in her abilities to
interpret Otto’s communications.
Yasmin patiently thinks about what could be wrong when Otto cries.
Yasmin wonders if she is giving Otto too little or too much stimulation
Yasmin often thinks about giving Otto the right amount of stimulation.
She has noticed that as Otto grows older he is seeking greater stimulation. She is
conscious of providing him variety (in what she offers) and in finding ways to
keep him amused.
Yasmin has found that incorporating play into caregiving routines has helped her
to get through the job more easily
Otto’s reactions and behaviours direct the interaction. If Otto is enjoying himself
Yasmin will continue what she’s doing, if not she’ll try something else.
Yasmin feels satisfied and proud when she can figure out what Otto is trying to
communicate
Part of parenting and interacting is getting to know Otto’s personality better and
working out what he likes and doesn’t like
Interacting in the BabyLab is different to at home. Yasmin generally doesn’t spend
20 minutes straight interacting with Otto
Having Otto has helped put things into perspective
Discussion
Yasmin’s experience of play-based interaction differs from need-based
interaction. Playful interactions are described as the ‘fun side’ of mothering and a
pleasurable means of enjoying each other’s company. Yasmin says:
A lot of the time that we’re together it’s more mechanical sort of things, like having to
feed him and having to change his nappy and that’s kind of like just his wellbeing I guess,
but actually interacting is kind of the fun side of it 26
Playful interactions are also a means for Yasmin to get to know her son better.
Knowing what Otto likes and dislikes helps Yasmin to keep Otto happy. She says,
“but now I’m probably a bit more aware of things we can do together, like what I can
do to amuse him”. Additionally, knowing that she can make Otto happy provides
Yasmin feelings of satisfaction. In contrast, need-based interactions are not described
as pleasurable. Instead, successfully meeting Otto’s needs facilitate a sense of pride
and confidence in Yasmin’s perceived mothering abilities. Yasmin will patiently
26
All quotes in the discussion are extracted from Yasmin’s interview which took place on July, 28,
2011.
157
interpret Otto’s behaviours and experience positive feelings when she observes her
ability to make Otto happy and address his needs.
Another key feature of Yasmin’s experience of playing and interacting with
Otto is that she thinks a lot about structuring. For example, Yasmin describes
interpreting Otto’s cues and behaviours and intentionally trying to avoid
overstimulation by saying, “I sometimes wonder if I’m giving him enough or not
enough or too much to do (…) If he’s a bit unsettled I don’t want to give him too
much stuff to do in case he wants to go to sleep”. Otto’s enjoyment and interest cues
also help Yasmin decide the direction of interactions. For example, she says, “So if I
shake a little soft toy at him and he doesn’t like it, I’ll give him something else”.
Conclusion
that Yasmin consciously tried, and was observed to be emotionally available. The
Emotional Availability scores reveal that Yasmin and Otto had a positive and highly
emotionally available mother-infant relationship. The Interview findings reveal that
Yasmin thought about structuring interactions according to Otto’s signals. The
findings also reveal that fun-based and need-based interactions added contrasting
elements to Yasmin’s perception of attachment. Playful interactions provided
Yasmin pleasure and enjoyment of Otto, whereas successful need-based interactions
provided pride in her mothering competency.
fun-based play interactions contributed a unique element to Yasmin and Otto’s
relationship. It provided a means for Yasmin to get to know and take joy in her child
which was not experienced during need-based interactions. Furthermore, Yasmin
158
thought about and appropriately implemented dimensions of emotional availability,
particularly structuring and sensitivity. This suggests that an awareness of, and
conscious effort to be emotionally availability is an essential component to actually
being emotionally available. Overall, experiencing highly emotionally available funbased play interactions contributed uniquely and positively to Yasmin’s attachment
constructs and her relationship with Otto.
TEGAN & LEVI
Levi is Tegan’s second child. He was 5.6 months old at his first video session
and 6.1 months old at his second video session. During both video sessions, Levi
appeared quite sleepy and took a while to ‘wake up’, despite having recently awoken
from a long sleep.
As shown in Table 34, Tegan scored highly for Parental Structuring (21.5), NonIntrusiveness (27) and Non-Hostility (25.5), although her Structuring score was at the
low end of the high category range. She was also borderline between mid and high
scores for Parental Sensitivity (20). Levi was similarly borderline between mid and
high scores for Child Responsiveness (20) and categorised as mid for Child
Involvement (17).
Tegan’s affect appeared a little in-genuine and she seemed to have to work
hard to draw affect from Levi. Her actions were somewhat laboured, repetitive and
inconsistent in regard to the promptness of her responses to Levi’s cues. These
159
factors indicate that Tegan was not entirely emotionally connected to Levi, according
to Emotional Availability (Biringen, 2008b; Condon, 2010). Tegan’s attempts to
structure interactions and engage Levi were fleeting and only sometimes successful.
She tried, but sometimes ‘lost’ Levi and it took a long period of time for Tegan and
Levi to engage in positive moments of sustained play. Generally, her interactions
were not structuring per se but rather parallel play. Tegan was generally nonintrusive but slightly hostile (particularly in the first video session) as demonstrated
by some disrespectful sighs, comments and annoyance, e.g. “What!?”
Levi was not very involving. He provided few initiation cues for Tegan to
follow and seemed mostly task-oriented. It also took a long period of time for him to
demonstrate any elaborative involvement by smiling and sustaining eye-contact. Levi
demonstrated limited affect and expressiveness. He became dysregulated throughout
the sessions, had difficulty calming down and appeared to take a long time to ‘wake
up’ or show some enthusiasm. Combined with Tegan’s emotional availability, this
relationship did not appear entirely emotionally connected. The connection seemed
to come and go and was considered to be ‘apparently’ rather than entirely, healthy
(Biringen, 2008a, 2008b).
Table 34: Summary of Tegan and Levi’s Emotional Availability scores.
Scale
Total score ( / 29)
Mean total score
Category of EA
Sensitivity
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
20
Borderline high/mid
21.5
High
27
High
25.5
High
20
Borderline high/mid
17
Mid
Structuring
Non-intrusiveness
Non-hostility
Child involvement
20
20
22
21
26
28
24
27
20
20
18
16
160
Interview Findings
Verification was given by Tegan who agreed that the transcript and summary
found in Appendix Z.
The overall meaning units/themes from Tegan’s interview are shown in the
column of Table 35. Other meaning units are included such as, how Tegan’s
interactions are an unconscious behaviour.
Table 35: Tegan’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs
Attachment
Constructs
Pleasure in
proximity
Tolerance/
acceptance




When Tegan sees that Levi is happy see feels happy
Playing and interacting with Levi is a fun and happy experience
Tegan experiences mixed feelings when she sees Levi progress developmentally.
She feels proud and excited but at the same time a little sad because seeing his
progression marks the end of the baby stage.
Tegan can feel stressed when nothing seems to make Levi happy or calm
Tegan will automatically use strategies that have previously made Levi happy e.g.
hand play
Tegan also experiences a sense of relief when she sees Levi’s development. Seeing
Levi become more independent and less clingy sparks feelings of relief – it
symbolises the possibility of more freedom for Tegan and the option of having
some time to herself. Seeing Levi develop marks the beginning of a new phase:
more independence for both Levi and Tegan.
Tegan does not want to see Levi upset. If he is looking bored or upset Tegan will
think things such as “ok, don’t cry, try something else” or “Quick! Change
position, do something else” to immediately try to make him feel happy.
How Tegan interacted in the video session is slightly different to how she interacts
at home – the immediacy of her actions may differ due to the demands of looking
after two children and simultaneously fulfilling household duties
Tegan does not get much one-on-one time with Levi. However, there are
opportunities to interact with Levi alone when Xavier is occupied playing on his
own
Playing with Levi is a way of taking care of the whole household. When Levi is
happy then everyone is happy by making the day less stressful, calmer and run
more smoothly. Playing keeps the peace in Tegan’s household.
Levi’s happy responses determine the direction of the play e.g. if Levi is looking
happy she will continue with a current toy or play interaction
Interacting and playing is about getting positive reactions from Levi. Tegan will
try different thing knowing that eventually Levi will give her positive responses.
NONE

Tegan doesn’t consciously think of what to do next, play just happens



Need
gratification/
protection






Knowledge
acquisition
Other
161
Discussion
Eliciting positive responses from Levi is the main aim and focus of playing
and interacting with him. Even if Levi is not responding to Tegan’s attempts she will
patiently continue to use different play ideas with the confidence of eventually
eliciting a response. She says, “You just keep trying to get a response”
27
and
“Usually it doesn’t take long to get something out of him. So you know it [positive
reaction] will come eventually”. In other words, Tegan is not concerned when Levi
is unresponsive or uninvolving. Instead, she patiently waits for a response.
Tegan does not experience many thoughts during interactions. She will think
about trying something new or different if Levi is unresponsive or responds
negatively, but otherwise does not consider any other specific structuring strategies
during play. She gives the impression of knowing that she ought to do something
with Levi, but is not entirely sure of how to interact. Indeed, her Structuring score
(21 of 29) was on the bottom on the high category range and the limited amount and
successful structuring observed in the videos is far from ideal. Overall, Tegan seems
to be reactive, rather than proactive, saying, for example, “Like, I noticed that if he
started getting upset it was like, ‘Aw! Quick, change positions, do something else’ ”.
Suggestibly, her lack of awareness and intentional implementation of structuring
principles contributed to her lower scores.
A striking feature of Tegan’s experience is that negativity is apparent in
certain thoughts, feelings and behaviours, particularly when she describes how she
planned to bottle feed Levi from the beginning but frustratingly, Levi refused to take
the bottle. Frustration was also coupled with fatigue due to Levi’s constant clinginess
(over-dependence) for the first 5 and half months of his life which made it
27
All quotes in the discussion are extracted from Tegan’s interview which took place on November,
17, 2011.
162
impossible for anyone besides Tegan to care for Levi. Tegan talks about being
helplessly placed in a difficult and unwanted situation from the very beginning,
saying:
Yeah we had this thing. I wasn’t going to breastfeed. He was going to go on to a bottle
straight away and he will not take a bottle (…) And it’s like I can’t do anything because
he won’t take a bottle so I can’t leave him with anyone. So it’s sort of like I’ve had to
have him the whole time
A degree of annoyance and resentment becomes particularly apparent in comments
such as “I’ve had to have him the whole time” (Tegan was forced into a particular
interaction dynamic, freedom of choice was removed), and “I can’t do anything
because he won’t take a bottle” (blame is placed on the infant). Presumably, Tegan
developed hostility toward Levi as a consequence of their unplanned situation and
unhealthy over-dependent history. However, Tegan also describes recently
experiencing a reduction of hostility characterised by feelings of relief and
excitement, as she observes a shift in her relationship with Levi. She says:
It feels good. I left him the other day with his dad to go and do stuff And because he’s
always been so whingy and that no-one’s ever wanted to look after him so he’s always
been with me. So now it’s getting to that point where I can let go a little bit
In other words, Levi’s growing independence and diminishing clinginess also
symbolises Tegan’s growing independence.
Conclusion
that a typical dyad is not necessarily a healthy dyad. The Emotional Availability
scores reveal that Tegan and Levi’s relationship was ‘apparently’, rather than entirely
healthy (Biringen, 2008a, 2008b). The Interview findings reveal that Tegan thought
163
about interactions in a rather reactive way, did not seem to be aware of structuring as
a concept or how to implement it and experienced hostility toward Levi. These
negative thoughts and feelings began when he was born and continued into
participation in the study.
previously shattered mothering expectations and over-dependent relationship
dynamics promoted behavioural and emotional hostility towards Levi. The findings
also suggest that Tegan’s aim to elicit positive responses without apparent
understanding and/or implementation of interaction principles facilitated lower and
unideal emotional availability. Overall, Tegan’s case demonstrates that a dyad not
considered as ‘at risk’ may be in need of guidance and support to improve the quality
of interactions and health of the mother-infant relationship.
MAXINE & CARA
Cara is Maxine’s first child. At her first video session, she was 5.2 months
old and looked very happy. At the second video session, Cara was 5.7 months old
and appeared very sleepy throughout the video session. Maxine reported Cara
recently sleeping a lot, perhaps due to a growth spurt.
Overall, Maxine’s scores are categorised as high. As shown in Table36, she scored
between 25 and 27 on the dimensions of Parental Sensitivity, Structuring, Non-
164
Intrusiveness and Non-Hostility. Cara also scored highly for Child Responsiveness
(21.5) but was borderline mid and high scores for Child Involvement (19.5).
From observation, Maxine was warm and animated although sometimes
appeared to have a ‘performance’ quality to her affect. She was aware of cues and
responded promptly and appropriately. Her structuring led Cara in a positive way and
was mostly successful. She also followed Cara’s lead and interests consistently in a
very non-intrusive and non-hostile manner.
Cara's affect was generally positive although she could have been more
expressive. She showed some signs of distress and dysregulation but was able to be
regulated. Cara was less involving than she was responsive. She used mainly nonverbal means of initiation (e.g. looking and smiling) and occasionally used verbal
sounds. However, most of her vocalisations expressed distress or negatively
involving behaviours.
Table 36: Summary of Maxine and Cara’s Emotional Availability scores.
Scale
Total score ( / 29)
Mean total score
Category of EA
Sensitivity
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
25
High
26
High
27
High
27
High
21.5
High
19.5
Borderline high/mid
Structuring
Non-intrusiveness
Non-hostility
Child involvement
25
25
25
27
27
27
27
27
22
21
19
20
Interview Findings
Verification was given by Maxine who agreed that the transcript and
summary are found in Appendix AA.
165
The overall meaning units/themes from Maxine’s interview are shown in the
acquisition, as shown in the first column of Table 37. Other meaning units are
included, such as how singing is a naturally major part of playtime.
Table 37: Maxine’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs
Attachment
Constructs
Pleasure in
proximity





Tolerance/
acceptance




Need
gratification/
protection







Knowledge
acquisition
Other



Playing and interacting with Cara is fun and pleasurable. It feels very
rewarding to see Cara smiling and having fun
Singing interactions are more of a pleasurable and enjoyable experience for
Maxine
When feeling stressed Maxine will force herself into a happy play period to
make herself feel happy. Even if it starts off a bit fake the act of focussing on
Cara pushes out other thoughts and lifts her mood (includes singing)
When Cara was younger interactions were focused on caregiving, whereas not
she is responding more with smiles etc it’s more about being engaged and
having fun together
Interactions provide an opportunity for Maxine and Cara to be engaged and
have fun together
Maxine feels amazement when she sees Cara’s development
It is during the focussed play time that Maxine feels the positive and
emotional/rewarding benefits of the interaction (happy bonding feelings)
Seeing Cara happy provides feelings of satisfaction and reinforcement that
Maxine is a good mother
Maxine feels she is bonding with Cara when they are engaged and having fun
together
Maxine uses singing as a calming tool when she cannot give Cara a physical
cuddle e.g. driving in the car
Maxine turns caregiving routines into play time. Everything becomes play
There are two different types of interactions (1) fun, engaged interaction
involving both Maxine and Cara and (2) distraction interactions where Maxine
isn’t focussed on Cara e.g. she may try to help Cara calm and entertained with
a toy in one hand while doing something else with the other.
Maxine is motivated to learn more rhymes etc to use with Cara so that she has
more tools available to help Cara’s development and have fun together
Maxine is aware that the interactions are good food Cara’s language
development as well as a means of having fun together
Cara’s reactions determine the direction of the interaction. When Cara smiles
and gives happy positive responses Maxine knows that Cara is having fun so
will continue with the interaction. If Cara gives no response Maxine knows that
she’s either not interested or not yet ready for play.
There are a few reliable things that consistently make Cara giggle. If Cara does
not respond to these then Maxine definitely knows Cara is not in the mood for
play.
Playful interactions are a way of learning more about Cara and who she is
Playing and interacting with Cara involves a lot of singing rhymes and finger
play. It involves less toys and more social interaction. Singing is simply
integrated into everyday play time
It was difficult and felt unnatural for Maxine not to sing during the video
166

sessions
Playful interactions happen randomly throughout a day
Discussion
What is striking about Maxine’s experience of interacting with Cara, is that
singing is simply integrated into play and caregiving. Maxine describes her play
interactions with Cara as follows:
Ah, playing with Cara generally consists of a lot of songs. We don’t do much in terms of
toys (…) Play is mostly, I am her play toy. We do lots of bouncing rhymes and finger
plays and those types of things
28
.
Maxine also specifically mentions singing (as opposed to another non-singing tool)
as a reliable method of calming Cara down, saying, for example, “I sing while we’re
walking but only if she’s getting upset. I use it as a calming tool when we’re out and
about”. Evidently, singing is perceived to serve specific and unique functions while
also being an integral element of play.
Maxine is aware of different types of play and her role in scaffolding the
interaction. For example, she describes how there are some instances where Maxine
and Cara are not playing together per se, rather, the attention is on an external object
and Maxine is guiding and encouraging Cara’s play of the object, saying, “Yeah,
that’s probably a self-guided play where I’m there to just encourage her”. Such
awareness and implementation of structuring and non-intrusiveness may have helped
Maxine to facilitate high emotional availability. At the very least, Maxine
demonstrates purposeful intention behind her behaviours.
Maxine also differentiates between fun/engaged interactions versus
distraction interactions. She describes fun and engaged interaction as an opportunity
28
All quotes in the discussion are extracted from Maxine’s interview which took place on November,
22, 2011.
167
to experience togetherness and bonding with Cara. Interactions that are focussed on
entertaining Cara, particularly while Maxine is trying to perform another task, are
felt as necessary distractions. Maxine says:
We’re engaged and we’re having fun and we’re bonding (…) I can definitely see the
difference between, for me, and for her, between when I actually have focussed play and
when I am just trying to entertain her while I’m trying to get other things done (…) it’s
not what I would consider play, it’s what, I consider it distraction for her
2
In other words, whether speech or song, it is when Maxine is focussed on Cara (not
multi-tasking) that she will experience a sense of togetherness and bonding.
Another striking feature of Maxine’s experience involves the observation of
Cara’s developmental growth. When she watches Cara reach developmental
milestones, Maxine describes experiencing a combination of positive feelings,
including : (1) amazement when she observes her daughter’s development, (2)
appreciation of her ability/opportunity to notice Cara’s progression, and (3)
appreciation of her influential role as mother, in encouraging Cara’s development,
saying, “Yeah, it’s amazing to see them and to encourage them and to be paying
close enough attention I can see them happening and know I can try doing different
things to encourage them”.
Conclusion
that Maxine thought about and appropriately implemented dimensions of emotional
availability. The Emotional Availability scores reveal that Maxine and Cara had a
positive and highly emotionally available relationship. The Interview findings reveal
that Maxine considered Cara’s needs, the type of guidance required during particular
play interactions and intentionally structured play by providing positive guidance.
168
Also, when addressing Cara’s distress, Maxine specifically chose to sing rather than
employ other non-singing methods. Furthermore, Maxine only experienced feelings
of togetherness and bonding during focussed play time with Cara; it was interacting
for engagement rather than distraction/entertainment purposes which promoted
connectedness.
Together, the Emotional Availability and Interview findings illustrate two
things: (1) that singing may serve a unique and important function in modulating
infant emotions in a way that non-singing interactions cannot, and (2) it is by
experiencing focussed, engaged and successful interactions that a mother may feel a
sense of togetherness and bonding with her infant. Overall, Maxine’s case
demonstrated that by using both singing and non-singing interactions with high
emotional availability and ingraining them into everyday life a mother may
experience multiple positive impacts to the maternal attachment constructs.
RAYNA & ELLIE
Rayna is the mother of two daughters, Abigail and Ellie. Second born, Ellie
was 7.3 months old at the first video session and 7.8 months old at her second video
session. During both sessions she appeared happy and relaxed.
Overall, Rayna’s scores are categorised as high. As shown in Table 38, she scored
between 24 and 27 on the dimensions of Parental Sensitivity, Structuring, Non-
169
Intrusiveness and Non-Hostility. Ellie also scored highly for Child Responsiveness
(24) and Child Involvement (26.4).
From observation, Rayna's affect was a little bland but her voice was warm,
animated and calm. She was aware of Ellie’s cues and consistently responded to
them. She also structured well by leading Ellie positively and successfully and
employing preventative measures in a non-intrusive manner. However, Rayna was
quite hostile as demonstrated by an overall fatigued demeanour and occasional
disrespectful/irritated comments such as “say it, not spray it” and “raspberry girl”.
Such hostility gives an impression of a complicated history or at least adds an ‘off’
quality to the relationship. Therefore, despite her high scores, the relationship could
not be given a clean bill of health and seemed ‘apparently’ rather than entirely
healthy, according to Emotional Availability (Biringen, 2008a, 2008b).
Ellie generally looked happy and relaxed, was likely to respond to Rayna
positively and demonstrated good emotional regulation. She was also very involving
for her age. She imitated Rayna’s actions, sustained eye contact, blew raspberries and
babbled frequently.
Table 38: Summary of Rayna and Ellie’s Emotional Availability scores.
Scale
Total score ( / 29)
Mean total score
Category of EA
Sensitivity
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
26.5
High
26.5
High
27
High
24
High
26.5
High
24
High
Structuring
Non-intrusiveness
Non-hostility
Child involvement
27
26
26
27
28
26
24
24
27
26
24
24
170
Interview Findings
Verification was given by Rayna who agreed that the revised transcript and
summary are found in Appendix BB.
The overall meaning units/themes from Rayna’s interview are shown in the
acquisition.
Table 39: Rayna’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs
Attachment
Constructs
Pleasure in
proximity







Tolerance/
acceptance








Rayna sometimes finds playing with Ellie boring and repetitive. These aspects
make it difficult for Rayna to sustain interactions for long periods of time
Rayna feels tired often, so when Rayna sits down to play with Ellie she finds that
her body relaxes and it is difficult to focus and be energetic
Rayna will also experience affectionate feelings when Ellie comes up to Rayna for
a cuddle.
When Rayna sees Ellie do things and development she experiences feelings of
pride and amazement.
Rayna experiences a happy, rewarding and contented feeling when she sees that
Ellie is happy (whether during interactions or when she is playing on her own)
Rayna does not play with Ellie a lot. She feels it’s not really her parenting style to
sit and play with her children a lot. She will tend to give Ellie a toy but not sit and
play with Ellie.
Also Rayna is always busy with housework so it takes a conscious effort to
dedicate play time with her two children. As a parenting course suggested she tries
to aim for 10 minutes of child-lead play a day but it is difficult to find the time
each day
During interactions and play with Ellie Rayna may feel guilty that she doesn’t play
with Ellie more often and that she is always so busy thinking about what else she
needs to be doing.
The constant demands Ellie made also created a strong feeling that Rayna is Ellie’s
mum
Ellie often felt frustrated by Ellie’s early demands and the constant self-sacrificing
element of mothering her.
Now that Rayna can see Ellie be happy and play happily (whether on her own or
with Rayna) Rayna experiences a sense of peace of contentment
Seeing Ellie able to be separate from Rayna also provides feelings of relief that
Ellie does not need Rayna so constantly as in the past and that Rayna. She also
feels relieved that she is able to have more personal space and freedom.
Additionally, because Ellie was so whingy for such a long time Rayna developed
negative thoughts about Ellie. Seeing Ellie be happy with separation minimises
these negative thoughts
Interacting and playing with Ellie provides a bonding opportunity for Rayna.
Having positive fun interacting makes Rayna feel closer to Ellie
Interacting and playing with Ellie provides a new dimension to Rayna and Ellie’s
relationship. In the first 7 months of her life Ellie would either be feeding, sleeping
171


Need
gratification/
protection






Knowledge
acquisition




Other
or whinging. Rayna still loved her but looking after Ellie was difficult.
Rayna previously thought negatively of Ellie but now Rayna is able to think more
positive thoughts as well.
Seeing Ellie be more independent and less clingy calms Rayna’s parental worries
by providing reassurance that Ellie is alright and normal.
Rayna will often watch out for developmental milestones and think about how
Ellie is progressing.
Rayna will think about what things Ellie like, what will keep her happy and what
will be the winning distraction song/toy/strategy.
Rayna is often distracted by the housework she needs to do. She is always so busy
thinking about what else she needs to be doing. Even with interacting with Ellie
she needs to multi-task and keep an eye on Abigail
She will sing spontaneously throughout the day and during routine activities such
as washing hands to make the activity fun to do.
Rayna has noticed that both her children love singing and it’s a great distraction
when they are crying. At the moment Open Shut Them is the winning distraction.
Ellie almost always stops crying and listens to the song.
Interactions are shaped by Ellie’s reactions. Rayna will think about what Ellie has
enjoyed before and do/use that. If Ellie looks disinterested in a toy then she’ll they
something else. She is guided by Ellie’s reactions
Interacting and playing with Ellie is a way of getting to know Ellie. Rayna will
often think about what Ellie will be interested in when she’s older and what kind
of child she will be
Rayna always tries to figure out what makes Ellie tick to get to know her. She
thinks things such as “Why are you doing that?”
Playing with her now and seeing the positive reactions helps Rayna to get to know
Ellie as more than just a whingy child. It provides a means of appreciated Ellie
beyond what her needs demand.
Rayna finds that singing bouncy action songs (e.g. Row row row your boat and
Humpty dumpty) with Ellie is more how we plays with Ellie than with toys.
Discussion
Rayna’s experience of interacting involves many features. For example,
observing Ellie’s progressing development during play promotes feelings of
amazement, wonder and awe. Also, observing Ellie during play also sparks curiosity
in Rayna mind. She says, “I think I’m always analysing. What are you doing? Why
are you doing that? (…) trying to figure out what makes her tick” 29
However, what is striking is that Rayna’s current experience of interaction is
defined by the past. Before participating in the study, Rayna’s interactions with Ellie
were extremely self-sacrificing and based on whinging or clinginess. She says:
Yeah it’s hard to have a whingy baby and not be able to do much (…) It was frustrating
because she was so whingy so I couldn’t do much else with her but um, but I always felt
29
All quotes in the discussion are extracted from Rayna’s interview which took place on November,
29, 2011
172
like her mum, her mother (…) I always felt like yep, I’m your mum. Like, I think that was
partly because she seemed to know it too, to demand it
Despite being draining and frustrating, Ellie’s constant clinginess became the
foundation of attachment. Judging from her comments, Rayna's emotional bond to
Ellie was based on responding to constant separation anxiety which facilitated an
unhealthy insecure over-dependent connection. Rayna is aware of the negative
consequences of Ellie’s over-dependence. She describes how Ellie’s constant
demands promoted negativity by saying:
I think it’s, because it’s um, Ellie was so difficult I guess, so um, I mean you still love
them, I still loved her, but it was hard because she was either feeding sleeping or
whinging (…) I just thought it really affected how I viewed her. And I would always
think of her negatively in my head.
Currently, Ellie is more physically independent, less clingy and less
demanding. As a result, Rayna’s experience of interacting with Ellie has changed.
Instead of experiencing predominantly negative thoughts and feelings she now feels
reassurance that nothing is wrong with Ellie as well as a sense of peace that knowing
that she is indeed a healthy happy baby:
So um, through just playing with her now, I go ‘it’s ok’. It reassures me that she’s alright
because she’s more normal and quieter and calmer (…) I’m ‘oh, thank goodness there is a
happy content child in there somewhere’ so when I play with her and more now, it just, in
terms of calmness, it just like it reassures, it calms the worry (...) Yeah and just the
content, like just nice to see, especially with Ellie and how whingy she was, it’s so nice to
see her happy so you just feel a bit of peace
Seeing a change in Ellie (i.e. being able to cope with separation) has minimised
negative thoughts and allowed Rayna to view Ellie in a different light or perspective.
Now, Rayna is able to appreciate Ellie beyond her demanding needs. She says,
173
“Playing with her now, it’s just, it’s starting to help me, you know, get to know her
better and um, yeah I guess appreciate her more than I did because she was just so
whingy”.
The new physical independence and relationship dynamic between Rayna and
Ellie creates a different sense of closeness during play interaction. Rayna describes
feeling affectionate thoughts when Ellie plays independently then initiates a desire
for cuddle time:
It does, it makes you feel closer and it’s nice when they, like she plays away from me and
then she’ll want the cuddles now. Like, so before it was always about being near me so
it’s nice now when she can play away from me but then she’ll want me and that’s like
really, what’s the word for it? You know, the warm fuzzies, it’s like ‘oh you just want a
cuddle, you want mummy’s cuddles’ yeah (…) Yeah I call her a mummy’s girl and she
really is, but that’s alright, like, it’s alright now because it’s not always
In her explanation, Rayna reinforces that it is the lack of constant physical proximity
that differentiates her current and previous experience of interaction. Ironically, it is
after a period of physical separation that Rayna experiences affectionate thoughts and
a positive sense of closeness to Ellie. It is because of the previous over-dependency
that physical separation, personal space and occasional desire for cuddles amongst
independent play, impacts positively on Rayna’s perception of attachment.
Amongst the positivity of reassurance, peace and closeness, Rayna also
experiences negative feelings of guilt during play. This guilt is partly generated from
her difficulty in finding 10 minutes a day to experience dedicated one-on-one time
with Ellie. Rayna also feels guilty because she is aware of her unfocussed attention
while playing with Ellie. She says, “I’m always thinking about what else I need to be
doing.” and “Yeah I’m always thinking of the ‘to do’ list, that’s part of the guilt but
… I play, but I know I have to do this and this afterwards, yeah”. Furthermore, when
174
Rayna does find the time to sit down and play with Ellie, she becomes very tired and
consequently has difficulty maintaining her concentration and sustaining the play.
Overall, Rayna is aware of her struggles to (1) find a small amount of time
for one-on-one play each day, (2) focus her attention on Ellie, and (3) sustain her
attention during play. She also gives the impression of being motivated to address
these issues. However, she also appears to lack the appropriate strategies to fulfil her
aim of 10 minutes of daily focussed quality time with Ellie. Perhaps Rayna could
benefit from more parental guidance and support to better fulfil her mothering aims,
sustain focused attention on Ellie and minimise feelings of guilt.
Another striking feature is the complexity of Rayna and Ellie’s relationship.
Despite currently experiencing less negativity towards Ellie, Rayna demonstrates
both overt and covert hostility during the video sessions. She verbalises some hostile
comments with an irritated tone and demonstrates an overall fatigued demeanour.
Such hostility is not ideal and suggests that Rayna and Ellie’s over-dependent
relationship history has residual or lingering adverse affects on maternal constructs
and the quality of mother-infant interactions.
Furthermore, Rayna’s conscious efforts to facilitate positive play almost
clouds the concerning health of the relationship. She describes taking note of what
Ellie has liked in the past and determining the direction of interactions according to
Ellie’s reactions. These thoughts convey a conscious effort to follow Ellie’s lead and
structure interactions positively according to behaviours and cues. As reflected in her
high sensitivity, structuring and non-intrusiveness scores Rayna’s intentions were
implemented appropriately and successfully. On ‘paper’ therefore, Rayna and Ellie
appear to have a healthy emotional connection. However, despite the high numerical
ratings, Rayna and Ellie have an ‘apparently’, rather than entirely healthy emotional
175
connection (Biringen, 2008a, 2008b). Thus, the Interview and Emotional Availability
findings demonstrate the complexity of Rayna and Ellie’s relationship.
What is particularly concerning about Rayna’s case is that it took seven
months to experience positive changes to the relationship dynamic and maternal
constructs. Rayna did not describe trying to change Ellie’s clinginess, only surviving
it then gratefully welcoming the independence that came with Ellie’s growing
physical development. As demonstrated by the hostility scores, the consequences of
an over-dependent history involve adverse affects to the quality of mother-infant
interactions. As demonstrated by the interview, the consequences of an overdependent history involve adverse affects to maternal well-being and negative
attachment perception. What is difficult about Rayna’s situation is that caring for
Ellie was so draining and difficult she did not have the energy or time to even
consider seeking help. In other words, those in need may not be able to seek the help
they require at the time they need it the most.
Conclusion
that Rayna and Ellie’s relationship was complex. The Emotional Availability scores
reveal that Rayna generally interacted with high emotional availability although with
some hostility. Despite the high scores, the relationship could not be given a clean
bill of health and appeared ‘apparently’ rather than entirely healthy (Biringen, 2008a,
2008b). The Interview findings reveal that Rayna consciously tried to facilitate childled play and was aware of her various perceptions, thoughts and feelings. The
findings also reveal that an increase in Ellie’s physical independence changed the
176
nature of the mother-infant relationship and consequently provided distinctly positive
changes to Rayna’s maternal constructs and well-being.
experiencing a previous over-dependent attachment has residual effects on the
quality of interactions and perception of current attachment, particularly in regards to
negativity and hostility (tolerance/acceptance construct). The findings also suggest
that an awareness of self and a conscious effort to be emotionally available may
promote high emotionally availability. Despite her fatigue, negativity and guilt,
Rayna continually tried to be, and evidently was, highly emotionally available.
However, Rayna’s case also highlights that a typical dyad is not necessarily a healthy
dyad. Rayna tried hard, was starkly aware of her situation and set herself mothering
goals, but she still has difficulty finding strategies to fulfil her goals. Thus, despite
her high scores, Rayna’s case illustrates that a mother not ‘at risk’ may want and
benefit from guidance and support to intervene and improve the health of the motherinfant relationship and quality of mother-infant interactions.
MARIAN & OWEN
Owen is Marian’s second child. He was 5.4 months old at the first video
session and 5.8 months old at the second video session. During both sessions he
appeared happy and relaxed.
Overall, Marian’s scores are categorised as high. As shown in Table 40, she scored
177
between 24 and 28 on the dimensions of Parental Sensitivity, Structuring, NonIntrusiveness and Non-Hostility. Owen scored highly for Child Responsiveness (22)
but was borderline between mid and high scores for Child Involvement (20).
From observation, Marian's affect was warm and animated and she generally
responded promptly and appropriately to Owen’s cues and signals. She was a little
repetitive and could have been more flexible/creative in her play but otherwise she
was highly sensitive and appeared to have a generally positive and healthy
connection with Owen. Marian also structured quite well by leading Owen positively
and successfully in a non-intrusive and non-hostile manner. However, she could have
structured more throughout each session.
Owen appeared happy and relaxed, was likely to respond to Marian positively
and also demonstrated good emotional regulation. However, he could have been
more expressive (e.g. babble more). Owen was also less involving than he was
responsive. He occasionally looked and smiled to initiate interactions and seemed a
bit task oriented at times.
Table 40: Summary of Marian and Owen’s Emotional Availability scores.
Scale
Total score ( / 29)
Mean total score
Category of EA
Sensitivity
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
25
High
24
High
28
High
27
High
22
High
20
Borderline high/mid
Structuring
Non-intrusiveness
Non-hostility
Child involvement
25
25
24
24
28
28
27
27
22
22
20
20
178
Interview Findings
Verification was given by Marian who agreed that the transcript and
summary are found in Appendix CC.
The overall meaning units/themes from Marian’s interview are shown in the
column of Table 41. Other meaning units are also included, such as, how Marian
consciously attends various social functions to provide herself opportunities to talk to
other adults.
Table 41: Marian’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs
Attachment
Constructs
Pleasure in
proximity
Tolerance/
acceptance






Need
gratification/
protection






Marian will feel warm affectionate feelings when she looks at Owen and often just
looking at him will have a calming effect
Interacting with Owen is a happy and fun experience. It is also funny at times to
watch him play
Owen’s easy going nature has a huge impact on Marian and her perception of their
relationship. With Amina Marian felt so on edge. With Owen, Marian feels so
much more relaxed.
Having direct yet contact and seeing positive responses from Owen help Marian to
feel close to Owen
Only sometimes will Marian feel frustrated when Owen is not getting to sleep as
quickly as she’d like
Marian has noticed that Owen responds to her in a different way to other adults
e.g. he will not settle as quickly without her and he will find Marian amongst a
room full of people. These responses reinforce the feeling that she is ‘mum’; a
significant person to Owen.
At times Marian will feel a sense of protectiveness (particularly when safety is a
concern)
Marian will think of a variety of thoughts while interacting with Owen e.g. making
him smile, encouraging his language, making sure he is clean and what other
things she needs to do.
When playing Marian tries to limit Owen to one toy at a time so that Owen can
better concentrate and explore properly
Because Owen is such an easy going baby he does not demand much interaction
with Marian
Marian does not get a lot of time to just sit and interact with Owen one-on-one.
Interactions with Owen usually occur with Amina or when Amina is around.
Generally these interactions involve giving Owen a toy to make sure that he’s
happy so that Marian to tend to Amina rather than interacting with him.
Marian is conscious of how much time she does or does not spend with Owen. She
consciously tries to distribute ‘touch time’ equally between her two children.
179





Knowledge
acquisition
Other


Marian is conscious of switching moods/mind sets quickly to make sure Owen and
Amina do not feel her frustrations or stress. Although they feel fake they help her
children to feel that everything is alright
One-on-one interactions with Owen feels different to when Amina is around
because it is more intent and focussed. It is also when Marian tends to receive
direct eye contact and positive responses from Owen (not exclusively though)
Owen’s reactions help Marian to determine what to do next e.g. if he is smiling
and enjoying himself Marian will continue what she’s doing or if he is making his
‘tired sound’ Marian knows Owen will need to rest
Marian has noticed that Amina’s presence will influence how she interacts with
Owen. because Marian doesn’t want Amina to interrupt the interaction Marian will
interact more quietly with Owen when she is around
NONE
Marian consciously plans for her children to have social interactions with other
people so that they are used to different people
Having regular social outings (e.g. playgroup etc) provides Marian an opportunity
to talk with friends
Discussion
The striking feature of Marian’s interactions with Owen is that it is ‘stressfree’. Throughout the interview Marian described how easy Owen is to care for,
especially in comparison to the difficulty and stress experienced with her eldest
daughter, Amina. Instead of feeling constantly ‘on edge’ Marian feels relaxed and
stress-free. Indeed, Marian’s lack of stress and fatigue is apparent in her high degree
of non-hostility. Owen’s carefree temperament also promotes affectionate thoughts
in Marian. She says, “Yeah, I think because he’s so easy and easy going I think, he’s
just gorgeous”
30
. In other words, thinking about Owen’s carefree temperament
facilitates affectionate thoughts and feelings which appear to promote behavioural
non-hostility and an overall calm mothering approach.
Marian experiences multiple thoughts during interactions. Firstly, she will
think about identifying and meeting Owen’s physical needs. Secondly, she will think
about encouraging Owen’s development. Thirdly, she will think about following
Owen’s responses and cues. Lastly, she will also think about structuring interactions
30
All quotes in the discussion are extracted from Marian’s interview which took place on December,
1, 2011.
180
with simplicity to promote concentration. For example, she says, “Oh I normally try
to do one thing at a time ‘cause I don’t think they would be able to concentrate unless
it’s one thing at a time”. Interestingly, Marian’s structuring score is high (24 of 29),
but not ideal. Although she thought about structuring and generally structured well,
she was also repetitive and could have used a greater amount of structuring. Despite
her conscious intention to structure positively according to Owen’s reactions, the
quality of her structuring could still be improved. Suggestibly, best intentions do not
necessarily manifest in optimal interaction.
Another important feature of Marian’s experience is that one-on-one
interactions with Owen are distinctly different to all other interactions. She describes
having a focus of attention which facilitates more purposeful and intentional
behavioural contributions to the interaction and more eye-contact which promotes a
sense of closeness and togetherness with Owen, saying:
Yeah, ‘cause it’s more focussed. Um, yeah, I think that when there’s other stuff going on
you’re not focussed and you’re not um … it’s just a quick let’s get that out of the way so
we can get on to the next thing. But um, yeah, … um it’s more intent when it’s that oneon-one time. You get the eye contact and all that sort of stuff
Conclusion
that Marian thought about, and tried to implement dimensions of emotional
availability. The Emotional Availability scores reveal that Marian interacted with
high emotional availability but her structuring unideal. The Interview findings reveal
that Owen’s carefree temperament promoted a stress-free and non-hostile approach
to mothering and interactions. Also, Marian thought about addressing Owen’s needs
and scaffolding interactions positively according to Owen’s reactions and
181
behaviours. Furthermore, it was only during focused one-on-one interactions with
Owen that Marian experienced a sense of closeness and togetherness.
Together, the Emotional Availability and Interview findings illustrate that a
mother’s perception of her infant’s temperament may greatly impact a mother’s wellbeing and in turn, her behaviour. As reflected in her high sensitivity and non-hostility
scores, Marian appeared ‘stress free’, calm and positive which she attributes to
Owen’s carefree nature. The findings also illustrate that a typical mother may
intuitively interact in a positive manner but not necessarily with optimal emotional
availability. Although she consciously tried to implement positive structuring
techniques Marian’s structuring score was less than ideal. No-one is perfect and it is
indeed unrealistic to expect all typical mothers to interact optimally in all of the
dimensions.
MAY & JACINTA
May is the mother of two children, Violet and second born, Jacinta. At the
first video session Jacinta was 7 months old and at the second video session she was
7.2 months old. During both sessions she appeared alert and happy but became quite
tired as the session progressed.
Overall, May’s scores are categorised as high. As shown in Table 42, she scored
between 25.5 and 28 on the dimensions of Parental Sensitivity, Structuring, Non-
182
Intrusiveness and Non-Hostility. Jacinta also scored highly for Child Responsiveness
(25) and Child Involvement (24).
From observation, May's affect was generally positive and animated and she
clearly enjoyed her daughter. She structured successfully by leading Jacinta
positively and employing preventative structuring. She followed Jacinta’s lead
throughout both sessions in a respectful, non-hostile and non-intrusive manner.
Jacinta looked happy and relaxed and was likely to respond positively by
smiling and giggling. She also involved May frequently by seeking eye-contact,
smiling, babbling and imitating May’s actions. Overall, May and Jacinta appeared to
have a positive and healthy emotional connection.
Table 42: Summary of May and Jacinta’s Emotional Availability scores
Scale
Total score ( / 29)
Mean total score
Category of EA
Sensitivity
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
25.5
High
27
High
27.5
High
28
High
25
High
24
High
Structuring
Non-intrusiveness
Non-hostility
Child involvement
26
25
27
27
28
27
28
28
25
25
24
24
Interview Findings
Verification was given by May who agreed that the transcript and summary
found in Appendix DD.
The overall meaning units/themes from May’s interview are shown in the
183
acquisition, as shown in the first column of Table 43. Most of the meaning units
relate to the pleasure in proximity and need gratification/protection constructs.
Table 43: May’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs
Attachment
Constructs
Pleasure in
proximity



May feels amazement when she sees how much Jacinta learns.
May feels joy and love while playing and interacting, particularly when she sees
delight, concentration, frustrations and happiness on Jacinta’s face.
It is during the day time interactions that May tends to think about how much
Jacinta has grown and how much she is able to do
It is during the one-on-one time with Jacinta that May will notice how much
Jacinta has grown and learnt. Noticing these changes is the most important aspect
of interacting for May.
May also finds interactions an interesting and surprising experience in that she is
able to compare her two daughters and discover just how different they are from
each other
May feels satisfaction and gratification when she sees how much Jacinta has
grown
Interactions with Jacinta are fun
May will feel the most love for Jacinta at night when she is all relaxed and asleep.
This is possibly due to May feeling emotions more intensely during the night when
she’s tired.
This feeling of satisfaction and gratification is one of the best feelings May
experiences and it helps her to forget her frustrations and cope with the
challenging moments of parenthood.
Jacinta wakes up a lot at night. Sometimes May will feel frustrated when there
doesn’t seem to be anything wrong with Jacinta
At night May might think frustrated thoughts such as “why can’t you sleep”. “I’ve
got to get up in 2 hours, maybe I should just get up now” and “you’re much more
difficult than Violet was” and “oh no, not again”
May thinks about Jacinta’s physical needs during interactions e.g. I need to cut
your nails.
Sometimes May will think about the reason behind Jacinta’s crying e.g. wondering
if her tummy is sore
May will consciously try not to engage Jacinta (i.e. focus is on soothing Jacinta) at
night to prevent Jacinta from thinking she can have fun play time with mum at
night
During the day Jacinta does not get a lot of one-on-one time with May due to the
demands of her older sister Violet e.g. sometimes Med just needs Jacinta to
entertain herself while May is getting Violet dressed. Usually this involves giving
Jacinta a toy to play with rather than sitting down and playing with Jacinta
During the day breastfeeding is the longest one-on-one interaction May and Jacinta
have together. Jacinta is quite active during feeding so they have quite a lot of fun
together
Other opportunities for one-on-one arise e.g. when Violet is playing by herself for
a long time. When there is an opportunity for one-on-one May will sometimes do
structured play e.g. taking out toys to act out a story. Other times it’s just making
sure Jacinta is happy.
Jacinta’s expressions and behaviours help May to determine what to do next e.g.
Jacinta has certain signals to indicate she has had enough of a certain activity and
if she wants a certain toy. Sometimes her expressions will indicate what type of
play she is in the mood for e.g. more exciting play versus chilling on her gm mat.
If Jacinta is looking happy then May will continue with the current activity
Interactions are a way of getting to know Jacinta

NONE






Tolerance/
acceptance



Need
gratification/
protection







Knowledge
acquisition
Other
184
Discussion
Feeling a combination of amazement, joy, gratification and affection is the
most striking aspect of May’s experience of playing and interacting with Jacinta.
These feelings are experienced when May observes Jacinta’s expressiveness and
developmental progressions during play. For example, May says:
I still feel amazement when I play, you know, when I think how much she learns and how
many things she can do and you know, the joy of seeing delight on her face when she’s
playing with toys or she realises she can do something, or finds something funny (...) if
you get to spend any time with them one-on-one you think, ‘Oh my God, she can do that
now. Isn’t that amazing!’ 31
Importantly, experiencing one-on-one play interactions with Jacinta acts as the
catalyst to May’s positive feelings. Dedicating time and attention to Jacinta on her
own provides the opportunity for May to notice Jacinta’s growth and development
which, in turn, sparks the feelings of amazement, joy and affection. However, oneon-one play interactions are also a means of getting to know Jacinta, learning her
likes and dislikes and how she differs from her older sister. Overall, one-on-one play
time provides an opportunity for May to learn Jacinta’s personality and unique
individuality as well as take joy in Jacinta’s growth and development which in turn,
facilitates feelings of amazement, joy and affection.
The positive feelings of amazement, joy and affection have a personal
emotional importance to May as a mother and individual. Taking joy in her child is
described as a very pleasurable and precious experience:
I guess it’s when you get to see all the changes more than anything. So often when you
don’t spend the one-on-one time, so say you’ve had a really busy day or really busy week,
31
All quotes in the discussion are extracted from May’s interview which took place on November, 25,
2011.
185
and you haven’t spent a lot of time, all of a sudden, when you haven’t spent time, it’s like
‘Gosh, you’ve really grown up. Oh my God she can do that’ or ‘look at what she’s doing’
(...) so I guess that’s the most important thing – seeing her grow up and learn (...) It’s the
best thing. There’s nothing better than seeing them learn or enjoying something or smile
or laugh and I know it sounds like a real cliché, but honestly, it’s true
When May does not have one-on-one time with Jacinta, she misses out on taking joy
in Jacinta’s developmental progression. Experiencing frequent one-on-one time with
Jacinta therefore, provides pleasurable feelings that are unique to motherhood and
considered to be the best part of May’s life.
Conclusion
that experiencing positive and successful one-on-one play interactions with Jacinta
provided prominent feelings unique to motherhood. The Emotional Availability
scores reveal that May and Jacinta had a generally positive relationship and that May
interacted with high emotional availability. The Interview findings reveal that oneon-one interaction facilitated a means of getting to know Jacinta and observing her
developmental growth. Noticing Jacinta’s development sparked positive feelings of
amazement, joy and affection which were considered a precious part of May’s life.
experiencing highly emotionally available one-on-one play interactions provides an
opportunity for a mother to know, appreciate and take joy in the unique individuality
of her child. As May demonstrates, experiencing highly emotionally available
interactions may positively impact a mother’s attachment constructs.
186
DIANA AND EDMUND
Edmund is Diana’s first child. He was 6.2 months at first video session and
appeared quiet but settled. At the second video session Edmund was 6.4 months old
and appeared to be less energetic than during his first session.
Overall, Diana’s scores are categorised as high. As shown in Table 44, she scored
between 24.5 and 27.5 on the dimensions of Parental Sensitivity, Structuring, NonIntrusiveness
and
Non-Hostility.
Edmund
also
scored
highly for
Child
Responsiveness (25) and Child Involvement (22.5).
From observation, Diana's vocal tone was warm and animated. Her facial
affect was mostly bland/neutral but appeared genuine and relaxed. She was a little
repetitive in her play but generally responded promptly and appropriately to
Edmund’s cues. She also structured interactions positively and successfully in a nonhostile and non-intrusive manner.
Edmund looked relaxed and generally positive. Even when he was tired
during the second video session, he demonstrated a range of expression and was
likely to respond to Diana positively. He was also quite involving by frequently
looking at Diana, reaching out to her and elaborating interaction through imitation,
sustained eye-contact and babbling. Overall, Diana and Edmund had a generally
positive and emotionally available relationship.
187
Table 44: Summary of Diana and Edmund’s Emotional Availability scores.
Scale
Total score ( / 29)
Mean total score
Category of EA
Sensitivity
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
24.5
High
26.5
High
27.5
High
27
High
25
High
22.5
High
Structuring
Non-intrusiveness
Non-hostility
Child involvement
25
24
27
26
28
27
27
27
26
24
24
21
Interview Findings
Verification was given by Diana who agreed that the revised transcript and
summary are found in Appendix EE.
The overall meaning units/themes from Diana’s interview are shown in the
second column of Table 45. These meaning units were related to all four attachments
(3) need gratification and protection and (4) knowledge acquisition, as shown in the
first column of Table 45. Other meaning units are included such as how Diana feels
awkward in situations where she is being watched interacting with Edmund.
Table 45: Diana’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs
Attachment
Constructs
Pleasure in
proximity







Interacting with Edmund is a fun and enjoyable experience
Interacting and playing with Edmund has become more interesting now that he is
developing more
The best parts of interactions of observing Edmund do new thing and getting
positive reactions from him e.g. laughs and smiles
Playing and interacting is more fulfilling when Edmund is in a good mood and
responds positively to her. When she sees his responses she often feels an
overwhelming sense of love
Sometimes playing can be a bit boring
She can also feel frustrated about not having as much time as she’d like with
Edmund
Diana is enjoying all the time she has with Edmund. He is an ongoing source of
entertainment and happiness for Diana
188

Tolerance/
acceptance



Need
gratification/
protection














Knowledge
acquisition
Other




Sometimes Diana doesn’t think much when she’s interacting. She just entertains
and enjoys Edmund
Playing and interacting strengthens Diana’s and Edmund’s bond
Diana feels that play helps her to get to know Edmund better than other adults. As
a result Edmund has a stronger preference for Diana
Diana can feel a bit frustrated when Edmund is in a bad mood and nothing seems
to make him happier.
Sometimes Diana wishes she could make Edmund laugh as much as others do but
she eases her jealousy by reminding herself how her relationship with Edmund is
different to other adults.
Diana will think about how to entertain Edmund and make him happy.
Diana thinks of providing Edmund with what he’s currently interested in e.g.
different textures and sounds
Sometimes Diana thinks of how to entertain Edmund so she can do chores and
household tasks
Diana often focuses play activities on developmental milestones and encourages
Edmund to achieve it on time.
Diana will sing to calm Edmund down, help him to sleep, to entertain him in the
car and when a toy simply won’t do e.g. when he wants attention from someone
There are certain songs that will coax a smile out of Edmund
Edmund is quite good at being left to his own devices. There are times when Diana
will watch and supervise Edmund rather than play with him
Diana worries about whether she is doing the right thing to stimulate Edmund
Diana finds she has forgotten a lot of little games she can play with Edmund.
Sometimes Diana feels she should be talking or singing to Edmund all the time.
She feels if she doesn’t sing or talk she is ignoring him.
Diana will think about giving Edmund a variety of activities everyday day e.g.
reading and singing to stimulate him in different ways. Other times she is more
spontaneous.
Edmund usually makes a particular noise when he has had enough of something or
becomes bored. When he makes this Diana will stop what she’s doing. Other times
Edmund is more interested in doing something else and Diana will stop interacting
to let him do what he wants.
Sometimes Edmund loses interest in certain toys so Diana puts them away for a
while and reintroduces them to Edmund later
Diana feels that spending more time with Edmund has helped her to get to know
Edmund better.
Diana can feel a bit awkward and self-conscious when she is being watched
playing with Edmund, such as the video sessions.
Sometimes Diana will structure singing into the day like book reading. Other times
it’s more spontaneous
Diana considers singing and playing the same thing. Everything is play
Discussion
One key feature of Diana’s experience of play with Edmund is that she has
two contrasting thought processes. The first thought process involves encouraging
Edmund to reach developmental milestones, providing the ‘right’ developmental
stimulation and providing play according to Edmund’s current emotional needs and
interests. For example, Diana describes facilitating play activities according to
Edmund’s interest in sounds and textures by saying:
\
189
I think about when I’m trying to engage him in play, yeah, things like textures as well and
he also likes different sounds so I’m trying to find things that make different sounds. I’ve
sort of started him on the saucepans and things to bang on 32
As the high structuring and non-intrusiveness scores demonstrate, Diana
implemented her interaction intentions appropriately and successfully. The second
thought process involves little thought and a simple enjoyment of her child. Diana
says, “Um, sometimes you just don’t really think about much at all. You’re just sort
of sitting there and entertaining them and enjoying them”. In other words, Diana may
either have a thought-focussed experience or an emotion-focussed experience during
playful interactions with Edmund.
Playing and interacting with Edmund provides an opportunity for Diana to
learn more about her son which in turn, strengthens the mother-infant bond. As a
result of spending the most time with Edmund, Diana believes she is better able to
recognise and respond to his cues and signals and that Edmund has developed a
stronger preference for Diana over other adults which adds a distinctive element to
their emotional connection. She says:
I obviously pick up on more of the cues as a result of spending so much time with him
[Interviewer: so you get to know him ...] better, yeah. And as a result he probably has a bit
more of a preference”
It is also interesting to note that Diana considers singing to be an integral part
of play. Yet, singing is also distinguished from non-singing interactions by being
described as a particularly useful tool in certain situations. She says
I find that he recognises certain songs and he’ll smile or there’s certain songs that he
prefers and that’s a way of coaxing a smile out of him when he’s starting to get a bit
32
All quotes in the discussion are extracted from Danielle’s interview which took place on December,
6, 2011.
190
sooky or someone wants to take a photo (...) You know when they get to the point when
another toy won’t do, so yeah. And especially when those times when he wants attention
from someone
In other words, singing songs is a reliable tool for making Edmund happy and
eliciting a positive response (i.e. smile) from him. It is also less developmentally
focussed and more interpersonal by engaging Edmund in a way that toy-based play
cannot. Thus, singing serves distinctive functions and is an integral part of everyday
mothering and interactions.
Conclusion
that Diana consciously thought about and appropriately implemented high emotional
availability. The Emotional Availability scores reveal that Diana was a little
repetitive during play but generally interacted with high emotional availability. The
Interview findings reveal that Diana experienced either prominent thoughts focussed
on providing developmental stimulation and positive structuring, or prominent
emotions focussed on enjoying her son during play. Diana also believed she knew
her son better and developed a close distinct bond with Edmund as a result of playing
and interacting with him more than other adults. Together, the Emotional
Availability and Interview findings suggest that an awareness of, and conscious
effort to be emotionally availability is an essential component to actually being
emotionally available. The findings also illustrate that experiencing emotionally
available playful interactions contributed uniquely to Diana’s perception of
attachment by providing a means for Diana to get to know and take joy in her son.
191
JODIE AND TILLY
Tilly is Jodie’s third child. She was 6.3 months at the first video session and
appeared relaxed and interested in her new surroundings. At the second video session
Tilly was 7.4 months old, appeared relaxed but became a little fussy and tired near
the end of the session.
Overall, Jodie’s scores are categorised as high. As shown in Table 46, she scored
between 26.5 and 28 on the dimensions of Parental Sensitivity, Structuring, NonIntrusiveness and Non-Hostility. Tilly also scored highly for Child Responsiveness
(23) and Child Involvement (21.5).
From observation, Jodie's facial and vocal affect was genuine, positive, calm
and warm. She responded promptly and appropriately to Tilly’s cues, and although
her play was a little repetitive at times, her structuring attempts were positive and
highly successful. Jodie also scaffolded interactions according to Tilly’s lead in a
highly non-hostile and non-intrusive manner.
Tilly generally appeared happy and relaxed and was likely to respond to Jodie
positively. During the first video session she demonstrated more dysregulation than
in the second session. However, she was able to be soothed and enjoy herself during
both sessions. Also, Tilly was quite involving by frequently using both non-verbal
verbal and nonverbal means of imitating and sustaining interactions. Overall, Jodie
and Tilly appeared to have a positive and generally highly emotionally available
relationship.
192
Table 46: Summary of Jodie and Tilly’s Emotional Availability scores
Scale
Total score ( / 29)
Mean total score
Category of EA
Sensitivity
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
Video 1
Video 2
27.5
High
26.5
High
27.5
High
28
High
23
High
21.5
High
Structuring
Non-intrusiveness
Non-hostility
Child involvement
27
28
26
27
27
28
27
29
22
24
21
22
Interview Findings
Verification was given by Jodie who agreed that the transcript and summary
found in Appendix FF.
The overall meaning units/themes from Jodie’s interview are shown in the
second column of Table 47. These meaning units were related to all four attachments
(3) need gratification and protection and (4) knowledge acquisition, as shown in the
first column of Table 47. Other meaning units are also included, such as, how
playing tends to be focussed on talking and toys.
Table 47: Jodie’s meaning units as they relate to Condon and Corkindale’s (1998) attachment
constructs
Attachment
Constructs
Pleasure in
proximity






Tolerance/
acceptance


Playing and interacting is a fun and enjoyable experience
Playing and interacting is particularly enjoyable when Jodie sees Tilly’s positive
responses, growth and development
Jodie feels love, joy and amazement at how Tilly is her own little person
Jodie often feels amused when she thinks about how the littlest things can occupy
Tilly for longer than toys
Playing is a way of showing love to Tilly in that Jodie is showing Tilly that there is
fun amongst all the other caregiving interactions
Jodie cherishes the time she gets with Tilly because there are only small pockets of
opportunities with 2 other children to care for
Sometimes Jodie feels frustrated when she cannot work out what’s wrong or what
Tilly wants – she just wants to help Tilly
Interacting helps Tilly to become more familiar and comfortable with Jodie as
193


opposed to another adult
Jodie feels happy seeing Tilly being happy to interact with her as opposed to
another adult. It shows Tilly has a preference for her over others.
Jodie’s interactions with Tilly differ to interactions with her first child. She has the
same worries about whether she is healthy and developing well but she is more
relaxed about letting Tilly do things e.g. as long as Tilly isn’t hurt it’s ok for her to
roll off the play mat
Seeing Tilly being happy during interactions indicates to Jodie that Tilly is well,
happy and healthy. This then makes Jodie feel happy and less stressed because she
is reassured that everything is alright
During interactions Jodie thinks about whether Tilly is safe
During interactions Jodie thinks about whether Tilly is doing the right things for
her age (milestones)
During interactions Jodie thinks about whether Tilly is happy with what they’re
doing and what else Tilly would like to do
Jodie sometimes randomly thinks about things she needs to do e.g. grocery list
while playing and interacting
Sometimes Jodie will sing to Tilly. She sings to calm or excite her children and
more specifically, while doing something with Tilly such as changing nappies.
Tilly will become less fidgety and focus on the song rather than what Jodie is
doing (i.e. changing the nappy)
The shape and direction of interactions are determined by what Tilly is doing at the
time and her responses e.g. looking at a toy will indicate interest in an activity
whereas fussiness indicates her disinterest in an activity. If Tilly looks interested
and happy with the current activity Jodie will continue repeated it, otherwise she
will do something else.
Jodie will try things that have worked in the past as well as different things to see
what Tilly likes and wants to do.
There are only small pockets of opportunities with 2 other children to care for
Playing and interacting is a way of getting to know Tilly and what she’s like

Playing tends to be focussed on chatting and playing with toys



Need
gratification/
protection







Knowledge
acquisition
Other
Discussion
What is striking about Jodie’s experience of interacting with Tilly, is that play
facilitates three key features simultaneously. Firstly, Jodie experiences a combination
of affection, joy, amazement and curiosity. Secondly, observing Tilly during play
provides a clear indication of Tilly’s health and happiness. Seeing her happy
reassures Jodie that Tilly is well which minimises her worries and stress. Jodie
explains:
She had a couple of weeks right when she was 3 months old when she was not putting on
a lot of weight and you could really tell that she was not happy, like when you played
with her. So when I play with her now I know that she’s relaxed and happy (...) now I can
really tell the way she is with everyone and with me she’s really happy and satisfied and
194
doing well, so I guess that’s how it helps too, like the playing and interacting helps you
know that they’re happy33
Thirdly, play interactions impact the mother-infant relationship by strengthening
Tilly’s preference for Jodie and association of Jodie to comfort and providing
opportunities to express affection and get to know Tilly in a fun context. Overall,
Jodie believes that playful interactions help to strengthen her emotional connection
with Tilly while also promoting positive feelings of joy, amazement and reassurance.
In combination with the above features, Jodie also thinks about following
Tilly’s lead during play. She describes observing and interpreting Tilly’s reactions
while playing with the chain of links by saying:
Um, just because she stayed, like focussed on it so she sort of followed it and like she sort
of gave a bit of a smile when she pulled it back down so I tried it again. (...) Yeah, so
however she responds it usually how, like when I find that she likes something we just try
it again
As the Emotional Availability scores demonstrate, Jodie successfully interpreted and
responded to Tilly’s reactions to structure interactions positively and non-intrusively.
This suggests that Jodie’s awareness and conscious efforts to facilitate positive and
non-intrusive interactions contributed to her high emotional availability.
It is also interesting to note that Jodie describes singing as having a clear
unique mothering function that is distinct from other play interactions. She says
I tend to sing when I’m doing other things so um changing her nappy or getting dressed
not so much when we’re sitting like this (...) it’s different because you’re either trying to
get them calm or get them excited about something. I use it that way instead
Jodie also describes how singing captures and sustains Tilly’s attention saying:
she sort of gets less fidgety, like in the shower I sing so she’s not grabbing everything or
she’s looking at you while you’re trying to change her nappy (...) yeah she focuses, like
33
All quotes in the discussion are extracted from Jodie’s interview which took place on January, 9,
2012
195
yeah, she focuses on what you’re singing and listening to you, she’s not as interested in
what else you’re doing
Clearly, singing serves a unique function to modulate Tilly’s emotions as well as
distract her from unpleasant caregiving routines by capturing and focussing her
attention in a way that other non-singing tools do not.
Conclusion
that Jodie thought about and appropriately implemented child-led play interactions.
The Emotional Availability scores reveal that Jodie and Tilly had a positive
relationship and that Jodie interacted with high emotional availability. The Interview
findings reveal that the experience of fun playful interactions impacted the motherinfant relationship in multiple ways. Firstly, play promoted multiple positive
emotional and mental states (e.g. affection, joy, amazement and curiosity). Secondly,
it minimised negative states such as worry and stress by providing reassurance.
Simultaneously, it provided a means of getting to know Tilly and strengthening
Tilly’s preference of Jodie as her primary caregiver. Together, the Emotional
Availability and Interview findings illustrate that experiencing highly emotionally
available playful interactions provide an opportunity to experience a variety of
positive emotional and mental states that impact positively on maternal well-being
and maternal attachment constructs.
196
CHAPTER SUMMARY
The purpose of this chapter was to analyse (1) each mother’s subjective
experience of non-singing interactions, and (2) the quality of each dyad’s nonsinging interactions. The findings illustrate that each mother had a unique subjective
experience and that each dyad scored differently on the Emotional Availability
scales. For some mothers the opportunity to get to know her child characterised the
experience of play. For others the positive feelings of amazement, joy and affection
were more prominent. Also, despite being a typical or ‘healthy’ sample, there was
quite a range of emotional availability reflecting a variety of emotional connections.
In other words, the analyses and discussions highlight the individuality and
complexity of each mother-infant dyad. Despite the individuality of the dyads, all
mothers experienced some sort of positive contribution to the mother's perception of
attachment. Also, considering findings of the previous chapter, it is apparent that the
experience of singing is distinctly different to non-singing interactions. In the next
chapter, several group findings will be presented and discussed, including: the
overall group ratings of Emotional Availability for the singing and non-singing
conditions, the group experience of singing and non-singing interactions as well as
the commonalities and differences between the experience of singing and nonsinging interaction.
197
CHAPTER 6 - GROUP EXPERIENCE OF
SINGING AND NON-SINGING
INTERACTION
'She smiles at me, so then I smile at her which means she smiles at me and it keeps
going ... a spiral of happiness (...) it helps turn a bored baby into a happy baby. It
turns a screaming baby into a quieter baby (...) the bit I like the best is that, well you
saw, she gets all crying and upset and you sing to her and it might take, ah, you
know, a second time through but she'll calm down and listen. And it makes me happy
and makes her happier"
Alice, mother of two, 20th June, 2011
The previous two chapters presented the Interview and Emotional
Availability findings of each participating mother. The summaries highlighted the
individuality of each mother’s subjective experience of interaction in the singing and
non-singing conditions, and indeed, the complexity of mother-infant relationships. In
this chapter, the overall group experience of singing and non-singing interactions is
explored. More specifically, the findings of the group analysis of the Interview and
Emotional Availability data will be presented and discussed.
198
EMOTIONAL AVAILABILITY RATINGS
One of the aims of this study is to examine the quality of dyadic motherinfant interaction during the use of singing play songs and lullabies. To further
explore the quality of song-based interactions a group analysis of the Emotional
Availability ratings was completed. The group data was also compared to the
Emotional Availability ratings of the non-singing condition to examine if/how the
mothers' singing interactions differed to non-singing interactions.
The mean scores for the singing and non-singing condition on each of the
Emotional Availability scales are shown in Figures 5-7. Two-tailed t-tests were
conducted on each of the parental dimensions (Sensitivity, Structuring, NonIntrusiveness, Non-Hostility) and each child dimension (Child Responsiveness and
Child Involvement). The results are summarised in Table 48 for each of the
Emotional Availability dimensions. The results showed there were no significant
differences between the two groups on any scale except for the Non-intrusiveness
dimension. A significant result n (<0.05) was found for the Non-Intrusiveness
dimension. In other words, mothers in the singing condition were found to be
consistency more intrusive (albeit only slightly) than mothers in the non-singing
condition (t (1,21) = -2.863, p >.05).
Table 48: Mean score of each sample group and summary of t-test results.
Sensitivity
Mean Score
NonSinging
singing
24.4
24.9
p values (t-tests)
Video
Video
session 1
session 2
0.457
0.786
t values
-0.514
Structuring
25.8
25.5
0.315
0.868
0.663
Non-intrusiveness*
25.2
26.9
0.007
0.033
-2.863
Non-hostility
26.8
26.6
0.377
0.701
0.361
23
23.5
0.495
0.831
-0.499
20.5
21.1
0.956
0.741
-0.077
Child involvement
199
Group Results
29
27
25
23
21
19
17
15
Singing
Non-singing
Figure 5 - Comparison of the Emotional Availability results (means and standard deviations) for the
singing and non-singing condition.
Discussion
Non-Intrusiveness is defined in relation to following the child's lead. A parent
may be intrusive by (1) setting the pace of an interaction, (2) providing so many
directions and suggestions that the infant has no room for experimentation, (3)
frequently changing the direction of an interaction, (4) overstimulating the child, and
(5) doing things for the child rather than allowing the child to do things for
themselves. It seems that the difference in non-intrusiveness between singing and
non-singing interaction might lie in the nature of the study. Mothers in the singing
group were asked to 'sing songs as you do at home' whereas mothers in the nonsinging group were asked to 'play and interact as you do at home'. However, mothers
in the singing group also spent a considerable time learning songs and therefore, may
have felt pressure to sing a range of songs for a sustained length of time in a way that
would not normally occur at home. Mothers in the non-singing group did not have
such a pressure. This difference may have influenced the singing mothers' behaviour
200
to include more direction and adult leadership than if they were free to interact any
way they chose for the video sessions. Ideally, all mothers should be free to talk or
sing or play how they please. However, to examine the unique aspects of singing
interactions it was necessary to instruct mothers specifically in this study. Ultimately,
both groups scored similarly highly in Emotional Availability. This suggests that
singing was just as good as non-singing interactions to facilitate high levels of
emotional availability. In other words, the type of interaction that mothers and
infants engage in does not equate to optimal emotional availability.
INTERVIEW FINDINGS - SINGING CONDITION
One of the aims of this study is to examine the mother’s subjective
experience of using play songs and lullabies with her infant. Mothers were
interviewed and the transcripts were analysed using an adapted phenomenological
process (Grocke, 1999; Moustakas, 1994) which grouped mothers' interview data
into meaning units/themes. These themes were then related to the maternal
attachment
constructs:
pleasure
in
proximity,
tolerance/acceptance,
need
gratification, knowledge acquisition (Condon & Corkindale, 1998). To analyse the
interview data at a group level, common meaning units/themes that were shared by
the sample group were identified and renamed, composite themes. These composite
themes were distilled into four composite essences whereby there is one essence for
each attachment construct (Condon & Corkindale, 1998). Composite themes that
were shared by at least 50% of the sample group were then transformed into a final
global description of the sample's experience of mother-infant singing interactions.
In this chapter the composite themes and final global descriptions for the experience
201
of singing and non-singing interactions are presented. The composite essences for
each attachment constructs for both groups are found in Appendix GG and HH.
Composite Themes
The composite themes for the singing sample are grouped according to the
attachment construct they relate to in Table 49. As shown in Table 49, six composite
themes related to the Pleasure in Proximity attachment construct. Three themes were
shared by more than 83% of the sample, the others by 17% of the sample. Eight
composite themes related to the Tolerance/Acceptance attachment construct. Two
themes were shared by 73% of the sample, another two by 50% and four other
themes by 17%-42% of the sample. Twelve composite themes related to the Needgratification/Protection attachment construct. Four themes were shared by 100% of
the sample, three themes by 75-92% of the sample and six themes by 17%-58%. No
composite themes related to the Knowledge Acquisition construct. The four
composite essences for the singing condition are found in Appendix GG.
Table 49: Singing condition's composite themes as they relate to Condon & Corkindale's (1998)
PLEASURE IN PROXIMITY
Singing is a fun, enjoyable, happy and affectionate experience, particularly when I see my
baby’s positive responses (e.g. smiles)
Singing is quality one-on-one time together i.e. it involves each other – it creates a sense of
connection/communication/bonding and/or togetherness
Singing play songs creates a spiral of happiness. It makes me and my baby feel happy and
seeing my baby happy (positive responses) makes me feel happier
No. of
participants
12
11
10
I feel I share my baby’s happiness/excitement when singing play songs
2
There is something special about singing because it’s something only I do with my baby
2
I feel a sense of peacefulness when I sing
2
TOLERANCE/ACCEPTANCE
No. of
participants
Singing calms and settle me down
8
Singing makes a connection/bond with my baby
8
202
Being able to change songs (having a larger range of songs to choose from) and/or creating
variations of songs minimises feelings of boredom from singing the same thing over and over
again
I feel satisfied, pleased, happy and proud that I can help my baby to relax, get to sleep and feel
happier (as opposed to another adult). This validates and strengthens my sense of being ‘mum’
and a significant person to my baby
Singing calms my baby down, stops his/her screaming and lulls my baby to sleep which
provides me feelings of relief
Singing makes me feel less helpless – I feel I am doing something to help my baby feel better
Singing breaks up the monotony of baby routines and housework – it provides something else
to do during the day
Having quality one-on-one time via singing prevents/minimises feelings of guilt that I’m not
spending enough time with my baby
NEED GRATIFICATION/PROTECTION
I sing to my baby spontaneously during the day – there is no set ‘singing time’; it just depends
on what we’re doing at the time – it is integrated into day-to-day life
The choice of song and direction of the singing interaction is based on my baby’s reactions and
current behaviour (e.g. levels of enjoyment, degree of interest/attention and mood) as well as
what has worked well in the past
6
6
5
3
2
2
No. of
participants
12
12
Singing songs is an effective tool to help my baby relax, settle and calm down
12
Singing songs captures my baby’s attention, engages him/her and makes him happy/calm
12
Singing keeps my baby calm and happy even when I am physically separated from him/her (e.g.
in the car or in different rooms)
I am focussed on my baby when I sing. Singing pushes other thoughts out of my head (for 1
mum this is more so during play songs, for another mum, this is more so during lullabies)
11
10
Songs are portable – they can be used anywhere, anytime
9
I believe/hope that singing teaches my baby something and encourages his/her development
7
Singing will help to calm me down which then helps my baby to calm down
4
I sing particular songs during particular activities to create a sense of routine for my baby
3
Singing turns a disliked routine into a happy fun activity for my baby
2
Singing works faster than anything else to settle my baby and put him/her to sleep
2
KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION
No. of
participants
NONE
Final global description of the sample’s experience of singing songs
with their infant
Singing songs is a fun, enjoyable and affectionate experience. It facilitates
emotional modulation by creating a spiral of happiness shared between mother and
infant - singing makes a mother and infant feel happy and this happiness is enhanced
203
when mother and infant reflect and share in each other’s happiness. Singing also has
the potential to reverse a spiral of grumpiness/distress or modulate negative
emotional states by facilitating happy emotional states.
Singing interactions capture the infant’s attention as well as focus the
mother’s attention. Singing involves mother and infant in a shared activity or
focussed quality one-on-one time. Consequently the mother feels a pleasurable sense
of connection and togetherness while singing to her infant. The sense of togetherness
or bond impacts the tolerance/acceptance construct by reinforcing a mother’s
perception of the infant as her own baby.
Concurrently, the focus of attention experienced by both mother and infant
facilitates a more receptive state or context for recognising the infant’s cues and
signals. The focus of attention creates an opportunity to shape the interaction
according to the infant’s behaviours. In other words, the infant is focussed on her
mother and the song while the mother is focussed on singing and on responding to
her infant’s behaviours and cues to sustain the pleasurable flow of interaction. In this
way, the pleasure in proximity and need gratification/protection constructs influence
each other. By providing a positive emotional context that involves and focuses the
attention of both parties, the mother feels connected to her infant and facilitates a
potentially emotionally available interaction. In turn, by seeing the infant’s continual
positive responses, the mother sustains her pleasure and joy in the interaction with
her child. Additionally, the portable nature of singing allows songs to be sung
spontaneously at any location and any time of day. Thus, mothers are able to
experience pleasurable focussed one-on-one time and meet the infant’s physical and
emotional needs quickly anytime and anywhere.
204
The experience of fun focussed quality mother-infant time has a
consequential influence on the tolerance/acceptance construct. Mothers described
feeling very satisfied, pleased and proud when singing effectively makes her baby
happy, calm, relaxed and/or fall asleep. The achievement of settling her baby
reinforces the perception of being ‘mum’ or ‘good mother’ and validates the sense of
being significant to her infant. This validation in turn, helps the mothers to feel that
the baby she cares for is indeed, her own baby.
The experience of singing does not simply impact on individual attachment
constructs, it facilitates interconnections between the pleasure in proximity, need
gratification and tolerance/acceptance constructs. The pleasure and modulation of
emotions leads to a happy baby. As a result of the emotional modulation the mother
is able to observe her baby’s happiness and her own happiness is enhanced. The
focus of attention that a mother experiences also helps her to feel connected to her
baby. This pleasurable companionship of togetherness reinforces the sense of the
baby being her own baby. Simultaneously the focus of attention provides an
opportunity for a mother to be more receptive to her baby’s needs, signals and cues
and effectively calm and settle her baby. The achievement of settling her baby then
validates the sense of being ‘mum’ and ‘good mother’ which also enhances that
sense of baby being her own baby. Thus, the experience of singing songs contributes
to the mother-infant relationship by creating a flow of influence between the
attachment constructs, as shown in Figure 6.
205
Pleasure, fun & happiness experienced
Pleasure is enhanced
Sense of connection/togetherness
Observation of
Facilitation of
positive responses
emotional
to singing
modulation
Focus of attention on infant
Effective tool to make baby calm/happy
Pleasurable
companionship
Achievement of
calm/happy baby
Validation of being ‘mum’/‘good mother’
Sense of baby as own
Figure 6 - Diagram
outlining the interconnections between the pleasure in proximity,
need gratification and tolerance/acceptance constructs experienced by mothers
during singing interactions.
The tolerance/acceptance and need gratification constructs also inter-relate
when singing calms the mother down. This is particularly important when the infant
is becoming distressed/hysterical and having trouble falling asleep. By singing, a
mother is able to reduce her feelings of helplessness and calm herself down. Once a
mother is calm she is better able to calm her infant. Subsequently, a mother feels
satisfied and pleased when she sees the success of her calming efforts and her sense
of being significant to the infant and ‘good mother’ is validated. Similarly, a mother
may also feel relief and a reduction of stress once the crying and screaming has
stopped. By reducing negative feelings a mother’s sense of burdensome in caring for
206
her infant is minimised. Figure 7 below shows the interrelations between the
tolerance/acceptance and need gratification/protection constructs.
Better able to calm baby
Facilitation of
emotional
Achievement of
modulation
calm/happy baby
Mother is calmed by singing
Reduction of negative feelings/relief
Figure 7 - Diagram
outlining additional interconnections between the need
gratification and tolerance/acceptance constructs experienced by mothers during
singing interactions.
Discussion
Essentially the mothers' experience of singing play songs and lullabies
contributes to attachment by creating a variety of positive emotional and mental
states that relate to the pleasure in proximity, need gratification/protection and
tolerance/acceptance constructs. Interestingly, these states interconnect. The mother's
experience of singing therefore, is better understood as a flow of consequential and
concurrent thoughts and feelings or ‘flow of influence’.
One may also postulate that the potential therapeutic value of singing play
songs and lullabies lies within the positivity of these interconnections.
Hypothetically, the 'flow of influence' illustrates that the more a mother experiences
singing interactions which successfully modulate the infant's emotions, the more she
207
will observe her infant's positive response to her singing which would create greater
feelings of pleasure, a stronger sense of connection and validation of being ‘mum’. In
other words, a preventative attachment therapy seems to be intrinsically embedded
into the positivity of the 'flow of influence'. Continuing to experience the positive
states facilitated by singing would repeatedly contribute to the maternal attachment
constructs and presumably, maintain a positive perception of attachment.
Importantly, the need-gratification construct acts as a catalyst which extends
the ‘flow of influence’ to the pleasure in proximity and tolerance/acceptance
constructs. The subsequent benefits (e.g. of validation, reduction of stress etc) are
contingent on effectively meeting the infant’s needs and maintaining the baby’s
happiness and calm. Therefore, any intervention (prevention or treatment) aiming to
impact maternal attachment constructs by promoting the 'flow of influence' would
logically target the need-gratification construct. Conveniently, the focus of attention
that mothers described to experience during singing appears to provide a potential
platform for singing-based therapeutic intervention. If a mother were to learn about
facilitating successful emotional modulation, presumably, the focus of attention that
singing was described to demand would create a good opportunity to consciously
practice new skills.
The mothers' self-reports of successful emotional modulation act as a catalyst
to the 'flow'. Therefore, it is logical to assume that mothers currently experiencing
unsuccessful singing interactions would be experiencing an entirely different variety
of emotional and mental states or an 'impeded flow' of positivity. However, it is also
interesting to consider how a therapist may promote the 'flow of influence' in
mothers currently not experiencing the 'flow'. Since the 'flow of influence' represents
the experience of a particular group of mothers it is impossible to know what the
208
subjective experience of singing would be like for mothers currently not
experiencing successful singing interactions such as those with disability or mental
illness. However, the catalytic nature of the 'flow of influence experienced by the
present sample, suggests that optimising mother-infant singing interactions could
establish the 'flow of influence' in other mothers, at least in similarly healthy
mothers.
Potentially, an intervention which optimises singing interactions would
increase the success of emotional modulation and enable the mother to feel
reassurance, a sense of achievement and validation of 'good mother'. These emotional
and mental states, in turn, may help to prevent a spiral of negative feelings
potentially leading to post-natal depression and mother-infant detachment.
Previous studies have identified low sense of self-esteem, self-worth and
parenting competence as risk factors of maternal postnatal depression (Beck, 2001;
Denis, Ponsin, & Callahan, 2012). Therefore, promoting positive emotional and
mental states related to these factors through the 'flow of influence' may help to
minimise the risk of postnatal depression. Furthermore, when mothers experience
stress, anxiety or mood disturbances the mother may be less able to respond to their
infant in a sensitive, supportive and non-intrusive manner. Also, the likelihood of
insecure mother-child attachment increases. (see Pasiali, 2013 for examples). Singing
may serve as a protective factor by alleviating stress, improving mood and reducing
distress and negative thoughts. Instead of building up negative emotions and hostile
thoughts toward herself and/or her infant for being so demanding or 'difficult', by
singing successfully, a mother may experience positive thoughts and feelings to help
balance out the negativity and stress that comes with caring for an infant, thus
protecting herself from potential disturbances in emotional availability and security
209
of attachment. In this way, the 'flow of influence' illustrates a type of ideal experience
of singing that therapists may aim to promote. Further research is required to support
this idea and to determine whether mothers in other clinical populations have the
capacity to experience a similar 'flow of influence'. However, the findings suggest
that experiencing the positivity of the 'flow of influence' necessitates a mother's
facilitation and recognition of successful modulation of infant emotions. Thus,
optimising interactions may promote the 'flow of influence' in other mothers.
Pleasure, fun & happiness experienced
Pleasure is enhanced & sustained/extended
Sense of connection/togetherness
Observation of
Facilitation of
positive responses
emotional
to singing
modulation
Focus of attention on infant
Better able to calm baby
Pleasurable
companionship
Facilitation of
emotional
Achievement of
modulation
calm/happy baby
Sense of baby as own
Mother is calmed by singing
Reduction of negative feelings/relief
outlining the full idealistic ‘flow of influence’ experienced by the
mothers during singing interactions.
Figure 8 - Diagram
210
INTERVIEW FINDINGS - NON-SINGING CONDITION
Composite Themes
The composite themes for the singing sample are grouped according to the
attachment construct they relate to in Table 50. As shown in Table 50, six composite
themes related to the Pleasure in Proximity attachment construct. Two themes were
shared by 91% of the sample, one by 36% and three by 18%. Seven composite
themes related to the Tolerance/Acceptance attachment construct. One theme was
shared by 36% of the sample, two by 27% and four by only 18%. None were shared
for 50% or more of the sample. Thirteen composite themes related to the Need
gratification/Protection attachment construct. One theme was shared by 100% of the
sample, one by 91%, five by 36-45% and six by 18-27% of the sample. Two
composite themes related to the Knowledge Acquisition attachment construct. One
was shared by 55% of the sample and the other by only 18%. The composite
essences for the non-singing condition are found in Appendix HH.
Table 50: Non-singing condition's composite themes as they relate to Condon & Corkindale's (1998)
Interacting with my baby is a fun happy, positive and affectionate experience, particularly when
I see my baby’s reactions, smiles and giggles (for 2 mums this includes singing)
I feel pride, happiness, excitement, amazement and/or satisfaction when I think how my baby is
his/her own little person and I see my baby learn, do something new or different and reach
developmental milestones
No. of
participants
10
10
I feel happy when I see my baby is happy
4
Playing and interacting offers something other than mechanical caregiving routines. It’s time to
have fun together
2
Play can sometimes be boring and repetitive
2
Interacting with my baby is an interesting experience (especially when comparing children and
thinking about development)
2
I feel frustrated when I have difficulty working out why my baby is upset (what he/she is
communicating) or nothing seems to make my baby happy or nothing seems to be wrong
I feel close to my baby during interactions (e.g. when he/she gives me direct eye contact and
responds positively to me)
211
No. of
participants
4
3
I feel my baby prefers me over other adults (because I spend more time with my baby than other
adults)
I feel relief when I see when baby progress developmentally and become less clingy – it marks
greater independence, personal space and freedom
Seeing my baby being happy during interactions provides reassurance that he/she is healthy and
everything is alright.
Because my baby is easy going I don’t feel as exhausted or stressed as when my eldest was a
baby
Getting positive reactions from my baby and the feelings of satisfaction and gratification (from
seeing my baby grow and development) help me cope with the challenging moments of
parenthood
3
2
2
2
2
No. of
participants
The direction of the interaction is shaped by my baby’s reactions and behaviours.
11
I try to make my baby happy when interacting with him/her
10
I do not have many opportunities for one-on-one time with my baby (e.g. due to the demands of
caring for older child/ren as well)
5
I often think about why my baby is upset and what I can do to keep my baby happy/amused
4
Incorporating play into caregiving routines makes it fun and helps to get through a job more
easily e.g. baby is less fidgety (for 1 mum this involves singing)
I sometimes think about the things that need to be done or am multi-tasking when interacting
with my baby
4
4
I sing to keep my baby calm and happy and when toys won’t do
4
I am conscious of dividing my attention between my two children and planning one-on-one
time with each child
3
I particularly notice new developments and think about whether my baby is on par for her age
3
I think about whether I am giving my baby a good variety of activities, the right amount of
stimulation and if I’m doing the right thing
3
I am motivated to learn more rhymes and songs etc to help my baby be happy and calm
2
Interacting with my baby is focussed on and good for my baby’s development (for 1 mum this
includes singing)
2
Keeping my baby happy helps the day to run smoothly and keeps the peace in my household
2
KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION
Interacting is a way of getting to know my baby’s personality and working out what he/she likes
or doesn’t like (includes a curiosity about what the infant will be like when older)
I am curious and fascinated by what goes on in my child’s mind. I like to think about what
makes him/her tick
No. of
participants
6
2
Final global description of the sample’s experience of interacting
with their infant (non-singing)
Non-singing interactions are a fun, enjoyable and affectionate experience. It
is also an activity that tends to be focussed on a baby’s development and observation.
A mother tends to observe her baby and think about how her baby is learning and
212
progressing through
developmental milestones
during playful
non-singing
interactions. These thoughts are accompanied by feelings of amazement and pride in
addition to fun and joy.
Non-singing interactions are also focused on meeting the baby’s needs. A
mother endeavours to make her baby happy in any way possible. This desire
motivates her to interact with her baby to learn more about her baby’s likes and
dislikes. As a result of getting to know her baby better, a mother (1) has an expanded
reference of play ideas or repertoire to help keep her baby happy and (2) is better
able to recognise and respond to her baby’s cues and signals. As a result of
successfully making her baby happy by what she has learnt about her infant, a
mother experiences feelings of pleasure, fun, happiness and affection toward her
infant. Simultaneously, it is by getting to know her infant, that a mother is better able
to notice changes in her baby’s development and experience the accompanying
feelings of pride, happiness, excitement and amazement. Thus, the pleasure in
proximity, need gratification/protection and knowledge acquisition constructs interrelate, as shown in Figure 9.
213
Pleasure, fun, happiness & affection
experienced
Pride, happiness, excitement, amazement
experienced
Observes positive
reactions
Observes
changes in
Endeavour to make baby happy
baby’s
Think about responding to baby’s cues
developments
Reference of ideas
Motivation to learn
Better able to
available to make
likes/dislikes
recognise baby
baby happy
cues/signals
KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITON
Mother knows her baby better (likes and
dislikes) via interaction
Figure 9 - Diagram
outlining the interconnections between the pleasure in proximity,
need gratification and knowledge acquisition constructs experienced by the mothers
during non-singing interactions.
Discussion
The mothers' experience of non-singing play interaction contributes to
attachment by creating positive emotional and mental states that relate to the pleasure
in proximity, need gratification/protection and knowledge acquisition constructs. The
experience is focused on getting to know the baby and tracking the baby's
development which spark particular thoughts and feelings. Noticeably, the
experience of non-singing play interactions is distinctly different to singing
interactions.
214
It is also concerning that no common meaning unit was found for the
tolerance/acceptance construct34. This finding leads to questions such as: what is a
mother missing by not singing to her infant? What does singing offer that nonsinging interactions don’t? And what are the attachment implications of not
experiencing these singing-only related thoughts and feelings? In order to address
these questions it is necessary to compare the results of the singing and non-singing
condition. The findings of the comparison are presented in the following discussion.
INTERVIEW FINDINGS – GROUP COMPARISON
The purpose of comparing the findings of the singing and non-singing
condition is to increase an understanding of how the singing interactions uniquely
impact upon attachment constructs. It involved comparing the composite themes of
the final global descriptions (that is, the composite themes shared by at least 50% of
the sample) of both groups of mothers and identifying commonalities and differences
between the mothers' experience of singing and non-singing interaction. In the
following section, the findings of the group comparison, implications of experiencing
only singing or non-singing interactions and the clinical relevance of the findings are
presented.
Commonalities
Three commonalities between the mothers' experience of singing and nonsinging interactions were identified. The first commonality is that the mother’s goal
34
Although common themes were identified none were shared by < 50% of the participants and
therefore not included in the final global description
215
during both singing and non-singing interaction is to make her baby happy. During
both types of interactions the mothers described thinking about meeting the
emotional and physical needs of the infant. In this way both types of interactions
share a common impact on the need gratification construct.
The second commonality identified is that the mothers were conscious of
responding to the infant’s cues and signals during both singing and non-singing
interactions. This finding is not surprising considering that her aim is to make her
baby happy. Since infants cannot verbally articulate needs, it is necessary for
mothers to recognise and respond appropriately to her infant’s cues to achieve the
goal of baby happiness. The fact that all mothers commented on using her baby’s
reactions and cues to guide the interaction demonstrates that the mothers were aware
of the importance of parental sensitivity. However, it is unclear from the interview
data if, and to what extent, mothers were aware of the other dimensions of Emotional
Availability that facilitate optimal dyadic interaction.
The third commonality identified is that both singing and non-singing
interactions were experienced as fun and enjoyable. In this way both types of
interaction share a positive impact on the pleasure in proximity attachment construct.
However, it is possible that both types of interactions also provided a means of
positive projective identification (Escandón, 2008; Likierman, 1998). Positive
projective identification is an emotional transmission of a mother’s own feelings of
love and caring toward her infant. It stems from a mother’s need to have her feelings
received by another and to be appreciated as more than just a functional care-giver
but also a nice loving person. In other words, the mother desires to be wanted by the
infant on the personal level as well as the functional caretaking level. Desire for
216
personal appreciation therefore, motivates a mother to engage in frequent fun-based,
rather than need-based playful interactions.
The mothers' experience of singing interactions was described as more
emotional and interpersonal than non-singing interactions. Themes that emerged for
the experience of singing included a sense of togetherness/connection and a spiral of
happiness. Singing was described by mothers as quality time with the infant and an
activity that demanded interpersonal involvement from, and a focus of attention of,
both parties. However, these themes did not emerge for the experience of nonsinging interactions. It appears the intensity of the emotional and social elements of
mother-infant interaction may have differed when experiencing singing versus nonsinging interactions. Considering this, it is possible that play songs and lullabies
better enable positive projective identification. Play songs and lullabies therefore,
may more strongly reinforce a mother’s perception of being appreciated beyond her
functional care-giving than other non-singing play interactions. However, further
research is required to support this idea.
Positive projective identification also has benefits for the infant. When a
mother transmits her loving and caring parts of herself to her infant, she is offering
her infant pleasure and emotional goodness like a gift. This provides the infant with
the experience of receiving instead of demanding pleasure. The infant’s sense of self
therefore extends beyond ‘needy’ and ‘catered to’ to include a sense of being wanted
(Likierman, 1998). Likierman (1985) believes that the pleasureable penetration of the
mother’s projective identification is internalised as reassurance and containment. The
mother’s projections are a means for the infant to feel connected to the mother. If
play songs and lullabies are a means of positive projective identification, they too
can be internalised as a symbol of the loving, comforting and reassuring mother-child
217
bond (Cozolino, 2010). Hypothetically, regular singing interactions between mother
and infant may contribute to mother-infant attachment by (1) positively impacting
the pleasure in proximity, tolerance/acceptance and need gratification attachment
constructs, as well as (2) reinforcing the infant’s internalisation of the positive
mother-infant bond via the projection experienced during play songs and lullabies.
Importantly, projective identification allows the infant to feel containment
and connection even during physical separation. This internaliation therefore, may be
used by the infant as a strategy to cope with the stress of separation anxiety
(Cozolino, 2010). During her interview, Holly described her use of play songs to
manage Ophelia’s inability to cope with physical separation. Directly before
participating in the study Ophelia would become distressed if Holly was not holding
her. It was only by singing a series of play songs that Ophelia could cope with
separation (see p. 123). Holly would begin by singing softer play songs such as
Twinkle Twinkle and build up to more exciting songs. As Holly sang, Ophelia would
become happier and happier. As Ophelia became happier Holly would increase the
physical separation between them (e.g. instead of holding Ophelia, Holly would lay
her on the ground to move Ophelia’s legs). Once Ophelia happily coped with
physical separation during a song she could play independently with a toy for a little
while.
One could argue that Holly devised her own intervention based on positive
projective identification. Considering Holly's descriptions and the theory of positive
projective identification, Holly may have been projecting her feelings of love and joy
to Ophelia while singing. These emotions could have penetrated Ophelia and become
internalised as a sense of containment and a symbol of the mother-child union. If so,
218
then Ophelia could have held on to the internalised sense of connection to cope with
physical separation.
Holly’s case demonstrates the therapeutic potential of singing to impact the
mother-infant relationship by meeting the infant’s emotional needs while
simultaneously impacting the mother’s tolerance/acceptance construct. It is
concerning to imagine what Ophelia and Holly’s relationship would have been like
without singing songs. Holly’s feelings of being drained, fatigued and lacking
personal space would have only intensified potentially leading her down a negative
spiral of depression. Instead, singing enabled her to turn the spiral around by
providing her increasing amounts of personal space and energy.
Holly's case also raises questions, such as: why would singing be a good
intervention? And what does singing offer that other interactions don’t? These
questions will be addressed in the following discussion that focuses on the
differences between singing and non-singing interactions.
Differences
Overall, the mothers' experience of singing play songs and lullabies
contributes primarily to three attachment constructs: pleasure in proximity, need
gratification/protection and tolerance/acceptance. In contrast, the mothers' experience
of non-singing play interactions contribute primarily to the pleasure in proximity,
need gratification and knowledge acquisition constructs. The types of thoughts and
feelings that were characteristically experienced during singing interactions differ to
non-singing interactions. More specifically, there were eight differences identified
between the mothers’ experience of singing and non-singing interactions.
219
First, during singing interactions the mothers described experiencing
emotional modulation, for example, feeling a spiral of happiness and being calmed
and settled by singing. There was an absence of such comments for non-singing
interactions. This suggests, the experience of becoming happier or calmer during
mother-infant interaction is unique to the mothers' experience of singing play songs
and lullabies. In other words, mothers did not experience modulation during nonsinging play interactions in the same way as singing.
Second, the mothers expressed an expectation of play songs and lullabies to
effectively modulate infant emotions. During the interviews mothers communicated
feeling confident that singing would make the baby happy and relax. However, no
similar theme emerged for the experience of non-singing interaction. Furthermore,
some of the mothers in the singing condition described the use of singing when toys
simply would not suffice. For example Diana says, “You sing to try to get him to
sleep or calm down … You know when they [babies] get to the point when another
toy won’t do, so yeah … And especially those times when he wants attention from
someone [I sing]” (Interviewed December, 6, 2011). In other words, there was no
specific non-singing tool that Diana, and presumably, the other mothers expected to
effectively modulate her infant emotions in the way that singing can.
Third, the portability of songs was expressed to enhance the perceived value
of singing as a parenting tool. The ability to sing spontaneously anytime and
anywhere was described to add convenience and usefulness to songs that does not
emerge for other non-singing interactions. Thus, the modulation of both the mother’s
and infant’s emotions as well as the expectation to successfully and spontaneously
modulate the infant’s emotions is a unique characteristic of the mothers' experience
of singing.
220
Fourth, when the mothers observed their infant to be happier or calmer as a
result of singing, the perception of being significant to the infant, that is, sense of
‘mum’ was reinforced. This validation strengthens the perception of the baby she
cares for as being her own baby. However, mothers in the control group did not
describe experiencing this validation. Perhaps this is because there is no specific nonsinging tool that mothers expected to effectively modulate the infant’s emotions with
a reliable degree of consistency. Without a consistent tool, there would be no
consistent or prominent experience of validation to report during the interview. The
findings suggest, therefore, that the consistent reinforcement of the perception of self
as ‘mum’ was unique to the experience of singing play songs and lullabies.
Fifth, mothers reported that singing songs would capture the infant’s attention
and engage him/her. However, there was an absence of similar comments for nonsinging interactions. In other words, play songs and lullabies were perceived to be a
particularly effective tool for engaging the infant whereas there was no particular
non-singing tool that was perceived to consistently capture an infant’s attention in
the same way that singing does.
Sixth, the mother’s focus of attention was found to differ when singing or not
singing to her infant. Mothers described their mind being cleared of previous
thoughts and their attention focussed during the act of singing. Mothers also believed
that the focus of attention was reciprocal. In contrast, mothers did not mention a
focus of attention during non-singing interactions but rather multi-tasking or being
distracted by chores. Singing appears to demand the mothers focus of attention and
capture the infant's attention in a way that non-singing interactions do not.
Seventh, the non-singing mothers described play interactions as a way of
getting to know the infant (e.g. learning likes and dislikes). However, no similar
221
theme emerged for the experience of singing. Instead, singing was described to
encapsulate a feeling of togetherness.
Eighth, mothers expressed observing and considering the developmental
progress of the infant to characterise non-singing play interactions. These
observations were accompanied by feelings of amazement and pride. During the
description of singing interaction there was an absence of such developmental
observations and accompanying feelings or amazement of pride. This finding
suggests that the experience of non-singing play interactions encourage a focus of
attention on the infant's development in a way that singing does not.
To clarify, it is not being suggested that a mother never feels proud of her
infant while singing or that a mother never feels a sense of togetherness during toybased play. The findings reveal that certain thoughts and feelings are more prominent
during singing and non-singing interactions35. In other words, the feelings of
togetherness are more prominently experienced during singing interactions whereas
the feelings of amazement and pride are more prominently experienced during nonsinging interactions. What is unique about the mothers' experience of singing is that
it is characterised by feelings of togetherness, focus of attention, validation and
emotional modulation. What is unique about the mothers' experience of non-singing
play interaction is that is characterised by the observation of the infant's
developmental progress and getting to know the infant.
35
It is logical to assume that mothers do not mention every single thought or feeling they experience
during the interview. Instead they would discuss what ‘stands out’ or characterises the experience of
singing/non-singing interactions. Considering this, the findings demonstrate what is prominently (as
opposed to only) experienced during singing and non-singing interactions.
222
Discussion
Clinical relevance of singing
No intervention or music therapy program was examined in this study. The
effect of an applied music therapy singing intervention on maternal attachment
constructs has yet to be examined. The present study examined the natural
experience of singing and non-singing interactions of a small group of healthy
mothers as reported by the mothers. More specifically, the study examined what the
intrinsic experience of singing, that is, uninfluenced by intervention, may contribute
to the attachment constructs. The findings reveal that within the mothers' subjective
experience lies a flow of positive emotional and mental states that relate to the
attachment constructs.
What is interesting for therapists to consider is the therapeutic potential
embedded in the positivity of the 'flow of influence'. First, the way that the emotional
and mental states interconnect suggest that negativity may be 'balanced out' or
possibly replaced by the positivity of the 'flow of influence'. If this is true there is
potential for singing to treat mothers experiencing stress, mood disturbances,
hostility and negativity toward the infant. Second, the flow of positivity is contingent
on a catalyst, that is, the successful modulation of infant emotions. The existence of a
catalyst suggests there is a possibility of establishing a similar experience of
positivity in other mothers. In other words, there is a possibility that incorporating
the catalyst into a mother's experience (i.e. by educating/empowering her to
implement and recognise successful singing interactions) will establish or 'set off' the
'flow of influence' in other mothers.
It is important to remember that the findings are based on healthy mothers
and infants not impacted by disability or mental illness. It is unknown whether other
223
mothers in different circumstance are capable of experiencing the 'flow of influence'
or facilitating successful singing interactions in the same way as the mothers in this
sample. Therefore, it cannot be assumed that it is possible to establish the 'flow of
influence' in mothers of all clinical populations or circumstances. However, the
findings offer insight into the possible potential of singing to facilitate positive
contributions to attachment constructs.
A matter of balance
The findings suggest that experiencing only singing or non-singing
interactions would provide an imbalanced impact on the attachment constructs. If a
mother in the present sample were to only experience positive singing interactions
with her infant, she may experience prominent feelings of happiness, fun, consistent
validation of being ‘mum’, emotional modulation, a strong focus of attention on her
infant and a sense of connection and togetherness. However, she may not experience
prominent feelings of amazement and pride, or opportunities to explore what sorts of
things her infant likes/dislikes to the same extent as during non-singing interactions.
Similarly, if a mother were to only experience positive non-singing interactions she
may experience prominent happiness, fun, pride, amazement and curiosity about her
infant’s mind and personality but not emotional modulation, focused quality time
with her infant, sense of togetherness and consistent validation of being ‘mum’ to the
same extent as during singing interactions. In other words, it would be unbalanced to
only experience the positive emotional and mental states characterising singing or
non-singing interactions.
The findings suggest that the ideal way for the mothers in this sample to
experience the full variety of impacts to all four attachment constructs would be to
frequently practice both types of interactions. All of the emotional and mental states
224
outlined in the global descriptions of both groups were positive in nature and
between the two experiences, mothers experienced contributions to all four
attachment constructs. Both types of interaction appear to have distinct contributions
to attachment constructs. In other words, singing appears to be intrinsically better at
facilitating particular emotional and mental states in the same way that non-singing
play interactions appear to be intrinsically better at facilitating particular emotional
and mental states. By experiencing both types of interaction the mothers could
hypothetically experience a large range of positive emotional and mental states that
contribute to all four attachment constructs.
Implications to mother-infant attachment
As discussed earlier, the emotional and mental states experienced during nonsinging play interactions primarily impact the pleasure in proximity, need
gratification and knowledge acquisition constructs. However, no composite theme
relating to the tolerance/acceptance construct was identified (no theme was shared by
50% or more of the control sample). It is logical to assume therefore, that it is the
tolerance/acceptance construct which would be more adversely affected if a mother
were not to sing to her infant.
For example, without experiencing a focus of attention on the infant as well
as the observation of the infant’s positive responses to singing, a mother may not feel
a prominent sense of pleasurable companionship, connection and togetherness with
the infant. Consequently, the perception of baby being her own baby is not reinforced
to the same degree as mothers who are singing. Likewise, without being able to
effectively and quickly modulate the infant’s emotions by singing, a mother may not
feel a sense of achievement to the same prominence as singing interaction.
Consequently, the validation of being ‘mum’ and the reduction of negative feelings
225
are not experienced to the same extent as mothers who are singing. Additionally,
mothers in the experimental group reported singing frequently throughout each day.
Thus, mothers who do not sing to their infant may potentially be missing out on daily
positive impacts to the tolerance/acceptance construct which may lead to adverse
effects on maternal health and well-being.
The potential implications of the absence of singing are concerning,
particularly considering mothers who are struggling to cope with the demands of
motherhood. Rayna’s case, for example, reveals how a dyad not classified as ‘at risk’
can experience difficulties and be at risk of depression and insecure attachment (see
p. 169). As a result of Ellie’s continual clinginess, Rayna felt constantly drained and
found herself thinking negatively of Ellie. At the same time, the continual responses
to Ellie’s clinginess reinforced Rayna’s sense of being ‘mum’. The same interactions
that were responding to Ellie’s separation anxiety also formed the basis of motherinfant attachment. In other words, responding to Ellie’s negatively involving
behaviours became the foundation of their bond. The mother-infant relationship
therefore, was based on dependency rather than security. As attachment developed
from Ellie’s insecure over-dependence, Rayna’s wellbeing worsened, as did her
perception of Ellie.
Play songs and lullabies could potentially offer a means of breaking the
pattern of over-dependent interactions. As described by the mothers in this study,
songs offer an interaction that is enjoyable for both parties while simultaneously
modulating emotions. The emotional needs of the infant and mother may be
addressed while both parties share in happiness or calm. Hypothetically, as the
mother becomes more skilled and frequent in her use of songs to modulate emotions,
she would see more positive responses from her infant. Consequently, she may feel a
226
greater sense of connection and togetherness with her infant and a reduction of
negative feelings/thoughts. These emotional and mental states would in turn, provide
positive reinforcement of the sense of baby being her own baby, which may help to
balance out the previous negative reinforcements. The ‘flow of influence’ may alter
the mother’s perception of her infant and her relationship with the infant by
positively impacting the mother’s tolerance/acceptance, pleasure in proximity and
need-gratification constructs. Similarly, a mother may prevent a negative perception
developing further by regularly experiencing the positivity of the ‘flow of influence’.
Implications to mother and infant resilience
Considering the wide variety of emotional and mental states experienced by
the mothers during singing interaction, it is possible that the 'flow of influence' has
potential implications/applications beyond attachment. Further reflections upon the
mothers' experience of singing reveals that singing may promote key mechanisms
that help adults and children successfully cope during life transitions, stress or
adversity, known as resilience (Amatea, Smith-Adcock, & Villares, 2006; Black &
Lobo, 2008; Cuthbert & Stanley, 2011; Patterson, 2002; Walsh, 2002, 2003; Werner,
1990, 1995).
Resilience comprises of many mechanisms or competencies that serves to
protect from the adverse affects of short-term crises (e.g. serious illness) and
persistent crises (e.g. ‘at risk’ populations involving economic hardship, mental
illness, abuse, single/teenage parenting). By maximising resilience, risk is minimised
and a child is given the best start at life (Werner, 1990). Two mechanisms that are
applicable to the mothers' experience of singing include: emotional connectedness
and a positive outlook and self-concept (Amatea, et al., 2006; Black & Lobo, 2008;
Cuthbert & Stanley, 2011; Walsh, 2002, 2003; Werner, 1990, 1995).
227
Emotional connectedness. Emotional connectedness involves demonstrating
emotional warmth and belonging, sharing emotions and providing responsive and
positive parenting. Within the context of early mother-infant attachment, the qualities
of emotional connectedness encourage the infant to develop social and emotional
competencies such as trust in others (sense of security), autonomy and initiative
(Walsh, 2002, 2003; Werner, 1990, 1995). These competencies may then be drawn
upon as the infant grows older to better cope with adversity.
The 'flow of influence' experienced by the mothers in this study demonstrate
how singing may promote emotional connectedness by (1) facilitating a reciprocal
focus of attention that sparks feelings of togetherness, and (2) validating the sense of
baby being her own baby (baby belonging to the mother as opposed to another adult)
by successfully modulating the infant's emotions.
Positive outlook and self-concept. A positive outlook and self-concept
involves having optimism, hope, encouragement, confidence and a focus on strengths
and potentials (as opposed to a sense of burden, negativity and resistance) (Amatea,
et al., 2006; Black & Lobo, 2008; Walsh, 2002, 2003). Being weighed down by the
negativity of a crisis may adversely affect a mother’s capacity to provide the care and
security that young babies need which leads to adverse affects on the infant’s
physical, emotional and social development. Encouraging positivity therefore, may
reduce the risk of experiencing disruptions to parenting and consequently protect the
child from potential adverse effects to the infant's health, well-being and
development.
The mothers' experience of singing involved positive emotional and mental
states that strengthen/maintain a mother’s positive outlook: (1) modulation of
mother’s emotions i.e. turning a negative mood into a happy/relaxed one, (2)
228
reduction of hostility toward, and negative perceptions of, the infant e.g.
experiencing a sense of achievement from effectively soothing the infant’s distress,
and (3) facilitation of positive (rather than negative) feelings e.g. pleasure, sense of
togetherness and validation of ‘good mother’.
The 'flow of influence' hypothetically demonstrates how a build up of
negativity may be minimised by, for example, reducing the sense of ‘burdensome’ in
caring for the infant and feeling a sense of achievement from successfully
modulating the infant's emotions. In other words, the positive emotional and mental
states experienced by the ‘flow of influence’ may strengthen the mother’s positive
outlook and sense of self as ‘good mother’ which in turn promotes a key mechanism
of resilience.
Demonstrably, some of the experienced thoughts and feelings that relate to
attachment constructs also relate to mechanisms of resilience. This suggests that the
positivity of the 'flow of influence' may contribute to maternal attachment constructs
while simultaneously strengthening resilience resources within the mother and infant
(Pasiali, 2012). It is important to remember, as discussed earlier, these positive
emotional and mental states are contingent on implementing and recognising
successful modulation of infant emotions. Again, any benefits hoped to achieve by
utilising singing as a therapeutic tool relies on the mother's facilitation of successful
emotional modulation.
Assuming that an intervention may promote and encourage positive,
successful and emotionally available interactions, mother and baby would strengthen
each other's resilience competencies while the mother experienced positive
contributions to attachment constructs. Firstly, the mother’s effort to sing songs in an
optimal manner would develop and maintain emotional connectedness and sense of
229
security in the attachment relationship. Secondly, the baby’s positive responses to
singing would feed the mother’s positive outlook and positive self-concept. The
positive feedback from the baby would strengthen the mother’s resilience and
attachment constructs and in turn, enhance the mother’s capacity to be emotionally
available, further strengthening emotional connectedness and security with the infant.
In other words, experiencing successful singing interactions may hypothetically
involve mother and infant in an emotional connectedness feedback loop. The
relationship may be enhanced as well as drawn upon to strengthen attachment and
resilience. Considering this hypothetical, there appears to be therapeutic potential
intrinsically embedded into the mothers' experience of positive and emotionally
available singing interactions, as shown in Figure 10.
MOTHER
Positive outlook & selfconcept
INFANT
Needs are met &
emotional
connectedness (develop
trust, security)
Figure 10 – Diagram illustrating the hypothetical emotional connectedness feedback loop of the
mothers' experience of singing.
230
Conclusion
Both the singing and non-singing condition scored highly on the Emotional
Availability Scales, which suggests that engaging in a certain type of interaction does
not automatically equate to optimal emotional availability. Yet, despite the similar
scores, the Interview findings reveal that the mothers' experience of singing
interactions is distinctly different to non-singing interaction and each type of
interaction experience contributed positively to attachment constructs in a unique
way. The mothers' experience of singing was characterised by a flow of
interconnections between prominent positive emotional and mental states that relate
to the pleasure in proximity, need gratification/protection and tolerance/acceptance
constructs, described as the 'flow of influence'. The experience of non-singing play
interactions was characterised by a variety of prominent positive emotional and
mental states that relate to pleasure in proximity, need gratification/protection and
knowledge acquisition. Between singing and non-singing play interactions positive
contributions to all four attachment constructs were experienced. Suggestibly, both
singing and non-interactions have distinct roles in impacting maternal attachment
constructs.
The potential of singing as a therapeutic tool was found to be embedded in
the experienced 'flow of influence'. First, the 'flow of influence' relates positively to
three of the attachment constructs in a way that non-singing play interactions did not
which suggests singing provided unique benefits to the mothers' perception of
attachment. Also, considering that it was experienced by healthy mothers, the 'flow
of influence' illustrates a possible ideal of positivity for mothers to experience.
Second, commonalities between the mothers' emotional and mental states and
mechanisms of resilience were found. This suggests that singing may have been
231
beneficial to both the mother's perception of attachment and resilience competencies.
Third, the focus of attention that mothers described singing to demand may provide a
good platform to consciously practise new skills and understanding of modulating
infant emotions. Fourth, the 'flow of influence' was contingent on a particular
catalyst, that is, successful modulation of infant emotions.
The existence of a catalyst suggests the possibility of other mothers also
being able to experience the 'flow of influence'. In other words, if a therapist were to
optimise mother-infant interactions to achieve successful modulation of infant
emotions, it may be possible to establish/promote the positivity of the 'flow of
influence' in other mothers. This possibility opens new directions for research
examining singing and attachment as well as the development and evaluation of
attachment-focussed singing programs within various contexts of health and
circumstance. Also, similarities were discovered between the experienced emotional
and mental states of the 'flow of influence' and particular mechanisms of resilience.
The positivity of the 'flow of influence' may therefore have potential applications to
attachment and resilience simultaneously. However, further research is required to
explore and support this idea.
Overall, the ‘flow of influence’ provides a new perspective on the experience
of singing and offers a means of conceptualising how the intrinsic experience of
singing may contribute positively to a mother's perception of attachment to her
infant.
232
CHAPTER SUMMARY
The purpose of this chapter was to examine (1) the group subjective
experience of singing interactions, (2) the groups subjective experience of singing
interactions, (3) the commonalities and differences between the experience of singing
and non-singing play interactions, and (4) the overall quality of interaction
demonstrated by both the singing and non-singing condition, including if/how the
interactions differ in regard to Emotional Availability. Despite both singing and nonsinging interactions being similarly rated on the Emotional Availability Scales, the
subjective experience of singing was found to be distinctly different to non-singing
interactions and contribute to mother-infant attachment by facilitating a positive
'flow of influence' between prominent emotional states related to three attachment
constructs. In the next chapter the behavioural and musical features of singing
interaction will be examined in further detail.
233
CHAPTER 7 –MUSICAL AND
BEHAVIOURAL FEATURES OF SINGING
INTERACTIONS
"It [ singing] does actually stop him from going all frantic (...) that's the calmest I
ever see him, when I'm holding him and just singing to him (...) It calms me ... which
I think helps the whole circle of everything anyway because you need to be calm to
get them calm ... he tends to look straight at you, like, he really watches ... especially
when he's going to sleep (...) I find if I hold him and like, look at his face with the
slower songs he tends to stare straight back and then goes [off to sleep]. So that's
kind of nice. And I feel all 'mumsy' when I do it. I'm like, 'ah, I'm supermum'"
Karen, mother of three, interview conducted on 8th December, 2011
One of the aims of this study is to examine the behavioural and musical
features of optimal and less-optimal singing interactions with the purpose of gaining
a better understanding of how play songs and lullabies are vehicles of emotional
communication. In the previous chapter, the group comparison of Emotional
Availability ratings revealed that both the singing and non-singing conditions scored
similarly high scores on each of the Emotional Availability Scales, albeit NonIntrusiveness showed slight differences. This finding suggests that it is the manner in
which mothers interact, rather than the type of interaction, which determines optimal
emotional availability. Furthermore, the individual findings of the singing condition
in Chapter 4 revealed that mothers scored a range of ratings on the Emotional
Availability Scales (between 18 and 28). Not all mothers scored near-perfect scores
234
on every dimension and some mothers scored in the mid category range (e.g. 18-20).
Therefore, the question remains, in what ways did the mothers sing songs to facilitate
varying degrees and qualities of emotional availability? Or, how did a mother sing to
achieve optimal or less optimal interactions? To better understand how the mothers
facilitated emotional communication through singing, a detailed musical analysis of
singing interaction was conducted.
This chapter contains two main sections. The first section presents a summary
of the transcriptional music analyses. The music notation is presented in tabular form
followed by a discussion that summarises the key musical features of the mothers'
singing interaction. The second section explores the inner processes of song-based
interaction by presenting an explication of musical principles underlying dyadic
mother-infant singing interactions.
SECTION 1 - TRANSCRIPTIONAL MUSIC ANALYSIS
There were six dyads chosen for the transcriptional musical analysis (see
'Procedure' in Chapter 3 for details). These dyads scored a range of Emotional
Availability ratings and demonstrated both optimal and less-optimal interaction. For
each dyad three or four excerpts of singing interactions were transcribed using
descriptive text and musical notation. The excerpts were then analysed according to
the relevant structural musical elements, including: structure, pitch, rhythm
(including meter), timbre, tempo, dynamic and expressive techniques. The
transcriptions and analyses may be found in Appendix II to NN. The musical and
behavioural features identified for each dyad were then grouped within the
framework of the Emotional Availability Scales, i.e., grouped according to the
235
dimension of Emotional Availability they related to, including: Parental Sensitivity,
Structuring, Non-Intrusiveness and Non-Hostility, Child Responsiveness and Child
Involvement (Biringen, 2008a, 2008b). To provide further clarity, the musical and
behavioural features were divided again into more specific attributes or subscales of
Emotional Availability. For example, as shown in the first column of Table 51, the
dimension of Parental Sensitivity was divided into the subscales of affect and
response to cues and signals. Ultimately, the musical and behavioural features of
each dyad were grouped within the framework of Emotional Availability and are
summarised in Tables 51-54 below.
Alice and Cindy
Alice scored high, near optimal ratings in each of the parental dimensions
(25-27). Cindy scored high scores (22.5 and 25.5) on the child dimensions. Overall,
Alice and Cindy were described to have a positive, healthy and emotionally available
relationship (see Chapter 4 for further details). Transcript 1 and 2 examine Alice and
Cindy's high Sensitivity, Structuring, Non-Intrusiveness, Non-Hostility, Child
Responsive and Child Involvement during two play song interactions. Transcript 3
examines Alice's optimal parental dimensions during Cindy's distress, Cindy's high
Responsiveness (ability to be regulated) but less-optimal Involvement (frequent
negatively involving behaviours) during a lullaby interaction. See Appendix II for
the full descriptions, transcriptions and music analyses. See Table 51 below for a
summary of Alice and Cindy's features of singing interaction.
236
Table 51: Summary of Alice and Cindy's behavioural and musical features as they relate to dimensions of Emotional Availability
Parental Sensitivity (High 27)
EA subscale
Affect –
demonstration of
positive emotion and
animation
Affect –
demonstration of
animation
Behaviours
Musical elements
Smiling while singing
play songs
A smiley tone of voice is created by smiling while singing (Going to the moon and Jig Jog.)
In Going to the moon Alice uses large ascending glissando to demonstrate animation (anticipate and dramatise the lifting action “blast off!”)
Consistently, uses
expressive vocal
techniques
In response to infant’s positive responses to the song Jig Jog, Alice vocalises a breathy “kee” sound on a low “C#” pitch.
237
Affect –
demonstration of
animation
Alice vocalises gigglelike sounds
Affect demonstration of
appropriate
animation
Alice demonstrates her
own (and infant’s)
enjoyment of the
interaction via infantdirected speech
Affect –
demonstration of
appropriate
animation
Demonstrates
intentional behavioural
and musical congruence
Alice’s phrase “that was fun” reflects her own and infant’s enjoyment of the interaction by emphasising the words “that was fun”. Emphasis
is created by lengthening the duration of these words and by ascending a third for the word “fun”. Rising in pitch draws attention to the word
and thus, “fun” is emphasised more than the others.
Alice’s intention behind Stroke your feet, is to calm and comfort infant. She demonstrates this intention by an appropriate lack of animation
e.g. (1) maintenance of neutral facial expression while singing, (2) addition of affectionate touch via foot rubbing, (3) singing with a calm,
steady, round and sweet vocal tone, (4) maintains consistent tempo and dynamic.
Alice says, “Aw sweetheart” to convey her sympathy and compassion. This phrase comprises of one long half-note followed by a
descending 4th interval in Alice’s low speech register
Response to cues and
signals – appropriate
and prompt response
Acknowledges infant
distress by responding
sympathetically via
infant-directed speech
Sympathy
Alice apologetically responds to infant’s distressed vocalisations by saying, “Oh did I stop, I’m sorry” This phrase reflects her belief that
infant is upset that the singing stopped and therefore wants it to continue. This phrase contains a series of ascending and descending 3rd or 4th
intervals.
238
and prompt response
Alice interprets infant’s
communications via
and prompt response
and prompt response
Responds to distress
and discomfort by
singing a lullaby
Suggests repeating Jig
Jog to maintain infant
happiness
Interpretation
Characteristics of Stroke your feet include: major modality, 4/4 meter, consistent slow tempo, smooth (legato) style, consistent moderately
loud dynamic, ascending and descending triadic melody and repetitive short-short-long phrasing structure.
Characteristics of Jig Jog include: (1) major modality, (2) 4/4 meter, (3) contrasting A-B sections, (4) phrases are distinguished by quarternote versus dotted eighth-notes, leaning versus bouncing movement and sharp melodic oscillations versus smooth wave-like contour.
Alice changes the tempo and vocal style within phrases throughout the song Going to the moon. She also stops after the first phrase of Jig
Jog, to ask, “what cha looking at?”
signals – flexibility
Alice sings with
flexibility
Parental Structuring (High 26-27)
EA subscale
Appropriate guidance
– positive scaffolding
Behaviours
Phrasing of the play
song is clearly shaped
by phonetic symmetry
“oo” vowel
by melodic symmetry
and rhythmic rest
Musical elements
In Going to the moon, the first two phrases begin and end with an “oo” vowel sound such as “zoom”, “moon” and “soon. By beginning and
ending with the same vowel sound a sense of symmetry is created while also marking the phrasing
Melody rises from the tonic to the dominant via an arpeggio over three quarter-note beats then steps downward back to the tonic over three
quarter beats. The symmetry of rising and falling o the tonic (and phonetic symmetry) mark the lyrical phrasing. Also, each phrase is
followed by a quarter-note rest. The audible gap clearly marks the end of the phrase.
In Jig Jog, Phrase ‘a’ and ‘b’ are clearly distinguished by the melodic contour. Phrase ‘a’ comprises of an oscillating minor third which
creates a sharp ‘up-down-up-down’ shape. Phrase ‘b’ also contains minor thirds but it does not oscillate. In bar one the minor third rises then
falls. In bar 2 the minor third falls and then rises. In the third bar the melody steps downward from the sub-mediant to the supertonic and
then ascends a perfect fourth. Thus, a ‘wave-like’, rather than an a sharp ‘up-down’ contour is created.
239
Phrase ‘a’
song is clearly
distinguished by
contrasting melodic
contour
Phrase ‘b’
Sub-phrasing of the
play song is clearly
distinguished by
contrasting rhythm and
movement
Sub-phrasing in Jig Jog is distinguished by alternating between a quarter note and long-short dotted rhythm. Each rhythm also has an
associated movement. The quarter note melody is associated with leaning from side to side and the long-short dotted rhythm ‘Jig-a-jog-a”
lyric is associated to bouncing up and down.
Sub-phrase ‘1’
Sub-phrase ‘2’
In Jig Jog, long-short dotted rhythms and the lyrics “Jig-a-jog-a” are associated with bouncing. Quarter notes (and no “Jig-a-jog-a”) are
associated with leaning from side to side.
song is distinguished by
associating a movement
with rhythm and lyrics
The structure consists of a repeated phrasing pattern (short-short-long)
Short
Short
Long
Predictability is created
within the lullaby
Loud inhalation on the beat preceeding each phrase of Going to the moon anticipates each phrase.
240
Consistently anticipates
each phrase of the play
song
In Going to the moon “one” is sung with an ascending glissando (approximately 8ve) to anticipate the lifting action “Blast off”
ending of the play song
creating predictability
for the infant.
Alice loudly inhales on the beat preceding the first phrase of Jig Jog. This signals that the song is about to start.
the beginning of the
song
Develops musical
expectancy by
consistent musical
structuring
Disrupts musical
expectancy to end the
play song cheekily
During the start/stop game in Jig Jog (Section B) Alice consistently sings “jig-jog stop!” in a particular way. “Jig jog” is sung be ascending
up the tonic triad (from the median to the dominant) on short eighth notes. This is followed by a large intervallic leap to a high-pitched
staccato tone for “stop!” The ascending triadic melody creates a sense of direction and movement which creates anticipation. Thus the
melody acts as a cue to prepare for the upcoming “stop!” By repeating the cue consistently the listener expects to hear the high-pitched
staccato “stop!” after the median-dominant triadic melody.
During the last phrase of Jig Jog, Alice plays on the expectation (see above) she has created. Instead of ascending triadically on “jig jog” she
sings descends stepwise from the median to the super-tonic. The expectation of the high-pitched “stop!” is disrupted by the change in
melodic contour. During this phrase the listener expects the super-tonic to be resolved by stepping down the tonic, However, Alice does not
resolve the melody in the expected manner. Instead he jumps two octaves higher to sing another high-pitched staccato “stop!”
241
Indicates the last phrase
of the play song by
change in pitch,
melodic contour and
tempo
Multiple changes occur at the beginning of the last phrase of Going to the moon: (1) instead of beginning on the tonic the melody begins on
the dominant, (2) instead of ascending in an arpeggiato manner, the melody steps downward, and (3) the tempo is slower than the previous
tempo.
Extends the lifting action of Going to the moon to conclude interaction. Alice sings a short A4 while lifting infant into the air followed by a
descending 5th glissando in a lower register. The downward glissando and perfect interval (often associated with dominant – tonic
resolution) provide a sense of completion and finality.
Concludes the
interaction by extending
the ending of the song
In Going to the moon the song ends with a large ascending glissando (approximately 12 th or 14th interval) while simultaneously lifting infant
into the air.
Consistently indicates
the ending of song
for the infant
The lullaby Stroke your feet consistently ends by resolving the leading-note to the tonic at the end of the last phrase. Phrase ‘b’ delays the
sense of finality by resolving the supertonic at the beginning of the next phrase, thus the resolution is also the continuation of the lullaby.
The final resolution is the only instance where the resolution occurs at the end of the phrase and thus provides a strong sense of finality.
Leaning occurs on beat 1 and 3 of the meter over a half-note duration.
242
Congruence of
movements and singing
(movements are in time
with the meter
Alice bounces Cindy by lifting her knee up and down to the same dotted rhythm of the melody. She consistently moves downward on metric
pulse.
Congruence of
(movements match the
rhythm of the melody)
Leaning, swaying and boucning coincides with the rhythm of the melody (Going to the moon & Jig Jog).
Congruence of
243
Slower tempo and legato style better dramatise the ‘zooming’ action (leaning and swaying action) and the faster staccto style better match
the bouncing movement of “we’re going to the moon”
Congruence of
tempo and singing
style)
In Jig Jog, Alice consistently disrupts the up-down dotted rhythm pattern of her knee jogging to move upwards on “stop!” The combination
of abrupt movement and melodic changes reinforce the playful start/stop game.
Intentional stop/start
movement to reinforce
start/stop game.
Creates an enveloping
environment conducive
to relaxation while
singing lullabies
– preventative
scaffolding
Alice alternates
between two contrasting
movements during a
long play song to
prevent boredom (and
to reinforce the
association of bouncing
movement to Jig jog
lyrics
EA subscale
Behaviours
244
During Sroke your feet Alice maintains a slow tempo of approximately = 45 and sings the full duration of note values to maintain the
legato flow of the lullaby. She also maintains a moderately loud dynamic throughout the lullaby. Alice avoids sudden changes in tempo or
dynamic to encourage infant to calm and relax.
In Jig jog, alternating between leaning and bouncing movement may help to sustain infant attention.
Parental Non-intrusiveness (High 25-27)
Following child’s
lead – follows the
infant’s
interest/desire
Alice’s eyes follow
infant’s interest.
Responds to interest via
Musical elements
Alice follows infant’s interest (gaze) then talks about what she is looking at by saying “You’re obsessed with the high chair”. This phrase is
characterised by the repetition of D3 pitch and two large ascending intervals (8 ve & 6th) sung with an ascending appoggiatura. She also
accents the keywords “obsessed” and “high chair”
Following child’s
infant’s
interest/desire
Following child’s
infant’s
interest/desire
245
Following child’s
infant’s
interest/desire
Following child’s
infant’s
interest/desire
After the first phrase Alice responds to infant’s looking via infant-directed speech “What cha looking at?” This phrase is characterised by a
downward melodic contour descending by two second intervals then one 5 th interval.
Alice disrupts the flow
of the song to respond
to infant’s interest
immediately
Alice attempts to
structure further
conversation about
infant’s interest
Alice continues the play
song in response to
infant’s eye-contact and
smiles
Alice seeks infant’s lead
as expressed via infantdirected speech
Alice extends her acknowledgement by structuring further conversation about infant’s interest. One phrase, “there’s bears on it” is similar to
the original acknowledgment phrase. It contains repetition of D3 pitch and a large ascending 8ve which is accented and spoken with an
appoggiatura. “Yeah”, “Lots of bears” and, ‘and bees” comprise of ascending and descending 3 rd intervals.
Alice continues the Jig jog song when infant turns to make eye-contact. Alice also verbalises her interpretation of infant’s involving
behaviours (eye-contact and smiles) via question, “Do it again?” This phrase comprises of the repetition of low B3 pitch followed by a large
ascending 6th interval to indicate the upward inflection of a question (Jig Jog).
Alice conveys her desire for infant feedback by asking questions. For example, “Yeah? Yeah?” is characterised by two slurred ascending
minor thirds. “Is that better? Are we feeling a bit better?” is characterised by the repetition of mid-pitch F4 followed by two ascending 4th or
5th intervals on “better”. The rising intervals draw attention to the key word “better” as well s convey the upper inflection of a question.
Parental Non-hostility (High 27)
EA subscale
Lacking Negativity –
lack of overt or
covert hostility
Behaviours
Musical elements
Only a few sighs
observed.
n/a
Lack of mocking –
lack of ridiculing or
disrespect
No ridiculing or
disrespect observed
n/a
EA subscale
genuine and
appropriate emotion
genuine and
appropriate emotion
Behaviours
Musical elements
General positive and
relaxed affect
Usually accompanied by silence
Demonstrates a range of
vocal expressiveness
Cindy vocalises happy ‘giggling’ sounds within a 2 octave range and with a combination of single tones, appoggiaturas and ascending
glissandos.
Affect – infant is able
to use resources to
regulate emotions
Becomes still and silent
during lullaby singing
Stroke your feet
Accompanied by silence
Responsiveness –
Likely to respond
with positive emotion
Smiling
Child Responsiveness (High 25.5)
246
During Going to the moon, Cindy smiles while vocalising a short-long-short giggle rhythm containing a small ascending major 2 nd.
Responsiveness –
Likely to respond
Giggling and/or happy
giggling type sounds
EA subscale
Simple initiative
Behaviours
Looking and smiling
In Jig Jog, Cindy smiles while vocalising a range of sounds e.g. single tone around C4 and in a high register B5 and ascending glissandos
ranging from a 3rd to 6th interval.
Child Involvement (High 22.5)
Musical elements
Mostly accompanied by silence
Characteristics of Cindy’s negatively involving vocalisations include: (1) imitative triadic melody in the same modality as mother, (2)
ascending appoggiaturas preceding a single tone or small descending glissando, (3) large and quick ascending octave (4) slurred descending
small intervals.
Simple initiative
Negatively involving
whining vocalisations
Elaborative initiative
Mainly looking,
sustained eye contact
and smiling
247
Skye and Marley
Skye scored very high ratings in each of the parental dimensions (27-28).
Marley also scored high scores (24 and 27) on the child dimensions. Overall, Skye
and Marley were described to have a positive, healthy and emotionally available
relationship (see Chapter 4 for further details). Transcript 1 and 2 examine Skye and
Marley's high Sensitivity, Structuring, Non-Intrusiveness, Non-Hostility, Child
Responsive and Child Involvement during two play song interactions. Each example
particularly demonstrates Skye's ability to provide preventative structuring by
regulating Marley's emotions while avoiding over-stimulation or over-excitement.
Transcript 3 and 4 examine Skye and Marley's high emotional availability during two
lullaby interactions and particularly show Marley's high Responsiveness (ability to
248
be regulated) and Involvement (positively involving behaviours) as well as Skye's
Sensitivity, Non-Intrusiveness and Non-Hostility. See Appendix JJ for the full
descriptions, transcriptions and music analyses. See Table 52 below for a summary
of Skye and Marley's features of singing interaction.
248
Table 52: Summary of Skye and Marley's behavioural and musical features as they relate to dimensions of Emotional Availability
Parental Sensitivity (High 27-28)
EA subscale
Affect –
demonstration of
animation
Behaviours
Musical elements
Singing while smiling
A smiley tone of voice is created by smiling while singing (Acka backa).
In Going to the moon Skye uses ascending glissandos and vibrato affect to demonstrate animation.
249
Affect –
demonstration of
animation
Consistently uses
expressive vocal
techniques
Affect –
demonstration of
appropriate
animation
Demonstrates
intentional, behavioural
during lullabies
and prompt response
Skye acknowledges
infant’s
communications by
responding
sympathetically via
Skye’s intention behind Hush-a-bye and Sleep baby sleep is to calm infant down. Skye demonstrates this intention by an appropriate lack of
animation. She (1) maintains a neutral facial expression (as opposed to excited), (2) sings in a legato vocal style, and (3) sings with a calm
and warm vocal tone, (4) the rhythmic structure of the melodies helps to facilitate the legato style by providing opportunities (rests) to
breathe without disrupting the flow of the melody, (5) maintains consistent dynamic and tempo.
After infant grizzles, Skye acknowledges his communications by saying “I know, darling, I know”. These phrases are characterised by a
gentle descending 4th/5th glissando intervals in Skye’s lower speech register.
Acknowledgement
and prompt response
and prompt response
Skye acknowledges
infant’s
communications by
responding
sympathetically via
Skye acknowledges
infant’s
communications via
250
and prompt response
Skye interprets and
verbalises intended
response to infant’s
communications via
The first phrase consists of a descending glissando (approx. 3rd interval) “Oh, Marly”. When infant’s vocalisations sound more urgent and
cry-like, Skye’s verbalisations also change. She increases the overall pitch of the “Marly, Marly” phrase by about an octave to match
infant’s intensity. Phrase is characterised by slurred descending 2 nd/3rd interval. The smoothness, descending contour and warm tone of these
phrases conveys sympathy rather than irritation.
Skye acknowledges infant by saying “what have you seen?” This phrase is characterised by a triplet rhythm containing a large descending
interval of approximately a 5th followed by a short descending glissando on “seen?” Skye also rests after the phrase to leave time for infant
to respond.
Acknowledgement
Skye verbalises her interpretation of infant’s communications by saying “you’re a bit tired I think aren’t you?” This phrase stays in the lower
register of Skye’s voice and is comprised of ascending and descending third (approximately) intervals. Skye then responds to infant’s
tiredness by verbalising her suggested activity, “should we do the rocket song?” This question is a little higher in pitch and continues to use
ascending/descending third (approximately) intervals. The question ends with a descending glissando of approximately a 5 th interval on
“song”. After this flow of infant-directed speech Skye starts the song.
Interpretation
Response
Skye says “do you wanna go look at the chair?”. This phrase is characterised by small third intervals rising and falling is Skye’s low speech
register. The emphases the words “wanna”, “look” and “chair”. Emphasis is created by (1) adding an accent to the word “look”, (2) rising in
pitch on “wanna” and “chair”, and (3) elongating the duration of the word “chair” by adding a slurred minor third interval. Words that
warrant emphasis convey the keywords of Skye’s interpretation (that infant wants to look at the chair).
and prompt response
Skye verbalises her
interpretation of infant’s
communications.
Interpretation
After acknowledging infant’s communications, Skye verbalises her suggested response. She says “Let’s do some nice quiet ones”. This
phrase comprises of small ascending and descending second intervals in Skye’s lower speech register.
The next phrase conveys the intention behind Skye’s response in the form of a question, “calm you down a little bit? Hey?” This phrase is
characterised by the repetition of one pitch, followed by a large 6 th interval to indicate the upward inflection of a question mark. The
question inflection is then extended with the addition of “hey?” in the same higher pitch area.
251
and prompt response
Skye verbalises her
communications.
Finally Skye asks, “What should we sing?” before choosing a lullaby and singing Hush-a-bye. Although this phrase is a question it does not
end with an ascending interval. It ends instead with a descending 4th interval
Maj 6th
and prompt response
Responds to infant’s
communications
promptly by singing a
play song in a calm
playful manner
and prompt response
communications by
promptly singing a
lullaby
After interpreting infant’s tiredness cues Skye responds to his need for modulation by singing Going to the moon at a moderately soft
dynamic and a moderately slow tempo (to prevent over-stimulation).
Skye chooses to sing the lullaby Hush-a-bye to calm infant down. She repeats the song (continues to sing until infant shows signs of being
calmed i.e. being still). Characteristics of this lullaby include (1) ternary form, (2) sigh-like descending third melodic motif, (3) melodic
wave contour that reflects the rise and fall of breathing, (4) consistent tempo, (4) consistent dynamic, (5) consistent neutral, warm, breathy
vocal tone, (6) major modality, (7) consistent tempo and dynamic, (8) legato vocal style, (9) mostly quarter-note rhythms and (10) rests
occur at the end of each phrase to provide time to breathe and maintain temporal flow.
Sigh-like motifs
Sigh-like motifs
Sigh-like motifs
252
and prompt response
Chooses to sing the play
song Acka Backa to
maintain infant’s
happiness
and prompt response
Skye chooses to
continue singing lullaby
to calm infant.
Skye demonstrates
flexibility by altering
the tempo of play song
Skye stops in the
middle of a phrase to
respond to infant’s
laughter.
General characteristics include: (1) oscillating submediant-dominant (6th – 5th) motif long-short dotted rhythm to portray playfulness, (2) 4/4
meter and accents on beats 1 and 3, (3) phrasing is clearly marked by “oo” rhyme, (4) alternating rhythmic structure, (5) major modality, and
(6) sung with a smiley tone of voice.
Maj 6th
Oscillating melody
Cyclical structure of Sleep Baby Sleep the song encourages repetition. Repetition allows Skye to sing continuously until infant’s emotions
are modulated. Other general characteristics of the lullaby include: (1) 6/8 metre, (2) use of melisma, (3) major modality, and (4) ABA1
ternary structure.
The last phrase of Going to the moon is sung at a slower tempo and with rubato.
The flow of Acka Backa is interrupted by infant-directed speech (this is in response to infant’s laughter). After the speech she restarts the
song instead of continuing where she left off
EA subscale
Behaviours
Musical elements
The phrasing of the play
by an ‘oo’ rhyme and
rhythmic rest
In Acka Backa, each phrase ends with either “boo” or “you”. This vowel sound is made more obvious to the listener by being surrounded by
sharper sounds such as “acka” and “cracka”. In Going to the moon, the first two phrases begin and end with an “oo” vowel sound such as
“zoom”, “moon” and “soon”. By beginning and ending with the same vowel sound a sense of symmetry is created while also marking the
phrasing. Also, each phrase is followed by a rest. The audible gap clearly indicates the end of the phrase.
253
by melodic contour.
The phrasing of the
lullaby is clearly shaped
by an ‘ee’ rhyme
The ternary structure of
the lullaby is clearly
distinguished by
changes in the musical
elements
In Going to the moon, the first two phrases end with stepping downward from the dominant to tonic. The stability of the tonic creates a sense
of completion which clearly marks the end of the phrase.
Each phrase of the lullaby Sleep baby sleep ends with an “ee” sound e.g. “sheep”, “tree”, “thee”, “sleep”.
Hush-a-bye contains two sections: Section A and Section B. Instead of repeating the sigh-like minor third motif in Section A, Section B
comprises of a 2-bar ascending melodic sequence that is repeated a tone higher. Instead of continuing the short-short, long, short-short, long
phrasing pattern of Section A, Section B contains a long, long phrasing structure. These changes clearly distinguish the two sections and
therefore created the ‘home-away-home’ juxtaposition of ternary form.
Section A:
Repeat of minor 3rd
motif (short-short)
Section B:
Sequence is repeated a tone higher
Sleep Baby Sleep contains two sections in a ternary form: A-B-A1. Section A is characterised by an embelillsed step down from the mediant
to the tonic. Section B is characterised by a phrases ending on the dominant. The tension of leaving the dominant unresolved in Section B is
resolved with the return of Section A. Thus the tension and resolution that is created by the two sections emphaises the ‘home-away-home’
juxtaposition of ternary form
Section A:
254
distinguished by the
melodic resolution of
the dominant to the
tonic
Section B:
Both phrases end with a fall to the dominant
Predictability is created in Acka Backa by each phrase being 7 beats long and alternating between 2 rhythmic phases.
Phrase 1 (rhythm A): Dotted rhythm for 6 beats followed by a quarter-note
within the play song
Phrase 2 (rhythm B): Dotted rhythm for 4 beats followed by three quarter-notes
within the lullaby
the first phrase
(beginning) of the play
song
Each phrase of the lullaby Hush-a-bye is 7 quarter-beats (2 bars) in length
Loud inhalation on the beat preceding the first phrase of Acka Backa signals that the song is about to start
255
the last phrase of the
play song creating
predictability for the
infant
Enhances the
anticipation of the last
phrase of adding
behavioural gestures
and expressive
techniques
Loud inhalation on the beat preceding the last phrase of Acka Backa signals that the end (as well as the accompanying lifting action) is
occurring soon.
The final phrase of Acka Backa (during the final repeat of the song) is extended by the use of a pause, accompanied by a loud inhalation and
freezing facial and bodily expression.
First time:
Second time:
In Acka Backa, “Goes” is sung with a slight ritardando and an ascending major third glissando to anticipate “you” (lifting motion)
for the infant
In Going to the moon, “Oh” is sung with a pause and an ascending glissando with a vibrato effect to anticipate the “blast off!”
Anticipation of the
ending is extended by
repetitive use of
expressive techniques
In Going to the Moon, the end of the song is anticipated by the glissando on “oh!” However, the anticipation is extended by also singing the
preceding countdown with an ascending glissando ending on the dominant note. The listener is left waiting for a resolution to the tonic
and/or downward contour.
Repetition of ascending glissandos extend
During Acka Backa, she pauses on last word “you” and adds a descending glissando as she lowers baby’s legs back to the ground.
Descending contour provides a sense of finality to indicate the conclusion of the song
256
the end of the play song
for the infant
the end of the lullaby
for the infant
of the play song by a
During Going to the moon, she also uses a descending glissando to indicate the conclusion of the song
Hush-a-bye ends with a tonic-dominant-tonic melody. This tension-resolution melody creates a strong sense of completion and therefore
clearly indicates the end of the song.
In the song Acka Backa, the last phrase does not begin with an ascending major 6 th interval as the previous phrases did. Instead it begins
with a descending major third.
change in melodic
contour
change in pitch,
melodic contour, tempo
and expressive
techniques
Maj 3rd
Mulitple changes occur at the begining of the last phrase of Going to the moon. Instead of beginning on the dominant the melody begins on
the tonic. Instead of a downward contour, the phrase comprises of multiple ascending glissandos. The tempo also sudden becomes slower.
Tapping occurs on the quarter-note beat of the play song meter.
257
Congruence of
(movements and
touching match the
meter of the play song)
Rocking motion matches the rhythm of the melodic line
Congruence of
(movements and
touching match melody
of the play song)
Congruence of
(movements and
touching match the
meter of the lullaby
Patting occurs on the 1st and 3rd quarter note beat of the lullaby meter
Patting occurs on the main beats of the lullaby meter
Congruence of
(movements and
touching match the
meter of the lullaby
to relaxation while
singing lullabies
During Sleep Baby Sleep Skye sings at a consistently slow tempo of ∙ = 45, maintains the same moderately soft dynamic, maintains a
neutral tone of voice and maintains legato flow throughout the interaction. Skye avoids sudden changes in tempo or dynamic to encourage
infant to calm and relax.
– preventative
scaffolding
Moderate or moderately
slow tempo is chosen to
prevent overstimulation
Approximate tempo of Acka Backa is
– preventative
scaffolding
Animation is expressed
within boundaries to
prevent overstimulation
In Going to the moon, Skye uses a neutral tone of voice rather than an open ‘smiley’ tone and she adds glissandos and a vibrato effects but
within the same moderately soft dynamic level and moderately slow tempo to prevent over-excitement.
EA subscale
Behaviours
Musical elements
258
=100 and Going to the moon is
=76
Following child’s
infant’s
interest/desire
Following child’s
infant’s
interest/desire
259
Following child’s
infant’s
interest/desire
Skye immediately
responds to infant
interest via infantdirected speech
Skye’s eyes follow
Responds to interest via
Skye attempts to
structure an interaction
around infant’s interest
Skye immediately follows infant’s interest by discontinuing the lullaby and asking a question about his interest “what have you seen?” As
mentioned above this phrase is characterised by a triplet rhythm containing a large descending interval of approximately a 5 th followed by a
short descending glissando on “seen?”
After observing infant Skye verbalises her desire to understand infant’s interest in the floor with the phrase “what’s down there?” The
speech contains repetition of a lower pitch on “what’s down” followed by an ascending 2 nd or 4th (approximate) on “there”. “What’s” and
“there” are emphasised by the use of an accent. An anacrusis feel is created. The eighth-notes act as an upbeat to the word “there” (such
emphasis conveys Skye’s desire to understand infant’s interest). She also rests after the phrase to allow infant time to respond.
She repeats the phrase “what’s down there?” twice and with variation. The first repeat contains the same rhythmic structure as the original
phrase but with an extension of the ascending interval; instead of a 2nd interval there is a 4th interval. The second repeat contains another
variation. Instead of even eighth-notes, there is a long-short dotted rhythm on “what’s down”. The dotted rhythm increases the playfulness of
the phrase (this conveys Skye’s intention to extend the interaction based on infant’s interest)
Skye asks questions then rests before continuing to speak to provide infant an opportunity to respond.
Infant is treated as an
interactive partner
Skye leaves gaps for
infant to respond to her
speech.
EA subscale
Behaviours
Musical elements
lack of overt or
covert hostility
Only a few yawns (no
other signs) observed.
n/a
Lack of mocking –
disrespect
No ridiculing or
disrespect observed
n/a
EA subscale
Behaviours
Musical elements
relaxed affect`
Child Responsiveness (High 27)
genuine and
appropriate emotion
260
to use resources to
regulate emotions
Infant becomes still and
silent during lullaby
singing Hush-a-bye and
Sleep baby Sleep
Stillness is accompanied by silence
Responsiveness –
Likely to respond
Smiling
Responsiveness –
Likely to respond
Giggling
n/a
EA subscale
Behaviours
Musical elements
Simple initiative
Looking and smiling
Simple initiative
Marley looks at his
interest and vocalises to
Marley vocalises a short open mouthed descending glissando “ger’ which begins at approximately the dominant note of the lullaby.
Child Involvement (High 24)
mother
Mainly looking, smiling
and some giggles
Looking and smiling is mostly accompanied by silence
261
Beth and Rita
Beth scored high ratings in each of the parental dimensions (26.5-28). Rita
also scored high scores (22.5 and 25.5) on the child dimensions. Overall, Beth and
Rita were described to have a positive, healthy and emotionally available relationship
(see Chapter 4 for further details). Transcript 1 examines Beth and Rita's high
Sensitivity, Structuring, Non-Intrusiveness, Non-Hostility, Child Responsive and
Child Involvement during a play song interaction. This excerpt particularly
demonstrates that high emotional availability may be achieved amongst tonal
ambiguity. Transcript 2 examines Beth's Non-Intrusiveness, Non-Hostility and
positive Structuring as well as Rita's positive Involvement during a play song
interaction. Transcript 3 and 4 particularly examine Beth's Sensitivity, Structuring
262
and Non-Hostility and Rita's Responsiveness during two lullaby interactions. See
Appendix KK for the full descriptions, transcriptions and music analyses. See Table
53 below for a summary of Beth and Rita's features of singing interaction.
262
Table 53: Summary of Beth and Rita's behavioural and musical features as they relate to dimensions of Emotional Availability
Parental Sensitivity (High 27)
EA subscale
Affect –
demonstration of
animation
Affect –
demonstration of
animation
Behaviours
Musical elements
play songs
A smiley tone of voice is created by smiling while singing (Going to the moon & Acka Backa).
Consistently uses
expressive vocal
techniques to
demonstrate animation
In Going to the moon and Acka Backa Beth uses large ascending and descending glissandos with a vibrato/pulsating effect to demonstrate
animation (and dramatise the lifting and lowering actions).
From Going to the moon:
From Acka Backa:
263
Emphasis is created by (1) singing each word with an accent, (2) singing each word as separated eighth-notes (rests create an audible gap
between words) and (3) singing ascending appoggiaturas. The comparison of emphasised versus un-emphasised enhances the effect of the
accent.
Affect –
demonstration of
animation
Demonstrates affection
vocally by emphasising
“I love you” via rhythm
and expressive
techniques.
Affect –
demonstration of
appropriate
animation
Demonstrates
intentional behavioural
Beth’s intention behind Hush-a-bye is to calm infant down. She demonstrates this intention by an appropriate lack of animation e.g. (1)
maintenance of neutral facial expression while singing, (2) singing with a calm vocal tone, (3) singing in a smooth legato vocal style, (4)
breathing during rests to maintain smooth temporal flow, (5) maintaining moderate tempo and dynamic, and (6) singing in rubato and
prioritising phrasing over strict duration values.
Affect –
demonstration of
appropriate
animation
Beth acknowledges
infant’s grunt-like
communications via
imitative infant-directed
speech
After infant’s communications, Beth vocalises a similar descending melodic motif. First she vocalises a slurred descending 5 th, “Awe” and
then a descending 4th (not slurred).
264
and prompt response
Interprets infant’s
grunt-like vocalisations
as desire for lullaby
singing.
and prompt response
Interprets infant’s eyecontact as desire for
further singing.
and prompt response
Acknowledges infant by
responding imitatively
via infant-directed
speech
Beth verbalises her interpretation and intended response to infant’s grunt-like vocalisations by saying, “Oh, you want some soft-singing?”
The phrase begins with a descending 5 th glissando, followed by an ascending major 3rd and repetition of B3 pitch as even eighth notes. The
phrase ends with a descending major 3 rd and repetition of G3 pitch.
Beth responds to infant’s eye-contact by repeating the Acka Backa song. General characteristics of the song include: (1) 4/4 meter, (2)
moderate tempo of approximately
rhythm, (6) major modality.
= 98, (3) recurring melodic oscillation, (4) ascending major 6 th motif, (5) consistent long-short dotted
Beth responds to infant’s vocalisations imitatively. She vocalises a similar descending 4 th interval but as detached sixteenth notes instead of
a smooth glissando.
and prompt response
265
Responds to infant
vocalisations by singing
Suogan
Chooses to sing Husha-bye during a series of
lullaby singing to
further calm and/or
maintain infant’s calm
Beth sings with
flexibility
EA subscale
Behaviours
“oo” vowel and
rhythmic rest
In Going to the moon, the first two phrases begin and end with an “oo” vowel sound such as “zoom”, “moon” and “soon. By beginning and
ending with the same vowel sound a sense of symmetry is created while also marking the phrasing. In Acka Backa, each phrase ends with
either “boo” or “you”. This vowel sound is made more obvious to the listener by being surrounded by sharper sounds such as “acka” and
“cracka”. Also, phrses are followed by a rest. The audible gap clealry marks the ending of each p hrase.
“oo” vowel sound
In Suogan, each phrse in verse 1 ends with an “ear” rhyme (“fear” and “near”) and each phrase in verse 2 ends with an “ee” rhyhme (“weep”
and “sleep”).
and prompt response
Characteristics of Suogan include: major modality, 4/4 meter, repetitive 3-quarter-note rhythmic phrasing structure, moderately slow tempo,
rubato (pausing on the last note of each sub-phrase), smooth (legato) style, consistent moderately soft dynamic and calm neutral tone of
voice.
Hush-a-bye is characterised by: (1) A-B-A1 ternary structure, (2) 4/4 meter, (3) repetitive 7-beat phrasing, (4) slurred descending interval
motif, (generally a 5th interval) mimicking a sigh and therefore encouraging release of tension, (5) smooth legato vocal style, (5) moderate
and rubato tempo, (6) wave-like melodic contour in Section A of lullaby and (7) calm and neutral vocal tone.
Beth sings at a slower tempo and with temporal flexibility (rubato) during phrase ‘b’ of Going to the moon. She also uses pauses at the end
of phrase ‘a1’ and ‘a2’ of Acka Backa.
Musical elements
In Going to the moon, Phrase ‘a’ rises up in an arpeggiato style over three quarter-note beats then steps downward over three quarter beats
(as eighth-notes). The symmetry of rising and falling (plus the phonetic symmetry) mark the lyrical phrasing.
by melodic symmetry
song is clearly
distinguished by
contrasting melodic
contour
In Going to the moon, Phrase ‘a’ and ‘b’ are clearly distinguished by a change in melodic contour and tempo. Phrase ‘a’ begins by rising up
in an arpeggiato style then falling in a stepwise manner in a steady 4/4 meter. Phrase ‘b’ begins by stepping downward in a slower rubato
tempo.
Phrase ‘a’
Phrase ‘b’
266
Each sub-phrase and phrase of Suogan ends with a quarter-note rest. The audible gap clearly marks the end of each phrase.
Sub-phrasing of the
lullaby is clearly
distinguished by rests
The verse structure of
distinguished by
melodic resolution
In Suogan the first phrase ends with an unresolved super-tonic which is completely resolved to the tonic to the end of the last phrase. The
melodic resolution creates a strong sense of completion or finality to mark the end of each verse.
Hush-a-bye contains two sections: Section A and Section B. Section comprises of a 2-bar ascending melodic sequence that is repeated a
perfect 4th higher rather than the descending sigh-like motifs. It is also disrupts the short-short-long phrasing structure by containing longlong phrasing.
Section A:
Sigh-like motif
distinguished by
changes in the musical
elements
Section B:
Predictability is created in Acka Backa by each phrase being 7 beats long and alternating between 2 rhythmic phases.
267
Phrase 1 (rhythm A): Dotted rhythm for 6 beats followed by a quarter-note
Phrase 2 (rhythm B): Dotted rhythm for 4 beats followed by three quarter-notes
Predictability is created in Hush-a-bye by each phase being 7 beats long.
within the lullaby
Suogan comprises of the repetition of the same rhythmic pattern: 3 quarter-notes followed by a quarter-note rest. The constant rhythmic
repetition provides a sense of predictability which contributes to the safe feeling of the lullaby.
In Going to the moon the same rhythmic pattern is repeated creating predictability (phrase ‘a’ and ‘a1
Phrase ‘a’
Phrase ‘a1’
within the lullaby
Beth inhales with animation (wide open mouth and raised eyebrows) on the beat preceeding each phrase of Acaka Backa to anticipate each
phrase.
each phrase of the play
song
268
In Acka Backa the bouning movements match the dotted rhythm of the melody.
Congruence of
Congruence of
meter of the lullaby)
Beth swings her chair to the pulse of the 4/4 meter (either on beat 1 and 3 or 2 and 4).
269
to relaxation while
singing lullabies
During Suogan Beth maintains a moderately loud dynamic and legato style throughout the lullaby. She avoids sudden changes in tempo or
dynamic to encourage the infant to calm and relax.
EA subscale
Behaviours
Musical elements
Beth follows infant’s interest and gaze in silence.
Following child’s
infant’s
interest/desire
Beth follows infant’s
interest. She responds
by joining infant in her
looking with silence
Following child’s
infant’s
interest/desire
Beth follows infant’s
positive vocal
involvement by singing
a play song.
Following child’s
infant’s
interest/desire
Beth seeks infant’s lead
as expressed via infantdirected speech
Beth responds to infant’s interpersonal communication by choosing to sing Going to the moon. General characteristics of the play song
include: (1) 4/4 meter, (2) symmetrical rising and falling melodic contour motif, (3) first 2 phrases sung at moderately fast tempo of
approximately = 116, the last phrase sung rubato, (4) ending with a large ascending and descending glissando, and (5) sung at a
moderately loud dynamic throughout the song.
Beth conveys her desire for infant feedback by asking the question “again?” This is characterised by an emphasis on “gain’ syllable and a
slurred ascending 2nd to convey the upper inflection of a question.
EA subscale
lack of overt or
covert hostility
lack of overt or
covert hostility
Behaviours
Musical elements
Only a few sighs
observed.
n/a
Responds to potentially
irritating behaviour with
playful infant-directed
speech
Responds to infant dropping toy with playful “uh oh”. This phrase is characterised by descending 6 th interval, even eighth-note rhythm, and
the first syllable verbalised with a staccato.
When infant drops toy for the second time Beth verbalises her dislike of the situation without hostility (neutral tone of voice). Beth calmly
says, “Oh-oh” as a slurred ascending major 3nd interval.
270
lack of overt or
covert hostility
States dislike of
situation without
hostility
lack of overt or
covert hostility
Comments on
potentially irritating
situation without
hostility
Lack of mocking –
disrespect
No ridiculing or
disrespect observed
Beth uses a positive and calm tone of voice to verbalise, “Are you doing that on purpose? Hey? Are you doing that on purpose, cheeky
chops?” The phrase “hey?” comprise of a higher pitched slurred ascending major 3 rd interval. The first long question comprises of fast
sixteenth notes, begins with an ascending 2 nd interval, drops a major 6th and repeats a lower pitch Bb3. The second and final long question is
a variation of the first question. It also begins with an ascending 2 nd interval but starting a 4th higher than the first question. It also contains
the repetition of the low Bb3 pitch but ends with an ascending 2 nd interval with an additional appoggiatura to reinforce the upper inflection
of a question.
n/a
Child responsiveness (High 25.5)
EA subscale
genuine and
appropriate emotion
Behaviours
Musical elements
relaxed affect
Rita vocalises descending glissandos over a range of pitch intervals (minor 2 nd to perfect 5th) and durations (sixteenth note to quarter-note).
Also uses “ah, “Heh’ or “eh” lyrical sounds during each vocalisation.
271
to use resources to
regulate emotions
Infant demonstrates
emotional modulation
via relaxing vocal
exhalations
Responsiveness –
Likely to respond
Smiling
EA subscale
Simple initiative
Behaviours
Looking and smiling
Child involvement (High 22.5)
Musical elements
Happy babbling consists of an ascending 4 th and descending 5th glissando.
Simple initiative
Positive involving
vocalisations
Vocalisation 1:
Vocalisation 2:
Vocalisation 3:
Vocalisation 4:
Rita vocalises two grunt-like sounds. The first comprises of a descending glissando and a forceful tight vocal tone. The second comprises of
a long descending minor 3rd glissando. The tone begins with a forceful grunt-like attack. Instead of sustain the forceful tight sound, the tone
merges into a loud exhalation.
Simple initiative
Involves via grunt-like
vocalisations
Mainly looking,
sustained eye contact
and smiling
Holly and Ophelia
Holly scored a range of high and borderline category scores in the Emotional
Availability Scales. She scored a borderline mid/high score for Sensitivity (19); a
high score for Structuring (25), although more successful structuring would be ideal;
a high score for Non-Hostility (25.5), although she demonstrated some obvious
negativity which is not ideal; and a low score within the high category range for
Non-Intrusiveness (23.5). Although Holly generally followed Ophelia's lead she also
demonstrated instances of intrusiveness. Ophelia scored a low score within the high
category range for Responsiveness (21.5) and a borderline score for Involvement
(20.5) which is far from ideal. Despite the majority of high category scores, their
emotional connection was t considered to be 'apparently', rather than entirely, healthy
272
(see Chapter 4 for further details).
Transcript 1 examines Holly and Ophelia's less-optimal Sensitivity, NonIntrusiveness, Child Responsive and Child Involvement but also Holly's mostly
successful Structuring during a play song interaction. Transcript 2 particularly
examines Holly's less-optimal Sensitivity, Structuring and Non-Hostility and
Ophelia's less-optimal Responsiveness and Involvement during a play song
interaction. Transcript 3 contains a sequence of lullabies and particularly examines
Holly's high Non-Hostility and Ophelia's less optimal Responsiveness and
Involvement. See Appendix LL for the full descriptions, transcriptions and music
analyses. See Table 54 below for a summary of Holly and Ophelia's features of
singing interaction.
272
Table 54: Summary of Holly and Ophelia's behavioural and musical features as they relate to dimensions of Emotional Availability
EA subscale
Affect –
demonstration of
animation
Behaviours
Musical elements
Open, positive smiley tone is created by smiling while singing (e.g. Row, row, row your boat and If you’re happy and you know it)
Screechy tone occurs at the end of Row, row, row your boat.
Affect –
demonstration of
animation
Inappropriate animation
as demonstrated by
over-the-top affect via
screechy vocal tone
Holly increases her animation by merging into infant-directed speech, rising in pitch. Accenting each beat of the bar and increasing her
tempo (accelerando)
273
Affect –
demonstration of
appropriate
animation
Affect –
demonstration of
appropriate
animation
Increases animation by
merging into infantdirected speech and
adding expressive
techniques
Increases animation by
merging into infantdirected speech and
rising in pitch
Holly becomes more animated at the end of Row, row, row your boat. She merges into infant directed speech and rises in pitch during the
phrase “if you see a crocodile” Her speech maintains the long-short dotted rhythm of the song and jumps an octave higher. The last syllable
“dile” is also sung with an ascending appoggiatura. She also ends the song with a high-pitched descending glissando “scream!”
Affect –
demonstration of
genuine and relaxed
affect
Holly’s pacing is very
fast and manic
(demonstrating over-the
top affect)
Affect –
demonstration of
appropriate
animation
Demonstrates
during lullaby
Affect –
demonstration of
appropriate
animation
Demonstrates
during play song
274
and prompt response
Holly/s verbal
responses change
according to infant’s
reactions
During Row, row, row your boat, Holly speaks very quickly (e.g. sixteenth notes in a moderate tempo of approximately ∙ = 80). She rushes
from her introductory speech to the beginning of the song (no anticipation of the beginning and merges straight from the ending of the song
to infant-directed speech (no sense of closure). She does not break between speech and song interactions.
Holly’s intention behind Suogan is to calm infant down. She demonstrates this intention by an appropriate lack of animation. She (1)
maintains a neutral facial expression (as opposed to smiley & excited), (2) sings in a legato vocal style, (3) sings with a calm neutral vocal
tone, (4) maintains same dynamic and tempo. Also, the rhythmic structure of the melody helps to facilitate the legato style by providing
opportunities (rests) to breathe without disrupting the flow of the melody.
Holly’s intention behind verse 2 of Miss Polly had a dolly who was sick, sick, sick, is to merge infant from her calm state to a happy aroused
state She does this by (1) increasing her tempo from approximately ∙ = 98 to approximately ∙ = 120, (2) changing from a smooth legato
style of singing to a detached mezzo-staccato style, (3) changing from a calm neutral tone to an open ‘smiley’ tone of voice, (4) changing
from primarily straight eighth-notes to dotted eighth-notes, and (5) increasing her dynamic from moderately soft to moderately loud.
When Holly’s attempt to structure a playful conversation is unsuccessful her verbal responses become more sympathetic. She changes her
tone from smiley to sympathetic and gradually lower’s her pitch. The first phrase comprises of an alternation between B4 and D5. The
second phrase comprises of the same words but alternates between lower pitches (G4 and A4). Both phrase contains an ascending interval at
the end of the phrase to convey the upper inflection of a question. When infant continues to cry Holly becomes more sympathetic
verbalising a descending 2nd glissando and a single low tone on “Awe”
When infant’s whines continue Holly verbalises sympathetic phrases. The characteristics of these phrases include: “sh” sound, descending
3rd with an upper appoggiatura, an ascending 2nds.
Acknowledges infant
whines by responding
sympathetically via
Holly considers the reason behind infant’s vocalisations by saying, “Why you not happy chappy?” This phrase occurs in Holly’s low speech
register and comprises of: (1) an accent on “why”, (2) descending 5 th glissando, (3) repetition of low E3 pitch and (4) quick sixteenth notes.
Holly verbalises her
attempts to interpret
infant’s
communications via
and prompt response
Holly verbalises her
interpretation and
intended response to
infant’s
communications via
self-directed speech
275
and prompt response
In the same interaction Holly resumes her attempted interpretation by asking “Yeah, what’s up?” The phrase contains two pitches, begins on
a low A3 then descending a minor third from C4 to A3.
This phrase occurs in Holly’s lower speech register. She seems to be talking to herself, rather than to infant. The phrase comprises of the
repetition of low F3 and fast sixteenth notes. The phrase ends with two descending 2nds from G3 to F3.
First Holly acknowledges infant’s distress by verbalising a single low pitched G3. Then she says, “You’re not in the mood”. This phrase
comprises of a descending 4th followed by the repetition of a low F3 pitch.
and prompt response
Holly verbalises final
communications via
This rhyme is too overstimulating for infant. Characteristics include: staccato style of chanting, 2/4 meter, moderately fast tempo of
approximately = 85, leaning infant forwards and backwards to the quarter-note pulse of the meter, bouncing infant to the quarter-note
pulse of the meter and mimicking the pitch of the original melody.
276
and prompt response
Responds
inappropriately to
infant’s need to be
settled. She chooses to
chant the rhyme One,
two, three, four, five.
and prompt response
Responds appropriately
& promptly to infant’s
distress by choosing
Suogan lullaby.
EA subscale
Behaviours
by an “ee” rhyme
In Row, row, row your boat each phrase ends with either “stream”, “dream” or “scream”.
The phrasing of the
by repetitive lyrics, “ee”
or “ear” vowel sound
and rhythmic rest
In Suogan each phrase begins with the word “suogan” and ends with either an “ee” or “ear” rhyme. In verse 1, the phrases end with “weep”
and “sleep”. In verse 2 the phrases ends with “fear” and “near”. Also each phrase is followed by a quarter-note rest. The audible gap clearly
marks the end of each phrase.
General characteristics of Suogan include: (1) major modality, (2) 4/4 meter, (3) moderate tempo of approximately = 96, (3) structure
comprises of strict repetition of ‘a’ & ‘b’ phrases, (4) slurred 2-bar phrases, (5) short-short-long, short-short-long rhythmic structure, (6)
ascending tonic triad melodic motif, (7) lack of melodic resolution of dominant and super-tonic at end of lullaby, (8) smooth, legato style of
singing, (9) neutral tone of voice, and (10) paired phrasing indicated by lyrical rhyme.
Parental Structuring (High 25)
Musical elements
Changes in pitch &
melodic contour
distinguish structure of
play song.
In the song Miss Polly had a dolly who was sick, sick, sick, the last phrase (phrase ‘b’) begins on the sub-dominant instead of tonic and
contains a dramatically different intervallic melodic contour. These changes clearly distinguish this phrase from the previous phrases and
indicate that the end of the song is approaching.
Phrase ‘a’:
Phrase ‘b’:
Each phrase in the lullaby Suogan is 7 quarter-beats in length and repeats the same short-short-long, short-short-long rhythmic structure. The
structure also comprises of the strict repetition of phrase ‘a’ and ‘b’. Such repetition creates expectancy and predictability
within the lullaby
277
During Row, row, row your boat, Holly anticipates the beginning of phrases with a loud inhalation.
Anticipates the
beginning of phrases
during play song
Lack of anticipation
scaffolding – following
speech introduction
Holly merges straight
into the song
Instead of anticipating the beginning of the song Holly merges straight into it. The beginning of the Row, row, row your boat comes as
surprise.
Well-intentioned
guidance - attempts to
re-engage infant at the
end of Row Row Row
your boat via infantdirected speech.
ending of each verse
with melodic resolution
Holly interrupts the song by repeating the question “What do we do?” The first question comprises of small ascending 2 nd intervals. The
second question is very similar to the first; it is almost repeated sequential a 7 th higher. However, Holly adds a long-short dotted rhythm at
the beginning of the phrase instead of maintain even sixteenth notes.
Each verse of Miss Polly had a dolly who was sick, sick, sick ends with a leading note rising to the tonic. This melodic resolution creates a
strong sense of compeltion and finality to mark the end of each verse and the song.
In Row, row, row your boat, Holly leans infant backward and forward to the quarter-note pulse of the meter
278
Congruence of
During Suogan, Holly pats infant’s hip to the quarter-beat pulse of the meter.
Congruence of
During Miss Polly had a dolly who was sick, sick, sick, Holly sways from side to side over the duration of 2 beats (half-note), and bounces
infant up and down to the rhythm of the last three words of the song.
279
Congruence of
to relaxation while
singing lullabies
Well-intentioned
recapture infant
attention and introduce
song via infant-directed
speech
Well-intentioned
engage infant by
continuing Row Row
Row your boat
General characteristics include: (1) 4/4 meter, (2) melody based on ascending and descending the tonic triad in various ways, (3) two 2-bar
phasing structure, (4) phrases comprise mainly of quarter notes or long-short dotted rhythm except for one contrasting triplet phrase, (5)
variety of rhythms, and (6) moderately fast tempo and moderately loud dynamic
EA subscale
Behaviours
Musical elements
Holly waits until the end of the song to acknowledge infant’s interest in the curtain (picture of boat)
Following child’s
infant’s
interest/desire
Delays response to
infant interest
During Suogan Holly maintains a moderate tempo of ∙ = 96, moderately soft dynamic and calm neutral tone of voice throughout the song.
The constancy of these elements encourages infant to relax.
Questions 1 is characterised by: overall ascending melodc contour rising over an octave via 2 nd and 3rd intervals. Quesiton 2 is characterised
by three ascendign 2nd or 3rd intervals followed by an octave drop and final ascending 3 rd interval.
Following child’s
infant’s
interest/desire
Delayed
acknowledgment of
infant’s previous
interest via infantdirected speech
Initial animated response is a low-pitched throaty sound “hor”. The following infant-directed speech is spoken as a theme and 2 variations.
Main characteristics of the theme include: longer single tone followed by a lower pitched slurred ascending 2nd interval to convey upper
inflection. Variation 1 includes the following differences: dotted rhythm instead of longer single tone and ending with a slurred descending
2nd and ascending 3rd instead of only an ascending 2nd. Last variation is almost a sequential repetition of the variation 1 a 7 th higher. The
ending consists of a descending and ascending 2 nd.
Theme
Sequential variation
Variation
Phrase is characterised by a descending 4 th to the accented word “like”, followed by an alternation between a low F3 and E3. Holly then
jumps an octave to speak a slurred descending 2 nd for “yeah’
Following child’s
infant’s
interest/desire
Follows infant interest
in high chair via infantdirected speech
280
Following child’s
infant’s
interest/desire
Following child’s
infant’s
interest/desire
Holly seeks infant’s
lead & feedback cues
via infant-directed
speech
Seeks infant signals and
verbalises intent to use
infant attention to
determine whether
infant is ready for a
song
During Suogan and Miss Polly had a dolly who was sick, sick, sick Holly verbalises her desire to judge whether infant’s emotions have been
modulated by asking, “Alright?” and “You alright?” These phrases comprise of two pitches. The first phrase includes an ascending minor 3 rd
and the second phrase includes an ascending 2 nd glissando.
Holly asks two questions in infant-directed speech. Characteristics of question 1 include: series of ascending 3 rd and 4th intervals in mid-low
speech register and final word is spoken as ascending glissandos to convey upper inflection of a quesiton. Characteristics of question 2
include: accenting “you”, rising and falling a 4 th and 5th followed by the reptiion of a low A3 pitch and quickened pace for “ready to
dance?”, ending with a small ascending glissando to convey upper inflection of a question.
Infant cries and whines.
Parent is made to feel
intrusive
Infant cries whines in
response to chant
281
Following child’s
infant’s
interest/desire
Holly recognises her
intrusiveness in
chanting One, two,
three, four, five via
EA subscale
Behaviours
lack of overt or
covert hostility
Irritation and
stress/anxiety in tone of
voice
Lack of mocking –
disrespect
No ridiculing or
disrespect observed
Holly realises that infant does not want exciting play songs or nursery rhymes, saying “You’re not in the mood”. This phrase comprises of a
descending 4th followed by the repetition of a low F3 pitch.
Parental Non-hostility (High 25-26)
Musical elements
Speaks with a close/clenched jaw. Characteristics of phrase 1 include: (1) ascending semi-tone glissando, (2) accent on child’s name, (3)
repetition of low pitch. Characteristics of phrase 2 include: (1) descending 4 th glissando, (2) repetition of low pitch and (3) accent on
“whose” and “princess”.
n/a
Child responsiveness (High 21-22)
EA subscale
Behaviours
Musical elements
genuine and
appropriate emotion
relaxed affect`
genuine and
appropriate emotion
Ophelia’s happy sound during If you’re happy and you know it comprises of three pitches. It begins with an single E3 pitch followed by an
alternation between G4 and C4. Ophelia descends from G4 via a glissando and then leaps back up to G4 with a mezzo-staccato.
Infant vocalises happy
sounds
282
Cries and negatively involving whines continue. Characteristics include: (1) short single low tone, (2) short single tone followed by a large
& quick descending glissando, (3) long quarter-note descending glissando in lower register, (4) short ascending 3 rd glissando, (5) short
descending semi-tone glissando, (6) 3-note motif comprising of a lower neighbour-note (B4-A4-B4), (7) 3-note motif comprising of a dotted
rhythm, descending 4th followed by ascending major 2nd glissando.
to use resources to
regulate emotions
Has difficulty
regulating emotions and
expresses unhappy
sounds
Responsiveness –
Likely to respond
Smiling
EA subscale
Behaviours
Musical elements
Simple initiative
Looking and smiling
Example 1:
Example 2:
Example 3:
Child involvement (High 20-21)
Example 4:
Simple initiative
Frequent negatively
involving
vocalisations(e.g.
whines and cries)
Characteristics of Ophelia’s whining vocalisations include: (1) open and closed moth sounds (“ah” versus “erm”), (2) short single low tone,
(3) short single tone followed by a large & quick descending glissando, (4) long quarter-note descending glissando in lower register, (5)
short ascending 3rd glissando, (6) short descending semi-tone glissando, (7) 3-note motif comprising of a lower neighbour-note (B4-A4-B4),
(8) 3-note motif comprising of a short-long-short dotted rhythm, descending 4th followed by ascending major 2nd glissando.
Example 1:
Example 2:
Example 3:
Example 4:
283
Jane and Juliet
Jane scored highly in all of the parental dimensions of Emotional Availability
(22-26). She tended to score in the middle of the high category range. In other words,
she scored highly but not ideally. Jane's Sensitivity and Non-Intrusiveness scores
were particularly unideal. Juliet scored borderline mid/high category scores for both
Child Responsiveness (20) and Child Involvement (20). Overall, Jane and Juliet
experienced 'good times' together and appeared to have an emotional connection, but
there was something 'off' about the relationship. Jane and Juliet were considered to
have an 'apparently' healthy emotional connection. (see Chapter 4 for further details).
Transcript 1 examines Jane and Juliet's unideal Sensitivity, Responsiveness and
Involvement together with Jane's high Structuring and Non-Hostility during a play
song interaction. Transcript 2 examines Jane and Juliet's positive Sensitivity,
284
Structuring, Non-Hostility, Responsiveness and Involvement followed by Jane's
starkly unideal Non-Intrusiveness during an extended and repetitive play song
interaction. Transcript 3 and 4 particularly examines Juliet's unideal Responsiveness
and Involvement (confused affect, frequent negatively involving behaviours and
difficulty with emotional regulation) and Jane's less-optimal Sensitivity (difficulty in
interpreting and responding to Juliet's cues) during two lullaby interactions. See
Appendix MM for the full descriptions, transcriptions and music analyses. See Table
55 below for a summary of Jane and Juliet's features of singing interaction.
284
Table 55: Summary of Jane and Juliet's behavioural and musical features as they relate to dimensions of Emotional Availability
EA subscale
Behaviours
Musical elements
Smiley/positive vocal tone is created by smiling while singing. Jane uses this tone sometimes during Going to the moon and fades in and out
of this voice during Belly Button
Affect – some
demonstration of
animation
Instances of singing
while smiling
Vocal tone becomes more open and smiley
Jane increases sense of excitement and animation in Going to the moon by: (1) smiling while singing creating a smiley tone of voice, (2)
raising her pitch exponentially (last glissandos being and end on increasingly higher pitches) (3) increasing her dynamic singing a crescendo
into the “blast off!”and (4) using exaggerated head movements while inhaling loudly.
285
Affect – some
demonstration of
animation
Instances of increasing
animation in response to
infant’s excitement
Sings a similarly short note approximately one tone lower (and one octave) than the infant
and prompt response
Acknowledges infant
vocalisation by
responding imitatively
Acknowledges infant’s confusing affect with a contrasting melodic contour i.e. descending 4 th glissando but with similar lyrical sounds “Ahha”
Acknowledgement
and prompt response
286
and prompt response
Acknowledges infant
distress by responding
with infant-directed
speech
Verbalises difficulty in
interpreting
communications via
The phrase “I don’t know whether you’re laughing or crying” contains the following features: (1) repetition of B3 pitch, (2) melismas on the
keywords of the phrase “laughing” and “crying” i.e. ascending 6th interval and oscillating minor third, (3) Oscillating motif in “crying”
creates an upper inflection at the end of the phrase to represent the questioning nature of Jane’s thoughts, (4) accents emphasise the
keywords “laughing” and “crying” Emphasising the keywords via pitch variation and accents reflect Jane’s observation of infant’s mixed
affect and her difficulty in interpreting the affect
Interpretation
The phrase “you haven’t done a poo poo have you?” contains a repetition of a low G3, a major 3 rd rise on “poo” and “you”. The pitch rise at
the end of the phrase creates an upper inflection to indicate the question mark. The question mark also indicates that Jane is unsure of
whether her interpretation is accurate.
Attempted interpretation
and prompt response
Verbalises an attempt at
interpreting infant’s
communication via
Jane repeats the phrase “you wanna cuddle?” It contains the repetition of low F3, and ascending major 3rd and accent on “cuddle”. The
emphasis on the word “cuddle” conveys Jane’s acknowledgement of infant’s desire for comfort.
and prompt response
Verbalises suggested
communications via
and prompt response
desire for comfort by
singing lullaby, Sleep
Baby Sleep
General characteristics of this lullaby include: (1) lower neighbour-note motif, (2) 4/4 metre, (3) clarity of phrasing created by consistent
length of phrasing (each phrase is 1 bar long), (4) clarity of phrasing is created by ending each phrase with an “ee” sound, (5) major
modality, (6) moderately soft dynamic sung throughout, (7) less nasal and breathier tone of voice and (8) occasional melisma
EA subscale
Behaviours
Musical elements
by an “oo” and “oh”
rhyme and rhythmic rest
In Going to the moon, the first two phrases begin and end with an “oo” vowel sound such as “zoom”, “moon” and “soon”. By beginning and
ending with the same vowel sound a sense of symmetry is created while also marking the phrasing. In Belly Button each phrase ends with
an “oh” vowel sound such as “toes”, “goes”, “nose”, and “blows”. The rest of the lyrics avoid this vowel sound (e.g. “These are”) making
the rhymes more noticeable and more effectively marking the end of each phrase. Also, each phrase is followed by a rest. The audible gap
clearly marks the end of each phrase.
Response
287
In Going to the moon, the first two phrases begin on the dominant and end on the tonic. The stability of the tonic creates a sense of
completion which clearly marks the end of the phrase.
by melodic contour
Phrase A
Phrase A1
In Belly Button, Jane does not settle on a tonal centre. Despite the change in pitch and key, Jane maintains the same melodic contour for each
phrase throughout the interaction. Such consistency clarified the melodic phrasing amongst the ambiguity of tonality.
Phrase ‘a’ – first time:
Phrase ‘a’ – second time:
by melodic contour
Phrase ‘a’ – third time:
288
The phrasing of the
by an “ee” vowel sound
Phrase ‘a’ – fourth time:
Each phrase of the lullaby Sleep Baby Sleep ends with an “ee” vowel sound such as “sleep”, “sheep”, “tree”, “thee
The large ascending major 6th interval in phrase ‘b’ and ‘b1’ greatly contrasts the smaller intervals in phrase ‘a’. The obvious melodic
change clearly distinguishes the A-B-A ternary structure of the lullaby.
Contrasting pitch
distinguish structure of
lullaby Sleep Baby
Sleep
Phrase ‘b1’
Phrase ‘b’
Predictability is created in Belly Button by repeating the same rhythmic/phrasing pattern::short-short-long, short-short-long.
Short
Short
Long
Predictability is created in Going to the moon, by repeating the same rhythm (Phrase A and A1). This created predictability even when the
tonal centre was unstable (second time through)
First time:
Second time (tonal instability):
In Going to the moon, “Oh”, is sung with an ascending glissando and pause.
289
for the infant
In Belly Button, Jane sings a large ascending glissando of approximately a 7th -11th interval on “mummy”.
for the infant
In Going to the moon, the end of the song is anticipated by a glissando and pause on “oh”. However, the anticipation is extended by also
singing the preceding countdown with ascending glissandos, loud inhalations and exaggerated head movements. Anticipation in enhanced
by raising the pitch of the glissandos as the ending approaches. The listener is left waiting for a resolving downward contour which arrives at
the end of the song.
290
Anticipation of the
repetitive use and
variation of expressive
techniques
Anticipation of the
repetitive use and
variation of expressive
techniques
In Belly Button, the end of the song is anticipated by an ascending glissando and pause on “mummy”. However, the anticipation is extended
by also singing glissandos on the previous words “right where”. These first couple of ascending glissandos rise at least a 5th in her lower
speech register. She then sings “mummy” at a higher pitch and sings a larger ascending glissando of approximately a 7th-11th interval.
Anticipation in enhanced by raising the pitch of the “mummy” glissando as the ending approaches. The listener is left waiting for a resolving
downward contour which arrives at the end of the song with a descending glissando on “goes”.
Multiple changes occur at the beginning of the last phrase of Going to the moon. The melody does not begin on the dominant note, as did the
other phrases and the phrase consists of ascending glissandos rather than a 2-bar phrase with a downward contour. Also, the tempo is more
flexible as a result of the recurring pauses.
change in melodic
contour, expressive
techniques and tempo.
Bouncing occurs to the rhythm of the melody i.e. each downward motion matches the quarter or eighth note melody
Congruence of
(movements and
bouncing match the
melody of the play
song)
Swaying occurs on each quarter-note beat of the 4/4 meter.
Congruence of
(movements and
swaying match the beat
of the lullaby)
291
In the song Belly Button, ascending glissandos act as a cue to anticipate the upcoming raspberry. During Jane’s infant-directed speech, Jane
incorporates a similar ascending melodic contour to anticipate the raspberry. In other words, Jane maintains the same type of anticipation
cue to provide consistency and predictability in her structuring.
Incorporates similar
melodic contour in
to anticipate raspberry
In Going to the moon, Jane does not consistently indicate the end of the song. The first time she ended the song with a descending glissando,
the second time she ended with a tremalo vocal effect.
First time:
Second time:
Inconsistent guidance inconsistently indicates
the end of the song
292
Inconsistent guidance slightly inconsistent in
indicating the end of the
play song
to relaxation while
singing lullabies
Successful guidance
- unsuccessful
structuring attempt
Well-intentioned
attempt at playful
infant-directed speech is
unsuccessful
The ending of Belly Button contains three expressive components (1) descending glissando on “blows”, (2) loud inhalation and (3) blowing a
raspberry in the air or on the baby’s tummy. The order of the techniques varies throughout the interaction. However, the descending
glissando on “blows” is consistent. Considering the preceding repetitive ascending glissandos the downward contour provides a sense of
resolution which is particularly important amongst the ambiguous tonal centre. Thus, Jane consistently achieves some sense of musical
resolution.
Second time:
Fourth time:
In Sleep Baby Sleep Jane maintains a slow tempo of approximately = 54, sings the full duration of note values, breaths during rests to
maintain the temporal flow of the lullaby and maintains a moderately soft dynamic throughout the lullaby. Consistent tempo and dynamic
contributes to the calming environment of a lullaby
The unsuccessful infant-directed speech contains the repetition of the phrase :”ou, ou, ou, ou!”. This phrase contains an “ou” triplet on ‘A#4’
followed by another “ou” a semi-tone lower. The last “ou” is sung with a semi-tone acciaccatura. This unsuccessful structuring attempt then
ends with a descending 4th glissando on “ou”.
EA subscale
Behaviours
Musical elements
Jane follows infant’s vocal communications and responds with an imitative vocalisation ending on the same pitch as infant.
Following child’s
infant’s
interest/desire
Follows infant’s lead
for verbal conversation
293
Following child’s
infant’s
interest/desire
Attempts to structure
vocal play using
infant’s interest in “ou”
after hair grabbing
After observing infant’s positive response to the hair pulling, Jane playfully elaborates upon her “ou” sound to engage Jane in a
conversation. Her elaborations comprise of (1) four “ou”s which are repeated and (2) a long descending 4th glissando. The four “ou”s
comprise of 3short sixteenth note “ou”s. She then descending a semi-tone for the final “ou”. She also embellishes the ending by adding a
semi-tone acciaccatura.
Initial reaction
Elaboration’
Jane asks questions then rests before continuing to speak to provide infant an opportunity to respond.
Infant is treated as an
interactive partner
Jane leaves gaps for
infant to respond to her
speech.
Jane attempts to repeat the song unsuccessfully. When Jane does not respond to infant’s initial signals (wriggling & looking away) infant
starts to lean backwards and cry to indicate intrusiveness.
intrusive
Infant wriggles, looks
away, leans backward
and starts to cry when
Jane repeats the song
for a 4th time
Jane interprets intrusive
via infant-directed
speech.
Characteristics of the phrases include: (1) low speech register, (2) longer note values provide rhythmical emphasis to the words “don’t like
that”, and (3) rising a tone adds extra emphasis to the word “like”. These musical emphases convey Jane’s interpretation i.e. infant no longer
wants or like the Belly Button song. After interpreting infant’s communications Jane considers a different song to sing.
EA subscale
Lacking negativity lack of overt or
covert hostility
Behaviours
Musical elements
Only a few yawns and
sighs observed.
n/a
Lack of mocking –
disrespect
No ridiculing or
disrespect observed
n/a
EA subscale
Behaviours
Musical elements
genuine and
appropriate emotion
relaxed affect
294
intrusive
Parental Non-hostility (high 26)
Child Responsiveness (Borderline mid/high 20)
Vocalisations sound like a mixture of laughing and crying. Characterised by an ascending glissando of varying intervals (2nd – 5th). Two are
clipped short by a staccato. Three are followed by the repetition of ending pitch or minor third interval
Confused sounding
affect/distress
to use resources to
regulate emotions
Juliet becomes still and
silent during moments
of lullaby singing. Only
temporary regulation
Stillness is accompanied by silence (Sleep baby sleep)
Responsiveness –
Likely to respond
Smiling
Responsiveness –
Likely to respond
Giggling
n/a
Responsiveness –
Likely to respond
Imitative vocalisation
Juliet responds to the song by vocalising in a similar pitch to mother’s singing.
295
mixed emotion
EA subscale
Simple initiative
Behaviours
Looking and smiling
for an extended period
of time
Child Involvement (borderline mid/high 20)
Musical elements
296
Juliet vocalises two short sounds to extend the interaction after the Belly Button song finishes
Short vocalisation
behaviours
Whinging and crying
and frequently
n/a
Confused vocalisations are characterised by an ascending glissando usually followed by a repetition of the final glissando pitch or a
descending minor third.
behaviours
Confused
crying/laughing sounds
Tullia and Mark
Tullia scored high, near optimal ratings in each of the parental dimensions
(25.5-27). Mark scored highly for Child Responsiveness (24) but a borderline
mid/high category score for Child Involvement (19.5). Although their scores could
be more ideal, overall, Tullia and Mark appeared to have a generally positive and
emotionally availability relationship (see Chapter 4 for further details). Transcript 1
and 2 examine Tullia and Marks's high Sensitivity, Structuring, Non-Intrusiveness,
Non-Hostility, Child Responsive and Child Involvement during two play song
interactions. Transcript 3 and 4 particularly examines Tullia's high Sensitivity,
Structuring and Non-Hostility and Mark's high Responsiveness (ability to be
regulated) and less-optimal Involvement during two lullaby interactions. See
297
Appendix NN for the full descriptions, transcriptions and music analyses. See Table
56 below for a summary of Tullia and Mark's features of singing interaction.
297
Table 56: Summary of Tullia and Mark's behavioural and musical features as they relate to dimensions of Emotional Availability
EA subscale
Behaviours
Musical elements
Affect –
demonstration of
animation
Open, positive smiley tone is created by smiling while singing (e.g. Open Shut Them & Trot, trot to Boston)
Affect –
demonstration of
animation
Consistently uses a
variety of expressive
techniques in play song
In Open, shut them Tullia sings a large range of expressive techniques e.g. glissando appoggiaturas, accents, mezzo staccatos and tenutos.
The combination of a smiley tone and frequent expressive techniques demonstrate her positive affect and animation
298
Affect –
demonstration of
appropriate
animation
and prompt response
Demonstrates
during lullaby
Tullia acknowledges
and verbalises
interpretation of
infant’s
communications via
Tullia’s intention behind Twinkle, twinkle little star and Cradle Song is to calm infant down. She demonstrates this intention by an
appropriate lack of animation. She (1) maintains a neutral facial expression (as opposed to smiley & excited), (2) sings in a legato vocal
style, (3) sings with a neutral vocal tone, (4) maintains constant dynamic (as opposed to sudden changes) to create sense of safety, and(5)
breathing at the end of each phrase to prevent disruptions to the melodic flow, and (5) where rests are not included in the original notation
(Cradle Song) Tullia consistently shortens the last rhythmic value of each bar. She provides herself an eighth-note rest to breath after each
sub-phrase, thus minimises any disruption to the melodic flow.
Tullia first acknowledges Mark by vocalising a descending 5th glissando “oh”. Then she rises a perfect 4 th to verbalise her interpretation of
the behaviour i.e. infant wants to do something (“what do you wanna do?”) Characteristics include: (1) paired pitches “what do” and
“wanna”, (2) “you” and “do” are emphasised via longer duration and disruption to paired pitches, (3) ending with a descending glissando
and prompt response
Tullia acknowledges
infant by responding
sympathetically via
(Twinkle, twinkle &
Cradle Song)
Sympathetic phrases include: (1) a repetition of pitch followed by a descending glissando (examples show a 7 th, 6th or 4th interval), (2) and a
descending 2nd glissando and (3) held pitch merging into a descending 4 th glissando.
Example 1:
Example 2:
Example 3:
Example 4:
Example 5:
Example 6:
Tullia blows raspberries similarly to Mark (Trot trot to Boston) and verbalises an imitative sympathetic response to negatively involving
vocalisations (Cradle Song).
Example 1:
299
and prompt response
and prompt response
Example 2:
Acknowledges infant
verbal initiations and
respond imitatively
Tullia verbalises her
communications via
Tullia interprets Mark’s communications as a desire for a cuddle. She speaks three phrases, all containing a question. Phrase ‘a’ and ‘a1’ are
characterised by a triplet rhythm repeating the same E4 pitch followed by an ascending intervals to convey the upper inflection of a question.
Phrase ‘a1’ has additional repetition of A4 pitch followed by a descending 7 th interval at the beginning of the phrase. Phrase ‘b’ contains the
fast repetition of G4 pitch followed by a slurred ascending 2 nd to convey an upper inflection.
Interpretation phrase ‘a’
Interpretation phrase ‘a1’
Interpretation phrase ‘b’
This phrase is characterised by the repetition of one pitch using fast sixteenth notes.
300
and prompt response
Tullia verbalises her
suggested response to
infant’s
communications via
and prompt response
distressed
communications by
promptly singing
Twinkle, twinkle, little
star.
General characteristics include: (1) major modality, (2) A-B-A ternary structure, (3) 7-beat phrasing, (4) repetition of paired-paired-pairedsingle pitch pattern, (5) 4/4 meter, (6) consistent moderately fast tempo, (7) legato vocal style, (8) neutral tone of voice, and (9) consistent
moderately loud dynamic.
and prompt response
distressed
communications by
promptly singing
Cradle Song.
General characteristics include: (1) major modality, (2) paired phrasing structure, (3) 2-bar phrases are sung with 1-bar sub-phrases, (4)
minor 3rd interval melodic motif, (5) motif is embellished with melisma, (6) opposing melodic contours distinguish phrase ‘a’ and ‘b’, (7)
4/4 meter, (8) legato vocal style, (9) consistent neutral tone of voice, and (10) consistent moderately soft dynamic.
and prompt response
Chooses to sing Open,
shut them to maintain
infant’s happiness.
Characteristics include: (1) 2/4 meter, (2) 2-phrase per verse structure, (3) repetitive 7-beat (2-bar) phrase length, (4) major modality, (5)
repetitive 4-eighth-note motif containing an ascending major 3rd, descending 2nd, descending 5th, (6) unique tempo for each verse, (7)
different actions/movement for each verse, (8) tempo, melody and expressive techniques match the current movements, (9) sung with a
moderately loud dynamic, and (10) sung with a open smiley tone of voice.
and prompt response
Chooses to sing Trot,
trot to Boston in
behavioural
communications.
Tullia demonstrates
flexibility by altering
the tempo of each verse
of play song
EA subscale
Behaviours
Musical elements
by a rhyme
In Open shut shut each phrase ends with an “ap” (verse 1), “is” (verse 1) or “in” (verse 3) rhyme.
Characteristics include: (1) 4/4 meter, (2) two 2-bar phrasing, (3) use of dotted as opposed to even eighth-notes, (4) major modality, (5)
contrasting melodic contours in phrasing structure (descending versus ascending), (6) sung at a moderately fast tempo of approximately
132, (7) sung at a moderately loud dynamic and (8) sung with an open, positive and smiley tone of voice.
During Open Shut them, each verse is sung at a different tempo. Verse 1 is sung at a slow tempo of approximately
a slightly faster tempo of approximately
= 58. Verse 3 is sung at a moderately fast tempo of approximately
= 80
=
= 54. Verse 2 is sung at
In Trot, trot to Boston, both phrases end with an “in” rhyme (“Lynn” and “in”). The rest of the lyrics avoid this sound (e.g. “ot”, “aye” and
“all” sounds). The contrast draws attention to the rhyme which clealry marks the end of the phrase. Also, the two prhases are separated by a
quarter-note rest. The audible gap clearly indicates the end of phrsae ‘a’.
by rhythmic elements
and “in” rhyme
by rhythmic and
melodic elements
In Open shut shut each phrase begins with the same 4-eighth-note melodic motif and is followed by a quarter-note rest. The repetitive
melody and audible gap at the end of the phrase clearly define the boundary of each phrase.
Phrase ‘a’ comprises of a descending melodic contour, prhase ‘b’ comprises of an ascending meldoic contour and ascending glissadnos. The
oppositional melodic content distinguishes the two prhases.
301
The phrasing of play
song is clearly
distinguished by
contrasting melodic
contour
Phrasing of the lullaby
is clearly shaped by
rhyme
Phrase ‘a’
Phrase ‘b’
In Twinkle, twinkle little star, each section cpmtains 2-phrases. Both phrases end on either an “eye”, “are”, “on” or “ite” rhyme
In Cradle Song, phrase ‘a’ and ‘b’ both end on the dominant which is resolved at the end of the proceeding phrase. The melodic resolution
occurs at the same time as the “arm” lyrics (“arms” or “harm”).
Paired phrasing
structure of the lullaby
is clearly shaped
melodic resolution and
rhyme
Verse structure of the
play song is clearly
shaped by contrasting
rhymes and resolution
to the tonic.
Each verse of Open, shut them contains a different rhyme. Verse 1 phrases end an “ap” rhyme (“clap” and “lap”). Verse 2 phrases end with
an “in” rhyme “ (“chin” and “in”). Verse 3 phrases end with an “is” rhyme (“this” and “kiss”). These changes distinguish each verse and
therefore help to clairfy the verse structure of the song. The verse structure is also shaped by melodic tension and resolution. Phrase ‘a’ ends
with an ascending stepwise melodic contour and an unresolved dominant pitch. Phrase ‘a1’ ends with the resolving downward melodic
contour ending on the tonic. The symmetrical up-down melodic shape and the resolution to the tonic provide a sense of completion and
finality.
Phrase ‘a’
Phrase ‘a1’
302
Twinkle, twinkle little star contains 2 sections. Section A is characterised by melodic resolution and balance. The first phrase rises to the
dominant which is resolved at the end of the second phrase. Also, the melody in each phrase rises and falls a similar intervallic range over
the same duration, therefore creating a sense of melodic symmetry or balance. Section contains contains the repetition of a downward
melodic phrase which ends on the super-tonic. Therefore, Section B is characterised by umblance and tension or lack of melodic resolution.
The contrasting elements clearly distinguish the two sections and emphasise the ‘home-away-home’ juxtaposition of ternary form.
Section A (resolution / ‘home’):
Ternary structure of
lullaby is clearly
distinguished by
melodic tension and
resolution.
Phrase ‘a’
Phrase ‘b’
Section B (tension / ‘away’):
Phrase ‘b1’
Phrase ‘b1’
Each phrase in the play song, Open shut them is 7 quarter-beats in length. Such repetition creates expectancy and predictability
within the lullaby
Each phrase in Twinkle, twinkle little star is 7 quarter-beats in length followed by a quarter-note rest. Each phrase also contains the same
pitch pattern: paired-paired-paired-single. Constant repetition expectancy and predictability which contributes to the feeling of safety.
within the lullaby
Each phrase in Cradle Song is 2 bars long. Each phrase also comprises of two 3.5 beat (2-bar) followed by an eighth-note rest. The rhythmic
constancy and repetition creates predictability which contributes to the feeling of safety.
Verse 2 of Open, shut them has a unique ending. The last 3-beats of the ending phrase are sung at a very fast tempo (more than double
previous speed). To anticipate this stark change Tullia uses temporal flexibility via two pauses: (1) she breaths with animation (wide open
mouth) and a pause, then (2) she sings a short staccato at a higher pitch than the rest of the song (Ab4) with an accent and a pause. These
obvious changes capture the listener’s attention and indicate that something different is approaching.
Anticipates unique
ending of verse 2 of
play song
303
During Trot, trot to Boston, Tullia uses contrasting rhythmic elements and expressive techniques to anticipate the “in” motion. She suddenly
elongates the note duration (from quarter-note to half-note) and sings ascending glissandos with a pause. Also, singing two (instead of one)
glissando and pause extends and enhances the anticipation.
ending of play song
Tullia consistently ends Trot, trot to Boston with a descending 3rd interval in a higher register to the rest of the song
Ending (first time):
Ending (second time):
end of play song
Movements match the lyrics as well as the pulse of the meter e.g. in verse 1 the feet come together at the same time as Tullia sings “in” and
each downward motion of the shaking action occur on the word “shake”.
Verse 1:
Verse 3:
Congruence of
304
Bouncing movement matches the metric pulse and rhythm of the melody.
Congruence of
Patting is executed in various rhythms but always in synchrony with the metric pulse.
Congruence of
Tullia varies the melody to better dramatise/mimic the arm rolling movement. She adds upper and lower glissando appogiaturas on “roll”.
By sliding up and down the pitch she mimics a smooth rolling motion.
Congruence of
305
Uses expresssive techniques to dramatise actions/movements e.g. in Verse 3 each accented beat coincides with the word “shake”. The
‘heaveniess’ of the accent mimics the heaviness of the downward shaking action. In verse 2, each word “creep them ...” is sung with a
tenuto. The constant of holding the full note value mimics the ver-onward motion of wriggling fingers creeping up the infant’s body.
Verse 2:
Verse 3:
Congruence of
Congruence of
Tempo changes in Open Shut them better match Tullia’s movements e.g. in verse 2 the slightly faster tempo allows Tullia to creep fingers
from infant’s toes to chin for the same duration as the concurrent melodic phrase.
to relaxation while
singing lullabies
During Twinkle, twinkle little star Tullia maintains a moderately fast tempo of = 132, moderately loud dynamic and calm neutral tone of
voice throughout the song. The constancy (lack of sudden changes) of these elements encourages infant to relax.
EA subscale
Following child’s
infant’s
interest/desire
Behaviours
Desires to follow infant
cues by suggesting
Open shut them when
infant appears ready for
a play song.
Musical elements
When infant appears ready for a play song Tullia asks, “ready?” Characteristics include: slurred phrasing, ascending 3 rd intervals, final
slurred interval conveys upper inflection of a question.
Tullia asks, “ready?” by verbalising two ascending 2 nd intervals. The final slurred interval conveys the upper inflection of a question.
Following child’s
infant’s
interest/desire
Verbalises desire for
infant cues to determine
if ready for a play song
Tullia asks, “Again?” Characterised by an ascending perfect 4 th interval.
306
Following child’s
infant’s
interest/desire
Seeks infant’s lead.
Incorporates raspberry into the play song
Following child’s
infant’s
interest/desire
Incorporates infant’s
interest into activity
EA subscale
Behaviours
Musical elements
Minimal negativity
observed
n/a
No ridiculing or
disrespect observed
n/a
lack of overt or
covert hostility
Lack of mocking –
disrespect
Child Responsiveness (High 24)
EA subscale
Behaviours
Musical elements
genuine and
appropriate emotion
relaxed affect
Negatively involving vocalisations continue until the end of repeated verse 1. Characteristics of vocal negative affect include: (1) open and
closed mouth sounds, (2) slurred phrases, (2) sliding to/from pitches via a glissando, (3) neighbour-note motifs, (4) oscillation motifs, (5)
range of rhythms, and (6) phrases ending with a descending glissando.
Has some difficulty
regulating emotions and
vocally expresses
unhappy sounds
(Twinkle, twinkle)
to use resources to
regulate emotions
Vocally expresses
distress and
unhappiness (Cradle
Song)
Example 1:
Example 2:
Example 3:
Example 4:
307
to use resources to
regulate emotions
Negatively involving vocalisations contain two common elements: use of glissandi and melodic oscillations.
Responsiveness –
Likely to respond
Responsiveness –
Likely to respond
Example 1:
Example 2:
Smiling
Blowing raspberries
Raspberry sound
EA subscale
Behaviours
Child Involvement (Borderline mid/high 19 -20)
Musical elements
Simple initiative
Looking and smiling
Example 3:
Characteristics of Mark’s positive vocalisations include: (1) blowing raspberries of various lengths, (2) lower neighbour-note motif
vocalised with a descending glissando and slurred interval, (3) descending tri-tone glissando, (4) short single pitch.
Simple initiative
Simple initiative
Positive verbal
involvement
Frequent negatively
involving vocalisations
(open-mouth unhappy
sounds/whines)
Characteristics of Mark’s open-mouth vocalisations include: (1) slurred phrases, (2) some single pitch phrases, (3) phrases ending with a
quick descending glissando, (4) melodic contour that rises and falls between small intervals (mostly 2nds and 3rds), (5) sliding to/from
pitches via a glissando, (6) neighbour-note motifs, (7) oscillation motifs, and (8) range of rhythms.
Example 1:
Example 2:
Example 3:
Example 4:
308
Characteristics of Mark’s closed-mouth vocalisations during Twinkle, twinkle little star include: (1) phrases ending with a descending
glissando, (2) neighbour-note motifs, (3) sliding to/from notes via a glissando, (4) sustaining one pitch before merging into a glissando, and
(5) slurred phrases.
Simple initiative
Frequent negatively
(closed-mouth unhappy
sounds/whines)
Example 1:
Example 2:
Example 3:
Example 4:
Characteristics of Mark’s vocalisations during Cradle song include: (1) both open and closed mouth sounds, (2) minor 3 rd glissandi
oscillations, (3) small and large intervallic glissandi that both ascend and descend (2 nd – 13th interval), (4) neighbour-note motif merging into
descending glissando, (5) incomplete neighbour-note motif, (6) single short pitch, (7) screechy and non-screechy tone, (8) slurred phrases.
Simple initiative
Expresses negatively
Vocalisation 1:
Vocalisation 2:
Vocalisation 3:
Vocalisation 4:
Vocalisation 5:
309
Discussion
This discussion focuses on the key features of the findings of the
transcriptional music analysis. It contains three parts. Part 1 focuses on the potential
arousal functions of play songs and lullabies. Part 2 summarises the distinctive
characteristics of play songs and lullabies and compares the findings to previous
research. The importance of expressing stereotypical 'play song' or 'lullaby'
characteristics to facilitate emotional availability is particularly considered. Part 3
outlines five key aspects of the mothers' emotional availability and explains the need
to explicate the musical principles underlying the mothers' interactions.
Arousal functions of play songs and lullabies
Papoušek (1996) has shown that certain melodic contours in infant-directed
speech are used specifically to fulfil distinct arousal functions. As shown in the
Figure 11, steep descending contours mark the highest level of arousal and provide a
warning or prohibition whereas smooth, slowly descending contours are used to
sooth and comfort the infant. The rising and falling contours in infant-directed
speech and song are very similar in German, French and Russian (Falk, 2011) and in
the current study it is also shown that English speech and song share common
melodic contour characteristics for the purpose of increasing or diminishing infant
arousal.
310
Figure 11 - The contour form and function in infant-directed speech according to Papoušek (1996),
presented by Falk (2011)
The play songs and lullabies also contain many of the melodic contours
typically found in infant-directed speech (M. Papoušek, 1996). As shown in Table
57, Going to the moon and Acka Backa contain frequent occurrences of contours that
arouse and elicit attention from the infant. In play songs, these contours tend to occur
one after another during the last phrase of the song when mothers anticipate an
exciting ending. Similarly, Hush-a-bye, Sleep Baby Sleep and Twinkle Twinkle
contain many falling contours that diminish arousal. However, the contours are not
restricted to the end of the lullaby, instead, they occur throughout the lullaby.
311
Table 57: Summary of the occurrences of pitch contour associated with increasing arousal in play
songs
Table 58: Summary of the occurrences of pitch contour associated with decreasing arousal in lullabies
Clearly, play songs contain many of the arousing contours and lullabies the
soothing contours identified by Papoušek (1996) in infant-directed speech, which
suggests that infant-directed speech and mothers' singing express emotional
312
messages in a similar fashion. In other words, infant-directed speech and singing
may be viewed as siblings of emotional communication (Creighton, 2011; Longhi,
2009; Trehub, Hill, et al., 1997) as both share the same functional roots and basic
musical makeup. The occurrence of such clear and noticeable similarities between
speech and song warrants further investigation. Perhaps a systematic, thorough and
quantitative approach would reveal more similarities between song and speech in
regard to arousal and other communicative functions (Falk, 2011). Further research
could also identify and explain the functions of other melodic shapes that are present
in songs (e.g. a reverse bell shape) and establish a new list of melodic contours
specific to play songs and lullabies. Although it is beyond the scope of this study,
such research would expand current understanding of the similarities between song
and speech and the arousal functions that they perform.
Distinctive characteristics of play songs and lullabies
Previous research shows that the distinctive characteristics of play songs and
lullabies serve particular communicative and arousal purposes (Rock, et al., 1999;
Trainor, 1996; Trehub & Schellenberg, 1995). Exploration of the distinctive
characteristics of the analysed play songs and lullabies may reveal further insights
into how play songs and lullabies facilitate emotional communication.
The music analyses demonstrate that play songs and lullabies have a mixture
of shared and distinguishing musical characteristics. A table summarising the
common characteristics of the analysed play songs and lullabies, as well as the
differences between the two styles of song, is presented in Table 59 below:
313
Table 59 - Common musical characteristics of the analysed play songs and lullabies
COMMON PLAYSONG CHARACTERISTICS
(1)
An ‘even’ metre or at least containing 2 main
beats such as 4/4, 2/4 and 6/8,
(2)
Repetitive phrasing length,
(3)
Long-short dotted rhythms as opposed to even
eighth notes,
(4)
Phrases marked by rhyme,
(5)
An open, positive ‘smiley’ tone of voice,
(6)
‘Smiley’ tone of voice is accompanied by
animated facial expressions,
(7)
Temporal flexibility, particularly at the end of
the song,
(8)
Separated or mezzo-staccato style of singing,
and
(9)
Absence of melismas
(10) Use of expressive techniques such as
glissandos
COMMON LULLABY CHARACTERISTICS
(1)
An ‘even’ metre or at least containing 2 main
beats such as 4/4, 2/4 and 6/8,
(2)
Repetitive phrasing length,
(3)
ABA ternary structure,
(4)
Even as opposed to dotted rhythms,
(5)
Phrases marked by rhyme,
(6)
Use of a neutral tone of voice,
(7)
A rest occurs after each phrase to provide
time to breathe while maintaining temporal
flow,
(8)
Minor 3rd melodic motif,
(9)
Repetitive rhythmic patterns, and
(10)
Use of melismas
(11)
Absence of or few expressive techniques
As shown in Table 59by underlining, three musical characteristics are shared
by both play songs and lullabies. Both types of songs tend to have ‘even’ metres or
metres containing two main beats such as 4/4, 2/4 and 6/8. Both contain repetitive
phrasing lengths (e.g. each phrase is 7-beats long) and phrases marked by rhyme.
This suggests the sense of metric symmetry (‘even’ metre), clear phrasing structures
and predictability created by rhythmic repetition are important components of infantdirected songs. In other words, whether fulfilling an arousing or soothing function,
these structural and temporal components of singing may serve a particular
communicative purpose.
It is possible that these common elements help the infant to process a musical
event and create musical expectancies. Longhi (2009) found that mothers emphasise
the hierarchical structure of play songs through multimodal sensory information. For
example, mothers lengthened the duration of the last beat of the phrase (upbeat) and
combined this with gestural behaviours. It is believed that these emphases help the
infant to process and segment the musical event into smaller units, thus enabling
them to synchronise to the beat of the mother’s singing. Thus, the following may be
314
proposed: (1) the metrical symmetry of ‘even’ metres may allow for easier temporal
segmentation than ‘uneven’ metres, (2) the consistent rhythmic repetition, which
creates predictability, also encourages an expectation for phrases to end, and (3) the
use of rhyme accentuates the proceeding upbeat or makes it more noticeable. If these
proposals are correct, then the combination of ‘even’ metre, rhythmic predictability
and rhyme create expectancy for the upbeat. This expectancy may in turn, encourage
the infant to better attend to the upbeat and synchronise to the mother on the first
beat of the next phrase.
Also shown in Table 59, are five areas where play songs and lullabies
demonstrate oppositional or distinctive characteristics: (1) play songs were sung with
a ‘smiley’ tone of voice, lullabies were sung with a neutral tone of voice, (2) play
songs tended to contain long-short dotted rhythms, lullabies tend to contain even
rhythms, (3) play songs tended to have an absence of melisma whereas lullabies
occasionally contain melismas, (4) play songs were sung in a separated or mezzostaccato-like style whereas lullabies were sung with a smooth legato style, and (5)
play songs tended to contain expressive techniques whereas lullabies tended to have
an absence of expressive techniques. This combination of opposing characteristics
appears to clearly distinguish the two types of songs.
It is interesting to note the similarities of these findings to previous research
(Rock, et al., 1999; Trainor, 1996; Trehub & Schellenberg, 1995). For example Rock
et. al (1999) found that the ‘smiley’ tone and rhythmic or rhythmically clipped style
distinguishes play songs from lullabies. Similarly, the present study identified the
‘smiley tone’ of voice, absence of melismas, and separated/mezzo-staccato singing
style to be distinctive characteristics of play songs. Rock et. al (1999) also found that
exaggerated lyric rhythms distinguish play songs from lullabies. In the present study,
315
the lyrics and metric emphasis of syllables in play songs were found to match the
stress-timed nature of the English language. If “exaggerated lyrics” refers to
rhythmic matching of a particular language in speech and song, then the findings of
this study further support her findings.
It is also interesting to note that there are differences between the current
findings and previous research. For example, the present study found distinguishing
characteristics that have not previously been found including: metre, modality, the
use of expressive techniques, temporal flexibility at the end of songs and the use of
long-short dotted rhythms. The present study also found disparate characteristics for
lullabies. For example, Rock et. al (1999) found that the rhythmic character of the
lullabies is determined by accompanying rocking or swaying movements. However,
this study did not find that most mothers sang according to the rhythm of their
movement. Instead, mothers tended to exaggerate the melodic phrases by employing
temporal flexibility such as pausing on the last note of a slur (see Appendix JJ and
NN). This suggests that it is smooth legato phrasing and temporal flow that
determines the rhythmic characteristic of lullabies rather than the accompanying
movement. Additionally, Rock et. al (1999) found that a breathy tone of voice
distinguished lullabies from play songs. However, the mothers in this study mostly
used a neutral tone of voice that was not necessarily breathier than their play song
singing.
The inconsistency of findings concerning the tone of voice may be caused by
Rock et. al (1999) using a microphone placed close to the mother's mouth. In the
present study however, the mother’s voice was recorded via video camcorders placed
in various corners of the room and quite distant from the mother’s mouth. Therefore,
the quality of the mother’s timbre in the present study may not have been captured to
316
the same detail and richness as found in Rock, et. al (1999). Microphones were
purposefully kept away from the mothers so as not to disrupt the naturalistic context
for the study and allow as much freedom of movement as possible.
The above inconsistency should challenge researchers to consider what is
really important to mother-infant singing interaction. Is it actually necessary to have
a breathy tone of voice to successfully soothe an infant? While it might help, it
appears not to be necessary. Mothers who used a neutral tone of voice like Alice and
Skye scored very highly in the Emotional Availability Scales despite the lack of
breathiness in their voices. The commonality between these mothers was the
demonstration of congruence and an emotionally enveloping quality to their singing.
This included multiple factors such as the absence of animation and the absence of
the ‘smiley’ tone (i.e. use of the neutral tone of voice), smooth legato style of
singing, breathing in-between phrases to maintain temporal flow and maintaining the
same tempo and dynamic. The use of or absence of a breathy tone therefore, does not
appear to be essential to facilitating emotional communication via lullaby singing.
What is important is the congruence between the soothing intention and the musical
expression of this intention. Thus, the absence of some play song-associated
characteristics or lullaby-associated characteristics does not necessarily impinge on
emotional communication. Or, mere replication of play song and lullaby-associated
characteristics does not seem to be the key to optimal singing interaction but rather
the use of principles of musical interaction which provide a foundation for optimal
emotional communication.
Key features of singing interactions
The purpose of the music analysis was to determine how mothers facilitate
varying degrees of emotional availability by singing. In other words, the purpose was
317
to answer “what is a mother doing musically to score a higher or lower score in
sensitivity, structuring, non-intrusiveness and non-hostility?” The six cases studies
described the multiple processes that are involved in facilitating emotional
availability and drawn from these case studies are five important aspects of the
mothers' singing interactions.
Firstly, the mothers personalised songs. For example, Going to the moon was
used by four mothers and each version of the song was unique. Mothers sang slightly
different melodies and combinations of expressive techniques as well as at different
tempos and tonal centres. The fact that the mother’s individualised songs
demonstrates the personal nature of singing. Also, considering that singing may be a
mode of positive projective identification, which is a unique kind of personal
expression, the individualism of singing songs conveys the communicative nature of
singing; play songs and lullabies are not a formula or precious piece of art to be
replicated exactly with each performance, rather they are a means of communicating
and expressing oneself on an interpersonal level.
Secondly, the context (i.e. the present situation and the nature of the
relationship in that situation) is determinant. Emotional availability is not about
replicating a stylistic characteristic or using a certain ‘formula’. Instead, the
theoretical framework outlines the core principles of emotional communication. For
example, the concept and implementation of Sensitivity is entirely dependent on how
the dyad interacts during the current situation. The very different way in which Alice
and Skye’s sang Going to the moon highlights this point (see Appendix II and JJ).
Alice sang with great energy, excitement and playfulness by alternating between two
contrasting movements, tempos and vocal styles. Skye on the other hand
demonstrated restrained animation within the constraints of a slower and more
318
constant tempo. Yet, Skye was not scored lower on the Sensitivity scale. It appears
the reason lies in the communicative purpose of the singing. Alice and infant Cindy
had only just started the video session and Cindy was happy, energetic and playful.
Skye and Marley on the other hand were at the end of the session and Marley was
showing signs of tiredness. In other words, Alice was maintaining Cindy’s level of
energy and happiness whereas Skye was modulating Marley’s tiredness while
preventing overstimulation. Both reflected their intentions in the manner of their
singing. The specific situation in which the interaction occurs must be considered to
appropriately adapt songs, modify singing style and attune to the infant’s cues and
signals. In other words, the sensitive use of songs requires a particular attitude: songs
are not inflexible pieces of art. Rather they are vehicles of communication in
response to the present moment.
Thirdly, the variation within and between the six cases reiterates the fact that
the act of singing songs does not necessarily equate to optimal interaction. For
example, some interactions were successful, others less so. Some mothers
demonstrated genuine and consistently positive affect, others were bland or over-thetop. Some mothers maintained a strong tonal centre, others did not. Such variation in
the sample supports that there is no ‘formula’ for communicating through the
medium of song to guarantee optimal emotional availability. Indeed, it is about
aligning your singing to the infant's mood and arousal state.
Fourthly, seemingly small differences in behaviour noticeably impact the
degree of emotional availability. A comparison between Skye and Jane highlights
this point. Skye employed preventive structuring techniques when singing Going to
the moon and was consequently rated as highly non-intrusive, highly successful in
structuring and highly sensitive. Jane however, did not employ preventative
319
structuring when singing Belly Button and was rated as less sensitive, less successful
with structuring and less non-intrusive. During this interaction, because Juliet
initially showed so much enjoyment of Belly Button, Jane continued to repeat the
song, even when Juliet’s interest was diminishing. Subsequently, Juliet began to cry,
turn away and squirm and it was only then that she stopped. This example shows the
importance of acting immediately to subtle cues and being proactive rather than
reactive, can noticeably impact the quality of interactions.
Fifthly, two types of musical features emerge in the analyses: inherent and
implemented. Features that are inherent to the musical composition include: the
placement of rhyme at the end of a phrase, the use of melodic tension and resolution
to distinguish Section A and B and the melody itself, all of which were determined
by the composer. The second type of feature is implemented by the mother in
response to her infant. For example, the use of repetitive glissandos is added by the
mother, rather than composed. Thus, the dimensions of Emotional Availability are
facilitated by a combination of inherent and implemented features of interaction.
Differentiating the two is imperative to better understand the musical processes
involved in facilitating optimal and less-optimal singing interactions.
In sum, the case studies have revealed at least five components that contribute
to optimal and less-optimal singing interactions within the Emotional Availability
framework. However, while these components are important insights they do not
resolve the original question, “in what ways do mothers sing songs to facilitate
varying degrees and qualities of emotional availability?” The resolution of this
question necessitates the explication of musical principles underlying the mothers'
singing as they relate to optimal and less-optimal Emotional Availability.
320
SECTION 2 - DERIVING THE MUSICAL PRINCIPLES
The process of deriving the musical principles involved comparing the
behavioural and musical features of each Emotional Availability dimension across
the six cases. Characteristics of very high or near perfect scoring (optimal) or
lower/mid scoring (less optimal) emotional availability were then identified. These
characteristics are summarised in separate tables according to the Emotional
Availability dimension they relate to then further divided according to more specific
attributes or subscales of each dimension (Biringen, 2008b). The musical principles
of optimal and less-optimal emotional availability are discussed in relation to
whether the principle is (1) inherent to the musical composition, or (2) implemented
by the mothers. The findings of this comparison and extraction are presented below.
Parental Sensitivity
As shown in Table 60, the behavioural and musical features of Sensitivity
relate to parental response to cues and signals, parental affect and flexibility. In
regard to responding to cues, optimal singing was characterised by congruence.
Whether the intention was to arouse or soothe, optimal singing was characterised by
appropriate choice and deliverance of play song or lullaby repertoire according to the
infant's needs. Flexibility was an important component of congruence and the
appropriate deliverance of a song.
In regard to maternal affect, mothers rated with very high sensitivity used a
'smiley' tone of voice while appropriately singing play songs. Creating this tone
requires the actual 'smiling' of the facial muscles. Thus, creating a 'smiley' tone
demonstrated both vocal affect and facial animation. What distinguished high and
321
lower/mid degrees of sensitive was the absence of the 'smiley' tone or the use of a
bland vocal tone and affect during playful singing interactions.
As shown in Table 61, two inherent musical principles of optimal Sensitivity
were extracted from the analysis but no inherent principles of less-optimal sensitivity
were identified. Three implemented musical principles of optimal sensitivity and
three implemented principles of less optimal sensitivity were also extracted from the
analysis.
Table 60: Summary of the behavioural and musical features of optimal and less-optimal Sensitivity
during singing interaction.
EA quality
Affect (positive
emotion)
PARENTAL SENSITIVITY DIMENSION
High scoring or optimal qualities and characteristics

Consistent open, positive ‘smiley’ tone of voice

Consistent use of expressive techniques throughout a song e.g. glissando,
vibrato/pulsating effect combined with glissando, accent, mezzo staccato, tenuto,
appoggiaturas and glissandos
Demonstrates intention to modulate emotions and produces behavioural and musical
congruence to achieve modulation.
Common characteristics of calming intention: absence of animation, neutral facial
expression and tone of voice, legato vocal style, rests are used for breathing purposes
only to maintain temporal flow, maintains dynamic and tempo.
Characteristics of arousal/happy intention: consistent use of animation, ‘smiley’ tone
of voice, expressive techniques, separated/detached non-legato vocal style,
moderately loud dynamic.
Characteristics of merging from a calming intention into arousal/happy intention (1
case example only): increase in tempo, merges from legato style to mezzo-staccato
style, merges from neutral tone to smiley tone of voice, straight to dotted eighth-notes,
moderately soft to moderately loud
Acknowledges infant communications via imitative IDS 36. Characteristics include:
similar descending contour/interval/glissando, similar pitch and duration and
reproduction of raspberry sound
Acknowledges infant’s distress by responding sympathetically via IDS. Common
characteristics include: descending glissandos (all under an 8 ve), descending slurred
intervals (under an 8ve), long pitch followed by descending interval, questions
containing small 2nd or 3rd intervals, questions ending with a small ascending interval
or upper inflection and slurred phrases.
Other acknowledgement phrases (not necessarily sympathetic or imitative) include the
following characteristics: verbalising oppositional elements to infant, questions that
contain small intervals and end with either an ascending or descending interval
Verbalises interpretation of infant communication via IDS. Common characteristics of
speech include: Keywords emphasised via accents, elongation and rise in pitch, small
ascending intervals (under a 5th), questions containing small 2nd and 3rd intervals,
questions ending with ascending or descending interval/glissando, and repetition of
pitches.
Verbalises intended response to infant (before singing a song). Common
characteristics of speech include: repetition of pitch, ending with an ascending or
descending interval (under an 8ve), mostly small intervals and keywords emphasised
via accents.
Responds appropriately to infant communications and responses by
singing/continuing a lullaby. Lullaby successfully calms distress. Common
Affect (animation)


Affect
(demonstration of
emotion and
animation)


Response to cues
and signals


Response to cues
and signals
Response to cues
and signals


Response to cues
and signals

Response to cues
and signals
Response to cues
and signals
36

IDS is an abbreviation for infant-directed speech and used throughout this chapter
322
Response to cues
and signals
Flexibility
Sub-scale
Affect (positive
emotion)
Affect (animation)
characteristics of a lullaby include: ABA ternary structure, neutral tone of voice,
consistent tempo, consistent dynamic, legato style, breathing during rests to maintain
temporal flow, major modality, 4/4 metre, minor 3rd melodic motif, repetitive phrasing
length, repetitive rhythmic patterns, an ‘even’ metre or at least containing 2 main
beats such as 4/4, 2/4 and 6/8, and phrases end with rhyme.

Responds appropriately to infant communications and responses by
singing/continuing a play song. Play song successfully modulates/maintains infant
emotion and arousal. Common characteristics include: even meter (4/4 or 2/4),
repetitive phrasing length, smiley tone of voice, phrasing marked by rhyme and dotted
rhythms, major modality.

Employs temporal flexibility while singing and stops mid-phrase or song to respond
to infant
Lower/mid scoring or less optimal qualities and characteristics

Merging out of ‘smiley’ tone into bland/neutral or over-the-top screechy tone.

Affect
(demonstration of
emotion and
animation)
Response to cues
and signals

Response to cues
and signals

Flexibility


Degree of animation fluctuates e.g. temporary increases in animation via expressive
and melodic features such as: accelerando, merging into chant-like IDS, accenting
each beat, crescendo, glissando, pause, rise in pitch.
Mostly bland i.e. no variety is demonstrated to indicate an intentional change in
behaviour to achieve modulation.
Verbalises difficulty in interpreting infant or verbalises uncertainty of current
interpretation. Common characteristics of speech include: accents on keywords,
repetition of pitch, ending with an upper inflection, use of small intervals.
Inappropriately chooses a chant/rhyme to settle infant. Characteristics include: 2/4
meter, moderately fast tempo, combining bouncing and leaning movements in
synchrony to the pulse. These characteristics were overstimulating
Absence of or limited flexibility demonstrated.
Sensitivity during singing interaction.
INHERENT PRINCIPLES
Optimal interactions
1.
2.
In relation to appropriately choosing a lullaby to soothe distress or
negative emotional states, common compositional characteristics
of the chosen lullabies include: ABA ternary structure, resting after
each phrase to provide time to breathe, major modality, 4/4 meter,
minor 3rd melodic motif, repetitive phrasing length creates
predictability, repetitive rhythmic patterns, an ‘even’ metre or at
least containing 2 main beats such as 4/4, 2/4 and 6/8, use of even
as opposed to dotted rhymes, phrases that end with rhyme and use
of melisma.
In relation to appropriately choosing a play song to
sustain/enhance infant happiness and capture/sustain infant
attention, common compositional characteristics of the chosen play
songs include: ‘even’ meter such as 4/4 or 2/4, or at least
containing two main beats such as 6/8, repetitive phrasing length,
long-short dotted rhythms (not even eighth-notes), phrasing
marked by rhyme, a major modality, and absence of melisma.
Less-optimal
None extracted
IMPLEMENTED PRINCIPLES
1.
Maintain a genuine (not over-the-top) open, positive, ‘smiley’ tone
of voice during play songs (and playful) interactions. Mothers who
merged in and out of the smiley tone received a lower sensitivity
score.
1.
2.
2. Be clear in your intention (demonstrate congruence). If you intend
to calm your baby down, then reduce animation, maintain a neutral
facial expression and tone of voice, use rests to breathe (maintain
temporal flow), sing in a legato style and prioritise phrasing and
323
3.
Less-optimal
Maintain a mostly bland affect
and do not demonstrate much
animation.
Execute an inappropriate
choice of play song/lullaby
according to infant’s needs and
arousal/distress level
Absence of or limited
smoothness. If you intend to be playful then maintain animation,
maintain a smiley tone of voice and sing in a more separated
mezzo staccato style.
flexibility
3. Employ temporal flexibility while singing
Parental Structuring
As shown in Table 62, the behavioural and musical features of Structuring
primarily relate to positive scaffolding. About half of the findings are inherent to the
music composition and half are implemented. In regard to positive scaffolding
inherent to the composition, optimal singing was characterised by clear and
consistent phrasing. In regard to positive scaffolding implemented by the mothers,
optimal singing was characterised by creating anticipation and employing
preventative structuring. Mothers who scored lower in structuring demonstrated an
absence of anticipation.
As shown in Table 63, seven inherent musical principles of optimal
structuring were extracted from the analysis and no inherent principles of lessoptimal sensitivity were identified. Eleven implemented musical principles of
optimal structuring and one implemented principle of less optimal structuring was
also extracted from the analysis.
Table 62: Summary of the behavioural and musical features of optimal and less-optimal Structuring
Sub-scale
Inherent positive
scaffolding
Inherent positive
scaffolding
Inherent positive
scaffolding
Inherent positive
scaffolding
Inherent positive
scaffolding
Inherent positive
PARENTAL STRUCTURING DIMENSION
All phrases, pairs of phrases or sectional phrases (e.g. each verse) end with the same vowel
sound or rhyme. Usually the other lyrics contain contrasting vowels and therefore make the
rhyme more noticeable, thus marking the end of phrases and sections.
Phrasing is shaped by beginning each phrase with the same lyric
Phrasing is shaped by consistent repetition a particular melodic contour e.g. rising and/or
falling to the tonic, symmetry and sequential rise
Phrasing is shaped by consistently beginning each phrase with the same melodic motif
Structural changes are distinguished by contrasting melodic contour, rhythm, melodic
motif/intervals, movement and disrupting a previous rhythmic pattern
Verse/sectional structure is shaped by melodic tension and resolution (i.e. returning to tonic
324
scaffolding
Inherent positive
scaffolding
at the end of the verse or with the return of ‘home’ section)
Predictability is created by constant repetition of: (1) phrase length e.g. 7-beats, (2) rhythm,
(4) rhythmic/phrasing pattern e.g. short-short-long, (5) pitch patterns e.g. paired-pairedpaired-single, and (6) rhythmic alternation (a-b-a-b)
Inherent/
implemented
positive
scaffolding
Phrasing is indicated by consistently resting at the end of a phrase. Some rests are inherent
to the song others are created by clipping the last note of the phrase short to provide time to
breath.
Inherent/
implemented
positive
scaffolding
Consistently indicates: (1) ending of song with a descending or ascending glissando, (2)
ending with tonic-dominant-tonic melody, (3) last phrase by beginning the phrase with
oppositional melodic contour e.g. descending interval instead of previous ascending, (4)
last phrase by changing pitch, melodic contour and temporal content, (5) last phrase by
adding expressive techniques, (6) last phrase by changing the pitch, melodic contour and
melodic style e.g. arpeggiato to step-wise, (7) the end of each verse by ending with melodic
resolution e.g. leading tone to tonic, and (8) ending of song by repetitive use of small
descending interval.
Inherent/
implemented
positive
scaffolding
Implemented
positive
scaffolding
Implemented
positive
scaffolding
Implemented
positive
scaffolding
Implemented
positive
scaffolding
Implemented
positive
scaffolding
Implemented
preventative
scaffolding
Sub-scale
Inherent/
implemented
positive
scaffolding
Implemented
positive
scaffolding
Creates an enveloping quality to interaction by maintaining tempo and dynamic, neutral
tone of voice and legato flow (avoids sudden changes)
Consistently anticipates: (1) first phrase (beginning of song) with animated inhalation, (2)
last phrase with animated inhalation, (3) ending of song with ascending glissandi and/or
rhythmic elongation, and (4) each phrase with animated inhalation
Enhances anticipation of final phrase by extending pause and freezing animation
Extends anticipation of ending by repetitive use of ascending glissandos and pauses
Teases infant by creating and disrupting musical expectancy
Congruence of movement and singing is created by: (1) matching movement to metric
pulse or rhythm of the melody, (2) matching the cessation of movement with rhythmic
rests, and (3) dramatising action via pitch glissandos, tenutos and accents.
Preventative scaffolding is creating by alternating between two contrasting movements and
being animated within constrained boundaries e.g. being animated in voice within a soft
dynamic and slow tempo
Slightly inconsistent in indicating ending of song e.g. swapping order of glissando and
animated inhalation and changing expressive techniques.
Absence of anticipation e.g. merging straight into a song with no introduction or
preparation.
Structuring during singing interaction.
INHERENT PRINCIPLES
1.
2.
3.
4.
Use rhyme to mark the end of phrases, verses or sections. Highlight
the rhyme with contrasting vowels to make the rhyme more noticeable
and phrasing/structure clearer.
Use the same lyric or melodic motif to mark the beginning of each
phrase.
Consistently repeat a particular melodic contour to shape a phrase e.g.
rising and/or falling to the tonic, symmetry or sequential rise.
Consistently rest at the end of a phrase to clearly mark the end of one
phrase and the beginning of the next. This is also important to provide
space to breathe without disrupting temporal flow.
325
Less-optimal
None extracted
5.
6.
Distinguish sections by contrasting melodic contour, rhythm, melodic
motif/intervals, movement, disrupting any previous rhythmic patterns
and utilising melodic tension and resolution. This is particularly
important to create the ‘home-away-home’ feeling of ternary.
Create predictability by consistently (1) repeating phrase length e.g.
each phrase is 7-beats long, (2) repeating a particular rhythm, (3)
repeating a rhythmic-like phrase e.g. short-short-long, (5) repeating a
pitch pattern e.g. paired-paired-paired-single, and/or (6) repeating a
rhythmic alternation e.g. a-b-a-b rhythmic phrasing
7. Consistently indicate (1) the ending of a song with a tonic-dominanttonic melody, (2) the ending of a verse by providing melodic
resolution; (3) the last phrase of a song by beginning the phrase with
an obviously different melodic contour or interval, and (4) the last
phrase by changing the overall pitch, melodic contour and temporal
content to contrast previous phrases.
1.
End the song consistently e.g. with a descending or ascending
glissando or intervallic motif to mark the end of the song.
2. Create an enveloping quality to your lullaby interaction by maintaining
a neutral tone of voice, legato style and dynamic. This is essentially
part of the congruence point below (point 3).
3. Create congruence between movement and singing by (1) matching
movements to the metric pulse or rhythm of the melody, (2) matching
the cessation of movement with rhythmic rests and (3) dramatising
actions via pitch glissandi, tenutos and accents.
4. Anticipate each and/or the first phrase of a song with an animated
inhalation.
5. Anticipate the last phrase of the song with animated inhalation
6. Anticipate the ending of the song with ascending glissandi and/or
rhythmic elongation.
7. Enhance anticipation of the final phase by freezing animation or
extending a pause.
8. Extend anticipation of the ending by repeating ascending glissandos
and pauses.
9. Playfully tease the infant by creating then disrupting musical
expectancy.
10. Alternate between contrasting movements to maintain infant attention
11. To prevent over-stimulation be animated within constrained
boundaries e.g. softer dynamic or slower tempo and/or movements.
Less-optimal
1.
Be inconsistent or lack
anticipation/indication of
endings (e.g. going straight
into a song without a
transition and lacking
sense of closure)
Parental Non-intrusiveness
As shown in Table 64, the behavioural and musical features of Nonintrusiveness relate to following the child’s lead and seeking/interpreting feedback.
In regard to following the infant's lead, optimal singing was characterised by
following and incorporating the infant's interest into the interaction. Mothers who
scored lower in Non-intrusiveness delayed responses to the infant and were
326
consequently made to feel intrusive. In regard to seeking/interpreting feedback,
optimal singing was characterised by mothers observing and responding to the
infant's cues as reflected in infant-directed speech.
As shown in Table 65, no inherent principles of optimal or less-optimal NonIntrusiveness were identified. Four implemented musical principles of optimal nonintrusiveness and two principles of less optimal non-intrusiveness were extracted
from the analysis.
Table 64: Summary of the behavioural and musical features of optimal and less-optimal Nonintrusiveness during singing interaction.
Sub-scale
Follows child lead
Follows child lead
Follows child lead
Seeks infant
feedback
Treats infant as
interactive partner
Sub-scale
Follows child lead
Made to feel
intrusive
Recognises and
verbalises
intrusiveness
PARENTAL NON-INTRUSIVENESS DIMENSION
Responds promptly by: (1) following infant’s gaze / looking at infant’s interest, (2)
disrupting the flow of the song to respond promptly, (3) imitative vocalisation characterised
by mother vocalising a similar pitch and duration to the infant, (4) talking about infant
interest via IDS e.g. what have you seen? “You’re obsessed with the high chair.
Characteristics include: emphasising keywords via accent, appoggiatura and rise in pitch
and questions ending with either a large ascending 6 th interval or descending 5th interval.
Mother attempts to structure interaction around infant interest by creating variations of her
speech e.g. adding dotted rhythms to increase playfulness or repeating a previous pitch in a
different rhythm with the addition of upper appoggiaturas.
Incorporates infant interest into song e.g. adding a raspberry to the ending
Mothers either observe infant behaviours and respond promptly with a song or ask
questions such as “really?” “do it again?” and “is that better?” Musical characteristics of
questions include: (1) repetition of pitch followed by large ascending 6th interval, (2) a
series of ascending 5th/4th intervals, (3) repetition of slurred ascending minor 3 rds, (4)
question ends with a small slurred ascending 2 nd / 3rd interval or glissando, and (5) question
begins with pitch repetition or ascending 4th interval.
Leaves rests or gaps in between IDS to allow time for infant to respond
Delays response to infant. Response comprises of an infant-directed question ending with
an upper inflection via small ascending intervals.
Infant cries, whines, wriggles and leans backward
Mother verbalises her interpretation of infant’s communications to be intrusiveness via
speech. Characteristics of speech include: an overall descending contour, small 2 nd, 3rd or
4th intervals and the repetition of pitch.
Table 65: Summary of the inherent and implemented principles of optimal and less optimal NonIntrusiveness during singing interaction.
INHERENT PRINCIPLES
None extracted
Less-optimal
None extracted
1.
2.
Follow the infant’s gaze and interest instead of insisting on a song.
Incorporate singing into every-day life instead of it being a scheduled
inflexible playtime.
Follow the infant’s lead by structuring an interaction around the
327
Less-optimal
1.
Infant indicates
intrusiveness by whining,
wriggling, leaning
backward, turning away
3.
4.
Seek feedback from the infant e.g. by asking questions. Always
observe the infant’s responses, cues and signals to determine how to
proceed.
Treat the infant as an interactive partner. Singing songs is not a
performance, it is interactive communication. For example, ask the
infant questions and leave rests/gaps for the infant to respond.
and/or crying. In this case
it is more optimal to
recognise intrusiveness and
stop current activity.
2. Delay response to infant
until the end of a song.
Promptness relates to both
sensitivity and nonintrusiveness.
Parental Non-hostility
As shown in Table 66, the behavioural and musical features of Non-hostility
relate to an absence of hostile behaviours, for example, absence of negativity,
ridiculing or disrespect. Mothers who scored lower in non-hostility demonstrated
some expressions of negativity and/or disrespect.
As shown in Table 67, no inherent principles of optimal or less-optimal NonHostility were identified. One implemented musical principles of optimal nonhostility and one principle of less optimal non-hostility was extracted from the
analysis.
Table 66: Summary of the behavioural and musical features of optimal and less-optimal Non-hostility
Sub-scale
Absence of
negativity
Absence of
negativity
Absence of
negativity
Absence of
ridiculing and
disrespect
Sub-scale
Absence of
negativity
PARENTAL NON-HOSTILITY DIMENSION
Only a few sighs or yawns observed
States dislike of situation without hostility “Ou-oh” Phrase is characterised by a slurred
descending 2nd interval and neutral vocal tone.
Responds to potentially irritating behaviour with playful IDS, “Uh oh”. Characteristics
include a descending 5th interval with the first note clipped short by a staccato.
Absence of disrespect observed
Irritation, stress and anxiety is expressed via vocal tone and speech. Holly speaks with a
clenched/closed jaw and says, “Oh Oli. Whose my little princess” Characteristics include:
ascending semi-tone glissando, (2) accent on keywords, (3) repetition of low pitches, (4)
descending 4th glissando
328
Table 67: Summary of the inherent and implemented principles of optimal and less optimal Nonhostility during singing interaction.
INHERENT PRINCIPLES
None extracted
1.
Less-optimal
None extracted
Be respectful and have an overall positive and calm affect
Less-optimal
1. Express irritation, stress
and anxiety
Child Responsiveness
As shown in Table 68, the behavioural and musical features of Child
Responsiveness relate to affect, ability to regulate emotions and likeliness to respond
positively. In regard to infant affect, optimal responsiveness was characterised by a
general positive and relaxed affect and the vocal expression of positive affect such as
giggling sounds as opposed to the expression of negative affect. In regard to
regulation of emotions, optimal responsiveness was characterised by the expression
of sounds and behaviours reflecting a calmer or more relaxed baby such as vocal
exhalations or becoming still and silent. Infant who scored lower in Responsiveness
demonstrated a difficult in regulating emotions. In regard to demonstrating likelihood
to respond positively, optimal Responsiveness was characterised by frequent
expressions of positive affect and imitative vocalisations.
As shown in Table 69, no inherent principles of optimal or less-optimal Child
Responsiveness were identified. Four implemented musical principles of optimal
child responsiveness and three principles of less optimal child responsiveness were
extracted from the analysis.
329
Responsiveness during singing interaction.
Sub-scale
Affect
Affect
Able to use
resources to
regulate emotions
Likely to respond
positively
Sub-scale
Affect
Affect
Able to use
resources to
regulate
emotions
CHILD RESPONSIVENESS DIMENSION
General positive and relaxed affect accompanied by silence
Vocal expressions of happiness include giggling type sounds. Characteristics include: (1)
large 2 octave range, (2) combination of single tones, appoggiaturas and melodic
oscillations and (3) some phrases are clipped short by a mezzo staccato.
Becomes still and silent. Expresses relaxing vocal exhalations. Characteristics include:
descending glissandos (2nd – 5th interval size), range of durations (sixteenth to quarter-notes
durations), “heh”, “eh” or “ah” sounds
Infant may smile (accompanied by silence), blow raspberries, giggle, vocalise an imitative
pitch and duration to mother and/or vocalise giggling-type sounds. Characteristics of the
giggle type sounds include short small ascending intervals (eng 2 nds), short single tones,
ascending glissandos and upper appoggiaturas.
Frequently vocally expresses distress/unhappiness. Common characteristics include use of
ascending and descending glissandi and melodic oscillations.
Vocal expressions of confused affect (half laughing half crying). Characteristics include
ascending glissandos (2nd -5th interval size), phrases sometimes clipped short by a staccato,
and phrases sometimes ending with repetition of pitch.
Has difficulty regulating emotions and continues unhappy/whining sounds. Characteristics
include: (1) open and closed mouth vocalisations, (2) slurred phrases, (3) sliding to and from
pitches via glissandi, (4) quick and long descending glissandi, (5) neighbour-note motifs, (6)
oscillation motifs, (7) ending phrases with descending glissando, (8) range of rhythms, (9)
single short low tones, and (10) crying
Responsiveness during singing interaction.
INHERENT PRINCIPLES
None extracted
Less-optimal
None extracted
1.
2.
3.
4.
Child maintains a genuine (not over-the-top) positive and relaxed
affect
Child vocally expresses happy and giggling-type sounds.
Child is able to be calmed by singing as demonstrated through stillness
and silence.
Child responds positively to singing by smiling, giggling, vocalising
imitative pitch and duration and blowing raspberries
Less-optimal
1.
2.
3.
330
Child vocally expresses
distress/unhappiness and
frequently e.g. ascending
and descending glissandi
and melodic oscillations
Child vocally expresses
confused affect (half
laughing half crying)
Child shows difficulty with
regulating emotions via
continuation of distressed
sounds
Child Involvement
As shown in Table 70, the behavioural and musical features of Child
Involvement relate to simple and elaborative initiative. In regard to simple initiative,
optimal involvement was characterised by looking and smiling at the mother and/or
vocalising sounds. In regard to elaborative initiative, optimal Child Involvement was
characterised by sustained eye-contact and positive affect. Infants who scored lower
in Child Involvement demonstrated a mixture of positive and negatively involving
behaviours.
As shown in Table 71, no inherent principles of optimal or less-optimal Child
Involvement were identified. Three implemented musical principles of optimal child
involvement and one principle of less optimal child involvement were extracted from
the analysis.
Involvement during singing interaction.
Sub-scale
Simple initiative
Simple initiative
Elaborative
initiative
Sub-scale
Simple and
elaborative
initiative
CHILD INVOLVEMENT DIMENSION
Looking and smiling usually accompanied by silence
Vocal initiation comprising of: quick descending glissandi, short single tone, raspberry
blowing (various lengths), lower neighbour-note motif (verbalised with glissando), rising
and falling 4th and 5th intervals via glissandi, tight throat/grunt-like sounds and exhalationlike long descending 3rd glissando.
Looking, sustained eye contact and smiling is usually accompanied by silence.
Continuation of negatively involving vocalisations comprise of the following common
characteristics: (1) open and/or closed mouth sounds, (2) imitative pitch (of mother’s
singing), (2) slurred phrases, single pitches, phrases ending with quick descending
glissando, (3) melodic contour that rises and falls between small intervals (mostly 2nds and
3rds ), (4) sliding to and from pitches via glissandi of various lengths and durations, (5)
complete and incomplete neighbour-note motifs, (6) oscillation motifs vocalising
with/without glissandi, (7) range of rhythms, (8) sustaining one pitch before merging into a
glissando, (9), short single tone followed by glissando, (10) screechy and non-screechy
tones and (11) crying
331
Involvement during singing interaction.
INHERENT PRINCIPLES
None extracted
Less-optimal
None extracted
1.
2.
3.
Child initiates interaction by looking and smiling at mother in silence
Child initiates interaction by vocalising to mother
Child elaborates interaction by sustaining eye contact and smiling in
silence
Less-optimal
1.
Frequently negatively
involves mother by
vocalising distressed
sounds
Discussion
The musical principles extracted in this study are based on six cases and
therefore, may not be representative of all healthy mothers or necessarily
comprehensive. However, the musical principles do outline the underlying
mechanisms of singing interaction of a particular set of mothers. Certainly, analysing
a larger sample would reveal more and/or a greater variety of principles, particularly
in regard to less-optimal interactions. However, such an extensive analysis is beyond
the scope of this study. The findings in this study should not be treated as conclusive,
but rather the beginning of new insights into musical principles of singing interaction
to be further explored in future research.
The musical principles of optimal singing interactions illustrate how the plain
act of singing does not necessarily facilitate optimal emotional communication. It is
the combination of both compositional (inherent) and appropriate behavioural
(implemented) processes that facilitated emotional availability. It is also argued that
the implemented musical principles are of more importance to emotional
communication for three reasons: (1) musical principles inherent to the composition
of a song were only found for the structuring and sensitivity dimensions as opposed
to all of the dimensions, (2) implemented musical principles were found for all of the
332
emotional availability dimensions, and (3) the majority of the musical principles
were implemented rather than compositional. Inherent compositional principles did
not facilitate the full range of Emotional Availability dimensions. Facilitating each
dimension of Emotional Availability necessitated the mothers' appropriate
deliverance of implemented musical principles.
Similar characteristics of musical emotional communication are echoed in
Shoemark & Grocke’s (2010) exploration of musical interplay between therapist and
neonate. They too discovered a range of both infant and therapist behaviours
contributing to music therapy interplay. Examples of the types of behaviours
demonstrated by infants during Active interplay include: (1) Reject - persistent
crying, splaying of limbs, (2) Demand – crying of different volume, duration and
timbre of reject, (3) Complain – brief, plaintive whine, (4) Answer – smooth, bright
movements, vocal sound, eye-contact, (5) Recognise – sigh on return of familiar
melody line, (6) Partner – More obvious animation, and (7) Initiate – action
animated. Examples of the types of behaviours demonstrated by infants during Quiet
interplay include: (1) Fade – increasing stillness, infant’s positive state diminishes as
s/he moves towards sleep, (2) Processing – lack of major expression, eye-contact, (3)
Interested – slightly more animation or intensity of expression than for processing,
small vocalisations, (4) Moment of meeting – stilled, no sound, smile, eye contact,
‘twinkle’ in eye. Examples of the types of behaviours demonstrated by infants during
Not Available include: (1) Regulate – infants turns away from therapist, (2)
Withdrawn – turns away, eyes still open, and (3) Medical – infant is unavailable
while coping with an aspect of medical condition. Similar infant behaviours were
found in the current thesis, especially regarding Child Responsiveness and
333
Involvement, such as looking, smiling, vocalising, blowing raspberries, stillness and
eye-contact with mother.
The therapist’s behaviours were divided into three categories: Enticing – the
therapist built an experience that the infant found appealing enough to join,
Responsive – therapist overtly acknowledged the infant with the specific intention of
imparting a sense of approval for the infant’s participation, and Directive –
encompasses diverse behaviours from the therapist intending to draw the infant’s
attention away from current state and preclude escalation into distress through to
sustaining a presence while the infant self-regulates or transitions to sleep (Shoemark
& Grocke, 2010). Examples of the types of behaviours demonstrated by the therapist
when Enticing include: (1) Anticipate – Eye contact, head tilted downward, (2)
Expect – mouth open, brows up, (3) Invite – tapping infant’s bottom, nodding,
increasing musicality in voice, (4) Share a moment of meeting – brows relaxed,
smiling gently. Examples of the types of behaviours demonstrated by the therapist
when being Responsive include: (1) Acknowledge – vocalisation reflects quality of
infant’s expression, (2) Affirm – more animated acknowledge behaviours, (3)
Reciprocate – eye contact, smiling, vocally matching infant vocalisation, (4)
Emmulate – more energy in vocals and visual display, brighter smile, raised brows,
(5) Promote – behaviours with more energy, use of singing or aspects of it such as
undeveloped melodic themes/chanting, and (6) Share intimate interaction – stroking
infant’s face, unguarded maternal gesture. Examples of the types of behaviours
demonstrated by the therapist when being Directive include: (1) Override – strong
speech, rhythmic patting, (2) Pre-empt – singing, trying to keep infant in interplay
rather than letting early distress emerge, (3) Hold–immediate thread – energy of
musical elements decrease, (4) Hold-transitional thread – lyrics reduced to gentle
334
nonsense lyric, pauses at end of each line, musical elements become more sedative,
(5) Contain – therapist’s hand envelops infant’s hand, bell-shaped speech, (6)
Maintain – singing, repetitive speech, chanting, little physical movement, prevailing
eye contact, (7) Support - singing lullaby, hand contact, (8) Close – singing lullaby
with even more sedative musical elements, (9) Process - therapist takes time to
consider next step, and (10) Maintain medical safety – tasks to confirm infant
remains physically safe.
There are apparent similarities between Shoemark & Grocke’s (2010)
therapist behaviours and the implemented principles explicated in the current thesis,
especially regarding animation, eye contact and anticipation in relation to Parental
Structuring (e.g. animated inhalation). It is reassuring that such similarities exist, as it
perhaps indicates that healthy mothers are capable of intuitively achieving or perhaps
learning to replicate optimal emotional communication similar to a trained therapist.
However, a more important similarity to highlight is the necessity of the
adult’s efforts to facilitate emotional communication. Apart from identifying infant
and therapist behaviours, Shoemark & Grocke (2010) also derived seven markers of
interplay which describe various dynamic phases of interplay that occurred
throughout the course of music therapy. The seven markers mostly reflect how the
adult chooses to respond to various infant states to promote and sustain interplay,
while also acknowledging the intrinsically dyadic nature of music therapy. The
markers are as follows: (1) the infant is unsure and therapist draws the infant into
interplay, (2) the infant is unavailable and the therapist introduces singing as the
medium for interplay, (3) the dyad moves along comfortably, (4) the dyad shares a
Moment of Meeting, (5) the therapist keeps the infant in the interplay, (6) the infant
refuses or rejects the interplay and the therapist accommodates, and (7) the infant
335
cannot make use of the interplay and the therapist offers support. Shoemark &
Grocke (2010) conclude that the fundamental element of interplay is the “attentive
interest from an attuned adult partner which demands little or nothing from the
infant” (p. 328). A similar sentiment is echoed in the current thesis, in that the
implemented musical principles are more important than the inherent principles for
facilitating mother-infant emotional communication. In other words, the work of the
adult (in relation to the infant) shapes the emotional communication.
The findings of this thesis are based on mother-infant interactions that have
not been influenced by an intervention per se (see Limitations, p. 361 for further
discussion). The musical principles were derived from what was intuitive to a
particular set of healthy mothers. Therefore, it is possible that the inherent musical
principles found for the present sample are similarly intuitive to other healthy
mothers. However, the variation in the ratings of Emotional Availability ratings, as
well as the less-optimal behaviours demonstrated by dyads such as Jane and Holly,
illustrate that not all of the mothers sang intuitively in the same manner in response
to their infants. Some mothers demonstrated strength is some of the musical
principles but not others. It is also the case that some mothers have more experience
with infants and singing and/or have a greater knowledge of mother-infant
communication than others.
The findings suggest that enhancing mother-infant singing interactions would
require skills in the musical principles to enable the intentional execution of those
musical principles. Both awareness and skill development would facilitate consistent
optimal emotional availability across all dimensions, which is important to establish
and maintain a secure mother-infant attachment (Barnacle, 2001; Beebe, et al., 2010;
Biringen, 2000; Bowlby, 1988; Cassidy, et al., 2005; Cozolino, 2010; Easterbrooks
336
& Biringen, 2000; Easterbrooks, et al., 2005; Woodhouse, 2010). Also, in
consideration with the interview findings, consistent optimality would hypothetically
provide regular contributions to maternal attachment constructs via the 'flow of
influence'. Thus, a program which aims to develop skills and awareness may
simultaneously promote optimal emotional communication and positive influence to
maternal attachment constructs.
To date, there has been little research that evaluates methods and techniques
of enhancing mother-infant emotional communication specifically in the first year of
life through skill enhancement and awareness (Baker & Mackinlay, 2006; de l'Etoile,
2006a; Bargiel, 2012; Vlismas, et al., 2012). The challenge for therapists pioneering
new programs is considering how to practically design and implement a program.
Considering the number and range of musical principles that have been identified,
simple exposure to optimal singing (i.e. modelling techniques) does not seem
sufficient. For example, a mother may turn to popular children’s television shows
such as, Playschool to learn how to sing to her child. While she may learn repertoire
and certain techniques, there is no instruction on the importance or facilitation or
reciprocity. Furthermore, full awareness of what emotional availability means and
involves as well as the related musical principles has the benefit of encouraging
intentional consistent emotionally attuned interactions.
Vlismas et al. (2012) implemented a music and movement program for
mothers with young infants in two different formats (1) face-to-face instruction
within a group setting, and (2) self-instruction which consisted of the same song
repertoire but in the form of an audio recording accompanied by written instructions
suggesting how to use rhythmical movements and gestures to accompany the
activities. The self-instruction mothers received weekly telephone calls from the
337
facilitator of the program to discuss any questions they had, but otherwise did not
experience any face-to-face contact. Surprisingly, Vlismas et al (2012) found that the
self-instruction method was more effective at enhancing the reciprocity of dyadic
interactions than the group face-to-face format. The authors suggested that the
mothers may have been better able to develop their own intimate, unique and
personal variations of music and movement activities in the privacy of their own
home which enabled the mother-infant relationship to bloom and develop in its own
way. In other words, the space to explore the music and movement interactions in
privacy was more beneficial than exploring within a group setting.
Previous research from Baker and Mackinlay (2006) shows the benefit of
educating mothers in music therapy techniques such as the iso-principle (Wigram,
Pederson, & Bonde, 2004) and then allowing the mothers to apply the knowledge in
the privacy of their own home. Mothers learnt to manipulate their lullaby singing to
firstly match then secondly modulate her baby’s emotional distress. The mothers
then practiced the new skill at home and kept a diary of their experience rather than
attend program sessions. The results demonstrate that mothers (1) were able to more
effectively and quickly settle their baby by using this technique, and (2) were able to
grasp therapeutic singing principles and apply it in everyday life with the support and
guidance of a music therapist. Thus, the findings support education as an effective
technique to enhance mother-infant song-based emotional communication.
Research in music therapy with premature and hospitalised infants suggests
that attachment may benefit from therapist-infant interaction. Malloch, et al (2012)
believes that infants experiencing music therapy may provide the necessary
foundation for the infant to remain regulated, which in turn, provides the necessary
precursor for positive social interaction. Hospitalised and healthy infants were
338
examined either experiencing or not experiencing music therapy. Hospitalised infants
who experienced music therapy showed a significant reduction in irritability and
crying in response to handling/stimulation from pre to post intervention. Also, when
the results of hospitalised infants of music therapy were compared to the healthy
control infants, the difference in irritability and crying were no longer significantly
different at post-intervention. In other words, the hospitalised infants scored more
closely to the healthy infants as a result of participating in music therapy.
Furthermore, the hospitalised infants who did not experience music therapy showed
significantly lower scores of irritability and crying extent when compared to the
healthy infants. All together, these results show that infants who received a music
therapy intervention were better able to maintain self-regulation during social
interaction with an adult, or, they protested less when an adult interacted with them,
and showed more positive response to adult interaction.
Malloch et al (2012) suggest that it is through the music therapy intervention
that infants may develop the ability to stay regulated. Since this ability is a first but
necessary step for social interaction, the experience of music therapy for an infant
may later support interaction with another social partner. In other words,
experiencing music therapy may help an infant to better engage in mother-infant
interaction. Therefore, when considering the design and implementation of music
therapy programs for mother-infant attachment, it may be beneficial to include
opportunities for therapist-infant interaction, particularly in cases where the infant is
at-risk or having regulation difficulties.
Shoemark (2008) mapped the progress of interaction between therapist and
full term hospitalised infant. Essentially, the framework of interplay comprises of
seven phases in which the therapist makes key decisions about extending or
339
modifying/decreasing stimulation. The stages include: (1) Observation – therapist
observes physical and psychological status of infant and ascertain if/how session
should proceed or be postponed, (2) Assessment – the therapist becomes conscious
od, open to, acknowledges and meets the infant’s current state, (3) Orientation – this
involves the negotiation of interaction with the intention of creating the potential for
interplay when the infant is ready, (4) Attunement – this phase is characterised by the
infant coping well with the interplay and showing interest in the therapist’s offerings,
(5) Fittedness – dyad create smooth interactions and increasing coherence. High level
of attunement promotes possibility of a Moment of Meeting, (6) Moment of Meeting
– a special moment that is shared by both partners characterised by the dyad reaching
a new level of understanding which transforms the relationship, and (7) Closure – the
infant indicates disengagement behaviours indicating he has had enough and the
interaction concludes.
Shoemark’s (2008) framework is particularly useful for therapists planning to
engage with infants personally and model emotional communication. However, it
may be too overwhelming to teach to mothers. The core component of the
framework is that, throughout the interplay, the therapist observes the infant’s
behaviour, makes an interpretation of that behaviour then makes a decision of how to
proceed. This core component could be communicated to mothers, particularly to
promote optimal Parental Sensitivity and Structuring.
Shoemark & Grocke (2010) revised Shoemark’s (2008) original framework
and delineated seven markers of interplay (see above discussion for further detail).
These new markers of interplay are a particularly clear and detailed framework for
music therapists aiming to work with infants. They outline dynamic phases of
interplay that may occur during therapist-infant interaction in a way that emphasises
340
the therapist’s response to the infant’s current state and cues. In other words, the
language of the markers describes the dyadic element of interplay i.e. how the adult
works in response to the infant. For example, when the infant refuses or rejects the
interplay, the therapist’s role is to try to accommodate the infant using directive
behaviours (see discussion above for more detail about therapist behaviours). As
Shoemark & Grocke (2010) suggest, the markers could be modified to be
implemented with mothers for an attachment-based program.
Haslbeck (2014) highlights how mother, infant and mother-infant attachment
may benefit from experiencing a triadic music therapy format, that is, mother, infant
and therapist participating together. Mothers who participated in music therapy with
their premature baby in hospital reported that music therapy helped them to relax
and, in turn, intensified their feeling of connection or attachment to their infant.
Analysis of video footage also shows that mothers were able to focus on and attune
to their infant during music therapy. One case describes a mother who felt stress and
frustration during her infant’s feeding difficulties and would consequently withdraw
from her infant. As the therapist worked to regulate the infant to promote a suckswallow-breath rhythm (to achieve feeding success), the mother began to entrain to
the therapist’s music by nodding along, then later rocking her infant to the rhythm of
the therapist’s music; engaging in communicative musicality through the therapist.
Then later, the mother began to sing herself, and the therapist was able to gradually
withdraw her own musical input to allow mother and infant to engage dyadically.
The mother then began to sing her own lullaby in interactional synchrony with her
infant’s sucking patterns. This case highlights how music therapy may
simultaneously model and facilitate mother-infant emotional communication. It
allows both mother and infant to relax and self-regulate and to witness, participate
341
and engage in communicative musicality, first with and then without the music
therapist. Furthermore, being able to experience a joyful and attuned interaction
empowers mothers in the quality of their interactions, and thus, in building
attachment and self-confidence as a mother.
Haslbeck’s (2014) research shows that a triadic music therapy format may be
well suited to a mother-infant attachment music therapy program outside the hospital
setting. The actual experience of music therapy contains an educative component
through modelling, entrainment and the opportunity for therapist to allow space for
mother to sing autonomously. Overall, it allows both infant and mother to be
empowered to relax and engage in emotional communication. However, the neonatal
research demonstrates this format is beneficial for specific situations, such as, when
there is a feeding difficulty and in a financially funded environment (hospital). It is
unknown how well this format would promote optimal musical interaction and
attachment or how appealing/affordable it would be in a community setting.
It is perhaps more realistic to consider a modification of the already existing
and successful format of Sing & Grow (Abad & Williams, 2007; Nicholson, et al.,
2008; Nicholson, et al., 2010). Research shows that of the parents who completed the
program, 100% enjoyed the program and 94% would like to participate again (Abad
& Williams, 2007). This format involves a group of parents/carers with their children
(under 5 years) participating in interactive music-based activities delivered by a
music therapist. Similarly, a group of mothers with young infants could participate in
singing-based interactions delivered by a music therapist. Just as the therapist in Sing
& Grow consciously models positive parenting behaviours, the therapist of an
attachment program could consciously model optimal emotional communication,
based on the musical principles derived in this thesis as well as Shoemark &
342
Grocke’s (2010) markers of interplay. Mothers could also be provided a booklet
which summarises the dimensions of Emotional Availability to educate mothers on
the optimal interaction. During the program, mothers could practice specific musical
behaviours (as outlined in the musical principles), such as: singing with a smiling
tone, inhaling with animation and moving rhythmically with their infant by singing
along (or entraining) with the therapist. In this way, the musical principles could
become a list of goals/outcomes for mothers to experience during the program.
Amongst the singing may be short informal discussions about how specific
behaviours being practiced relate to dimensions of Emotional Availability. Such
discussion may encourage awareness and conscious application of emotional
communication skills. The therapist could also set aside time to engage with each
dyad separately within the group setting, thus, providing opportunities for mothers
and infants to both witness and experience a triadic format of music therapy
(Haslbeck, 2014). In sum, mothers could draw from the self-instruction component
(Emotional Availability summary), therapist’s modelling, entrainment with the
therapist, triadic music therapy interaction, and informal discussions to become
aware of, and consciously develop/practice skills in singing with optimal emotional
availability. However, further research is required to explore if this format is
practical, realistic or effective.
Conclusion
Ultimately, the findings from the music analysis demonstrate that there is no
'formula' for optimal singing interaction. Instead, optimal singing interactions need to
be responsive, are dependent on context and ultimately reliant on a combination of
compositionally inherent and behaviourally implemented principles of interaction.
343
These musical principles highlight that the way mothers musically manipulate their
responsiveness is essential to facilitate emotional availability. The musical principles
also offer new insight into the specific mechanisms underlying optimal singing
interaction. If a mother were to ask, “but how do I sing songs in an optimal manner?”
the derived musical principles provide a platform to answer that question. In
addition, they can be used in combination with emotional availability dimensions,
and Shoemark & Grocke’s (2010) markers of interplay to provide a set of goals and
outcomes of a singing program. In this way, even in a primitive form, the musical
principles may directly enable the construction of an intervention that is focussed on
educating mothers about singing as a medium for emotional communication within a
relationship focussed framework. Overall, the musical principles are the beginning of
exciting new research exploring the facilitation of song-based emotional
communication from an emotional availability perspective.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
The purpose of this chapter was to explore the ways in which mothers use
songs to facilitate emotional availability. The findings from six detailed cases
illustrated that the key to optimal singing interaction is context-based and involves
two distinct types of musical processes: inherent and implemented. This finding led
to further analysis and the explication of musical principles underlying the mothers'
optimal and less-optimal singing interactions. In the next chapter, all of the
Interview, Emotional Availability and musical findings will be considered and
compared to the research aims to present a final convergent discussion and
conclusion to the thesis.
344
CHAPTER 8 – CONVERGENT DISCUSSION
"Well, it definitely makes us closer. It makes me more, um, what's the word?
Valuable to him. As in, I'm the one that sings to him and I'm that person that
comforts him with singing and stuff. It makes me more special to him ... yeah.
I feel significant"
Tullia, mother of three, interview conducted on 7th December, 2011
In this chapter the findings from each analysis will be converged and
considered to provide an overall interpretation of the findings (Creswell, 2009;
Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011). Firstly, the research purpose will be revisited and the
author's lens of interpretation discussed. Secondly, the overarching research question
will be revisited and each set of data will be considered in regard to the three
research aims. Thirdly, the process of convergence will be described and an overall
interpretation of findings will be presented. Fourthly, the implications on research,
theory and music therapy practice will be discussed. Fifthly, future directions,
limitations and methodological challenges will be discussed. Lastly, the author will
draw upon all sets of findings and interpretations to draw conclusions.
RESEARCH PURPOSE REVISTED
The purpose of the study was to increase an understanding of how singing
play songs and lullabies facilitates mother-infant emotional communication and
contributes to attachment. Multiple facets of song-based mother-infant emotional
345
communication were examined to expand current understanding and inform the
development of relationship-focussed music therapy early interventions. By
providing further insight into the therapeutic potential of singing, music therapists
may be better able to intervene and strengthen the security of mother-infant
relationships. Thus, the motivation to contribute to the music therapy field shaped the
interpretation of findings as it also shaped the research design. In other words, to stay
true to the original purpose of the research, the author maintained a 'therapeutic lens'
when converging and interpreting the findings. Hence, the discussions in this chapter
focus on the implications for music therapy research, theory and practice.
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
The prime research question of this study is “how do play songs and lullabies
facilitate
emotional
communication
and
contribute
to
the
mother-infant
relationship?” To answer this question, three research aims formed the focus of the
mixed methods investigation including:
(1) To examine the mother’s subjective experience of using play songs and
lullabies with her infant (Interview analysis).
(2) To examine the quality of interaction during the use of play songs and
lullabies (Emotional Availability ratings).
(3) To examine the behavioural and musical features of optimal and less-optimal
singing interactions during the use of play songs and lullabies (Music
analysis)
346
Essentially, the main research question comprises two separate questions. The
first is "how does singing play songs and lullabies facilitate emotional
communication?" The second is, "how does singing play songs and lullabies
contribute to the mother-infant relationship?" The key findings from each data set
address either the first or second part of the main research question; the emotional
communication or relationship aspect. A summary of the key findings of each data
set and what part of the research question they address is presented below:
Main findings of the mother's subjective experience of using play
songs and lullabies
The findings from the interview data contributed to the relationship aspect of
the prime research question by examining how the experience of singing songs
impacts maternal attachment constructs (Condon & Corkindale, 1998). The findings
from the individual interview analyses revealed that the subjective experience of
singing was unique to each mother. What one mother perceived to be particularly
prominent or personally important was different to another mother.
The findings from the group interview analysis revealed five key insights.
Firstly, the mothers' experience of singing was distinctly different to the experience
of non-singing interactions; singing contributed uniquely to three attachment
constructs and did so in a way that the experience of non-singing play interactions
did not. Secondly, one of the main differences between the two types of interactions
was that the mothers' experience of singing prominently impacted the
tolerance/acceptance
construct,
whereas
non-singing
interactions
did
not.
Considering this finding, it was postulated that if the mothers were not to sing to
their infant they would be potentially missing out on many important positive
347
emotional and mental states that contribute to tolerance/acceptance as well as their
well-being. Thirdly, the mothers' experience of singing and non-singing interactions
together impact positively on all four attachment constructs. It would be unbalanced
for the mothers in the sample to experience only one set of emotional and mental
states that characterise each type of interaction. The ideal would be to frequently
practise both types of interaction to experience the full variety of emotional and
mental states that positively impact all four attachment constructs. Fourthly, the
experience of singing play songs and lullabies did more than facilitate positive
emotional and mental states. It also facilitated a 'flow of influence' between the
states. Fifthly, the positivity of the 'flow of influence' was contingent on successful
modulation of infant emotions. The existence of the catalyst suggests that the 'flow of
influence' may possibly be experienced by other mothers if they too can facilitate
successful emotional communication.
Main findings of the quality of interaction during the use of play
songs and lullabies
The findings from the emotional availability data contribute to the emotional
communication and relationship aspects of the prime research question by rating the
various dimensions of dyadic interaction and considering the overall quality of the
dyadic relationship. The individual ratings of the Emotional Availability Scales
(Biringen, 2008b) revealed that circumstance does not guarantee a healthy emotional
connection. The 'typical' dyads that comprised the sample did not necessarily reflect
a positive and entirely healthy relationship (See Chapter 4 and 5 for details). Nor did
they necessarily intuitively sing songs in a manner to score near-perfectly on every
dimension. The group Emotional Availability ratings demonstrated that neither the
348
act of singing nor playing necessarily equated to optimal emotional availability.
Rather, it was the manner in which mothers sang and interacted that determined the
quality of emotional availability.
Main findings of the behavioural and musical features of optimal
and less-optimal singing interactions
The findings from the transcriptional music analysis contribute to the
emotional communication aspect of the prime research question by exploring the
features and principles of the mothers' optimal singing interactions. Three key
findings emerged from the case analyses. Firstly, the mothers' act of singing alone
did not facilitate optimal emotional availability. Secondly, a combination of inherent
and implemented principles facilitated emotional availability. The inherent principles
related to only two of the emotional availability dimensions, whereas the
implemented principles were related to all dimensions. Hence, the appropriate
execution of the implemented musical principles (that is, the manipulations by the
mother) was of more importance than the inherent (compositional) principles to
facilitate emotionally available singing interactions. Thirdly, there was no formula
found for optimal singing interactions. Ultimately, it was the mothers' application,
utilisation and manipulation of the songs according to context and infant cues as well
as the demonstration of congruence between intention and musical expression that
determined emotional availability.
349
CONVERGING THE FINDINGS
Within a convergent parallel mixed methods design, convergence is
essentially a process of discovering how the findings fit together to answer the
research question (Creswell, 2009; Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011). In this study,
when viewed through a 'therapeutic lens' the findings merge in a particular way.
Previously, each data set analysed separately for analysis and presented to address a
certain aspect of the research question; either pertaining to the mother-infant
relationship or emotional communication. However, when merged together and
considered as a unit, the overall findings contribute to answering the prime research
question as an integrated whole, rather than separate components.
Both types of interactions were rated highly on the Emotional Availability
Scales. Yet, the mothers' subjective experience of singing and non-singing play
interactions was distinctly different. Demonstrably, despite both types of interactions
being equally capable of facilitating emotionally available interactions, the
experience of singing interactions impacted maternal attachment constructs in a
unique way to the experience of non-singing interactions. From the interview
findings, the therapeutic potential of singing songs to impact attachment was found
embedded in the 'flow of influence'. However, this flow of positive emotional and
mental states was contingent on meeting the infant's needs effectively and
recognising the success of emotional modulation. The behavioural findings illustrate
that the manner of interaction was the important factor in determining the quality of
emotional availability. When considered together, the Interview and Emotional
Availability findings suggest that experiencing the full benefits of the 'flow of
influence' relies on experiencing optimal singing interactions. To promote the most
350
beneficial impacts to the attachment constructs, therefore, it would be necessary to
understand how to facilitate optimal singing interactions.
This particular junction is crucial to the thesis. The prime research question
no longer comprises two separate parts. Rather, the attachment and emotional
communication aspects now interlock. By understanding how to experience positive
and optimal emotional communication, one may also understand how to potentially
promote the positivity of the 'flow of influence' in other mothers. Thus, the
convergence of the Interview and Emotional Availability findings refocus and
transform the research question from “how do play songs and lullabies facilitate
emotional communication and contribute to the mother-infant relationship?” to "how
do mothers facilitate optimal singing interactions, in order to maximise the potential
contributions to attachment?"
The crux of the thesis lies in understanding how mothers facilitate optimal
singing interactions. The findings of the music analyses (the six case studies) suggest
that optimal singing was achieved by drawing from specific principles of dyadic
interaction. Deriving principles specific to singing was necessary to answer the
transformed research question. Explicating the musical principles guiding the
mothers' optimal dyadic singing interaction provided insight into how the mothers
appropriately and sensitively sang according to the infant's needs and consequently
sparked the positivity of 'flow of influence' to impact the attachment constructs. A
diagram summarising the process of convergence is presented in Figure 12 below.
351
Interview findings (focussed on
answering attachment aspect)
Therapeutic value revealed via
'flow of influence’
Catalyst to therapeutic potential
revealed (need-gratification
construct)
Behavioural findings (focussed on
answering the emotional
communication aspect)
It is the manner in which mothers
sing and interact that is important
Together the findings re-focus the main research question
to be "how do mothers sing optimally?" (attachment and
emotional communication aspect become joined)
In order to promote optimal flow it is necessary to
understand how to sing optimally
The music principles outline how to achieve optimal
singing interactions and thus promote optimal 'flow of
influence'
Musical principles act as a 'how to' guide providing
necessary understanding of communication processes and
therefore becomes focus of the thesis
Findings may be applied by music therapists
Figure 12 - Diagram outlining the convergence of findings in relation to the main research question
A Convergent Interpretation
Together, the data sets answer the main research question by exploring and
conceptualising the processes involved in song-based emotional communication in
regard to attachment including: (1) the potential internal process experienced during
singing interaction and how it contributes to maternal attachment constructs and (2)
the musical principles underlying the mothers' practice of singing as emotional
communication. The convergent findings illustrate the co-dependency of the two
processes; that is, the influence of singing on attachment goes hand-in-hand with the
optimisation of singing interactions. The subjective experience of singing, and the
352
behavioural and musical aspects of the practice of song-based emotional
communication are integral components of the mother-infant relationship
phenomenon. The findings suggest that any music therapy intervention aiming to
strengthen and enhance attachment in the first year of life should utilise both internal
and behavioural processes to optimise emotional communication and promote
maternal positivity. In other words, when considering the mother-infant relationship
it is important to consider the components of dyadic emotional communication as
well as the attachment constructs.
Although the implications of each individual set of findings were discussed
previously, it is also necessary to consider the research findings from a convergent or
holistic perspective. Wheeler (2005) states that research is "intended to increase or
modify the knowledge base of music therapy while practice is intended to help
clients achieve health" (p.5). Thus, it is essential to clarify how the findings impact
theory, research and practice separately to increase understanding of the
contributions to knowledge and potential directions for future research and clinical
practice (Wheeler, 2005). A discussion of the implications and future research
directions as well as limitations and challenges are presented below.
The Implications for Theory
In this study the author drew upon the previously existing attachment
constructs and Emotional Availability theory to frame her research, and then
assimilated the findings to fit within music therapy. By borrowing and assimilating
theory from the field of psychology, the beginnings of a music-centred theory,
specifically focussed on attachment and singing was created (Bruscia, 2005).
353
Previous studies have evaluated, described and investigated the practice of
early intervention music therapy programs which aim to encourage sensitive and
reciprocal mother-child interactions (Abad, 2002; Abad & Edwards, 2004; Baker &
Mackinlay, 2006; Oldfield & Bunce, 2001; Shoemark, 1996). However, this study
provides new attempts at explicating the inner processes involved in singing, which
may inform attachment intervention, particularly with mothers who are considered
'typical' or 'healthy'. The author cannot make any conclusive claims regarding the
'flow of influence' or musical principles and it is unknown whether other mothers
whose health is less typical have the capacity to interact to the same degree of
emotional availability or experience the same emotional and mental states as the
mothers in the sample. However, the interpretation of the 'flow of influence' offers a
new means of conceptualising how the experience of singing may impact attachment
constructs.
Similarly, the musical principles offer new insights into the processes
involved in facilitating optimal emotional communication, which in turn, helps to
inform therapists about how to facilitate optimal mother-infant interactions in order
to contribute to secure attachment. The musical principles are based on only six cases
and are by no means exhaustive. However, the findings contribute to understanding
the nature of singing as emotional communication which may, in turn, inform the
therapeutic application of singing in order to influence attachment and, in addition,
expand the theoretical foundations underpinning music therapy early intervention.
Comparing the findings of the singing and non-singing condition provides
additional perspectives on the data and also makes further contributions to musiccentred theory. More specifically, having a point of comparison helps to (1) clarify
the potential therapeutic function and value of singing, (2) clarify how the potential
354
function and value of singing is unique to non-singing play interaction, while also (3)
defining and delimiting the parameters of the therapeutic potential of singing and its
role in therapy. For example, demonstrating that non-singing play interactions did
not contribute to the tolerance/acceptance construct in the same way as singing
highlights how singing may benefit maternal well-being and do so in a way that is
possibly unique to singing.
Furthermore, explicitly recognising that both singing and non-singing
interactions would be required for a mother to experience the potential positive
influence to all four attachment constructs, is an important acknowledgement that
singing does not necessarily fulfil a full range of roles in the process of strengthening
mother-infant attachment. However, illustrating what singing does and does not
contribute to attachment helps to define the potential parameters of singing as a
therapeutic tool. In addition, the parameters outlined in this thesis, help to define the
potential of music therapy to fulfil a specific role or function within the larger field
of early intervention. Thus, the findings help to shape the theoretical foundations
underpinning the potential therapeutic application of singing.
A clearer understanding of the delimitations of singing are just as important
as an understanding of the features of singing that contribute to secure attachment
and good emotional communication, as both sets of conclusions expand and enhance
the body of evidence that supports music therapy as a valuable theory-based
profession with clearly definable functions. However, delimitations are only
recognised with a point of comparison or control. Considering the contributions the
non-singing data provided in this study, it is recommended that such comparisons be
considered for inclusion in future music therapy studies because comparison to other
modes of mother-infant communication enhances the understanding of the
355
similarities and differences, and acts to contribute knowledge over and above what
might be found if singing was examined on its own.
The Implications to Music Therapy Research
Wheeler (2005) states that "the needs of music therapy research have led
some to suggest that music therapists need to develop our own research methods methods suitable for investigating the specific combination of factors inherent in
music therapy" (p. 5). In this study, the author creatively modified existing methods
in order to understand the mother's experience in relation to attachment in more
detail than has previously been attempted. For example, the phenomenological
interview analysis was modified to integrate the attachment constructs (Condon &
Corkindale, 1998) and the structural music analysis was integrated within the
framework of Emotional Availability framework in order to maintain the focus on
qualities and attributes of dyadic emotional communication. This study provides
examples of how researchers may creatively modify methods from a variety of fields
to investigate specific research questions applicable to the music therapy field.
This study also demonstrates the applicability of Emotional Availability to
music therapy research by being the first to apply the scales to a music-centred
context. The Emotional Availability Scales (Biringen, 2008b) were a valuable and
integral part of examining singing as a mode of emotional communication. It
provided valid detailed information about specific dimensions of dyadic motherinfant interaction while focussing on their relationship. Thus, the scales provide an
ideal tool to be used in other music therapy research that involves dyadic interaction.
356
The Implications to Music Therapy Practice
The implications of research data for music therapy theory and music therapy
and practice often go hand-in-hand. The conceptualisation of the 'flow of influence'
contributes to music-centred theory by providing a deeper understanding of the
potential role of singing to have positive influences on maternal attachment
constructs. Such understanding may be applied and further developed by students,
practitioners and supervisors in clinical practice who are aiming to promote positive
mother-infant relationships. The musical principles derived in this study contribute to
practice by providing specific guidelines about how to sing and engage an infant to
enhance emotional communication. Therapists may draw from these principles to
enhance their own awareness of how to facilitate singing as emotional
communication and apply their new understanding to modelling behaviours and
program goals. It is also important to take into account that dimensions of emotional
availability as they can provide a road map for successful dyadic interaction. Overall,
the new knowledge and theoretical understanding of singing as emotional
communication provided in this thesis have implications for ways in which clinicians
can enhance emotionally available mother-child interactions in their own clinical
work.
Another important implication relates to the distinction between using singing
interactions as a tool for treatment versus prevention. Edwards (2011b) states:
Further distinctions between and a deeper understanding of theoretical approaches will
help in providing specific training and supervision support for practitioners. For
example, distinctions and the overlap between music therapy as a preventative approach
or as a treatment approach are not always clear" (p.
17).
As already discussed, singing may serve a dual function in (1) promoting, and (2)
maintaining positive emotional and mental states. The findings suggest that the
357
experience of singing promotes positivity and reduces negativities within the mother
through the 'flow of influence'. Thus, the enhancement of maternal emotional and
mental states through singing has the potential for treatment when there is an
accumulation of negativity and hostility, and it is affecting the mother-infant
relationship. However, singing can also act protectively to prevent and disrupt
negativity if mothers regularly experience the positive of the 'flow of influence'.
Thus, the findings offer new insights into the function of singing as a potential
treatment and as a prevention intervention.
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
The ‘flow of influence’ that was derived in this study involved developing
composite themes of the mothers' experience of singing in relation to each of the
attachment constructs. These themes were shared by between 50-100% of the
sample. In other words, not every mother described experiencing every composite
theme that comprise the full flow of emotional and mental states; most of the
participants described experiencing most of the ‘flow of influence’. The ‘flow of
influence’ cannot be considered representation of what all healthy mothers will
necessarily automatically experience while singing. Instead, it is an ideal experience
that therapists would hope all mothers achieve.
Considering this, the findings may be useful as a reference or type of
'baseline' for future studies that examine the experience of singing in relation to
attachment constructs in other clinical populations. For example, do mothers with
post-natal depression or mental illness have the capacity for experiencing the ‘flow
of influence’? What is the subjective experience of singing with and without
358
intervention? Is it similar or entirely different to the 'flow of influence' discovered in
this study? If/how does illness or circumstance impair/block the potential 'flow of
influence'? Better understanding of how circumstance affects the attachment
constructs would better inform therapy interventions aiming to promote positive
impacts to attachment in specific populations (Edwards, 2011b).
The Interview findings in this study reveal that the experience of singing may
promote positive thoughts and feelings such as reassurance, a sense of achievement
and validation of self as 'good mother'. These emotional and mental states may help
to prevent a spiral of negative and hostile feelings and help to balance out the
negativity and stress that comes with caring for an infant. In other words,
experiencing the positivity of the 'flow of influence' may balance out or replace
negativity/hostility specifically. It is therefore recommended that future studies
examine the experience of singing in healthy mothers currently experiencing
circumstances that promote hostility such as when the infant is having difficulty
sleeping or being particularly 'clingy' or demanding. It would be interesting to
compare mother's emotional and mental states, as they relate to attachment, before
and
after
a
singing
intervention
to
examine
if/how
any
changes
in
negativity/positivity occur.
Future studies may also create a questionnaire based on the composite themes
derived in this study to specifically examine the experience of singing in relation to
the attachment constructs. Using the questionnaire method would allow for a large
sample of participants and open the opportunity to generalise the results. Once
validated, the questionnaire could also be used as tool for evaluating song-based
relationship-focussed music therapy programs for mothers with infants under twelve
months old.
359
Furthermore, the findings in this study suggest that there is potential to
establish the 'flow of influence' in other typical and non-typical mothers and that this
would necessitate successful meeting of infant needs and emotional modulation. It is
therefore recommended that future studies examine the design and implementation of
singing-based programs aiming to enhance mother-infant attachment through singing
interactions (see Discussion p. 332). Understanding how to practically implement
such an educative program would be helpful in establishing new attachment focussed
programs. The establishment of programs would also provide practical means of
evaluating the effect of singing to impact attachment in various populations.
Future studies may also investigate cultural and ethnic influences on motherinfant singing practices in the first year of life. Investigating mother's attitudes
towards and beliefs in singing may provide further insight into the contributing
factors of parent-infant singing practices, particularly in specific cultures. With such
understanding therapists may be better able to assist migrant groups and better
connect, and encourage the use of singing, with families from other ethnicities, such
as refugees.
Another potential area for future study is the observed similarities of the
arousal function motifs between infant-directed song and speech. Further research
could aim to identify musical similarities and differences between infant-directed
song and speech using quantitative methods of music analysis. Such research would
provide further evidence of the close relation between infant-directed song and
speech.
The Emotional Availability Scales (Biringen, 2008b) offer great potential for
the music therapy field. They provide an excellent method of examining the dyadic
singing interacting by investigating specific dimensions of emotional availability
360
while also providing an overall indication of the quality of the emotional connection
or dyadic relationship. Thus, the scales can be applied to research examining
relationships within and pre- and post music therapy sessions. For example the scales
could evaluate mother-infant clients (even within a group setting) or be used to
explore the characteristics and features of therapist-client relationships.
LIMITATIONS
One limitation of the study is the restricted ability to generalise the findings
to the general population of mothers and young infants even though an adequate
number of dyads was used. Another limitation concerns reliability of the interview
analysis. Efforts were made to increase the trustworthiness (or validity) of the
findings by incorporating participant verification into the analysis process and the
investigator completing an examination of bias, also known as an epoché, (Broido &
Manning, 2002; Creswell, 2009; Denzin & Lincoln, 2008; Erlandson, et al., 1993;
Grocke, 1999; McMurray, et al., 2004; Moustakas, 1994, see Appendix H).
However, if another researcher were to analyse the transcripts it may be the case that
the findings could change somewhat. Incorporating another investigator or a research
team to analyse the interview transcripts would provide opportunities to cross-check
themes, strive for inter-researcher agreement and thus increase reliability. It is
therefore suggested that reliability measures be considered carefully if/when
planning and budgeting for future interview-based studies.
Another limitation arose from using only six cases in the music analysis.
Twelve cases would have strengthened the findings. However, it was not possible to
complete these within the allotted time frame. Time and resources are a common
361
cause of concern and challenge for mixed methods research (Creswell, 2009;
Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011). However, it should be noted that this is the first
study to incorporate a structural music analysis within the Emotional Availability
framework.
Introducing novel song repertoire via singing sessions is an important
limitation to note. Providing and examining a song-based intervention was not the
intention or purpose of the present study. However, the mere introduction of songs
and experience of the singing sessions would have, to some degree, changed the
participants’ pre-existing singing interactions. Firstly, as a result of learning
something new, mothers sang songs they previously were not singing to their infant.
Secondly, as part of the learning process, the mothers listened to the author singing
independently and together with the mothers’ singing. Whether consciously on
unintentionally, the mothers may have copied the author’s personal tendencies to
sing/vocalise in a certain way and altered the manner in which they would otherwise
sing the song if learnt without the author present. In other words, mothers had still
been instructed in some fashion. To some extent the author had already ‘intervened’
and thus, the purity of the ‘naturalness’ of the observed dyadic interactions inevitably
altered.
The author’s potential influences upon the participants’ singing interactions
were counteracted by, (1) providing weekly gaps between the singing sessions
allowing the mothers to embrace her own musicality, make the song ‘her own’ or
intuitively implement the songs while singing with her infant, (2), mothers were
frequently reminded that the singing sessions were a means of learning songs, in no
way a strict instruction of what/how exactly to sing and that they may sing the songs
any way they liked. In other words, the author verbally encouraged the mothers to
362
intuitively implement the songs, (3) removing any other persons from the video
sessions allowing the mother and infant to interact without the influence of a third
party present, and (4) instructing mothers to interact as they please during the video
sessions for example, free to sing songs that were learnt during the singing sessions
as well as previously known repertoire. Other difficulties and methodological
challenges experienced during the study are discussed below.
METHODOLOGICAL CHALLENGES
In order to examine mother-infant emotional communication, it was essential
to capture and analyse dyadic interaction. Throughout data collection mothers were
often told that the video sessions aimed to capture interaction that was as natural as
possible within a lab environment. The phrase “a ‘snap shot’ of what it’s like at
home” was used frequently to reduce the formality of the lab environment and thus
encourage naturalistic data. Although there were benefits to using a dedicated
recording room, there were also challenges. The main benefit was that once all of the
audio/visual technology was set up collecting data was quick and simple.
Additionally using fixed cameras provided consistency between video footage. The
main challenge was that the lab environment simply cannot substitute home-based
recording sessions. However, for the majority of published data, this is how motherinfant interactions are recorded.
Efforts were made to encourage mothers to feel comfortable in the video
room and to feel free to move and interact in whatever way they pleased. Before the
video sessions began time was spent talking to the mothers about freedom of
movement. Mothers were told that they were free to sit, stand, dance around and do
363
whatever they pleased. Infants could be in their chair or on the mother’s lap or in
other various positions. If mothers felt they needed to move to the floor, they were
told which part of the room was the best to use. If they needed extra space or were
switching between chairs and the floor, they were shown how to push the chairs out
of the way in order to stay in view of the cameras. Mothers were also told not to
worry about the cameras because if they did move out of view, the researcher could
enter and room and ask them to move back into view.
However, there was still a degree of 'unnatural-ness' as mothers tended to
convey a desire to ‘do the right thing’ and stay in view. Some mothers expressed
feeling restricted and avoiding certain interactions (e.g. dancing) that would normally
occur at home due to the size of the room and concerns about stay in view. Other
mothers appeared compelled to sing almost continuously, presumably to provide
good data for the researcher or ensure the usefulness of their contribution to the
study. Furthermore, mothers described singing to typically occur sporadically
throughout the day rather than in one block of time. Singing for twenty minutes,
therefore, was not a usual mode of behaviour for the participants in the singing
condition. Considering this, the data captured in this study cannot be considered as
‘completely natural’.
Interestingly, observing a mother’s responses in the lab environment did give
an indication of the emotional availability of a relationship. The judgements that
were made to complete the emotional availability ratings were focussed on the
quality of behaviours, rather than the behaviours per se. For example, it was not so
important that a mother chose to touch rather than hold her infant. What was more
important was the way in which it was done such as harshly, gently or playfully and
if this was appropriate given the context/situation. Also, how a mother adapted to the
364
lab environment demonstrated her flexibility and creativity in interacting and/or
meeting needs as well as her emotional regulation. These demonstrations of
adaptability provided an indication of the quality of the connection and
communication between mother and infant. Therefore, despite the potential influence
of the environment on a mother’s behaviour, the validity of the behavioural data was
not compromised. In addition, it was helpful to have all the mothers in the same
environment to analyse the quality of each dyad's connection and relationship.
It was also necessary to manage bias throughout the data collection and
analyses process due to the fact that one researcher, the author, conducted all the
interviews, video sessions and analyses. For example, because the author was
exposed to personal and insightful information about each mother during the
interview, it was difficult to avoid memories of the interview discussion when rating
emotional availability. Thus, the author needed to suspend knowledge of the
interview and make judgments objectively according to the behaviour observable in
the video footage. The use of a second expert rater however, helped to avoid
instances of bias during this part of the study. Future mixed methods studies should
consider the use of two blind external raters to complete the emotional availability
ratings to minimise bias.
It is also revealing to consider bias within the participant sample. Mothers
were contacted through a search of the MARCS BabyLab database. This database
includes mothers who volunteer their participation in research conducted at the lab.
Presumably the mothers who volunteer have certain characteristics or values that
motivate them to be included in such a database. For example, perhaps the mothers
are more socially oriented than those who would shy away from voluntary
participation or value education more than those who would not even consider
365
participation. Also, most of the mothers lived within a particular region of Sydney in
which the university was situated. The combination of geographical limitation and
voluntary-based recruitment therefore, could have resulted in a selection bias and
thus, influenced the findings.
Another challenge involved the interview method. Despite all the mothers
having completed at least twelve years of high school and most held university
degrees, some mothers were more articulate than others. For example, there were
instances where the interviewer needed to provide additional prompts, redirect the
participant to the focus of the interview or reflect back to the mother 37 to clarify what
she meant. Since every woman is a unique individual who communicates in her own
way such difficulties could not be avoided. The advantage of the interview method
however, was that the opportunity for clarification was always available and utilised
frequently by the interviewer.
The open-ended nature of the interview question and prompts may also have
limited the type or range of data collected. Open questions encouraged the mothers to
consider their own unique experience of singing. However, it is possible that that
there were aspects of experience that mothers did not think to discuss. For example,
if mothers were provided with a questionnaire, perhaps their responses would have
differed by considering aspects of their experience that they otherwise would not
have thought about.
It is important to remember that the benefits of interviews outweigh the
challenges. For example, it is possible that the interviewer's clarifications conveyed a
sincere interest in the mother's responses. Thomas & Brubaker (2000) believe that
such sincerity may encourage participants to be similarly diligent when considering
37
This was achieved by rewording or rephrasing a mother's response
366
and answering the questions and thus enhance the quality of the participants'
responses. Another advantage of the open-ended questions was that if mothers were
unsure of how to answer a question they could think out loud and explore their
thoughts for as long as required38. By reflecting back key words and phrases, the
interviewer was able to prompt the mother into expanding on her response and/or
focus on particular ideas and concepts. Having the time and space to explore her
thoughts and 'think out loud', provided a freedom of thought and discussion which
would not necessarily have been experienced in a strictly structured interview
procedure. In other words, the open-ended nature of the questions helped retrieve a
deeper and richer understanding of the participant's experience, as required of the
research aim .
CONCLUSION
The purpose of this study was to increase understanding of how singing play
songs and lullabies facilitates mother-infant emotional communication and
contributes to attachment. This was achieved by examining the subjective,
behavioural and musical features of mothers singing play songs and lullabies. The
findings revealed many insights into how mothers facilitate optimal singing
interactions, how their experience of singing impacted attachment and how singing
was characteristically different to non-singing play interactions.
The main findings include: (1) it is the manner in which mothers sing that
determines and reflects the emotional availability in a singing interaction, (2) the
mother's manipulation of musical elements (implemented principles) was more
38
The interviewer would encourage mothers to calmly think about their experience by saying, for
example, “I know they’re tricky questions, take your time to think about it and feel free to think out
loud if you want”
367
influential and important in facilitating highly emotionally available singing
interactions than compositional elements (inherent principles), (3) there were specific
musical principles underlying optimal singing interactions. It was particularly
important that mothers were responsive, sensitive to context and cues and
demonstrated congruence between intention and musical expression, (4) the
experience of singing interaction facilitated a flow of positive emotional and mental
states that impacted three of four maternal attachment constructs, described as the
'flow of influence'. Importantly, the mothers' experience of singing was unique from
the mother's experience of non-singing play interactions, despite both types of
interactions facilitating similarly high emotional availability, (5) the experience of
singing and non-singing interactions each impacted three of four attachment
constructs. Together the two types of interaction contributed to all four attachment
constructs, and (6) the positivity of the 'flow of influence' was contingent on meeting
the infant's needs and facilitating successful emotional modulation. The latter finding
implies that optimising interactions promotes the 'flow of influence' in mothers.
The most important contributions however, are the conceptualisation of the
'flow of influence', derivation of musical principles of optimal singing interactions
and an understanding of how the two work together to further music-centred theory.
The 'flow of influence' offers a new perspective on the inner processes that contribute
to maternal attachment constructs and illustrates an ideal in terms of the flow of
emotional and mental states that mothers may experience. The converged findings
suggest that highly emotionally available singing interactions are required to
maximise the flow of positive emotional and mental states that impact maternal
attachment constructs. Impacting attachment therefore, requires more than the simple
act of singing songs. It requires successful and emotionally available communication.
368
Thus, the findings suggest that intervening attachment necessitates the optimisation,
not just prevalence, of singing interaction.
Hypothetically, the role of a therapist aiming to enhance attachment would be
to facilitate the optimisation of singing interactions in order to maximise the 'flow of
influence'. This requires an understanding of the underlying principles that facilitate
optimal singing interactions. Here, the derived musical principles provide necessary
tools for improving singing interactions, and to inform music programs aiming to
educate mothers on how to optimise singing interactions and enhance attachment.
Ultimately, the contribution of this study is that it provides robust insights into
singing as a mode of emotional communication and into its potential as a therapeutic
tool for enhancing attachment. The findings also contribute to and expand founding
concepts and theories underpinning music therapy attachment intervention. By
conceptualising the inner processes and explicating principles involved with
facilitating emotional communication that impacts on attachment, the potential role
and function of singing as a treatment and prevention tool is more clearly understood
and defined. Thus, the current thesis offers new insights and perspectives into how to
facilitate optimal emotional communication and to enhance attachment by singing
play songs and lullabies. It is hoped that this research informs the development of
new relationship-focussed music therapy programs specifically designed for mothers
with infants under twelve months and encourages further developments in music
therapy early intervention research, theory and practice.
369
References
Abad, V. (2002). Sing and Grow: helping young children and their families grow
together through music therapy early intervention programs in community
settings. Annual Journal of New Zealand Society for Music Therapy, 36-50.
Abad, V., & Edwards, J. (2004). Strengthening families: A role for music therapy in
contributing to family centred care. The Australian Journal of Music
Therapy, 15, 3-17.
Abad, V., & Williams, K. E. (2007). Early intervention music therapy: Reporting on
a 3-year project to address needs with at-risk families. Music Therapy
Perspectives, 25(1), 52-58.
Ainsworth, M. D. (1963). The development of infant-mother interaction among the
Ganda. In J. Bowlby, Attachment and Loss. London: Hogarth Press.
Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1979). Infant-mother attachment. American Pscyhologist,
34(10), 932-937.
Aitken, K. J., & Trevarthen, C. (2001). Infant intersubjectivity: Research, theory, and
clinical applications. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry and allied
disciplines, 42(1), 3-48.
Amatea, E. S., Smith-Adcock, S., & Villares, E. (2006). From family deficit to
family strength: viewing familes' contributions to children's learning from a
family resilience perspective. . Professional School Counseling, 9(3), 177189.
Australian Music Therapy Association. (2014). What is Music Therapy? Retrieved
24th May, 2014, from http://www.austmta.org.au/content/what-music-therapy
Baker, F., & Mackinlay, E. (2005). Nurturing herself, nurturing her baby: Creating
positive experiences for first-time mothers through lullaby singing. Women &
Music: A Journal of Gender & Culture, 9, 69-89.
Baker, F., & Mackinlay, E. (2006). Sing soothe and sleep: A lullaby education
programme for first-time mothers. British Journal of Music Education, 23(2),
p. 147-160.
Bargiel, M. (2004). Lullabies and play songs. Theoretical considerations for an early
attachment intervention through parental singing for developmentall at-risk
infants. Replublished article from the Canadian Journal of Music Therapy
Vol. 9, (1) 2002. Translation by Shannon Venable. Retrieved 4th June, 2010
from Voices: A World Forum for Music Therapy
https://normt.uib.no/index.php/voices/article/viewArticle/149/125
Barnacle, R. (2001). Phenomenology and Wonder. In R. Barnacle (Ed.),
Phenomenology (pp. 3-15). Melbourne: RMIT University Press.
Beck, C. T. (2001). Predictors of postpartum depression. An update. . Nursing
Research, 50(5), 275-285.
Beebe, B., Jaffe, J., Markese, S., Buck, K., Chen, H., Cohen, P., . . . Feldstein, S.
(2010). The origins of 12-month attachment: A microanalysis of 4-month
mother-infant interaction. Attachment & Human Development, 12(1), 3-141.
Beebe, B., Lachmann, F., & Jaffee, J. (1997). Mother-infant interaction structures
and presymbolic self- and object representations. Psychoanalytic Dialogues,
7(2), 133-182.
Benton, T., & Craib, I. (2001). Philosophy of Social Science. Hampshire: Palgrave.
Bergeson, T. R., & Trehub, S. E. (2007). Signature tunes in mothers' speech to
infants. Infant Behavior & Development, 30(4), 648-354.
370
Biringen, Z. (2000). Emotional availability: Conceptualization and research findings.
American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70(1), 104-114.
Biringen, Z. (2008a). Emotional Availability (EA) Scales Manual, 4th Edition.
Colorado: emotionalavailability.com.
Biringen, Z. (2008b). The Emotional Availability (EA) Scales, 4th edition.
Infancy/Early childhood version. Colorado: www.emotionalavailability.com.
Biringen, Z., Brown, D., Donaldson, L., Green, S., Kromarik, S., & Lovas, G.
(2000). Adult attachment interview: Linkages with dimensions of the
emotional availability for mothers and their pre-kindergarteners. Attachment
& Human Development, 2(2), 188-202.
Biringen, Z., Damon, J., Grigg, W., Mone, J., Pipp-Siegel, S., Skillern, S., &
Stratton, J. (2005). Emotional availability: Differential predictions to infant
attachment and kindergarten adjustment based on observation time and
context. Infant Mental Health Journal, 26(4), 295-308.
Biringen, Z., Matheny, A., Bretherton, I., Renouf, A., & Sherman, M. (2000).
Maternal representation of the self as parent: Connections with maternal
sensitivity and maternal structuring. Attachment & Human Development,
2(2), 218-232.
Birnholz, J. C., & Benacerraf, B. R. (1983). The development of human fetal
hearing. Science, 222(4), 516-518.
Black, K., & Lobo, M. (2008). A conceptual review of family resilience factors.
Journal of Family Nursing, 14(1), 33-55.
Boris, N. W., Aoki, Y., & Zeanah, C. H. (1999). The development of infant-parent
attachment: Considerations for assessment. Infants and Young Children,
11(4), 1-10.
Boulton-Lewis, G. M., & Wilss, L. A. (2007). Maximising data use: Mixed
qualitative methods. In P. Mayring, G. L. Huber, L. Gurtler & M.
Kiegelmann (Eds.), Mixed Methodology in Psychological Research (pp. 1523). Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and Loss (Vol. I). London: The Hogarth Press.
Bowlby, J. (1988). A Secure Base: Clinical applications of attachment theory.
London: Routledge.
Broido, E. M., & Manning, K. (2002). Philosophical foundations and current
theoretical perspectives in qualitative research. Journal of College Student
Development, 43(4), 434-445.
Bruscia, K. E. (2005). Developing theory. In B. L. Wheeler (Ed.), Music Therapy
Research (2nd ed., pp. 540-551). Gilsum: Barcelona Publishers.
Campbell, S. B. G., & Taylor, P. M. (1980). Bonding and attachment: theoretical
issues. In P. M. Taylor (Ed.), Parent-Infant Relationships (pp. 3-24). New
York: Grune & Stratton.
Cassidy, J. (2008). The nature of the child's ties. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.),
Handbook of Attachment (2nd ed., pp. 3-22). New York: The Guildford
Press.
Cassidy, J., Woodhouse, S. S., Cooper, G., Hoffman, K., Powell, B., & Rodenberg,
M. (2005). Examination of the precursors of infant attachment security. In L.
J. Berlin, Y. Ziv, L. Amaya-Jackson & M. T. Greenberg (Eds.), Enhancing
Early Attachments (pp. 34-60). New York: The Guildford Press.
Cevasco, A., M. (2008). The effects of mothers' singing on full-term and preterm
infants and maternal emotional responses. Journal of Music Therapy, 45(3),
273-306.
371
Chatoor, I., Getson, P., Himmelberg, P., Dickson, L., Schaefer, S., Egan, J., &
Einhorn, A. (1985). Observational scales for infants and mothers during
feeding and play. In Abstract in Proceedings for Papers and New Research
Posters, American Academy for Child Psychiatry. 32nd Annual Meeting.
Condon, J. T. (2010). Women’s mental health: A “wish-list” for the DSM V.
Archives of Womens Mental Health, 13(1), 5-10.
Condon, J. T., & Corkindale, C. J. (1998). The assessment of parent-to-infant
attachment: development of a self-report questionnaire instrument. Journal of
Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 16(1), 57-76.
Cozolino, L. (2010). The Neuroscience of Psychotherapy. New York: W. W Norton
& Company.
Creighton, A. (2011). Mother-infant musical interaction and emotional
communication: A literature review. Australian Journal of Music Therapy,
22, 37-56.
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research Design. Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed
Methods Approaches. (3rd ed.). California: SAGE Publications.
Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2011). Designing and Conducting Mixed
Methods Research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications.
Cunningham, J. (2011). Music therapy to promote attachment between mother and
baby in marginalised communities. In J. Edwards (Ed.), Music therapy and
parent-infant bonding. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Custodero, L. A., & Johnson-Green, E. A. (2003). Passing the cultural torch: Musical
experience and musical parening of infants. Journal of Research in Music
Education, 51(2), 102-114.
Cuthbert, C., & Stanley, K. (2011). All babies count. A new approach to preventation
and protection for vulnerable babies. Public Policy Research, 18(4), 243-247.
de l'Etoile, S. K. (2006a). Infant-directed singing: A theory for clinical intervention.
Music Therapy Perspectives, 24(1), 22-29.
de l'Etoile, S. K. (2006b). Infant behavioral responses to infant-directed singing and
other maternal interactions. Infant Behavior & Development, 29(3), 456-470.
de Vries, P. (2007). The use of music CDs and DVDs in the home with under-fives.
Australian Journal of Early Childhood, 32(4), 18-21.
DeCasper, A. J., & Fifer, W. P. (1980). Of human bonding: Newborns prefer their
mother's voices. Science, 208(4448), 1174-1176.
Delavenne, A., Gratier, M., & Devouche, E. (2013). Expressive timing in infantdirected singing between 3 and 6 months. Infant Behavior and Development,
36(1), 1-13.
Denis, A., Ponsin, M., & Callahan, S. (2012). The relationship between maternal
self-esteem, maternal competence, infant temperament and post-partum
blues. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 30(4), 388-397.
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2008). Introduction: The discipline and practice of
qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Strategies of
Qualitative Inquiry (3rd ed., pp. 1-43). California: SAGE Publications.
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.). (2005). The SAGE Hanbook of Qualitative
Research (3rd ed.). California: SAGE Publications.
Dissanayake, E. (2000). Antecedents of the temporal arts in early mother-infant
interaction. In N. L. Wallin, B. Merker & S. Brown (Eds.), The origins of
music (pp. 389-410). Cambridge: The MIT Press.
Dissanayake, E. (2009). Root, leaf, blosson, or bole: Concerning the origin and
adaptaive function of music. In S. Malloch & C. Trevarthen (Eds.),
372
Communicative Musicality: Exploring the basis of human companionship
(pp. 17-30). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Dunst, C. J. (2000). Revisiting "Rethinking Early Intervention". Topics in Early
Childhood Special Education, 20(2), 95-104.
Easterbrooks, M. A., & Biringen, Z. (2000). Guest editors' introduction to the special
issue: Mapping the terrain of emotional availability and attachment.
Attachment & Human Development, 2(2), 123-129.
Easterbrooks, M. A., Chaudhuri, J. H., & Gestsdottir, S. (2005). Patterns of
emotional availability among young mothers and their infants: a dyadic,
contextual analysis. Infant Mental Health Journal, 26(4), 309-326.
Edwards, J. (2011a). The use of music therapy to promote attachment between
parents and infants. 38(3), 190-195.
Edwards, J. (Ed.). (2011b). Music Therapy and Parent-Infant Bonding. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Egeland, B., & Erickson, M. F. (1999). Findings from the parent-child project and
implications for early intervention. Zero to Three, 20(2), 3-10.
Emde, R. N. (1980). Emotional Availability: A reciprocal reward system for infants
and parents with implications for prevention of psychosocial disorders. In P.
M. Taylor (Ed.), Parent-Infant Relationships (pp. 87-116). New York: Grune
& Stratton.
Erlandson, D. A., Harris, E. L., Skipper, B. L., & Allen, S. D. (1993). Doing
Naturalistic Inquiry. A Guide to Methods. California: SAGE Publications.
Escandón, V. (2008). Playing with culture. What is the role of musicality and play in
the transmission of culture from mother to infant? Infant Observation, 11(3),
257-274.
Falk, S. (2011). Melodic versus intonational coding of communicative functions: A
comparison of tonal contours in infant-directed song and speech.
Psychomusicology: Music, Mind & Brain, 21(1 & 2), 54-68.
Ferrara, L. (1984). Phenomenology as a tool for musical analysis. The Musical
Quarterly, 70(3), 355-373.
Ford, G. (2007). The Contented Baby's First Year. London: Vermilion.
Gardner, S. L., & Goldson, E. (2002). The neonate and the environment: Impact on
development. In G. B. Merenstein & S. Gardner (Eds.), Handbook of
Neonatal Intensive Care (5th ed.). St. Louis: Mosby.
Gratier, M., & Apter-Danon, G. (2009). The improvised musicality of belonging:
Repetition and variation in mother-infant vocal interaction. In S. Malloch &
C. Trevarthen (Eds.), Communicative Musicality. Exploring the basis of
human companionship (pp. 301-328). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Grocke, D. E. (1999). A phenomenological study of pivotal moments in Guided
Imagery and Music (GIM). PhD, University of Melbourne, Melbourne.
Haslbeck, F. B. (2012). Music therapy for premature infants and their parents: An
integrative review. Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 21(3), 203-226.
Haslbeck, F. B. (2014). The interactive potential of creative music therapy with
premature infants and their parents: A qualitative analysis. Nordic Journal of
Music Therapy, 23(1), 36-70.
Hatch, F. W., & Maietta, L. (1991). The role of kinesthesia in pre- and perinatal
bonding. Per- and Peri-natal Psychololgy Journal, 5(3), 253-270.
Hesse-Biber, S., N. (2010). Mixed Methods Research. Merging theory and practice.
New York: Guildford Press.
373
Khoshnood, B., Wall, S., Singh, J. K., Hsieh, H. L., Sriram, A., Change, Y. P., &
Lee, K. (1998). Impact of delayed childbearing on the birth prevalence of
Down Syndrome in the United States. Pediatric Research, 43(4), 219.
Kitamura, C., & Burnham, D. (2003). Pitch and communicative intent in mother's
speech: adjustments for age and sex in the first year. Infancy, 4(1), 85-110.
Lenz, G. M., & von Moreau, D. (2004). Coming together-resonance and
synchronization as a regulating factor in relationships. In M. NöckerRibaupierre (Ed.), Music Therapy for Premature and Newborn Infants (pp.
67-81). Gilsum: Barcelona Publishers.
Likierman, M. (1998). Maternal love and positive pojective identification. Journal of
Child Psychotherapy, 14(2), 29-46.
Longhi, E. (2009). 'Songese': maternal structuring of musical interaction with infants.
Psychology of music, 37(2), 195-213.
Mahler, M. S., Pine, F., & Bergman, A. (1975). The psychological birth of the
human infant: Symbiosis and individuation. In Biringen (2000). Emotional
Availability: Conceptualization and Research Findings. American Journal of
Orthopsychiatry, 70(1), 104-114.
Malloch, S., Shoemark, H., Črnceč, R., Newham, C., Paul, C., Prior, M., . . .
Burnham, D. (2012). Music therapy with hospitalized infants-the art and
science of communicative musicality. Infant Mental Health Journal, 33(4),
386-399.
Malloch, S., & Trevarthen, C. (2009). Musicality: Communicating the vitality of
interests of life. In S. Malloch & C. Trevarthen (Eds.), Communicative
Musicality. Exploring the basis of human companionship (pp. 1-11). Oxford:
Marwick, H., & Murray, L. (2009). The effects of maternal depression on the
'musicality' of infant-directed speech and conversational engagement. In S.
Malloch & C. Trevarthen (Eds.), Communicative Musicality. Exploring the
basis of human companionship (pp. 281-300). Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Mazokopaki, K., & Kugiumutakis, G. (2009). Infant rhythms: Expressions of
musical companionship. In S. Malloch & C. Trevarthen (Eds.),
Communicative Musicality. Exploring the basis of human companionship (pp.
185-208). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
McMurray, A. J., Pace, R. W., & Scott, D. (2004). Research: A Commonsense
Approach. Victoria: Thomson/Social Science Press.
Meins, E., Fernyhough, C., Russell, J., & Clark-Carter, D. (1998). Security of
attachment as a predictor of symbolic and mentalising abilities: A
longitudinal study. Social Development, 7(1), 1-24.
Milligan, K., Atkinson, L., Trehub, S. E., Benoit, D., & Poulton, L. (2003). Maternal
attachment and the communication of emotion through song. Infant Behavior
& Development, 26(1), 1-13.
Moustakas, C. (1994). Phenomenological Research Methods. California: SAGE
Publications.
Mualem, O., & Klein, P. S. (2012). The communicative characteristics of musical
interactions compared with play interactions between mothers and their oneyear-old infants. Early Child Development and Care, 0(0), 1-17, iFirst
Article.
374
Nadel, J., Carchon, I., Kervella, C., Marcelli, D., & Réserbat-Plantey, D. (1999).
Expectancies for social contingency in 2-month-olds. Developmental Science,
2(2), 164-173.
Nakata, T., & Trehub, S. E. (2004). Infants' responsiveness to maternal speech and
singing. Infant Behavior & Development, 27(4), 455-464.
Nicholson, J. M., Berthelsen, D., Abad, V., Williams, K., & Bradley, J. (2008).
Impact of music therapy to promote positive parenting and child
development. Journal of Health Psychology, 13(2), 226-238.
Nicholson, J. M., Berthelsen, D., Williams, K. E., & Abad, V. (2010). National study
of an early parenting intervention: Implementation differences on parent and
child outcomes. Prevention Science, 11(4), 360-370.
Oldfield, A., & Bunce, L. (2001). 'Mummy can play too...'. Short-term music therapy
with mothers and young children. British Journal of Music Therapy, 15(1),
27-36.
Papoušek, H. (1996). Musicality in infancy research: biological and cultural origins
of early musicality. In I. Deliège & J. Sloboda (Eds.), Musical Beginnings.
Origins and Development of Musical Competence (pp. 37-55). Oxford:
Papoušek, H. (2000). Intuitive parenting. In J. D. Osofsky & H. E. Fitzgerald (Eds.),
WAIMH Handbook of Infant Mental Health. Parenting and Child Care (Vol.
3, pp. 299-321). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Papoušek, M. (1996). Intuitive parenting: a hidden source of musical stimulation in
infancy. In I. Deliège & J. Sloboda (Eds.), Musical Beginnings. Origins and
Development of Musical Competence (pp. 88-112). Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Paris, R., Bolton, R. E., & Weinberg, M. K. (2009). Postpartum depression,
suicidality, and mother-infant interactions. . Archives of Womens Mental
Health, 12(5), 309-321.
Pasiali, V. (2012). Resilience, music therapy, and human adaption: nurturing young
children and families. Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 21(1), 36-56.
Pasiali, V. (2013). Music therapy and attachment relationships across the life span.
Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 1-22.
Patterson, J. M. (2002). Understanding family resilience. Journal of Clinical
Psychology of music, 58(3), 233-246.
Pip-Siegel, S., Brown, S. R., Easterbrooks, M. A., & Harmon, R. J. (1995). The
relation between infant's self/mother knowledge and three attachment
categories. Infant Mental Health Journal, 16(3), 221-232.
Powers, N., & Trevarthen, C. (2009). Voices of shared emotion and meaning: Young
infants and their mothers in Scotland and Japan. In S. Malloch & C.
Trevarthen (Eds.), Communicative Musicality. Exploring the basis of human
companionship (pp. 209-240). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Raikes, H. A., & Thompson, R. A. (2008). Attachment security and parenting quality
predict children's problem-solving, attributions, and loneliness with peers.
Reyna, B. A., & Pickler, R. H. (2009). Mother-infant synchrony. Journal of
Obstetric, Gynecologic and Neonatal Nursing, 38(4), 470-477.
Rock, A. M. L., Trainor, L. J., & Addison, T. L. (1999). Distinctive messages in
infant-directed lullabies and play songs. Developmental Psychology, 35(2),
527-534.
375
Schore, A. N. (2001). Effects of a secure attachment relationship on right brain
development, affect regulation and infant mental health. Infant Mental Health
Journal, 22(1-2), 7-66.
Schore, A. N. (2003). Affect Dysregulation & Disorders of the Self. New York:
W.W. Norton & Company.
Shenfield, T., Trehub, S. E., & Nakata, T. (2003). Maternal singing modulates infant
arousal. Psychology of Music, 31(4), 365-375.
Shoemark, H. (1996). Family-centred early intervention: music therapy in the
playgroup progam. The Australian Journal of Music Therapy, 7, 3-15.
Shoemark, H. (2007). The markers of interplay between the music therapist and the
medically fragile newborn infant. PhD, University of Melbourne.
Shoemark, H. (2008). Mapping progress within an individual music therapy session
with full-term hospitalized infants. Music Therapy Perspectives, 26, 38-45.
Shoemark, H., & Grocke, D. (2010). The markers of interplay between the music
therapist and the high risk full term infant. Journal of Music Therapy, 47(4),
306-334.
Siegel, D. J. (1999a). The Developing Mind. How relationships and the brain
interact to shape who we are. New York: The Guildford Press.
Siegel, D. J. (1999b). Relationships and the developing mind. Child Care
Information, 11, 48-51.
Siegel, D. J. (2001). Toward an interpersonal neurobiology of the developing mind:
Attachment relationships, "mindsight", and neural integration. Infant Mental
Health Journal, 22(1-2), 67-94.
Standley, J. M. (2003). Music Therapy with Premature infants. Research and
Developmental Interventions. United States of America: The American Music
Therapy Association.
Standley, J. M., & Madsen, C. K. (1990). Comparison of infant preferences and
responses to auditory stimuli: Music, mother, and other female voice. Journal
of Music Therapy, 27(2), 54-97.
Steele, H., Steele, M., & Croft, C. (2008). Early attachment predicts emotion
recognition at and 11 years old. Attachment & Human Development, 10(4),
379-393.
Steele, H., Steele, M., Croft, C., & Fonagy, P. (1999). Infant-mother attachment at
one year predicts children's understanding of mixed emotions at six years.
Social Development, 8(2), 161-178.
Stern, D. N. (1985). The interpersonal world of the infant. New York: Basic Books
Inc.
Stern, D. N., Jaffee, J., Beebe, B., & Bennett, S. L. (1975). Vocalising in unison and
in alteration: two modes of communication within the mother-infant dyad.
Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 263(1), 89-100.
Swanson, K., Beckwith, L., & Howard, J. (2000). Intrusive caregiving and quality of
attachment in prenatally drug-exposed toddlers and their primary caregivers.
Teti, D. M., & Cole, P. M. (2011). Parenting at risk: new perspectives, new
approaches. Journal of Family Psychology, 25(5), 625-634.
Thomas, R., & Brubaker, D. L. (2000). Theses and Dissertations: A Guide to
Planning, Research and Writing Westport: Bergin & Garvey.
Thompson, R. A. (2008). Early attachment and later development. In J. Cassidy & P.
R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of Attachment (2nd ed., pp. 348-365). New
York: The Guildford Press.
376
Trainor, L. J. (1996). Infant preferences for infant-directed versus noninfant-directed
playsongs and lullabies. Infant Behavior and Development, 19(1), 83-92.
Trainor, L. J., Clark, E. D., Huntley, A., & Adams, B. A. (1997). The acoustic basis
of preferences for infant-directed singing. Infant Behavior & Development,
20(3), 383-396.
Trainor, L. J., & Heinmiller, B. M. (1998). The development of evaluative responses
to music: Infants prefer to listen to consonance over dissonance. Infant
Behavior & Development, 21(1), 77-88.
Trainor, L. J., & Zacharias, C. A. (1998). Infants prefer higher-pitched singing.
Infant Behavior & Development, 21(4), 799-806.
Travarthen, C. (1985). Facial expressions of emotions in mother-infant interaction.
Human Neurobiol(4), 21-32.
Trehub, S. E. (2001). Musical predispositions in infancy. Annals of the New York
Academy of Science, 930(The Biological foundations of music), 1-16.
Trehub, S. E., Hill, D. S., & Kamenetsky, S. B. (1997). Parents' sung performances
for infants. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 51(4), 385-396.
Trehub, S. E., & Schellenberg, E. G. (1995). Music: its relevance to infants. Annals
of Child Development, 11, 1-24.
Trehub, S. E., Thorpe, L. A., & Morrongiello, B. A. (1987). Organizational processes
in infants' perception of auditory patterns. Child Development, 58(3), 741749.
Trehub, S. E., Unyk, A. M., Kamenetsky, S. B., Hill, D. S., Trainor, L. J.,
Henderson, J. L., & Saraza, M. (1997). Mothers' and fathers' singing to
infants. Developmental Psychology, 33(3), 500-507.
Trevarthen, C., & Malloch, S. N. (2000). The dance of wellbeing: Defining the
musical therapeutic effect. Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 9(2), 3-17.
Trevarthen, C., & Malloch, S. N. (2002). Musicality and music before three: Human
vitality and invention shared with pride. Zero to three, 23(1), 10-18.
Trolldalen, G. (1997). Music therapy and interplay: A music therapy project with
mothers and children elucidated through the concept of appreciative
recognition. Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 6(1), 14-27.
Tsang, C. D., & Conrad, N. J. (2010). Does the message matter? The effect of song
type on infants' pitch preferences for lullabies and playsongs. . Infant
Behavior & Development, 33(1), 96-100.
Tucci, J., Mitchell, J., & Goddard, C. (2005). The Changing Face of parenting.
Exploring the attitudes of parents in contemporary Australia. Victoria:
Australian Childhood Foundation.
Vlismas, W. (2007). The effects of music and movement on mother-infant
interactions. PhD, University of Western Sydney, Sydney.
Vlismas, W., & Bowes, J. (1999). First-time mothers' use of music and movement
with their young infants: The impact of a teaching program. Early Child
Development and Care, 159(1), 43-51.
Vlismas, W., Malloch, S., & Burnham, D. (2012). The effects of music and
movement on mother-infant interaction. Early Child Development and Care,
182(13), 1-20.
Walker, W. (2005). The strengths and weaknesses of research designs involving
quantitative measures. Journal of Research in Nursing, 10(5), 571-582.
Wallin, D. J. (2007). Attachment in Psychotherapy. New York: The Guildford Press.
Walsh, F. (2002). A family resilience framework: innovative practice applications.
Family Relations, 51(2), 130-137.
377
Walsh, F. (2003). Family resilience: a framework for clinical practice. Family
Process, 42(1), 1-18.
Walworth, D. D. (2009). Effects of developmental music groups for parents and
premature or typical infants under two years on parental responsivemeness
and infant social development. Journal of Music Therapy, 46(4), 32-52.
Weinberg, M. K., & Tronick, E. Z. (1994). Beyond the face: An empirical study of
infant affective configurations of facial, vocal, gestural, and regulatory
behaviours. Child Development, 65(5), 1503-1515.
Weinfield, N. S., Sroufe, L. A., Egeland, B., & Carlson, E. (2008). Individual
differences in infant-caregiver attachment. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver
(Eds.), Handbook of Attachment (2nd ed., pp. 78-101). New York: The
Guildford Press.
Werner, E. E. (1990). Protective factors and individual resilience. In R. Meisells & J.
Shonkoff (Eds.), Handbook of early intervention. (pp. 115-132). Cambridge:
Cambridge.
Werner, E. E. (1995). Resilience in development. Current Directions in
Psychological Science, 4(3), 81-85.
Wheeler, B. L. (2005). Overview of music therapy research. In B. L. Wheeler (Ed.),
Music Therapy Research (2nd ed., pp. 3-19). Gilsum: Barcelona Publishers.
Wigram, T., Pederson, I. N., & Bonde, L. O. (2004). A Comprehensive Guide to
Music Therapy. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
Woodhouse, S. S. (2010). Dyadic interactions as precursors to attachment security:
implications for intervention and research. Attachment & Human
Development, 12(1), 151-157.
Young, S. (2008). Lullaby light shows: everyday musical experience among under
two-year-olds. International Journal of Music Education, 26(33), 33-46.
Ziv, Y., Aviezer, O., Gini, M., Sagi, A., & Koren-Karie, N. (2000). Emotional
availability in the mother-infant dyad as related to the quality of infantmother attachment relationship. Attachment & Human Development, 2(2),
149-169.
378

play songs and lullabies: features of emotional communication and

Transcription

Similar documents

gina putri singer / live pa

DEBOJIT SAHA

SpringCarSalePC.PowerRideFINAL copy

Interview - Blue Star Ferries

Funny Pets - Today in Mississippi

Mizraim Esquilin - Spirituality and Cognitive Function

Make tax season less taxing - Singing River FCU | Moss Point

Dawn Foss will be singing on January 2 @ 7:30 pm Dawn Foss will

our Brochure