- The World Working Group on Birds of Prey and Owls

Birds of Prey Bull. No. 3 (1986)
Status and Conservation of Raptors
in the West Indies
James W. Wiley
Abstract: West Indian ecosystems have undergone extensive changes since
the arrival of Europeans almost 500 years ago. Massive deforestation,
introduced predators and competitors, and shooting are major reasons for
declines in West Indian bird populations. Several raptor species are of
particular concern, including the Cuban and Grenadan populations of the
Hook-billed Kite (Chondrohierax uncinatus),
Snail Kite CRostrhamus
sociabilis), the Cubali^ Hispaniolan, and Puerto Rican races of the Sharpshinned Hawk (Accipiter striatus), Gundlach's Hawk (A. gundlachi),
Ridgway's Hawk (Buteo ridgwayi), Puerto Rican Broad-winged Hawk (Buteo
platypterus brunnescens), Newton's Screech-Owl (Otus nudipes newtoni),
Lesser Antillean populations of the Burrowing Owl (Athene cunicularus),
Stygian Owl (Asio stygius), and Jamaican Owl (Pseudoscops grammicus).
There is concern that exotic parrots and European Starlings ( Sturnus
vulgaris) recently introduced to Puerto Rico may compete with American
Kestrels (Falco sparverius) for cavity nest sites. Wintering populations of
the Merlin (F. columbarius) and the Peregrine Falcon (F. peregrinus)
continue to accumulate persistent pesticides in the West Indies where these
chemicals are not controlled. The Puerto Rican Short-eared Owl (Asio
flammeus) was formerly considered close to extinction, but has recently
become more numerous and widespread. The status of these raptors, threats
to their populations, and conservation efforts are discussed.
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Since the arrival of the first Europeans nearly 500 years ago, the West
Indies have undergone extensive environmental changes that have adversely
affected the region's avifauna. Habitat changes related to agricultural
development have had the most severe and widespread impact on bird populations. Man has introduced numerous competitors and predators of native
birds that have further changed the character of the islands' ecosystems.
Traditional shooting habits and superstitions have also had a severe
detrimental effect on the avifauna of most islands.
Several raptor species have been critically affected by these environmental
changes. The objective of this paper is to update and expand on my earlier
review (Wiley 1985) of the status and conservation of raptors in the West
Indies. I have included those species or populations that regional conservationists consider currently threatened or that will likely encounter
problems in the future.
KITES, HAWKS, AND FALCONS
Populations of nine species of diurnal raptors are declining in the West
Indies. Two of these, the Merlin (Falco columbarius) and Peregrine Falcon
57
(F. peregrinus), are not resident ill the region but contaminants they
accumulate in the West Indies may be affecting their reproductive potential
(Peakall et al. 1975 , Springer et al. 1984).
HOOK-BILLED KITE (Chondrohierax unicinatus)
Two populations of the Hook-billed Kite occur in the West Indies,
Chondrohierax unicinatus wilsonii in eastern Cuba and Chondrohierax
unicinatus mirus on Grenada in the Lesser Antilles. The Cuban population
is often regarded as a distinct species, the Cuban Kite (Chondrohierax
wilsonii), but recent work by Smith and Temple (1982a) supports subspecific differentiation between the two populations.
Gundlach (1874) observed Hook-billed Kites in moist forest from the eastern
end of Cuba south-west to the Cienaga de Zapata. However, the present
range is restricted to a small area in the Oriente Province (Bond 1956;
Garrido in King 1978; Garrido & Garcia Montarla 1975) and to Nibujon and
Baracoa, Guantanamo Province (Garrido 1985; Wotzkow, pers. comm.).
Greenway (1967) suggested that the Cuban population might be in danger of
extinction, but Garrido and Garcia Montana (1975), have recently reported
it as rare, but localized. More recently, Garrido (1985) described this
species as the rarest of Cuban hawks and declining. King (1978) also lists
the Cuban population as rare.
The Cuban Hook-billed Kite is dependent on tree snails (Polymite and possibly Ligus; Wotzkow, unpubl. ms.) as food, and is restricted to those areas
where snails are abundant. Garrido (in King 1978) has suggested that the
harvesting of these ornamental snails by man be prohibited by the Cuban
government as a conservation measure for the kite. Although the species is
protected by Cuban law, indiscriminate shooting of all raptors is still a
serious problem in the country (Wotzkow, pers. comm.).
The Grenada population is listed as endangered (King 1978). Indeed, it has
been considered on the verge of extinction (Bond 1979), or possibly extinct
(King 1978). However, Smith and Temple (1982b) found the species extant,
though uncommon in 1980, when they observed an estimated eight individuals
all within the xeric woodlands of southern Grenada. Kites previously
occurred in other regions of the island, but probably suffered from habitat
loss because much of Grenada's forested lands have been cleared (King
1978). Smith and Temple (1982b) reported kites feeding on tree snails
(Bulimulus wiebesi and Endoiichotus grenadensis) and that snail densities
were greatest in the island's southern regions.
Smith and Temple (1982b) listed several factors threatening the survival of
the kite on Grenada: (1) continuing destruction of snail habitats; (2)
depletion of native snail populations through pest control efforts and the
introduction of exotic snails, some of which are predators of other snails;
and (3) shooting, which is legal during most of the year. They viewed its
potential for survival as doubtful because of its small numbers and the
many serious threats to the population.
SNAIL KITE (Rostrhamus sociabilis)
The Snail Kite occurs on Cuba and the Isle of Pines (Isle of Youth), where
it was formerly abundant throughout suitable habitat (Gundlach 1874, Bangs
and Zappey 1905). It has been given subspecific distinction (R^ s^ levis;
Friedmann 1950), but Amadon (1975) showed that this population was ISxonomically inseparable from R^ s^ plumbeus of Florida.
58
Bor1Ci (1956) reported the Snsil Kite on Cuba and the Isle of Pines wherever
suitable marshlands occurred. He considered it locally common in western
Cuba, though rather rare and localized on the Isle of Pines. Garrido and
Garcia Montana (1975) reported it throughout Cuba and the Isle of Pines,
and considered it common in certain marshes, including Laguna del Tesoro
and throughout the Cienaga de Zapata. Beissinger et al. (1983) counted at
least 55 Snail Kites in the eastern Cienaga de Zapata in 1982.
The species is dependent on the freshwater snail Pomacea for food.
Drainage of freshwater marshes essential to the snail led to a decline in the
population of kites in Cuba as early as the 1920s (Barbour 1923). Wotzkow
(pers. comm.) reported the population suffered a serious decline in the
1960s and 1970s, perhaps from additional marsh drainage. However, he
believes the recent construction of dykes and flooding of fields for rice
crops may have contributed to a population increase. Indeed, Garrido
(1985) reports the Snail Kite is increasing in numbers. Beissinger et al.
(1983) found Pomacea snails abundant in the Laguna del Tesoro in 19821
Part of the Cienaga de Zapata, perhaps the most important Snail Kite
habitat in Cuba, has been designated a National Park and should protect
that population from habitat loss and shooting. All species of Falconiformes
are now protected by law in Cuba.
SHARP-SHINNED HAWK (Accipter striatus)
The three West Indian races of the Sharp-shinned Hawk (Accipiter striatus
fringilloides - Cuba, A. s. striatus - IIispaniola, A. s. venator - Puerto
Rico) have undergone apparent population declines related to loss of mature
forest. In Cuba, the sharpshin formerly inhabited lowland wet forests (now
destroyed), but today it is found only in remnant montane forests at
middle elevations (Garrido & Garcia Montana 1975, Garrido 1985). In the
1930s it was common in the Sierra de los Organos, Pinar del Rio Province,
and the Havana Province, but it is now rare in both areas (Wotzkow, pers.
comm.). Garrido (1967, 1985) considered it rare in Cuba, but it has
generally been reported as widespread (though uncommon) in suitable
habitat throughout Cuba and the Isle of Pines (Bond 1956; Garrido & Garcia
Montana 1975; Berovides et al. 1982; Garrido 1985; Wotzkow, pers. comm.).
vv'otzkow (unpubl. ms.) claims sharpshin populations have declined substantially throughout Cuba. King (1978) listed the Cuban race as very rare and
decreasing. Although protected by law, the Sharp-shinned Hawk is shot by
local farmers and hunters (Wotzkow, pers. comm.).
Wetmore and Swales (1931) found the sharpshin to be locally common in the
interior forests of IIispaniola. Bond (1956) reported this species in pine
forests of Hispaniola. More recently, Dod (1978, 1981) reported the
sharpshin as rare in the Dominican Republic. Between 1975 and 1982, I found
it only in extensive mature forests (pine, dry evergreen, wet limestone
karst, wet upper montane, cloud forest), where it was rare.
The Puerto Rican Sharp-shinned Hawk has been more extensively studied
than the other two West Indian populations (Cruz & Delannoy 1982, 1983,
1984; Delannoy 1982, 1984; Wiley & Snyder, unpubl. data). This race has
been reported only from forested areas of the island (reviewed in Cruz &
Delannoy 1984). Before the destruction of much of the island's forests
beginning in the 18th century, the shtri»sldn probably inhabited forested
areas throughout the island. Now it occurs only in the limited original
forests ( e . g . , Sierra de Luquillo, forest remnants in the Sierra de Cayey
and Cordillera Central) and has also adapted to the extensive regeneration
forests and plantations ( e . g . , Maricao). Populations may be increasing with
the expansion of second growth forest in abandoned agriculture lands. Still,
vigorous conservation measures should be instituted since current numbers
are small. Cruz and Delannoy (1983) estimated the island-wide population at
230-250 individuals. Locally, Raffaele et al. (1977) considered the Puerto
Rican Sharp-shinned Hawk in danger of extinction, whereas Perez-Rivera
(1979) listed it as vulnerable. King (1978) regarded this race as rare. The
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is considering a petition to add the Puerto
Rican Sharp-shinned Hawk to the list of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife
(Federal Register 1981).
Several environmental factors have probably limited population growth of the
Puerto Rican Sharp-shinned Hawk. Parasitism by warble fly ( Phiiornis
(Neomusca) pici and P. obscura) larvae has been an important source of
chick loss in some populations. Delannoy (1982) reported up to 95% of
hawk chicks in his Maricao study area parasitized in certain years and
warble fly larvae were probably responsible for 86% of chick mortality (n =
29 chicks). In contrast, 15% of the 78 chicks (n = 33 nests) studied in the
Sierra de Luquillo between 1973 and 1985 were parasitized (Wiley & Snyder,
unpubl. data).
Egg and young chick prédation by the Pearly-eyed Thrasher CMargarops
fuscatus) is another factor in sharpshin nest loss. Prédation by thrashers
likely accounted for at least 66% of the hawk egg and chick losses at 33
nests studied in the Sierra de Luquillo population (Wiley & Snyder, unpubl.
data).
GUNDLACH'S HAWK (Accipter gundlachi)
Gundlach's Hawk is endemic to Cuba, where it inhabits mangroves, open
woodland, and forests, primarily in the lowlands.
Little is known of gundlachi's biology (see Balat & Gonzalez 1982, Wiley
1985, for reviews). In the late 19th century, Gundlach (in Barbour 1943)
reported the species as "Not rare in the woods but uncommon about cleared
lands". Despite Barbour's (1943) extensive work in Cuba between 1915 and
1943, he was unable to locate Gundlach's Hawk. Bond (1956) considered the
species very rare, whereas Garrido and Garcia Montana (1975) described it
as not common. Garrido (1967) considered Gundlach's Hawk and the Sharpshinned Hawk as the rarest hawks in Cuba, with A^ gundlachi being the
rarer of the two. Brown and Amadon (1968) suggested that the species was
"now perhaps nearly or quite extinct". Nevertheless, recent sightings by
Garrido and Garcia Montana (1975), Wotzkow (pers. comm.), and others
suggest that the species is still widely distributed throughout Cuba. It may
be that the bird is very secretive in its habits (as suggested by Garrido
and Schwartz 1969). On the other hand, the infrequent sightings of this
species may be an accurate representation of its status; i . e . , it may be
suffering from the effects of habitat destruction and other factors, and
declining in numbers. Indeed, Wotzkow (pers. comm.) believes many hawks
are being destroyed by shooting and no legal actions are being taken to
prevent this. Also, young birds are being harvested for captivity or for
the foreign raptor trade. However, Wotzkow (pers. comm.) claims that
Gundlach's Hawk populations have suffered most from the destruction of
forests.
Observations by Wotzkow (pers. comm.) suggest that the largest populations are in three provinces: Las Villas (Escambray), Matanzas (Cienaga
de Zapata), and Pinar del Rio (Mil Cumbres). Wotzkow estimated the popu-
60
Iation around Piaya Giron and the Laguna del Tesoro in the Cienaga de
Zapata to be about 20 pairs, for which the Cienaga de Zapata National Park
should provide protection. However, other populations need to be located
and protected. Wotzkow and I have recently begun a study of the ecology
and behaviour of Gundlach's IIawk in the Cienaga de Zapata. We will also be
investigating the status and distribution of the species throughout Cuba.
RIDGWAY'S HAWK (Buteo ridgwayi)
Ridgway's Hawk is endemic to Hispaniola and the surrounding small islands
(Beata, Gonave, Ile-a-Vache, Alto Velo, Grand Cayemite, and Petite
Cayemite). It was formerly common throughout most of the forests of
Hispaniola, but its range has been much reduced by the extensive cutting
of timber (Wiley and Wiley 1981). It is more common in the virgin forests
than in degraded areas, but the species apparently has a wide tolerance for
habitat types and for that reason its survival probably is not presently
threatened rangewide. However, with the widespread and acceleratingdestruction of its habitat in the Dominican Republic and especially Haiti,
there is concern for its future.
Much of the wet limestone forest of Los Haitises in north-eastern Dominican
Republic, perhaps the most important habitat for Ridgway's Hawk, has
recently been designated a national park. However, this is still being
destroyed by slash-and-burn agriculture. Other populations of this hawk
should be located and their habitats protected. Although protected by law
in the Dominican Republic, this species and all other raptors are
indiscriminately shot. Public education programmes to reduce shooting and
habitat destruction have been limited in scope and largely ineffective (Dod,
pers. comm.; pers. obs.).
BROAD-WINGED HAWK (Buteo platypterus)
The Broad-winged Hawk is resident in the Antilles on Cuba and Puerto
Rico, and from Antigua south to Grenada and Tobago. North American birds
also migrate to western Cuba. Only one specimen has been collected in
liispaniola (Wetmore & Swales 1931), and the broadwing has not been observed there in recent years (Dod 1978, pers. obs.). Throughout the
Antilles it prefers large expanses of old-age forest.
Barbour (1943) reported that in Cuba the Broad-winged Hawk (B • p.
cubanensis) was far less rare than the Red-tailed Hawk (Buteo jamaicensis),
and more widely distributed. However, he also reported that the broadwing was disappearing because of deforestation. Garrido and Garcia Montana
(1975) considered it common throughout Cuba. Although Wotzkow (unpubl.
ms.) described it as widespread in suitable habitat throughout Cuba, he
reported that it has apparently declined in some areas where it was
formerly abundant, listing shooting and habitat destruction as the primary
factors in the species' decline.
GundIach (1878) reported the Broad-winged IIawk (B. p. brunnescens) as
common in Puerto Rico in the 19th century. However, by 1911 Wetmore
(1927) reported it as rare and perhaps extinct. The species' decline is
primarily the result of the near-complete clearing of virgin forests on the
island. Wetmore (1927) reported it in lowland forests, but this habitat has
been destroyed.
Sizeable tracts of old-age forest are apparently essential for broadwing
survival in Puerto Rico. Breeding populations are now only known to exist
61
within the virgin forest of the Sierra de Luquillo (estimated 40-50 birds),
in eastern Puerto Rico, and in the second-growth forests of the wet limestone karst region around Rio Abajo (about 40-60 birds) in the north-west
(American Ornithologists Union 1976, Wiley & Snyder, unpubl. data). King
(1978) listed the Puerto Rican race as rare. Raffaele et al. (1977) and
Pérez-Rivera (1979) considered it endangered. The Puerto Rican populations
are now being considered for inclusion on the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service's Threatened and Endangered Wildlife list.
The Broad-winged Hawk is apparently doing well on several Lesser Antillean
islands where considerable habitat remains: Antigua (B. p. insulicola;
Arendt, pers. comm.), Dominica and St. Lucia (B. p. rivierei; Arendt,
pers. comm.; pers. obs.), and St. Vincent (B. p. antillarum; Arendt,
pers. comm.).
AMERICAN KESTREL (Falco sparverius)
The American Kestrel is resident from the Bahamas (north to Long Island,
Rum Cay and San Salvador) through the Antilles (rare south of Guadeloupe). It is generally common and widespread in suitable open and semiopen habitats. Kestrel populations have probably increased with clearing of
the original contiguous forests on most of the islands.
The recent colonization of Puerto Rico by several cavity-nesting species of
parrots and the European Starling (Sturnus vulgaris) has to led to some
displacement of breeding kestrels (pers. obs.). No declines in kestrel
populations have yet been noted, out the continued importation and spread
of exotics pose a threat to native raptor species that require cavities for
nesting.
MERLIN (Falco columbarius)
AND PEREGRINE FALCON (F. peregrinus)
The Mexiin and Peregrine Falcon winter throughout the West Indies, where
they frequent coastal areas and mature or partially degraded forests to high
altitudes. The widespread destruction of coastal and forest habitats
throughout the West Indies has likely severely reduced the foraging and
roosting habitats of these falcons.
Although the use of persistent pesticides has declined in countries where
Merlins and Peregrine Falcons nest, these falcons will continue to accumulate organochlorines on their wintering range, since the use of these
chemicals has increased in other parts of the world, including the West
Indies (Peakall et al. 1975, Springer, et al. 1984, Evans & Rosenfield
1985). An international effort to eliminate these contaminants from
throughout the falcons' range needs to be undertaken.
OWLS
Little is known about the biology and status of the several species of owls
that inhabit the West Indies. Many are dependent on mature forests for
nesting cavities. Populations have undoubtedly declined with the destruction
of most of the islands' mature forests. Smaller species ( e . g . , Puerto Rican
Screech-Owl Otus nudipes, Bare-legged OwJ Gymnoglaux lawrencii, Cuban
Pygmy-Owl Glaucidium siju) may not have been as adversely affected by the
loss of mature forest as larger owls, since smaller cavities are more common
in the extensive second-growth forests and plantations on some islands.
Some owl species may be increasing in numbers and range on several islands where agriculture has declined and secondary forests have replaced
62
croplands.
In several countries, all owls are persecuted by man because of the belief
that these birds harbour evil qualities (Barbour 1943; Dod 1978, 1983;
Raffaele 1983). Although local regulations exist for protecting them on some
islands, these are not enforced (Dod 1978). Even if better enforcement
existed, local superstitions would probably prevail. There is an urgent need
for a public education programme to change attitudes toward owls throughout Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Jamaica, and perhaps Cuba.
NEWTON'S OR VIRGIN ISLANDS SCREECH-OWL (Otus nudipes newtoni)
The nominate race of the Puerto Rican Screech-Owl (Otus nudipes) is
common throughout suitable forest and woodland habitats in Puerto Ricol The
Virgin Islands race (O. n. newtoni) has been confirmed only from Vieques,
St. Thomas, St. John and St. Croix (Bond 1956), where it is presently
very rare or extinct. Screech-owls, probably the nudipes race, have
recently been heard on Tortola, British Virgin Islands (Bond 1967), and
Cuiebra (Wiley 1985). Lazell (in litt. 1983) found screech-owls on Guana
Island, British Virgin Islands. I failed to locate this species on St. John or
Vieques Island during searches made between 1974 and 1978. However, Leck
(1975) and Nellis (1979) reported screech-owls on St. Croix in 1971 and
1972. Raffaele et al. (1977) listed the nudipes race as endangered or
extirpated throughout its range.
The Puerto Uican Screech-Owi prefers dense woodlands and forests, but
will inhabit small thickets and groves of large trees in urban areas. The
limiting environmental factor for this species appears to be nesting and
roosting cavities. Most trees containing cavities were cut to make way for
agriculture throughout the range of the nudipes race. Habitat destruction
was probably the major factor in the decline of Newton's Screech-Owl
(Raffaele et al. 1977). Natural reforestation on some of the islands
(especially St. John and Vieques) may provide suitable habitat for the owl,
it it still exists there.
Screech-owls in Puerto Rico readily accept artificial nest boxes. Use of
these may be a conservation strategy on St. Croix, where suitable trees are
still limiting (Wiley 1985). James Lazell (in litt. 1983) is investigating the
potential of this technique in the British Virgin Islands.
Robert Norton and David Nellis of the United States Virgin Islands Bureau
of Fish and Wildlife have begun a survey of owl populations throughout the
territory. If screech-owl populations are located, Nellis and Norton will
provide nest boxes to improve nesting habitat.
BURROWING OWL (Athene cunicularia)
The Burrowing Owl occurs in the Bahamas, western Cuba (western Pinar
del Rio), eastern Cuba (near Guantanamo), Hispaniola (including Gonave
and Beata islands), and, at least formerly, the northern Lesser Antilles
(St. Kitts, Nevis, Antigua, Redonda, and Marie Galante) (American Ornithologists' Union 1983). Greunway (1967) reported that the two races from
the Lesser Antilles were thought to be extinct: A. c. guadeloupenis from
Marie Galante, and A. c. amaura from Antigua, Nevis, and St. Kitts.
Introduced mammals (European rats Rattus rattus and R. norvegicus, small
Indian mongoose Herpestes auropunctatus) were probably responsible for
the extirpation of the Burrowing Owl on some of the Lesser Antilles (Bond
1956). Exotic mammals are an important source of mortality of these ground-
63
nesting' owls in other parts of their range (e.g. Ilispaniola; pers. obs.).
There is the constant threat that mongoose and other exotics will be
introduced to small islands (e.g. Beata) that still harbour Burrowing Owl
populations.
STYGIAN OWL (Asio stygius)
The Stygian Owl occurs in the West Indies in Cuba, Isle of Pines,
Ilispaniola, and its satellite, Gonave Island. Although formerly a common
species in parts of its range (Garrido & Garcia Montana 1975), it is now
considered rare in the West Indies. Dod (1983) reported that its status in
the Dominican Republic has not changed since Wetmore and Swales (1931)
described it as rare in the early part of the 20th century. I have only
encountered this species once (Los Naranjos, near Puerto Escondido) in
extensive searches in various parts of the Dominican Republic between 1975
and 1982. Bond (1956) considered it rare in the Dominican Republic, but
more numerous there than in Haiti. This is not surprising considering the
greater habitat destruction that has occurred in Haiti during the past 200
years.
The Stygian Owl has been consistently reported as rare or uncommon in
Cuba and the Isle of Pines in the 20th century (Todd 1916, Barbour 1943,
Bond 1956), although Bond (1956) described it as widespread in suitable
habitat.
Little is known about the Stygian Owl in the West Indies, although several
authors have emphasized its dependence on extensive tracts of old-growth
forest (Gundlach 1874; Todd 1916; Wetmore & Swales 1931; Dod 1978, 1983;
pers. obs.). Habitat destruction is likely the most important factor in the
declines of owl populations in the region. Gundlach (1874) reported the
species' decline in number as a result of deforestation in Cuba. Dod (1983)
also gave destruction of virgin forests as an important factor in the decline
of the Stygian Owl in the Dominican Republic. Virgin forests are disappearing rapidly throughout Hispaniola (pers. obs.). Two newly-created
national parks, Parque del Este and Parque de Los Haitises (Monte Bonito),
still harbour Stygian Owl populations (Dod 1983), but forests are quickly
disappearing from both.
The food habits of the Stygian Owl in the West Indies are poorly known,
although mammals probably form the major portion of its diet. Dod (1983)
suggested that the loss of several small mammal species from the islands'
ecosystems may have contributed to the owl's decline. Competition by introduced rats (Rattus rattus and R. norvegicus) may have eliminated some of
the native mammals important as prey (Varona 1974, Ottenwalder in Dod
1983). However, a Stygian Owl I studied at Los Naranjos, south-western
Dominican Republic, fed on black rats (Rattus rattus, 86% of 7 prey items)
and a Gray-headed Quail-Dove (Geotrygon caniceps; unpubl. data, based on
7 pellets). Thus introduced species may have replaced native mammal
species in the owl's diet. However, introduced rats, which occur throughout
the owl's range, may be important egg and chick predators of this
open-nesting species.
Dod (1983) reported that the Stygian Owl is persecuted by local people
because of their fear of this species as a "devil" or "witch". Also it has
been a victim of the uncontrolled shooting of all large birds in the
Dominican Republic (Dod 1983, pers. obs.).
Stygian Owl populations need immediate attention in the West Indies. Habitat
64
preservation and better protection against shooting are essential to save the
species from extirpation, particularly in Haiti and the Dominican Republic.
Data on its life history are needed to develop strategies for its
conservation.
SHORT-EARED OWL (Asio flammeus)
The Short-eared Owl breeds in Cuba, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico
(American Ornithologists' Union 1983). It is still common on Hispaniola (Dod
1981, pers. obs.), but Garrido and Garcia Montana (1975) consider it only
a rare winter visitor to Cuba, and the Puerto Rican race (A. f\
portoricensis) has been considered in danger of extinction ( Raffaele ~et aTT
1977).
This species prefers grasslands and open woodlands, and has probably
benefited from the clearing of the forests for agriculture. The shift from
extensive sugar cane plantations to fallow savannahs during the past 20
years has undoubtedly provided additional habitat for it in Puerto Rico.
The Puerto Rican Short-eared-Owl has responded to habitat improvement
and is now found in small numbers in suitable habitat throughout the island
(Pérez-Rivera et al. 1977 , pers. obs.). It has recently been recommended
for removal from the local endangered species list (Pérez-Rivera 1979).
Exotic mammals have been important predators of this ground-nesting owl
(Raffaele et al. 1977, Dod 1978, pers. obs.). and probably limit population
growth.
JAMAICAN OWL (Pseudoscops grammicus)
Little is known about the ecology and status of the Jamaican Owl. It prefers
open woodland and savannah, but requires cavities for nesting (Scott 1892,
Grossman & Hamlet 1964). Therefore, the extensive cutting of forests (Cruz
& Fairbairn 1980) has probably reduced its range and numbers.
Scott (1892) found the Jamaican Owl not rare near Priestman's River. Bond
(1956) said it was not uncommon and widespread. Cruz (1972) reported this
species as a rare to uncommon resident of the cockpit and tower karst
habitat in the Lluidas Vale (Worthy Park) region of Jamaica, athough Cruz
acknowledges that the owl's nocturnal behaviour may have been a biasing
factor in his assesment. Lack (1976) characterized the Jamaican Owl as
regular in rich lowland and wet mid-level natural forests, but did not find
it in montane forests.
Because of its dependence on larger trees for nesting, it would be
advisable to monitor the status of the Jamaican Owl while the island's
forests continue to be destroyed.
CONCLUSIONS
The raptor populations of the West Indies have undergone considerable
change within the last century. Although some populations ( e . g . , Puerto
Rican Short-eared Owl, perhaps Snail Kite in Cuba) may be increasing in
numbers and range, most species have experienced declines. The Burrowing
Owl populations have recently been lost from the Lesser Antilles, and
Newton's Screech-OwI may also be extinct. Populations of the Hook-billed
Kite on Grenada, Puerto Rican Sharp-shinned and Broad-winged Hawks, and
Stygian Owl in Hispaniola have declined to precariously low numbers. Those
of several other species ( e . g . , Ridgway's Hawk, Hispaniolan and Cuban
65
Sharp-shinned Hawks, Gundlach's Hawk, Cuban Broad-winged Hawk,
Burrowing Owl on Hispaniola, Stygian Owl in Cuba) are steadily declining.
Factors responsible for these declines are many, but habitat destruction has
been the major cause of raptor problems in the region (Table 1). Indeed,
habitat loss has been cited as a factor in the decline of 13 of the 22 raptor
species or populations of concern in the islands (Table 1). Shooting has
also had an important negative effect; declines in 7 populations are thought
to be the result of this factor.
Because of the fragile nature of island ecosystems and heavy demands on
forested lands for agriculture and urban development, West Indian raptor
populations need to be closely monitored for changes. However, there is a
general lack of basic status and ecological data for most raptors in the
region and it is difficult to assess present population levels without such
background information. These data are essential to the conservation
programmes needed in the region.
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Table 1.
Summary of the status of certain raptor species of concern in
the West Indies and Bahamas, and major factors limiting
populations.
„
Species
r
n
1
Population
r
o. *
Status
Maior known factors limiting
..
,
, ..
°
or threatening populations
Hook-billed
Kite
Cuba
Rare,
declining
Destruction of food resources
Grenada
Near
extinction
Habitat loss; shooting;
destruction of food resources
Cuba
Locally
common,
increasing?
Habitat loss
Snail Kite
69
Table 1 (continued, page 2).
Rare,
declining
Habitat loss; shooting
Hispaniola
Rare,
declining
Habitat loss
Puerto Rico
230-250
birds
Habitat loss; prédation by
Pearly-eyed Thrasher;
warble fly parasitism
Gundlach's
Hawk
Cuba
Rare
declining
Habitat loss; shooting;
harvesting for captivity
Ridgvvay's
Hawk
Hispaniola
Uncommon,
declining
Habitat loss; shooting
Broad-winged
Hawk
Cuba
Common,
declining
Habitat loss; shooting
Puerto Rico
80-110
Habitat loss
Sharp-shinned Cuba
Hawk
birds
Merlin
Throughout
West Indies
Unknown
Chemical pollutants
Peregrine
Falcon
Throughout
West Indies
Unknown
Chemical pollutants
Newton's
Screech-Owl
Virgin
Islands,
Vieques,
Culebra
Perhaps
extinct
Habitat loss
Burrowing
Owl
Bahamas,Cuba Unknown
Stygian Owl
Short-eared
Owl
Jamaican Owl
Prédation by rats
Hispaniola
Common,
declining
Lesser
Antilles
Extinct
Cuba
Rare,
declining
Habitat loss; shooting
Hispaniola
Very rare,
declining
Habitat loss; shooting
Cuba
Rare
Hispaniola
Common
Puerto Rico
Increasing
Prédation by mongoose and rats
Jamaica
Common,
declining?
Habitat loss
70
Prédation by mongoose and rats
Prédation by mongoose and rats