Kommunikation och användargränssnitt

Communication and User
Interfaces - TNM040
• Course content
– cognitive psychology
• how humans interpret their environment
• how humans process information
• communication between humans
– Human-computer interaction
• interface design
• methods for developing and evaluating useradapted computer systems
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Ivan Rankin
Communication and User
Interfaces - Formalities
Personnel
• Ivan Rankin, lectures, exam, labs
Henry Fröcklin, labs, exam
Britt Wimark, admin
(email, addresses, etc. on home pages)
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Examination - contents
• Computer labs in Java + test
(individual)
• Cognitive critique of user interfaces
(oral examination, individual)
• User interface design (group)
• Home assignment (individual)
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TNM040 Examination
week 35
36
37
38 39
40 41
42
lectures
Java
GUI design in theory and practice
critique
home assignment
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TNM040 Examination
• Points in total: 6
• Programming: labs + GUI project 3p
• Critique + home assignment 3p
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Four questions
• Is troggel a Swedish word?
No
• How many of each animal species did
Moses take on the ark?
It was Noah on the ark
• Did Galileo have fingers missing on one
hand?
No
• What is the capital of the Lebanon?
Bahrain Bagdad Beirut Barcelona?
Beirut
Ivan Rankin
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One more question
5. How many ’v’s are there in the text below?
vid viktiga förhandlingar är betydelsen av dokumentation
av ingående beslut ett levande exempel på
resultatet av flera års utbildning.
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Ivan Rankin
Human-computer interaction
(HCI)
• In the beginning (1940s-1950s) only
specialists used computers
• 1970s the first personal computers arrived
• 1970s-1980s the concept of ’user interface’
meaning the parts of a computer program the
user comes in contact with was introduced
– Own code separate from the rest of the program
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Human-computer interaction
• In the mid-1980s the term ’user-friendly’ was
used:
research on human capabilities and limitations
when working with computers, eg.
– cognitive (mental) processeses when using a computer,
eg. what knowledge is required for a given purpose
– work method
– organisation
– health issues
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Ivan Rankin
Human-computer interaction
• Work method
– varied or routine assignments
– speed
• Organisation
– who does what?
– how is the organisation’s structure affected?
• Health issues
– sensitivity to electricity, repeated movements
– ergonomics: design that takes human
psychological and physical abilities into
consideration
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Ivan Rankin
Human-computer interaction
•
1980s-1990s
Human-computer interaction becomes an
area of research:
– what processes, actions does a human use in
interacting with a computer? What does the
dialogue/communcationen look like?

– design, implementation of interactive computer
systems for human use
•
1990s - usability
– systems that make it easier for a human to
perform a task
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Ivan Rankin
Human-computer interaction
• Increased interest for the human role in the
interaction but not as fast as technical advances
• telephone – a simple example
• video player
• car
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HCI
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When HCI doesn’t work
• In 1979 Meltdown at Three Mile Island Nuclear Plant
• ” a valve opened but no-one noticed due to a series of technical
and human errors”
• In 1990 Indian Airlines airbus crashes
• 320 died
• ”the pilot didn’t adapt to the system”
• In 1992 USAs Vincennes shoots down an Iranian passenger
plane 290 dog
• ”the computer system showed the correct information, but the
operaters became victims of a trivial design error”
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When HCI works
• Results after DEC’s development team
put much effort into usability of a
product (that generated various types of
computer programa):
– Sales increased by 80%
– Customers found that increased usability
was the second best feature of the new
release (after functionality)
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Ivan Rankin
Human-computer interaction
• Three main aims of HCI
– usability
• easy to learn
• easy to use (more om usability later in course)
– safety
• A user must not be able to take actionss that have
catastrophic consequences
– functionality
• computer programs that are suitable for the task
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Ivan Rankin
Human-computer interaction
• To achieve these goals:
1. Understand factors on how humans use
computers:
• human mental abilities, limitations, wishes
• ergonomics – take into consideration human physical and
psychological abilities
• understanding the environment around the human
– Organisational factors
– Social issues
2. Develop tools and techniques adapted to the user
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Ivan Rankin
Communication and user
interfaces
”Morgondagens civilingenjör är en
kommunicerande och socialt kompetent
person, med kunskaper och färdigheter
inom en mängd olika kompletterande
områden.”
CivilingenjörsFörbundet
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Ivan Rankin
Communication and user
interfaces
What is required:
”...kunskaper och färdigheter i att
handha produkter, processer och
arbetsmiljö med hänsyn till människors
förutsättningar och behov.”
Högskoleförordningen
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Psychology
• Greek psyke = mind, soul, consciousness,
intellect
logos = science, knowledge
• Definition:
Psychology is the science of human behaviour
and mental processes
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Areas in psychology
mental load
perception
learning
behaviour
thought
processes
attention
knowledge
memory
mental training,
eg. sport
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deviational
behaviour
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Psychology - milestones
• Psychology was viewed as a part of philosophy in
the early days
• Psychology becomes a science in its own right
– 1879: Wundt established a laboratory for psychological
research at Leipzig University
• Introduced scientific methods into psychological research
– Experiments: measuring perceptual processes (vision, hearing
– Introspection (self observation)
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Psychology – Wundt’s laboratory
It all
started in
Leipzig
in 1879
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Psychology - milestones
• 1880s
– Laboratories in the USA (eg. William James, Harvard
University)
• How does consciousness work so that humans can adapt to
their environment? (ie. how do we learns?)
This basic question developed later into behaviourism
• What mental processes are there?
– Ebbinghaus and memory experiments (1885)
• Forgetfulness curve
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Ebbinghaus’ curve
NB. This applies to
learning lists of
nonsense syllables
We forget
quickly in the
beginning
Slower
later on
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Psychology - milestones
• Three main schools within psychology
become established in the 20th century:
– Behaviourism
– Gestalt-theory
– Psychoanalysis
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Ivan Rankin
Behaviourism
• Behaviourism (Watson, Skinner, Pavlov)
– Basic notions:
• Our consciousness is private, not open to analysis
• What we can observe is behaviour
animals / humnas (facts)
• Stimuli (S) produce responses (R) (behaviour)
SR
– Our behaviour is formed by stimuli around us
– Positive reinforcement encourages us to continue with the
same behaviour; negative reinforcement means we avoid
certain behaviours
• Reinforcement leads to conditioned reflexes
(a type of behaviour)
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Psychology - milestones
• 1910-50 Behaviourism is the main field of
psychology for the next 40 years
– Pavlov (Russia): experimented with dogs’ digestive
systems
• a certain behavior can be achieved in animals
– Skinner (USA): best known for explaining how animals
learn (adapt their behaviour to stimuli)
• eg. rats in a maze
– Humans can be formed
• how do people behave in a group?
• what leads to improved performance?
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Behaviourism - Pavlov
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Behaviourism - Skinner
The mouse
has learned
an optimal
path through
the maze
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Behaviourism - Skinner
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Behaviourism
The pidgeons
have learned
to peck when
they see
something
orange
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Behaviourism - Skinner
Less talented
mice are paired
with each other
from generation
to generation –
they become
even less
talented
Average
number of
errors
Smart
mice get
smarter
generations
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Behaviourism in 1960
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Psychology – the first women
– In 1905 Mary Whiton Calkins was the first female
president, American Psychological Association
Harvard University (James) refuses to let her do a
Ph.D. because she is female
– Margaret Washburn is also refused a doctorate at
Columbia University for the same reason.
She moved to Cornell University and in 1921
became the first female doctor in psychology
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Mary Whiton Calkins
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Watson, Crick, Wilkins, Franklin 62
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Gestalt theory
• 1912 Gestalt theory in Germany
– Gestalt = form, shape, configuration
– Basic notions:
• To understand out environment we must be able to
see whole figures in it and the relationships among
them
eg. To distinguish objects from each other and
from the background
• Our perceptual processes are based on patterns that
– partly come from stimuli (in the environment
– are partly organized on the basis of previous
experience
• There are basic principles behind the organization of
perceptual stimuli
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– Aim: to determine these principles
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Gestalt figures
We
experience
a whole
figure
We experience more
than we see
Continuity principle
Two crossing
lines – not two
V-shaped figures
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Ivan Rankin
Gestalt figures – how we
organize reality
columns or
rows?
Ivan Rankin
columns
according to the
proximity
principle
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Gestalt figures – how we
organize reality
O O O O O
X X X X X
S S S S S
T T T T T
Rows according
to the similarity
principle
Gestalt-teori
Gestalt-teori
Gestalt-teori
Gestalt-teori
Gestalt-teori
Gestalt-teori
Behaviorism
Behaviorism
Behaviorism
Behaviorism
Behaviorism
Behaviorism
Psykoanalys
Psykoanalys
Psykoanalys
Psykoanalys
Psykoanalys
Psykoanalys
Columns (or rows?)
according to the
similarity principle
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Ivan Rankin
Gestalt figures
STOP
WAR
STOP
WAR
PEACE
NOW
PEACE
NOW
Colour and shading
also contribute to how
we see ’wholes’
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Gestalt theory
What is object,
what is
bakground?
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Psychology - milstones
• 1910-talet - Psychoanalysis (Freud)
• Basic idea: the conscious is just a part of our mental
processes
– ’Neuroses’ are caused be memories of previous
events that have been suppressed, but which are still
in our subconscious.
– Forbidden desires from our childhood remain in our
subconscious
– These force their way forward and lead to abnormal
behaviour
Solution: Confront the patient with these memories
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Freud and daughter
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Psychology - milstones
• The cognitive revolution 1940-1960
– Information theory (machines)
• input-reaction-feedback loop
– Linguistics
• Language can not be described in behaviouristic terms
• Requires complex psychological mechanisms
– Computer science/ computer hardware
• Computers and software become avaialabe for non-experts
• A computer system accepts input, processes data, has a memory,
can react in different ways in different contexts
– Neurology
• Major progress made on the structure and functioning of the brain
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Psychology - milstones
• 1930s–1940s Information theory
develops (Shannon, USA)
– What is information?
– Communication of information via
electromechanical relays
– Definition: One bit of information halves the
uncertainty of possible outcomes
– Information is described on an abstract level (the
model is independent of any mechanism – human
or machine)
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Shannon (1942) on information
X
njnjnn - 6 bits of information are required to lokalize the cross
(6 bits in another notation 010100)
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Information theory
• Psychologists compare humans and
machines as information processors
– Both accepts signals from the environment and
react accordingly (eg. a thermostat)
– Both have limited capacity (eg. telephone cables
or the ability to listen to several conversations
simultaneously)
– The human as ’information processor with limited
capacity’
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Ivan Rankin
Psychology - milstones
• Linguistics
– Previously it was thought that a child
learned a language by imitating its mother
– This cannot explain how a child can
produce its own words and structures
– This cannot explain how we can be
linguistically creative
– The need for more than behaviourism
grows
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Psychology - milstones
• Computer science
– Computers become available to non-experts
– Computers are like people
• A computer has a permanent memory
• A computer has a working memory (RAM) = human
short-term memory
• A computer has a CPU (the human has a central
processor - a mind)
• A computer receives data and processes it - a human tar
receives stimuli and precesses them
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Computer science
• Turing (1950) proves that all types of
calculations can be performed by a machine
with simple properties
• Computers perform symbol manipulation
– eg. a program that calculates wages
• Computers (programs) break down complex
behaviours to a sequence of yes/no decisions
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Computer science
• Manipulating symbols
– What is 4 + 5?
– The answer is automatic - now
• Tables:
1+1=2
1+2=3
…
4+5=9
(compare programs for noughts and crosses)
• Given: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Look up 4. Move 5 steps to the right (the way children learn)
• Human behaviour can be imitated in a computer
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Computer science
– Human behaviour can be simulated in a computer
program
– To do this we need to know more about how
humans function
• Cognitive psychology needs both disciplines
– In 1956 Herb Simon says to his students: ” during
the Christmas break Allen Newell and I created a
thinking machine”
• It could do mathematical proofs, a field that had belonged
only to humans before
– Thinking machines have arrived
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Psychology - milstones
• World War Two shows the need for more
knowledge of (what will become) cognitive
psychology
–
–
–
–
Understanding night vision (visual perception)
Understanding coded messages (problem solving)
Designing alert signals (auditive perception)
Capacity limitations of pilots
• pilots only used a fraction of available information for most
taks
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Surplus of information
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Neurology
– New machines that can measure activity in
the brain
– Many brain injuries during the war (1939-45)
• Localizing functions in the brain, eg.
– Speech
» Aphasia (reduced language ability)
– Agnosia (reduced ability to recognize)
– Vision and hearing functions
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Neurology
Phineas Gage
injured in 1848
Caused
personality
changes
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Psychology - milstones
• 1940s-1950s Behavioral Science Research
in USA (Miller) and Human Factors
Research in Britain (Broadbent)
– Capacity limitations in out ability to process information
– What information do we attend to? (selective attention)
– We look for and react to feedback from the environment
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Psychology - milstones
• From 1950-1960 growing interest for models
used in computer science
– Flowcharts
– Working memory (short-term memory)
– Information processing – not just calculations
• Pattern recognition
• Planning
• Problem solving
– Testing hypotheses objectively (models of
informations processing)
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Broadbent’s flowchart (1958)
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The cognitive revolution
Linguistics
Computer
science
Cognitive
psychology
Artificial
intelligence
Neuroscience
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Examples of different fields in
psychology today
– Social psychology: how groups function
– Development psychology : from birth to adulthood
– Clinical psychology : patients with various problems,
crisis management
– Environmental psychology : we and out environment
– Work psychology : work, workplace, organization
– Parapsychology : the ’supernatural’
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Cognition
• The term cognition refers to the processes
by which we acquire knowledge:
– How do we receive information from the
environment
– How does the brain process and store information
– How do we reason and solve problems
– How can we understand and use language
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Cognitive psychology
• Lat. gnoscere = to know
cognoscere = to get to know
• Definition:
Cognitive psychology is that part of
pschology that deals with information
processes, ie. our way of
– acquiring, processing, storing and using
information
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Cognitive psychology and HCI
• Better knowledge of cognition can help us to
produce better interfaces:
– What can we expect from users?
– How can we make the users’ task as simple as
possible?
– Identify and explain problems the user has or will
have
– Provide methods for creating interfaces that
improve the users’ capacity
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Ivan Rankin
Cognitive psychology
• Based on the idea that mental processes can
be divided into smaller steps
• Each step accepts information from previous
stages, treats it and passes information on to
the next step
Data (stimuli) are received by our sensory organs
they are interpreted (with help of information in
memory)
a response is selected
the response is performed (eg. via language)
stimuli
code
interpret
select
response
perform
response
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Components in memory
Environment
sensory memory
visual
system
STM
response
system
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central
processor
Hearing
system • • •
attention
plans
LTM
visual patterns
facts
calculations
abilities, motory
•••
language
•••
•••
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Cognitive psychology
• Four main areas:
– perception processes (acquiring information via
stimuli from the environment: vision, hearing, touch,
taste, smell)
– memory processes (learning = putting something in
memory, recalling facts = fetching from memory)
– thought processes(reasoning, analyzing, problemsolving)
– language processes (communication wih others)
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Neural level
Taste,
smell,
touch
language
centre
forehead
Hearing
centre
vision
centre
temple
cerebellum
smell
centre
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Left hemisphere – language
Association
centre
associates
word and
images
combines
sensory and
motor
information
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Neurons
neurons (cells in the
central nervous
systemet)
dendrites receive
signals from other cells
Cell body reacts
axon sends
impulses to other
(1-100) cells
The axon branches
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An axon
meets a
neuron
certain
chemical
substances
(about 60)
are
accepted,
others not
Neurons
chemical
substances
(dis)activate the
next neuron
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Neurons – cell body, axon, dendrites
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Neuron development
At birth
Aged 6
Aged 14
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Determining the functions of
the brain
• EEG (electroencephalogram) measure brain
waves, MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
show structures, and PET scans (positron
emission tomography) show regions of
activity
• Injuries lead to certain malfunctions
• Medicinal experiments on animals (and
people)
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Neural level
Electroencephalogram
(EEG)
measures
electronic
waves
(activity) in
the brain
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Neural level
Magnet resonance
image (MRI)
Magnets rotate and
draw a ’slice’ or area of
the brain
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Neural level
Viewing brain
structure
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red - high activity,
blue - low activity
Eyes and ears
open
eyes closed,
ears open
CAT scans
eyes open,
ears
closed
Eyes
closed,
ears
closed
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Brain activity is distributed
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Male/female brain activity
Man (left)
and
woman
reading
same text
Red = high
intensity
Yellow = less
intense
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Open brain surgery - 1950s
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