Materials Analysis of a Japanned Long Case Clock

Materials Analysis of a Japanned Long Case Clock
Kate Helwig
Journal of the Canadian Association for Conservation (J. CAC), Volume 26.
© Canadian Association for Conservation, 2001.
This article: © Canadian Conservation Institute (http://www.cci-icc.gc.ca/copyright_e.aspx) of the Department of
Canadian Heritage, 2001.
Reproduced with the permission of the Canadian Conservation Institute.
Photographs of the japanned long case clock were reproduced with the permission of the Royal British Columbia
Museum Corporation.
J.CAC is a peer reviewed journal published annually by the Canadian Association for Conservation of Cultural
Property (CAC), 207 Bank Street, Suite 419, Ottawa, Ontario K2P 2N2, Canada; Tel.: (613) 231-3977; Fax:
(613) 231-4406; E-mail: [email protected]; Web site: http://www.cac-accr.ca.
The views expressed in this publication are those of the individual authors, and are not necessarily those of the
editors or of CAC.
Journal de l'Association canadienne pour la conservation et la restauration (J. ACCR), Volume 26.
© l'Association canadienne pour la conservation et la restauration, 2001.
Cet article : © Institut canadien de conservation (http://www.cci-icc.gc.ca/copyright_f.aspx), Ministère du
Patrimoine canadien, 2000.
Reproduit avec la permission de l’Institut canadien de conservation.
Les photographies de l'horloge de parquet laquée ont été reproduite avec la permission de la Corporation du Royal
British Columbia Museum.
Le J.ACCR est un journal révisé par des pairs qui est publié annuellement par l'Association canadienne pour la
conservation et la restauration des biens culturels (ACCR), 207, rue Bank, bureau 419, Ottawa (Ontario) K2P
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Les opinions exprimées dans la présente publication sont celles des auteurs et ne reflètent pas nécessairement celles
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27
Materials Analysis of a Japanned Long Case Clock
Kate Helwig
Analytical Research Laboratory, Canadian Conservation Institute, Department of Canadian Heritage, 1030 Innes Road, Ottawa ON
K1A 0M5, Canada.
This paper describes the scientific analysis of the original materials of an eighteenth-century japanned long case clock from the
collection of the Royal British Columbia Museum in Victoria, British Columbia. Analysis showed that the wood was prepared with
a thick gesso layer composed of calcium carbonate (chalk) in a protein medium. This white ground was followed with a single
application of an opaque, light blue layer pigmented with indigo, lead white, and calcium carbonate, also in a protein medium. The
coloured japanned layers, applied on top of the light blue layer, are composed of translucent layers of smalt in a natural resin
medium, followed by layers of unpigmented natural resin. In both the coloured japanned layers and the unpigmented layers, the
natural resin was found to be from a tree source rather than shellac. Raised decoration was produced with a paste of calcium
carbonate mixed in a drying oil medium applied to the surface and then sealed with natural resin. Examination of selected surface
decorations showed the use of gold leaf, powdered brass, and powdered tin, all applied to a mordant pigmented with vermilion.
Pigments employed for the painted decoration included iron oxide pigments, carbon black, and vermilion. The materials identified
on the clock are compared to those described in historic treatises on japanning.
Cet article traite de l’analyse scientifique des matériaux originaux d’une horloge de parquet laquée du XVIIIe siècle appartenant à
la collection du Royal British Columbia Museum à Victoria en Colombie-Britannique. L’analyse a révélé que le bois a été enduit
d’une épaisse couche de préparation composée de carbonate de calcium (craie) dans un liant protéique. Sur cette préparation a
ensuite été appliquée une couche opaque bleu pâle contenant de l’indigo, du blanc de plomb, du carbonate de calcium et un liant
protéique. Les couches colorées de laque, appliquées par-dessus la couche bleu pâle, consistent en couches translucides contenant
du smalt et une résine naturelle. Plusieurs couches non pigmentées de résine naturelle ont été appliquées par-dessus les couches de
laque. La résine naturelle dans les couches de laque et dans les couches de résine non pigmentées n’est pas de la gomme laque mais
plutôt une résine provenant d’un arbre. Des décorations en relief ont été créées à l’aide d’une pâte faite de carbonate de calcium
mélangé à une huile siccative. Cette pâte a été appliquée sur la surface laquée puis scellée par une couche de résine naturelle.
L’examen de plusieurs décorations métalliques a montré que de la feuille d’or, de la poudre de laiton et de la poudre d’étain ont été
employées, le métal étant dans tous les cas appliqué sur un mordant pigmenté avec du vermillon. Les pigments employés pour les
décorations peintes incluent des pigments à base d’oxyde de fer, du noir de carbone et du vermillon. Les matériaux identifiés sur
l’horloge sont comparés à ceux décrits dans des traités anciens.
Manuscript received April 2001; revised manuscript received September 2001
Introduction
The analysis of the original materials used on a japanned long
case clock from the Royal British Columbia Museum, Victoria,
British Columbia was carried out in conjunction with its
conservation treatment at the Canadian Conservation Institute.
The clock has a blue-green japanned surface with metallic and
painted decoration in both flat and raised motifs. Visual
examination of the japanned finish in protected areas indicates
that the original colour of the clock was deep blue. This has
altered over time to the current blue-green shade. The front
panel of the clock during treatment is shown in Figure 1. The
face of the clock mechanism is engraved with the maker’s name:
“Wm Webster, Exchange Alley, London.” A 1992 appraisal
indicates that the clock dates from circa 1760 and was made by
William Webster’s son.1
Examination of the clock using visible light and ultraviolet
fluorescence showed the surface to be in good condition with
little previous restoration, especially in the areas of metallic
decoration. Since many areas of the original surface finish of the
clock are intact, analysis provided useful information about
eighteenth-century English japanning materials and technique.
Analysis also allowed comparisons to be made between the
materials used on the clock and published recipes in
contemporaneous treatises on japanning.
Historic Recipes for Japanning
A number of artists’ manuals and recipe books describe the
materials and methods of japanning in some detail. Among the
best known are: A Treatise of Japanning and Varnishing by
Stalker and Parker,2 The Handmaid to the Arts by Dossie,3 and
L’art du peintre, doreur et vernisseur by Watin.4
Certain recipes for japanning described in these sources
have been published elsewhere.5,6,7 Selected instructions from
these manuals that relate to the type of japanned decoration used
on the long case clock are briefly summarized here as a basis for
comparison with the scientific analysis.
J.ACCR, vol. 26, 2001, p. 27-33
28
A Brief Summary of the Japanning Process
animi” mixture to provide a durable upper surface.16
Wooden objects were generally prepared for japanning by
coating them with a number of layers of whiting (calcium
carbonate) mixed with size (a protein medium, generally a type
of animal glue).8,9 After the wood had been thus prepared and the
ground smoothed, the japanning was applied. This involved the
application of a number of translucent layers of pigment in an
appropriate medium, such as a natural resin mixture or a type of
fish glue. The amount of pigment in the japanning medium was
initially high and was steadily diminished until only pure
medium was used. Layers of transparent varnish sealed the
japanning. Finally, surface decoration such as painting or
gilding was applied. The colour of the finished japanned surface
varied; popular colours for japanning included black, red, white,
green, and blue.
Surface Decorations
Blue Japanning
While Watin describes only black japanning in detail, both
Stalker and Parker and Dossie give specific instructions for blue
japanning. Stalker and Parker indicate that “Blew Japan” should
be pigmented with lead white and smalt. The lead white was first
ground with gum arabic (“gum water”) and the smalt with a type
of fish glue (“isinglass-size”) after which the pigments were
mixed together and painted onto the prepared surface. Several
applications of the smalt-lead white mixture, with varying
amounts of smalt, were used. Stalker and Parker state that it may
be necessary to use only smalt, without the addition of lead
white, in the final pigmented applications in order to produce the
desired shade of blue. After the pigmented layers were applied,
the japanning was completed with several applications of
unpigmented “isinglass-size.”10
While Stalker and Parker mention smalt as the only blue
pigment to be used for “Blew Japan,” Dossie’s instructions state
that blue japanning could be produced using Prussian blue, blue
verditer, smalt or combinations of these pigments. Rather than
the “isinglass-size” recommended by Stalker and Parker, Dossie
indicates that a natural resin medium should be used for all types
of japanning. He further states that although shellac is the most
durable resin, other natural resin mixtures are less yellow and
are preferred when a bright blue surface is desired. He suggests
a mixture of mastic and “gum animi” (a term used for several
different natural resins, including copal11) or a mixture of oil and
“gum animi” as suitable media for blue japanning.12 As Stalker
and Parker describe,13 and as Webb14 has observed in the analysis
of japanned objects, the amount of pigment in the varnish is
initially high and is gradually decreased in subsequent layers to
create a translucent finish.
After the coloured japanning layers were applied, the
surface was sealed with a number of layers of clear varnish.
Stalker and Parker indicate that seven or eight applications of
white varnish (a complex mixture of natural resins) should be
used,15 while Dossie suggests five or six coats of a shellac-“gum
J.CAC, vol. 26, 2001, pp. 27-33
Japanned surfaces were decorated with paint and metallic leaf
and powders applied to both flat areas of japanning and to areas
that had been raised to produce an embossed, three-dimensional
effect, as visible in the detail shown in Figure 2. The raised
work for the decorative elements of the japanned finish was
applied once the initial japanning and varnishing had been
carried out. According to the instructions given by both Dossie
and Stalker and Parker, a paste mixture of calcium carbonate
(“whiting”) and a clay-rich red earth (“bole armoniac” or “BoleArmoniak”) in gum arabic (“gum water” or “Gum-Arabickwater”) was used to create the raised decoration.17,18 Watin,
however, describes the best paste for this purpose as a mixture of
equal parts of calcium carbonate (“blanc d’Espagne”) and umber
in an oil-resin medium (“Vernis gras”).19
The instruction books list a variety of metallic powders for
decorating both the flat and raised surfaces of the japanning.
Stalker and Parker, for example, include “Brass-dust,” “Silverdust”, “Green-gold” and “Dirty-gold” (both described as being
“corrupted metal”), “Powder-Tinn,” and various types of copper
powder.20 Dossie and Watin also describe metal powders based
on gold, silver, copper, and tin.21,22 These powdered metals could
be used to imitate an expensive gilded surface. The prices for the
different varieties of metallic powder varied depending on the
type of metal and its quality. According to Stalker and Parker,
the least expensive were the copper powders, tin powder, and
“Dirty-Gold” which are listed at 6 shillings per ounce. An
average grade of “Brass-dust” cost 8 to 9 shillings per ounce.
Powdered silver, on the other hand, cost at least 16 shillings per
ounce and often more.20 The metal powders could be used
together to create specific colour effects, for example, shading
areas of copper powder with powdered tin.23
Stalker and Parker state that the metallic powders could be
laid on top of “Gold-size,” an oil mordant based on a heated
drying oil-resin mixture containing red lead, umber, and
vermilion. The metal powder could also be applied by mixing it
with gum arabic (“Gum-water”).24 In addition, they describe
traditional oil and water gilding using gold or silver leaf.25
Dossie also gives instructions in which powdered metals are
either applied to gold size or painted on after mixing with gum
arabic (“gum water”) or fish glue (“isinglass size”).26 He states
that there are a number of different recipes for gold size and
gives detailed instructions for two of these. The first, similar to
Stalker’s and Parker’s recipe, includes red lead, umber, and
vermilion while the second, which he prefers, is pigmented only
with vermilion. As in Stalker’s and Parker’s instructions, both
size recipes are based on heated drying oil-resin mixtures.27
Watin gives a recipe containing vermilion in amber varnish
(“Vernis d’ambre”) to be used as a mordant for the metallic
powders.28
29
Figure 1. The front panel of the clock during treatment.
Materials Analysis and Comparison with Historic Recipes
Analytical Methods
Cross-section samples were removed from the body of the clock
where different types of surface decoration were observed. The
cross-sections were embedded in polyester resin then ground and
polished using cushioned abrasive papers and observed using
incident light and fluorescence microscopy. The autofluorescence of the cross-sections was observed using a mercury
vapour lamp with an ultraviolet exciting filter with a band pass
of 340 to 380 nm.
Specific layers in the cross-sections were analysed by x-ray
microanalysis using an Hitachi S-530 scanning electron
microscope integrated with a Tracor X-ray detector after carboncoating the cross-sections to ensure conductivity. Using this
technique, referred to as SEM/XES, elemental analysis of small
volumes, down to a few cubic micrometers, can be obtained for
elements from sodium to uranium with a sensitivity of about 1%.
Figure 2. A detail of the front panel of the clock during
treatment showing embossed decoration.
Fragments of layers of interest were removed from
unmounted cross-section samples and analysed by Fourier
transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The samples were
mounted in a diamond anvil micro-sample cell and analysed
using a Bomem Michelson MB120 spectrometer. In some cases,
a Spectra-Tech IR-Plan infrared microscope accessory was used.
In order to identify the medium in certain of the samples
containing calcium carbonate, the samples were treated with
dilute hydrochloric acid prior to analysis to remove interfering
carbonate bands from the infrared spectrum.
Certain samples were also analysed by X-ray diffraction
(XRD) using a Rigaku RTP 300 RC rotating anode generator
with a cobalt target. Samples from layers of interest were
mounted on glass fibres with silicone grease and analysed using
a microdiffractometer employing a position sensitive
proportional counter detector interfaced to a multichannel
analyser.
In addition, selected samples were examined by polarized
light microscopy (PLM) using Cargille Meltmount medium
J.ACCR, vol. 26, 2001, p. 27-33
30
varnish, its thickness again suggesting multiple applications,
is present on top of the blue-green layers. Above the varnish, the
layer structure varies depending on the type of surface decoration
present over the japanning.
Figure 3. A cross-section of the japanned surface of the clock in
an area with metallic decoration. The sample shows a thick,
white preparation layer (layer 1) covered with a thin, light blue
layer (layer 2). Over the light blue layer are several blue-green
applications containing smalt in a resin medium (layer 3).
Unpigmented, yellow varnish applications (layer 4) are present
on top of the blue-green layers. Gilding and varnish layers are
visible above the japanned finish. Full image width is 545
micrometers.
(n=1.66). Particles were characterized on the basis of their
morphological and optical properties.
Analysis of the Blue-green Japanned Finish
Cross-sections from several areas of the clock allowed the
structure of the japanned finish to be determined. A
photomicrograph of a cross-section from an area with metallic
decoration is shown in Figure 3. The sample shows a thick,
white preparation layer, likely several applications, which has
been covered with a thin, light blue layer. On top of the thin,
blue layer are several translucent, blue-green layers composed of
blue pigment in a yellow medium. An unpigmented yellow
Fragments of all four layers making up the japanned finish
were analyzed: the white preparation layer, the light blue layer,
the translucent blue-green layers and the transparent yellow
varnish. The analytical results and the methods used to identify
the components of each sample are given in Table I. The white
preparation layer (layer 1) is composed of calcium carbonate (in
the form of natural chalk29) in a protein binding medium. The
thin, light blue layer (layer 2) contains indigo mixed with
calcium carbonate and lead white in a protein medium. The
translucent blue-green layers (layer 3) are pigmented with smalt;
the yellow medium is a natural resin or mixture of resins. The
transparent yellow varnish (layer 4) above the smalt layer is also
a natural resin or resin mixture. The infrared spectrum of both
the pigmented and unpigmented layers indicates that the major
component of the varnish is a terpenoid (tree) resin or a mixture
of terpenoid resins rather than shellac, an insect secretion.30 The
infrared spectrum of the transparent varnish layer is shown in
Figure 4.31
The materials used for the japanning on the long case clock
show a number of similarities to historic recipes, but also some
differences. The chalk in protein medium used for the
preparation layer on the clock is consistent with the mixture of
whiting and size described in the treatises. Its thickness suggests
that multiple applications were laid down to conceal the wood
grain. The use of smalt in the japanned finish is also consistent
with Stalker’s and Parker’s “Blew Japan” recipe, and with
Dossie who indicates that smalt is one of the blue pigments that
may be used to create a blue japanned surface. The build up of
smalt layers visible in the cross-section, with the amount of
pigment steadily diminished until only pure varnish layers are
applied, is also in accordance with the instructions given in the
treatises.
Table I: Analysis of the Blue-green Japanned Finish.
Layer Description*
Pigments and Media
Analytical Techniques Employed**
layer 1: white preparation
- calcium carbonate (CaCO3) (chalk)
- protein
SEM/XES, FTIR, PLM
layer 2: light blue
- lead white (2PbCO3 Pb(OH)2)
- calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
- indigo (C16H10N2O2)
- protein
SEM/XES, FTIR
layer 3: translucent bluegreen
- smalt (K, Co, Al silicate) (glass)
- natural resin (terpenoid)
SEM/XES, FTIR, PLM
layer 4: yellow varnish
- natural resin (terpenoid)
FTIR
*The first layer, applied directly to the wood, is designated as layer 1.
**SEM/XES = scanning electron microscopy/x-ray energy spectrometry (also referred to as x-ray microanalysis); FTIR = Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy; PLM
= polarized light microscopy
J.CAC, vol. 26, 2001, pp. 27-33
31
The major component of the transparent varnish layers over
the smalt layers is also a natural resin from a tree source. More
detailed analysis of the type of resin or resin mixture would be
required to determine if this varnish corresponds to the recipes
described by Dossie and Stalker and Parker.
Analysis of Surface Decorations
The analytical results and the methods used to identify the
components of the surface decorations are given in Table II and
Table III. Samples of the raised decoration, several painted
surface finishes, and various colours of metallic finish were
examined.
A cross-section from an area with raised metallic
decoration showed that a white paste was used to create the
embossed effect. Analysis indicates that the paste is composed of
calcium carbonate in drying oil, or possibly an oil-resin mixture.
This differs from the mixture of calcium carbonate and bole in
a gum arabic medium described by both Dossie and Stalker and
Parker. It also differs from the paste described by Watin which
contains equal amounts of calcium carbonate and umber in an
oil-resin medium. In addition, analysis shows that the paste was
sealed with an unpigmented natural resin varnish prior to the
application of the metallic surface decoration. This procedure,
which isolates the decorative layers from the paste beneath, is
not described in the treatises.
Figure 4. An infrared spectrum of the transparent varnish layer.
The spectrum indicates that the varnish is a tree resin or mixture
of tree resins rather than shellac.
However, rather than mixing lead white with smalt in the
japanning layers, as Stalker and Parker suggest, lead white
pigmented with indigo has been used as an opaque underlayer
before applying the translucent smalt layers. Indigo, a natural
blue dye, although mentioned by Dossie for painting in oil or
varnish,32 is not listed in either Dossie’s or Stalker’s and
Parker’s recipes for blue japanning. Although not described in
the treatises, this indigo blue underlayer serves an important
visual role, showing through the translucent smalt layers to add
colour and depth to the final japanned surface.
In all areas of metallic surface decoration, the metals were
applied on top of a very thin mordant pigmented with
vermilion,34 a pigment listed in Stalker’s and Parker’s, Dossie’s,
and Watin’s recipes for gold-size. The mordant layer was too
thin to allow its medium to be identified. Different metallic
finishes were used in different areas of the clock. The gold
surfaces on the raised decoration are gold leaf, while the goldcoloured decorative borders are made of powdered brass. It is
interesting that the borders, less important to the composition
than the raised decoration, were produced with brass powder
rather than gold, likely as a cost saving measure. Inexpensive
powdered metal was also used on silver-coloured areas. The
silver surface from a decorative border and from the flesh of the
figures was found to be tin powder rather than genuine silver
The medium for the smalt layers in the japanning on the
long case clock is a natural resin, or mixture of natural resins,
not the “isinglass-size” indicated by Stalker and Parker. Since
the major component of the resin used for the japanning on the
clock was found to be a tree resin or tree resin mixture, it
appears that Dossie’s recommendation to avoid shellac for blue
japanning was followed since it would give “to a true blue a cast
of green”.33 Although shellac was not used, presumably in an
attempt to avoid discolouration, yellowing of the chosen resin
has occurred since the japanning was applied.
Table II: Analysis of Metallic Decoration.
Sample Description
Elements Identified in Metallic
Flakes/leaf by X-ray Microanalysis
Interpretation
silver-coloured metallic powder from decorative border
tin
tin powder
gold-coloured metallic powder from decorative border
copper, zinc
brass powder
gold-coloured metallic leaf from decorative panel
gold
gilding
bronze-coloured metallic powder from hills on
decorative panel
tin
copper, zinc
tin powder
brass powder
J.ACCR, vol. 26, 2001, p. 27-33
32
Table III: Analysis of Other Surface Decorations.
Sample Description
Pigments and Media
Analytical Techniques Employed*
white paste, used to create raised
design elements
- calcium carbonate (CaCO3) (chalk)
- drying oil
SEM/XES, FTIR, PLM
transparent sealing layer on raised
paste
- natural resin (terpenoid)
FTIR
red preparation layer for metallic
powders and gilding
- cinnabar/dry process vermilion (HgS)
SEM/XES, PLM, XRD
red-brown paint
- cinnabar/dry process vermilion (HgS)
- lead white (2PbCO3 Pb(OH)2)
SEM/XES, FTIR, PLM, XRD
black paint
- finely divided carbon black (C)
SEM/XES, FTIR, PLM
red paint
- cinnabar/dry process vermilion (HgS)
SEM/XES, FTIR, PLM, XRD
orange wash
- chemical elements are consistent with iron
oxide pigments
SEM/XES
*SEM/XES = scanning electron microscopy/x-ray energy spectrometry (also referred to as x-ray microanalysis); FTIR = Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy; PLM
= polarized light microscopy; XRD = X-ray diffraction
leaf. The hills of the raised decoration, which have a shaded,
bronze-like effect, contain both powdered brass and powdered
tin. This is similar to Stalker’s and Parker’s description of
shading copper powder with powdered tin.
As well as the metallic decoration, selected painted
decoration was analysed. All the paints examined showed the use
of common pigments. Black areas are pigmented with a finely
divided form of carbon black, consistent with lampblack. The red
and red-brown paint contains vermilion34 and lead white.
Elemental analysis of a thin orange wash over areas of gilding
suggests the use of iron oxide pigments. As in the case of the
mordant, the paint layers were too thin to allow their medium to
be identified.
Conclusions
Scientific analysis provided important information about the
materials and techniques used on the japanned long case clock.
Analysis also allowed comparisons to be made between the
materials found on the clock and published recipes in historic
treatises on japanning. The materials identified on the long case
clock showed many similarities to historic recipes, but also
showed that actual practices sometimes varied from these
descriptions. For example, analysis indicated that an opaque
underlayer, pigmented with lead white and indigo, was present
beneath the translucent japanning layers. Although not described
in the treatises, the indigo blue underlayer serves an important
role, showing through the translucent layers above to add colour
and depth to the final surface.
J.CAC, vol. 26, 2001, pp. 27-33
It would be of interest to carry out further work on the
characterization of the natural resin varnish used in the
japanning layers. In this study, the major component of the
varnish was determined to be a terpenoid (tree) resin using
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. However, it is clear
from the treatises that the varnishes used for japanning were
often complex mixtures of resins and oils. Although Fourier
transform infrared spectroscopy allows the major component of
a varnish to be identified, it is less useful for characterizing such
mixtures. More detailed analysis using a technique such as gas
chromatography/mass spectrometry would allow specific
identification of the components of the varnish.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to acknowledge the contribution of
Deborah Bigelow of American Burnish who carried out a
detailed visual examination of the clock and undertook the initial
steps in its conservation treatment. The author would also like to
thank the Royal British Columbia Museum for allowing the
work to be published and two anonymous reviewers for helpful
comments.
References
1.
Wardop, James, Royal British Columbia Museum, personal
communication.
2.
Stalker, John and Parker, George, A Treatise of Japanning
and Varnishing 1688, with an introduction by H. D.
Molesworth (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1960).
33
3.
Dossie, Robert, The Handmaid to the Arts (London: Printed
for E.Nourse,1758).
20. Stalker and Parker, A Treatise of Japanning and
Varnishing 1688, pp. 5, 6.
4.
Watin, L’art du peintre, doreur, vernisseur : ouvrage utile
aux artistes & aux amateurs qui veulent entreprendre de
peindre, dorer & vernir toutes sortes de sujets en
batiments, meubles, bijoux, équipages, etc., Seconde
Édition (Paris: Grangé, Durand et L’Auteur, 1773).
21. Dossie, pp. 386-388, 401-403, 404-406.
5.
6.
Rushfield, Rebecca Anne, “ ‘No damp air, no mouldring
worm, or corroding time can possibly deface it.’ John
Stalker and George Parker, A Treatise of Japanning and
Varnishing, 1688,” in: Papers Presented at the Art
Conservation Training Programs Conference (Cambridge,
Mass: The Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University, 1979),
pp. 55-66.
Ballardie, Margaret, “Historical Colours Used in 17th
Century and 18th Century Japanning,”ICOM Committee
for Conservation, Preprints of the 11th Triennial Meeting,
Edinburgh, edited by Janet Bridgeland (London: James &
James, 1996), vol. 2, pp. 911-914.
7.
Webb, Marianne, Lacquer: Technology and Conservation.
A Comprehensive Guide to the Technology and
Conservation of Asian and European Lacquer (Oxford:
Butterworth-Heinemann, 2000).
8.
Stalker and Parker, A Treatise of Japanning and
Varnishing 1688, p. 35.
9.
Dossie, The Handmaid to the Arts, pp. 410, 411.
10. Stalker and Parker, A Treatise of Japanning and
Varnishing 1688, p. 23.
11. Webb, Lacquer: Technology and Conservation, p. 172.
12. Dossie, The Handmaid to the Arts, pp. 414-416.
13. Stalker and Parker, A Treatise of Japanning and
Varnishing 1688, pp. 19, 20.
14. Webb, Lacquer: Technology and Conservation, pp. 121,
122.
15. Stalker and Parker, A Treatise of Japanning and
Varnishing 1688, pp.10, 23.
16. Dossie, The Handmaid to the Arts, pp. 414-416.
17. Dossie, The Handmaid to the Arts, p. 422.
18. Stalker and Parker, A Treatise of Japanning and
Varnishing 1688, p. 33.
19. Watin, L’art du peintre, doreur, vernisseur, p. 294.
22. Watin, L’art du peintre, doreur, vernisseur, pp. 297-299.
23. Stalker and Parker, A Treatise of Japanning and
Varnishing 1688, p. 49.
24. Stalker and Parker, A Treatise of Japanning and
Varnishing 1688, pp. 26-29.
25. Stalker and Parker, A Treatise of Japanning and
Varnishing 1688, pp. 53-61.
26. Dossie, The Handmaid to the Arts, pp. 384, 403, 405.
27. Dossie, The Handmaid to the Arts, pp. 384, 385.
28. Watin, L’art du peintre, doreur, vernisseur, p. 292.
29. The calcium carbonate was characterized as natural chalk
by the presence of coccoliths observed using polarized light
microscopy. See Gettens, Rutherford J., FitzHugh,
Elisabeth West, and Feller, Robert L., “Calcium Carbonate
Whites,” in: Artists'Pigments: A Handbook of their
History and Characteristics, vol. 2, edited by Ashok Roy
(Washington: National Gallery of Art, 1993), pp. 203-226.
30. Derrick, Michele, “Fourier Transform Infrared Spectral
Analysis of Natural Resins Used in Furniture
Finishes,”Journal of the American Institute for
Conservation, vol. 28, no.1, 1989, pp. 43-56.
31. Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry would be required
to allow more specific identification of the components of
the varnish. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
(FTIR) allows the major component of a varnish to be
identified but is less useful for identifying mixtures. For
example, although the main component of the varnish is a
terpenoid resin, it is not possible to determine the exact
type of resin or whether small quantities of other materials,
such as a drying oil, are present.
32. Dossie, The Handmaid to the Arts, pp. 162, 176.
33. Dossie, The Handmaid to the Arts, p. 416.
34. Using polarized light microscopy, the pigment was found
to be either synthetic vermilion produced by the dry process
or natural mineral cinnabar. See Gettens, Rutherford J.,
Feller, Robert L., and Chase, W. T., “Vermilion and
Cinnabar” in: Artists’ Pigments: A Handbook of their
History and Characteristics, volume 2, edited by Ashok
Roy (National Gallery of Art: Washington, 1993), pp. 159182.
J.ACCR, vol. 26, 2001, p. 27-33