ILMC Technnical Review print version with appendices

Transcription

Ministerio de
Medio Ambiente y
Recursos Naturales
CA R IRI
Caribbean Industrial Research Institute
UNCTAD
Recycling of ULAB
in Central America
and the Caribbean
Brian Wilson, ILMC
ILMC
Environmentally Sound Management of ULAB
Environmentally Sound Management of
Used Lead Acid Batteries in Central
America and the Caribbean
Basel Convention
Project Workshop
San Salvador
El Salvador
November 18 – 20 2002
Recycling of ULAB in Central America and the Caribbean
A Technical Review
Brian Wilson
International Lead Management Center
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Ministerio de
Medio Ambiente y
Recursos Naturales
Uses of LAB
§ Automobiles, trucks & buses
CA R IRI
§ Electric vehicles & wheelchairs
§ Standby and peak loading
§ Telephone systems
UNCTAD
ILMC
§ Computer systems – UPS
§ Remote Area Power Supply
§ Domestic power
Uses of Lead Acid Batteries
Lead-acid batteries either start or power cars, trucks, buses, boats, trains, rapid
mass-transit systems, recreational vehicles and electric wheelchairs all over the
globe. The car battery also provides a stable electrical supply to a vehicle’s
electrical system.
During power outages, lead-acid batteries provide quiet, pollution-free emergency
power for critical operations such as air-traffic control towers, hospitals, railroad
crossings, military installations, submarines, and weapons systems. This is when
lead-acid batteries come to the rescue, as enormous arrays of batteries delivering
large amounts of electricity for short periods of time until additional capacity is
added to the grid. In these situations the telephones stay on and this is because
every major telephone company in the world, including mobile telephone service
providers, uses lead-acid batteries as backup power to the telecommunications
systems.
In the office and at home many of you have units to provide an “uninterrupted power
supply” (UPS) for computer systems.
Increasingly in remote areas of the region lead acid batteries are being coupled with
solar panels to store energy generated by the sun during the day to provide
electrical power at night to the local communities.
Furthermore in many parts of the region where electrical power supplies are not
reliable many households keep a 12 volt lead acid battery as a domestic standby
power supply for lighting and television.
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Ministerio de
Medio Ambiente y
Recursos Naturales
CA R IRI
UNCTAD
ILMC
Benefits of Recycling
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
ULAB in approved storage
Saves natural resources
Pb is recovered and reused
Plastic is recycled
Good environmental practice
Reduces exposure risks
No landfill
Protects the future
Creates jobs
Benefits of Recycling
All of the reports documented recovery activities for ULAB ranging from collection
right through to recycling. However, due to the adverse environmental and
occupational health effects widely reported it is important to remind ourselves why
environmentally sound ULAB recycling should be encouraged.
First of all if there is the necessary infrastructure, regulation and financial incentives
to promote recycling, then ULAB would be stored under cover in safe and
environmentally sound conditions.
Valuable resources such as lead and polypropylene and increasingly the battery
acid would be recovered and reused. Such recycling operations represent good
environmental practice, especially for non-ferrous metals as recycled materials
normally require four times less energy to produce than primary commodities and in
the case of lead it reduces the environmental footprint of mining operations.
Well managed recovery operations for ULAB from collection to the production of
refined lead ingots reduce the threat of population lead exposure from the illicit
dumping of ULAB into municipal landfill sites or “backyard” recycling that blights
many communities around the world. In this small way a contribution can be made
to protect the environment for future generations.
In addition there is a social dimension because recycling of ULAB creates jobs and
provides an invaluable income for many small businesses and families.
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Ministerio de
Medio Ambiente y
Recursos Naturales
Methods of Recycling
Formal Sector Informal Sector
CA R IRI
UNCTAD
ILMC
Regulated
Structured
Unregulated
Opportunist
Collectors
Integrated
Scavengers
Fragmented
Recyclers
Reconditioners
Methods of Recycling
The studies readily identify two distinct industrial sectors, that is, the “formal” and “informal”
sectors. Examination of these two sectors shows that the “formal” sector comprises
licensed and regulated businesses, and the “informal” sector is made up from a multitude
of shops and garages, some registered, some not, but all earning a living by whatever
means including legitimate as well as environmentally unfriendly activities.
Those companies in the formal sector are structured with a developed customer and
resource base while those in the informal sector rely on opportunities and good fortune.
This means that the formal sector collect ULAB through an established network of retailers
and suppliers, whereas the informal sector tend to be “scavengers” relying on whatever
can be found wherever that might be.
Two of the main secondary lead smelters in the region are fully integrated companies, in
that, other divisions in the group are battery manufactures and rely on the smelting division
to provide the refined lead. The informal sector do not have a main customer base, but are
somewhat fragmented in their activities, sometimes making fishing weights from lead
recovered from ULAB and on other occasions selling the lead bullion to the battery
manufactures.
In essence the formal sector comprises of organizations that are focused on recycling
ULAB and are almost exclusively part of large corporations or dealerships with
international partners or trading links that require environmentally sound management as a
key business principle. The informal sector, however, is a mixture of some battery retailers
that send the majority of ULAB collected to a licensed recycler while also engaging in
battery reconditioning in small backroom workshops causing acid and lead contamination
of the sanitation system; and others who produce lead bullion by melting and smelting
ULAB without any control mechanisms in the most environmentally unacceptable way.
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Inter-Relationships
Battery
Reconditioner
Unregulated
Recycler
Used Battery
Collection
Battery
Retailer
DUMP
Licensed
Recycler
Battery
Manufacturer
Life Cycle Scenarios of the Lead Acid Battery
It is helpful when considering battery recycling to examine possible life cycle scenarios
in order to determine likely sources of information.
For example:
•
A battery manufacturer will sell a battery to a retailer
•
The retailer will sell the battery to the owner of a vehicle
•
When the battery is “spent” the vehicle owner will need a replacement and he could return
the used battery to the retailer for recycling and a possible discount on the new battery.
•
In which case the retailer will send the battery to a licensed recycler and the recovered
lead will be sold to the manufacturer. The non metal components will also be treated in a
environmentally sound manner, some recycled, others neutralized prior to disposal.
•
A battery manufacturer will sell a battery to a retailer
•
The retailer will sell the battery to the owner of a vehicle
•
When the battery is “spent” the vehicle owner will need a replacement and he could return
the used battery to the retailer for recycling and a possible discount on the new battery.
5
•
In which case the retailer will send the battery to a licensed recycler and the recovered lead
will be sold to the manufacturer. The non metal components will also be treated in a
environmentally sound manner, some recycled, others neutralized prior to disposal.
•
However, the retailer might not take back used batteries and the vehicle owner may have to
take the used battery to suitable used battery collection point.
•
The battery scrap collector will then send the used batteries to the licensed recycler for
recovery of the recyclable materials.
•
However, depending on the prevailing market conditions there might be a better financial
reward for the vehicle owner if the used battery was sold to a battery reconditioner.
Sometimes a reconditioner can reclaim a used battery by cannibalizing another and using
those components with some “life” left in them. These reconditioned batteries will not have
a long life, but often find a ready market amongst the poorest in society.
•
Those “spent” components that the reconditioner cannot reuse are usually sold to an
unlicensed recycler, often referred to as a “backyard” recycler. This secondary lead sector
of the industry is called the “informal” sector, although a more appropriate term would be
“unregulated” as operating practices will rarely conform to sound environmental and
occupational performance standards.
•
In order to establish an accurate picture of the life of a battery in Central America account
must be taken of all of the possible scenarios outlined above.
•
Nevertheless, the informal secondary lead sector will often supply the battery
manufacturers and the licensed recyclers with unrefined lead bullion. Anther outlet for the
lead bullion produced by the informal sector is fishing sinkers.
•
Sometimes the vehicle owner is unable to take a used battery to any recycling collection
point and the battery is disposed of in the nearest municipal “dump”. This scenario not only
poses serious long term problems for the environment, but is a loss of a valuable resource.
•
Where municipal authorities have sorting facilities, any used batteries are segregated and
either sent to the nearest used battery collection point for shipment to a licensed recycler or
directly to the licensed recycler.
•
In many cases, particularly in the developing world, scavengers scouring rubbish dumps for
anything of value will recover the used battery as a saleable recyclable commodity and sell
it to a secondary lead plant, usually an unlicensed recycler.
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Ministerio de
Medio Ambiente y
Recursos Naturales
CA R IRI
UNCTAD
ILMC
Collecting ULAB
Retail Outlets
• Deposit/discount scheme
Garages and Repair Shops
• Exchange for reconditioned LAB
Breakers and Spares Shops
• ULAB removed from vehicles
Scavengers & Community Groups
• Waste dumps and car wrecks
• Houses
Collecting ULAB
There are many ways that ULAB are collected. By far the most efficient is through
the battery retailer where a discount is given against the purchase price of a new
battery provided the customer returns the used battery. In some countries a deposit
has to be paid when a new battery is purchased and is only returned to the
customer when the battery is returned to the retailer for recycling.
However, other sources of ULAB have been identified, in particular garages and
repair shops where new and reconditioned batteries are offered for sale. In the
Caribbean islands there is a thriving second-hand auto trade and thousands of used
Japanese cars are imported into the region every year to be broken up for spares.
Many of these vehicles have a used lead acid battery, which is removed from the
vehicle and shipped to Venezuela for recycling.
Finally there are those in local communities, sometimes in groups, that scavenge
for discarded materials that can be reused or recycled. They will scour waste
dumps, strip abandoned vehicles and wrecks and even collect LAB that have been
used for standby power in domestic houses.
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Medio Ambiente y
Recursos Naturales
Basel Guidelines
Section 3.2 Collecting
CA R IRI
1. Infrastructure
2. Economic incentives
UNCTAD
ILMC
3. Control Measures
ü Do not drain electrolyte
ü Use secure storage
Basel Guidelines for the Recovery of ULAB, Section 3.2 - Collecting
Technical Guidelines for the Environmentally Sound Management of Lead Acid
Battery Wastes were adopted by the Technical Working Group and are to be
considered by the Conference of the Parties (COP) in December. Section 3.2 deals
with Collecting ULAB and the guidelines advocate that:
1. The only way to implement a successful lead acid battery recycling program is to
install an appropriate and efficient lead acid battery collection infrastructure. 2. The
most spontaneous process of ULAB collecting occurs through the dual system of
distribution and collection when manufacturers, retailers, wholesalers, service
stations and other retailing points provide new batteries to users and retain the used
ones to be sent to recycling plants. Such a scheme is sustainable because is is
based on the economic value associated to the lead content of the ULAB.
3. Some control measures must be carried out at the collection points in order to
minimize the risk of accidents that may cause personal injury or environmental
contamination.
Batteries should not be drained at collection points: The drainage of battery
electrolyte poses threats to human health and the environment because:
a) It contains high lead levels as dissolved ions and suspended particles.
b) It is highly acidic and may cause burns to the skin if accidentally spilled.
c) The high acidity of the battery electrolyte is detrimental to plant growth.
ULAB should be stored in a secure compound: to minimize the risk
of accidental spillage, to allow any batteries found to be damaged or leaking to be
contained and to provide a safe workplace.
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Ministerio de
Medio Ambiente y
Recursos Naturales
CA R IRI
UNCTAD
ILMC
ULAB Storage
§ Store on impermeable surface
§ Store batteries upright
§ Store leaking batteries in
sealed 5 gallon plastic drums
§ Provide • water wash down supply
• Drainage and a sump
• PPE/first aid
ULAB Storage
Always store ULAB under cover on flat even impermeable surfaces and if they are
being stored on asphalt or concrete, coat the surface with an acid-resistant epoxy,
fiberglass or plastic coating, otherwise pave the area with upturned concrete filled
heavy polypropylene used battery cases, as “Baterias de El Salvador” have done in
their water treatment plant, in order to create an impermeable surface. Store batteries
upright to prevent leaking from any vent holes or cracked or missing caps.
It is important to inspect and electronically test all ULAB to determine whether battery
could be recharged and reused. This practice is a legitimate and worthwhile activity
because firstly it ensures that any batteries still charged are identified and thereby
reduces the risk of sparking during transit; and secondly it returns some batteries to
the market without the need for recycling while earning the collector additional
income. It is surprising how many batteries that just need recharging are discarded or
dispatched for recycling. I only observed this practice in Mexico City and whilst I am
sure that it is more common than that more collectors should be encouraged to adopt
these practices.
Sealed five-gallon plastic (polyethylene) drums are adequate for storing a leaking or
cracked battery.
Wherever ULAB are stored ensure that there is:
• Water to wash down the storage area and any batteries that are leaking
•
Drainage to an isolated sump to contain any spillage of acid or lead oxide
•
Personal protective equipment (PPE), namely neoprene gloves, safety
glasses, steel capped safety boots/shoes, dust mask, overalls and a first
aid kit with eye wash water bottles. (Also recommend – shower)
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Ministerio de
Medio Ambiente y
Recursos Naturales
CA R IRI
UNCTAD
ILMC
ULAB Storage
The innovative use
of polypropylene
battery cases to
provide an acid
resistant floor at
the Baterias de El
Salvador plant
Ministerio de
Medio Ambiente y
Recursos Naturales
CAR IRI
UNCTAD
ULAB Storage
Covered drainage
channel at the
Comercializadora
de Baterias SA
storage yard in
Mexico City.
ILMC
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Ministerio de
Medio Ambiente y
Recursos Naturales
ULAB Storage
CA R IRI
UNCTAD
ILMC
Local Collection Points
It was evident from the studies that local ULAB collection facilities were not
necessarily easy to manage. ULAB were often stored on open ground at the rear or
the side of a retail shop, or a garage or even a house. Occasionally ULAB were
seen to be stored in the street outside a repair shop. Such storage practices are
most unsatisfactory as acid can leak uncontrollably and children can “play” with the
batteries.
Nevertheless, it is difficult to police or monitor such activities at a local level and in
similar circumstances an idea has been developed in the Philippines to resolve this
problem. The solution adopted in the Philippines was the introduction of wire mesh
cages on wheels. The cages are made of stainless or heavy gauge steel with a
open mesh floor and wheels running on nylon bearings. The cages are chained to
the outside of the shop or garage and the ULAB are placed inside the cage, which
also has a lockable lid to prevent anyone removing a ULAB.
Use of a cage eliminates the risk of the build up of explosive gases and keeps the
ULAB of the ground, enabling any spillage to be seen and the appropriate action to
remove the contamination taken.
The cages can also be used to send the ULAB to the local collection center,
provided they are secured to the inside of the vehicle used for transport. Such use
of the cages also minimizes the need to handle the ULAB, thereby reducing the risk
of accidents and personal injury.
In Manila these cages can be seen positioned adjacent to garages, repair shops
and even in local communities.
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Ministerio de
Medio Ambiente y
Recursos Naturales
CA R IRI
UNCTAD
ILMC
Basel Guidelines
Section 3.3 Transporting
1. Pack the ULAB well
2. Use sealed containers
3. Label the hazardous waste
4. Safety
• Equipment and PPE
• Notify scheduled route
• Trained staff
Basel Guidelines for the Transport of ULAB, Section 3.3 – Transporting
ULAB must be considered as hazardous waste when making arrangements to
transport them to the recycler. Once again the main risk is associated with the
battery electrolyte which may leak from ULAB in transit.
It is therefore vital to package the ULAB in a manner that renders batteries easy to
move mechanically while reducing the risk of any movement during transit to avoid
damaging the battery cases. As a further precaution the guidelines recommend that
the UALB are transported in a sealed shock resistant container that will not leak any
electrolyte in the event of unforeseen leakage.
The vehicle used to transport the ULAB, whether it is a ship a truck or a van, must
be correctly identified, following international conventions and local legislation using
the appropriate symbols and colors to identify the fact that corrosive and hazardous
waste is being transported.
Due regard must be given to safety of those transporting the ULAB and anyone else
who may have to assist in the event of an accident. Each vehicle should have a set
of equipment necessary to combat any simple spillage or leakage problems and
there should be personal protective equipment available to wear. The appropriate
authorities and emergency services should be notified of the transport route and
wherever possible a route should be chosen that minimize the risk of possible
accidents, avoids populated areas or other specific problems.
Finally it must not be forgotten that it is important to train personnel that have to
transport hazardous wastes in emergency procedures, including fire, spillage and
skin burns. It is also essential they they know how to contact local and national
emergency response teams.
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Ministerio de
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Packaging
Auto Mate
Auto Mate
Auto Mate
Auto Mate
Auto Mate
Auto Mate
Auto Mate
Auto Mate
Auto Mate
CA R IRI
Auto Mate
Auto Mate
Auto Mate
Auto Mate
Auto Mate
Mate Mate
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Auto Mate Auto Auto
AutoAuto
MateMate
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UNCTAD
Auto Mate
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ILMC
Auto Mate
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Auto Mate
Packaging
I saw two examples of good practice in the packing of ULAB for transport to the
recycler. Both the companies, “Comercializadora de Baterias SA” in Mexico City
and “Automotive Components Ltd. (ACL) in Trinidad use similar procedures.
Prior to packing it is important to ensure that all the ULAB have the vent caps shut
to avoid spillage during shipping. If possible replace a missing vent cap or seal the
inspection hole. Obtain a selection of caps from your nearest smelter and always
have them readily available. None of the reports commented on what to do with
damaged batteries that might be prone to leaking. From a practical point of view
damaged batteries can be transported with intact batteries if they are properly
contained in sealed plastic containers or drums.
ULAB should be stacked onto wooden pallets or skids no more than four high to
minimize the risk that the stack will become unstable. A sheet of corrugated heavy
duty cardboard is placed between each layer of batteries to reduce movement,
absorb any electrolyte that might spill and prevent the terminal posts from the
batteries puncturing the plastic case of the battery stored above. A sheet of
corrugated heavy duty cardboard is also placed on top of the final layer of ULAB so
that the palletised ULAB can be stored on top of each other.
Finally the whole stack is shrink wrapped in plastic as tight as possible to minimize
any movement during transit. When storing palletised ULAB prior to transportation
or shipment the layers of pallets should not be stacked more than two high.
Working practices at ACL were to the highest safety standards and employees
handling and packing the batteries were wearing personal protective equipment,
including steel toe capped shoes, goggles, dust masks, neoprene gloves and
overalls.
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Ministerio de
Medio Ambiente y
Recursos Naturales
Packaging
CA R IRI
UNCTAD
ILMC
Stacked & shrink wrapped on a skid
Comercializadora de Baterias SA
Mexico City, Mexico
Ministerio de
Medio Ambiente y
Recursos Naturales
Packaging
CAR IRI
UNCTAD
ILMC
Stacked & shrink wrapped on skids
Automotive Components Ltd.
Trinidad and Tobago.
Tobago.
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Ministerio de
Medio Ambiente y
Recursos Naturales
CA R IRI
UNCTAD
ILMC
Recycling Technologies
Rotary Furnace
§ Mexico
Enertec
§ El Salvador
Baterias de El Salvador
§ Dominican Republic
MetaloXsa
Recycling Technologies
The most common smelting technology employed to recycle ULAB in the Region is
the Rotary Furnace or Kiln. It is the chosen technology in Mexico at the Enertec
secondary lead plant in Monterrey, in El Salvador at the Baterias de El Salvador
recycling and battery manufacturing plant just outside San Salvador and in the
Dominican Republic at the MetaloXsa lead oxide and secondary lead plant.
Rotary furnace technology has a long pedigree in the non ferrous metals industry
and is widely used in Europe and the Far East because it is so versatile and can
smelt almost any leaded material including all the refining and battery
manufacturing by-products and flue dusts.
Its only drawback is that the traditional use of soda ash (sodium carbonate) flux
produces a leachable and degradable furnace residue that cannot pass the Toxicity
Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) test and is therefore classified as a
hazardous waste.
However, in recent years Rotary Technology has been given a new lease of life
with the development of charging and smelting procedures that produce an inert
non toxic and non hazardous waste that passes the TCLP test and can be disposed
of safely in landfill sites together with domestic waste. Indeed this is the case in
Monterrey, where Enertec are able to dump their inert and stable furnace residues
in the local non hazardous landfill site.
The two main technologies that enable Rotary furnaces to produce inert and stable
residues are Lead Metal Technologies and Boliden Contech.
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Ministerio de
Medio Ambiente y
Recursos Naturales
CA R IRI
UNCTAD
“Green slag” Process
Rotary Furnace Technology
Secondary & By–Product Materials
• New concept - fully computer
controlled smelting process.
• Unique charge preparation
procedures & smelting process
controls consistently guarantee
non-hazardous residue.
ILMC
Stable and Inert “Green slag”
“Green slag” Process
Over the past 7 years the Mexican based Lead Metal Technologies has developed and
improved the rotary furnace smelting of secondary lead materials to achieve the
production of a non-hazardous “Green Slag” complying with the stringent USA EPA TCLP
standards.
In order to produce a “green slag” existing Rotary Furnaces will need to be re-engineered
with specialized auxiliary equipment and the smelting process controlled by a specially
written Lead Metals Technologies software program, in conjunction with carefully blended
and precise charge materials, including refinery by products and baghouse fume.
(Typically 5 different charge mixes)
The process has been successfully commissioned at leading secondary Lead recycling
operations in Canada, Mexico, Venezuela and Brazil. In fact it is this technology that is
used at the Enertec Smelter in Monterrey.
Joe Littleton
USA Director,
Lead Metal Technologies, Inc.,
New Port Richey,
Nr. Tampa, Florida.
Tel/fax 1 - 727 857 1230
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Ministerio de
Medio Ambiente y
Recursos Naturales
Kaldo Furnace
CA R IRI
UNCTAD
ILMC
Boliden Contech
Kaldo Furnace
Boliden’s Kaldo Process is a based on a rotary furnace design, but the furnace is
angled so that the burner flame can be directed onto the liquid bath. It was primarily
developed for smelting of lead concentrates (sulphides or carbonates), but can also
be used for secondary materials such as ULAB, by products and drosses.
The lead oxides and sulfates are smelted by mixing fluxes and a reducing agent in
the furnace, such as coke breeze, followed by smelting with an oxygen/fuel burner.
The Kaldo furnace’s tilting technology also incorporates oxygen flame enrichment to
reduce smelting cycle times and lower the back pressure on the furnace enabling a
significant reduction in the ventilation requirements.
The technology can be scaled to suit the expected material throughput and has
eliminated the use of soda-based fluxes so that an inert stable slag that passes the
TCLP test is produced.
BOLIDEN CONTECH AB
P.O. Box 745
SE-931 27 SKELLEFTEÅ
Sweden
Tel: +46 910 876 00
Fax: +46 910 890 50
E-mail: [email protected]
Internet: www.boliden.com
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Ministerio de
Medio Ambiente y
Recursos Naturales
Rotary - Center Tapping
Tap hole
CA R IRI
Door
UNCTAD
Burner
ILMC
Tap hole
Rotary Hygiene Control
Whilst the Rotary furnace technology is suited to the smelters in the region some of
the furnaces in use have the tap holes in the center of the furnace drum. This
design does enable the furnace to be completely drained, but at the lead tapping
temperature, fugitive emissions are very difficult to control as the fume rises around
the whole furnace. Employees working in such conditions will be exposed to high
lead in air levels and without respiratory protection could be poisoned. Furthermore
lead fumes that are vented to atmosphere will exposure any populations living or
working close to the smelter to lead contamination.
The fumes can be contained if a large hood is used to completely encapsulate the
furnace. However, such a large hood will restrict the tapping operation and be very
expensive to operate because the electrical demand required to a power the
extraction fans necessary to produce an air flow of at least 1m/s will be expensive.
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Ministerio de
Medio Ambiente y
Recursos Naturales
Rotary – Front End Tapping
Tap hole
CA R IRI
Door
UNCTAD
ILMC
Burner
Tap hole
Rotary Hygiene Control
A relatively inexpensive solution would be reposition the tap holes to the front of the
furnace. This could be done when the refractory brick in the furnace is changed.
The center holes in the drum can be sealed and a new front plate fabricated and
fitted with at least two tap holes 180 degrees apart.
This configuration will allow a ventilation hood located just over the front of the
furnace to efficiently capture any emissions during the tapping operations at a
fraction of the cost of a center tapping hood configuration.
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Ministerio de
Medio Ambiente y
Recursos Naturales
CA R IRI
UNCTAD
ILMC
Tilting Rotary Furnace
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
ü
Quicker charging
Faster tapping
Reduced cycle times
Greater thermal efficiency
Lower noise levels
Reduced maintenance
Improved emission control
The front tapping and hygiene hood configuration has since led to the introduction
of the tilting rotary furnace.
The tilting rotary furnace permits:
•Quicker charging
•Faster tapping as the furnace can be tilted to accelerate the flow of furnace
materials
•Reduced cycle times, not only because of quicker charging and tapping, but also
due to the fact that the burner can now be angled directly into the charge material
during the smelt
•The new burner configuration provides improved thermal efficiency
•This in turn reduces noise levels as the burner does not need some much
compressed air
•Maintenance levels and refractory wear and tear are reduced
•And there is a further improvement in hygiene control as the drum can be angled
towards the ventilation.
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Medio Ambiente y
Recursos Naturales
CA R IRI
UNCTAD
ILMC
Major Engineering Group
An Australian Company, The Major Engineering Group, has developed a
particularly innovative design. Their furnace comprises a refractory lined rotating
cylinder, a swing aside refractory lined charge door with integral burner and flue, tilt
cradle, stationary floor mounted supports, tilting fume hood and control cabinet.
Charging and discharging are both achieved through an opening in the front of the
furnace, thereby eliminating the need for separate tap holes and the time taken to
open and reseal them each cycle.
The charge/discharge door houses the burner and flue which allows the flue gases
to attain a double pass through the furnace further increasing the thermal
efficiency. Opening the door is actuated via a hydraulic actuator which moves
about a pivot located to the side allowing a total rotational travel of 180 degrees.
When closed, the front section is a close fit to the rotating body thus leakage of the
flue gases during normal operation is minimal. The flue canopy is directly mounted
on to the tilt cradle with the duct terminating on the pivot axis so that fumes may
continue to be extracted via a rotating joint throughout the full range of tilt.
Major Engineering Group
The Major Engineering Group (Major) supplies the heavy industrial, mining,
petrochemical, and utilities markets both in Australia and Internationally with a
broad range of products and services (http://www.majoreng.com.au/).
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Medio Ambiente y
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CA R IRI
UNCTAD
ILMC
Dross Engineering Ltd.
Another fine example of an energy efficient double pass furnace and innovative
ventilation system is the Dross Engineering tilting rotary furnace which also angles
the exhaust gases up into the extraction ducting located just above the front end of
the furnace.
Dross Engineering is a Franco-British company dedicated to the design and
manufacture of furnaces and equipment for processing non-ferrous metals. The
team behind Dross Engineering has designed, built and installed over 1100
furnaces worldwide. The tilting rotary furnaces have been developed as a useful
tool for the aluminium, zinc and lead recycling and foundry sectors.
Contact:
John Simpson
Commercial Director
DROSS Engineering
PO Box 5771, Alfreton, Derbyshire DE55 1ZL, UNITED KINGDOM
Tlf: +44(0)1773 528900, Fax: +44(0)1773 528902
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.dross-engineering.com
22
Ministerio de
Medio Ambiente y
Recursos Naturales
CA R IRI
UNCTAD
ILMC
Another example of an energy efficient double pass furnace showing the front
end configuration for the ventilation hood. Note that the exhaust gases from the
furnace will be directed into the ventilation system through a flue located in the
swing door.
Ministerio de
Medio Ambiente y
Recursos Naturales
CAR IRI
UNCTAD
ILMC
This photograph shows the extent of the tilt employed during tapping.
23
Ministerio de
Medio Ambiente y
Recursos Naturales
CA R IRI
Automotive vs Cycling
§ Automotive Battery
• Shallow Cycling, 0% - 20%
• 1 to 2 years life
§ Cycling Lead Acid Battery
UNCTAD
ILMC
• Deep Cycling, 50% - 80%
• 5 – 15 years life
Domestic Use of Lead Acid Batteries
Apart from the possible improvements that could be made to the collection
procedures, the transport arrangements and the recycling facilities, there are other
changes that should be considered that would also have a positive environmental
impact.
Firstly, there are many households in the region that keep a 12 volt car battery for
use in the event of a power failure. Understandably when these batteries are in use
they are invariably run down until the battery is flat and then at the first opportunity
they are recharged. Whilst this might appear to be perfectly normal, an automotive
battery is not designed to be completely discharged.
An automotive battery is designed to provide a short, but powerful, surge of current
to start a vehicle with an effective discharge of no more than 20% of the battery’s
capacity. A deeper discharge only shortens the battery’s useful life. Using an
automotive battery to provide a constant current until virtually flat will mean that
despite the fact that a television and a lighting circuit do not demand high current
output the battery will not normally last more than two years.
If those amongst the population of the region who find it necessary to have a
standby battery were to purchase a “deep cycle” battery, that is one designed and
capable of thousands of deep discharge cycles between 50 and 80% of the
battery’s capacity without shortening its service life, what initially may have been
seen as an expensive battery to purchase, now with a life of between 5 and 15
years is seen as a good investment.
Furthermore, and at a stroke, the recycling burden has been reduced.
24
Ministeriode
de
Ministerio
MedioAmbiente
Ambiente yy
Medio
RecursosNaturales
Naturales
Recursos
CA
AR
R II R
RII
C
CaribbeanIndustrial
IndustrialResearch
ResearchInstitute
Institute
Caribbean
UNCTAD
ILMC
Formalizing the “Informal”
§ Promote retail exchange
§ Add more collection points
§ Extend infrastructure
§ Encourage battery servicing
• Testing
• Maintenance
• Re-charging
Formalizing the “Informal”
Illicit attempts to recover lead from ULAB in fields and backyards together with the unwanted
battery reconditioning undertaken in many repair shops and retail outlets are detrimental to
the environmental and the health of those involved in these activities. Many of the country
reports make recommendations to, promote exchange programs at retail outlets so that a
when a new battery is purchased the ULAB is taken by the retailer to be passed onto to the
recycler. Another idea would be to extend the number of collection points to include gasoline
stations. At the same time the infrastructure necessary to educate the motorist and the
general population to be more discerning in the way that they dispose of ULAB needs to be
strengthened.
Above all every encouragement should be given to those working in the informal sector to
improve the level of service that some outlets and repair shops already provide to the
population.
During a visit to one of the most untidy auto repair and spares shops in Santa Domingo I was
very impressed to observe that when a motorist asked the owner of the shop to inspect his
car battery because he suspected that it needed replacing, the shopkeeper did not sell the
motorist a new or reconditioned battery. Instead, and without being asked by the motorist, the
owner of the shop took out a small battery testing meter and carried out a number of tests on
the battery to determine it state of charge and condition. After some minutes the owner
advised the motorist that the battery was flat, but did not need replacing only recharging. He
then went on to advise the motorist that the most likely reason for the flat battery was that the
alternator on the vehicle was not functioning correctly and therefore not charging the battery
as it should. He suggested to the motorist that he should the vehicle to the auto-electrician to
have the alternator repaired or replaced and then return to the shop to have his battery
recharged. The owner of the repair shop could easily have sold the motorist a new or
reconditioned battery, but he did not and his actions in a small, but significant way help to
extend battery life and reduce the recycling burden.
Accordingly battery testing, maintenance and re-charging should be encouraged. To this end
I have attached some further information to the notes detailing the correct and safe way to
undertake these tasks.
25
Ministerio de
Medio Ambiente y
Recursos Naturales
CA R IRI
UNCTAD
ILMC
LMLA vs VRLA Batteries
§ LMLA
û Can be Reconditioned
û Short life span
üCheap
§ VRLA
üCannot be reconditioned
üUp to 5 years life
û Expensive
Low Maintenance verses Valve Regulated Lead Acid Batteries
Technology can also provide help in reducing the impact of the battery
reconditioners.
Most automotive batteries on sale in the region are the low maintenance or sealed
lead acid battery. These batteries are the mainstay of the industry, but they can be
cut open and reconditioned in back yards and repair shops. They have a short life
of no more than two years, but they are relatively cheap.
The new generation of batteries coming onto the market are the valve regulated
lead acid batteries. Valve regulated batteries normally release very little or no gas
during charge and discharge, as they are designed to operate with a small positive
gas pressure inside the battery casing. These batteries also have their electrolyte
immobilized with some the acid electrolyte is in the form of a gel, in another version
called the “absorbed electrolyte type” the acid is in liquid form, but trapped in a
glass fibre mat between the plates. The slight pressure applied to the battery and
the close proximity of the positive and negative plates enable the battery to deliver
more power per pound or kilo of lead.
However, in terms of their contribution to the demise of the reconditioner the good
news is that the VRLA battery cannot be reconditioned, because once the factory
seal is broken the integrity of the battery design is compromised and it will not
function properly. Furthermore it can provide up to 5 years life against the one or
two years expected from the conventional auto battery. The one drawback is that it
is expensive compared to the low maintenance batteries, but it is anticipated that as
they come into more general use the price will come down.
26
What Is “Green” Technology?
“Green” – No Waste
Clean
Products
Clean
Polluting
Hazardous
Inert Slag
Waste
Waste
So What is “Green” Technology?
This study is about the EMS management of ULAB. The Basel Convention focuses
on the management of wastes, and this includes waste minimization and
elimination. The reports give careful consideration to the management of hazardous
wastes and certainly, there are Lead Industry residues classified as “hazardous”
and these are potentially polluting. Increasingly, however, the industry is producing
“inert” slags, either directly or indirectly, that are non hazardous and can be
considered as a “clean” product.
As both hazardous and inert residues are solid wastes and require landfill. Dumping
solid waste to landfill, even non hazardous wastes, is not sustainable and therefore
cannot be regarded as “green”.
Ideally, a “green” technology is one that consumes all materials involved in the
production process to produce only re-useable or new saleable products without
generating any solid waste that requires disposal to landfill, as already
demonstrated at the Cominco Plant in Canada.
So let us look at some more examples of where the lead industry has introduced
successful “clean” and “green” technologies to address solid waste management
issues.
The first example is the “Green Slag” Process that successfully converts a
secondary smelter from being a producer of hazardous waste to producing an inert
and “clean” residue. The second example will demonstrate how the concept of the
“Green Technology”, producing only saleable “clean” products and no waste, can
be fulfilled through the PLACID Process for recycling used lead acid batteries.
27
Hydrometallurgical Recycling
The PLACID Process
Paste
Melting &
Casting
Leaching
Residue
Washing
Electrowinning
Inert Residue
Purification
99.99% Pb
Ingots
TÉCNICAS
REUNIDAS, S.A. Environmentally Sound Management of ULAB
Bi, Cu, As, Sb...
The PLACID Process
Advances in hydrometallurgical technology for the recycling of used lead acid
batteries promoted by, in particular, the Spanish Company Técnicas Reunidas, are
providing increasingly simple and clean processes.
Essentially following from conventional battery breaking, the paste is leached in
dilute hydrochloric acid in a brine solution to dissolve the lead oxides and
sulphates. The sulphate contamination is removed with lime in a carefully controlled
manner to precipitate a commercial form of Gypsum, which is then removed by
filtration.
Lead powder is then injected into the leachate to precipitate the metallic impurities
such as Cu, Bi, Sn, Ag, As, Sb and so on.
The electrolyte for the two electrodes in the PLACID electrolytic cell are different,
and separated by a membrane that is permeable only to proton ions (H+). On the
cathode, lead chloride is stripped of its lead atom, leaving two negatively charged
chloride atoms, which in turn combine with protons passing through the membrane
from the anode to reform hydrochloric acid, which is returned to the leaching bath
for reuse. The electrolysis deposits lead as dendrites (spongy form of lead). The
dendrites are shaken off, collected and removed from the bath on a semisubmersed conveyor belt. The dendrites are pressed to expel excess electrolyte to
form platelets of pure lead which can be melted in a conventional refining kettle and
cast into ingots of 99.99% pure lead.
28
Ministerio de
Medio Ambiente y
Recursos Naturales
Hydrometallurgical
Recycling
Environmental Benefits
CA R IRI
UNCTAD
ILMC
ü No liquid effluent discharges
ü Leaching residue is inert
ü No SO2 or CO2 emissions
ü Dusts & drosses are recycled
ü Leaded residues can be treated
TÉCNICAS
REUNIDAS, S.A.
Environmental Benefits of the PLACID Process
The Environmental benefits of the PLACID hydrometallurgical process are:
1. There are no liquid effluent discharges and the hydrochloric acid used in the
initial leaching process is regenerated.
2. The process produces half the amount of solid residues compared to
conventional pyrometallurgical recycling and the residue is a saleable
commercial grade lead free Gypsum, suitable for sale to the cement and
construction industry.
3. There are no sulfurous or greenhouse gas emissions from the plant.
4. Any dust or drosses collected during the recycling process can be recycled
through the leaching process.
5. Lead contaminated residues from pyrometallurgical recovery operations and
contaminated soils from abandoned mine sites and disused lead smelters can
be treated using the PLACID process and the lead content removed.
Técnicas Reunidas: http://www.technicasreunidas.es
PLACID Process Project Manager - Carlos F Gomez mailto:[email protected]
29
Ministerio de
Medio Ambiente y
Recursos Naturales
SEMARNAP – Clean
Industry Award
CA R IRI
UNCTAD
ILMC
SEMARNAP – Clean Industry Award
Whenever ULAB are being shipped from one country to another it is incumbent on
those responsible for the export to ensure that the batteries will be recycled in
environmentally sound manner. In a region such as Central America and the
Caribbean it is not an easy matter to visit and inspect a recycling plant. The Basel
Secretariat has recognized this problem and has been considering the introduction
of a certification scheme to verify environmental compliance. Indeed in the
European Community and the Far East more and more companies require ISO
14001 certification as a condition of “doing business”.
Mexico is the largest trading partner of the USA and in an effort to provide American
companies with an assurance of sound environmental performance amongst its
trading partners in 1992 the Mexican Ministry of the Environment, Natural
Resources and Fishing (La Secretaría de Medio Ambiente, Recursos Naturales y
Pesca) or SEMARNAP introduced the “Clean Industry Award”. This is a voluntary
program of environmental audits leading to the “Clean Industry Award”.
Needless to say, ENERTEC in Monterrey were certified in 2001 having satisfied
SEMARNAP that the company’s secondary lead operations complied with the
required environmental standards. As this Award now has International recognition
there is no need for suppliers of ULAB to ENERTEC to visit the plant to ensure
Environmentally Sound Management.
Such a scheme deserves further consideration by the countries in the region as a
means of setting and maintaining high standards of environmental performance.
30
Ministerio de
Medio Ambiente y
Recursos Naturales
Best Practices
§ Collection – El Salvador
CA R IRI
• Baterias de El Salvador
§ Packaging – Trinidad
• Automotive Components Ltd.
UNCTAD
ILMC
§ Recycling – Mexico
• ENERTEC - Monterrey
Best Practices
Finally I would like to say that within the region you have examples of “Best
Practices” at every stage of the cycle in the EMS of ULAB.
Baterias de El Salvador have the most impressive network to collect ULAB in El
Salvador, Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Guatemala.
Automotive Components in Trinidad have the best packaging operation for ULAB.
And the ENERTEC plant in Monterrey is a world class secondary smelter.
I would urge you to share the expertise that you have in the region to raise
standards and improve environmental performance.
31
Example Material Safety Data Sheet for ULAB – Prepared by the ILMC
Material Safety Data Sheet
1.
Identification of Waste Materials and the Company
Product
Used Lead Acid Battery
Product Name
Jack Tarr Automotive Battery
Importer
The Best Recycling Company
Technical/Emergency Support Telephone Numbers
2.
Composition/Information about the Materials in Transit
Main components
Lead, Lead Sulfate, Sulfuric Acid (20%)
Other components
Polypropylene,
3.
Hazard Identification
Lead Acid Battery
Electrical hazard if short circuited.
Battery can produce high current if the positive and
negative terminals are short circuited which can result in
sparks leading to fire hazard.
Maximum Voltage per battery 12 Volts.
Constituents
Lead and Lead Alloys toxic if ingested.
Sulfuric Acid – corrosive. If the battery case is broken
acid leaks can damage skin and eyes on contact.
Damage will also occur if in contact with materials and
clothing.
4. First Aid Measures
Sulfuric Acid
Skin contact – flush with water, seek medical
assistance if contact area is large or blisters form.
Eye contact – flush with plenty of water until medical
assistance is provided.
Ingestion – flush mouth with water – give patient milk or
sodium bicarbonate solution until medical assistance
arrives.
5.
Fire-Fighting Measures
In the event of fire
Keep containers cool by spraying with water
The plastic components may release toxic fumes,
advisable to wear breathing apparatus.
6.
Accidental Release Measures
Damaged batteries
Use goggles, rubber gloves and protective clothing to
prevent direct contact with hazardous substances.
Have eyewash bottle and clean water available.
Put any damaged items into a plastic acid proof
container and identify as a corrosive hazard.
Dilute any spillage with clean water and neutralize with
sodium bicarbonate.
7.
Handling and Storage
Precautions
Store in cool dry conditions out of direct sunlight.
When packed for transport the terminals should always
be protected from short circuit. Do not store with items
that could cause short circuit. Prevent sparks and naked
flames in the vicinity.
Wear protective footwear - the batteries are heavy.
8.
Exposure Control & Personal Protection
Precautions
Do not remove any ULAB from the packing or the
containers.
Wear neoprene cloves when handling the packed
batteries or any of the containers with ULAB.
Wear protective footwear - the batteries are heavy.
9.
Physical and Chemical Properties
Lead-Acid Battery
Some sealed and will not spill, some liable to leak.
Lead
Appearance:
Colour:
Odour:
Flammability:
Density:
Solubility:
Melting Point: ºC (Boiling)
Solid
Silver-grey metal
None
None
11.34
None
327.4 oC
Lead Sulfate
Appearance:
Colour:
Odour:
Flammability:
Density:
Solubility: (15ºC)
Melting Point: ºC (Boiling)
Powder
White
None
None
6.2
40mg/l
1,070
Lead Dioxide
Appearance:
(compressed as solid)
Colour:
Odour:
Flammability:
Density:
Solubility:
Melting Point:(Boiling)
Powder
Brown
None
None
9.4
None
290º C
Sulphuric Acid
Appearance:
Colour:
Odour:
Flammability:
Density:
Solubility:
Melting Point:
Liquid
Colourless
Acidic
None
1.3 approx.
100%
114oC approx. (Boiling)
Plastics
Appearance:
Colour:
Odour:
Flashpoint:
Density:
Solubility:
Softening point
Solid
Various
None
400oC
0.9 – 2.6g.cm3 at 25oC
None
95oC
10.
Lead
Stability and Reactivity
Oxidizes (If battery case split and lead is exposed)
Sulfuric Acid
Corrosive
Plastic
Combustible
11.
Toxicology
Lead and Lead Compounds
Toxic if ingested - seek medical help
Sulfuric Acid
Corrosive and irritant
12.
Environmental
Lead Acid Battery
13.
Recycling
Lead Acid Battery
Do not dispose of battery in household/domestic waste.
Return complete battery for recycling.
Under no circumstances incinerate.
Local regulations apply – consult Environment Agency
for nearest recycling ULAB collection center.
14.
Transport Regulations
Lead Acid Battery
Local/National/International regulations apply.
BW/ILMC/Nov. 2002
NEW CLEAN TECHNOLOGIES TO IMPROVE
LEAD-ACID BATTERY RECYCLING
C. Frías, M. García and G. Díaz
TÉCNICAS REUNIDAS, S.A (R&D Centre)
Sierra Nevada 16, 28830 San Fernando de Henares
Madrid, Spain
INTRODUCTION
Advances in hydrometallurgy promoted by Técnicas Reunidas are providing
increasingly simple and clean means for controlling the entire lead recycling chain.
Used in parallel with pyrometallurgy, these processes allow furnace temperatures to
be reduced to the minimum, fumes and atmospheric pollution are minimised, furnace
slags are digested, and residues (mainly gypsum) are non-toxic and convertible into
marketable products. In addition, the global economy of the process is substantially
improved by reducing operating cost, increasing lead recovery above 99% and
obtaining 99.99% pure lead product. These new PLACID and PLINT processes
provide the cleanest and healthiest practicable means for recycling lead from
batteries.
This paper describes advances in PLACID and PLINT technologies that seem to be
opportune for lead secondary industries in general. They have all been identified by
recent and current work in the Research and Development Centre of Técnicas
Reunidas S.A. (TR) at San Fernando de Henares near Madrid in Spain.
As is usual in hydrometallurgy, lead is extracted with the PLACID process by
electrowinning. But while electrowinning is generally acceptable for the extraction of
valuable metals, the high capital cost of the electrolytic system appeared
disadvantageous to established smelters when compared with the current (and
possibly the future) market price of lead. Electrowinning is superior for plants
producing more than about 20,000 tonnes a year of electrolytic lead. However, one
smelter, who had witnessed the operation of the PLACID pilot plant at TR’s R&D
Centre, suggested that it might be possible to process the electrolyte to precipitate a
pure lead compound that could be fed into a furnace for decomposition or reduction.
TR has since worked on this concept for three years, leading to the definition of the
PLINT (PLacid INTermediate) process described below.
The confidence engendered by this success has caused TR to review its conception
of the scope of hydrometallurgy for lead processing. No longer is the aim to promote
a best hydrometallurgical process, as measured against conventional standards, but
to design processes that best take account of the constraints within which users
operate. The emergence of this confidence can be seen in the chapters that follow.
To complete this presentation, economics of a selected base case are discussed
and results and conclusions are included.
OBJECTIVES
Existing battery recycling technologies present important deficiencies that need to be
revised and adapted to meet the most restrictive environmental regulations and to
reach a sustainable growth model for lead secondary industry in the new century.
Most relevant shortcomings of current technologies are as follows.
·
Many technological inconveniences are due to the usual pyrometallurgical
processing of battery pastes and its associated lead sulphate content. This
sulphate produces sulphurous gases that require costly capture and
neutralisation techniques. Fine fraction of battery pastes generates lead
fumes that need to be retained by using large electro-precipitators and bag
filters.
·
Conventional techniques for battery pastes desulphurisation, based on
sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate, are expensive and produce large
volumes of undesirable sodium sulphate solution, which very frequently is a
waste difficult for handling and disposal.
·
When refined lead quality is needed, addition of sodium hydroxide and
sodium nitrate to refining kettles is a common practise. This technique
generates large amount of drosses containing soluble sodium salts.
·
In addition, sodium carbonate is a quite usual flux for lead smelting, giving
leachable sodium slags, very difficult for disposing of.
·
Lead extraction from battery pastes by smelting requires addition of fluxes
and high temperature (1100 ºC or above) for decomposition of lead sulphate.
The inconvenient that such high temperatures entrain is well understood. On
the contrary, smelting operation would be substantially simplified when freesulphate lead oxide materials are treated.
The proposed new processes intend to deal with all the above mentioned
deficiencies in a reasonable and efficient way, aiming the following objectives:
1. PLACID and PLINT processes intend to complement and improve existing
battery recycling factories, but not to substitute them.
2. Metallic lead components from batteries together lead scraps would be
treated by conventional melting process, while battery pastes would be sent to
hydrometallurgical processing. In this way, sulphurous gases and lead fumes
would be minimised and even eliminated.
3. Not any pastes desulphurisation step is required. Lead sulphate is dissolved
in brine and removed in form of gypsum. Gypsum is an inert residue and,
eventually, could be converted in a commercial by-product.
4. Pure lead is produced when PLACID or PLINT technologies are applied.
Conventional lead refining in kettles is not needed. Sodium based drosses
and sodium leachable slags are avoided.
5. Any produced small amount of fume, drosses and slags are internally
recycled to the hydrometallurgical line. In conclusion, not any toxic solid
residue is generated.
6. Both processes run in a closed brine circuit. The water balance is controlled
by evaporation, if necessary. In conclusion, not any liquid effluent does exist.
7. When PLACID or PLINT processes are used in parallel to a lead smelting
plant, both alloyed and pure lead quality are produced. Alloyed lead would be
converted to grids or other battery components, while pure lead would be
ideal for new battery pastes manufacturing. In this way, lead secondary chain
would be closed in an efficient manner, ensuring a sustainable growth model
without additional needs of primary lead.
8. Other important advantage for obtaining pure lead would be manufacturing of
longer life batteries, reducing significantly the yearly recycling tonnage of lead.
For instance, by increasing one year the average service life of a battery in
Europe, annual tonnage of recycled batteries would be 20% reduced,
approximately, with the subsequent positive effects on environment, energy
saving and sustainability.
ELEMENTS OF PROCESS DESIGN
Proposed new processes design is conceptually very simple, easy to be understood
and very efficient from chemical and energetic points of view. Those processes
include a series of properly combined unit steps. Description of each individual stage
is as follows.
Hydrometallurgy and Pyrometallurgy
In espousing hydrometallurgy as its speciality, TR is not contemptuous of
pyrometallurgy the processing of materials in furnaces, the advantages of which are
fully recognised, but hydrometallurgy is cleaner, more exact, and more easily
controlled for treating battery pastes, lead fumes and drosses, etc.
Pyrometallurgy is ideal for metallic lead components treatment, but present many
disadvantages when is applied to battery pastes processing. Hydrometallurgy makes
it easier.
Proposed hydrometallurgical processes are cleaner in themselves, and in combined
cycle plants they can be used to reduce furnace temperatures also, so reducing the
energy demands and environmental impact of smelting, and increasing the
productivity of any existing pyrometallurgical plant.
It should be remarked that aim of PLACID and PLINT technologies is to complement
existing battery recycling plants, yielding the best synergy and complementing both
‘pyro’ and ‘hydro’ lines.
Leaching
This is the initial step in which all accessible soluble lead in the feedstock is
selectively dissolved. Feed materials to hydrometallurgical processes is varied,
including battery pastes (principal feed material) together lead fume, drosses and
slags. Also a small portion of lead sulphide concentrate could be fed. Even more, old
slags deposits and lead contaminated soils could also be treated.
Lead dissolution efficiency is very high. When, in a PLACID-Pyro or PLINT-Pyro
combined process, the measured extraction rate was 99.5% overall, this was
because the leaching process extracted available lead from slags and other products
already rejected by the furnace operation.
The composition of the leachant is dilute hydrochloric acid in brine solution, which
has the ability of dissolving lead oxides and lead sulphate in an efficient manner. In
the two final campaigns of PLACID pilot plant operation, leaching efficiency from
representative battery pastes/fumes mixtures was 99.4 to 99.7% after treating above
fifteen tonnes of feed materials.
Main involved reactions are:
PbO + 2 HCl + 2 NaCl
(1)
®
PbCl4Na2 + H2O
Pb + PbO2 + 4 HCl + 4 NaCl
(2)
®
2 PbCl4Na2 + 2 H2O
PbS + 4 PbO2 + 8 HCl + 12 NaCl ®
5 PbCl4Na2 + Na2SO4 + 4 H2O
(3)
PbSO4 + 4 NaCl
®
PbCl4Na2 + Na2SO4
(4)
Na2SO4 + 2 HCl + Ca(OH)2
®
CaSO4 + 2 NaCl + 2 H2O
(5)
In the case of PLACID process, hydrochloric acid is regenerated in the electrolytic cells,
so just lime is the only consumption. When PLINT process is applied, make-up acid
addition is necessary, so sulphuric acid can replace hydrochloric acid because its lower
cost.
Sulphate Removal
Not any previous battery pastes desulphurisation step is necessary, avoiding
generation of undesirable sodium sulphate solution. Pastes from battery breaker are
fed as well to the hydrometallurgical processes. Drying is not required.
In this case in which sulphur is present in lead sulphate the preference is for a
reaction with lime (about the cheapest material suitable for this purpose) to form
gypsum, which is then removed by filtration.
TR has developed techniques whereby the gypsum can be produced pure in any of
its three morphologies (hydrated, hemi-hydrated and anhydrous) to suit market
demands. Therefore, obtained gypsum residue could be converted to commercial
gypsum products, if commercially feasible. The real benefit in this is not having to
pay for its disposal.
Purification
Used purification technique is very simple and involves injecting lead powder into the
leachant or electrolyte to enable an electrochemical reduction of metal impurities
more noble than lead. The purification reaction is:
MeCln + n/2 Pb0
®
n/2 PbCl2 + Me0
(6)
“Me” means any metallic impurity such as Cu, Bi, Sn, Ag, As, Sb...
The leachant is then filtered to remove the cement. The efficiency of this process is
good enough to produce a pure electrolyte that ensures ‘four-nines’ lead final
product. Of course, the concentration of impurities in the electrolyte does not
translate directly to the concentration of impurities in the lead because competitive
electrodeposition.
Metallic lead content of the cement is above 90%, so this cement is re-melted and
absorbed into secondary alloyed or other commercial grades of lead in the factory.
Lead Extraction Steps
Electrowinning
The PLACID electrolytic cell is the core of this technology. The electrolyte for the two
electrodes the anode and the cathode are different, and are separated by a
membrane that is permeable only by proton ions (H+). On the cathode, lead chloride
is stripped of its lead atom, leaving two chloride atoms which are negatively charged.
These negatively charged chloride atoms combine with protons passing through the
membrane from the anode to reform hydrochloric acid that is returned to the leaching
bath for reuse.
Main electrochemical reactions are as follows:
Cathodic:
PbCl2 + 2 e-
®
Pbo + 2 Cl-
(7)
Anodic:
H2O - 2 e-
®
2H+ + ½ O2
(8)
GLOBAL:
PbCl2 + H2O
®
Pbo + 2 HCl + ½ O2
(9)
The design of this cell is unusual: instead of depositing lead on to metal plates, as is
conventional, electrolysis deposits lead as dendrites or sponge, which are
subsequently shaken off and collected on a conveyor belt. Immediately after leaving
the electrolyte, the dendrites are pressed to express the liquid and to form platelets
of pure lead which can then be conveyed to a kettle for casting into ingots.
There is no special virtue in the conventional practice of depositing the lead on to
plates: the plating process must be interrupted periodically while plates are replaced,
and there is no application for lead in the form of discrete thin flat plates.
There are important cost and convenience virtues, by contrast, in depositing lead as
dendrites or sponge because then the amperage can be increased by a factor of
between 4 and 10, greatly reducing the number of electrolytic cells that must be
provided for a given throughput of lead product. And the whole of the extraction
process can be run continuously, without interruption. Labour for cathode stripping
and replacement is not needed.
Electrowinning is a capital-intensive process largely because of the electrical
transformers and rectifiers needed and although direct operating costs are lower
than for pyrometallurgical extraction processes, the amortisation costs are not
insignificant. Electrowinning is most advantageous for large plants.
It is strongly recommended that advantage be taken of the cost reduction made
possible by use of combined cycle generating plant. Electricity would be used for
electrowinning and motors while waste heat from the engine can then be used to
maintain leachant temperatures at appropriate levels (typically about 80º C) and
effect drying and evaporation where required.
Pure Lead Oxides Smelting
In the case of the PLINT process, a pure lead hydroxide (oxides) or lead carbonate
concentrate is produced from purified pregnant solution. Various reagent or a
combination of them can be used, depending on local price, availability and process
constrains.
PbCl4Na2 + Ca(OH)2
®
Pb(OH)2 + 2 NaCl + CaCl2
(10)
PbCl4Na2 + 2 NaOH
®
Pb(OH)2 + 4 NaCl
(11)
PbCl4Na2 + Na2CO3
®
PbCO3 + 4 NaCl
(12)
This concentrate should be sent to smelting in furnace or kettle. Pyrometallurgical
treatment of this lead concentrate would be quite simple and efficient because only
some reductant addition is required.
A low temperature would be enough and the amount of energy that must be provided
to heat a charge is low in comparison to present operation, and the time taken to
smelt this charge is substantially reduced. The existing ‘pyro’ facilities would have
some over-capacity to increase actual production.
PLACID AND PLINT PROCESSES
The PLACID Process
Much about this process has already been described in previous sections. The
conceptual block diagram is shown in Figure 1.
The leachant is dilute acid brine, and the desulphurisation sequence is quite
interesting. The lead sulphate reacts with salt to form lead chloride and sodium
sulphate, and the sodium sulphate then reacts with hydrochloric acid and lime to
yield the gypsum, at the same time reforming salt ready for reuse in the leachant.
Because hydrochloric acid is regenerated in the electrowinning section, just lime is
the only consumption.
Different feed materials would be suitable for this process besides battery pastes,
e.g. lead fume, drosses and slags, even a small fraction of lead sulphide
concentrate.
Pilot plant development in the laboratories of the R&D Centre was carried out in
several campaigns (above 1000 hours total operation), during which 10 tonnes of
pure electrolytic lead were produced. Energy consumption was 0.9 kWh/kg Pb.
Representative samples of electrolytic lead gave above 99.99% Pb, containing 3
ppm Cu, 6 ppm Sb, 2 ppm As, 1 ppm Sn, 2 ppm Bi. Those data likely would be
improved in a continuous industrial plant.
PLACID process would be perfectly integrated if it were used in parallel with a
pyrometallurgical smelter. In this way, any lead fumes, drosses and slags from the
pyrometallurgical line can be passed to the leaching bath of PLACID line, and the
cements from the purification step to be fed into the furnace. Important gaining would
be obtained from environmental, process efficiency, product quality and economics
points of view.
PASTES
Lime
Leaching
Electrowinning
Sulphate
Removal
Purification
Inert Residue
(Gypsum)
Melting and
Casting
99.99 LEAD INGOTS
Lead
Powder
Lead Cement
(Bi, Cu, As, Sb)
Figure 1 – PLACID Process. Conceptual Block Diagram
The PLINT Process
A conceptual block diagram is shown in Figure 2. As can be seen by comparison of
the both PLACID and PLINT block diagrams, the only difference in principle is in the
substitution of a precipitation step for electrowinning. In the subsequent kettle, the
lead hydroxide product is first decomposed and then reacted with hard coal to obtain
pure lead. All that takes place at a temperature much lower than is required by
current smelting process.
Because the leaching and purification processes are unchanged, the leaching
efficiency of this process and the purity of the lead produced should be the same as
in the PLACID process.
The PLINT process needs addition of acid make-up, so sulphuric acid can replace
hydrochloric acid because its lower cost. Any sulphuric acid is converted to gypsum.
Obviously, it would be possible to integrate a PLINT process line with a
pyrometallurgical line, creating a system similar to that in the PLACID-Pyro process,
but to give the division of 99.99+% purity lead and recycled lead it would then be
necessary to have separate, dedicated kettles or furnaces.
PASTES
H2SO4
Lime
Leaching
Lead
Precipitation
Low Temperat.
Smelting
Melting and
Casting
Lime
Sulphate
Removal
Purification
99.99 LEAD INGOTS
Inert Residue
(Gypsum)
Lead
Powder
Lead Cement
(Bi, Cu, As, Sb)
Figure 2 – PLINT Process. Conceptual Block Diagram
Development of these new PLACID and PLINT processes has proceeded to the
stage where a demonstration plant is needed.
ECONOMIC EVALUATION
PLACID Process
Selected Base Case for final feasibility study included the following conditions:
a) The new PLACID plant would be annexed to an existing battery recycling
plant. Global lead recovery of the combined PLACID-Pyro plant would be
above 99.5%.
b) Lead production would be 20,000 t/y electrolytic lead, 99.99 purity. Feed
materials would be 27,500 t/y battery pastes and 2,500 t/y fumes and slags.
c) The energy consumption has been optimised. After a detailed study about
electricity cost optimisation it was decided to implement a co-generation
energetic plant by natural gas to supply electricity and heat to the process. It has
been a very attractive option, reducing substantially the operating costs.
The basic engineering of the base case has been developed in detail, performing
material and heat balances. Operating costs were estimated from the previous
information. Main consumption are shown in the Table I. The most important cost is
natural gas for the co-generation plant.
Table I. PLACID Process Consumption
Concept
Lime kg/t Pb
Sodium Hydrosulphide, kg/t Pb
Process Water, m3/t Pb
Natural Gas, Mcal/t Pb
Value
143
1.5
2.2
1,625
An operating cost break down at current prices in Spain is depicted in Table II in US
Dollars at the prevalent exchange rate, 170 PTA per USD. A 10% contingency factor
has been allowed. Residue disposal cost has been included, assuming that gypsum
was not sold; obviously this would be the worst scenario.
Table II. PLACID Operating Cost Break Down
Concept
Consumable
Reagents
Residue disposal
Labour
Maintenance
Contingency
TOTAL
$/t Pb
30.8
9.2
20.0
36.0
16.3
12.0
124.3
The estimated total investment cost, based on good practice engineering standards
with a +25% contingency factor, is 19.0 Million USD, including co-generation plant
investment. The high contingency factor makes this study fairly conservative.
The PLINT Process
A similar Base Case has been selected for PLINT process, according to the following:
a) The new PLINT plant would be annexed to an existing battery recycling plant.
Global lead recovery of the combined PLINT-Pyro plant would be above
99.5%.
b) Production would be about 23,000 t/y lead concentrate (oxides or carbonate),
containing 20,000 t/y lead, 99.99 purity. Feed materials would be 27,500 t/y
battery pastes and 2,500 t/y fumes and slags.
In a similar approach to PLACID, the basic engineering of the PLINT base case has
been developed in detail. Operating costs were estimated based on material and
energy balance.
Main consumption is presented in Table III.
Table III. PLINT Process Consumption
Concept
Lime kg/t Pb
Sulphuric Acid, kg/t Pb
Lead Powder, kg/t Pb
Process Water, m3/t Pb
Electricity, MWh/t Pb
Value
520
320
40
1.5
0.1
Operating costs are presented in Table IV in US Dollars at the prevalent exchange rate,
170 PTA per USD. A 10% contingency factor has been allowed. Higher cost is
corresponding to reagents make-up consumption. Residue disposal cost has been
included, assuming that gypsum was not sold; obviously this would be the worst
scenario. Low temperature smelting cost is not included in this estimation.
Table IV. PLINT Operating Cost Break Down
Concept
Consumable
Reagents
Residue disposal
Labour
Maintenance
Contingency
TOTAL
$/t Pb
32.1
40.2
20.0
20.5
9.5
13.0
135.3
The estimated total investment cost, based on good practice engineering standards
and with a +25% contingency factor, is 7.1 million USD. The high contingency factor
makes this study fairly conservative.
Profitability
Based on the above operating and investment costs, several DCF (discount cash flow)
calculations have been carried out.
IRR (internal rate of return) in the range 16% to 28% have been worked out, which
indicates that both PLACID and PLINT processes are very economically attractive.
CONCLUSIONS
When PLACID or PLINT hydrometallurgical processes would be implemented in
parallel to any existing pyrometallurgical battery recycling plant, the whole
environmental, technical and economic aspects of the integrated plant would be
substantially improved.
The proposed new processes are simple, efficient, very flexible and profitable, which
make them ideal for being adapted to the customer needs and local requirements.
The final evaluation study of both PLACID and PLINT processes, applied to a
selected Base Case producing 20,000 t/y 99.99% lead presents very satisfactory
results, which will facilitate their industrial implementation in a short term period. The
availability of this technology has opened a window of opportunity for lead secondary
industries, and inquiries are invited.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The European organisations that have developed the PLACID Process into the BriteEuram Programme show their gratitude to the European Community for its
encouragement, support and partial funding of the project.
REFERENCES
1. “Proceso PLACID: Recuperación del Plomo de Pastas de Plomo”, Internal
Report No. ITR/P4618/005/1988.
2. “Proyecto de Planta de Producción de 25.000 t/a de Plomo por el Proceso
LEADCLOR”,
Internal
Reports
No.
ITR/P4628/029/1988
and
ITR/P4650/017/1991.
3. D. Martín and G. Díaz, "Hydrometallurgical Treatment of Lead Secondaries
and/or Low Grade Concentrates; The PLACID and the LEADCLOR
Processes", Conference organised by ILZSG on Recycling Lead and Zinc-The
Challenge of the 1990's, Rome, Italy, 1991, 315-336.
4. R. D. Prengaman, “Recovering Lead from Batteries”, Journal of Metals, Vol.
47, 1995, 31-33.
5. G. Díaz, “Lead Recycling”, Letter Journal of Metals, June 1995, 3-4.
6. G. Díaz, C. Frías, L.M. Abrantes, A. Aldaz, K. van Deelen, and R. Couchinho,
“Lead-Acid Battery Recycling by the PLACID Process - A Global Approach”,
TMS Third International Symposium on the Recycling of Metals and Materials,
Point Clear, Alabama, 1995, 843-856.
7. G. Díaz and D. Andrews, “Placid - A Clean Process for Recycling Lead from
Batteries”, Journal of Metals, Vol. 48, 1996, 29-31.
8. G. Díaz and D. Andrews, “Placid Lead for Batteries”, Batteries International,
April 1996, 73-74.
9. C. Frías, M.A. García and G. Díaz, "Industrial Size Placid Electrowinning
Cell", TMS Annual Meeting at Orlando, Florida, USA, Aqueous
Electrotechnologies: Progress in Theory and Practice, D.B. Dreisinger Ed.,
1997, 101-113.
Vehicle Jump Starting
Before carrying out any work on the electrical system
beyond the battery, the air bag system must be electrically
disabled. Never indiscriminately probe
the electrical wiring/connector in the vicinity of the
steering column.
The wiring and harness connector of most air bag systems
are bright yellow; do not interfere with any harness of this
colour. As an added safety measure it
is recommended
that no person should remain seated behind the steering
wheel while any electrical service work is carried out on
the vehicle.
WARNING
Modern vehicles with electronic management systems
should not be jump started without “protected” jump
starter leads and it is necessary to refer to the owner’s
handbook for jump starting procedures for such vehicles.
Vehicle Jump Starting procedure is as follows and should
be followed carefully:
• Check batteries are the same voltage.
• Turn off all electrical loads, check vehicles are not
touching and are in park or neutral.
• Check that vehicles have same terminal earthed. If not,
refer to manufacturers instructions.
• Check that cables are not frayed or damaged.
• Carry out following steps in sequence:
1. On negative grounded system, connect both ends of
one cable to positive (+) terminal of both batteries.
2. Connect one end of other cable to negative (-)
terminal of booster battery.
3. Connect other cable away from battery, to engine block
or car frame of vehicle to be started.
4. Make sure cables are away from fan blades and other
moving vehicle parts.
5. Start engine of booster car.
6. Attempt to start engine of vehicle with
discharged battery.
7. If vehicle does not start within 30 seconds, call an
auto electrician.
8. After starting, remove cables in reverse order, starting
with one connected to engine block or car frame.
GENERAL PRECAUTIONS:
1. Make sure the engine, lights and any accessories are
turned off before removing old battery.
2. Check if vehicle has a computerised electrical system.
3. Vehicles with on board computer systems require an
alternative power source to maintain electronic
memory when battery is disconnected.
4. Disconnection of the battery on such a vehicle may
cause damage to the main computer or other segments
of the vehicle’s electronically controlled equipment,
without a memory minder.
Charging Batteries
Before attempting to charge a battery, be aware of all the safety
precautions you should observe during the charging operation.
• Always turn the charger off before attaching, rocking, or
removing the terminal clamps.
• Keep vent caps in place.
• Keep open flames and sparks away from the battery.
• Charge in well ventilated area.
• Follow the battery charger manufacturer’s instructions.
Specific charging rates or times are difficult to detail due to a
number of other features such as:
1. The electrical capacity of the battery.
2. Temperature of the electrolyte.
3. Battery state of charge at the start of the charging period.
4. Battery age and condition.
Battery Charging Guide
REMOVAL OF OLD BATTERY:
1. Note location of positive terminal and mark polarity on
positive cable. Remove the ground terminal first. This
precaution is necessary to avoid damage to wiring and
the battery by accidentally grounding tools.
2. Remove second terminal. Undo hold down and
remove battery.
NEW BATTERY INSTALLATION:
1. Inspect tray and area for corrosion.
If necessary, scrub the area with water and baking
soda and rinse with water.
2. Corroded steel parts should be dried and painted
with acid proof paint. Terminals should be cleaned
and brushed.
3. Cable and starter motor connections should be
checked and tightened if necessary.
4. If terminal clamps or cables are badly corroded, they
should be replaced.
5. Place the new battery in the tray ensuring it sits
level and that terminal posts are positioned as for
the old battery.
6. Place and tighten hold downs securely so that the
battery cannot move in the tray.
7. Apply a thin coating of high temperature grease to the
posts and cable connections.
8. Replace cables ensuring that the ground terminal
is connected last. Tighten connections.
NB: Do not over tighten.
Never hammer cable connections onto battery posts, as
this can damage the battery posts and cover.
New Battery Installation
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Vehicles fitted with an Air Bag:
Removal or replacement of battery terminals will not
unintentionally trigger an air bag system. However
removal of battery terminals with the ignition remaining
“on” can cause damage to electronic components,
including the SRS.
Always check to ensure that the ignition is “off” before
removing either of the battery terminals.
Battery Safety
• EXPLODING BATTERY:
Batteries generate explosive gases during vehicle operation
and when charged separately.
Flames, sparks, burning cigarettes or other ignition sources
must be kept away al all times.
• ALWAYS SHIELD EYES WHEN WORKING
NEAR BATTERIES:
• BATTERY ACID CAN CAUSE BURNS.
Use extreme care when handling acid.
If electrolyte is spilled or splashed onto clothing or the body, wash
with water and neutralise with a solution of baking soda and water.
Electrolyte splashed into eyes is extremely dangerous. If this occurs,
gently open eyes and wash with cool clean water for 5 minutes. Call
a doctor.
• IF ELECTROLYTE IS SWALLOWED:
Drink large quantities of water or milk and follow with milk of
magnesia, beaten eggs or vegetable oil. Call a doctor.
If it is necessary to prepare electrolyte:
Always add concentrated acid to water - never water to acid. Store
electrolyte in plastic containers with sealed cover.
Do not store in the sun.
8
9
When charging batteries, work in a well ventilated area - never
in a closed room. Always turn battery charger or ignition off
before disconnecting a battery.
BOSCH IS ENVIRONMENTALLY CONSCIOUS
Every Bosch battery now carries the Recycle Logo.
It’s a fact that up to 97% of each Bosch battery is recyclable,
meaning Bosch takes environmental issues seriously. Bosch
prides itself on being a good corporate
citizen. Today’s customers will find our
concern very reassuring and they can
choose Bosch with confidence.
Why did the battery fail?
Century Yuasa in January 1995. A battery date coded M4
was dispatched by Century Yuasa in December 1994 etc.
A
January
G
July
B
February
H
August
C
March
J
September
D
April
K
October
E
May
L
November
F
June
M
December
FACTORS AFFECTING BATTERY LIFE
It is important that the reason
for any battery failure is
identified, as a battery
replacement may only solve the
symptom of the problem.
BATTERY INSPECTION
Check electrolyte level - fluid below the tops of the
separators indicates overcharging or poor maintenance.
Overcharge condition may be due to incorrect voltage
setting, low voltage caused by heat or internal defects, or
old age deterioration. Is there electrolyte on the top of
the battery? This can indicate overcharging or over filling.
Is the battery loose in the carrier? This can cause failure
from vibration. Has the battery signs of damage or
mistreatment? This can also cause failure.
DISCHARGED (FLAT) BATTERIES
A flat battery should be checked with a Hydrometer. A low
Specific Gravity reading of 1.220 or less, in all cells
indicates a discharged battery and it must be charged
before further examination and testing can occur.
The discharged condition may be due to a problem in the
electrical system (slipping alternator belt, poor voltage
regulator, faulty alternator, high resistance due to
corrosion). Internal shorts may also be due to
manufacturing defects, or shorts through the aging
process or vibration damage.
OLD AGE
Batteries have an average age of 2-3 years. Assessment of
the life of the battery can be done by checking the sale
code of the battery terminal. Bosch Batteries have a code
which uses a letter and a number.
Numbers are 0-9
Example: A battery date coded A5 was dispatched by
Automotive batteries have an average ‘life’ of 2-3 years.
Over that age they gradually lose their capacity as their
function is performed. They constantly charge and
discharge which eventually leads to failure.
Components corrode over time, electrical shorts occur in
the battery, vibration causes damage that eventually causes
failure. Overcharging and undercharging of a battery will
also have a bearing on battery life.
Try to follow charging procedures correctly. Battery
servicing as detailed, helps extend battery life. Batteries
fail when least expected.
The usual warning is a slower than normal battery ability
to crank the engine but other less noticeable factors such
as changed driving patterns (holidays), colder or hotter
weather will all have an effect on the life of a battery.
Encourage your customers to ask for a ‘FREE Battery
Test’. It’s good public relations and if the battery is old it
may lead to a sale.
IS BATTERY REPLACEMENT
NECESSARY?
A percentage of batteries, allegedly faulty, are merely “flat”
or discharged so the battery (and sometimes the vehicles
electrical system) needs to be checked - refer battery test
procedures and installation.
GENERAL BATTERY INFORMATION
• Vehicle batteries last for an average of 2-3 years. They
wear out like tyres and need to be replaced.
• Vibration can reduce a battery life. Bosch starting
batteries have Polyethylene Envelopes around each
positive plate which catch active material and help
to prevent short circuits thereby ensuring long
battery life.
• Many alleged ‘dead batteries’ are merely flat batteries.
Drivers simply leave lights on or can have faulty voltage
regulators. Make sure you go through the warranty
procedure check thoroughly before replacing a battery.
• It’s impossible to know exactly when a battery might
fail. A slow starting engine could be a fair indication.
Old batteries can give trouble in colder weather.
Equally, if an engine area becomes overheated in very
hot weather and the battery is under strain from air
conditioners it may fail.
• Regular battery checks are always advised.
10
Stock storage and
rotation procedure
Proper stock management and rotation procedures are
essential to ensure only first class stock is presented for
sale to customers.
• Batteries are a perishable product with limited shelf life.
• Stock them upright in a cool place.
Do not store in direct sunlight.
Charged batteries displayed in the sun will require
recharge within 6-8 weeks.
• Do not over stock as this will cause a rotational problem,
and require additional battery service to maintain the
battery in saleable condition.
• Rotate stock on a ‘First in - First out’ principle. Place
older batteries at the front of your display.
Battery Servicing
Battery servicing can be carried out during vehicle servicing
or during a normal refuelling stop. Routine servicing of the
battery should include the following:
1. Check for defective cables, loose connections, corrosion,
cracked cases or covers, loose hold downs and deformed
or loose terminal posts.
2. Correct if possible, replace or repair
parts that are damaged.
3. Where there is corrosion on the terminal posts or on hold
down trays, it is recommended that the whole area be
neutralised, cleaned and painted. This can be done using
a wire brush, paint scraper and a solution of water and
bicarbonate of soda (Baking Soda).
4. Check the electrolyte level. If it is below the separator
tops, add clean distilled or good quality water to bring it
back to the correct level. Never over fill cells as this will
cause corrosion.
How to select the right
battery for the vehicle
Modern vehicles require more power than ever before.
Electronic ignitions and management systems in modern
vehicles require the battery voltage to be maintained at a
higher percentage of charge to that of a few years ago. With
all the original manufacturer equipment, plus added
optional equipment, it is very important to fit the correct
replacement battery, with an adequate reserve.
11

ILMC Technnical Review print version with appendices

Transcription

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