Forests, Oceans, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services

 2 Forests, Oceans, Biodiversity and
Ecosystem Services
3 Thematic Group Eight of the Sustainable Development Solutions Network
4 Co-chairs
5 Shahid Naeem
6 Director of the Earth Institute Center for Environmental Sustainability, Columbia University, USA
7 Virgilio Viana
8 Director General, Amazonas Sustainability Foundation, Brazil
9 Martin Visbeck
1 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Chair in Physical Oceanography, GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel and Kiel
University, Germany
Members
Sérgio Amoroso, Patricio Bernal, Eduardo Brondizio, Lijbert Brussaard, Vitor Cabral, Ronnie de
Camino, Naoko Ishii, Carlos Joly, Sandra Lavorel, Georgina Mace, Harini Nagendra, Unai
Pascual, Katherine Richardson, Julien Rochette, Frances Seymour, Emma Torres, Adalberto
Val, Wendy Watson-Wright.
21 Contributions made by Mariana Pavan, Victor Salviati, Suelen Marostica and María Cortés Puch 22 23 Advanced Working Draft Open for Comments (email to [email protected] by 14 April, 2014) 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 This report will be submitted to UN Secretary-­‐General and the Open Working Group on the Sustainable Development Goals. It has been prepared by members of the Thematic Group on Forests, Oceans, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services of the Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN). All members are acting in their personal capacity. The report may not represent the views of all members of SDSN Leadership Council. 1 35 36 Table of Contents
Preface ......................................................................................................................................... 3
37 Sustaining life ............................................................................................................................ 3
38 Sustaining Life as a Thematic Group ........................................................................................ 3
39 A network of solutions ........................................................................................................... 3
40 Forests, Oceans, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (FOBES) ........................................ 4
41 The Work Ahead ....................................................................................................................... 5
42 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 6
43 The Living World ....................................................................................................................... 6
44 Environmental sustainability on a rich and varied planet....................................................... 6
45 New beginnings, new commitments ...................................................................................... 7
46 Development’s scorecard ...................................................................................................... 8
47 A fundamental framework for the 21st Century ...................................................................... 9
48 Ecosystems: Earth’s environmental engines ....................................................................... 10
49 Life is everywhere ................................................................................................................ 10
50 Biodiversity and environment: a two-way interaction .......................................................... 11
51 Dominant ecosystems in the pathway to sustainable development .................................... 13
52 FOBES Sustainable Development Solutions .............................................................................. 15
53 Initiating the Process ............................................................................................................... 15
54 FOBES Solutions .................................................................................................................... 17
55 Solution 1. Reduce agricultural expansion by improving efficiency .................................... 17
56 Solution 2. Develop economic instruments for ecosystem services ................................... 20
57 Solution 3. Emphasize the participatory process ................................................................ 21
58 Solution 4. Expand biodiversity and ecosystem function/service research ........................ 22
59 Solution 5. Develop smart ecosystem governance ............................................................ 24
60 61 Solution 6. Develop smart sustainable management of biodiversity and ecosystem services
............................................................................................... ¡Error! Marcador no definido.
62 Key Metrics ............................................................................... ¡Error! Marcador no definido.
63 Literature Cited ........................................................................................................................... 27
64 65 2 66 Preface
67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 Sustaining life
84 85 86 87 88 Life on earth, however, is undergoing significant change, making the pathway to environmental
sustainability extraordinarily challenging. Habitat degradation, overfishing, climate change, and
the human transport of invasive species, pests and pathogens, have led to enormous losses of
forested ecosystems, the collapse of major fisheries, and the decline in the majority of services
ecosystems provide.
89 90 91 92 Fortunately, biodiversity and ecosystem services have been under intense scientific
investigation since 1992, following on the heels of the Earth Summit in Rio. Today, some
solutions to the challenges of achieving environmental sustainability are to hand. However,
much more can and needs to be done.
93 Sustaining Life as a Thematic Group
The diversity of life on Earth is our greatest asset in the campaign to achieve sustainable
development. Found in every crevice and corner of every habitat on Earth, from the alpine
tundra of the Tibetan Plateau to the deepest parts of the Mariana Trench, millions of plant,
animal, and microbial species work day in and day out providing us with benefits valued in the
trillions of dollars. Much of these benefits are invisible, such as maintaining Earth’s
stratospheric ozone layer that shields us from harmful radiation or pumping unwanted
atmospheric carbon into the ocean’s depths or in the trees of a forest. The productivity our
forests, farms, and fisheries, however, are highly visible benefits. They are the sources of our
food, fiber, materials, and fuels and the foundation of our health, well-being, and national wealth
and the more diverse they are the more productive and robust they will be. Thus, preserving
biodiversity and wisely managing our ecosystems ensures environmental sustainability, which is
the necessary precursor to achieving sustainable development. It is important to note here that
the SDSN fully supports the Rio+20 vision of sustainable development as a holistic concept
addressing four dimensions of society: economic development (including the end of extreme
poverty), social inclusion, environmental sustainability, and good governance including peace
and security.
94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 A network of solutions
Achieving sustainable development is not just about economics and environment, but about
meeting a wide array of interconnected challenges. These challenges include finding solutions
to food, energy, and water security, improving health, alleviating hunger and poverty, and wisely
managing biodiversity and ecosystem services. No single challenge among these will find its
solution in isolation. Sustainable solutions to poverty, health, and hunger, for example, are
strongly tied to solutions to securing ecosystem services, such as the provisioning of food and
materials by forests, agro-ecosystems, the provisioning of water by watersheds, healthy and
productive ocean and coasts.
103 104 To mobilize science and technology and to accelerate problem solving for sustainable
development, the General-Secretary of the United Nations has established the Sustainable
3 105 106 107 108 Development Solutions Network (SDSN). Jeffrey Sachs serves as its director and Guido
Schmidt-Traub its executive director, and an Executive Committee and Leadership Council
comprised of world leaders in sustainable development from across all sectors brought together
to develop integrative solutions.
109 110 111 112 The Solutions Network is organized into twelve thematic groups (Box 1), each representing a
node made up of experts drawn from academia, civil society, local and indigenous
representatives and the private sector to develop integrated solutions to the complex challenges
that confront those working towards meeting sustainable development goals.
113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 Forests, Oceans, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (FOBES)
Of the twelve Thematic Groups, the one centered on biodiversity, ecosystems, and ecosystem
services is entitled, Forest, Oceans, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (FOBES). This
Thematic Group serves as the network node for scientific and technical expertise centered on
biodiversity and ecosystem services. It interacts with all other SDSN nodes and serves all
sectors seeking integrative solutions to sustainable development. One of its chief functions is to
help inform the establishment of goals, targets, and
Box 1. Thematic Groups of the Sustainable indicators. In that sense, the FOBES thematic group
Development Solutions Network (SDSN) has been actively involved in the preparation of the
_______________________________ report prepared by the SDSN for the UN Secretary
1: Macroeconomics, Population Dynamics, and Planetary Boundaries General “An Action Agenda for Sustainable
2: Poverty Reduction and Peace-­‐Building in Development.” In particular, the FOBES group will
Fragile Regions contribute to bolster a discussion around potential
3: Challenges of Social Inclusion: Gender, Inequalities, and Human Rights targets and indicators to measure the success towards
4: Early Childhood Development, Education, Goal 9 proposed by this Action Agenda: Secure
and Transition to Work ecosystem services and biodiversity, and ensure good
5: Health for All 6: Low-­‐Carbon Energy and Sustainable management of water and other natural resources.
130 131 132 133 134 135 It has also supported the High-level Panel of Eminent
Persons on the Post-2015 Development Agenda. The
FOBES thematic group draws its members from of
academia, civil society, and the private sector who
interact closely with members of the other Thematic
Groups.
136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 It might not seem easy to connect forests, savannas,
deserts, coral reefs, and kelp forests, let alone wildlife,
and millions of species of insects known only to entomologists, and a largely unexplored deep
sea to human well-being, but they are closely linked to one another and humans in general
because they are supplying the most important life support system. Somewhere on the order of
ten million species populate earth’s ecosystems. Weighing at over a trillion tons of biomass,
half of which consists of beneficial microbes in our soils, sediments, and oceans, these species
cycle billions of tons of carbon, nutrients, and other elements among the biomes and
ecosystems of the earth. Through their biological, chemical, and physical work, this diversity of
life on earth, or biodiversity, is what make our soils fertile, water potable, air breathable, climate
Industry 7: Sustainable Agriculture and Food Systems 8: Forests, Oceans, Biodiversity, and Ecosystem Services 9: Sustainable Cities: Inclusive, Resilient, and Connected 10: Good Governance of Extractive and Land Resources 11: Global Governance and Norms for Sustainable Development 12: Redefining the Role of Business for Sustainable Development 4 146 147 148 149 150 151 equitable, and ecosystems productive. They also regulate climate, flooding, the spread of
infectious diseases, and control agricultural pests, invasive species, and provide pollination
services for our orchards and vegetable crops. Valuations of these services, from greenhouse
gas regulation by forests to markets for wild-caught fish, range in the billions, sometimes trillions
of dollars annually for individual services. Biodiversity, ecosystem services, and our basic
livelihood and well-being are inextricably linked.
152 153 154 155 The relationships between biodiversity and ecosystem services is complex, but increasingly
understood and new mechanisms for their inclusion into our markets and economies are under
rapid development such as carbon trading and payment for ecosystem services. There is a
need to reduce transaction costs and increase the scale of PES schemes.
156 157 158 159 160 Of the many biomes and ecosystems that make up the living Earth, forests and oceans are
undergoing rapid change, representing places where biodiversity and ecosystem services need
urgent and special attention. Thus FOBES, though its domain encompasses all of life on Earth,
emphasizes forest and ocean biodiversity and ecosystem functions when considering solutions
for achieving sustainable development and environmental sustainability.
161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 The Work Ahead
The FOBES Thematic Group aims to support the design and implementation of the sustainable
development goals underlying key environmental conventions that address the global
environmental commons. These include the United Nations Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC), the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the United Nations Convention on the
Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and the Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), to name
just a few biodiversity-related agreements. Also, the FOBES Thematic Group will liaise with
existing international research programs, such as DIVERSITAS, the United Nations Forum on
Forests (UNFF), the International Council for Science - Future Earth (ICSU-FutureEarth), and
the major global environmental assessments, such as, the Intergovernmental Platform on
Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) and the World Ocean assessment.
172 173 174 Forests, Oceans, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. Illustrated is the diversity of life as an evolutionary tree that underlies the functioning of ecosystems and the services they provide. Only three biomes are illustrated – forests being converted to agriculture, oceans whose resources are being unsustainably harvested, and in the center, grasslands being converted to grazinglands and pastures. Earth’s biogeochemistry, which governs climate, atmospheric c omposition, soil fertility, ocean 5 175 Introduction
176 The Living World
177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 Environmental sustainability on a rich and varied
planet
Nature is complex, diverse, and highly dynamic and
as much a source of our prosperity as it is a challenge
to achieving a more equitable and sustainable world.
Across the vast reaches of our planet, no matter the
scale, whether from households to the biosphere,
people, plants, animals, and the nearly invisible but
ubiquitous microorganisms, collectively produce a
global environment that sustains all of life on Earth.
In any given place at any given time, life may be
doing a poor job of insuring environmental
sustainability, creating conditions in which species
perish, energy and nutrients fail to cycle efficiently,
and ecosystems become fragile and incapable of
tolerating environmental shocks. In other places,
however, ecological systems flourish; they are
productive and robust.
195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 Such ecological diversity, such spatial and temporal variability among ecosystems, is to be
expected on a planet whose surface conditions range from ice-covered poles to warm tropical
seas (Fig. 1). As we move from the poles to the equator, we encounter tundra, boreal forests,
temperate forests, grasslands, deserts, and rainforests. As we move from east to west there
are arid regions in the rain shadows of mountains, lakes, ponds, rivers, wetlands, and bogs, and
when we reach the seas we encounter kelp forests and sea grass beds, coral reefs, the pelagic
communities of the open sea, and dark yet biologically diverse abyssal plains of the ocean’s
floors.
203 204 205 206 We also encounter relatively young human-dominated ecosystems such as farms, forest
plantations, grazing lands, pastures, urban and suburban systems, coastal harbors, fish farms,
aquaculture production systems and, in the oceans, vast fleets of fishing vessels harvesting
seafood from virtually every marine habitat.
207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 Although our living world is vast, varied, and seemingly incomprehensibly intricate, the key to
the environmental equitability and sustainability we seek is fairly basic – the sum of ecosystems
that function productively, efficiently, and robustly must equal or exceed the sum of those that
do not. That is, over time, negative outcomes of unsustainable management and environmental
degradation must be countered by the positive influences of sustainable management and
restoration. While this truism is simple in principle, in actuality, perhaps the single most
challenging scientific issue facing humanity is understanding how ten million species scattered
over one-hundred and fifty million square kilometers of land and suffused through 1.4 billion
Figure 1. A rich and varied planet. From ice c aps to arid deserts to circulating oceans, Earth v aries naturally. In this image, one can see the lights of the urban ecosystems of Asia, the extraordinarily diverse forests of Southeast Asia, the ancient and arid continent of Australia, and the fact that three quarters of the world is ocean. http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/BlueMar
ble/Images/marble_2002_australia_2048.jpg Figure 1. A rich and varied planet. From ice caps to arid deserts to circulating oceans, Earth v aries naturally. In this image, one can see the lights of the urban ecosystems of Asia, the extraordinarily diverse forests of Southeast Asia, the ancient and arid continent of Australia, and the fact that three quarters of the world is ocean. http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/BlueMar
ble/Images/marble_2002_australia_2048.jpg 6 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 cubic kilometers of water that covers three-hundred
So long as the extent of productive, and sixty million square kilometers, or 70% of
efficient, and robust ecosystems Earth’s surface, with a total mass of living
exceeds the extent of unproductive, organisms weighing in at one trillion tons (just in
inefficient, and fragile ecosystems, carbon, and half of this mass consisting of
Earth can continue to sustain an microorganisms), manages, as a whole, to function
equitable environment and remain productively and efficiently over the long term.
within safe planetary boundaries. Over the short term, the extent of productive and
efficient ecosystems may or may not exceed the
extent of those that are not, but over the long term,
the net result is usually positive and Earth’s ecosystems have collectively sustained life for
billions of years. So long as the extent of productive, efficient, and robust ecosystems exceeds
the extent of unproductive, inefficient, and fragile ecosystems, Earth can continue to sustain an
equitable environment, support life and remain within safe planetary boundaries (see Fig. 2,
below).
230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 New beginnings, new commitments
Since the Holocene, a rather quiet and stable climatic epoch that started some twelve thousand
years ago, Earth has changed dramatically in the last several decades. Human influences over
biodiversity and ecosystem processes have led to a distinct epoch in Earth’s history, so much
so that some now refer to our current times as the Anthropocene. The earth as influenced by
human activities is characterized by anomalously high rates of extinction, emerging diseases,
biotic exchange (the spread of exotic and invasive species), increases in atmospheric
concentrations of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gasses, global warming, ocean
acidification and dramatic alterations of Earth’s hydrological, and elemental cycles, not just
biologically important elements such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, and sulfur, but fluxes of
over sixty elements, including toxic elements like mercury, uranium and lead, now exceed
natural fluxes because of human activities that include mining, construction, industry, farming,
and much more . Humans now also dominate geological processes, moving more earth than
occurs naturally . And all this has happened only in a fraction of the time of the evolutionary
process since the Holocene, actually only in the last part of the XVIII century.
245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 All these changes are attributable to human activities, most of which have been directed to
improve human wellbeing. In some cases, humans have managed ecosystems sustainably, but
since the Industrial Revolution, or the 1700s, economic development has consisted of
deforestation exceeding reforestation, unsustainable extraction of marine biological resources to
the point of several major fisheries are collapsing or on the verge of collapsing, and many
sources of unregulated pollution. Taking a business-as-usual approach is not tenable because
if we continue to change the earth ecosystems are likely to suddenly collapse and Earth itself
could cross safe planetary boundaries (Fig. 2). Fortunately, humanity is working to follow new
pathways in this early part of the Anthropocene.
254 255 256 Commitments to following more sustainable pathways to reduce the adverse environmental
conditions we face today are many. Following the United Nations’ (UN) Brundtland report, Our
Common Future, published in 1987, Earth Summits in 1992, 2002, and 2012, the Millennium
7 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 Development Goals (MDGs, 2000-2015), and now proposals for the next generation of
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs, 2015-2030), nations around the world have committed
to following alternative pathways of development, ones that will ultimately lead to environmental
sustainability. Biodiversity features prominently in such commitments and the Convention on
Biological Diversity’s 2020 targets , Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem
Services , MDG 7 to Ensure
Environmental Sustainability , and the
proposed SDG 9 to Secure Ecosystem
Services and Biodiversity and Ensure
good Management of Water and Other
Natural Resources , all demonstrate broad
recognition of the importance of
biodiversity and ecosystems for improving
human wellbeing.
271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292 293 294 Development’s scorecard
Historically, development was not always
guided by a framework of sustainability.
Until today much of human progress is
attributable to unsustainable use of
resources, over exploitation of the
Figure 2. Biodiversity and ecosystems – a safe planetary boundary ecosystems. As a consequence
already crossed? Rockström and colleagues described levels of global biodiversity was reduced and the services
environmental conditions that within which Earth would probably that ecosystems are providing become
function in a way that would sustain life. Of these, current levels of biodiversity loss was deemed dangerously high, or well above levels of increasingly under pressure.. Initially,
loss that could be tolerated without jeopardizing robust functioning of because the supply far exceeded the
Earth’s many life-­‐support s ystems, including global climate. Green demand when populations were small, this
regions represent safe planetary boundaries. Red indicates current values. Safe planetary boundaries have been crossed for seven of the development pathway worked well. That
nine illustrated in the figure. (Modified from the original paper.) we have reached seven billion people is
testament to the extraordinary success of
humanity during the course of what has
proven ultimately to be unsustainable development. The score card for humanity’s success,
however, is extraordinarily uneven. Advances in science, technology, and engineering have
accelerated the acquisition and sharing of knowledge, including access to remote natural
resources. Maternal and infant health has seen marked increases, and food production and
food security has increased steadily. A billion people, however, remain hungry today, two billion
are below the poverty line, and three billion are without sufficient access to water and a number
of social essentials such as education, health care, gender equity, and security remain out of
reach for the poor and vulnerable.
295 296 297 The world has committed itself to improving its scorecard, as evidenced by the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs, 2000-2015) and now in the soon to be launched Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs, 2015-2030).
8 298 299 300 301 We will need to have sustainable development strategies in place, the collective will to stay the
course, and a global commitment to biodiversity and ecological preservation. Also, it will be
crucial to ensure wise management of all ecosystems, especially forest and marine ecosystems,
for the development’s scorecard in 2030 to show higher marks than it does today.
302 303 304 305 306 307 A fundamental framework for the 21st Century
Ecosystems, such as forests, grasslands, deserts, wetlands, and tundra on land or kelp forests,
coral reefs, pelagic and abyssal plains in oceans, constitute the natural foundation for human
wellbeing. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, a five-year analysis by over 1300 social
and natural scientists, developed an elegant framework for understanding how our wellbeing is
linked to nature. Put simply:
308 Biodiversity → Ecosystem Function → Ecosystem Services → Human Wellbeing.
309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 This four-part framework, illustrated in Figure 3, captures the essential principles that govern our
prosperity. Biodiversity, or the ecological, functional, and genetic diversity of plants, animals,
and microorganisms, are what make an ecosystem function. Twenty years of research has
confirmed that the greater the diversity of life, the greater the magnitude and stability of
ecosystem functions such as the production of biomass, the cycling of key nutrients, and the
production and sequestration of greenhouse gasses. A very simplistic global level this means,
that the performance of ecosystems is enhanced by having high biodiversity and diminished
when biodiversity is reduced.
317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 This perspective is simply a framework of analysis, and the links between biodiversity and
ecosystem functions and services is far more nuanced than a linear function. More research will
need to be conducted to fully understand these complex relations. For example, biodiversity
here is being considered as the diversity of species in the broadest sense of the term, would
also consider the diversity of biomes and the extent and distribution of unconverted habitats.
Also, while some fundamental processes of ecosystem functions, such as food production,
increases in systems of lower diversity, this is not true for all ecosystem functions and certainly
not for all ecosystem services.
325 326 327 328 329 330 Among ecosystem functions, some clearly benefit humans in important ways, such as food
production, watershed outflow, soil production, erosion control, crop pollination, the regulation of
pests and pestilence, and climate regulation. Without the reliable provisioning of such
ecosystem services, human wellbeing is jeopardized – not just the obvious dimensions of
human wellbeing, such as having enough food and water, but all dimensions that ultimately rest
on environmental sustainability and security.
331 9 Spatial and temporal variability define our planet and is the source of much of human cultural diversity as It is the source of much of biological diversity at all scales. Figure 3. The modern framework for human wellbeing. (Source, Global Environmental Outlook 5, UNEP) 332 333 Ecosystems: Earth’s environmental engines
334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 Life is everywhere
Spatial and temporal variability define our planet and are the source of much of human cultural
diversity, sometimes called biocultural diversity, and biological diversity at all scales.
Temperature and photoperiod vary annually with latitude. Light under water diminishes
dramatically as one moves from shallow coastal shelves to deeper waters. On land,
topographic features create deserts in the rain shadows of mountains and alpine conditions as
one moves up in elevation. Surface water salinity varies as one moves inland from the coast
along mangrove forests and salt marshes.
342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 These environmental gradients create myriad conditions that have resulted in millions of
different kinds of species that vary enormously in their size, shape, physiology, and other traits –
some land plants can tolerate salt, drought, and fire while others can live in perennially wet, dark
and cold cloud forests. Some fish, like snail fish, live almost eight kilometers below the sea
while a small plane collided with a vulture in 1973 above the Ivory Coast, West Africa, eleven
kilometers above sea level. The masters of living everywhere, in even the most extreme
environments, are the microorganisms, some of which live in crusts of hydrothermal vents
beneath the sea, some in crusts atop desert sands.
10 Figure 3. Biomes, ecosystems, biodiversity and carbon. B iomes are climatically defined regions with characteristic vegetation and often characteristic animal diversity. This figure illustrates the mass of life as measured by carbon content, and how it is distributed on Earth. Note how life is found v irtually everywhere in spite of incredible variability in surface conditions (e.g., icy poles to a warm equator). Ocean biodiversity is not illustrated, but is of greater mass that is especially concentrated on c ontinental shelves. (From: http://www.carbon-­‐biodiversity.net/Issues/CarbonStorage) 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 Earth’s diversity in environmental conditions contributes not just to biological diversity, but also
to human cultural diversity. Not surprisingly, cultural diversity, such as our great lingual,
culinary, and artistic diversity, often correlates biological diversity. In the same way that
biodiversity is found in every habitat, humans are found in most every terrestrial ecosystem,
from the Arctic to the Namibian desert, and although humans do not live yet in oceans, our
massive impacts on marine resources inextricably links us to virtually all marine ecosystems. In
fact, oceans are critical for our survival as they control the hydrological cycle (including
distribution of rain on land) and its wast life in the oceans that created oxygen in the atmosphere
upon which we are dependent. In addition, the ocean has taken up between a third and one half
of the carbon dioxide humans have emitted to the atmosphere and, in this manner, impact
radiative forcing and ameliorate climate change.
362 363 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 Biodiversity and environment: a two-way interaction
Physical environmental conditions play dominant roles in governing where biodiversity and
ecosystems are found, but biodiversity and ecosystems also modify physical environmental
conditions – it’s a two way interaction. Earth’s climate is a result of solar, orbital, and planetary
factors, but it is also the result of many geochemical processes that are strongly modified by
biological processes, or biogeochemical processes. Nitrogen cycling, for example, the
dominant gas in our atmosphere and a key element in soil fertility, is almost entirely driven by
microbial processes and microbial communities. Similarly, terrestrial and marine ecosystems
each contribute roughly equally to carbon cycling that influences how much carbon dioxide and
other greenhouse gasses are in our atmosphere which strongly influences warming and global
climate and oceans have absorbed nearly half the anthropogenic carbon dioxide since the
Industrial Revolution. Another example of the complexity is an influence of marine life on
11 374 375 376 377 precipitation. Through a complex web of biological processes, oceanic organisms produce
dimethyl sulfide (a compound that often gives sea air its characteristic odor) that is a key
atmospheric aerosol which forms nuclei around which water vapor condensates, forms
droplets, and eventually forms clouds that affect regional radiation and precipitation.
378 379 380 381 382 383 384 385 Though the biological and physical worlds are inextricably bound to one another, where any
major change in one will lead to a major change in the other, the processes involved are largely
invisible. Without instrumentation, one never sees the fluxing of greenhouse gases, the cycling
of nutrients, or the millions of tons of microorganisms that make up the living world. To the
untrained eye, many plants look alike so their diversity is not readily apparent. Most animals are
small, inconspicuous, or simply live in places we are unlikely to see them, such as life under the
sea, in the soils, or in the canopies of forests. We see the living world around us, but not its
diversity and not how it influences our environment.
386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 Much of life’s diversity and life’s processes may be invisible but without them our world would be
incapable of sustaining life – it takes life to sustain life. Perhaps the easiest way to see how
dramatically biodiversity affects our environment is to compare our planet to its lifeless
neighbors, Mars and Venus (Fig. 4). Take away photosynthesis, nutrient cycling, greenhouse
gas regulation, the production of biomass, and much more, and oxygen vanishes, greenhouse
gasses dominate the atmosphere, temperatures soar, and the planet becomes uninhabitable.
When we consider safe planetary boundaries it is not surprising that biodiversity loss is the most
worrisome of all the boundaries we have crossed (Fig. 2).
394 12 Figure 4. It is easy to see the two-­‐way interaction between life and our environment when we compare our home to our neighboring planets. Physical and chemical models of Earth suggest that if we were to remove all of life from our planet it would eventually reach a chemical and physical equilibrium in which we looked like other rocky planets in our solar system. Most likely, Earth without life would have environmental conditions somewhere between Venus (left) and Mars (right) – completely incapable of sustaining life. 395 396 397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 405 406 At a planetary scale, the lifeless hostile abodes of Mars and Venus show clearly the value of
blue planet. On Earth the co-existence of an atmosphere, hydrosphere and geosphere have
allowed ecosystems to develop, which today provide all the essential life supporting services the
to human race. At local scales, however, bleached coral reefs covered in algae and devoid of
fish, dust storms over deserts created by overgrazing, and landslides that often follow
deforestation provide references for what happens when ecosystems are over exploited and
biodiversity reduced. Keeping ecosystems from further degradation to barrens and wastelands,
unproductive oceans and toxic waste sites require different strategies, policies, goals, targets,
indicators and solutions. But the importance of resilient ecosystems with high levels of
biodiversity remains the same across all scales. A species-rich planet is a healthier more
resilient planet and a species rich ecosystem, whether it is a farm, city, forest or ocean, is
typically healthier and more resilient.
407 Dominant ecosystems in the pathway to sustainable development
408 409 410 411 412 Forests
Among terrestrial ecosystems, our thematic group will pay special attention to forests. As one
of the world’s richest repositories of biodiversity , a key source of ecosystem services for many
nations, and undergoing rapid change, emphasis on forests in sustainable development is
important.
413 414 415 416 The sustaining services that forests provide are critical to Earth’s climate. Forests strongly
influence Earth’s hydrological cycles through the evapotranspiration of water through trees and
regulation of water sheds. Their influence in carbon cycling is also well documented , both of
which are key elements in Earth’s climate system.
417 418 419 420 421 422 423 424 425 The extent of forests is diminishing, which means that their ability to function and provide
important ecosystem services will be compromised. In most cases, forest loss is attributable to
agricultural expansion, not just logging. On current trends, agricultural expansion will reduce
forest cover by 1.3% per year until 2030, a trend that is exacerbated by dietary shifts towards
greater consumption of livestock, livestock products, and vegetable oils as nations develop.
The Amazon forest, for example, could decrease by 40% by 2050 at current rates of agricultural
expansion driven by growth in soybean and cattle production. The story is similar for Asia,
especially in the face of oil palm expansion and Africa which is also losing forest to rising
demands for timber and agricultural expansion.
13 426 427 428 429 430 431 432 433 434 435 436 Oceans
Oceans are the primary regulator of the global climate and an important sink for greenhouse
gases. They provide us with water and the oxygen we breathe. Oceans and the many marine
ecosystems are so vast, that there was a sense that they are immune to the actions of humans.
However, in many ways, oceans are changing faster and more dramatically than their terrestrial
partners. For example, over 90% of the extra heat energy now stored near the Earth's surface
as a result of the changing concentrations of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere is contained
in the ocean. The ocean has taken up between a third and one half of the carbon dioxide
humans have emitted to the atmosphere. The dissolved carbon dioxide has lowed the ocean’s
pH, a process described at ocean acidification. Overall, Halpern estimated in 2008 that roughly
40% of the global ocean is heavily affected by human activities.
437 438 439 440 441 442 443 Some estimates place 80% of our global biomass in the oceans and this mass accounts for half
of global photosynthesis and respiration, the processes that drive most ecosystem functions.
Massive though this is, major changes are in store. In the face of anthropogenic climate
change, for example, most models predict contraction of the productive sea ice biome and
expansion of the less productive sub-tropical gyre biome. On a global level, a decrease in
primary production1 (Zhao and Running (2010), fish biomass2 (Ransom and Worm 2003) and
whale abundance (IWC 2013) 3has already been observed.
444 445 446 447 448 449 450 Oceans are more than just fish stocks, but fish represent a key connection between humanity
and the oceans. Fish are important sources of protein for over 1.5 billion people and fisheries
and aquaculture employ nearly 200 million people. Although expert calculations of the degree
of overfishing vary, official FAO estimates show that roughly one quarter of all stocks are
overfished. About half of all stocks are fished with yields reaching their maximum capacity,
which without other stresses would be sustainable. However, reliable numbers on the state of
stocks are only available for roughly 500 of 1,500 stocks currently fished upon.
451 452 453 454 455 456 Oceans are also source of materials for many industries and transport across oceans is the
most common, cost-effective means of global trade. Oceans are key sources of minerals and
fossil fuels that we will in the near future exploit increasingly as technology for mining and
extraction in marine habitats improves and Arctic sea ice retreats. Impacts on our oceans are
not just from such extractive industries but also marine traffic that accounts for over 90% of
global trade, currently conducted by over sixty-three thousand vessels.
457 458 459 460 Marine pollution from land-based sources is also widespread and increasing at rapid rates.
Sources and types of marine pollution vary from heavy metals and radioactive material to
plastic. Nutrient runoff and untreated sewage that can lead to eutrophication and well known
“dead zones” and harmful algal blooms (HAB). Some of the worst regions being Western
1
Zhao, Maosheng, and Steven W. Running. "Drought-induced reduction in global terrestrial net primary production
from 2000 through 2009." Science 329, no. 5994 (2010): 940-943. 2
Myers, Ransom A., and Boris Worm. "Rapid worldwide depletion of predatory fish communities." Nature 423, no.
6937 (2003): 280-283. 3
IWC, International Whaling Commission. 2013. http://iwc.int/estimate 14 461 462 463 Europe, the Eastern and Southern coasts of the U.S., and East Asia, particularly Japan.
Hypoxia and HAB deteriorate the quality of water and can change or reduce species diversity
or cause the deaths of fish, birds and marine mammals when toxins are produced.
464 465 466 467 468 469 470 471 472 473 474 475 476 477 478 479 480 481 482 483 484 On top of natural resource extraction, marine traffic, and pollution, climate change is taking its
toll and likely to irrevocably alter ocean biodiversity and the ecosystem services they provide.
Increased CO2 concentration in the atmosphere is leading to increased uptake of CO2 by the
ocean leading to ocean acidification. Ocean surface pH has already lowered (e.g., become
more acidic) by 0.1 pH compared to pre-industrial values and is expected to further decrease by
an additional 0.3-0.4 units by 2100, which would be the lowest value registered in the last 23
million years. The impacts of ocean acidification are still under investigation, but it clearly poses
a threat to the abundance, health, physiology, and biogeochemistry of several key marine
species and their food webs. Prominent examples are: coral reefs, shellfish and calcareous
plankton, the base of much of the marine food chain. Some predictions say, that if current CO2
emission rates continue unabated then there will be no regions in the world's ocean AT ALL
where conditions are predicted to be able to support the net growth of coral skeletons by the
mid 2060s. Coral reef degradation, especially when degradation leads to loss of reef mass,
would reduce protection for shorelines from erosion and flooding and impact local fisheries,
tourism and recreation industries, as well as related maritime economies. Currently, it is not
certain whether marine species and ecosystems will be able to adapt to changes in ocean
chemistry, but due to the fact that pH values have dropped remarkably in the last century there
is great concern about ocean acidification threats that could alter marine food webs, which could
have far- reaching consequences for the oceans and millions of people depending on them for
food resources. Global warming can lead to stratification and the formation of anaerobic
conditions where seawater contains virtually no oxygen and most living organisms perish .
485 486 487 In summary, though people do not actually live in the ocean, atmosphere, land and ocean are
so tightly coupled that environmental sustainability is not achievable unless marine conservation
and stewardship are integral parts of sustainable development pathways.
488 FOBES Sustainable Development Solutions
489 490 491 492 493 494 495 496 497 498 499 500 Initiating the Process
Central to identifying solutions to the challenges of transitioning from traditional development to
sustainable development through the preservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and
ecosystem services is providing a single guiding framework. The Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment (MEA), for example, developed its guiding, overarching framework as its first step.
Securing biodiversity and the ecosystem services it provides requires an integrative socialnatural science framework. This framework would identify major classes of ecosystem services,
key classes of social and natural drivers of change, and quantifiable linkages among them.
These drivers and linkages represent the foci for the development of coupled social/natural
models, quantitative metrics, and policy relevant indicators that will be necessary for the
development and implementation of solutions for achieving sustainable development.
15 501 502 503 504 505 506 507 508 509 510 511 512 513 514 515 516 517 518 519 This integrative social-natural science framework, illustrated in Figure 5, considers all
ecosystems residing on a scale that spans natural (unmanaged) systems at one end and
managed (e.g., agro-ecosystems, pastures, rangelands, agroforestry, urban areas) on the other.
Unmanaged and managed ecosystems therefore represent endpoints of a continuum and no
ecosystem is likely to represent either extreme. All ecosystems are either directly managed by
humans, whether they are marine protected areas or wildlife reserves. Likewise, all managed
systems have some components, most often microbial communities and invertebrates, that are
not directly managed but which still respond indirectly to human management.
In the FOBES framework, unmanaged systems are shown as those primarily providing
regulating (e.g., pollination, soil stabilization and resilience against natural disasters), cultural
(e.g., recreational and inspirational values), and supporting services (e.g., nutrient cycling and
soil production) and are the principle repositories for Earth’s biodiversity, but they provide
insufficient food, fiber, or fuel (provisioning services). In contrast, managed systems primarily
provide provisioning services, but at a cost to biodiversity and other services. Note that implicit
in this framework is the integration of ecological knowledge/methods in practices such as
agriculture, pastoralism, and forestry in the social/natural component.
Figure 5. Ecosystem transitions between natural and managed systems. FOBES’s framework, adapted from Naeem et al. (2009) and congruent with Clark and Levin (2009), considers ecosystems ranging from managed to unmanaged, though in reality no ecosystem is independent of human influence. Two ecosystems are illustrated; unmanaged on the right and, after human induced transitions, managed on the left. The double arrow indicates that ecosystems c an exist anywhere along a gradient of management and c an move in either direction depending on human decisions and actions. Note that the quantity of different ecosystem services and biodiversity change along the management gradient, but remain connected to global circulations and global trade, transportation, and travel. 520 521 16 522 523 524 525 526 527 528 529 530 531 532 533 534 535 536 537 538 539 540 541 542 543 544 545 546 In the FOBES framework (Fig. 5), social/natural factors and drivers divide into three categories:
(1) social/cultural such as economic, political, and behavioral, such as shifting diets to more or
less meat; (2) agricultural/forestry such as yield gaps, irrigation, and cropping efficiencies,
plantation forests, natural forest management; and (3) natural such as biodiversity, climate, and
nutrient cycling and extreme weather events. Although the relative magnitude and stability of
services provided by ecosystems vary, all ecosystems supply the same complement of
services, but managed systems often optimize provisioning services at the cost of supporting,
regulating, and cultural services. In that sense, it would be useful to systematize and
disseminate the sustainable ways to produce services.
It is crucial to stress that both the framework and the solutions we propose are to initiate the
process. FOBES members will work precisely on developing its framework and solutions in
collaboration with other Thematic Groups. Also, the FOBES framework will inspire itself on the
exiting work, such as the conceptual framework for IPBES
From a conceptual point of view, managed ecosystems need to be improved so as to increase
their regulation services. There are many cases of agricultural practices that can lead to
increased soil carbon socks, such as low tillage agriculture that also reduces erosion and
protects watersheds. Unmanaged ecosystems need to have their regulating and cultural
services valued economically, like areas protected by indigenous communities for spiritual or
cultural reasons. For example, the value of these services produced by protected areas should
be recognized and result in better public and private funding for their protection.
547 FOBES Areas of action and recommendations
548 549 550 551 Action area 1. Reduce agricultural expansion by improving efficiency
More efficient agro-ecosystems that require less external inputs (e.g., biocides, water and
fertilizers) can substantially reduce agricultural expansion at the expense of natural forest and
savannas.
552 553 554 555 556 557 558 559 560 In developing countries, where agriculture is dominated by smallholder farming, emphasis
should be placed on bolstering bottom-up solutions such as providing improved technical
assistance, improved access to credit, payments for avoided deforestation and ecosystem
services, traditional conservation-friendly farming practices, farmer cooperatives and more
consistent environmental law enforcement. In developed countries, where agriculture is
dominated by carbon-intensive production systems, emphasis should be given to technological
solutions that reduce input demand and revert perverse government incentives and subsidies,
as well as domestic and international consumer pressures against unsustainable agricultural
products, and innovative tax policies.
561 562 Also, nutrient burdens from agricultural run-off (fertilizer, manure), has led to continued growth
in the occurrence of coastal hypoxic zones and economic damages approaching USD 100
17 563 564 565 566 567 568 569 570 billion per year in the EU alone. The need to begin a transition to much more cyclic
management of nutrients whereby efficiency of fertilizer use is increased and the majority of
human and livestock ‘waste’ nutrients are recovered and reused for fertilizer and other needs. In
parallel, some analyses project that available phosphorus reserves could run out as early as this
century with unprecedented effects on global food security; whether it is this soon or somewhat
longer doesn’t negate the fact that eventually, phosphorus recovery from the waste stream will
need to become the norm, not the exception if long-term global food security is to be ensured.
(UN Blueprint on ocean and coastal sustainability, 2011)
571 572 North-south technology transfers have often resulted in problems for tropical agriculture. Southsouth technology exchanges should be greatly encouraged.
573 574 575 576 577 578 579 A success story of how research can help increase agricultural productivity is the case of
Embrapa (Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation). Embrapa is a governmental research
institution, focused on technology development that has played a key role in increasing the
productivity of many agricultural products in Brazil through the development and spread of new
products and technologies. For example, the area designated for the production of grains and
vegetable oil seeds in Brazil increased in 44% while production increased in 250% and incomes
increased 2.4 times.
580 581 582 583 584 Action area 2. Decoupling economic development from deforestation
One of the most important challenges of sustainable development is to decouple economic
development from deforestation. This is particularly important for countries in which agriculture
plays an important role in the economy.
585 586 587 588 589 590 591 592 593 A noteworthy example is Brazil, a country with the largest area of tropical forest in the world and
in which agriculture plays an important role in the national economy. In 2011, the agribusiness
sector (agriculture and cattle ranching) in Brazil represented 22.15% of the country’s GDP.
Brazil has reduced Amazonian deforestation by over 75% between 2004 and 2011, while
increasing its GDP (Fig. 6). Since 2011, in the State of Pará, in the Brazilian Amazon,
municipalities have also started to implement policies to reduce deforestation through a program
called “green municipalities” which emphasizes integrating land tenure and environmental
planning, shared environmental management, and supporting sustainable production to meet
ambitious but realistic targets.
594 595 596 597 598 599 600 601 602 Policies to reduce deforestation should consider five important elements (1) the establishment
of protected areas in collaboration with local and indigenous communities, (2) conventional
command and control (fines, apprehension of illegal goods and products such as wood), (3)
financial and commercial disincentives for those who deforest illegally, (4) economic incentives
to sustainable forest economies, (5) and financial incentives for reducing emissions from
deforestation through payment for ecosystem services. However, such initiatives should
separate their focus on industrial and corporate groups from poor smallholders, in terms of the
management approaches used as well as the financial incentive and disincentive structures
employed. There is a need to have a poverty focus as a way to link these activities with the
18 603 604 605 606 607 608 609 610 611 612 613 614 615 boarder goal of reducing social inequity. Once again, the Amazon serves as an example, such
as the Bolsa Floresta Program that incorporated these five elements. Additionally, international
support, such as Norway´s donations to the Amazon Fund, can facilitate such programs by
adding incentives that reduce deforestation, and participation by civil society also played an
important role by running highly visible campaigns that applied political pressure on
governments and businesses to support sustainability. These activities led to a soybean
moratorium – a commitment signed by large companies not to buy from soybean producers who
engaged in deforestation in the Amazon. Reduction of deforestation can also be reached with
good forest management. A good example is the one of the Community Concessions in Petén,
Guatemala. In the dry season the fires occur in the Core Zone and the Buffer Zone of the
Mayan Biosphere Reserve, while the Multiple Use Zone, in which certified forest management
occurs, almost no fires happen because the forest have a value for the communities and they
protect it.
616 Figure 6. Annual deforestation rate in the Amazon and growth in gross domestic product (GDP) in Brazil between 1989 and 2011. 617 618 619 620 621 622 623 624 625 Indonesia is another noteworthy case - a country with the third largest area of tropical forests
(after Brazil and Democratic Republic of Congo). Agriculture, like in many other tropical nations,
is an important source of revenue in Indonesia representing 15% of the country’s GDP. Palm oil,
in particular, represents 6 to 7% of the Indonesian GDP, while forestry (harvesting and
silviculture) contributes approximately 1% . Indonesia has recently implemented a new set of
policies aimed at reducing deforestation and degradation as a part of a national REDD+
strategy. This includes: (i) a moratorium on new concessions, which suspends the granting of
new concession licenses for logging and conversion of forests and peat lands, signed in mid 19 626 627 628 629 630 631 2011, and protects 43.3 million hectares, avoiding the emission of estimated 92.8 giga-tons of
CO2e to the atmosphere; (ii) the establishment of national emissions reduction target of 26 to
41% ; (iii) the establishment of a national REDD+ strategy, which is one of the outputs foreseen
by the REDD+ Task Force, created by a Presidential Decree in 2010, to prepare the country’s
REDD+ infrastructure ; and (iv) a landmark policy to recognize indigenous peoples rights over
forests .
632 633 634 635 636 637 638 639 640 641 642 643 644 645 646 Action area 3. Develop economic instruments for ecosystem services
Valuing nature has both supporters and detractors but, in many, cases governmental and nongovernmental institutions, land owners, managers, urban planners, and most stakeholders
require ways in which ecosystem services can be understood in economic terms. Ecosystem
services (sometimes referred to as environmental or nature’s services) are difficult to value, but
tremendous progress has been made. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB)
initiative, for example, has drawn considerable attention to the economic benefits of biodiversity
and ecosystem services. TEEB has developed clear, concise, and consistent approaches for
assessing and incorporating the values of biodiversity and ecosystem services into decisionmaking often through incentives and price signals. TEEB emphasizes the importance of both
benefits and costs of economic development which too often focuses solely on benefits without
accounting for societal costs. The economic benefits of agricultural expansion, for example, are
often not weighed against the benefits derived from sustainable forestry in terms of timber and
non-timber forest products such as fruits and fiber.
647 648 649 650 651 652 653 654 655 Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) programs are among the most rapidly growing
mechanisms for enabling ecosystem service markets. PES programs can be devised to insure
that both buyers and sellers can participate in the trade of ecosystem goods and services. PES
is especially important for biodiversity conservation which is traditionally done by governments
and NGOs, but most (90%) of the land where biodiversity resides is outside of such protection .
By one estimate, PES programs for biodiversity could benefit 10 – 15 million low-income
households in developing countries, PES for carbon could benefit an additional 25-50 million
households, PES for watershed protection benefit another 80 – 100 million, and PES for cultural
ecosystem services benefit yet another 8 - 10 million households.
656 657 658 659 660 661 662 663 664 Costa Rica, for example, in 1996 implemented a 3.5% tax on fossil fuels to balance the benefits
of industrial development with the costs of degradation of ecosystem services and created the
Fondo Nacional de Financiamiento Florestal (FONAFIFO) to provide financial support to forest
owners and indigenous peoples to conserve and sustainably manage forested areas, or to
reforest degraded land. Since its creation, with an annual budget currently between US$14 -17
million/year, which corresponds to around 0.04% of the country’s GDP, the program has
resulted in nearly 13,000 contracts, covered nearly 800,000 hectares of forests and distributed
almost US$280 million. Still, in Costa Rica, PES is considered only one of the many policy
mechanisms and instruments of sustainable development available.
665 666 In addition to this, climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is an important component of a sustainability
strategy to deal with food production and forest protection. CSA is a concept based in three
20 667 668 669 670 671 672 673 674 pillars: sustainably increasing agricultural productivity and incomes, adaptation and building
resilience to climate change, and reducing and/or removing GHG emissions. CSA is an
important mechanism to increase efficiency in food production, tackling food security, reducing
ecological footprint and adapting to climate change scenarios. CATIE is developing a wider
concept, named as Climate Smart Territories, because the territorial approach follows better the
path of the Adaptive Mosaic of the Millennium Ecosystems Assessment. In a same territory
several realities coexist in time: agriculture, cattle farming, cities, forests, and it is necessary to
take actions regarding all land uses, no only in agriculture.
675 676 677 678 679 680 The World Economic Forum estimates that agriculture is responsible for 30% of GHG
emissions, forestry is responsible for 16% GHG, and agriculture is responsible for 40% of
worldwide employment. When climate varies, crop losses can be enormous and in some
regions, such as the Sahelian countries, crop losses can range from 30% to 100% in the face of
drought. These estimates vary according to different sources, but the general split is consistent
in the various reports.
681 Agriculture also consumes 70% of the fresh water we mobilize from natural sources.
682 683 684 Better management systems and technology use could dramatically improve food provisioning
from agro-ecosystems while not jeopardizing services provided by unmanaged ecosystems by
minimizing or eliminating agricultural expansion.
685 686 687 688 689 Following the 2010 Water Footprint Network’s report, agriculture consumes 2.6m3 of water for 1
ton of cereal (2005). The target is to reduce this by half (1.5m3/ton of cereal) by 2030. This can
be accomplished basically by implementing three integrated actions: (i) improving the diversity
of crops by agro-ecological systems, (ii) providing capacity building for such small and medium
farmers, and (iii) fostering credit and other incentives for this transition.
690 691 692 693 694 Financial and non-financial incentives are needed for climate smart agriculture. Therefore,
policy frameworks are much needed – especially in least developed countries, where agriculture
plays an important role within national GDP. These frameworks are essential to reduce the
ecological footprint, reduce pressure on forests and help meet growing demands for food
production.
695 696 697 698 699 700 701 702 However, the effect of ecosystem services on human wellbeing cannot be quantified through
purely economic approaches alone, although these form an important component of solutionsfocused planning. Thus it is important to supplement the use of economic valuation and
economic instruments with a focus on cultural and social ecosystem services, which are often
much more locally variable, and socially stratified within locations, thus difficult to quantify. A
focus on quantification should not obscure the importance of such cultural and social ecosystem
services for human wellbeing, especially but not exclusively for disadvantaged communities
such as indigenous groups, women and the poor.
703 704 705 Action area 4. Emphasize the participatory process
People play important roles as providers of ecosystem services, but their roles are often
neglected in sustainable development. Indigenous and traditional populations have some of the
21 706 707 708 709 710 worst health and education indicators and stand to benefit the most from achieving sustainable
development. Indigenous knowledge, though limited in some regards, reflects knowledge
accumulated over long periods, passed from one generation to the next, and reflects knowledge
on time scales that better reflect ecological time scales rather than timescales of typical Western
research (2-5 years) for terrestrial, freshwater, marine ecosystems.
711 712 713 714 715 716 717 718 719 720 721 722 723 Examples of inclusion of indigenous people in ecosystem service sustainable development
programs are the vanguard proposition of Coordination of the Indigenous Peoples of the
Amazon (COICA ) – an umbrella organization for all indigenous peoples of the nine countries of
the Amazonian ecosystem. COICA has formulated the “REDD+ Indigena” – their own version of
how a United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) mechanism
should work. In contrast to REDD+, the REDD Indigena’s strategy is to contribute to global
strategies for mitigation in adaptation in a way that strengthens ecosystem functions on earth
through the holistic management of indigenous territories. It aims to establish a “full life plan” for
the long term, guarantee the tenure rights of indigenous people, promote a holistic management
that integrates mitigation and adaptation to climate change, sustainably manage biodiversity,
provide financial compensations based on public funds, and ensure social control over
development by directly addressing the drivers of deforestation such as oil, mining, timber
harvesting, and other extractive industries as well as agricultural expansion.
724 725 726 727 728 729 Indigenous populations inhabit most remaining tropical forests, thus it is important to recognize
the rights of these people to resources in their homelands. Countries such Colombia, Equator,
and Brazil have gone a long way in recognizing these rights and progress is being made in
countries such as Indonesia, where the rights of indigenous peoples to forest resources have
recently been legally established. There are still vast forest areas where unclear forest tenure
leads to social conflicts, crime and extreme poverty.
730 731 732 733 734 A successful approach to ensure appropriate participation of local people is through adaptative
management approach at the territorial level. A noteworthy case is the Iberoamerican Model
Forests Newtwork, that includes 29 territories in 15 countries with more than 32 million ha. This
is part of an international effort of a bottom-up process to get the sustainable human
development of forest rich territories, currently led by CATIE.
735 736 737 738 739 740 741 742 743 744 745 Action area 5. Expand biodiversity and ecosystem function/service research
Funding for biodiversity research is frequently among the smallest portion of research and
development budgets. Most countries have departments or ministries for agriculture, forestry,
fisheries, or the environment, but allocation of resources to biodiversity and ecosystem service
research is negligible. Even in the United States, for example, where annual federal spending
on research and development is $65 billion, less than 1% is invested in biodiversity research.
Nations with smaller budgets for research and development spend even less. This low
allocation stems largely from a historical and traditional perspective in which biodiversity is seen
primarily as an abstract topic with little application in comparison to biology, chemistry, or
22 746 747 748 749 physics where links to medicine and engineering are well accepted. Biodiversity’s link to human
wellbeing, economic development, and environmental sustainability are now well understood
and research in biodiversity and ecosystem service research needs to expand to become
comparable to other investments in scientific research.
750 751 752 While the acceleration of research on all ecosystems would provide immense benefits for
people, forests and marine ecosystems should take priority. Three basic investments in
biodiversity research will have enormous benefits compared to costs. These are:
753 754 755 756 757 758 759 760 761 1. Complete the inventory of every nation’s plant, animal, and microbial diversity across three
dimensions of biodiversity – taxonomic (e.g., the number of species), functional (e.g., the
diversity of traits such as body size, metabolic rates, and nutrient and water use efficiency), and
phylogenetic (e.g., evolutionary). Such inventories are critical starting points for developing
strategies and policies for achieving environmental sustainability through natural resource
conservation and management. Such inventories will, of course, miss the important point
species presence does not guarantee that they are functioning in ecosystems, providing
services or likely to persist if their numbers are low. Wherever possible, estimates of
abundance are important.
762 763 764 765 766 767 768 769 2. Conduct global and national assessments and inventories of ecosystem services. Such
information is necessary for economic valuation and for understanding the true economic impact
of development across all scales. Development strategies, for example, that invest in one
ecosystem service (e.g., agriculture focuses on provisioning services, ecotourism focuses on
cultural services) will invariably lead to losses in other services, but assessments and
inventories can be used to prevent such outcomes. The challenge faced will be to sustain
observations and build capacities in those countries that need it. This might be particularly
difficult with maritime nations where ocean research is costly.
770 771 772 773 774 775 776 777 778 779 780 781 782 783 784 3. Increase education and training in basic, applied, and integrative (where basic is linked to
applied issues) biodiversity research, including the links of biodiversity with social sciences. By
making basic and applied biodiversity science part of grade-school educational curricula, by
ensuring that universities have programs in biodiversity research, and by creating, investing in
or incentivizing individuals to make biodiversity part of their career development, we can help to
create the new environmental workforce necessary to integrate biodiversity into policy and
practice. Those taking up careers in agriculture would benefit learning about agro-biodiversity
and non-agricultural ecosystem services while those learning forest ecology would benefit by
working with foresters and forest extension agents. Marine fisheries scientists would benefit
from learning about the role of marine biodiversity, including microorganisms, in ecosystem
services and would work with fishing industries as well as local fishers to develop sustainable
harvest strategies and conserve natural marine resources. To achieve this, we need to
coordinate research with national and regional centers, develop better technologies to monitor
and manage biodiversity and ecosystem services, and work to build better good management
practice.
785 23 786 787 788 789 790 Action area 6. Develop smart ecosystem governance of terrestrial ecosystems
New forms of governance are needed in order to establish sustainable development solutions
for ecosystems. While governments have the fundamental role of establishing legal frameworks,
private sector and NGOs can bring much needed efficiency, creativity and innovation as well as
linking to consumers and civil society.
791 792 793 794 795 796 797 798 799 800 801 It is not always clear, however, how ecosystem governance should combine top down (e.g. law
enforcement) with bottom up (e.g. participatory decision making). Ecosystem governance
involves nut just controlling the harvesting of goods (e.g., timber, fish, fodder), but managing
and overseeing many elements of biodiversity and ecosystem functioning to ensure that goods
and services are provided in a sustainable way. Such a broad remit would seem to require
governments that can levy taxes for ecosystem service use to generate revenue for
management, something NGOs and the private sector cannot do. Further, since ecosystem
services include regulatory services that reduce environmental risks, ecosystem governance
could fall under national insurance programs and again be appropriately managed by
governments. In contrast, ecosystem governance might be better run by a bottom-up approach
where indigenous knowledge better serves management .
802 803 804 805 806 807 808 809 810 811 Smart ecosystem governance would reflect new approaches rather than traditional dichotomy of
top-down or traditional-bottom up governance. Because most land is not owned by the state in
many developing countries and because marine ecosystems are governed weakly, neither
national nor international governance may be appropriate for ensuring sustainable management
of biodiversity and ecosystem services. On the other hand, because many indigenous
populations are impoverished and sometimes marginalized by state governments, they may
lack the authority, institutions, and resources necessary for effective governance of ecosystems
. Clearly, new, innovative approaches to ecosystem governance need to be developed,
approaches in which the strengths inherent in both top-down and bottom-up approaches are
brought together.
812 813 814 815 816 817 818 819 820 821 822 A good example of mechanisms for working towards smart governance are roundtables such as
Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil , Global Roundtable for Sustainable Beef and the
Roundtable on Responsible Soy . These cases show how private companies can engage with
civil society and producers to collaborate and improve sustainability on such production chains,
implement best practices and guarantee compliance of the sectors. Another case is the
governance structure of the FONAFIFO (see Solution 2, above). In this initiative, governments,
NGOs and private companies work together to channel funds from taxes and private business
to rural producers who conserve or restore their properties. Another good example is the Model
Forest system, with an international Network divided into Regional Networks. Is a bottom-up
approach, but within the national regulations and international initiatives, thus considering also
top-down elements of the equation
823 824 24 825 826 Action area 7. Improve management and governance of oceans
827 828 829 830 831 832 833 834 835 836 837 838 839 840 Oceans, which comprise two-thirds of the Earth´s surface and provide crucial global ecosystem
services, need special attention. Oceans, as the world’s largest global commons, urgently
require activities that work across government, NGO, private, and other sectors. There are few
examples of promising initiatives that need to be reinforced. There are several agencies, such
as the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, the North Pacific Marine
Science Organization (PICES), International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), the
United Nations International Maritime Organization (IMO), International Institute of Fisheries
Economics & Trade (IIFET), and The International Whaling Commission that bring together
different sectors concerning marine science, conservation, and policy, but they lack regulative
authority abilities to develop and employ PES programs. Smart governance of marine
sustainable development, however, needs to go beyond these efforts. Over the intervening
years of implementing SDSs, we will need to improve and harmonize legal frameworks for
oceans and coasts and ensure that they take into account current and future uses of marine
resources by the complex, international set of stakeholders.
841 842 843 844 845 846 847 848 849 850 Achieving smart marine sustainable development
governance will also have to focus on ensuring that
coastal communities remain resilient through climate
change mitigation and adaptation strategies, by
funding the development of new and innovative
means for achieving marine sustainable
development, and by ensuring that costs, benefits,
and responsibilities are shared among all parties.
These activities require the sort of integrated and
multi-level ocean governance that is currently absent.
851 852 853 854 855 856 Critical to developing smart marine sustainable development governance will be developing a
framework for Marine Spatial Planning (MSP). Marine spatial planning (MSP) is a process that
brings together multiple users of the ocean – including energy, industry, government,
conservation and recreation – to make informed and coordinated decisions about how to use
marine resources sustainably. MSP is already being used within Exclusive Economic Zones
(EEZs), however, it will be necessary to extend it to areas beyond national jurisdiction.
857 858 859 860 Furthermore, marine ecosystems will similarly require smart development of its biodiversity and
ecosystem services, though the massive scale and complex international governance issues of
open ocean systems will require considerable investment to develop and implement tractable
solutions.
861 862 863 864 865 Guiding principles for smart sustainable development solutions for oceans will be to first ensure
that basic life-sustaining and regulating functions of the oceans (oxygen production, key
processes in the climate system, and in the hydrological cycle) are not jeopardized by
development. This will require developing multi-sectorial roundtables and authoritative bodies
that can regulate development activities that alter these functions. Such activities may not be
Smart sustainable development solutions couple marine and terrestrial biodiversity and ecosystem services. 25 866 867 868 869 870 871 872 limited to marine ecosystems management since fish consumption and markets, marine
shipping traffic and vessel regulations, agricultural runoff and pollution are often partially or
wholly terrestrially based. Similarly, climate change mitigation efforts that limit carbon dioxide
emissions derived primarily from fossil fuel burning and forest degradation, though terrestrial
activities, are important for preventing further ocean warming, acidification and deoxygenation.
Smart sustainable development solutions couple marine and terrestrial biodiversity and
ecosystem services.
873 874 875 876 877 878 879 880 881 882 883 884 885 A second guiding principle to smart marine sustainable development is to ensure healthy and
productive marine environments meaning that all ocean and coastal provisioning and nonprovisioning services are considered. Smart marine sustainable development solutions should
not be just about fish, for example, but about ensuring that the exploitation of all living marine
resources are held within safe biological limits. Because oceans are severely impacted by
extractive industries on non-living resources, such as minerals and fossil fuels, they should be
integral parts of solutions. Likewise, the use and protection of sensitive marine areas, the
development and distribution of technical capacities for the sustainable use of ocean resources,
and providing access to marine information and data to build global capacity for the transparent
and open assessment and monitoring of ocean resources will be instrumental to building
effective solutions that will require regularly updated status reports of ocean and coastal SDG
indicators. All solutions should be in accordance with the ecosystem approach and the
precautionary principle.
886 887 888 889 890 891 Efforts should be made for urgent implementation of the provisions of the Convention of
Biological Diversity, which calls for a major increase in marine protected areas (up to 10% of
ocean by 2020). These protected areas should be implemented by national governments in
national waters near the coast and by international organizations in international waters.
Protecting the provision of ecosystem services of oceans is one of the priority investment for our
sustainable future.
892 893 894 895 896 897 898 899 900 26 901 902 Literature Cited
903 904 905 906 907 908 909 910 911 912 913 914 915 916 917 918 919 920 921 922 923 924 925 926 927 928 929 930 931 932 933 934 935 936 937 938 939 940 941 942 943 944 945 946 947 Alberts, Bruce. "Impact Factor Distortions." Science 340, no. 6134 (2013): 787-87.
Alexandratos, Nikos, and Jelle Bruinsma. "World Agriculture Towards 2030/2050: The 2012
Revision." ESA Working paper Rome, FAO, 2012.
Ansink, E., L. Hein, and K. P. Hasund. " To Value Functions or Services? An Analysis of
Ecosystem Valuation Approaches.". Environmental Values 17 (2008): 489-503.
Armenteras, Dolors, and C. Max Finlayson. "Biodiversity." In Global Environmental Outlook 5,
edited by United Nations Environmental Program UNEP, 133-66. Malta: Progress Press
Ltd., 2012.
Austin, K., S. Sheppard, and F. Stolle. "Indonesia's Moratorium on New Forest Concessions:
Key Findings and Next Steps.", (2012).
http://pdf.wri.org/working_papers/indonesia_moratorium_on_new_forest_concessions.pd
f.
Balmford, Andrew, Aaron Bruner, Philip Cooper, Robert Costanza, Stephen Farber, Rhys E.
Green, Martin Jenkins, et al. "Economic Reasons for Conserving Wild Nature.". Science
297 (2002): 950-53.
Bamba1, I., Marjolein Visser1, and J. Bogaert. "An Alternative View of Deforestation in Central
Africa Based on a Boserupian Framework." Tropicultura 4 (2011): 250-54.
Berkes, Fikret, Johan Colding, and Carl Folke. Navigating Social-Ecological Systems: Building
Resilience for Complexity and Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
Bosch, J. M., and J. D. Hewlett. "A Review of Catchment Experiments to Determine the Effect of
Vegetation Changes on Water Yield and Evapotranspiration." Journal of Hydrology 55,
no. 1–4 (2// 1982): 3-23.
Boyce, Daniel G., Marlon R. Lewis, and Boris Worm. "Global Phytoplankton Decline over the
Past Century." Nature 466, no. 7306 (2010): 591-96.
Boyd, J., and S. Banzhaf. "What Are Ecosystem Services? The Need for Standardized
Environmental Accounting Units." [In English]. Ecological Economics 63, no. 2-3 (Aug
2007): 616-26.
Cairns Jr, John. "Ecological Tipping Points: A Major Challenge for Experimental Sciences."
Asian Journal of Experimental Sciences 18, no. 1 (2004): 1-16.
Caldeira, Ken, and Michael E Wickett. "Ocean Model Predictions of Chemistry Changes from
Carbon Dioxide Emissions to the Atmosphere and Ocean." Journal of Geophysical
Research 110, no. C9 (2005): C09S04.
———. "Oceanography: Anthropogenic Carbon and Ocean Ph." Nature 425, no. 6956 (2003):
365-65.
Carlson, Kimberly M., Lisa M. Curran, Gregory P. Asner, Alice McDonald Pittman, Simon N.
Trigg, and J. Marion Adeney. "Carbon Emissions from Forest Conversion by Kalimantan
Oil Palm Plantations." Nature Clim. Change 3, no. 3 (03//print 2013): 283-87.
Cavicchioli, Ricardo, Ricardo Amils, Dirk Wagner, and Terry McGenity. "Life and Applications of
Extremophiles." Environmental Microbiology 13, no. 8 (2011): 1903-07.
Charpentier, Ronald R, and Donald L Gautier. "Us Geological Survey Circum-Arctic Resource
Appraisal (Cara): Introduction and Summary of Organization and Methods." Geological
Society, London, Memoirs 35, no. 1 (2011): 145-50.
Crutzen, Paul J. "Geology of Mankind." Nature 415, no. 6867 (2002): 23-23.
Dale, Virginia H., and Stephen Polasky. "Measures of the Effects of Agricultural Practices on
Ecosystem Services." Ecological Economics 64, no. 2 (2007): 286-96.
27 948 949 950 951 952 953 954 955 956 957 958 959 960 961 962 963 964 965 966 967 968 969 970 971 972 973 974 975 976 977 978 979 980 981 982 983 984 985 986 987 988 989 990 991 992 993 994 995 996 997 Day, John W., Charles A. Hall, Alejandro Yáñez-Arancibia, David Pimentel, Carles Ibáñez
MartÃ, and William J. Mitsch. "Ecology in Times of Scarcity." BioScience 59, no. 4
(2009): 321-31.
DeFries, R. S., J. A. Foley, and G. P. Asner. "Land-Use Choices: Balancing Human Needs and
Ecosysem Function.". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2 (2004): 249-57.
Doney, Scott C, Victoria J Fabry, Richard A Feely, and Joan A Kleypas. "Ocean Acidification:
The Other Co2 Problem." Marine Science 1 (2009).
Doney, Scott C. "The Growing Human Footprint on Coastal and Open-Ocean Biogeochemistry."
Science 328, no. 5985 (June 18, 2010 2010): 1512-16.
Embrapa. "The Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation." http://www.embrapa.br/english#.
FAO, Food and Agricultural Organization. "Climate-Smart Agriculture Sourcebook ". (2013).
———. "State of the World Fisheries and Aquaculture (Sofia)." (2010).
http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1820e/i1820e.pdf.
FAO, Food and Agriculture Organization. "Working Paper 4 Gea - Utilization Improving Food
Systems for Sustainable Diets in a Green Economy." In Greening the Economy with
Agriculture (GEA), edited, 2012. http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2745e/i2745e00.pdf.
Farber, S. C., R. Costanza, and M. A. Wilson. "Economic and Ecological Concepts for Valuing
Ecosystem Services." [In English]. Ecological Economics 41, no. 3 (Jun 2002): 375-92.
Feely, R. A., C.L. Sabine, and V.J. Fabry. "Carbon Dioxide and Our Ocean Legacy." (2006).
http://www.pmel. noaa.gov/pubs/PDF/feel2899/feel2899.pdf.
Feely, Richard A., Christopher L. Sabine, Kitack Lee, Will Berelson, Joanie Kleypas, Victoria J.
Fabry, and Frank J. Millero. "Impact of Anthropogenic Co2 on the Caco3 System in the
Oceans." Science 305, no. 5682 (July 16, 2004 2004): 362-66.
Fisher, Joshua B., Yadvinder Malhi, Damien Bonal, Humberto R. Da Rocha, Alessandro C. De
AraÚJo, Minoru Gamo, Michael L. Goulden, et al. "The Land–Atmosphere Water Flux in
the Tropics." Global Change Biology 15, no. 11 (2009): 2694-714.
Foley, Jonathan A., Ruth DeFries, Gregory P. Asner, Carol Barford, Gordon Bonan, Stephen R.
Carpenter, F. Stuart Chapin, et al. "Global Consequences of Land Use." Science 309,
no. 5734 (July 22, 2005 2005): 570-74.
Foley, Jonathan A., Navin Ramankutty, Kate A. Brauman, Emily S. Cassidy, James S. Gerber,
Matt Johnston, Nathaniel D. Mueller, et al. "Solutions for a Cultivated Planet." Nature
478, no. 7369 (2011): 337-42.
Gadgil, Madhav, Fikret Berkes, and Carl Folke. "Indigenous Knowledge for Biodiversity
Conservation." Ambio 22, no. 2/3 (1993): 151-56.
Gautier, Donald L., Kenneth J. Bird, Ronald R. Charpentier, Arthur Grantz, David W.
Houseknecht, Timothy R. Klett, Thomas E. Moore, et al. "Assessment of Undiscovered
Oil and Gas in the Arctic." Science 324, no. 5931 (May 29, 2009 2009): 1175-79.
Glibert, Patricia M, Donald M Anderson, Patrick Gentien, Edna Graneli, and Kevin G Sellner.
"The Global, Complex Phenomena of Harmful Algal Blooms." Oceanography 18, no. 2
(2005): 136-47.
Godfray, H. Charles J., John R. Beddington, Ian R. Crute, Lawrence Haddad, David Lawrence,
James F. Muir, Jules Pretty, et al. "Food Security: The Challenge of Feeding 9 Billion
People." Science 327, no. 5967 (February 12, 2010 2010): 812-18.
GRSB, Global Roundtable for Sustainable Beef. http://grsbeef.org/.
Higuchi, N., and P. Meir. "Productivity of Tropical Forests. ." In Terrestral Productivity., edited
by J. Roy, B. Saugier and H. A. Mooney, Higuchi N, Meir P San Diego, CA, USA:
Academic Press, 2001.
Hoegh-Guldberg, O., P. J. Mumby, A. J. Hooten, R. S. Steneck, P. Greenfield, E. Gomez, C. D.
Harvell, et al. "Coral Reefs under Rapid Climate Change and Ocean Acidification."
Science 318, no. 5857 (December 14, 2007 2007): 1737-42.
28 998 999 1000 1001 1002 1003 1004 1005 1006 1007 1008 1009 1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020 1021 1022 1023 1024 1025 1026 1027 1028 1029 1030 1031 1032 1033 1034 1035 1036 1037 1038 1039 1040 1041 1042 1043 1044 1045 1046 1047 1048 Holdren, John P. "Presidential Address: Science and Technology for Sustainable Well-Being."
Science 319, no. 5862 (January 25, 2008 2008): 424-34.
Holmlund, Cecilia M., and Monica Hammer. "Ecosystem Services Generated by Fish
Populations." Ecological Economics 29, no. 2 (5// 1999): 253-68.
IIED, International Institute for , and Environment and Development. "Payments for
Environmental Services in Costa Rica: From Rio to Rio and Beyond." (2012).
http://pubs.iied.org/17126IIED.
IMO, International Maritime Organization. International Shipping Facts and Figures –Information
Resources on Trade, Safety, Security, Environment. IMO, 2012.
http://www.imo.org/Pages/home.aspx.
Ina, Porras. "Payments for Environmental Services: Lessons from the Costa Rican Pes
Programme." (2013).
Jackson, L. E., U. Pascual, and T. Hodgkin. "Utilizing and Conserving Agrobiodiversity in
Agricultural Landscapes." Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 121, no. 3 (2007):
196-210.
Jenkins, MichaelScherr Sara J. Inbar Mira. "Markets for Biodiversity Services: Potential Roles
and Challenges." Environment 46, no. 6 (07//Jul/Aug2004 2004): 32-42.
Johns, Timothy, and Bhuwon R. Sthapit. "Biocultural Diversity in the Sustainability of
Developing-Country Food Systems." Food & Nutrition Bulletin 25, no. 2 (2004): 14355.
Jordan, Stephen J., Sharon E. Hayes, David Yoskowitz, Lisa M. Smith, J. Kevin Summers, Marc
Russell, and William H. Benson. "Accounting for Natural Resources and Environmental
Sustainability: Linking Ecosystem Services to Human Well-Being." Environmental
Science & Technology 44, no. 5 (2010/03/01 2010): 1530-36.
Kareiva, Peter, Sean Watts, Robert McDonald, and Tim Boucher. "Domesticated Nature:
Shaping Landscapes and Ecosystems for Human Welfare." Science 316, no. 5833 (June
29, 2007 2007): 1866-69.
Larigauderie, Anne, Anne-Hélène Prieur-Richard, Georgina M. Mace, Mark Lonsdale, Harold A.
Mooney, Lijbert Brussaard, David Cooper, et al. "Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
Science for a Sustainable Planet: The Diversitas Vision for 2012–20." Current Opinion in
Environmental Sustainability 4, no. 1 (2012): 101-05.
Laybourne, R. C. "Collision between a Vulture and an Aircraft at an Altitude of 37,000 Ft.".
Wilson Bulletin 86 (1974): 461-62.
Leal, Miguel Costa, João Puga, João Serôdio, Newton C. M. Gomes, and Ricardo Calado.
"Trends in the Discovery of New Marine Natural Products from Invertebrates over the
Last Two Decades – Where and What Are We Bioprospecting?". PLoS ONE 7, no. 1
(2012): e30580.
Lenton, Timothy M., Hermann Held, Elmar Kriegler, Jim W. Hall, Wolfgang Lucht, Stefan
Rahmstorf, and Hans Joachim Schellnhuber. "Tipping Elements in the Earth's Climate
System." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105, no. 6 (February 12,
2008 2008): 1786-93.
Loh, Jonathan, and David Harmon. "A Global Index of Biocultural Diversity." Ecological
Indicators 5, no. 3 (8// 2005): 231-41.
Mackenzie, Fred T, Andreas J Andersson, Rolf S Arvidson, Michael W Guidry, and Abraham
Lerman. "Land–Sea Carbon and Nutrient Fluxes and Coastal Ocean Co< Sub> 2</Sub>
Exchange and Acidification: Past, Present, and Future." Applied Geochemistry 26
(2011): S298-S302.
MEA, Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being. Washington,
DC: Island Press, 2005.
———. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: A Framework for Assessment. Island Press,
2003.
29 1049 1050 1051 1052 1053 1054 1055 1056 1057 1058 1059 1060 1061 1062 1063 1064 1065 1066 1067 1068 1069 1070 1071 1072 1073 1074 1075 1076 1077 1078 1079 1080 1081 1082 1083 1084 1085 1086 1087 1088 1089 1090 1091 1092 1093 1094 1095 1096 1097 1098 Mekonnen, M.M., and A.Y. Hoekstra. "The Green, Blue and Grey Water Footprint of Crops and
Derived Crop Products:: Volume 1: Main Report." (2010).
http://www.waterfootprint.org/Reports/Report47-WaterFootprintCrops-Vol1.pdf.
Miettinen, Jukka, Al Hooijer, Daniel Tollenaar, Sue Page, Chris Malins, Ronald Vernimmen,
Chenghua Shi, and Soo Chin Liew. "Historical Analysis and Projection of Oil Palm
Plantation Expansion on Peatland in Southeast Asia." White paper, number 17CRISPDeltares-ICCT (2012).
Milder, Jeffrey C., Sara J. Scherr, and Carina Bracer. "Trends and Future Potential of Payment
for Ecosystem Services to Alleviate Rural Poverty in Developing Countries." Ecology &
Society 15, no. 2 (2010): 1-19.
Moore, Joslin L., Lisa Manne, Thomas Brooks, Neil D. Burgess, Robert Davies, Carsten
Rahbek, Paul Williams, and Andrew Balmford. "The Distribution of Cultural and
Biological Diversity in Africa." Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B:
Biological Sciences 269, no. 1501 (August 22, 2002 2002): 1645-53.
Naeem, Shahid, Daniel E. Bunker, Andy Hector, Michel Loreau, and Charles Perrings. "Can We
Predict the Effects of Global Change on Biodiversity Loss and Ecosystem Functioning?".
In Biodiversity, Ecosystem Functioning, and Human Wellbeing, edited by Shahid
Naeem, Daniel E. Bunker, Andy Hector, Michel Loreau and Charles Perrings, 290-98.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.
Naeem, Shahid, J. Emmett Duffy, and Erika Zavaleta. "The Functions of Biological Diversity in
an Age of Extinction." Science 336, no. 6087 (June 15, 2012 2012): 1401-06.
Nellemann, Christian. The Environmental Food Crisis: The Environment's Role in Averting
Future Food Crises: A Unep Rapid Response Assessment. United Nations Publications,
2009.
O'Dor, R. O. N. "A Census of Marine Life." BioScience 54, no. 2 (2004): 92-93.
Pascual, U., and C. Perrings. "Developing Incentives and Economic Mechanisms for in Situ
Biodiversity Conservation in Agricultural Landscapes." Agriculture, Ecosystems &
Environment 121, no. 3 (2007): 256-68.
Perrings, Charles, Shahid Naeem, Farshid S. Ahrestani, Daniel E. Bunker, Peter Burkill,
Graciela Canziani, Thomas Elmqvist, et al. "Ecosystem Services, Targets, and Indicators
for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Biodiversity." Frontiers in Ecology and the
Environment 9 (2011): 512-20.
Phalan, Ben, Malvika Onial, Andrew Balmford, and Rhys E. Green. "Reconciling Food
Production and Biodiversity Conservation: Land Sharing and Land Sparing Compared."
Science 333, no. 6047 (September 2, 2011 2011): 1289-91.
Porzio, Lucia, Maria Cristina Buia, and Jason M Hall-Spencer. "Effects of Ocean Acidification on
Macroalgal Communities." Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 400, no.
1 (2011): 278-87.
Rands, Michael R. W., William M. Adams, Leon Bennun, Stuart H. M. Butchart, Andrew
Clements, David Coomes, Abigail Entwistle, et al. "Biodiversity Conservation:
Challenges Beyond 2010." Science 329, no. 5997 (September 10, 2010 2010): 1298303.
Rockstrom, Johan, Will Steffen, Kevin Noone, Asa Persson, F. Stuart Chapin, Eric F. Lambin,
Timothy M. Lenton, et al. "A Safe Operating Space for Humanity." Nature 461, no. 7263
(2009): 472-75.
Royal Society. "Ocean Acidification Due to Increasing Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide." Policy
document 12/05, (2005): 1-58. http://royalsociety.org/Ocean-acidification-due-toincreasing-atmospheric-carbon-dioxide/.
RSPO, Roundtable on Sustinable Palm Oil. http://www.rspo.org/.
RTRS, Round Table on Responsible Soy Association. http://www.responsiblesoy.org/.
30 1099 1100 Rudel, Thomas K., Ruth Defries, Gregory P. Asner, and William F. Laurance. "Changing Drivers
of Deforestation and New Opportunities for Conservation
1101 1102 1103 1104 1105 1106 1107 1108 1109 1110 1111 1112 1113 1114 1115 1116 1117 1118 1119 1120 1121 1122 1123 1124 1125 1126 1127 1128 1129 1130 1131 1132 1133 1134 1135 1136 1137 1138 1139 1140 1141 1142 1143 1144 1145 1146 1147 Cambio En Los Factores De Deforestación Y Nuevas Oportunidades De Conservación."
Conservation Biology 23, no. 6 (2009): 1396-405.
Rumbaitis-del Rio, C., J. C. Ingram, and D. Fabrice. "Leveraging Ecological Knowledge to End
Global Poverty." Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 3 (2006): 463.
Sachs, Jeffrey D., Jonathan E. M. Baillie, William J. Sutherland, Paul R. Armsworth, Neville Ash,
John Beddington, Tim M. Blackburn, et al. "Biodiversity Conservation and the Millennium
Development Goals." Science 325, no. 5947 (September 18, 2009 2009): 1502-03.
Sandberg, Audun. "Property Rights and Ecosystem Properties." Land Use Policy 24, no. 4 (10//
2007): 613-23.
Sarmiento, J. L., R. Slater, R. Barber, L. Bopp, S. C. Doney, A. C. Hirst, J. Kleypas, et al.
"Response of Ocean Ecosystems to Climate Warming." Global Biogeochemical Cycles
18, no. 3 (2004): GB3003.
SDSN, Sustainable Development Solutions Network. An Action Agenda for Sustainable
Development. New York: United Nations, 2013. http://unsdsn.org/files/2013/06/130613SDSN-An-Action-Agenda-for-Sustainable-Development-FINAL.pdf.
Selman, M., S. Greenhalgh, R. Diaz, and Z. Sugg. "Eutrophication and Hypoxia in Coastal
Areas: A Global Assessment of the State of Knowledge." In Policy Note, edited by World
Rersources Institute, 1-6, 2008.
Sen, Indra S., and Bernhard Peucker-Ehrenbrink. "Anthropogenic Disturbance of Element
Cycles at the Earth’s Surface." Environmental Science & Technology 46, no. 16
(2012/08/21 2012): 8601-09.
Seppelt, Ralf, Carsten F. Dormann, Florian V. Eppink, Sven Lautenbach, and Stefan Schmidt.
"A Quantitative Review of Ecosystem Service Studies: Approaches, Shortcomings and
the Road Ahead." Journal of Applied Ecology 48, no. 3 (2011): 630-36.
Smith, Val H., and David W. Schindler. "Eutrophication Science: Where Do We Go from Here?".
Trends in Ecology & Evolution 24, no. 4 (4// 2009): 201-07.
Smukler, S. M., S. Sánchez-Moreno, S. J. Fonte, H. Ferris, K. Klonsky, A. T. O'Geen, K. M.
Scow, K. L. Steenwerth, and L. E. Jackson. "Biodiversity and Multiple Ecosystem
Functions in an Organic Farmscape." Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 139, no.
1-2 (2010): 80-97.
Soares-Filho, Britaldo Silveira, Daniel Curtis Nepstad, Lisa M. Curran, Gustavo Coutinho
Cerqueira, Ricardo Alexandrino Garcia, Claudia Azevedo Ramos, Eliane Voll, et al.
"Modelling Conservation in the Amazon Basin." Nature 440, no. 7083 (03/23/print 2006):
520-23.
Solomon, Susan. Climate Change 2007-the Physical Science Basis: Working Group I
Contribution to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Ipcc. Vol. 4: Cambridge University
Press, 2007.
Steffen, Will, Paul J. Crutzen, and John R. McNeill. "The Anthropocene: Are Humans Now
Overwhelming the Great Forces of Nature." AMBIO: A Journal of the Human
Environment 36, no. 8 (2009): 614-21.
Stephens, Carolyn, John Porter, Clive Nettleton, and Ruth Willis. "Disappearing, Displaced, and
Undervalued: A Call to Action for Indigenous Health Worldwide." The lancet 367, no.
9527 (2006): 2019-28.
Stramma, Lothar, Gregory C Johnson, Janet Sprintall, and Volker Mohrholz. "Expanding
Oxygen-Minimum Zones in the Tropical Oceans." science 320, no. 5876 (2008): 655-58.
Food Matters: Towards a Strategy for the 21st Century, 2008.
Stuart, Tristram. Waste: Uncovering the Global Food Scandal. WW Norton, 2009.
31 1148 1149 1150 1151 1152 1153 1154 1155 1156 1157 1158 1159 1160 1161 1162 1163 1164 1165 1166 1167 1168 1169 1170 1171 1172 1173 1174 1175 1176 1177 1178 1179 1180 1181 1182 1183 1184 1185 1186 1187 1188 1189 1190 Sutherland, William J. "Parallel Extinction Risk and Global Distribution of Languages and
Species." Nature 423, no. 6937 (05/15/print 2003): 276-79.
Swift, M. J., A. M. N. Izac, and M. van Noordwijk. "Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services in
Agricultural Landscapes--Are We Asking the Right Questions?". Agriculture, Ecosystems
& Environment 104, no. 1 (2004): 113-34.
Tscharntke, Teja, Alexandra M Klein, Andreas Kruess, Ingolf Steffan-Dewenter, and Carsten
Thies. "Landscape Perspectives on Agricultural Intensification and Biodiversity Ecosystem Service Management." Ecology Letters 8 (2005): 857-74.
Turley, C. "The Other Co2 Problem." openDemocracy.net (2005).
http://www.opendemocracy.net/globalization-climate_change_debate/article_2480.jsp.
USDA, United States Department of Agriculture. "Agriculture Indonesia: Rising Global Demand
Fuels Palm Oil Expansion." (2010).
http://www.pecad.fas.usda.gov/highlights/2010/10/Indonesia/.
WEF, World Economic Forum. "Realizing a New Vision for Agriculture: A Roadmap for
Stakeholders." 2010.
Whitehead, Hal. "Estimates of the Current Global Population Size and Historical Trajectory for
Sperm Whales." Marine ecology progress series 242 (2002): 295-304.
Wilkinson, Bruce H. "Humans as Geologic Agents: A Deep-Time Perspective." Geology 33, no.
3 (March 1, 2005 2005): 161-64.
Williams, Nigel. "Deep Ocean Species Discovered." Current Biology 20, no. 21 (11/9/ 2010):
R909-R10.
Wingenter, Oliver W., Karl B. Haase, Max Zeigler, Donald R. Blake, F. Sherwood Rowland,
Barkley C. Sive, Ana Paulino, et al. "Unexpected Consequences of Increasing Co2 and
Ocean Acidity on Marine Production of Dms and Ch2cli: Potential Climate Impacts."
Geophysical Research Letters 34, no. 5 (2007): L05710.
Wolfe, Martin S. "Crop Strength through Diversity." Nature 406, no. 6797 (2000): 681-82.
Wood, Hannah L, John I Spicer, and Stephen Widdicombe. "Ocean Acidification May Increase
Calcification Rates, but at a Cost." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological
Sciences 275, no. 1644 (August 7, 2008 2008): 1767-73.
WOR, World Ocean Review. Living with the Oceans: A Report on the State of the World’s
Oceans. Hamburg: Maribus, 2010. http://worldoceanreview.com/en/.
Worm, Boris, Ray Hilborn, Julia K. Baum, Trevor A. Branch, Jeremy S. Collie, Christopher
Costello, Michael J. Fogarty, et al. "Rebuilding Global Fisheries." Science 325, no. 5940
(July 31, 2009 2009): 578-85.
WRAP, Waste and Resources Action Programme "The Food We Waste: A Study Ofthe
Amount,Types and Nature of the Food We Throw Away in Uk Households." (2008).
Wunder, S. "The Efficiency of Payments for Environmental Services in Tropical Conservation."
Conservation Biology 21, no. 1 (Feb 2007): 48-58.
Wunder, Sven, Stefanie Engel, and Stefano Pagiola. "Taking Stock: A Comparative Analysis of
Payments for Environmental Services Programs in Developed and Developing
Countries." Ecological Economics 65, no. 4 (5/1/ 2008): 834-52.
Zalasiewcz, J., M. Williams, A. B. Smith, L. T. Barry, A. L. Coe, P. R. Brown, P. Brenchley, et al.
"Are We Now Living in the Anthropocene?". GSA Today 18 (2008): 4-8.
1191 1192 32