Children`s Peer Relationships: Longitudinal Prediction of

Children's Peer Relationships: Longitudinal
Prediction of Internalizing and Externalizing
Problems from Middle to Late Childhood
Shelley Hymel, Kenneth H. Rubin, Lynda Rowden, and
Lucy LeMare
University of Waterloo
HYMEL, SHELLEY; RUBIN, KENNETH H.; ROWDEN, LYNDA; AND LEMARE, LUCY. Children's Peer
Relationships: Longitudinal Prediction of Internalizing and Externalizing Problems from Middle to
Late Childhood. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1990,61,2004-2021. In this longitudinal study, the predictive
relations between social difficulties in early childhood (grade 2) and subsequent internalizing as
well as externalizing problems in middle childhood (grade 5) were examined. Of particular interest
was whether early indices of social isolation would predict intemahzing problems 3 years later. A
longitudinal sample of 87 children were assessed in both grades 2 and 5 on a variety of measures,
including sociometric ratings, peer assessments of aggression and isolation, and self-appraisals of
social competence. In the second grade, observations of isolated and aggressive behavior were
made, as well, and teacher ratings of internalizing and externalizing difficulties were obtained. In
the fifth grade, teacher ratings of shy-anxious and acting-out behavior and self-reports of loneliness
and self-esteem were collected. Consistent with previous research, results demonstrated predictive
links between early peer rejection (unpopularity) and aggression and subsequent externalizing
difficulties. Internalizing problems in middle childhood were significantly related to early social
difficulties, particularly those of an internalizing sort, including poor peer acceptance, social isolation, and perceptions of social incompetence. Social isolation, then, may indeed be a risk factor in
early development.
Although previous research has indicated that early peer difficulties are predictive
of later maladjustment (see Kohlberg, La
Crosse, & Ricks, 1972; Parker & Asher, 1987,
for reviews), researchers have tended to emphasize the relations between early peer rejection and/or aggression and subsequent extemalizing outcomes such as aggression,
hostility, acting-out behavior, or delinquency.
Virtually no data exist concerning the possibility that early social difficulties may also
predict internalizing problems. According to
Achenbach (1982; Achenbach & Edelbrock,
1981), self-related difficulties such as fearfulness, anxiety, and social withdrawal may
be labeled "internalizing problems." It seems
entirely plausible that a child who is rejected
by peers may come, eventually, to realize that
he or she is disliked or become increasingly
aware of his or her poor peer status. Such a
realization may lead to feelings of loneliness
(Asher, Hymel, & Renshaw, 1984; Asher, Parkhurst, Hymel, & Williams, 1990), depression
(Strauss, Forehand, Frame, & Smith, 1984;
Vosk, Forehand, Parker, & Richard, 1982),
and to negative self-perceptioiis of social competence and self-esteem (Hymel, 1983), all
known concurrent correlates of peer rejection
and unpopularity (see Rubin & Lollis, 1988,
for an extended discussion of the conceptual
link between rejection and internalizing disorders). The purpose of the present study,
then, was to examine, prospectively, the association between early social difficulties and
indices of both externalizing and internalizing
problems in later childhood,
Of particular interest was whether measures of overall sociometric acceptance or
more specific indices of internalizing or exter-
Portions of this research were presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in
Child Development, April 1987, Baltimore, MD, and at the first annual meeting of the Society for
Research in Child and Adolescent Psychopathology, February 1989, Miami, FL. The research
reported herein was supported by a grant to authors Rubin and Hymel fi-om Health and Welfare
Canada and by a Killam Research Fellowship to author Rubin from the Canada Council. We are
grateful to the teachers and children in the Waterloo County School Board for their cooperation in
this project. We also thank Anne Emptage and Laurie Addis who coordinated data gathering aspects
of this study. Requests for reprints should be addressed to either author Hymel or Rubin, Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada.
[Child Development, 1990, 61, 2004-2021. © 1990 by the Society for Research in Child Development, Inc.
All rights reserved. 0009-3920/90/6106-0029$01.00]
Hymel et al.
nalizing problems in early childhood would
prove to be stronger predictors of later
difficulties. While previous studies have emphasized early indicators of social problems
such as sociometric status and aggression, far
less attention has been given to early social
withdrawal or social isolation as a risk factor
in development. Despite the fact that withdrawn behavior is often viewed by parents,
practitioners, and clinicians as an index of
peer difficulty (e.g.. Mills & Rubin, 1990) and
that several psychologists have attempted to
develop intervention strategies aimed at reducing withdrawal and increasing peer interaction (e.g., Wanlass & Prinz, 1982), there
has not been clear evidence that early social
withdrawal is predictive of later meiladjustment (Kohlberg et al., 1972; Parker & Asher,
1987). In fact, some have argued that social
withdrawal in childhood is not predictive of
negative outcomes (e.g., Michael, Morris, &
Soroker, 1957; Robins, 1966).
Parker and Asher (1987), however, suggest that conclusions concerning the predictive correlates of early withdrawal may be
"premature" (p. 377), given that studies to
date have almost always utilized clinical
rather than normal samples and follow-back
or retrospective rather than prospective research designs. In addition, as we have argued elsewhere (Rubin, Hymel, & Mills,
1989), in most studies examining the longterm correlates of social withdrawal, externalizing rather than internalizing outcomes
have been considered, despite the fact that
social withdrawal is usually considered a
"symptom" or behavioral reflection of internalizing difficulties (Achenbach & Edelbrock, 1981; Altmann & Gotlib, in press). Accordingly, we have begun to examine the
predictive outcomes associated with esirly social withdrawal, especially those of an internalizing nature. In earlier reports (Rubin, Hymel, & Mills, 1989; Rubin & Mills, 1988), we
found that observed social withdrawal in kindergarten, as well as peer-assessed social
withdrawal and negative self-perceptions in
the second grade, were predictive of internalizing difficulties in the fourth and fifth
grades. These data, taken from the original
cohort of an ongoing longitudinal project,
were limited, however, in terms of sample
size, making it difficult to establish the generality of the links between early social withdrawal and later internalizing outcomes.
Moreover, given the limitations of sample
size, it was impossible to evaluate the predictive correlates of both internalizing as well as
externalizing outcomes within a single sam-
2005
ple. Finally, the predictive associations between more general indices of peer acceptance or popularity were not examined in
earlier reports. The present study, then, is an
elaboration of the earlier reports, with data
from a second cohort added to that of the original one. With the resulting increase in sample size, we were able to compare results
across cohorts, as well as to examine the predictive correlates of both externalizing and internalizing outcomes from various indices of
early social difficulties, including aggression
as well as withdrawal, self-perceptions, and
early peer acceptance or popularity.
On the basis of previous work (Parker &
Asher, 1987; Rubin, LeMare, & Lollis, 1990),
we hypothesized that aggressive behavior in
early childhood would be more predictive of
later externalizing than internalizing outcomes, whereas social withdrawal and its conceptually related concomitants (e.g., poor selfconcept) would be more predictive of
subsequent internalizing problems. Furthermore, lack of peer acceptance was hypothesized to predict both internalizing and
externalizing difficulties.
Method
Subjects
Our data were taken from the Waterloo
Longitudinal Project, an investigation begun
in 1980 to examine the stability and predictive outcomes associated with social withdrawal during childhood. In the present
study, we consider data collected on a sample
of second-grade children who were followed
up in the fifth grade, 3 years later.
In each year, all participants were enrolled in one of 10 classrooms from three
public schools in a southwestern Ontario
community of approximately 215,000 people.
Data for the first two schools (Cohort 1) were
collected 2 years prior to data for the last
school (Cohort 2). Subjects were primarily
Caucasian and middle class, and all had received parental permission for participation
in the study in both grades 2 and 5. In grade
2, the sample consisted of 155 children (39
males, 49 females from Cohort 1; 34 males, 33
females from Cohort 2), with a mean age of
7.7 years (SD = 5 months). Three years later,
in grade 5, 87 of these children (22 males, 29
females from Cohort 1; 18 males, 18 females
from Cohort 2; mean age = 10.6 years, SD =
4 months) again participated in the project,
constituting 56% of the possible longitudinal
sample. Cenerally, children dropped out of
the study because they had moved to a new
school.
2006
Child Development
Procedure
In grade 2, children completed peer assessments of sociometric acceptance and social behavior as well as a domain-specific selfconcept measure. These measures were
individually administered by female research
assistants in a laboratory trailer situated on
the school grounds. The children were also
observed, in quartets, in a series of four, 15min play sessions with same-age, same-sex
peers in a laboratory playroom. Finally,
teachers were asked to complete a behavioral
rating scale for each child.
In grade 5, the same peer assessment
measures of social behavior were group administered, in regular classroom settings, and
similar but not identical measures of
sociometric acceptance and domain-specific
self-concept, as well as a self-report measure
of loneliness, were given. Teachers were also
asked to complete a behavioral rating scale on
each child, although not the same scale as was
used in grade 2. Each measure is described
below.
All testing was conducted in the winter
of the school year, allowing sufficient time for
the children to be familiar with one another
prior to assessment. In both grades and for
both cohorts, all testing sessions were conducted more or less simultaneously (within
3-4 days for grade 2, with observational data
collection completed in the subsequent 3-4
weeks; within 1 or 2 weeks for grade 5). Children were assured of the confidentiality of
their individual responses at the time of testing.
Measures
Sociometric ratings.—A sociometric rating scale of peer acceptance (popularity) was
used in both grades 2 and 5. Although rating
scale sociometric measures, in contrast to
nomination measures, do not permit distinctions to be made between rejected and neglected children (see Hymel & Rubin, 1985,
for a review), they were selected as the measure of choice in the present study for two
reasons. First, rating scale sociometric measures provide information on the degree to
vi^hich all children are liked or disliked by
each of their classmates. Second, rating scale
measures have been shown to be more reliable and stable indices of acceptance or popularity, particularly during the earlier years of
childhood (e.g., Asher, Singleton, Tinsley, &
Hymel, 1979). Moreover, previous studies
have shown that children who receive low or
high sociometric rating scores are identified
as rejected and popular, respectively, on traditional nomination measures (Rubin, Hymel,
LeMare, & Rowden, 1989) and that it is the
rejected group that appears to be most "at
risk" for adjustment difficulties (see Asher &
Coie, 1990; Hymel & Rubin, 1985; Schneider,
Rubin, & Ledingham, 1985).
In grade 2, children were asked to rate
each classmate on a 3-point scale according to
how much they "liked to play with" each
classmate at school. In grade 5, the rating
scale was extended to 5 points, and children
rated how well they "liked to be with" each
classmate. In both grades, the average rating
received from all classmates was computed as
an index of overall popularity or acceptability
by peers.'^ Average ratings were then standardized within each sex and class to permit
comparisons of children across classes that
differed in size and gender composition as
well as rating scale format. Standardized average ratings thus provided an index of overall
acceptability by peers, with higher scores indicative of greater acceptance or popularity.
Peer assessments of social behavior.—
Peer perceptions of the social behavior that
typified each child were assessed using the
Revised Class Play (Masten, Morison, & Pelligrini, 1985). Children were requested to
nominate classmates who would best fit each
of 30 behavioral descriptors. Subsequendy,
nominations received from all classmates
were used to compute each of three factor
scores for each child following procedures
outlined by Masten et al. (1985): sociabilityleadership, aggression-disruption, and sensitivity-isolation, the latter two scores being of
interest in the present research. For each
summary score, the number of nominations
received by each child was standardized
within class and gender groups to permit appropriate comparisons. Higher scores were
indicative of stronger peer perceptions of the
identified behavior in each case.
^ Although our analyses were based on peer assessments made by all classmates (both same sex
and opposite sex), similar analyses were conducted using peer nominations and ratings from samesex peers only. A similar but slightly weaker pattern of results was obtained when same-sex rather
than both-sex ratings emd nominations were used. The slight improvenient in prediction with bothsex scores may have been a result of increased reliability of measures when derived from a larger
number of peers or from the unique contribution of opposite-sex peer perceptions. Future research
needs to address this issue.
Hymel et al.
Self-perceptions.—In order to assess
children's self-concepts, a domain-specific
self-report measure was administered in each
year. In grade 2, children were individually
administered Harter's (1982) Perceived Competence Scale, which tapped three domains of
competence: cognitive, social, and physical.
A fourth category, general self-worth, was
also measured but not considered in the present study since Harter (1982, 1983; Harter &
Pike, 1984) hais argued that general self-worth
is not adequately assessed by this self-report
measure prior to grade 3. In grade 5, a revised
version of the same scale, the Self-Perception
Profile for Children (Harter, 1985), was group
administered. The revised scale tapped children's perceptions of their own competencies
in five different domains: cognitive, physical,
social, appearance, and behavioral conduct. A
sixth category was general self-worth. Previous research has demonstrated the reliability
and validity of each of these measures (Harter,
1982,1985). Of particular interest in the present instance were children's perceptions of
their own competence in the social domain as
well as their general self-worth. Accordingly,
although the scale was administered in its entirety, only scores for perceived social competence (grades 2 and 5) and general self-worth
(grade 5 only) were considered in the data
analysis. Specifically, children's responses to
the items measuring perceived social competence and general self-worth on each of the
two scales were averaged, following procedures described by Harter (1982, 1985).
These scores resulted in separate indices of
perceived social competence and general
self-worth, with higher scores indicative of
more positive self-regard in each case.
Loneliness and social dissatisfaction.—
In grade 5, children's feelings of loneliness
and social dissatisfaction were assessed using
a self-report measure developed by Asher et
al. (1984). Previous research using this scale
has demonstrated that children's responses
are fairly stable over time (Hymel & Franke,
1985) and internally consistent (Asher et al.,
1984). Following procedures outlined by
Asher et al. (1984), children's responses to the
16 self-statements included in this scale were
summed; higher scores were indicative of
greater feelings of loneliness and social dissatisfaction.
Behavioral observations.—Each grade 2
participant was invited to play with three
same-sex age-mates for four 15-min free-play
sessions in a laboratory playroom. The child's
playmates differed in each of the four sessions, thus allowing observations to be made
2007
with 12 different playmates, two of whom (in
each quartet) were students from different
classrooms.
During each play session, the children
were observed,firombehind one-way mirrors,
following the procedures described in detail
by Rubin (1982, 1986). Each child was observed for 42 10-sec time samples during each
session. Thus, a total of 28 min of data (or 168
time samples) were available for each child.
Behaviors were coded on a predetermined
checklist that included the social participation
categories of solitary, parallel, and group activity in addition to aggression (both verbal
and nonverbal) and conversations with peers.
Embedded within the three major social participation categories of solitary, parallel, and
group play were the cognitive play categories
described originally by Smilansky (1968);
these categories included sensorimotorfunctional play, construction, dramatic play,
and games-with-rules. Added to this cognitive play taxonomy was exploratory activity.
Thus, as in Rubin (1982), any cognitive play
category was coded, as it occurred, within
each of the three social participation categories (e.g., solitary-constructive play; groupdramatic play).
Observers were trained to use the behavioral taxonomy prior to data collection by employing videotapes of free-play as well as naturalistic observations during a laboratory
school play period. During training, reliability was assessed by pairing each observer
with the trainer for several hours of observation time, at the end of which reliability
estimates were obtained for a 15—20-min
observation period for each observer. The
percentage of agreement (i.e., number of
agreements/agreements plus disagreements)
exceeded 85% for each behavioral category at
this time. A second 15-20-min reliability
check was conducted immediately prior to
onset of actual data collection for each observer, and again, reliability exceeded 85%
for each behavioral category. During actual
data collection (conducted in a laboratory
trailer), time and space constraints (i.e., the
need to accommodate one observer for each
of the four child participants during each play
period) prohibited collection of reliability
data throughout the observation sessions. Reliability spot cheeks were conducted in the
latter quarter of data collection, however, constituting approximately 8% to 10% of all observational data. As assessed during these
spot checks, reliability exceeded 85% for all
behavioral categories.
2008
Child Development
TABLE 1
OVERVIEW OF MEASURES
N
Grade 2:
Peer assessments (standardized):
Popularity (sociometric ratings from all peers)
Social behavior (Masten et al., 1985):
Isolation
Aggression
Teacher assessments (Moller & Rubin, 1988):
Internalizing problems
Externalizing problems
Self-assessments:
Social competence (Harter, 1982)
Observational assessment:
Isolated play
Aggression
Grade 5:
Peer assessments (standardized):
Popularity (sociometric ratings from all peers)
Social behavior (Masten et al., 1985):
Isolation
Aggression
Teacher assessments (Hightovfer et al., 1986):
Shy-anxious behavior (standardized)
Acting-out behavior (standardized)
Self-assessments:
Social competence (Harter, 1985)
General self-worth (Harter, 1985)
Loneliness (Asher et al., 1984)
Given the focus of the present report, two
categories of observed behavior were considered particularly relevant: (1) isolated play—
the frequency with which children, when observed in a situation that pulled for social
interaction, engaged in solitary, unoccupied,
or onlooker activity; and (2) aggression—the
frequency of all group interchanges that could
be characterized as hostile and agonistic.
Teacher ratings.—In grade 2, teachers
were asked to complete the Preschool Behavior Questionnaire (PBQ, Behar & Stringfield,
1974), a measure designed to identify
socioemotional problems in young children.
Recent research has demonstrated that this
30-item scale yields two reliable factors in the
elementary school years (Moller & Rubin,
1988). The first factor, externalizing, consists
of items descriptive of hostile-aggressive and
impulsive-distractible behaviors; the second
factor, internalizing, consists of items descriptive of fearfulness, anxiety, and social solitude. Each child received a total score for
those items that loaded on each of the two
factors, with higher scores indicative of
greater difficulties in each case.
M
SD
Range
87
.08
.99
- 2 . 7 9 - 1.85
86
86
-.20
-.14
.88
.86
- 1 . 4 1 - 2.59
- 1 . 4 6 - 2.41
87
87
7.14
12.86
1.74
2.95
5.00-14.00
11.00-28.00
86
3.21
.64
1.86- 4.00
85
85
37.53
1.05
17.56
2.10
3.00-83.00
.00-10.00
85
.10
.94
- 2 . 5 5 - 1.98
87
87
-.20
.01
.90
.95
- 1 . 6 9 - 3.16
- 1 . 3 0 - 2.80
79
77
-.05
-.06
.94
.99
- 1 . 4 6 - 2.61
- 1 . 1 4 - 3.03
82
82
85
3.11
3.31
30.40
.65
.56
10.06
1.00- 4.00
1.33- 4.00
16.00-72.00
In grade 5, teachers were asked to complete the Teacher-Child Rating Scale (T-CRS,
Hightower et al., 1986), a measure of
socioemotional development developed for
use with elementary school age children. Previous research (Hightower et al., 1986) has
demonstrated the reliability and validity of
this scale and has identified six distinct factors
tapped by it: acting out, shy-anxious behavior,
learning problems, fmstration tolerance, assertive social skills, and task orientation. Of
particulair interest in this instance are teacher
evaluations of children's social problems, as
reflected in two of these six factors: shyanxious and acting-out behavior. Indeed,
these two factors are described by Hightower
et al. (1986) as most similar to other broadband dimensions such as internalizing versus
externalizing difficulties, as defined by
Achenbach and Edelbrock (1981). Accordingly, teacher assessments of both shyanxious and acting-out behavior were considered in present analyses, with higher scores
indicative of greater difficulties in each case.
An overview of all measures considered
at each grade level is presented in Table 1,
Hymel et al.
2009
TABLE 2
GOMPARISON OF LONGITUDINAL AND NONLONGITUDINAL SUBJEGTS ON S E C O N D - G R A D E VARIABLES
LONGITUDINAL
SUBJEGTS
GRADE 2 VARIABLES
Peer assessments (standardized):
Popularity
Isolated behavior*
Aggressive behavior
Teacher assessments:
Internalizing problems
Externalizing problems
Observed play:
Isolated play
Aggressive play
Self-report assessments:
Perceived social competence*
M
SD
NONLONGITUDINAL
SUBJEGTS
N
M
SD
N
.08
-.02
-.14
(.99)
(.88)
(.86)
87
86
86
-.02
.11
.10
(.87)
(.96)
(.94)
68
66
66
7.14
12.86
(1.74)
(2.95)
87
85
7.56
1.46
(2.33)
(5.73)
68
67
37.53
1.05
(17.56)
(2.10)
85
85
32.46
1.46
(15.91)
(5.73)
67
67
3.21
(.64)
86
2.91
(.84)
65
*p< .05.
along with means, standard deviations, and
ranges of scores for the entire sample.
Results and Discussion
Given that the same procedures and
methods were utilized across the two cohorts
and that preliminary analyses showed similar
results across cohorts, data from the two
cohorts were combined. StatisticeJly significant discrepancies in results between cohorts,
when analyzed separately, are noted when
relevant In all analyses reported herein,
alpha was set at the .05 level of significance,
and two-tailed tests of significance were used.
Preliminary Analyses
Given the fact that 44% of the initial
grade 2 sample was not available for followup in grade 5, preliminary analyses were conducted to examine the representativeness of
the continuing longitudinal sample. A series
of t tests was conducted, comparing secondgrade, longitudinal participants (IV = 87, subjects for whom data were available in both
grades 2 and 5) with second-grade, nonlongitudinal subjects (N = 68, grade mates who
participated only in initial testing). Results of
these analyses are presented in Table 2. As
can be seen, few significant differences were
observed between longitudinal and nonlongitudinal subsamples. Exceptions: the nonlongitudinal subjects were viewed by secondgrade peers as more isolated in their social
behavior, t(185) = 2.10, p < .05, and viewed
themselves as less socially competent, t(149)
= 2.46, p < .02, relative to classmates continuing in the sample. Thus, the longitudinal
sample could be characterized as comparable
to their nonlongitudinal grade mates except
for peer-assessed isolation and self-perceived
social competence. Given that the children
who dropped out of the study between grades
2 and 5 were more socially withdrawn and
more inclined to view themselves in a negative light than the ones remaining, one might
expect these latter two measures to be restricted in range. As such, support for the hypothesized relations between social withdrawal, negative self-perceptions of social
competence, and indices of later internalizing
problems would have to be exceptionally
strong to counter the effects of selective attrition.
Concurrent Correlations
Second-grade concurrent relations.—
First considered were the intercorrelations
among measures obtained in grades 2 and 5
separately (i.e., the concurrent correlations).^
Results are presented in Table 3 for the second-grade data set. As can be seen, the correlations revealed a pattern which was, by and
large, consistent with results of previous research. Moreover, the pattern of interrelations
observed was similar in each cohort, when
analyzed separately, with few exceptions (as
noted below).
Popularity was negatively related to both
aggressive behavior as judged by peers and
externalizing difficulties as judged by
^ Similar patterns of relations were obtained for males and females in all correlational analyses;
only results for the entire sample are presented here.
C5
O
be
o<
I
o
u
O
O O
(SI CO
T-H .-H
"g.2
qq
o •^
I
I
z
i n CO
I
I
I
I
oo
r-l
Hymel etal.
teachers. This association between peer rejection and aggressive behavior has been well
established in the literature (see Asher &
Coie, 1990; Hymel & Rubin, 1985, for reviews). It is interesting to note, however, that
popularity was also negatively correlated with
peer perceptions of sensitive-isolated behavior. Finally, popularity was positively related
to children's self-perceptions of social competence.
Of particular interest in examining the
concurrent relations described in Table 3 is
the degree of correspondence observed across
various measures of aggression/externalizing
behaviors or isolation/internalizing behaviors.
With regard to externalizing behaviors, correspondence across measures was observed, although the magnitude of the correlations was
not large. Peer-assessed aggressive behavior
was significantly related to teacher-rated externalizing behavior. As well, teacher-rated
externalizing behavior and observed aggressive play were also significantly related, but
this association was significantly greater in
Cohort 1, r(48) = .48, p < .001, than in Cohort
2, r(33) = .03, N.S. In general, though, the
various indices of externalizing/aggressive behavior were related to one another.
In contrast, the various indices of internalizing/isolation behavior were virtually unrelated: peer-assessed sensitivity-isolation,
teacher-rated internalizing behavior, and observed isolated play were not significantly
correlated. The only exception to this pattern
was a significant relation between peerassessed isolation and teacher-rated internalizing problems, which was significant for
children in Cohort 1, r(48) = .37, p < .01, but
not Cohort 2, r(34) = .03, N.S., nor in the
combined sample, r(84) = .16, p < .10. Previously, Ledingham, Younger, Schwartzman,
and Bergeron (1982) also examined the associations among teacher and peer assessments
of social withdrawal and aggression, reporting
that the correlation between teacher and peer
aggression measures was higher than that between indices of withdrawal. Nevertheless,
Ledingham et al. found significant associations between teacher and peer assessments
of withdrawal firom as early as the first grade.
It is likely that this discrepancy between our
data and those of Ledingham et al. derived
firomi the latter's use of the same instrument
(the Pupil Evaluation Inventory) by teachers
and peers to assess aggression and withdrav^al in children; we used different measures with teachers and peers.
Of additional interest is the degree of
overlap between indices of aggression/
2011
externalizing behaviors and indices of isolation/internalizing behaviors, given previous
evidence (e.g., Moskowitz, Schwartzman, &
Ledingham, 1985) that aggression and isolation may represent a co-morbidity problem
for some children. In the present sample, the
correlations between various indices of internalizing (isolation) and externalizing (aggression) problems were all nonsignificant,
regardless of the source of information considered (teachers, peers, observers).
Finally, the concurrent relations between
second graders' perceptions of social competence and various indices of social difficulty
showed that self-reports of social competence
were positively related to popularity and
negatively related to peer perceptions of social isolation. In contrast, the relation between peer-assessed aggression and selfperceptions of social competence was not
significant. This pattern suggests that withdrawal is more reflective of internalized negative self-regard than is aggression.
Fifth-grade concurrent relations.—Concurrent correlations among measures obtained in grade 5 are presented in Table 4.
Again, the pattern of results obtained was
similar across cohorts and consistent with previous results. Popularity, in grade 5, was
negatively related to peer perceptions of both
aggressive and isolated behavior as well as
to teacher perceptions of shy-anxious and
acting-out behavior. Also, popularity was
positively rekted to self-reported social competence and negatively related to selfreported loneliness. The relations obtained
between popularity and social behavior as
well as self-perceptions were similar in both
cohorts, when evaluated separately.
As with the second-grade data, the correspondence between various indices (teacher
vs. peer) of aggressive and isolated behavior
was of particular interest. From Table 4, it can
be seen that teacher-rated acting-out behavior
and peer-assessed aggressive behavior were
significantly interrelated. Thus, as was the
case in grade 2, there was some correspondence across indices of aggression or externalizing (acting-out) behaviors. In contrast,
the relations observed across indices of isolation/shy-anxious behavior in grade 5 differ
considerably from the virtual lack of correspondence observed across indices of isolation/internalizing diflBculties observed in
grade 2. Teacher-rated shy-anxious behavior
and peer-assessed sensitive-isolated behavior
were significantly correlated in the grade 5
samples. The increasing correspondence
across indices of social isolation with age is
0)
ll
. *
*
. C5 in
. CO t>
o a
^a
o
O
O
be
c
I
•
OO
I
CO CO
- *
n< O ^
H
O 1^ O
be
w
EC
OS
o
u
*
Ed
EZ
CO CO
CD i n
O
PL,
l' f
(M CO
cq CO
I
I
- H CO 00
CO ' H cq
I
Hymel et al. 2013
consistent with the previous research by
Younger and his colleagues (Younger &
Boyko, 1987; Younger, Schwartzman, &
Ledingham, 1985, 1986), suggesting that children's conceptions of social withdrawal develop with age and become consistent with
adult conceptions eifter the fourth grade.
Thus, by grade 5, at least, there appeared to
be some degree of association between
teacher and peer assessments of isolation/
shyness as well as of aggression/acting out.
The magnitude of the significant correlations
obtained was moderate, however, suggesting
that teachers and peers may nevertheless provide unique sources of information regarding
children's social difficulties.
tion and negatively related to popularity in
grade 5. Aggressive/acting-out behavior,
as judged by teachers or peers, was not
significantly related to social self-perceptions
in grade 2 or grade 5. If anything, the pattern
of correlations obtained suggests that negative, social self-perceptions were more clearly
linked to social isolation and shyness/anxiety
than they were to aggression and acting-out
behavior and that this relation emerged more
strongly at later (grade 5) rather than at younger (grade 2) ages.
Stability Correlations
The primary purpose of the present study
was to examine the predictive correlations obtained across grades 2 and 5. These data axe
A second concern was the overlap ob- presented in Table 5. In examining these preserved between aggression and isolation dictive relations, an initial concern was the
within the grade 5 sample. Peer assessments stability of particular assessments over time.
of sensitivity-isolation and aggression-dis- Identical measures across the two grade
ruption were significantly correlated, as were levels were available only for peer assessteacher assessments of acting-out and shy- ments of sensitive-isolated and aggressiveanxious behavior, although the magnitude of disruptive behavior. Both aggressive-disthese relations was not large. Taken together, ruptive and sensitive-isolated behavior, as
these data suggest that aggressive/acting-out judged by peers, were significantly correlated
behavior and isolated/shy-anxious behavior across the 3-year period. Although the
may have been more likely to co-occur in teacher-based assessments differed in the two
grade 5 than in grade 2. Despite the modest grades, we examined the correspondence beoverlap between indices of aggression and tween them across grades 2 and 5. The data
withdrawal in grade 5, the two sets of vari- revealed that teacher-rated internsJizing beables had different concurrent correlates. For havior in grade 2 was significantly related to
example in grade 5, just as in grade 2, mea- teacher-rated shy-anxious behavior in grade 5.
sures of internalized negative self-regard (so- Also, teacher-rated externalizing behavior in
cial competence, loneliness) were signifi- grade 2 was significantly related to teachercantly associated with indices of withdrawal/ rated acting-out behavior in grade 5. Thus, as
anxiety and not with aggression. In addition, in previous research (Moskowitz et al., 1985;
more popular children expressed greater feel- Olweus, 1984), indices of both aggression and
ings of social competence and less loneliness. withdrawal were stable across the 3-year peThus, it appears that in grade 5 lack of popu- riod. Finally, similar but not identical
larity and isolated, shy-anxious behavior, but measures were also available for overall
not aggression, were associated with negative sociometric acceptance and children's selfperceptions of social competence. For both
self-appraisals.
popularity and self-perceptions of social comWhile the three indices of children's self- petence, significant stability coefficients were
perceptions were found to be interrelated observed in both cohorts.
(see Table 4), a somewhat different pattern of
correlations emerged between indices of chil- Predictive Correlations
dren's social difficulties and general versus
Next, the predictive correlations obtained
specific (i.e., social) self-perceptions. Overall, across the 3-year period were examined (see
feelings of general self-worth were not Table 5). Given our interest in evaluating
significantly related to either peer or teacher which of the grade 2 indices of social
assessments of acting-out/aggressive behavior difficulty were significant predictors of particor isolation/shy-anxious behavior. In contrast, ular outcomes in grade 5, attention was diperceptions of social competence in grade 5, rected to the pattern of predictive correlations
as in grade 2, were positively related to popu- reported in each column of the table, orgalarity but negatively related to peer percep- nized in terms of the vaiious types of
tions of sensitive-isolated social behavior as outcomes considered: overall popularity, exwell as teacher perceptions of shy-anxious be- ternalizing behaviors, and internalizing behavior. As well, feelings of loneliness were haviors. A discussion of results obtained for
positively related to peer perceptions of isola- the various outcome measures follows.
05
q o
I l'
I
•^
O (D 00
CO CO
"-t
o CO •
i-H 1>
O CO
00
—I
i-HO
OfN
m
i-H
' '
l'
« t~ in
00 o
CO CO ' H
(M 1—I
q
13 I
CM
I
I
I
00
I
o <
O
I
in
I
I
O
in
H
Q
o
e^o
qi-H
1-1 pa
o
u
<
91
I
I r
05C0'^
COi-HCO
l'
I
o
a> c
3
CO (
1
O
PH
CO •
CO 1
en
if
Hymel et al.
Popularity.—Peer acceptance or popularity, as judged by grade 5 peers (col. 1 of
Table 5), was correlated rtiost highly with
popularity in grade 2. Popularity in grade 5
was negatively correlated with peer-rated aggression and isolation, as well, and with externalizing difficulties, as judged by teachers in
grade 2.
Externalizing outcomes.—As expected,
peer-assessed aggressive behavior in grade 5
was negatively correlated with popularity and
positively related to peer-perceived aggression, as well as teacher-rated externalizing
problems in grade 2. A similar pattern of predictors was found for teacher-rated acting-out
behavior. Acting-out behavior in grade 5
was negatively correlated with popularity
and positively correlated with peer-rated
aggression and teacher-rated externalizing
difficulties in grade 2. These data clearly suggest that externalizing problems and unpopularity in grade 2 predict externalizing
difficulties and unpopularity in grade 5.
The stability of aggressive, externalizing
difficulties, as well as the predictive link between rejection and aggression, have been
fairly well established in the literature (see
Coie, Dodge, & Kupersmidt, 1990; Parker &
Asher, 1987, for reviews), and thus these
findings serve mainly to replicate previous research.
Social withdrawal.—Of primary interest
were outcomes of an internalizing nature
(cols. 4-8 in Table 5). First considered is the
outcome of social withdrawal, often viewed as
a behavioral reflection of internalizing difficulties (Achenbach, 1982). Social isolation, in
grade 5, was assessed by peer perceptions of
isolated behavior and by teacher perceptions
of shy/anxious behavior. Peer-assessed isolation in grade 5 was negatively correlated with
popularity and positively correlated with
peer-assessed isolation in grade 2. Teacherrated shy-anxious behavior in grade 5 was
predicted by internalizing difficulties, according to second-grade teachers, as well as by
isolated behavior, according to second-grade
peers. Thus, indices of social withdrawal in
early childhood appeared to predict social
withdrawal in middle childhood. The predictive correlations here are particularly
notew^orthy given the general lack of correspondence observed across various indices of
2015
isolation and internalizing behaviors within
grade 2, as discussed previously.
Self-perceptions.—Finally, we turn to
the predictive correlates of grade 5 children's
self-perceptions. Self-perceptions of social
competence in grade 5 were significantly and
positively related to perceptions of social
competence as well as negatively related to
peer-rated isolation as assessed 3 years earlier. Generally, the magnitude of diese predictive relations was stronger in Cohort 1 than
Cohort 2, although significant differences between the correlations were only observed in
the case of perceptions of socid competence,
as assessed across the 3-year period. Here,
perceptions of social competence in grade 2
were significantly related to grade 5 perceptions of social competence in Cohort 1, r(46)
= .56, p < .001, but not Cohort 2, r(32) = .22,
p = .10.
Greater loneliness in grade 5 was expressed by children who, 3 years earlier, had
been perceived by peers to be unpopular and
sensitive/isolated in their social behavior and
who had perceived themselves to be more socially incompetent. The relation observed between loneliness and previous self-reports of
social competence was significantly stronger
in Cohort 1 than in Cohort 2. Specifically, in
Cohort 1, grade 5 loneliness was significantly
related to self-reported social competence,
r(48) = - .65, p < .001, although this relation
was neair zero in Cohort 2. Finally, regarding
predictions of feelings of general self-worth,
results indicated that children who expressed
low overall self-esteem in the fifth grade were
those who perceived themselves to be socially incompetent in grade 2, although these
relations were stronger in Cohort 1, r"(45) =
.44, p < .001, than Cohort 2, r(32) = .06, N.S.
Regression Analyses
In an effort to determine the relative importance of our measures as predictors of later
outcomes, a series of multiple regression analyses was conducted, predicting each grade 5
outcome from the eight grade 2 indices of
social difficulty.^ Given no specific a priori
hypotheses regarding the relative predictive
power of these variables, all eight grade 2 predictors were considered simultaneously in
each of these analyses using a forward entry
approach. Results are presented in Table 6.
^ When these regression analyses were conducted with sex of subject entered first, there was no
significant prediction accounted for by this variable. While these findings are not surprising, given
the fact that similar correlational patterns were observed for males and females, they are consistent
with the notion that similar predictive relations were operating for both.
oqcqco
r
in 00 O
CO CO (N
E
3
O
I
O
Tfi CO O
I— CO l O l O
CO
o o cq
O I—^ O ""f
* * *
int-io
^ O r
* * * *
10050505
<NCO0<O
00
O
o
6
13 a
111
a
a
ft H P< 0) j)
B
tD ^-^ V
be ta bota
c >r a V ft'5'ftT30 O
cS
'CH '—' _C '—' n
tZ! J- O W 05 c3 cti ' ^ rt Q
m
<
tuD Qj CL ^ -M '^
^
O o3
iT3
s28
8
'ca
Q ^
OS
o
m
o
CO
I
ratec
0)
2
1
3
•s
01
ft
§
3
O
be
Ml
O
8
I
1)
a
o
•43
CJ
cd
T3
0)
T3
O
1
a)
^^ CO
o
d Q
ft
3
O
I
•a
a
O
CO
o
Hymel et al.
2017
Popularity.—As can be seen in Table 6,
overall status or popularity in grade 5 was
significantly predicted by three grade 2 variables: popularity, teacher-rated externalizing
difficulties, and peer-rated isolation, with
roughly 38% of tfie variance in fifth-grade
popularity accounted for by these variables.
Popular children in grade 5 tended to be
those who were popular in grade 2 and those
whom teachers viewed as exhibiting fewer
externalizing problems and whom secondgrade peers viewed as less isolated. These
findings, consistent with previous correlational results, point to the stability of peer rejection over time and to the primacy of aggressive behavior in predicting later peer
acceptance and popularity. These results also
support the notion that isolated behavior is
increasingly linked with peer rejection as
children move through the elementary school
years.
judged by peers and teachers, respectively.
For peer-assessed isolated behavior, results of
the regression analysis revealed two significant grade 2 predictors: peer-rated popularity
and teacher-rated internalizing problems,
which together accounted for apjproximately
21% of the variance in grade 5 isolated behavior, as judged by peers. Thus, peer assessments of isolation in grade 5 could be predicted from popularity and teacher ratings of
internalizing problems 3 years earlier.
Externalizing outcomes.—Next considered were predictors of externalizing problems in grade 5, as assessed by peer-rated
aggression and teacher-rated acting-out behavior. For peer-assessed aggression, results
of the regression analyses revealed two significant grade 2 predictors: peer-assessed aggressive behavior and teacher-rated externalizing problems, which together accounted
for 27% of the variance in aggression in grade
5. Thus, children viewed as aggressive by
peers in grade 5 were those who were viewed
by second-grade peers as aggressive and by
second-grade teachers as exhibiting externalizing difficulties.
In the case of both teacher and peer assessments of shy/anxious/isolated behavior in
grade 5, then, teacher evaluations of internalizing problems (including items descriptive of shy, solitary behavior) 3 years earlier
emerged as a significant predictor. The general failure of second-grade peer assessments
of isolated behavior to emerge as a significant
predictor, despite significant zero-order correlations with dependent vEiriables (see Table
5), may refiect the fact that conceptions of isolation are not cohesive in young children
(e.g.. Younger et al., 1985, 1986; Younger &
Boyko, 1987). Nevertheless, peer perceptions
of popularity do appear to predict subsequent
peer perceptions of isolation (see Table 6),
suggesting that peer evaluations of acceptance, but not isolation, may be critical.
Results of the regression analyses conducted for teacher-rated acting-out behavior
in grade 5 revealed two significant grade 2
predictors, which together accounted for
about 18% of the variance: peer-rated aggressive behavior and popularity. Thus, fifthgrade children whom teachers viewed as exhibiting acting-out behavior were those who
were less popular with peers in grade 2 and
those whom second grade peers viewed as
exhibiting more aggressive behavior. Consistent with previous research and our own correlational results, then, the present results
confirm the predictive links between early
peer rejection and aggression and subsequent
externalizing outcomes.
Internalizing behavior.—Next, multiple
regression analyses were conducted to examine the predictors of internalizing dutcomes
in grade 5. First considered were indices of
isolated, shy-anxious behavior in grade 5, as
With regard to teacher-rated shy-anxious
behavior in grade 5, results of the regression
analysis revealed only one significant grade 2
predictor: teacher ratings of internalizing
problems. Thus, roughly 14% of the variance
in teacher-rated shy-anxious behavior was
predicted by intemaJizing problems judged
by different teachers using different rating
scales 3 years earlier.
Self-perceptions.—Self-report indices of
internalizing difficulties in grade 5 were considered next: self-perceptions of social competence, loneliness, and general self-worth.
Results of regression analyses conducted for
each of these three variables were the same:
self-perception of social competence in grade
2 was a significant predictor of perceptions of
social competence, general self-worth, and
loneliness 3 years later, with 8% to 18% of the
variance accounted for across outcome measures. Thus, children who viewed themselves
as low in social competence in grade 2 were
likely to express similar feelings in grade 5,
thought less of themselves overall, and reported greater feelings of loneliness and social dissatisfaction. Negative perceptions of
social competence, then, may be well established as early as the second grade and appear
2018
Chad Development
to predict subsequent negative self-regard.
The fact that second-grade social selfperceptions emerged as the only significant
predictor of subsequent indices of social and
general self-regard may be attributable simply to method variance (i.e., self-perceptions
predict self-perceptions). Consistent with
such an argument is the fact that, in previous
correlational analyses (Table 5), second-grade
social self-perceptions were clearly the
strongest, if not the only significant correlate
of subsequent self-perceptions. Prior to dismissing these findings as due simply to
method variance, however, one must consider
the fact that such negative social selfperceptions are not created in a social vacuum
and are tied, both concurrently (Tables 3 and
4) and predictively (Table 5), to early social
isolation but not to aggression.
Conclusions
Our results provide additional support for
previously reported concurrent and predictive links between early peer acceptance,
aggression, and externalizing outcomes.
Specifically, children low in popularity, in
both grades 2 and 5, were those who were
viewed as aggressive by peers and those who
were judged by teachers as exhibiting externalizing problems (hostility and aggression,
grade 2) and acting out behavior (grade 5).
The results also demonstrated considerable
overlap among the various indices of aggression/acting out/externalizing problems across
information sources in both grades 2 and 5
and the stability of these indices across the
second- to fifth-grade assessments. Predictively, results of regression analyses indicated
that second-grade indices of low peer popularity, peer-assessed aggression, and teacherrated externalizing problems were predictive
of subsequent externalizing outcomes 3 years
later.
Linkages between early aggressive behavior and later difficulties of an externalizing
nature lead naturally to the question of what
psychological variables predict outcomes of
an internalizing nature. Our hypothesis was
that early social withdrawal rather than aggression would be predictive of these outcomes. However, some of our results might
lead one to question the utility of indices of
early social withdrawal. Specifically, the various indices of social withdrawal obtained
(peer, teacher, and observational assessments)
were not significantly interrelated among the
second graders. These findings are not altogether surprising given that Younger and
colleagues (Younger et al., 1985, 1986; Younger & Boyko, 1987) found that young children's conceptions of social withdrawal are
not well articulated. Moreover, these results
are consistent with those of Ledingham et al.
(1982), who found that teacher and peer assessments of social withdrawal were less
highly interrelated than were teacher and
peer assessments of aggression, especially
among younger children.
While these findings suggest caution regarding the utility of early indices of social
withdrawal, our other findings support the
utility of these measures. In particular, peer
assessments of socially isolated behavior
were found to be relatively stable across the
second and fifth grades. Early indices of social withdrawal were found to be significantly
and negatively related to concurrent indices
of peer acceptance as well, and to selfperceptions of social competence in both
grades 2 and 5. These results are noteworthy
in several respects. First, they demonstrate
that social isolation, as well as aggression, is
an important contributor to peer acceptance
during middle childhood. While the links between peer rejection and aggression have
been well established within the literature,
researchers have only recently recognized the
heterogeneous nature of rejected children
and the fact that isolation as well as aggression may be characteristic of some rejected
children (e.g., Coie et al., 1990; French, 1988;
Rubin, Hymel, LeMare, & Rowden, 1989).
Second, our results demonstrate significant
concurrent relations in both the second and
fifth grades between negative social selfperceptions and indices of social withdrawal
but not aggression or acting-out behavior.
Concurrently, then, it appears that social
withdrawal is associated with negative selfregard, but that aggression is not. These concurrent data take on added significance when
the predictive correlates of aggression and
withdrawal are contrasted.
Our predictive correlations also reveal
linkages between negative self-perceptions
and indices of social isolation, but not aggression. Specifically, peer assessments of social
withdrawal in grade 2 as well as second-grade
teacher perceptions of internalizing problems
(i.e., anxious, fearful, and solitary behaviors)
were significant predictors of negative social
self-perceptions (loneliness, perceptions of
social incompetence) 3 years later. In contrast, grade 2 measures of aggression (peer assessed) and externalizing problems (teacher
assessed) were not predictive of subsequent
Hymel et al.
negative social self-perceptions. In a series
of regression analyses, early (grade 2) indices of social withdrawal did not emerge
as a significant predictor of later negative
self-perceptions. Rather, the strongest link
was between negative social self-perceptions
in grade 2 and continued negative selfperceptions in grade 5, a finding that could be
dismissed as resulting from method variance.
However, as we have noted, these negative
social self-perceptions are not created in a social vacuum and are linked, both concurrently
and predictively, to early social withdrawal
but not to early aggression. Early social withdrawal, then, appears to be a useful predictor
of subsequent negative self-regard, a major
component of internalizing outcomes, despite
the fact that various indices of early social
withdrawal were not significantly intercorrelated in grade 2.
It is not clear, at this point, whether these
links are causal ones. It is possible that early
social withdrawal contributes to a child's
negative self-perceptions, but it is also likely
that social withdrawal itself is a behavioral
refiection of or response to negative selfperceptions, including perceptions of social
incompetence and anxiety. The cost of such
withdrawal may be the failure to fully develop adequate social skills (Rubin & Krasnor,
1986), which, in turn, may lead to further
withdrawal and more negative self-regard.
The question of causality, then, remains an
important problem for future research. Nevertheless, our results support the argument that
internalizing outcomes may be likely for children exhibiting particular forms of social
difficulty, namely, withdrawn children.
Early social withdrawal or isolation, then,
may indeed be a risk factor in early development and should not be ignored in future research. The present findings are particularly
compelling given the relatively limited sample size, the similarity of results obtained
across cohorts, and the fact that some of the
more socially withdrawn children in the sample were eliminated due to selective attrition.
While replication of these findings is clearly
called for, the present results serve to underscore the need to consider both social withdrawal as well as aggression, and internalizing as well as externalizing outcomes in
understanding the nature of children's social
difficulties. We stress, however that, although
significant, the magnitude of our predictive
correlations was not large, suggesting that not
all isolated or aggressive children face later
difficulties. Our next task, then, is to identify
2019
those factors that mediate the relation between early social difficulties and subsequent
maladjustment.
References
Achenbach, T. M. (1982). Developmental psychopathology (2d ed.). New York: Wiley.
Achenbach, T. M., & Edelbrock, C. S. (1981). Behavioral problems and competencies reported
by parents of normal and disturbed children
aged four through sixteen. Monographs of the
Society for Research in Child Development,
46(1, Serial No. 188).
Altmann, E. O., & Gotlib, I. H. (in press). The social behavior of depressed children: An observational siady. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology.
Asher, S. R., & Coie, J. D. (1990). Peer rejection in
childhood. New York: Cambridge University
Press.
Asher, S. R., Hymel, S., & Henshaw, P. D. (1984).
Loneliness in children. Child Development,
55, 1456-1464.
Asher, S. R., Parkhurst, J. T., Hymel, S., & Williams, G. A. (1990). Peer rejection and loneliness in childhood. In S. R. Asher & J. D. Coie
(Eds.), Peer rejection in childhood. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Asher, S. R., Singleton, L., Tinsley, B., & Hymel, S.
(1979). A reliable sociometric measure for preschool children. Developmental Psychology,
15, 443-444.
Behar, L., & Stringfield, S. (1974). A behavioral rating scale for the preschool child. Developmental Psychology, 10, 601-610.
Coie, J., Dodge, K. A., & Kupersmidt, J. (1990).
Peer group behavior and social status. In S. R.
Asher & J. D. Coie (Eds.), Peer rejection in
childhood. New York: Cambridge University
Press.
French, D. C. (1988). Heterogeneity of peerrejected boys: Aggressive and non-aggressive
types. Child Development, 59, 976-985.
Harter, S. (1982). The Perceived Competence Scale
for Children. Child Development, 53, 87-97.
Harter, S. (1983). Developmental perspectives on
the self system. In E. M. Hetherington (Ed.),
P. H. Mussen (Series Ed.), Handbook of child
psychology: Vol. 4. Socialization, personality,
and social development (pp. 275—385). New
York: Wiley.
Harter, S. (1985). Manual for the Self-Perception
Profile for Children. Unpublished manuscript.
University of Denver.
Harter, S., & Pike, R. (1984). The pictorial scale of
perceived competence and social acceptance
for young children. Child Development, 55,
1969-1982.
2020
Child Development
Hightower, A. D., Work, W. C, Cohen, E. L.,
Lotyczewskl, B. S., Spinell, A. P., Guare, J. C,
& Rohrbeck, C. A. (1986). The Teacher-Child
Rating Scale: A brief objective measure of
elementary children s school problem behaviors and competencies. School Psychology Review, 15, 393-409.
Hymel, S. (1983). Social isolation and rejection in
children: The child's perspective. Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Society
for Research in Child Development, Detroit.
Hymel, S., & Franke, S. (1985). Children's peer relations: Assessing self-perceptions. In B. H.
Schneider, K. H. Rubin, & J. E. Ledingham
(Eds.), Children's peer relations: Issues in assessment and intervention (pp. 75-91). New
York: Springer-Verlag.
Hymel, S., & Rubin, K. H. (1985). Children with
peer relationship and social skills problems:
Conceptual, methodological and developmental issues. In G. J. Whitehurst (Ed.), Annals of child development (Vol. 2, pp. 251—
297). Greenwich, CT: JAL
Kohlberg, L., LaCrosse, I., & Ricks, D. (1972). The
predictability of adult mental health from
childhood behavior. In B. B. Wolman (Ed.),
Manual of child psychopathology (pp. 12171284). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Ledingham, J., Younger, A., Schwartzman, A.,
& Bergeron, G. (1982). Agreement among
teacher, peer and self-ratings of children's aggression, withdrawal and likeability./owrnai of
Abnormal Child Psychology, 10, 363-372.
Masten, A., Morison, P., & Pelligrini, D. (1985). A
revised class play method of peer assessment.
Developmental Psychology, 21, 523-533.
Michael, G. M., Morris, D. P., & Soroker, E. (1957).
Follow-up studies of shy, withdrawn children:
IL Relative incidence of schizophrenia. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 27, 331-337.
Mills, R. S. L., & Rubin, K. H. (1990). Parental beliefs about problematic social behaviors in
early childhood. Child Development, 61, 138151.
Moller, L. C, & Rubin, K. H. (1988). A psychometric assessment of a two-factor solution
for the Preschool Behavior Questionnaire in
mid-childhood. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology.
Moskowitz, D. S., Schwartzman, A. E., & Ledingham, J. E. (1985). Stability and change in aggression and withdrawal in middle childhood
and early adolescence. Journal of Abnormal
Psychology, 94, 30-41.
Olweus, D. (1984). Stability in aggressive and withdrawn, inhibited behavior patterns. In R. M.
Kaplan, V. J. Konecni, & R. W. Novaco (Eds),
Aggression in children and youth (pp. 104136). The Hague: Nijhoff.
Parker, J. G., & Asher, S. R. (1987). Peer relations
and later personal adjustment: Are lowaccepted children at risk? Psychological Bulletin, 102, 357-389.
Robins, L. N. (1966). Deviant children grow up.
Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins.
Rubin, K. H. (1982). Nonsocial play in preschoolers: Necessary evil? Child Development, 53,
651-657.
Rubin, K. H. (1986). Play, peers, and social development. In A. Gottfried & G. Galdwell Brown,
(Eds.), Play interactions: The contributions of
play materials and parental involvement to
child development (pp. 163-174). Lexington,
MA: Heath.
Rubin, K. H., Hymel, S., LeMare, L., & Rowden, L.
(1989). Ghildren experiencing social difficulties: Sociometric neglect reconsidered.
Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, 21,
94-111.
Rubin, K. H., Hymel, S., & Mills, R. S. L. (1989).
Sociability and social withdrawal in childhood:
Stability and outcomes./o«ma/ of Personality,
57, 237-256.
Rubin, K. H., & Rrasnor, L. R. (1986). Socialcognitive and social-behavioral perspectives on
problem solving. In M. Perlmutter (Ed.), Cognitive perspectives on children's social and behavioral development: The Minnesota syrrvposia on child psychology (Vol. 18, pp. 1-68).
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Rubin, K. H., LeMare, L., & LoUis, S. (1990). Social
withdrawal in childhood: Developmental pathways to peer rejection. In S. R. Asher & J. D.
Goie (Eds.), Peer rejection in childhood. New
York: Gambridge University Press.
Rubin, K. H., & Lollis, S. (1988). Origins and consequences of social withdrawal. In J. Belsky & T.
Nezworski (Eds.), Clinical implications of attachment (pp. 219-252). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Rubin, K. H., & Mills, R. S. L. (1988). The many
faces of social isolation in childhood. JournaZ of
Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 6, 916924.
Schneider, B. H., Rubin, K. H., & Ledingham, J. E.
(Eds.). (1985). Children's peer relations: Issues
in assessment and intervention. New York:
Springer-Verlag.
Smilansky, S. (1968). The effects of sociodramatic
play on disadvantaged children. New York:
Wiley.
Strauss, G. E., Forehand, R., Frame, G., & Smith, K.
(1984). GharacterisUcs of children with extreme scores on the Ghildren's Depression Inventory. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology,
13, 227-231.
Vosk, B., Forehand, R., Parker, J., & Richard, K.
(1982). A multimethod comparison of popular
Hymel etal.
and unpopular children. Developmental Psychology, 18, 571-575.
Wanlass, R. L., & Prinz, R. J. (1982). Methodological issues in conceptualizing childhood social
isolation. Psychological Bulletin, 92, 39-55.
Younger, A. J., & Boyko, K. A. (1987). Aggression
and withdrawal as social schemas underlying
children's peer perceptions. Child Development, 58, 1094-1100.
Younger, A. J., Schwartzman, A. E., & Ledingham,
2021
J. E. (1985). Crade-related changes in children's perceptions of aggression and withdrawal in their peers. Developmental Psychology, 21, 70-75.
Younger, A. J., Schwartzman, A. E., & Ledingham,
J. E. (1986). Age-related differences in children's perceptions of social deviance: Changes
in behavior or perspective? Developmental
Psychology, 22, 531-542.