Today Visual (photographic) memory test Visual memory test

2013-­‐12-­‐10 Human-­‐System Interac4on TNK067 VT2013, Lecture 5. Visual (photographic) memory test Today •  Covers all of the four main processes (areas): –  percep%on processes (processing s4muli from the environement: sight, hearing, touch, taste, smell) –  memory processes (learn something new = store it in memory, remember facts = retrieve from memory) –  thought processes (reasoning, planning, problem-­‐solving) –  language processes (we receive/produce verbal/wriPen informa4on, inter-­‐human communica4on) Visual memory test •  You will first look at a picture for a minute or two. •  Carefully observe it and try to memorize the details. •  Then I will hide the picture and you will answer ques4ons to test whether you remember the details you have seen in the image or not. hPp://www.noanxiety.com/tests/visual-­‐photographic-­‐memory-­‐test.html 1 2013-­‐12-­‐10 Memory • 
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The test is easier if you are a visual learner. We don’t all perceive the world in the same fashion. Visual? Auditory?? Kinesthe4c? What are you? Knowing your own type can, for instance, help you make bePer use of your memory. Visual learning •  If I have to learn how to do something, I learn best when I watch someone show me how. •  Visual learners have a preference for seeing (think in pictures; visual aids such as overhead slides, diagrams, handouts, etc.). •  Need to avoid visual distractors – e.g., looking out the window! •  “Memorize by visualize” Leite, Walter L.; Svinicki, Marilla; and Shi, Yuying: APempted Valida4on of the Scores of the VARK: Learning Styles Inventory With Mul4trait–Mul4method Confirmatory Factor Analysis Models, pg. 2. SAGE Publica4ons, 2009. Auditory learning Kinesthe4c learners •  If I have to learn how to do something, I learn best when I hear someone tell me how. Auditory learners best learn through listening (lectures, discussions, tapes, etc.) •  If I have to learn how to do something, I learn best when I try to do it myself. •  Tac4le/kinesthe4c learners prefer to learn via experience—moving, touching, and doing (ac4ve explora4on of the world; science projects; experiments, etc.). Learning and memory Learning and memory Think of an enjoyable place you visited a while ago. What is the first thing that comes to your mind? •  The way it looked, •  the different sounds you heard, or •  the feeling you had being there? This is one of ques4ons that can help you determine whether you are more visual, auditory, or kinesthe4c. •  Why should we know? •  By being aware of how you perceive the world, and being sensi4ve to others’ percep4ons, you can make everybody’s life easier, especially your own! •  It is important to understand that the people around you may have a different percep4on of the same reality. In our society, most of the communica4ons are intended for the visual type. This leaves out around 60 percent of the popula4on who may have difficulty remembering things without knowing why. 2 2013-­‐12-­‐10 Learning and memory Memory -­‐ consequences •  Its use in pedagogy allows teachers to prepare classes that address each of these areas, •  Learning – what processes makes us remember? •  Why do we forget! And how? –  mix PowerPoint or whiteboard with verbal instruc4ons with ac4vi4es etc. –  the flipped classroom •  Students can iden4fy their preferred learning style and maximize their educa4onal experience by focusing on what benefits them the most. •  Mnemonics – learning technique Memory Structure, processes and consequences. •  Why can you not remember “where you were” amer the coffee break or amer a phone call? •  Why do you fail to detect changes in a scene you are viewing? •  Why are innocent people iden4fied as perpetrators (förövare) of crimes they have not commiPed? Without awareness, influenced by previous experience “it rings a bell” memory with awareness, deliberate recogni4on, recall knowing “that”, not directly 4ed to ac4ons knowing “how” to do, 4ed to ac4ons •  Why can not users, during a mee4ng in a conference room, recall how they perform their computer aided job tasks? (Learning/memory and context-­‐next 4me). central to our language, memory and thoughts enable us to generalize our knowledge to new events Levels of processing (Craick and Lockhart, 1972) •  Depth of processing –  maintenance (shallow processing) •  what a word looks like, sounds like –  Elabora4ve (deep) •  what a word means, seman4c Levels of processing Hypothesis: The more we process informa4on, the easier it is to remember. •  Subjects see a list of words, Parkin (1984) –  half of them should remember non-­‐seman4c features, e.g. capital lePers, number of vowels (shallow processing) –  the other half should think of synonyms or categories (seman4c features, deep processing) ”What does he know, and how
long will he know it?”
3 2013-­‐12-­‐10 Levels of processing Retrieval -­‐to remember •  Amer a series of words all subjects were given a memory test. •  Results: The Encoding Specificity Principle –  the “seman4c” group remembered double the number of words compared to the other group. •  Provides a framework for understanding how contextual informa4on affects memory and recall. •  The principle states that memory is most effec4ve when informa4on available at encoding is also present at retreival. •  Conclusion: deeper processing leads to bePer recall. •  Extreme example but what about content in lectures, exams etc.? Thomson & Tulving, 1973."Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory". Psychological Review 80 (5): 352–373. Retrieval -­‐to remember Retrieval -­‐to remember The Encoding Specificity Principle •  Memories are 4ed to the context/state one was in during encoding (mental state, physical loca4on). •  ”Set and seung” •  provides a framework for understanding how contextual informa4on affects memory and recall. •  The principle states that memory is most effec4ve when informa4on available at encoding is also present at retreival •  Which is a good retreival clue/key/trigger? –  Set = autude and expecta4ons (mental) –  Seung = how it affects (physical) –  One that is coherent with/match the encoding situa4on! –  Even subtle changes/differences maPers! Retrieval – to remember Retrieval – to remember Type of context: memory and physical loca4on (“seung”). •  Ques4on: Does physical loca4on affect memory? •  Subjects (students) were divided into 2 groups. They were told to learn pairs of words (synonyms). •  The following day they were tested on how many pairs of words they remembered. •  Half of each group in the same loca4on as when learning the words, half in the other building. •  Result recall: in the same building 59% in the “other” building 49% •  Conclusion: the physical loca4on/environment affects memory. –  Half in a building on campus –  Half off-­‐campus 4 2013-­‐12-­‐10 Retrieval – to remember Retrieval – to remember Consequences Type of context: memory and mental state •  Then do we need to study in the same room as the exam will be in? Or can we apply what we learn at school at other places? •  Yes! The mental context is most important, not the physical. Can be simulated! (Evidence from students tested by visualizing the environment in which they learnt). •  Ques4on: Does mental state affect memory? •  Overton (1972) showed that what subjects learned when drunk was recalled bePer when they were drunk than when they were sober. •  Eich, Weigner, S4llman and Gillin (1975) got a similar result for marijuana. Retrieval – to remember Retrieval – to remember Consequence •  When you do not get lecture notes as handouts? –  you need to work on the material –  to remember one needs to understand –  this have you to create your own structures and chains of associa4ons •  HOWEVER everything can not be recreated and many procedures can not be “told from memory”. •  A change in physical perspec4ve most certain brings a change in a mental perspec4ve – important to talk to people/users in the right context when it is possible! •  Also procedural knowledge can be hard to verbalize/remember. •  link new knowledge to examples and items already in your memory •  create your own associa4ons, retrieval cues/keys –  the process in itself gives more differen4ed cues/keys that helps you! –  however trade-­‐off between looking, listening and wri4ng (aPen4on) = trade-­‐off between benefits! Important for learning Transfer effects Important for learning, control and good experiences when using systems: •  Transfer •  Consistency •  Design for errors •  Constraints •  People transfer their knowledge/learning/expecta4ons of similar objects/situa4ons to current objects/situa4ons –  posi4ve transfer: previous learning's also apply to new situa4on –  nega4ve transfer: previous learning's conflict with the new situa4on –  Learnt helplessness What is important in order to provide posi4ve transfer effects? 5 2013-­‐12-­‐10 Consistency • 
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Consistency and standards: Users should not have to wonder whether different words, situa4ons, or ac4ons mean the same thing. Consistency enables people to: –  transfer prior knowledge to new contexts –  learn new things quickly and focus aPen4on on relevant aspects of a task Systems are usable and learnable when similar concepts are expressed in similar ways Design systems/interfaces to have similar opera4ons Use similar elements for similar tasks • 
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consistent sequences of ac4ons should be required in similar situa4ons iden4cal terminology should be used in prompts, menus, and help screens consistent color, layout, capitaliza4on, fonts, and so on should be employed throughout. follow plazorm conven4ons consistent sequences of ac4ons should be required in similar situa4ons iden4cal terminology should be used in prompts, menus, and help screens consistent color, layout, capitaliza4on, fonts, and so on should be employed throughout. See also Jacob Nielsen From 10 heuris4cs for interface design – 
www.useit.com Consistency Func4onal •  Meaning and ac4on are consistent to improve learnability and understanding –  traffic lights always turns yellow before red •  Consistent use of symbols to represent similar concepts, leverages prior knowledge and makes new things easier to use –  control symbols Consistency Consistency Aestethic: •  Style and appearance is repeated to enhance recogni4on, communicates membership and sets emo4onal tone •  E.g., most cars are instantly recognizable because the company consistently features their logo on all its veichles Internal –  associated with quality and pres4ge; respected and admired, fine crammanship and reliable etc. •  E.g. websites that uses consistent font, color and graphics •  Consistency within a system •  Consistency with other elements in the system –  signs within a park is consistent with one another •  Cul4vates a sense of orienta4on and trust •  Indicates that system is well thought out and planned, that is designed rather than ”just put together” •  Within any logical grouping, elements should be aesthe4cally and func4onally consistent Consistency Errors External •  Unrealis4c to expect error-­‐free systems and error-­‐free users •  Consistency across systems •  Consistency with other elements in the environment –  e.g,. emergency alarms are consistent across different systems in a control room –  menus look the same/similar across systems –  It is important to foresee what can arise and then decide on how to deal with it. •  Change of autudes towards errors •  More difficult to achieve because different systems rarely observe the same design standards. But there are examples: 6 2013-­‐12-­‐10 Errors Bad error messages •  Unrealis4c to expect error-­‐free systems and error-­‐free users –  It is important to foresee what can arise and then decide on how to deal with it. •  Designing for errors -­‐ in general – 
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Is a component busy or missing, or is it neither? If a component is involved, which component? Is it busy? Or is it missing? And what is a component anyway? A file? If so, could we have the file name please? understand errors made by users help users focus on the ”right place”, ”right things” design to prevent undo mechanisms (allow to recover from errors!) good error messages Good error messages Good error messages •  If users make an error, instruc4ons should be wriPen to detect the error and offer simple, construc4ve, and specific instruc4ons for recovery. •  Error messages should convey helpful informa8on and advice (not only for the user, but also for tech support and maintenance staff) Good error messages Good error messages •  A well-­‐constructed error message should iden4fy the program that is pos4ng the error message •  Should alert the user to the specific problem •  Should provide some specific indica4on as to how the problem may be solved •  Should suggest where the user may obtain further help •  Should provide extra informa4on to the person who is helping the user •  Should provide an iden4fying code to dis4nguish it from other, similar messages •  Should not suggest an ac4on that will fail to solve the problem and thus waste the user’s 4me •  Should not contain informa4on that is unhelpful, redundant, incomplete, or inaccurate •  Error messages should convey helpful informa8on and advice (not only for the user, but also for tech support and maintenance staff) • 
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What about “no technology contexts”? Human – to – human? How do we give error messages to each other? Construc4ve cri4cism? 7 2013-­‐12-­‐10 Constraints Constraints •  Proper4es or knowledge that signal the appropriate ac4ons or behavior. •  They make it easier to determine how an artefact/system is used – tell us what can and can not be done. •  Helps prevent us from selec4ng incorrect op4ons. •  Four types: Ivan Rankin Physical constraints •  The way physical objects restrict the movement of things -­‐ they limit possible opera4ons/ac4ons –  size, shape, volume –  doorkey –  one way street E.g. design only one way to insert a mouse connec4on; and only one way to insert a keyboard connec4on, and make them different! 43 Ivan Rankin 44 Constraints Constraints Logical constraints Seman4c constraints •  The meaning of a situa4on/context drive one to act in a certain way -­‐ controls possible ac4ons and behavior •  Rely upon our knowledge of the world •  Exploit people s reasoning about rela4onships between objects in the world. –  how we siung in a lecture room –  alarm signal Ivan Rankin 45 Ivan Rankin Four types of constraints Four types of constraints Logical constraints Cultural constraints •  Exploit people s reasoning about rela4onships between objects in the world •  Enables natural mapping to work •  Ar4ficial constraints that rely upon accepted cultural conven4ons •  Help us with correct ac4ons and decisions, social acceptable behavior –  traffic lights –  icons, menues –  behaviour in a restaurant –  behaviour at a friend’s place – 
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lem-­‐right, up-­‐down sequence, doing things in an obvious order (1, 2, 3,...a, b, c...) mapping between light switches and lights indicators on a car •  Completeness –  using all parts when puung something together –  fill in all fields in a form Ivan Rankin 47 Ivan Rankin 46 48 8 2013-­‐12-­‐10 Consequences when these fails How to succeed •  Learned helplessness is the condi4on of a human or non-­‐
human animal that has learned to behave helplessly, failing to respond even though there are opportuni4es for it to help itself by avoiding unpleasant circumstances or by gaining posi4ve rewards. •  If interac4ve technologies could be designed to be more transparent then it might be easier to understand them in terms of how they work and what to do when they don’t. •  Learned helplessness theory is the view that clinical depression and related mental illnesses may result from a perceived absence of control over the outcome of a situa4on. •  Built from –  good mental/conceptual models –  posi4ve transfer –  design principles (affordance, visibility, mapping, feedback, consistency, constraints, error preven4on and handling etc.) –  popula4on stereotypes/cultural standards –  instruc4ons Language -­‐ Social interac4on Metaphors Social interac4on begins with the ability to communicate. There is a vast body of knowledge on communica4on and social issues and we can only look aP a few of these. Three key aspects are: •  Parables (liknelser )-­‐ concepts and exis4ng mental models are used to characterize and explain what is unknown. –  transfer from one domain to another. –  used to organize thinking and reasoning and support understanding •  Use of metaphors and icons in language •  Human communica4on and interac4on (in general) •  Par4cipa4ng in groups and how this affect us Language Metaphors •  Metaphor •  Metaphors exist on several different levels. •  At a high level to organize an en4re workspace on a screen, for example a desktop (skrivbord). •  Blue Tooth – why is it called by this name? 9 2013-­‐12-­‐10 Metaphors •  Desktop metaphor: –  typewriter, book-­‐keeping – directly transferrable experiences –  desktop offering other useful tools – crea4ng documents, calculator, sending mail, messages –  the cursor represents a human hand •  Boomarking: –  webpages are ordered as chronological lists of sites visited over 4me and labelled as bookmarks, similar to the way post-­‐its etc. are used to mark a place to return to in a physical book. Metaphors Metaphors •  Metaphors exist on several different levels. •  At a high level to organize an en4re workspace on a screen, for example a desktop (skrivbord). •  On an opera4ve level, to do something, for example drag-­‐
and-­‐drop, throw away something, etc. •  Metaphors exist on several different levels. •  At a high level to organize an en4re workspace on a screen, for example a desktop (skrivbord). •  On an opera4ve level, to do something, for example drag-­‐
and-­‐drop, throw away something, etc. •  At a low level, by for example icons that maps (avbildar) something meaningful to the user, for example files/folders, windows, printer, trashcan etc. Constantine: Misused Metaphor
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another matter. Most of the space is taken up by the permanent application
“splash screen”--the simulated cover of the simulated CD case. The
unconventional arrangement of the controls necessitated by slavish adherence
to the jewel-case layout makes usage even more awkward. While claiming to
adhere to a familiar real-world metaphor, the designers blithely ignore the fact
that CD cases do not typically have control buttons on them. Some users
cannot even figure out how to exit the application! (For a complete usability
analysis
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hings •  An icon is –  a conven4onal religious image omen painted on wood –  a picture representa4on of an object –  in human-­‐system interac4on context: a language or graphical sign whose appearance leads the observer to think about an available func%on a visual metaphor 2 - An organizing metaphor that doesn’t fly.
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the site. arrow is needed to draw attention to the reservation telephone. (A telephone?
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here you have to hunt for them. Even checking schedules or frequent flyer
points is made more difficult by sidewise labeling half-obscured by simulated
Lucite. It is not even readily apparent which among the many objects are active;
the user has to scan-and-pause with the mouse pointer to know what is
available.
Not all organizing metaphors flop quite so badly. An appropriate one that is
carefully designed can serve as a central organizing dispatch giving access to a
wide variety of features and facilities (see Constantine and Lockwood, 1999:
293]. Nevertheless, effective metaphors and effective uses are hard to find.
10 2013-­‐12-­‐10 Icons Icons •  An icon is •  There are four ways in which an icon can represent its underlying concept –  a conven4onal religious image omen painted on wood –  a picture representa4on of an object –  in human-­‐system interac4on context: a language or graphical sign whose appearance leads the observer to think about an available func%on a visual metaphor •  Important with design and recogni4on / understanding of icons. The metaphor chosen contributes greatly to the recogni4on of the func4on (applica4on) they represent. The first thing a user does is to try to understand / figure out what something is before he/she clicks on it (open it). Icons •  Arbitrary • 
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Arbitrary Symbolic Example Resemblance Icons •  Symbolic –  conveys an underlying referent that is at a higher level of abstrac4on than the image itself –  the picture of a wine glass with a fracture to convey the concept of fragility (here fragile goods, not just wine glasses) –  bear no rela4onship to their intended meaning so the associa4on must be learned –  should not be regarded as poor designs, even though they must be learned –  e.g. the bio-­‐hazard sign consis4ng of three par4ally overlaid circles Icons •  Example –  an example icon represents a central aDribute of an object or func4on –  e.g., a knife and fork to represent restaurant services , the image shows the most basic aPribute of what is done in a restaurant i.e. ea4ng. Icons •  Resemblance –  present a direct or analogous image of the func4on or concept itself –  the icon is a reproduc%on of an object or a func4on –  the road sign for "falling rocks" presents a clear resemblance of the roadside hazard 11 2013-­‐12-­‐10 Icons •  Why icons? –  they take up less space than text –  can offer language independence to use of products in different countries •  text must be translated to other languages –  can support the extensive human ability of paPern recogni4on –  an icon can (omen) be recognised faster than text –  reduce required space for informa4on presenta4on –  offer a certain level of aesthe4c appeal Icons Two important design issues for icons are: •  1) Legibilty (whether or not one can discriminate between icons) –  icons are not always viewed under ideal condi4ons (e.g., poor lightning condi4ons, screen resolu4on, size of the icon itself) –  under such condi4ons it is the overall, global, appearance of the icon that aids discrimina4on, so icons should not be designed so they differ only with respect to one small detail 10 Mistakes in Icon Design hPp://turbomilk.com/blog/cookbook/icon_design/
10_mistakes_in_icon_design/ Icons Icons Two important design issues for icons are: •  2) Interpreta%on (what it is the icon is intended to convey) •  Suitable for different cultures and uncontroversial? •  Some symbols may be inappropriate for certain cultures. –  non trivial issue, an icon may be recognized as an object but remains ununderstood as to its meaning –  cau4on against icons not accompanied by a textual label, however this removes the advantage of the one reason for using icons in the first place, they are concise and small! (the solu4ons are pop-­‐up labels) Home exam • 
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Individual home assignment. Posted on the course page Tuesday December 10th 14:00. Use course book, lecture slides and your own knowledge. The exam is posted In English (email for any ques4ons regarding transla4on!). You may answer in either English or Swedish. Give your own individual original examples to mo4vate and describe answers. Meaning they should not be iden4cal to other students answers, or any examples presented in the course literature. Complete answers are required, i.e. complete sentences. Clear points/grades (also look at individual points for each ques4on as a guidance when answering). I appreciate printed reports over hand wriPen since the former are more easy to read. Please note! You may need input from the lecture next week to be able to answer some ques4ons. –  e.g., the red cross symbol for medical facili4es is not used by some popula4ons. –  e.g., similarly, a thumbs up symbol, represen4ng OK, is regarded as a crude gesture in certain countries, and as “going up” when diving. •  Interna4onal standards –  where exis4ng standards and conven4ons exist, these should be used in preference to crea4ng new icons (unless there is a reason to believe that an icon will not be understood) Home exam • 
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This is an individual assignment. (11 ques4ons in total). You may answer either in English or Swedish. Complete answers are required, meaning complete sentences, no notes. Describe your answers well. Meaning not just simple defini4ons even if a ques4on gives “only” 1p. However, the points for each ques4on provide some guidance on how much to elaborate on your answers. Make sure you give your own individual original examples to mo4vate and describe your answers. Meaning they should not be iden4cal to other students answers, or any examples presented in the course literature. Total: 54 points. Pass: 30 points/grade 3 (43 points/grade 4, 49 points/grade 5). Deadline: Friday 20th December, 17.00 pm. On paper: The course post box, Täppan, floor 5. Please hand in a printed document, not handwriPen if you can. Email. Same deadline. Name and social security number (personnummer) on front page. 12