Untitled

Aachen – abalone
Aa
Aachen Aachen (French name: Aix-la-Chapelle)
50 46N 06 06E A spa city in W Germany, in North
Rhine-Westphalia near the Belgian and Dutch borders. It is an important industrial centre with iron
and steel and textile industries. History: it was the
N capital of Charlemagne’s empire and many Holy
Roman Emperors were crowned in the cathedral
(founded in 796 ad). It was annexed by France in
1801 and passed to Prussia (1815). Extensively damaged during World War II, it was the first major German city captured by the Allies (1944). Population
(1996 est): 247 923.
Aalborg See Ålborg.
Aalto, Alvar (1898–1976) Finnish architect and de-
Aardvark
signer. His reputation is based on the Paimio tuberculosis sanatorium (1933). Other buildings include
a hall of residence at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (1948) and the Helsinki Hall of Culture
(1958).
aardvark (Afrikaans: earth pig) A nocturnal African
Abacus
Calculating frame
mammal, Orycteropus afer, also called ant bear. It is
about 1.5 m long, lives in grassland, and has a long
snout, large ears, and a thick tail. Its strong claws
are used to dig burrows and tear open the mounds
of termites, which are picked up with its long sticky
tongue. The aardvark is the only member of its order (Tubulidentata).
Aaron In the Old Testament, the elder brother of
Moses. Although he allowed the golden calf to be
built, his descendants became the priests of the
Jews.
abacus 1. A calculating device consisting of balls
strung on wires or rods set in a frame, probably of
Babylonian origin. Its use declined in Europe with
the introduction of Arabic numerals in about the
10th century ad. 2. A detail of column.
Abadan Abadan 30 20N 48 15E A city in SW Iran,
Abacus
Detail of Doric column.
The abacus is shown in
red.
on an island in the Shatt (river) al-Arab. Much of
Iran’s oil is brought here by pipeline for refining or
exporting. Population (1991 est): 87 774.
abalone A marine gastropod mollusc belonging to
Alphabet
The word covers a series of symbols that by themselves, or in combination with each other, represent
the different sounds in a language. The symbols, letters, stand in an order which varies widely between
different alphabets. The sequence that we recognize here has probably been decided by the succession of pictures on which the letters was originally
based, which probably had a magical significance.
In some Indian alphabets, however, the letters are
arranged phonetically, i.e., according to where they
are formed in the mouth.
The great advantage of an alphabet over pictograms
is that it represents sounds instead of ideas, thus
most concepts can be expressed by a very small
number of symbols. (The Greek and Roman alphabet had twenty-two letters; the Cyrillic alphabet,
which formed the basis for the Russian, originally
had forty-three). When the basic principle of the
alphabet had been established in the Near East
around 1600 B.C, it could easily be adapted for any
language. Nearly all the alphabets in use, now-adays date back to the Western Semitic script which
was developed by the Phoenicians around 1300
B.C.
The alphabet was a tremendous step forward: man
acquired a flexible medium for the expression,
transmission and conservation of ideas. The Phoenician alphabet gave rise to the semitic alphabet
(among others, the Arabic and the Hebraic), the Indian Sanskrit alphabet with its branches in South
and Central Asia, and the ancient Greek alphabet.
The latter became the basis for the Latin alphabet,
which spread in the West, and for the Cyrillic which
developed into the Russian and other Slavic alphabets.
The shape of the letters was decided by the surface
written on and the writing instruments used. The
Roman capital style, the model for our large letters,
was used for inscriptions in stone. Our small letters developed from Roman handwriting, which
was written with a pen on papyrus and which was
formalized in the Carolingian minuscule writing of
the eighth century A.D.
Through changes in language over hundreds of
years the same letter has come to represent several
sounds, and the same sound can be repeated by
different letters. In language instruction, a phonetic
alphabet is, therefore, used in which each letter signifies a particular sound. There are also alphabets
constructed on other principles for special purposes,
e.g., Braille (a series of raised symbols for the blind)
and the Morse code.
object
s-u-n
Picture
symbol
sound
Sound
symbol: SUN
To Africa and Asia
From the Near East the concept
of the alphabet spread not only
westwards, but also to North
Africa and Central Asia, to India,
and through Buddhism, even
farther East.
The advantage of the alphabet
Is that instead of using pictures symbols, i.e.
hieroglyphics, for each object (e.g. a picture of the
sun for the word ‘sun’) we use a sound symbol, i.e.
a letter, for each sound in the word (s-u-n).
From East to West
As time went by the Egyptian hieroglyphics developed into a sort of
phonetic system. It is believed that Sinaitic (Western Semitic) writing
was a link between Egyptian hieroglyphs and the Phoenician alphabet.
This was subsequently improved by the Greeks and the Greek alphabet
formed the basis for both the Cyrillic and the Latin (Roman) forms.
Russian writing (modern Cyrillic)
Medieval writing A.D. 1500
Carolingian minuscules A.D. 700
Roman capitals 200 B.C.
Romans
Greeks
Phoenician writing 1300 B.C.
Greek writing 350 B.C.
Egyptian hieroglyphs
Ox
House
Corner
Sinaltic writing 1600 B.C.
The Ox-head
China
was an Egyptian
hieroglyphic. This appears
to have been twisted and
turned for use in various
alphabets until it became
our own Letter A.
Alphabet
Our alphabet probably derives from ancient Egypt. From there, with constant
modification, it spread to the Near East, Greece and Rome. The Roman (Latin)
alphabet continued to extend across the world and is now predominant. All
the European languages are written in the Latin alphabet, except Russian,
Bulgarian and Serbian which use Cyrillic.
Latin alphabet
Russian alphabet
Arabic alphabet
Hebraic alphabet
Chinese symbols
Across the whole world
In modern times alphabets have followed
the spread of cultures and religions (Arabic
script, for example, spread with Islam). China,
meanwhile, has retained her hieroglyphic
system.
Abbado
Abbado –
– abortion
abortion
» ABC
ABC
abdomen
mammals (including
(including humans),
humans), the
the
In mammals
abdomen In
liver
pancreas
spleen
gall bladder
stomach
kidneys
large intestine
appendix
bladder
small intestine
peritoneum
region
extending from
from the
the lower
lower sursurregion of
of the
the body
body extending
face
of
the
diaphragm
to
the
pelvis.
The
abdomen
face of the diaphragm to the pelvis. The abdomen
contains
liver,
pancreas,
kidneys,
gall
contains the
theintestines,
intestines,
liver,
pancreas,
kidneys,
bladder,
and—in
females—the
ovariesovaries
and womb.
gall bladder,
and—in
females—the
and
In
arthropods,
the abdomen
is the posterior
section
womb.
In arthropods,
the abdomen
is the posteriof
the
body,
which
is
usually
segmented.
or section of the body, which is usually segmented.
Abdullah
EmirEmir
of Transjordan
(1921–
Abdullah (1882–1951)
(1882–1951)
of Transjordan
46)
and first
King
Jordan
(1946–51).
He fought
(1921–46)
and
firstofKing
of Jordan
(1946–51).
He
with
T. E.
Lawrence
in the Arabinrevolt
Turkfought
with
T. E. Lawrence
the against
Arab revolt
ish
rule Turkish
during World
War I.World
He was
against
rule during
Warassassinated
I. He was
in
1951.
assassinated in 1951.
Abel
Abel See
See Cain.
Cain.
Abel,
Niels Henrik
Henrik (1802–29)
(1802–29) Norwegian
NorwegianmathemathAbel, Niels
Abdomen
Abdomen
The
of the
the
The many
many organs
organs of
abdomen are
abdomen
are shown
showninin
two drawings.
drawings.
two
coasts,
or ormer.
ormer. Up
Up to
to 30
30 cm
cm
coasts, also
also called
called ear
ear shell
shell or
long,
their
dishlike
shells
have
a
row
of
holes
along
long, their dishlike shells have a row of holes along
the
through which
which deoxygenated
deoxygenated water
water
the outer
outer edge
edge through
and
expelled
from
the the
body.
The
and waste
wasteproducts
productsare
are
expelled
from
body.
large
foot isfoot
considered
a delicacy
and the shells
are
The large
is considered
a delicacy
and the
used
as
mother-of-pearl
for
ornaments.
shells are used as mother-of-pearl for ornaments.
Abbado,
) Italian
conductor,
associAbbado, Claudio
Claudio(1933–
(1933–
) Italian
conductor,
ated
with La
Scala,
Milan,Milan,
since 1971
Vienassociated
with
La Scala,
since and
1971the
and
the
na
State State
OperaOpera
(1986–91).
In 1989
succeeded
von
Vienna
(1986–91).
In he
1989
he succeedKarajan
as conductor
of the Berlin
ed von Karajan
as conductor
of thePhilharmonic.
Berlin Philharmonic.
‘Abbasids
A dynasty of caliphs, which ruled Islam
(750–1258).
from Mohammed’s
uncle
‘Abbasids ADescended
dynasty of caliphs,
which ruled Islam
al-Abbas
(566–652),
they
seized
power
from
the
(750–1258). Descended from Mohammed’s uncle
Umayyads
in Damascus
moved
their
capital
al-Abbas (566–652),
theyand
seized
power
from
the
to
Baghdad.inThe
‘Abbasids
strictcapital
religious
Umayyads
Damascus
andimposed
moved their
to
orthodoxy.
Baghdad. The ‘Abbasids imposed strict religious
orthodoxy. A culture of the Lower Palaeolithic in
Abbevillian
Europe.
It is characterized
by crude
hand axes
Abbevillian
A culture of the
Lowerstone
Palaeolithic
in
made
by
hammering
flakes
off
a
flint
with
another
Europe. It is characterized by crude stone
hand
stone.
Named
Abbevilleflakes
in France,
axes made
byafter
hammering
off a the
flintAbbevwith
illian
alsostone.
appears
in Britain
but in Africa
similar
another
Named
after Abbeville
in France,
early
hand axes also
are designated
the Abbevillian
appears in Acheulian.
Britain but in Africa
similar early
hand
axes aretheatre
designated
Acheulian.
Abbey
Theatre
A Dublin
opened
in 1904.
Annie
friend of
W. B.
AbbeyHorniman
Theatre A (1860–1937),
Dublin theatrea opened
in 1904.
Yeats,
the building
of the theatre
as a home
Annieinitiated
Horniman
(1860–1937),
a friend
of
for
theYeats,
Irish initiated
National the
Dramatic
Society,
company
W. B.
building
of theatheatre
as
founded
by the
the Irish
actorsNational
Frank Fay
(1870–1931)
and
a home for
Dramatic
Society,
a
his
brother W.
G. Fay (1872–1947).
The Frank
Abbey Thecompany
founded
by the actors
Fay
atre
gained an international
reper(1870–1931)
and
his reputation
brother as
W.aG.
Fay
tory
theatre dedicated
to Theatre
performing
mainly
plays
(1872–1947).
The Abbey
gained
an interby
Irish playwrights
onaIrish
subjects.
The dedicatoriginal
national
reputation as
repertory
theatre
playhouse
burnt
down
in
1951,
but
a
new
theatre
ed to performing mainly plays by Irish playwrights
was
built and
opened
in 1966.
on Irish
subjects.
The
original playhouse burnt
down in 1951, but a new theatre was built and
opened in 1966.
ematician.
Oneof
ofthe
the great
great mathematical
mathematical problems
problems
matician. One
of
to find
find aa general
general solution
solution for
for aa
of Abel’s
Abel’s day
day was
was to
class
called quintics.
quintics. Abel
Abel proved
proved that
that
class of
of equations
equations called
such
impossible, but
but died
died before
before his
his
such aa solution
solution was
was impossible,
achievement
was
recognized.
achievement was recognized.
Abelard
(1079–1142) French
French philosopher.
philosopher.
Abelard,, Peter
Peter (1079–1142)
His
with
Heloïse,
nieceniece
of a canon
His ill-fated
ill-fatedmarriage
marriage
with
Heloïse,
of a
of
Paris,ofended
Abelard
castrated
by thugs
canon
Paris,when
ended
when was
Abelard
was castrated
hired
by the
canon
(1118).
retired
a monasby thugs
hired
by the
canonHe
(1118).
Heto
retired
to a
tery
and she
became
a nun. aAnun.
quarrelsome
dispumonastery
and
she became
A quarrelsome
tant,
Abelard
was perpetually
in trouble
withwith
the
disputant,
Abelard
was perpetually
in trouble
church
authorities;
his Sichis
et Non
(For
and (For
Against),
the church
authorities;
Sic et
Non
and
for
example,
outraged outraged
opponents
by listingby
points
Against),
for example,
opponents
liston
acknowledged
authorities
differed. difSee
ing which
points on
which acknowledged
authorities
also
scholasticism.
fered. See also scholasticism.
Aberdeen
2 04W
04W A
A city
city and
and port
port in
in NE
NE
Aberdeen 1.
1. 57
57 10N
10N 2
Scotland,
Aberdeen council
council area,
area, on
on the
the
Scotland, in
in City
City of
of Aberdeen
North
between the
the mouths
mouths of
of the
the Rivers
Rivers
North Sea
Sea coast
coast between
Don
is an
old old
cathedral
city with
Don and
andDee.
Dee.Aberdeen
Aberdeen
is an
cathedral
city
awith
university
dating
from
1494
(King’s
College).
a university dating from 1494 (King’s FishColing
hasFishing
always been
important,
has the working
of
lege).
has always
beenasimportant,
as has
local
granite; the
“Granite
City”the
provided
stone
for
the working
of local
granite;
“Granite
City”
London’s
in the
18th century.
Other
provided cobbled
stone forstreets
London’s
cobbled
streets in
the
industries
include
shipbuilding,
paper
making,
tex18th century. Other industries include shipbuildtiles,
chemicals,
and textiles,
engineering.
Aberdeen’s
proxing, paper
making,
chemicals,
and engiimity
to North
Sea oilproximity
has transformed
it into
an has
imneering.
Aberdeen’s
to North
Sea oil
portant
service
the oil industry.
transformed
it centre
into anfor
important
servicePopulation
centre for
(1996
217 260.
2. City of
Aberdeen
A council
the oilest):
industry.
Population
(1996
est): 217
260. 2.
area
Scotland,Aestablished
in 1996.
Area:
186 sq
Cityin
ofNE
Aberdeen
council area
in NE
Scotland,
km
(72 sq mi).
est):km
213(72
070.
established
in Population
1996. Area:(1999
186 sq
sq mi).
Population (1999
070.
Aberdeen
Angusest):
A 213
breed
of polled (naturally
hornless)
cattle,Aoriginating
NE(naturally
Scotland.
Aberdeenbeef
Angus
breed of from
polled
Short,
stocky,
and usually
blackfrom
(some
have red
hornless)
beef cattle,
originating
NE Scotland.
coats),
they
are
hardy
and
adapt
well
to
different
Short, stocky, and usually black (some have
red
climates.
Angus
bulls are
with
coats), they
are hardy
and commonly
adapt well mated
to different
dairy
breeds
to produce
a polled
beef cross.
climates.
Angus
bulls are
commonly
mated with
dairy breeds
to produce
a polled
beef cross.
Aberdeen
terrier
See Scottish
terrier.
Aberdeen terrier
See Scottish
aberration
1. A defect
in a lensterrier.
or mirror that causes
blurring or
the image.
Spherical
ababerration
1. distortion
A defect inof
a lens
or mirror
that causes blurring or distortion of the image. Spherical
Aborigines
T.v. en aborigin med
kroppsmålning.
T.h. en klippmålning
utförd i s.k. röntgenstil,
från Kakadu National
Park, sydost om Darwin.
Den första invandringen
Australiens urbefolkning antas
för mer än 30 000 år sedan
ha invandrat från Asiens
fastland över Ostindiska öarna
till Australkontinenten.
erration is caused by rays from the outside of the
lens or mirror being brought to a focus at a different
point from those nearer to the centre. In chromatic
aberration, different colours are focused at different
points, since the refractive index of glass varies with
the wavelength. See also astigmatism. 2. An apparent displacement in the position of a star or other
heavenly body due to the motion of the observer
with the earth in its orbit round the sun.
Aberystwyth 52 25N 4 05W A town and resort in
Wales, in Ceredigion on Cardigan Bay. A college of
the University of Wales was established in 1872 and
the National Library of Wales, in 1911. Population
(1991 est): 11 154.
Abidjan 5 19N 4 00W The former capital of Côte
d’Ivoire, off the Gulf of Guinea. A small village until
developed by the French in the 1920s, it was the
capital in 1934. It is now an important port, linked
to the sea by the Vridi Canal. Population (1995): 2
797 000.
Abkhazia (or Abkhaz Republic) An administrative division of Georgia. Most of the population
is Abkhazian or Georgian and lives along the narrow subtropical coastal lowland. The region is predominantly agricultural; the chief mineral is coal.
History: invaded by the Romans, it later gained
independence before coming under the Ottoman
Turks in the 16th century. It became a Russian protectorate in 1810 and an autonomous republic of
the Soviet Union in 1921. In 1992 it declared independence, leading to a conflict (1993–94) in which
Georgian troops unsuccessfully attempted to regain
control. Area: 8600 sq km (3320 sq mi). Population
(1993 est): 516 600. Capital: Sukhumi.
Abolition Movement The campaign to abolish
slavery in the USA. Opponents of slavery formed
an antislavery society in 1833. They helped runaway slaves escape to Canada via their secret Underground Railroad route; such publications as Uncle
Tom’s Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe unveiled the
slavery issue, which was settled by the Civil War.
Abominable Snowman A creature, also called Yeti
(Tibetan: Snowman), that is believed to live at high
altitudes in the Himalayas. There have been no authenticated sightings, but footprints in the snow
have been photographed (which may have other
causes).
» Aborigines The dark-skinned hunters and gatherers who inhabited Australia before European settlement. They were a diverse people culturally but,
in general, material culture was rudimentary, while
kinship organization and terminology were complex. Aboriginal mythology was generally rich and
elaborate and included accounts of creation during the primordial dawn, which they call “Dream
Time.” There are roughly 136 000 people of Aboriginal descent in Australia. The small proportion who
maintain a nomadic way of life are threatened by
encroachments upon their lands. A movement to
protect Aborigines’ rights has gathered momentum;
in 1993 Aborigines were granted the right to reclaim
land formerly held under native title but this was
curtailed by further legislation in 1998.
lens
Spherical:
peripheral rays are
refracted more than
the central rays
lens
Chromatic:
violet rays refracted
more than the red
Aberration
Two types of optical
aberration
abortion The expulsion or removal of a fetus from
the womb before it is capable of independent survival. In the UK a fetus is not legally viable until
24 weeks old. Expulsion of a dead fetus at any later
time is called a stillbirth. Abortion may be sponta-
Abkhazia
Aboukir, Battle of – absorption
neous (a miscarriage) or induced for therapeutic or
social reasons. In the UK (excluding Northern Ireland) induced abortion is legal if it is carried out
under the terms of the Abortion Act (1967) and
the Abortion Regulations (1991): two doctors must
agree that termination of the pregnancy is necessary (e.g. to prevent the birth of a severely deformed
or abnormal child or to preserve the health of the
mother) and the operation must be performed in
approved premises. Methods used include dilatation and curettage, suction of the womb using an
aspirator, and the administration of certain drugs
(e.g. mifepristone).
Aboukir, Battle of (25 July, 1799) The battle in
which Napoleon defeated the Ottoman Turks during his occupation of Egypt. The 7000-strong French
army defeated the unruly Turkish force of 18 000.
» Abraham
Abruzzi (or Abruzzo) A region in E central Italy. It
consists of the Apennines in the W and a coastal
region in the E. Agriculture is limited, producing
mainly cereals. Manufacturing industry is primarily
for local needs but there is also a large fishing fleet.
Area: 10 794 sq km (4167 sq mi). Population (1994
est): 1 262 948. Capital: L’Aquila.
abscess A pus-filled cavity surrounded by inflamed tissue, usually caused by bacterial infection.
Abscesses may form anywhere in the body. They
usually require draining and sometimes also treatment with antibiotics.
absinthe A highly alcoholic drink made from spirits infused with herbs, including aniseed and wormwood. Absinthe has been banned in many countries
because of the harmful effects of wormwood, and
substitutes (e.g. anis), are drunk instead.
According to the Old Testament, Abraham (first
called Abram) was the progenitor of Israel and the
northern Arabic tribes (Ismael). Through God’s covenant Abraham became the Father of the Faith for
Jews and Christians, and in Islam he is regarded as a
religious precursor of the Prophet.
the bible tells how Abraham’s father, Terah, departed with his family from Ur of Chaldaea and went
into Haran. From there, at God’s command, Abraham and his wife, Sarah, and all their household
went to Canaan, where they lived a nomadic life.
During a famine Abraham journeyed into Egypt but
he returned from there and settled on the plain of
Mamre in Hebron.
and promised the land of Canaan to Abraham and his descendants, who would be as numerous ”as the sand
upon the seashore”. His name was also changed
now, from Abram to Abraham, showing that he was
to become father to ”a multitude of nations”. Abraham had no children at this time by his wife, Sarah, but he conceived as on by his wife’s handmaid,
Hagar,and he was named Ishmael. God then visited
Abraham at Mamre and promised him a son by Sarah, and Sarah smiled when she heard this for she
was already ninety years old. But God fulfilled his
promise and Abraham became the father of Isaac
when he was a hundred years old. Meanwhile the
slave wife, Hagar, was expelled from the household
and dwelt in the desert with her son Ishmael.
god now made a covenant with abraham
abraham’s obedience
absolute magnitude See magnitude.
to God was severely tested
when God commanded him to sacrifice his only
son, Isaac, as a burnt offering to him. Abraham was
prepared to do even this for his God, however, and
at the last moment God spared Isaac’s life.
absolute zero The lowest temperature that can
when sarah died
theoretically be attained. It is equal to –273.15°C or
0 K. In practice, absolute zero can never be reached,
although temperatures of a few thousandths of a
degree above absolute zero have been achieved. See
cryogenics.
absolutism absolutism A political system, characteristic of European monarchies between the
16th and 18th centuries, in which the sovereign
attempted to centralize power in his own person.
Louis XIV of France is often regarded as the typical absolute monarch. Justified by the theory of the
divine right of kings, absolutism was associated in
the 18th century with enlightened despotism but
was challenged by the ideals of the American and
French Revolutions.
absorption See adsorption.
Abraham
Abraham purchased a burial chamber for her in Machpelah at Hebron, and when Abraham himself died at the age of 175 he,too, was
buried there.
Abraham and his son, lsaac, and the son of Isaac,
Jacob, are regarded as the three patriarchs. Jacob,
who aquired the additional name Israel, had twelve
sons who became the patriarchs of the tribes of Israel. And, according to the Bible, this family grew
into a whole nation.
It is difficult to assess the historical background
to the story of Abraham. He may have existed as
a historical person, but he may also have been a
legendary figure celebrated in the chronicles of his
migtatory peoples.
2 000 BC
Abraham
0
2 000
Judaism
Christianity
Islam
Abraham in three religions
Abraham is the principal figure in the history of Judaism and
he is also a revered patriarch for Christianity and Islam. The
ages of these three related religions are shown in red.
Abraham
From Ur to Canaan
Abraham´s father left Ur
in Caldaea and Abraham
himself went on from Haran to the
Promised Land, Canaan,where he
lived as a wandering herdsman with
his family, his many servants and his
great herds of livestock. At a time of famine
Abraham went into Egypt but returned subsequently
to Canaan. According to tradition Abraham
is buried in Hebron.
Jacob’s twelve sons:
Ruben Simeon
Levi Judah
Issachar Zebulun
Dan Naphtali
Gad Asher
Joseph Benjamin
lsrael’s renowned patriarch was a devout man
who obeyed the word of God, and God promised
Abraham the land of Canaan for himself and his
descendants. His obedience faced its most severe test when God commanded him to sacrifice
his only son, lsaac.
Abraham, his son lsaac, and lsaac’s son Jacob,
became the patriarchs of all the people of Israel:
Jacob’s twelve sons were the patriarchs of the
twelve tribes of Israel.
Abraham’s sacrifice
This drarnatic episode from the Book of Genesisis the
subject of a famous painting by Rembrandt.
GENESIS CHAPTER XXII
Verses 1-3
And it came to pass after these things, that God did tempt Abraham, and said unto him, Abraham: and he said, Behold here
I am.
And He said, Take now thy son, thine only son Isaac,
whom thou lovest, and get thee into the land of Moriah; and
offer him there for a burnt offering upon one of the mountains
which Will tell thee of.
And Abraham rose up early in the morning, and saddled
his ass, and took two of his young men with him, and Isaac his
son, and clave the wood for the burnt offering, and rose up, and
went unto the place of which God had told him.
Verses 9-12
And they came to the place which God had told him of; and
Abraham built an altar there, and laid the wood in order, and
bound Isaac his son, and laid him on the altar upon the wood.
And Abraham stretched forth his hand, and took the knife
to slay his son. And the angel of the Lord called unto him out
of heaven, and said, Abraham; and he said, Here am I.
And he said, Lay not thine hand upon the lad, neither do
thou anything unto him: for now I know that thou fearest
God, seeing thou hast not withheld thy son, thine only son
from me.
Verses 15-17
And the angel of the Lord called unto Abraham out of heaven
the second time. And said, By myself have I sworn, saith the
Lord, for because thou hast done this thing and hast not withheld thy son, thine only son:
That in blessing I Will bless thee, and in multiplying I will
multiply thy seed as the stars of the heaven, and as the sand
which is upon the seashore; and thy seed shall possess the gate
of his enemies.
Aachen – abalone
» abstract art
See action
action painting.
painting.
abstract expressionism See
Abu Dhabi See
See United
United Arab
Arab Emirates.
Emirates.
Abuja 99 10N
10N 7 06E
Abuja
06E The
The federal
federal capital
capital of
of Nigeria;
Nigeria;
the seat of government moved to this
this new
new city
city in
in
Population (1996
(1996 est):
est): 350
350 100.
100.
December 1991. Population
Abu Simbel A monumental rock-cut
rock-cut temple
temple comcomplex constructed about 1250 bc by
by Pharaoh
Pharaoh Ramses
Ramses
in Nubia.
Nubia.Four
Fourcolossal
colossalstatues
statues
Ramses,
each
II in
ofof
Ramses,
each
20
20(66
m (66
ft) high,
atentrance
the entrance
were raised
to
m
ft) high,
at the
were raised
to escape
escape inundation
Lake (1968).
Nasser (1968).
inundation
by Lakeby
Nasser
Abydos An ancient city in Upper
Upper Egypt,
Egypt, founded
founded
before 3000 bc and continuously
continuously occupied
occupied until
until
Roman times. It was a principal centre
centre of
of Osiris
Osiris
worship. The most impressive remaining
remaining structure
structure
is Seti I’s Great Temple (c. 1300
1300 bc),
bc), with
with shrines
shrines
for six deities and the god pharaoh. The
The Table
Table of
of
kinglist
listcarved
carvedonon
walls,
provides
Abydos, aa king
itsits
walls,
provides
ininformation
about
earlier
pharaohs.
formation
about
earlier
pharaohs.
Abu Simbel
PharaohRamses
RamsesII’sII’s
immense
temple
Pharaoh
immense
rockrock
temple
comcomplex,
Abu
Simbel
is
one
of
Egypt’s
most
plex, Abu Simbel is one of Egypt’s most remarkremarkable
monuments.
the
able
ancient ancient
monuments.
When theWhen
big dam
big
dam
project
at
Aswan
was
begun
in
project at Aswan was begun in 1960, it was real90,
it was
realized
that although the water
ized
that
although
the water
artificial
rock
former
water
level
new
site
20
0m
new water level
Then and
and now
now
Then
The Abu
Abu Simbel
Simbel temThe
ple complex
waswas
built
temple
complex
in southern
Egypt, on
built
in southern
the west
of the
Egypt,
onbank
the west
Nile, more
bank
of thethan 000
yearsmore
ago.than
Now3000
it is
Nile,
located
alongside
years
ago.
Now it isthe
huge artificial
lakethe
located
alongside
Nasser.
huge
artificial lake
original
site
The
The rescue
rescue
The
The temple
temple has
has been
been
moved
moved to
to aa platform
platform
200
00 m
m above
above the
the new
new
water
water level
level
Cross section of
of temple
temple
The
The two
two great
great columned
columned halls
halls lead
lead to
to the
theinner
inner sancsanctuary
its statues
of Ramses,
Amon-Ra
tuary with with
its statues
of Ramses,
Amon-Ra
and and
two
two
other
gods.
Twice
a year
of the
rising
other
gods.
Twice
a year
the the
raysrays
of the
rising
sunsun
(shown
(shown in
in red)
red) shine
shine directly
directly in
in on
on these
thesestatues.
statues.
Abstract art
Med uttrycket
abstrakt
konst
menar man
i allmänNim
velis adigna
feugue
do doloreet
vulla
conulla
het en
konst loreet,
som inte
yttre verkligalit,
sequipit
conavbildar
eugiam,någon
con heniamc
onulhet utan
tar el
sinulput
utgångspunkt
i de rent
konstnärlipute
dolore
numsandiam
aciliquissim
ing
ga feuguer
uttrycksmedlen
– former,
ea
iustrud tate
core tet,färger,
si temkomposition.
vent iure doMantattalar
omadio
nonfigurativ
konst,
dvs. ickelore
nulput
ea consequat
nos nullum
vent
föreställande
konst. vel ulla feu feugait venit, voaliquis
et nit nullam,
lorper alit, quat lut augiamc onsequiscing eugiamet,
A B S T R A K T I O N E N kan dock vara av olika grader.
sim nullaore commy nostie magna faci blandipis
Konstnären kan utgå från den yttre verkligheten
acip exerostrud tionse ea aci blaortionse dolore enmen förändra den så att den blir mer eller mindre
dre faciduisisim ing et ut lorper at.
oigenkännlig. Han kan också lösgöra sig helt från
verkligheten. Man
har quate
därför tat
även
lanserat
abstraktionen
Henim
num
zzrituttryckdio del
et konkret
om nonullan
sådan konst,
eftersom
konstdo
diat autkonst
nummy
utpat
praestrud
tat
verket är ett
helt
nyskapat,
konkret
dolobore
vulla
feuismo
dolesto
duisföremål.
niamcor sum
dolesequatem numsan ulputat ex ex etuercilis autA B S T R A K T KO N S T H A R F U N N I T S I A L L A T I D E R och
patet, volut vel utat.
länder och har haft så väl magiskt som dekorativt
syfte. På konst
islamisk
är den
abstrakta
konsten
abstrakt
harmark
funnits
i alla
tider Accumsan
förhärskande
på grund
detfacidui
religiösa
bildförel
dio del eugait,
consed av
te tie
ex ecte
tisi
budet.
I västerlandet
hade
1900er
sequam
ipsustrud te
vel konstnärerna
ectet nulputpvid
atinit
nitalets början
på realismen,
och
fotografiet
amcon
seniat.tröttnat
To commodo
lortinit
aliquatie
feu
började ta över verklighetsavbildningen. Nu
feuguerat.
utvecklades de nya idéer om konstverkets form och
ur kubismen växte nya riktningar fra Rud magna
innehåll som ledde till olika abstrakta riktningar.
faccums andiam elit aliquamet ad te ex eu facil ing
Kubismen slog sönder den gamla ”verklighetesectet, sed do odolortie dip et voluptat ecte dolutat
strogna” bildstrukturen för att bygga upp en ny
wisim dolobortis non ea feuis eugait lutatis nonseoch ”sannare” bild med en logisk och systematisk
quat, sumsand ipsummy nibh ex eugait iriusto od
konstruktion. Samtidigt som Picasso och Braque
dolore magna faci bla conulla mconsequissi blanutvecklade kubismen, kom ryssen Kandinsky 1910
digna aliquip sustie commodolum doloreet, cons
med sina första abstrakta kompositioner, där färger
nos ex euguerat niatum zzrit lor sustie conse duisi
och rytmiserade former samspelade på ett friare,
eugait amet ipis am, quat inis ad dit et, sustrud elis
”musikaliskt” sätt.
alit luptat, commy nulput prat.
U R K U B I S M E N V Ä X T E N YA R I K T N I N G A R F R A M . SupreGiam, consectet lut autate magnis nos eliquamet
matismen var en rent abstrakt konst, lanserad 1913
alit lobore enim volendre mod mincidunt iriuree
av ryssen Malevitj, vars mest berömda målning
tueraestrud tatet il diam diat. Alit utatummy num
heter ”Vit kvadrat på vit botten”. En motsvarighet
do dolor sumsan ex et vero consecte min eu facin
inom skulpturen var konstruktivismen. Hollänvolorem in hendit augait, core consequis nullutatie
daren Piet Mondrian skapade omkring 1917 den
con hent augait adipsustrud tet aut lummod eugiat
strängt lagbundna neoplasticismen, som byggde på
amcommy nonsequis aut augiam il dolumsa ndreet
ett ytmässigt spel mellan horisontala och vertikala
aute venis nosto core modolestrud min hendreet
linjer. Purismen ville däremot lyfta fram
ipsumsan ute faccumm odolore feugait wiscil in
föremålens former på ett förenklat men klart sätt,
henibh estinim quipit lumsan ut luptat veliquis
närmast i funktionalismens anda.
elesto consed min velis alis nulla feuguero eum zzrit
Vid sidan av dessa kyligt formstränga riktningar
illan ute velis acillandit velismodo dui tat lut alit
utvecklade sig en abstrakt konst inspirerad av de
utating elit, conullandio do el ipsustrud magnim irmjukare organiska formerna, bl.a. hos dadaisteriure minibh erciliq uismod dunt adit venit verciduis
na, vissa surrealister samt skulptörer som Braneudoluptat nim dolorper sis dui eros nummodo lortie
si, Arp och Moore. Rörliga skulpturer, mobiler, skafeugiam, sum dolore miniamcons dolore minit,
pades av Gabo, Moholy-Nagy och Calder. I USA
quat ipit vel elent vulpute ea facipis dit velendrem
uppstod på 1940-talet spontanismen, där färgmazzrit, vulluptat. Duis aciliqu amcommy non henit
terien själv får ge upphov till slumpmässiga effekautpat. Patum ad mod tatum er sequation venit ester, och den besläktade abstrakta expressionismen.
tin henim dolobor sustrud magnim ing exer at, se
Bland senare riktningar märks opkonsten.
faccumm odigna facidunt lum zzrit nosto od dolor
Till Sverige infördes det abstrakta måleriet av
se feuipsusci eugue ver se cons eliquat. Ut nibh ea
Otto G. Carisund och Gösta Adrian-Nilsson, den
am vercilisl ecte.
abstrakta skulpturen av bl.a. Christian Berg.
Abstract art
Et numsandigna alit prat. Faccum zzriustrud minim
qui etuerosto core dolore tinit nullaorero doloboreros amet, susci ea feugait laore ex essequis et at
dolorpero odip essed mincil duisi.
Os num in vullandit inis adit, vel ecte elit prat, quat
wis adiam dolestrud te dolorpero diam, consenibh
eu faci et, consequam, ver sequisi tis ating ectem
velit ad tatue euismod essim in ulpute erostrud tis
digniam, sed do endre magnisim dio con henim
quis et adion henim ver sectetu eriustrud dolore
commolorer sent amcor augue tet, quam delismodolor sequat accum volesed tin heniscil dolorpero
diat vel iliquat. Duis am velese feu.
Måleri
Os num in vullandit inis adit, vel ecte
elit prat, quat wis adiam dolestrud te
dolorpero diam, consenibh eu faci et,
consequam, ver sequisi tis ating ectem
velit ad tatue euismod essim in ulpute
erostrud tis digniam, sed do
Skulptur
Met, si. Idunt vel utem exeriure dolorer
ciduisis augiat nonsenim dolenim zzrit
nullutat.
Rud tat. Uscilisi. Equipsum diatinc
iliquisl ex eumsandre esectem vulput
accummodit volesenibh ex et laor sequat
landio odiam quat aute dolupta tissequat.
Ut ation utem do dunt illum vullaore exerat
venismod eu feuis nos
Mondrians väg mot abstraktion
Trädstudien ovan från omkr. 1910 visar
en fullt igenkännlig verklighet: ett knotigt
gammalt träd med mäktig krona. Men
inga realistiska detaljer stör helheten.
Bilden framstår som en formstudie på
gränsen till det abstrakta.
l ”Trädet” nedan (1912) har målaren,
påverkad av kubismen, gått ett långt
steg mot abstraktion. Vid denna tid
använde han en asketisk färgskala i
brunt, blått och grått.
Omkring 191 7 kom Mondrian fram till sin slutgiltiga
bildform, ett rent abstrakt, plangeometriskt måleri
baserat på raka linjer, räta vinklar och primärfärger.
Nedan ”Komposition 1921”.
Aachen – abalone
» abyssal zone
Abyssinia See Ethiopia, Federal Democratic Republic of.
Abyssinian cat A breed of short-haired cat, many
individuals of which are descendants of one exported to the UK from Abyssinia in the 19th century.
They have slender bodies and wedge-shaped heads
with large ears. The reddish-brown coat has black or
brown markings and the eyes are green, yellow, or
hazel. The Red Abyssinian is a rich copper-red.
Acacia A genus of tropical and subtropical trees
Acacia
and shrubs (over 700 species), particularly abundant in Australia (see wattle). Acacias have clusters
of yellow or white flowers, produce long flattened
pods, and usually have compound leaves consisting
of many small leaflets. In some species the leaflets
do not develop and the leafstalks assume their function, being broad and flattened. These species are
often very spiny. Acacias yield a number of useful
products: gums (including gum arabic), tannins,
dyes, and woods suitable for furniture. Many are
grown as ornamental plants. Family: Leguminosae.
Académie Française The French literary academy
founded by Cardinal de Richelieu in 1634 (incorporated 1635) to preserve the French literary heritage. Its membership is limited at any one time to 40
“immortals,” who have included Corneille, Racine,
and Voltaire. It is continuously engaged in the revision of the official French dictionary.
Acanthus A genus of perennial herbaceous plants
(about 50 species), mostly native to the Mediterranean region: A. mollis and A. spinosus are the species most commonly planted in temperate gardens.
Growing to a height of 1–1.5 m, they have tough,
often spiny, leaves and spikes of purple and white
flowers. The fruit—a capsule—explodes to disperse
the seeds. Family: Acanthaceae.
acanthus A decorative element of classical archi-
acanthus
tecture. It is mainly found on the capitals of Corinthian and Composite columns, comprising heavy
carvings of stylized leaves.
a cappella (Italian: in the church style) A marking
on a piece of music for several voices, indicating
that it is to be sung unaccompanied.
Acapulco 16 51N 99 56W A seaside resort in S Mexico, on the Pacific Ocean. Known as the Riviera of
Mexico, it has fine sandy beaches and many hotels.
Population (1990): 515 374.
ACAS (advisory, conciliation and arbitration service) A public body set up by parliament in 1975 to
work with trade unions and employers to settle disputes and promote methods of collective bargaining.
10
Abyssal zone
Biologically the deep sea begins at that point where
the continental shelf falls abruptly away, usually at
a depth of about 200-300 m. Submarine plant life
ends here since the sunlight can penetrate no deeper, and this also makes it difficult for animal life
to survive. The true deep sea, however, the abyssal
zon, is usually reckoned as from around 2000 m.
is the deepsea plain at
a depth of 4000-6000 m. This is largely flat though
it is intersected by immense submarine ridges, often in the form of steep mountain ranges. In places
there are guyots, great flat-topped cones believed
to be of volcanic origin. Here and there, too, are
V-shaped deepsea trenches going down to more
than 10 000 m.
below the continental slope
have been found in the Pacific
Ocean trenches, often quite close to land: the Challenger depth in the Marianas trench (11 022 m),
the Tonga trench (10 850 m), the Ramapo depth in
the Japan trench (10 542 m), and the Emden depth
in the Philippine trench (10 497 m). The greatest
known depth in the Atlantic is the Puerto Rico
trench (9220 m). These immense submarine depths
contain their own unique fauna.
the greatest depths
the deepsea-bed
is covered by a slit consisting largely of disintegrated plant and animal fragments that
have drifted down from shallower water. There is
very little nutriment in this and such animals as do
exist at these depths have to live mainly off of each
other. Predatory fish have difficulty finding prey in
these dark and sparsely inhabited waters but where
and when they do they are well equipped to deal
with them. In pictures deepsea fish look like monsters, though as a rule they are very small, seldom
more than a few inches long.
are of a very special nature,
on account of the immense pressure and total darkness. Deepsea fish often generate their own light;
some have scales covered in phosphorescent bacteria while others have special lightemitting organs.
Certain species are also able to produce and receive
sound signals, used in particular in the breeding
process.
deepsea living conditions
It was long believed that the great depths were totally
devoid of any form of life, but when the first Atlantic cable was raised it was found to be covered with
marine life, much of which had not been known of
hitherto. Expeditions were organized to trawl the
deep waters and since then numerous devices have
been designed (bathyspheres, bathyscaphes, etc.) in
which scientists can penetrate the unknown depths
and study directly the deepsea world.
Puerto Rico trench
The greatest known depth in the
Atlantic is the Puerto Rico trench, 9
220 m. The sketch, right, shows the
seabed profile from the South American
coast northwards: across the
Caribbean Sea to where the island of
Puerto Rico rises and beyond which
the trench is deepest.
Abyssal zone
The great depths of the oceans have proven more densely inhabited
than previously believed. But the darkness, the immense pressure, the
low temperatures and the high salinity means that there are but few
species. The small creatures vary greatly in form and have special
organs, neccesary for survival in this extreme environment.
Rare deepsea creatures
Swallow fish
It is not easy to find prey in the
deepsea depth. The swallow fish, or
Sapphirine guinard, has an elastic
musculature so that it can swallow
large fishes and thus provide itself
with food for weeks at a time.
Deepsea angler
Neither is it easy to find a partner In
the deep. The male angler fastens
on to the female whlie still young,
obtaining nuitrition from the blood
vessels and giving sperm in return.
Seabed samples
Using a sediment drill
Sample plugs of a
much as 20 m in
length can be brought
up from the seabed
rock, etc., thus
enabling us to study,
deepsea geology.
Lantern fish
Many deepsea fish can produce
their own light. Tile Lantern fish has
a ”lantern” on a stalk and, faintly
lumionous, beard-like hair.
Life at great depths
By means of the modern
bathyscapheit ts possible to
penetrate the gtreatest oceanic
depth. Here the spotlight has
surprised cnidarians (Gorgonacea).
11
Aachen – abalone
acceleration The rate of change of a body’s velocity. Linear acceleration is the rate of change of linear velocity. It is measured in such units as metres
per second per second. Angular acceleration is the
rate of change of angular velocity and is measured
in such units as radians per second per second.
acceleration of free fall (g) Formerly called acceleration due to gravity; the acceleration of a falling
body when air resistance is neglected. Caused by
gravitational attraction between the body and the
earth, it varies slightly at different points on the
earth’s surface. Its standard value is 9.806 metres
per second per second.
» accelerators
accordion A portable musical instrument invented
in Berlin in 1822. A member of the reed-organ family, the accordion is a boxlike instrument in which
bellows force air through reeds mounted in end
panels. In the modern piano accordion a small piano-like keyboard supplies the melody, while buttons operated by the other hand produce chords.
accordion
Accra 5 32N 0 12W The capital of Ghana, a port
on the Gulf of Guinea. It is built on the site of three
17th-century trading fortresses founded by the English, Dutch, and Danish. It became the capital of
the Gold Coast in 1877. Following the opening of a
railway to the agricultural hinterland (1923) it developed rapidly into the commercial centre of Ghana. The University of Ghana was founded in 1948
at Legon, just outside Accra. Population (1990 est):
1 781 100 (metropolitan area).
accumulator A cell or battery that can be recharged
Accumulator
The lead acid
accumulator.
by passing a current through it in the direction opposite to that of the discharge current. The most
common example is the lead-acid accumulator used
in motor vehicles. This consists, when charged, of
a positive lead dioxide electrode and a negative
spongy lead electrode, both immersed in sulphuric
acid with a relative density of 1.20–1.28. During discharge lead sulphate forms on the electrodes and
the acid density falls.
Nickel-iron (NiFe) accumulators with an
electrolyte of 20% potassium hydroxide are also
used. Interest in electric cars has stimulated
accumulator development in recent years. While
lead accumulators will deliver up 8 ´ 104 joules
per kilogram, the newer zinc-air accumulator can
produce five times this energy density.
acetylcholine A chemical that transmits impulses
between the ends of two adjacent nerves and is confined largely to the parasympathetic nervous system. Acetylcholine is released on stimulation of the
nerve and diffuses across the gap of the synapse to
stimulate the adjacent nerve. It is rapidly converted
to an inactive form by the enzyme cholinesterase,
permitting the passage of a further impulse.
12
Accelerators
Quamet vulla feu feum velit ipit iureet vullaore faccum nostrud esequat, consed tat in veliquipsum
quatet wis alis elenim zzriure et aliscing eum dunt
ver sis alit nullandiate mod et nim ent wis eugait
et loborperci tet aliquat ullum dolorper adiam irit
nonullut eugiametum ex et, si tat adipisl er illa
feum vullaore ex ecte facinci liquissi.
Lenit
in ut ullam quamet adit iure corero dolor ad doluptatie magna aliquat. Ut dolorerilis nibh erci blan
endre tisi tatio dunt dolor in hent dolore magnim
quam, sum acing eugue magniscilis nissit ad exerciliqui tat dolut adio delismod tisi blamet lamet in
esse del iriliqui blaor si bla feuissim vel ullut lummy
nisi te te dolummy nim dionseq uiscidunt ip endreri uscidunt nos ecte tem accum quatie min henim
elisis num velis alit, quat. Dit velisit ea feugait dolortio eliqui blan vel ullut pratum irit adit et.
i alla partikelacceleratorer finns en jonkälla
Issecte erosto conumsan volobor sum deliquisi blam ipsum dio conse ming esto
odolortion henim dipsums andiamet, voluptatis ex
ea alit dit velesto odit pratinc inisit lor si.
i en rak accelerator
Et autate min hendiam, si. Vero odionullam ing eraesto dolor suscidunt in henit praesenisi.
Quipit aut wismolesenis ea facilit in utpat. Met ulla feugait nonulputpat wisissis
duis ad et velesti onulputem volorer susto eu faccum et alit et vero dunt nonsed ecte tie faccum nullupt atuercilit wisit ing ea feugiam diam, coreet at
lor sum vero odipit iriusto dip ex euipsum modigna
conse tetummy nim augait euissectet nis del dignim veniam, quismolent wismod minciduisim quis
augait, vel ut ate magnim dipit lorperaesse moluptatue duip ero odolore eugueri uscinciduis nibh ex
eriure magna feuis nummod dolummo lenisl erostrud diamet ut velisim dunt irilisi.
de högsta energierna
Tat. Ilit wis nibh et accum zzrit laore dolumsa ndrerit ulputat luptatem dolessequam del ulluptat.
Esent accum zzriuscipit wismodignit ver aut dipit
praesse quisim quamconum zzrit alisi.
Putat, sed tis adipisi.
Patetum modiat lor sisl ut la feuis eros num vero
ectem dolore con velissenim illuptat, conullutpat.
Ut nonsequat nibh ectem num quisci bla feuis nit
volortinci essequipit ulpute vendipit ex euguer irit
lum in utem volorer iliquatum zzrit esto estie duisi.
Dui bla aliqui tinci elenibh eraessed erat ing ex eu
feugiamet wismoloreet utpat.
CERN:s stora protonsynkrotron utanför
Genéve bildar en väldig cirkel under marken.
Acceleration
De laddade partiklarnas fart ökas
elektrostatiskt: en negativt laddad
partikel stöts bort av en negativ elektrod men attraheras till en positiv.
Protonsynkrotronen
Jonkällan (nedan t.h.) avger protoner ut i vakuumröret.
Deras bana böjs av med elektromagneter.Farten ökas
(accelererar) för varje varv. Efter många hundratusen
varv får protonerna slå in i strålmålet (t.h.).
Avböjning
Man kan få de laddade partiklarna
att svänga med hjälp av
magnetfält. Partiklar-nas laddning
avgör
Accelerator
I en accelerator kan man bestråla olika ämnen med laddadepartiklar.
Acceleratorerna är i första hand forskningsredskap som avslöjar atomkärnornas byggnad och egenskaper.
Partiklarna accelereras i ett lufttomt rör. Mindre acceleratorer görs
i form av ett rakt rör. Större ac-celeratorer, t.ex. protonsynkrotronen
(ovan), har vakuumrör som är ringformade. Här får partiklarna gå hundratusentals varv och accelereras för varjevarv till allt högre fart. Till slut
”luras” partiklarna ur cirkelbananin i ett sidorör där de slår i strålmålet.
Praktisk tillämpning
av acceleratorn
En accelerator används
här för sterilisering av medicinska
artiklar som passerar
acceleratorn på ett
löpande band. Elektriskt
laddade partiklar införs och
koncentreras via ett rullband
i vakuumtankens
topp. Laddningen används
för att alstra en jonstråle
som accelererar ned mot
det löpande bandet.
13
Aachen – abalone
(or ethyne;
ethyne;C2H2)
C2H2)A A
colourless
toxic
acetylene (or
colourless
toxic
ininflammable
formed
action
of water
on
flammable
gasgas
formed
by by
thethe
action
of water
on calcalcium
carbide.
is widely
as a material
starting
cium
carbide.
It is It
widely
used asused
a starting
material
many compounds.
organic compounds.
of
for
manyfor
organic
Because Because
of its high
its high
flame temperature
(about
is
flame
temperature
(about 3300°C)
it is3300°C)
used in it
oxyused in oxy-acetylene
See also alkynes.
acetylene
welding. See welding.
also alkynes.
Chinua (1930–
(1930–) Nigerian
) Nigerian
novelist
of
Achebe, Chinua
novelist
of the
the tribe.
Ibo tribe.
His novel,
first novel,
Fall (1958),
Apart
Ibo
His first
ThingsThings
Fall Apart
(1958),
deals
theofarrival
of missionaries
and
deals
with
thewith
arrival
missionaries
and colonial
colonial government
the Ibo His
homeland.
His
government
in the Iboin
homeland.
other works
other works
include
Man of
the Peoinclude
the novels
A the
Mannovels
of theAPeople
(1966)
and
ple (1966)
of the
Savannah
as
Anthills
ofand
the Anthills
Savannah
(1987),
as well(1987),
as short
well as short
stories,
poems, and essays.
stories,
poems,
and essays.
Acheron A river in N Greece,
Acheron
Greece, in
in Greek
Greek mythology
mythology
the chief river of the underworld. In
In Dante,
Dante, it
it is
is the
the
river across
across which
river
which the
the souls
souls of
of the
the dead
dead are
are ferried
ferried
to hell
hell by
by Charon.
Charon.
to
Acheulian A
Palaeolithic.
It is
Acheulian
A culture
cultureofofthe
theLower
Lower
Palaeolithic.
It
characterized
bybyhand
is
characterized
handaxes
axesmade
madeby
by hammering
hammering
flakes
off
a
flint
with
a
hammer
of
wood,
antler,
or
flakes off a flint with a hammer of wood,
antler,
bone,
producing
a
more
regular
and
effective
tool
or bone, producing a more regular and effective
than than
the Abbevillian
handhand
axe.axe.
Named
afterafter
St
tool
the Abbevillian
Named
Acheul
near
St
Acheul
nearAmiens
Amiens(N(NFrance),
France), the
the Acheulian
Acheulian
occurs widely
widely in
occurs
in Eurasia
Eurasia and
and also
also in
in Africa,
Africa, where
where
it
apparently
originated
and
survived
longest
it apparently originated and survived longest (until
(until
about 58
58000
000years
yearsago).
ago).
Acheulian
sites
provide
about
Acheulian
sites
provide
the
the earliest
evidence
of man’s
use
fireare
andoften
are
earliest
evidence
of man’s
use of
fireofand
often associated with Homo erectus remains (see
associated with Homo erectus remains (see Homo).
Homo).
Achilles In Greek mythology, the greatest Greek
Achilles In Greek mythology, the greatest Greek
warrior in the Trojan War. The son of Peleus, King
warrior in the Trojan War. The son of Peleus, King
of Thessaly, and Thetis, a sea nymph, he was dipped
of Thessaly, and Thetis, a sea nymph, he was
by his mother in the River Styx as a child, which
dipped by his mother in the River Styx as a child,
made his whole body invulnerable except for the
which made his whole body invulnerable except
heel by which she had held him (Achilles tendon).
for the heel by which she had held him (Achilles
After a quarrel with Agamemnon he ceased fighting
tendon). After a quarrel with Agamemnon he
until the death of his friend Patroclus at the hand of
ceased fighting until the death of his friend PatroHector. Achilles then slew Hector and was himself
clus at the hand of Hector. Achilles then slew Heclater killed by Paris, who shot a poisoned arrow into
tor and was himself later killed by Paris, who shot
his heel.
a poisoned arrow into his heel.
Achilles
Achilles
Achilles tendon.
Achilles tendon.
swelling
inflamed
pore
acid rain Rain that contains sulphuric and nitric
acid rain Rain that contains sulphuric and nitric
normal
skin
sebaceous
gland with
pus
acids as a result of the absorption of sulphur dioxacids as a result of the absorption of sulphur dioxide
oxides, mostly
mostly from
from industrial
industrial and
and
ide and
and nitrogen
nitrogen oxides,
vehicle
emissions,
in
the
atmosphere.
It
is
contendvehicle emissions, in the atmosphere. It is contended
that the
the effects
effects can
can include
include destruction
destruction of
of fish,
fish,
ed that
crops,
trees, as
as well
well as
as damage
damage to
to buildings.
buildings. In
In
crops, and
and trees,
1985
19
countries
agreed
to
make
substantial
reduc1985 19 countries agreed to make substantial reductions
tions in
in the
the emission
emission of
of sulphur
sulphur dioxide
dioxide by
by 1993.
1993.
» acids
acids and
and bases
bases
acne
A skin
skin condition,
condition, common
common in
in adolescence,
adolescence,
acne A
Acne
Acne
The red swellings are
The red swellings are
caused by chronic
caused by chronic
inflammation of the
inflammation of the
sebaceous glands.
sebaceous glands.
14
affecting
face, chest,
chest, and
and back.
back. Acne
Acne is
is caused
caused
affecting the
the face,
by
overactivity and
and inflammation
inflammation of
of the
the sebaceous
sebaceous
by overactivity
glands:
thethe
hair
follicles,
glands: oily
oilysebum
sebumaccumulates
accumulatesinin
hair
folliproducing
pustules
and blackheads.
Severe cases
can
cles, producing
pustules
and blackheads.
Severe
be
treated
with
antibiotics,
retinoids retinoids
(e.g. isotretincases
can be
treated
with antibiotics,
(e.g.
oin),
or other or
drugs.
isotretinoin),
other drugs.
Acids and bases
The term
powerfully
corrosive,
”aggresThe
termacid
acidsuggests
suggests
powerfully
corrosive,
”agsive” substances,
such such
as hydrochloric
acid. Yet
in
gressive”
substances,
as hydrochloric
acid.
fact in
in chemistry
acid has acid
a much
Yet
fact in chemistry
hasbroader
a muchmeaning;
broader
in chemistry
acid is an agent
in a water
meaning;
in chemistry
acid iswhich
an agent
whichsoluin a
tion emits protons. Every acid has a corresponding
water solution emits protons. Every acid has a corbase; a substance which seeks to absorb the protons.
responding base; a substance which seeks to absorb
the
protons.
A N AC
I D A N D I T S BA S E F O R M A PA I R , known as an
acid-base pair. As soon as an acid exists in a water
an acid and its base form a pair, known as an acidsolution, a corresponding base occurs in the same
base pair. As soon as an acid exists in a water solusolution. In a nitric acid (HN03) water solution, for
tion,
a corresponding
occurs
in the
same
soexample,
the acid emitsbase
a proton
(H+),
while
at the
lution.
In aanitric
acid
solution,The
for
same time
nitrate
ion(HN03)
(NO3-)water
is generated.
example,
the
acid
emits
a
proton
(H+),
while
at
the
nitric acid and the nitrate ion are then said to consame
a nitrate ion
is generated.
nistitutetime
an acid-base
pair(NO3-)
and the
reaction isThe
called
tric
acid and
the nitrate
ionthe
aremoving
then said
constiprotolysis
because
it incurs
of atoproton.
tuteThe
an acid-base
andtendency
the reaction
is called
progreater anpair
acid’s
to emit
protons,
tolysis
because
incurs
theacid
moving
a proton.pair
the stronger
theitacid.
If the
in anofacid-base
The greater
emit
protons,
is strong
then an
theacid’s
base tendency
is weak, to
and
vice-versa.
Strong
acids include
sulthe
stronger
the acid.hydrochioric
If the acid acid
in an(HCI),
acid-base
phuric
acid (H2SO4),
nitric
acid and
(HN03).
Weak
pair
is strong
then theand
base
is weak,
vice-versa.
acids include
acidhydrochioric
and stearic acid.
Strong
acids acetic
include
acid Strong
(HCI),
bases haveacid
a pronounced
tendency
absorb
prosulphuric
(H2SO4), and
nitrictoacid
(HN03).
tons,
caustic
soda
is
just
such
a
strong
base.
Weak acids include acetic acid and stearic acid.
Some
substances
can functiontendency
both as to
acid
and
Strong
bases
have a pronounced
absorb
base, these
are known
Water
protons,
caustic
soda is as
justampholytes.
such a strong
base.is an
ampholyte.
Some substances can function both as acid and
base,
an
T H E Sthese
T R E N Gare
T H known
O F A BAas
S Eampholytes.
O R A N AC I D Water
can beisexampholyte.
pressed as a solution’s hydrogen ion content. The
acidity or hydrogen ion concentration
expressed
can be is
expressed
as
the symbol
pH plus
figure. The
scaleorruns
abysolution’s
hydrogen
iona content.
ThepH
acidity
hyfrom 0 ion
to 14;
0 signifyingismaximum
acid.
drogen
concentration
expressed strength
by the symbol
In
a
neutral
solution,
for
example
ordinary
water,
pH plus a figure. The pH scale runs from 0 to 14; 0
the pH value
is 7. When
thisacid.
figure
the
signifying
maximum
strength
In exceeds
a neutral7solusolution
basis. ordinary water, the pH value is 7.
tion,
for is
example
the strength of a base or an acid
When
this
7 the
is basis.
AC I D I T Y
I S figure
A M A Jexceeds
O R FAC TO
R insolution
chemical
processes
in living organisms. The
pH valueprocesses
of the blood
in chemical
in livshould
not
diverge
too
much
from
the
ing organisms. The pH value of the bloodnormal
should 7.4
not
value, otherwise
other7.4
substances
are
diverge
too muchenzymes
from theand
normal
value, otheraffected.
The pH
the soil determines
which
wise
enzymes
andvalue
otherofsubstances
are affected.
The
plants
canofbethe
grown
in it. If the water
is toocan
high
pH
value
soil determines
whichpH
plants
be
fish
species
can
beexterminated.
In
different
techgrown in it. If the water pH is too high fish species
niealbeprocesses,too,
degree of
acidity processes,
must be
can
exterminated.the
In different
technical
controlled.
too,
the degree of acidity must be controlled.
acidity is a major factor
T H E R E A R E VA R I O U S I N D I C ATO R S F O R M E A S U R I N G
there are various indicators for measuring acidity.
AC I D I T Y . A familiar means in the school laboratory
A familiar means in the school laboratory is litmus
is litmus
paper
which
acid,
bluea
paper
which
turns
redturns
fromred
anfrom
acid,an
blue
from
from
a
base.
Acidity
can
also
be
measured
electric
base. Acidity can also be measured electrically.
ally.
acids and bases play a major part in the modern
AC I D S A N D BA S E S P L AY A M A J O R PA RT in the modchemical
industry. Two of the most important base
ern chemical
the ammonium
most important
chemicals
areindustry.
sulphuricTwo
acidof and
hybase
chemicals
are
sulphuric
acid
and
drate (a base). Both these substances areammonium
ingredients
hydrate
base). Both
these substances
are ingrediin
many(aindustrial
processes.
Ammonium
hydrate
ents
in
many
industrial
processes.
Ammonium
is an important initial product, for example, in arhydratefertilizers.
is an important initial product, for example,
tificial
in artificial fertilizers.
Acids and bases
Strong acids and bases have been known of ever since the alchemists began their experiments. Today acids and bases are
defined as substances which emit and absorb protons (hydrogen ions) respectively. The acidity of bases and acids is expressed in pH, this being the measure of a solution’s hydrogen
ion content. Chemically speaking many important commodities
in our everyday life are acids or bases.
Acid-proton omitter
An acid is a substance which strives to emit protons. The picture below
shows a hydrochloric acid gas molecule. In a water solution this emits
a hydrogen ion, H +. The rest becomes a chloride ion, CI-. The reaction
can go both ways (arrows), but is strongest to the right.
Universal indleator
The strip of paper above can bo used to measure the acidity by
dipping it into the solution. The resultant colour iscompared
with the colour scale.
Base-proton absorber
A base is a substance which strives to absorb protons. The ammonium
hydrate molecule, NH3, absorbs a proton, H +, and creates an
ammoniumion, NH4 +. The reaction can go both ways but is strongest
to the left. Ammonium hydrate and an ammonium ion are an acidbase
pair.
Universal indleator
The strip of paper above can bo used to measure the acidity by
dipping it into the solution. The resultant colour is compared
with the colour scale.
n, NH Acidity-pH scale
The acidity of a solution is expressed
by a pH scale. The higher the pH value
in a solution the fewer hydrogen ions it
has. pH-7: neutral solution. pH less
than 7: acidiferous solution (numerous
hydrogen ions). pH more than 7:
basicsolution (few hydrogen ions).
Acidity can be measured by
an indicator: a substance which
changes colour at a certain
acidity. Below, some indicators
and their colour changes.
15
Aachen – abalone
Aconcagua, Mount (Spanish name: Cerro Aconcagua) 32 40S 70 02W A mountain in W Argentina, in
the Andes, regarded as being the highest point in
the W hemisphere. It is of volcanic origin. Height:
6960 m (22 835 ft).
napellus, also known as monkshood. Growing to a
height of 1 m, its flowers are usually purplish-blue
and hood-shaped; the bulbous roots yield poisonous alkaloids, including aconitine, which have
been used in medicine as narcotics and analgesics.
Winter aconite is a related plant, Eranthis hyemalis,
with yellow flowers. Family: Ranunculaceae (buttercup family).
Irit, commy nim velent et, commy nosto consecte
volore molor susto con henis dolobortis nis ad del
ut lobortio od dignissi el iure mincipsustio doloreet prat praese feuis eniam iure dolor se do cortisl
do doloreet aliquat. Ut in henit nummodo cor sum
dolobor ipis dolut dolortisit nulluptat, vulla conse
con velenit wisis adionsed molore tat. Vel diat il
deleniam, vullaorem veratuer sisim in hendion
henit do od magnibh ectem dolorem zzriusc illutpat. Hent loborper sum doloborem nisim aut laore
dolortio corem velenim quat ute minci enibh eliquipit, vel ex et.
acornworm A wormlike marine invertebrate ani-
akropolis var en befäst borg
aconite A European herbaceous plant, Aconitum
Aconcagua
Aconite
Aconitum napellus.
mal, 5–180 cm long, that burrows in soft sand or
mud. A filter feeder, it has an acorn-shaped head
with the mouth at the base. Chief genera: Balanoglossus, Saccoglossus; phylum: Hemichordata.
acoustics The branch of physics concerned with the
production, propagation, reception, properties, and
uses of sound. It has several subdivisions. The most
important, architectural acoustics, is concerned
with the design of public auditoriums so that
sounds can be heard in all parts of them with the
maximum clarity and the minimum distortion. Ultrasonics is the study of very high frequency sound.
The structure and function of sound sources, such
as loudspeakers, and sound receptors, such as microphones, also form part of acoustics. Other fields
include speech communication and the design of
machines that can understand spoken instructions.
acquired characteristics See Lamarckism.
acquittal In law, the clearing of an accused person
of the charge against him, usually by court verdict.
In England there must be a verdict of “not guilty”;
in Scotland the verdict may be either “not guilty” or
“not proven.” Acquittal prevents a person from being prosecuted for the same offence again. Anyone
charged as an accessory to a crime is automaticallyacquitted if the principal is acquitted.
acromegaly A rare disease in which a noncancerous
tumour of the pituitary gland secretes abnormally
large amounts of growth hormone. This causes enlargement of the face, hands, feet, and heart. The
tumour can be destroyed by X-rays, surgically removed, or treated with drugs (e.g. bromocriptine).
» acropolis
acrylics Synthetic materials produced by polymerization of acrylonitrile (vinyl cyanide; CH2:CHCN).
Acrylic resins are used in paints and plastics, the
most common being Perspex. Acrylic fibre is widely
used in textiles, mainly for knitwear, furnishing fabrics, and carpets.
16
Akropolis
commod doloreros
essisci psusto commy nit do odolum aliquis dolor
iniam illam, commy num ercilis molore erit landit
el iure con ut ad tisl ullumsandion hent nibh essequisse faciliq uamet, consent ilit, quat. Acidunt
at lut alisit pratis ate feu feuis accum zzriure dolesequis nit illa core volut praesequisl dio ent laor sit
vullaortie tet ea augiamet verat. Ut iriure facipisci
tiniam, vel utpatie dolore dolent lum dolore dolortie er iriurem.
Cillum er sit nons num dolor ip ecte mincil ercipit ut il eril utat, quis augiam,
commolu ptatet dipsustie et, quam dio del ipit, sum
exer si. Lorem veliquis dolor si.
när perserna intog athen
vägen upp till akropolis,
Ent inim do dipsusto del
dolorti ncilla consenim atincin el incilit nismod
min utpationse dio dolenisl in ute dionse volent autpat. Dui tion volese feuis alismodip enim voluptate
velenibh ex eugiatu msandrem dio ectem iustie con
ullutpate del et wismod modit ipsum del ute mod
magna con hendre dolum doloborer sustrud modignibh et ipit nostini ssisit iusciliquat ate facin eui
blaorer sent vel inci bla feu feugiamet vullum iure
digniat lan ut praesto commy nostrud digna facilit
doloreet am, quipisl dolorpero dui ercipit praesto
odion exerit iuscipsusto dolendiam, quis adiation
velissi tatisi etue feumsan ex enismod modoluptatin vulput irit, quipsumsan utat velisci tem at. Con
vullam inibh er sequat.
Raesto enibh et vullaor eriurer sim venim atuerat, conullut am nulla faciduip
et dolorem ad eu facilissent loreraestie commy niamet ad tat. Essequam illandre core mincipsum
volor in henissis ea consequis adiam vent wis am
illum digniamconse dolore tem quat vero consed
molore magnisc ilisi. Acillum volore feu feugait,
veliquipit wis nullum zzriure rciduismod ming et
dolorpe raessisi. Nibh er sim voloreetum ilit veliquipsum non euguercil endreet la consenibh essent
la faccum irit accum eu feum zzriusto odiatis cidunt
augue magnim.
templen på akropolis
Akropolis höga klippa med
Parthenontemplet dominerar
alltjämt Athen.
Akropolis
På Akropolis, Athens berömda borgklippa, finns några av den antikakonstens förnämsta skapelser. Det är minnen från stadens klassiska storhetstid
på 400-talet f. Kr. Då var grekerna Medelhavets herrar och Athen var den
grekiska världens centrum, där lysande konstnärer, diktare och tänkare framträdde. Nu är Akropolis stadens största sevärdhet, och här finns också ett
museum.
Athen och dess
hamnstad
Athen ligger på halvön
Attika. Liksom många
andra grekiska städer
lades Athen ett stycke
från kusten för att undgå
sjörövare . Vägen till
hamnstaden Piraeus
kantades av höga
murar (nedan).
Parthenon
inneslöt Athenas staty i
guld och elfenben.Dekorativa
detaljer på templen var
förr målade i rött och blått.
Acropolis
var centralpunkten i Athen.
Dess tempelstad hör
tillkonstens mest fulländade
skapelser.
Berömda athenare
Under Athens korta
glanstid levde många
av historiens största
genier i staden. En
omtyckt mötesplats var
Stora torget, Agora.
17
Actaeon
Actium, Battle of (31 bc) The decisive land and
sea battle that ended the civil war in ancient Rome.
Octavian, later Augustus (the first Roman emperor),
defeated the forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra.
act of God In law, an occurrence due to a sudden
violent natural cause, such as a storm, which could
not reasonably have been guarded against and loss
from which could not have been avoided or predicted.
Act of Parliament See parliament.
Actors’ Studio An actors’ workshop founded in
Acupuncture
A Chinese acupuncture
system, showing the
points on the skin that
are presumed to
correspond to different
organs.
Actaeon A mythological Greek hunter, son of the
god Aristaeus and Autonoe, daughter of Cadmus,
King of Thebes. Ovid, in his Metamorphoses, relates
how Actaeon accidentally caught sight of the goddess Artemis bathing naked and was turned by her
into a stag and killed by his own hounds.
ACTH (adrenocorticotrophic hormone) A peptide
hormone, secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, that stimulates the cortex of the adrenal
glands to produce three types of corticosteroid hormones. Secretion of ACTH is stimulated by physical
stress and is regulated by secretions of the hypothalamus of the brain.
actinides A group of related chemical elements in
the periodic table ranging from actinium (atomic
number 89) to lawrencium (atomic number 103).
They are radioactive and include a number of
transuranic elements. Chemically, they resemble
the lanthanides.
actinium (Ac) A highly radioactive metal that occurs naturally in uranium minerals. It is the first
of the actinide series of elements and is chemically
similar to the lanthanide elements. It was discovered in 1899 by A. L. Debierne (1874–1949). The actinium series of radioactive decay is headed by uranium-235, which undergoes a series of alpha and
beta decays ending with the stable isotope lead-207.
At no 89; at wt (227); mp 1051°C; bp 3200 ± 300°C;
half-life of 227Ac 21.6 yrs.
action painting A modern art style, also called
abstract expressionism, in which paint is sprayed,
splashed, or dribbled over a large canvas to form an
unpremeditated and usually abstract design. Jackson Pollock invented it in 1947 to give free rein to
his own emotions. Together with colour-field painting, action painting was the dominant style in the
USA in the 1950s and made New York, for the first
time, the most advanced centre of modern art.
New York in 1947 by Elia Kazan and others. Under its director Lee Strasberg (1901–82), who joined
it in 1950, it became famous for its emphasis on
“method” acting, which was developed from the
theories of Stanislavsky. Film actors influenced by
it include Marlon Brando, Rod Steiger (1925– ), and
James Dean.
Acts of the Apostles The fifth book of the New
Testament, written by Luke about 63 ad as a sequel
to his Gospel. Starting with the ascension of Christ,
it deals with the spread of the Christian Church
from a single congregation in Jerusalem to Paul’s
first missionary journey and his eventual imprisonment in Rome.
acupuncture A traditional Chinese system of healing in which thin metal needles are inserted into
selected points in the body. The needles are stimulated either by manual rotation or electrically. Acupuncture is used in the Far East to relieve pain and
in China as an anaesthetic for surgical operations.
The traditional explanation of its effectiveness, dating back to 2500 bc, relates to balancing the opposing life forces yin and yang. Recent research in the
West suggests that the needles may activate deep
sensory nerves, which cause the pituitary and midbrain to release endorphins (natural pain killers; see
encephalins).
Adam, Adolphe-Charles (1803–56) French composer. He composed over 60 operas but is primarily
remembered for his romantic ballet Giselle (1841),
the earliest full-length traditional ballet.
Adam and Eve In the Old Testament, the first
human beings. According to Genesis (2.7–3.24),
Jehovah created Adam from dust in his own image and put him in the Garden of Eden. His wife
Eve was created from one of his ribs. Tempted by
the serpent (the devil) to eat the forbidden fruit of
the Tree of Knowledge, Eve induced Adam to eat
the fruit also. They became aware of their guilt and
were expelled from Eden. Their sons included Cain
and Abel.
Adam, Robert (1728–92) British architect and interior designer, born in Kirkcaldy, Fifeshire, the son of
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Adam and Eve
In the Old Testament, the first human beings.
According to Genesis (2.7–3.24), Jehovah
created Adam from dust in his own image and
put him in the Garden of Eden. His wife Eve
was created from one of his ribs. Tempted by
the serpent (the
the Palladian architect William Adam (1689–1748).
He evolved a unique style that blended the rococo
and neoclassicism, although he occasionally used
gothic forms. After visiting Italy (1755–58), Robert,
often in collaboration with his brother James Adam
(1732–94), built many country houses, notably
Kenwood House (1768), the interior of Syon House
(1769), and Osterley Park (1780). His building
of town houses in London, such as Apsley House
(1775), led him into severe financial difficulties. In
his last years in Edinburgh he produced much of his
finest work, for instance Charlotte Square (1791).
mas Jefferson, over US policy towards Revolutionary France. Adams was defeated by Jefferson in
the election of 1800. His son John Quincy Adams
(1767–1848) was sixth president of the USA (1825–
29). As secretary of state (1817–25) he was largely
responsible for the Monroe Doctrine (1823). His
term as president was made difficult by the opposition of Andrew Jackson, who defeated Adams in
the presidential election in 1828. From 1831 Adams
served in the House of Representatives, where he
campaigned vigorously against slavery.
Adams, Gerry (Gerard A.; 1948– ) Northern Irish
worked in the civil service from 1948 to 1974. His
Watership Down (1972), an epic treatment of the
adventures of a community of rabbits, became an
international bestseller. His later novels include
Shardik (1974), The Plague Dogs (1977), The Girl in
a Swing (1980), and Traveller (1989).
politician, president of Sinn Féin (1983– ). He was
a leading participant in the talks that produced the
Good Friday Agreement of 1998 and subsequent attempts to resolve the issue of the decommissioning
of IRA weapons. In 1983 and 1997 he was elected to
the British parliament but declined to take his seat.
Adams, John (1735–1826) US statesman; first vice
president (1789–97) and second president of the
USA (1797–1801). During the American Revolution
he successfully mobilized European support for the
North American cause. His term as president was
troubled by disputes with his vice president, Tho-
Adams, Richard (1920– ) British novelist. He
adaptation In biology, a change in a physical characteristic of an animal or plant that makes it better suited to survive in a particular environment.
For example, cacti have adapted to desert environments by evolving swollen water-storing stems. See
also adaptive radiation.
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