eppp study guide 2015

 EPPP STUDY GUIDE 2015 Copyright © 2015 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Disclaimer All the material contained in this book is provided for educational and informational purposes only. No responsibility can be taken for any results or outcomes resulting from the use of this material. While every attempt has been made to provide information that is both accurate and effective, the author does not assume any responsibility for the accuracy or use/misuse of this information. Quick Intro Message Hi, Baron here. During my six-­‐month preparation for the exam, I purchased several EPPP commercial study materials from AATBS, Academic Review, and PsychPrep. I summarized, combined the written materials, and decided to create my own. This guide is a product of real hard work. It is comprehensive (200+ pages), detailed, and easy to read/follow. It is based on all three commercial companies. It was very instrumental for my preparation and successful completion of passing the exam. I was able to pass the first time with SS=593.
My honest personal recommendation: I recommend you focus 85% of your study time on practice tests. Use this guide as a supplement to them. Because I have summarized the main content for the exam, with this guide, you will not need to buy any books or volumes from any company. If you already bought them, you can resale them at a decent value, and use this guide instead to write on and highlight as much as you want. Save that money and/or invest it on more online practice tests from one of those companies. I say one, because they are all alike. In my opinion one of them shall suffice. This EPPP Guide includes: Intro-­‐The Real Cost of the EPPP-­‐ page 3 Treatment, Intervention, Prevention, and Supervision – page 7 Growth and Lifespan Development – page 48 Diagnosis (and Psychopathology)-­‐ page 83 Ethical/Legal/Professional Issues – page 128 Industrial and Organizational Psychology-­‐ page 129 Cognitive-­‐Affective Bases of Behavior-­‐ page 152 Biological Bases of Behavior -­‐ page 168 Research Methods and Statistics – page 183 Psychological Assessment – page 198 Social and Cultural Bases of Behavior– page 214 Test Construction – page 230 P.S. I have found this guide is been helpful for those taking written qualifying exams with their programs. If you are eager to pass, this guide is for you! © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
2
The Real Cost Of The EPPP Exam **The EPPP exam is the most important examination for psychologists in the US. ** •
•
Very few people will tell you about the EPPP early in your graduate school career. Even fewer will stress the importance of this last crucial hurdle on your journey to become a licensed psychologist. •
•
Professors/psychologists will tell you that you are too busy right now to worry about an examination that will not take place until after you graduate. Perhaps, like a trauma victim who has been through a painful stressor, they have repressed their memories. Why is the EPPP So Important? Because, even if you get admitted to a psychology doctoral program, pass all your classes, complete thousands of hours of unpaid clinical practica, pass a written and oral comprehensive exam, defend a dissertation, complete an year-­‐long internship, graduate from an accredited doctoral program, and complete an underpaid year-­‐long post-­‐doctoral residency (in most states)…You will not be able to practice as a licensed psychologist in any state in the United States and most provinces in Canada. The Real Price •
$350+ State License Application o State psychology boards have to approve your application (permission to take the exam). o Waiting time can be lengthy and fees variy by state. •
$600 to sit for the exam (each time) o About 25% examinees fail the exam and have to retake/repay for it. © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
3
o Knowing this, few examinees attempt the test without first preparing with one of the commercially available study programs. •
$600+ Preparation Materials (Highly Recommended to Pass 1st time) o Your graduate school training… no matter how thorough, does not adequately prepare you to pass the EPPP. o Many examinees have found the following areas require new or significantly enhanced learning: industrial-­‐organizational psychology, statistics, and social psychology. o Commercially available study programs include books, flashcards, practice exams, lectures on audio CDs, workshops, and online materials. o The total cost of these study materials range from around a few hundred dollars to as much as $3000. These costs vary by study package. •
Waiting Time o For state boards to approve your application (weeks-­‐months). o For the ASPPB to process you application to sit for the exam after the state board approves your application (weeks) o Waiting to schedule to take the the exam. (Self-­‐paced) Depends on your level of preparation and study time (3-­‐6 months) o Waiting for the ASPPB to report your score to your state psychology board (weeks) o Waiting for your state psychology board to confirm that you have passed (or failed) •
o Waiting issue your psychology license if you have passed and met all their requirements. Lost Wages o When you are busy preparing for the test… You are neither working nor furthering your career as a licensed psychologist. © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
4
•
Neurotic and Existential Anxiety o Expensive study materials, exam fees, endless studying, waiting, lack of, or low income…all contribute to the stress. o During preparation most will question why the EPPP test exists. o Many will doubt their decision to become a psychologist in the first place. o A significant number give up halfway through the process and work in one of the few areas in psychology that do not require licensure; consequently, restricting their careers. o Others sit for the exam, once, twice, thrice, and occasionally four times, before quitting the process. o However, most persist, and eventually pass the EPPP exam. Prepare Early •
Professors/psychologists will not stress the importance of the EPPP, because: 1) it does not affect them 2) your classwork, 3) your assistanceship, 4) their research, or 5) whether or not you graduate. •
It only affects you, long after you are no longer their responsibility. Benefits of Early Preparation •
You will: o Save on many of the aforementioned costs. o Have a better idea what content areas will be on the exam. o Focus your study efforts now, while topics are fresh in your mind. o Be able to collect study materials gradually, thus spreading out their costs. © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
5
o Learn and practice the advanced test-­‐taking strategies required to pass the exam. o Be less stressed by the examination process. o Be ready to take the exam at the early. §
This will greatly limit your downtime after graduation. o Be able to get licensed as a psychologist sooner. § This will allow you to earn a decent income sooner © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
6
TREATMENT, INTERVENTION, PREVENTION, AND SUPERVISION PSYCHOANALYSIS Psychic Structure • 3 parts: o Id—all instincts and reflexes that are inherited at birth, encompassing basic biological drives (self-­‐preservation, libido, aggressive drives) § Unorganized reservoir of energy dominated by pleasure principle § Unconscious § Deduced from dreams, slips of tongue, free association, daydreams, and neurotic symptom formation o Ego—part of id that has been modified by interaction w external world § Reality principle § Suspend pleasure principle according to requirements of environment § Logical, ordered aspect of personality § Organizational, critical, synthesizing ability § Makes reason and judgment possible o Superego—evolves as result of child satisfactorily passing through Oedipal developmental stage and is part of ego that acts as conscience § Moral and judicial aspects § Internalization of parental restrictions, prohibitions, and customs Defense Mechanisms • Conflict as basic dynamic of personality o Ego is in constant conflict w id, superego and reality o To relieve pressures of drives, ego employs defense mechanisms • Unconscious mechanisms that operate to avoid activating anx that would be caused by conscious awareness of conflict • Repression, denial, reaction formation, rationalization, projection, displacement, fixation, sublimation, projective identification, splitting, intellectualization, and undoing o Repression is most basic and underlies all other defenses § Involved unconscious rejection of painful or shameful experiences from consciousness and prevents unacceptable impulses or desires from reaching consciousness Anxiety • Signals breakdown of defensive structure, such as when defenses don’t work well and impulse starts to break through • “Signal anxiety”—impulse is seeking expression Primary and Secondary Processes • Primary process—unconscious mental process and is characterized by lack of logic, by ease of substitution of one idea w another, and by immediate d/c of energy o Governed by id © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
7
•
o Functions according to pleasure principle and can be observed in cognitions of young children, dreams, slips of tongue and jokes. Secondary Process—conscious mental process o Governed by part of ego o Functions according to reality principle and is logical and sequential Goals and Techniques • Free association—attend to all thoughts and report them w/o suppressing/censuring o Resistance—unable to recall traumatic memories that gave rise to symptoms • Therapist’s neutrality allows ct to project onto therapist +/-­‐ feelings he originally had for another sign person in past—Transference o Repetition compulsion—one repeats feelings and affects from past in present o Therapeutic alliance—+ transference § Working alliance • Countertransference—therapist’s inappropriate reactions to ct based on own enactment of personal needs and resistance to tx Steps in Psychoanalysis • 4 steps: o Confrontation—pt shown that he is behaving in neurotic way o Clarification—trying to understand what/what/how pt is resisting o Interpretation—in way pt can hear o Working through—assimilation of insights into personality Parallel Process Supervision • Combination of transference and countertransference o Supervisee behaves towards supervisor in ways that parallel how his ct is acting toward him. OTHER PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES Carl Jung’s Analytical Psychology • Unconscious exists on 2 levels: o Individual unconscious—arises from repression o Collective unconscious—part of person’s unconscious which is common in all humans § Contains latent, inherited memories of one’s cultural past, archetypes, and pre-­‐human memories • Archetypes—motifs, images, or symbols that exist prior to experience o Manifested by all individuals in all cultures and are instinctual o 4 forms: § Self § Shadow © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
8
•
•
§ Anima § Animus Aimed at bringing unconscious contents to consciousness o Resembles classical psychoanalysis in use of dream interpretation, associations, and transference analysis o More aware of personal unconscious one becomes, more collective conscious is revealed and one’s psyche internally self-­‐regulates and neurosis resolves Developed dichotomous extraversion/introversion personality constructs o Extraversion—turning outward and main motivation for affect, perceptions, judgments, actions of extraverts are external forces o Introversion—turning inward of libido and introverts are more motivated by, and interested in, internal conditions than external events o Some point around 40 y/o, people turn from extroversion of youth to introversion of adulthood Alfred Adler’s Individual Psychology • Masculine Protest—every child experiences feelings of inferiority (Inferiority Complex) that supply motivation to grow, dominate, and be superior o Organ Inferiority—Inferiority complex may develop in connection w particular body part o Children adopt COMPENSATORY PATTERNS OF BX as defense mech § If STYLE OF LIFE, or compensatory actions, are socially maladaptive, they become self-­‐destructive • Diplomatic, warm, empathetic, Socratic style of tx o 12 stages across 6 phases w each stage reflecting progressive strategies for awakening ct’s underdeveloped feeling of community o Goal is to help ct replace “mistaken style of life” w healthier and more adaptive one o Role-­‐plays to help develop new behavior and relies on advice and encouragement Neo-­‐Freudians • Downplayed importance of instinctual forces and instead focuses on social and cultural determinants of personality • Karen Horney o Focused on early relationships o Parental Behavior—cause child to experience BASIC ANX (feeling of helplessness and isolation in hostile world § Defend against anx, child adopts certain modes of relating to others: • Movt towards others/against others/away from others • Healthy ind integrates all 3 types of behavior, while neurotic ind relies primarily on only one • Harry Stack Sullivan o Importance of relationships throughout lifespan o ROLE OF COGNITIVE EXPERIENCE—3 modes © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
9
Prototaxic Mode—experiences before language symbols are used and involves discrete unconnected momentary states • First months of life § Parataxic Mode—private or autistic symbols and person sees causal connections btw events that are not actually related • Developing self and reduced anx § Syntaxic Mode—symbols that have shared meaning and logical, sequential, and consistent thinking • End of 1st yr and underlies language acquisition o Neurotic behavior is caused by parataxic distortions—occur as result of arrest in parataxic mode § Ind deals w others as if they were sign people from early life Eric Fromm o Effects of societal structures and dynamics on personality o ROLE OF SOCIETAL FACTORS—how society prevents ind from realizing true nature § 5 styles adopted in response to society: • Receptive • Exploitive • Hoarding • Marketing • Productive o Only one that permits person to realize true human nature §
•
Ego-­‐Analysts • Anna Freud, David Rappaport, Heinz Hartmann • Place greater emphasis on ego’s role in personality development than Freud • Ego-­‐Defensive Functions—involved in resolution of conflict • Ego-­‐Autonomous Functions—adaptive, non-­‐conflict laden functions (learning, memory, speech, and perception • Healthy behavior as under conscious control o Pathology may ensue when ego loses its autonomy from id o Places more emphasis on current experiences, less on transference and provides opportunities for “re-­‐parenting” and focuses on helping ct build more adaptive defenses Object-­‐Relations Theory • Melanie Klein, Ronald Fairbairn, Margaret Mahler, Otto Kernberg, Heinz Kohut, Donald Winnicott • Object Introject—mental representation of person, either self or another o In healthy environment, infant’s ego comes to develop reps of itself and others § It comes to a self-­‐identity and level of ego strength needed to be able to maintain reps of another person (obj) § Reached at 3 y/o—“psychological birth” of human infant o Easily fail to develop appropriate obj introjects © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
10
§
§
•
Mental reps of self, other people, remain at infantile or early childhood level “Split” reps of other people • Sometimes seen as good then quickly are seen as bad Heinz Kohut o Self-­‐Psychology o Work on narcissism § When young child’s natural self-­‐love is undermined by parent’s inevitable failure to satisfy all child’s needs, child develops protective GRANDIOSE SELF § Ordinarily modified during childhood through maturation and normal interactions w parents § If parent consistently responds to child in v unempathetic way, normal development is thwarted o Re-­‐parenting—facilitates reintegration of ego EXISTENTIAL/HUMANISTIC THERAPIES • Stress individuality and inherent capacity for growth and change Client-­‐Centered Therapy • Theory of Personality and Pathology and Goals of Therapy o Carl Rogers o We all have self-­‐actualizing tendency (capacity for natural growth, constructive change, and self-­‐understanding) that guides and motivates us § Necessary for self to be organized, unified, and whole § Incongruence—conflict btw self-­‐concept and person’s experience • Selectively perceived, distorted, denied since need to maintain positive view of self is crucial o Goal=decrease incongruence btw real self and ideal self and realize capacity for self-­‐actualization • Process of Therapy o 3 facilitative conditions: § Accurate Empathic Understanding—degree to which therapist is able to empathize w ct, encouraging change by viewing world same way and conveying that to ct § Unconditional Positive Regard—therapist truly caring about ct, affirming ct’s value as person, and accepting ct w/o judgment § Congruence/Genuineness—therapist being genuine, honest, and showing congruence btw words and actions Existential Therapy • Theory of Personality o Personality is outgrowth of struggle btw ind and “ultimate concerns” of existence © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
11
•
•
•
Theory of Pathology o 2 types of anx: § Normal anx/existential anx—proportionate to its cause, does not require repression, and can be used constructively as catalyst to identify and confront dilemma from which it arose § Neurotic anx—result of not facing normal anx • Loss of subjective sense of free will and inability to take responsibility for one’s own life Goals and Tech o Goal=eliminate neurotic and to degree possible and to help ct learn to tolerate unavoidable existential anx of living o Tech: § Identifying instances when ct avoids responsibility for own life § Helping ct consider options and make decisions § Pointing out how grief reactions and sadness about life milestones are related to underlying fears of isolation and death o Ct-­‐therapist relationship—therapist strive toward honest, open and egalitarian relationship w ct § Development of authentic and intimate relationship Logotherapy o Victor Frankl o Primary motivational force in humans is search for meaning in life § Cornerstones of EXISTENTIAL ANALYSIS • Freedom of will • Will to meaning • Meaning of life Gestalt Therapy • Fritz Perls • Focuses on “HERE AND NOW”—encourages clients to gain awareness and full experiencing in present • Each person is capable of assuming responsibility and living fully as whole, integrated person • Theory of Personality o Self—promotes actualization, growth, and awareness o Self-­‐image—imposes external standards on self and impairs self-­‐actualization and growth o Contact—Interactions w environment determine which part of personality exerts most control o Resistance to contact (BOUNDARY DISTURBANCES)—defenses one develops as self-­‐protective attempt to avoid anx necessitated by change and prevents full experiencing in present § Introjection—uncritically absorbing info w/o actually understanding or assimilating © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
12
§
§
§
§
§
•
•
Projection—attributing own unacceptable thoughts/feelings/behavior to someone else Retroflection—substitution of self for environment, in which person does to himself what he wants to do to others • Mech underlying isolation Deflection—avoidance of contact and/or awareness by being vague, indirect, or overly polite Confluence—result of too thin or permeable boundary btw self and environment • Does not experience self as distinct, rather self is merged into beliefs, attitudes, and feelings of others Isolation—more extreme than confluence • Awareness of boundary btw self and environment becomes nonexistent and all understanding of importance of others for self is lost Theory of Pathology o Awareness is everything—as we become aware of our needs, we organize our bx toward meeting those needs o Fully aware person is one who is able to interpret present situation and appropriately self-­‐regulate boundaries btw self and environment Goals and Tech o Goal=awareness of environment, self, and nature of self-­‐environment boundary § Encouraging ct to focus on present reality o Tech: § Directed awareness § “I” statements § Dream analysis § Empty chair tech Reality Therapy • Glasser • Choice Theory—emphasizes personal responsibility ad balance of 5 basic needs o Survival—needs such as breathing, digesting, sweating o To love and belong—need for friends and fam o Power—need for esteem, recognition, competition o Freedom—need to make choices o Fun—need for play, learning, recreation • When ind is able to meet needs responsibly, person has SUCCESS IDENTITY o When meets needs in irresponsible way—FAILURE IDENTITY • Change occurs when failure identity is replaced by success identity o Focusing ct on present bx, enabling ability to be realistic in fulfilling needs w/o harming self/others, encouraging to take responsibility for actions • Tech: o Role playing, use of humor, confronting ct, helping to formulate plans © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
13
o Questioning tech and questioning framework called WDEP SYSTEM: § W—exploring wants/perceptions § D—direction or what ct is doing to get what they want § E—evaluate whether bx is getting him closer/further from goal § P—planning/creating and implementing workable plan to make + changes Transactional Analysis • Eric Berne • Model of people and relationships that is based on 2 notions: o We have functional “ego-­‐states” to our personality o These internal models converse w one another in “transactions” in our relationships as well as w ourselves internally • Theory of Personality o Ego states—3 distinct states: child, parent, adult § Activated at any point in time and interactions and communications btw or among people are predominantly btw ego states o Strokes—unit of interpersonal contact or recognition that takes place btw ego states at 2 levels (social and covert) § + or – o Scripts—person’s life plan § Developed early through interactions w parents and others § Reflects person’s characteristic pattern of giving and receiving strokes § Unhealthy script leads to maladaptive bx o Life positions—view person has of one self in relation to other people around, primarily as result of experiences w parents during childhood o Transactions—communication exchanges btw people: § Complementary—occur among any combination of ego states and involve original communication being met w appropriate response § Crossed—original communication eliciting response from inappropriate ego state § Ulterior—involve confusion because one communicator is giving dual message o Games—orderly series of ulterior transactions that is repeated over time and results in specific bad feelings for both players • Goals and Tech o Goal=alter maladaptive life positions and life scripts and to integrate 3 ego states o Tech: § Identification and analysis of ego states, transactions, games and scripts Feminist Therapy • Assumption that social roles and socialization are important determinants of bx • Social role conflicts © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
14
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Sexism and oppression of women based on gender is related to many probs reported by women who seek tx Equal or greater emphasis on sociopolitical contributions to pathology and need for social change as w personal responsibility and personal change Emphasis—show cts alternative social roles and options o Empowerment—helping become more self-­‐defining and slef-­‐determining o Tx acts as model for alternative modes of being, thinking, perceiving, and behaving Egalitarian relationship btw ct and therapist o Tx acknowledge inherent power differential and take steps to minimize differential o Discourages ct passivity Non-­‐Sexist Therapy o Tech that attempt to remove sexual biases from tx o Equalizing power btw tx and ct, validating non-­‐stereotypical gender roles and aspirations for female cts, and do not rely on traditional methods of dx and assessment o Major diff w feminist=feminist tx explicitly incorporates and promotes feminist values/more political Feminist Object-­‐Relations Theory o Nancy Chodorow o Explain how heterosexual gender roles are constructed, maintained, and reproduced o Gendered division of labor is reflected in fam roles that place parenting responsibility on mother and gender-­‐related diff in mother-­‐child relationship o Changes in gender relations and roles in society will occur when present system of parenting is replaced w system in which women and men are equally responsible for child-­‐rearing Self-­‐in-­‐Relation Theory o Developed to better understand experience and development of self in women § Considered useful for understanding male development also o One’s self depends in large part on how one connects w others § Self-­‐in-­‐relation and it is through empathetic process of connections that personal growth occurs o Human development—progression from infantile dependency toward mature state of interdependency and relational self is believed to develop through internalization of caretaker’s empathetic attitude o Psychpath—disconnection from others o Goal=increase interspersonal connections § Mother-­‐daughter relationship § Mutuality—relationships are views as reciprocal © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
15
COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL THERAPY Beck’s Cog Therapy • How one thinks largely determine how one feels/bx • Beck’s Theory of Personality o Automatic Thoughts—spontaneous thoughts that arise in response to specific stimuli/situations § Lead directly to maladaptive emotional and bx responses when they are dysfunctional o Schemas (Core Beliefs/Underlying Assumptions)—internal models of self and world that develop over course of experiences beginning early in life o Cog Distortions—systematic errors in reasoning that form link btw dysfunctional schemas and automatic thoughts § Arbitrary Inference—drawing conclusion when there is no evidence to support it or conclusion is contrary to evidence § Selective Abstraction—focusing on neg detail of situation/event, taken out of context, while disregarding other more salient info § Overgeneralization—drawing general conclusion based on single incident § Magnification and Minimization—perceiving something as far more/less sign than it really is § Personalization—attributing external events to oneself w/o evidence of causal connection § Dichotomous Thinking—all-­‐or-­‐nothing o Cog Triad—neg thoughts of self, future, world • Tech: o Cog § Eliciting Automatic Thoughts—questioning thoughts that occur in upsetting situations and asking to keep daily log § Decatastrophizing—“what if” tech to help pt devise specific strategies for dealing w feared consequences § Reattribution—considering alternative causes of events § Redefining—restating prob in terms that emphasize control of it and involves making prob more concrete, stating it in terms of own bx o Bx § Homework—self-­‐observ and self-­‐monitoring, structuring time § Activity scheduling § Graded task assignments § Hypothesis testing § Bx rehearsal and Role-­‐playing § Diversion Tech—physical activity, social contact, work, play • Eval of Cog Tx o More useful than other tech in tx of depression, GAD, panic d/o, eating d/o o Equal or superior to antidepressants for depression © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
16
Rational Emotive Therapy (RET) • Albert Ellis • ABC theory of human disturbance: o A—people experience undesirable events o B—they have rational and irrational beliefs about events o C—they create appropriate emotional and bx consequences w rational beliefs or inappropriate and dysfunctional consequences w irrational beliefs • Attempts to modify irrational beliefs • Tend to construct “musts” about their desires o Irrational beliefs stem from musts • Make ct aware of irrational beliefs, teach them how to dispute beliefs, show them “musts” that unconsciously underlie beliefs o Direct confrontation or irrational beliefs, contingency contracting, in-­‐vivo desensitization, response prevention, psycho-­‐ed • Holds irrational thoughts lead to maladaptive bx, whereas CT hold that thoughts are dysfunctional when they interfere w normal bog processing and not necessarily because they are irrational o RET is more heavily bx than other CBT approaches o Therapist is more likely to directly challenge dysfunctional beliefs, while CT ct is usually encourages to test out beliefs on own Self-­‐Control Tech • Ct is given active role in administering tx to self • Self-­‐Monitoring—recording and charting bx/system each times occurs o Minor and short-­‐term effects on own o Combo w other CBT tech—increases effectiveness • Stimulus Control—modifying existing stimulus-­‐response relationship or creating new one in order to increase/decrease bx o Narrowing—restricting bx to limited set of stimuli o Cue Strengthening—linking bx for increase to specific cue o Competing Responses—identifying and eliminating responses that block desirable bx or encouraging responses that block undesirable bx o Effective when they are implemented at beginning of response chain Stress Inoculation Training • Meichenbaum • 3 steps: o Cognitive Preparation—educating ct as to how faulty cog prevents appropriate and adaptive coping o Skills Acquisition—learning and rehearsing new skills, such as relaxation, making appropriate self-­‐statements o Practice—applying what learned to real or imagines situations on gradual basis • Promising and useful tech for remediating aggressive bx and impulsive anger Hypnotherapy © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
17
•
•
•
•
•
•
State of relaxed wakefulness, w relative suspension of peripheral awareness 3 factors: o Absorption—completely engrossed in central experience, while at same time ignoring thoughts, memories, or motor activities in periphery o Dissociation—ordinary func of consciousness and mem are altered in some way o Suggestibility—tendency to be less inhibited and restricted while in trance-­‐like state Retrieve feelings/mem that have not been accessible by other methods o Retrieved mem are likely to be distorted and in some research, hypnotized sub were reluctant to admit that mem were inaccurate Dissociative d/o, conversion symptoms, PTSD Contraindicated—psychotic d/o, paranoid and suspicious pts, OC personality traits, severe depression, mania Can be effective o Most effective when goal is to build sense of control in pt over own emotional experiences and bx manifestations thereof Biofeedback • Identifying physiological variables for purpose of helping ind develop greater sensory awareness of body func such as BP, heart rate, temp, muscle tension, brain waves o Achieved by using electronic instrumentation to monitor responses then providing info to ind to improve control of responding • EMG (electromyography)—degree of relaxation or contraction/tension o Tension HA o Equally effective as relaxation tx o Chronic pain, muscle stiffness, incot, urinary urgency/freq, stress • Skin temp and blood flow control o Thermal handwarming—most commonly used biofeedback method for migraine HA § Reduce pressure on muscles in forehead by reducing blood flow to extracranial arteries § More effective with migraines than relaxation • Neurofeedback/EEG (electroencephalogram)—notes brain wave activity o Depression, epilepsy, aiding in recovery from strokes/BI, ADHD Other CBT Tech/Tx • Paradoxical Intention—person avoids certain bx because ANTICIPATORY ANX • Circumvent anticipatory anx, which is seen as primary prob o Instructing ct to “do, or wish for, v things they fear” and prescribing symptom for which ct seeks cure o Engaging in bc is incompatible w fear of that bx and fear is neutralized • Insomnia o More effective than other CBT tech • Elimination d/o, depression, procrastination, anx Guided Imagery © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
18
•
Imagery tech: o Identify automatic thoughts o Increase self-­‐control o Distraction tech o Visualize desired life outcomes Motivational Interviewing • Help ct resolve ambivalence, build commitment, and reach decision to change • Examination and resolution of ambivalence is central purpose o Ambivalence is main obstacle to overcome in triggering change o Change is elicited from w/in ct o It is ct’s task to articulate and resolve ambivalence o Ct’s autonomy, freedom of choice, ad consequences regarding bx is respected by tx • 5 basic principles: o Express empathy through reflective listening o Develop discrepancy btw ct’s goals and current prob bx o Avoid argumentation and direct confrontation o Roll w resistance rather than directly opposing it o Support self-­‐efficacy for change Narrative Therapy • Importance of life stories people tell and diff that can be made through telling and re-­‐
authoring stories • Process of externalization separates ct from prob enabling him to consider prob, and relationship w it, differently • Encourages to re-­‐author their life stories w alternative stories of self-­‐identity along their preferred ways of life and to think of lives w/in framework of diff stories • Tech: o Excavating unique outcomes o Thickening new plot o Linking now plot to past and future o Write stories recalling experiences Schema Therapy • Integrates CBT, attachment, Gestalt, obj-­‐relations, constructivist, and psychoanalytic to treat chronic characterological aspects of d/o by addressing core psych themes typical to ind w characterological d/o • Core themes—Early Maladaptive Schemas o Self-­‐defeating emotional and cog patterns that begin early in development and repeat throughout life o Maladaptive bx develop as response to schemas but are not part of them • Strategies: o Exploring therapist-­‐ct relationship, maladaptive coping styles, using emotive tech © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
19
•
•
Also has been blended w mindfulness meditation to add spiritual dimension Chronic depression, anx, eating d/o, long-­‐standing diff in maintaining intimate relationships, and sub abuse relapse Psychodrama • Grp tx • Opportunity to play roles in spontaneous performance of issues and practice new more effective bx/roles • Experimental methods, role theory, sociometry, grp dynamics to facilitate insight, personal growth, and integration on cog, bx and affective levels • 3 components: o Warm-­‐up—grp theme is identified and protagonist (ind rep theme of drama) and auxiliary egos (ind assume roles of sign others in drama) are selected w help from director o Action—prob is dramatized and protagonist explores new methods to resolving o Sharing—after, discussion • Trauma, sub abuse, depression, anx, grief and loss Morita Therapy • Psych of action—Japanese • Originally to treat anx and neurosis • Feelings are acknowledged and accepted as uncontrollable and focus of tx is on taking constructive action, not alleviation of discomfort or attainment of some ideal feeling state o Doesn’t deal w past, inner dynamics, emotions directly o Emphasis—learning to accept internal fluc of thoughts/feelings and to ground bx in reality and purpose of moment • Progress is measured in degree of responsiveness to bx demands and in effort for self improvement o Deals w changing bx and dysfunctional cog through reframing meaning of anx, focusing on attitudinal blocks to bx and taking personal responsibility for bx • Naikan Therapy—psych of reflection o What have I received from? o What have I given to? o What troubles/difficulties have I caused to? o Self-­‐reflection o Often combined w Morita Tx FAMILY THERAPY Systems Theory • System—grp of interacting components/parts which together constitute entire org o Emphasizes relationships and transactional patterns • Fam is considered: o Open system—able to receive energy by interacting w environment © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
20
•
o Closed system—resistent to change because of rigid or impermeable boundaried § Rigidity leads fam toward d/o and disorg Properties of Fam System o Wholeness—every part of system is interrelated § If change enters one part, other parts are also changed o Non-­‐summativity—whole is greater than sum of its parts o Equifinality—diff causes lead to same end result for fam § Patterns of bx that are crucial to systems tx, not ind topics or controversies o Homeostasis—tendency for system to restore status quo in event of change or disruption in system o Neg Feedback—maintenance of fam’s homeostasis by attempting to correct deviations in status qup § Restores comfortable equilibrium of system o Pos Feedback—disruption of fam’s homeostasis Communication/Interaction Therapy • Mental Health Institute in Palo Alto • All bx is form of communication has been incorporated into many diff therapies o Double Blind Comm—2 aspects of same comm contradicting each other § Results in frustrating conflict in person receiving message o Metacommunication—comm takes place on 2 levels: § Report—intended verbal statement § Command—implicit non-­‐verbal message and represents metacomm o Symmetrical Comm—comm in which there is equality btw communicators § Leads to competition and conflict as each vies for control over other o Complementary Comm—inequality, w one partner taking dominant role and other subordinate role § Complementary—reciprocal nature of giving and taking of instructions or asking/answering questions Extended Fam Systems Therapy • Murray Brown • Viewed dysfunction as part of intergenerational process • Theoretical Constructs o Differentiation of Self—ind’s ability to separate intellectual and emotional func § Lower ability to diff, more likely person will become “Fused” w other fam mem’s emotions and prob o Triangulation—triad that occurs when 2 fam mem in conflict involve 3rd person in conflict o Nuclear Fam Emotional System—mech nuclear fam uses to deal w tension and instability o Fam Projective Process—projection of parental conflict and general fam dysfunction onto children © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
21
o Emotional Cutoff—methods children use to remove selves from emotional ties to parents § Lack of self-­‐differentiation o Multigenerational Transmission Process—escalation of fam dysfunction through several generations § Leads to severe dysfunction o Sibling Position—birth order § Order influences fam functioning in many ways o Societal Regression—impact of societal stress on fam system •
Goals and Tech o Goal=differentiation of self in all fam mem o Tech: § Genograms—schematic diagram of fam system, describing at least 3 generations of fam relationships, geographical locations, and sign life events • Gain info about fam patterns and hx § Triangulation—tx often will cast self as neutral 3rd mem in THERAPEUTIC TRIANGLE • Helps 2 fam mem reduce level of fusion btw them and achieve higher self-­‐diff Structural Fam Therapy • Salvador Minuchin • Sees fam as organism, complex system that is underfunctioning • Therapist undermines existing homeostasis, creating crises that jar system toward development of better func org • Theoretical Constructs: o Fam System o Fam Structure—fam mems relate to each other according to implicit structure o Subsystems o Boundaries—rules that determine amount and type of contact allowed btw fam mem § Enmeshment—overly unclear boundaries that promote dependence § Disengagement—results from overly rigid boundaries that promote isolation § Triangulation—each parent demands that child side w him against other § Detouring—spouses reinforce deviant bx in child because it takes focus off of prob they are having w each other § Stable coalition—one parent could join w child against other parent • Goals and Tech o Goal=restructure fam due to fam dysfunction resulting from inflexibility in fam structure o Tech—directive and oriented toward bringing about concrete changes in bx and fam interactions © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
22
§
§
§
§
Joining—tx blends w fam system • Using MIMESIS (adopting fam’s style and lang) and TRACKING (identifying w fam’s values and hx) Creating Fam Map—charts transactional patterns of mem Restructuring Fam: • Enactment—fam relationships and situations are role played so they can be understood and changed • Reframing—fam bx is relabeled in more + light Blocking—keeping fam from engaging in normal way of func so that it is forced to adopt new interactional patterns Strategic Fam Therapy • Jay Haley • Strategic intervention—strategies tx uses to reduce/eliminate symptoms w/in fam system • Tx is power struggle btw ct/fam and tx • Maintenance of fam homeostasis underlies fam dysfunction • Goals and Tech: o Goal=intervene and effect change as quickly as possible, focusing on current prob § Identify prob and factors that maintain it o Tech: § Directives—direct instructions to fam mems • Intended to promote change and can be straightforward or paradoxical o Paradoxical directive—instruction to engage in symptomatic bx § If directive is resisted, symptom is given up § Reframing—relabeling bx to make it more amenable to tx change • Giving new meaning to or altering meaning of situation § Circular Questioning—interviewing tech designed to help tx and fam learn more about patterns in fam relationship • Helps fam mem view fam probs in new light and makes fam more amenable to change Operant Interpersonal Therapy • Marital tx that is based on principles of operant conditioning and social exchange theory • Distressed marriages have fewer rewarding exchanges and more punishing exchanges and these punishing exchanges are typically reciprocated by each partner causing vicious circle to develop o Encourages couples to focus on + aspects of each other and to use reciprocal reinforcement or “quid pro quo” Object-­‐Relations Fam Therapy © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
23
Rooted in psychanalysis Core tenet is insight is core requirement for fam change o Prob in current relationships btw fam mem can be interpreted in terms of transference resulting from early mother-­‐child relationship • Non-­‐directive listening, analysis of transference/countertransference/resistance, development of supportive and tolerant therapeutic environment o Interpretations of child’s play GROUP THERAPY • Moreno—creating grp therapeautic movt • Yalom Composition of Grps • Heterogenous vs. homogeneous • Influences on Bx: o Developmental level o Gender—more important for children o Intelligence—most important in grp composition o Stability—more cohesive and accepting, less prone to conflict and mistrust § Closed grp—begins/ends w same cts § Open grp—allows new mems • Less stable o Size—most effective when 7-­‐10 Stages of Grp Therapy • 3 formative stages: o Orientation, participation, search for meaning, dependency § Rules, structure, purpose of grp § Hesitant to divulge personal info o Conflict, dominance, rebellion § Establish their place in grp § Comm. Becomes more hostile and critical, esp towards tx o Development of cohesiveness § Trust each other and tx more § Comm. Becomes more supportive and + § Increased self-­‐disclosure, greater participation, and adherence to grp norms Role of Grp Leader • Needs to be knowledgeable about grp dynamics and be able to handle and manage conflicts • Able to handle multiple transferences and countertransferences • Able to encourage participation from all grp mem • Co-­‐therapists o Advantages: •
•
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
24
§ Complement and support each other § Broaden range of possible transferential rxns § Male-­‐female team is associated w fam o Disadvantages: § Prob in relationship btw co-­‐tx Benefits of Grp Therapy • Therapeutic factors o Installation of hope o Universality o Imparting info o Altruism o Recapitulation of primary fam grp o Development of socializing tech o Imitative bx o Interpersonal learning o Cohesiveness o Catharsis o Existential factors • Most important are interpersonal learning, cohesiveness, and catharsis o Cohesiveness—most associated w grp mem improvement and outcome success Concurrent Participation in Ind and Grp Therapy • Advantages: o Issues in grp can be explored in ind o Grp tx can often complement ind o Borderline and narcissistic PD • Prob: o Since ct receives more attn in ind, may be more inclined to express self and self-­‐
disclose in ind Confidentiality in Grp Therapy • Mem are NOT legally obligated to maintain confidentiality CRISIS INTERVENTION, BRIEF THERAPY, INTEGRATION AND OTHER THERAPIES Crisis Intervention • Brief tx for survivors of physical stress, suicides, rapes, alcoholism, abuse and battery, and emergency psychiatric prob • Any immediate short-­‐term tx for persona in such distress that he cannot cope adequately w/o outside help • Goals and Characteristics o Short commitment o Learn more effective coping o Immediate symptom reduction © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
25
Restoration of previous level of func Preventing further psych breakdowns and dysfunctions Tx is supportive, active and emphasizes cog and bx elements of crisis Goal=eliminate symptoms and distress in shortest possible time w least amt of suffering Stages of Crisis Intervention o Formulation—identification of specific crisis and ct’s rxn to it o Implementation—assessment of ct’s life prior to crisis, setting of specific short-­‐
term goals, and implementation of tech to achieve goals o Termination—achieving goals is assessed o
o
o
o
•
Brief Psychotherapy • Goals o Remove/reduce ct’s most severe symptoms as quickly as possible o Restore ct to previous emotional equilibrium o Help ct acquire understanding and skills so that he copes better in future • Time limits—achieved in limited period of time (25 sessions or less) • Therapeutic alliance—primary change strategy o Ability to stay focused on ct’s primary prob o Willingness to adopt active role o Flexibility in choice and application of intervention strategies • Selection of ct’s—best suited for those symptoms that have acute onset, who exhibited satisfactory adjustment before onset, and have high initial motivation and relate well to others Solution-­‐Focused Therapy • Short-­‐term, goal-­‐oriented approach o Helps cts change by constructing solutions rather than dwelling on prob/root causes • Assumptions that ct already possesses resources necessary to achieve desired goals and solutions • Therapist only intervenes to extent necessary • Tx usually lasts less than 6 sessions • Goals and Tech o Generate solutions to prob by: § Formula tasks (Rx for change) § Direct/indirect compliments § Skeleton keys (suggestions for unlocking solution) § Future-­‐oriented questions • Exception question—asking for time when prob did not exist, leading to self-­‐fulfilling prophecy) • Scaling question—rating prob as worst ever been to best possible © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
26
Miracle question—visualizing absence of prob and resultant effect § Narratives o Outcome results are limited o Effective w juvenile offenders, substance abuse tx and at-­‐risk students •
Integration and Other Therapies • Psychotherapy integration o Attends to relationship btw tech and theory o Common Factors—aspects present in most approaches to therapy across all theoretical lines and in all activities o Assimilative Integration—therapist has commitment to one theoretical approach but also is willing to use tech from other approaches o Theoretical Integration—most difficult level to achieve integration as it requires integrating concepts from diff theoretical approached wherein basic philosophy in each theory may differ § Attempts to bring together differing theories and develop Grand Unified Theory o Technical Eclecticism—variation of assimilative § Variety of tech utilized, however there is no unifying theoretical understanding that underlies approach § Unconcerned w theory, instead relies on experience and knowledge to select interventions most appropriate for ind as benefit to ind is greater than adhering to any one theory • Eclectic Psychotherapy o Interventions are borrowed from various orientations to enhance overall clinical efficiency o Multimodal Therapy (MMT) § Lazarus § Areas of ct’s life § Bx, affect/affective response, sensations, imagery, cog, interpersonal relationships, and need for drugs/exercise/nutrition § Essentially psycho-­‐ed • Many prob arise from misinfo and missing info and focuses on results or outcomes o Prescriptive Eclectic Therapy § Open system, ct-­‐focused approach in which tx adjust therapeutic relationships and psych tc to ind needs of ct by matching most effective methods from diff approaches to ind cts cases based on empirically supported guidelines • Synergy of awareness and action • Complementary nature of psychotherapy systems • Identification of empirical markers for selecting psych therapies § Prescriptive matching © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
27
o Transtheoretical Model of Change § Stages of change § Integrates interventions from various theories and distinguishes btw 6 stages people pass through in process of change: • Precontemplation—denial, resistance, no plans to change o Little insight • Contemplation—begins to recognize need for or benefits of change o Plans to change w/in next 6 mo but not yet committed to it • Preparation—indication of clear intent or decision to take action w/in next 30 days o May have begun to take small steps towards change • Action—actively engaging in making changes or acquiring new bx • Maintenance—maintained action for at least 6 mo o Actively working to prevent relapse • Termination Interpersonal Psychotherapy • Present-­‐oriented, short-­‐term and highly structured • Integrates biological and psychosocial approaches w emphasis on interpersonal prob and looks at social func • Depression and interpersonal distress Somatic Therapies • Drug therapy • ECT • Psychosurgery CROSS-­‐CULTURAL ISSUES Emic-­‐Etic Distinction • Emic—real, sign, or meaningful from viewpoint of participants of particular culture o Studying culture from inside and trying to see it as its own members do • Etic—scientific community of observers in particular culture recognizes as real, sign, or cross-­‐culturally valid o Studying from outside using universally accepted means of investigation Counseling Ethnic Minorities: General Issues • Worldview o Class-­‐bound values—valuing time boundaries, or strict adherence to time schedule; ambiguous and unstructured approach to prob solving; emphasis on long-­‐range goals and solutions o Culture-­‐bound values—focus on individualism vs collectivism; cause and effect relationships for ct prob; emphasis on emotional/verbal expression; active © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
28
•
•
participation and openness to discussing intimate issues; separation of physical and mental well-­‐being o Language variables—those in which standard English and verb comm. Are stressed Acculturation—process of change that occurs when one culture assimilates w another culture o Berry’s Acculturation Model § 2 independent dimensions: • Retention of minority culture • Maintenance of mainstream culture § 4 Models: • Integration—High retention of minority and high maintenance of mainstream • Assimilation—Low retention of minority and high maintenance of mainstream • Separation—High retention of minority and low maintenance of mainstream • Marginalization—Low retention of minority and low maintenance of mainstream § High levels of stress—marginalization and separation; mod levels—
assimilation; low levels—integration Therapist-­‐Ct Similarity o Impact relationship: § Attitude similarity—may be critical in preference for counselors § Therapist sensitivity—degree to which tx is culturally sensitive/aware § Racial/cultural identification—degree to which ct identifies w cultural background • Consistent w Minority Identity Development Model o Applies to AA and other minority grps who share experience of oppression o Stage 1—Conformity § Prefers dominant cultural values § Strong – feelings towards own culture § Strong + feelings towards dominant culture § Likely to prefer tx from majority o Stage 2—Dissonance § Cultural confusion and conflict § Active questioning of dominant culture’s treatment of minority § Psych need to resolve conflicting attitudes § Begins to challenge values and beliefs of previous stage o Stage 3—Resistance and Immersion § Actively rejects dominant society © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
29
•
•
§ Endorsed minority § Combating oppression and racism § Distrust and hatred of white society is strong § Get in touch w one’s hx, culture, traditions § Therapist from own minority preferred o Stage 4—Introspection § Conflict btw personal autonomy and rigid constraints of previous stage § Question notions of unequivocal loyalty to own culture and absolute rejection of dominant culture o Stage 5—Synergistic Articulation and Awareness § Resolves conflicts of previous stage § Sense of self-­‐fulfillment regarding cultural identity and greater feeling of ind autonomy § Desire to eliminate all forms of oppression becomes important motivator o Ind in stage 1 prefer white tx § Stages 2-­‐4=minority tx § Stage 5=tx whose attitudes and beliefs are similar Helm’s Racial Identity Models o Racial identity status affects how people relate to one another and distinguishes btw 4 interaction patterns: parallel, regressive, progressive, crossed o 2 phases (Abandonment of Racism and Defining Non-­‐racist White Identity) into 6 identity statuses: § Contact—ignorance and disregard of any racial diff • Limited contact w other races, oblivious to own whiteness and unaware of implications of racial/ethnic diff § Disintegration—awareness of whiteness and of racial inequalities producing emotional, psych, and moral confusion and conflict § Reintegration—resolve conflict by adopting position that whites are superior and minorities are inferior, and use beliefs to justify existing inequalities § Pseudo-­‐Independence—dissatisfaction w reintegration and re-­‐
examination of beliefs about race and racial inequalities § Immersion-­‐emersion—embrace whiteness w/o rejecting members of minority grps and attempt to determine how they can feel proud of race w/o being racist § Autonomy—internalize nonracist white identity that is based on realistic understanding of strengths and weaknesses of white culture and similarities and diff are acknowledged but are not perceived as threatening • Whites value and seek out cross-­‐racial interaction Model of Psychological Nigrescence o AA traverse 5 stages of growth toward more authentic AA identity © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
30
Pre-­‐Encounter—person’s worldview and values are dominated by Euro-­‐
American determinants • Most likely to believe integration and assimilation are solution to racial prob • Blame AA for own prob § Encounter—personal/social event that temporarily dislodges person from previous worldview • Makes person more receptive to new interpretations of identity and condition • Begins frantic and determined search for AA identity § Immersion-­‐Emersion—struggles to destroy all remnants of old identity and perspective and to clarify personal implications of new frame of reference • Denigrate Cauc. Ind and culture while simultaneously deifying AA ind and culture § Internalization—resolves conflicts btw old and new worldviews • Ideological flexibility, psych openness, self-­‐confidence • Anti-­‐Cauc feelings decline § Internalization-­‐Commitment—find ways to translate newly internalized identity into activities that are meaningful to grp • Makes meaningful and mature commitment to political activism in order to improve condition of AA Communication Styles o High-­‐context Comm—heavily on restricted codes, culturally-­‐defined meanings, and non-­‐verbal messages § More characteristic of AA, Asian, Hispanic, Native Am o Low-­‐contect Comm—emphasizes verbal messages and elaborated codes § More characteristic of Anglo-­‐Am Power and Status Position o Ind in positions of low power and status are better reading/perceiving mem of higher status grp than those of higher status reading lower status Healthy Cultural Paranoia o Normal response of AA and other ethnic/racial minorities to oppression and racism Cultural Encapsulation o Defines reality according to one set of cultural assumptions o Becomes insensitive to cultural variations among cts o Disregards evidence disproving assumptions, is unaware of own cultural bias o Defines counseling in terms of dogmatically accepted tech and strategies, depends on quick-­‐fix solutions to prob, and judges others from one’s own self-­‐
reference criteria o Culturally Universality—assumption that Western concepts of normality and abnormality can be considered universal and equally applicable across all cultures §
•
•
•
•
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
31
•
•
•
o Culturally-­‐competent Counselor—recognizes and appreciates cultural diff and is able to work effectively w mem of diff cultural grps Cultural Empathy o Therapist understands and appreciates cultural diff in way that extends boundaries of traditional empathy, retaining separate cultural identity while simultaneously aware of and accepting cultural values and beliefs of ct Cultural Overgeneralization o Therapist assumes that all ct’s presenting prob are directly related to ct’s culture rather than other factors Diagnostic Overshadowing o Tendency to attribute all bx, social and emotional prob to diagnosis or psychpath while alternative explanations and comorbid dx are often not considered Counseling AA Cts • More nonverbal, more emotional, more concrete • Most successful tx when prob-­‐oriented and time-­‐limited • Recommend use of multisystems approach—considering multiple systems that impact ind and fam func Counseling Hispanic Cts • Patriarchial • Approach to tx that stresses personal contact and attn • Use more active, goal-­‐oriented tx plan • Consider importance of fam in tx • Be aware of need for bilingual prof • Cuento Therapy o Folktale o Reading cuentos and then leading grp discussion about them o Focus on character’s bx and moral Counseling Native Am Cts • Know details of particular tribe and fam system • Prefer non-­‐directive, hx-­‐oriented, accepting and cooperative approach • Goal=happiness, wisdom, peace w nature Counseling Asian-­‐Am Cts • Fam, age, and sex are major determinants of social roles • Fam tend to be traditional, patriarchal, respectful of elders • Fam and cultural roles are well defined and rigid • Prob are usually addressed w/in fam structure, leading to under use of MH services • Direct, structured, short-­‐term approach • Place presenting prob in context of academic/voc issue © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
32
Counseling Elderly Cts • Therapy involves guiding through identity transitions, helping become involved in satisfying relationships and activities, understanding common occurrence of depression • Reminiscence Therapy—life review to facilitate acceptance of successes and shortcomings in one’s life • Depression • May respond more slowly to various forms of psychotherapy Counseling Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Cts • Identity development: o Identity awareness o Identity comparison o Identity tolerance o Identity acceptance o Identity pride o Synthesis • Sexual prejudice—neg attitudes toward ind because of sexual orientation • Minority Stress Model—distal and proximal factors that contribute to MH outcomes o Distal—external, objective events and conditions o Proximal—ind’s perceptions and appraisals of events/conditions PSYCHOTHERAPY OUTCOMES Major Research Reviews and Meta-­‐analysis • Eysenck—therapy does not yield sign diff results from no therapy • Pts undergoing psychotherapy are better off than controls receiving no tx • No particular tx is better than any other Client Variables • Intelligence—higher • Openness/Nondefensiveness—cooperative • Age—little relationship to tx outcome • Gender—no consistent relationship • Motivation—inconsistent • Understanding of goals—being clear on goals is moderate predictor • SES • Personality Characteristics—ego strength, suggestibility, anx tolerance—positive outcomes • Expectations—extremely high or low about tx tend to not do as well as those w mod expectations Therapist Variables • Age—v weakly associated • Ethnicity—has not been found to be factor © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
33
• Emotional well-­‐being—modest relationship • Expectations—positive outcome is increased when ct expectations addressed • Professional background and experience—little support • Self-­‐disclosure—inconsistent • Orientation—v little variance • Gender—no sign relationship • Competence—most important Treatment Variables • Therapeutic alliance—most of variance in outcome is accounted for by working alliance • Type of tx o Manual-­‐guided tx—detail theoretical underpinnings of tx, tx goals, and specific strategies and guidelines § Inconsistent and not found to have better outcomes o Best Practice—approached tx that have empirical evidence to support effectiveness • Durations—ambiguous o Up to point (around 26 sessions), fairly linear + correlation Other Issues in Tx Outcome Research • Therapy outcomes w children/adolescents o As effective as tx for adults o Girls respond to tx better than boys § Adolescent girls responding best of all • Phase Model of psychotherapy Effectiveness o Ct stage model that outlines progressive, 3-­‐stage sequence of change § Remoralization—ct’s subjective well-­‐being and occurs during first few sessions • Improvement in ct’s feelings of hopelessness and desperation § Remediation—symptom reduction and relief • 5-­‐15th sessions § Rehabilitation—gradual improvement of various aspects of life func PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING Personality Inventories • MMPI-­‐2 o Empirical criterion keying—large # of people in diff grps are asked to respond to large # of test items o Content analysis—Initially based on content o Clinical Scales: § Hypochondriasis—1 § Depression—2 © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
34
•
•
§ Hysteria—3 § Psychopathic deviate—4 § Masculinity-­‐Feminity—5 § Paranoia—6 § Psychasthenia—7 § Schizophrenia—8 § Hypomania—9 § Social Introversion—0 o Conversion V—high 1, low 2, high 3 § Somaticize psychological problems o Psychotic V—high 6, low 7, high 8 o Passive-­‐aggressive V—high 4, low 5, high 6 o Validity scales § ?/Cannot say-­‐-­‐# items unanswered § L—high=unwilling to admit minor short-­‐comings • Low=independence, direct or blunt responding, exaggeration of – characteristics § F—faking good/bad • Low=lack sign psychopath and social conformity tendency • High=deviant or antisocial personality, deliberate malingering, eccentricity/contracting responses § K—defensiveness • Identify tendency to try to make self look better or deny psychpath • High=does not want to reveal conflicts o Faking good • Low=low self-­‐image, not func well § TRIN/VRN/FB • Tendency to endorse items in consistent way MCMI-­‐III SCL-­‐90 (Symptom Checklist 90)—self-­‐report inventory o General psych symptoms of anx, depression, somatization, OCD, hostility NEO Personality Inventory—Big Five personality traits •
Projective Tech • Rorschach o Age 2/+ o Scoring/Interpretation § Location • Whole responses=intellectual ability to organize one’s environment into meaningful concept • Higher # Dd=compulsiveness, avoidance, and “cog flight” from reality due to stress § Determinants—characteristic of inkblot § Content—category of specific percepts/subjects © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
35
Human=lack of human content suggests identity prob and detachment from others § Frequency • Populars—high #=excessive concentionality, defensiveness, depression, or low IQ o Low=rebellious, sometimes seen in ind suffering from thought d/o • TAT—Murray’s theory of needs • Drawings—represents expression of self or body image Interest Inventories • Strong-­‐Campbell Interest Inventory—personal interests o General Occupational Themes—Holland’s theory o Basic Interest Scales o Scores for main body of SCII—Occupational Scales o Newly Revised Strong Interest Inventory—general representative sample § General Occ. Themes—Holland’s 6 themes, expanded to include workplace changes § Basic Interest Scales—more contemporary interests § Occ. Scales—greater emphasis on technology and business-­‐related occupation items § Personal Style Scales—Work Style, Learning Environment, Leadership Style, Risk Taking, Team Orientation § Administrative Indices—types and consistency of responses • Kuder Vocational Preference Record o Interests in 10 broad voc areas o Based on content validity o Ipsative scores—convey relative strengths and weaknesses of interests w/in examinee o Kuder Occ. Interest Survey § Unlike Strong tests, selected items that distinguish btw diff occ grps instead of general reference sample § Occ Scales, College Major Scales, Voc Interest Estimates, Dependability Indices o Kuder Career Search § Activity Scale—10 activity preferences § Kuder Career Clusters—test-­‐taker’s pattern of interests Neuropsych Tests • NP Batteries o Halstead-­‐Reitan o LNNB—provides more thorough assessment of neurological deficits and BI than HR • Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test •
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
36
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
o Assessing school readiness, LD, predicting school performance, BI, emotional prob o Benton Visual Retention Test—identify BI o Beery Developmental Test of Visual-­‐Motor Integration—visual-­‐motor ages 3-­‐18 Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities o Age 2-­‐10 o Assesses channels, processes, and levels WCST Stroop Tower of London o Move disks into certain configuration MMSE Glasgow Coma Scale Rancho scale COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY • Differentiates from other psych through its unique theoretical orientation and values and commitment to concrete social change through research and practice • Attempts to “reframe” traditional questions in psych o Advocates conceptual shift away from individual factors and environmental ones § Environmental factors—all larger “mediating structures” that make up context of individual o Advocates set of values—empowerment, promoting sense of community involvement, respect for cultural diversity, explicit commitment to social change • Community Mental Health Center Act o Govt has assumed major role in promoting mental health o Funding and guidelines for community mental health centers, that provide various services within area o 23% of mental health treatment occurs in these centers • Federal Community Mental Health Act o Passed in 1963 and revised in 1980 o Programs: § Short-­‐term hospitalization for mental pts § Outpatient, residential and aftercare services for d/c mental pts § Emergency mental health tx that is available 24 hrs § Specialized services for children and aged • Awareness of importance of prevention is more prevalent o Efforts have resulted more in expansion of old practices than creation of new ones PREVENTION © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
37
Shifts focus from individual to environmental context Rather than treating symptoms, aims to engender competent communities that do not foster mental illness in first place • Types of Prevention: o Tertiary—prevent recurrence of illness and reduce long-­‐term duration and consequences § “closest” to illness § Occur only AFTER onset of illness and AFTER symptoms have been treated o Secondary—early detection and treatment of problem before full-­‐blown illness develops, or intervention to keep problem from getting worse o Primary—addresses mediating system structures that lead to development of illness § “furthest” from illness—most preventative in nature § Carried out BEFORE onset of disease and involves preventing its occurrence SUICIDE •
•
•
•
Ninth leading cause of death in US Risk Factors: o Hx of attempted suicide o Age—progressively rises over age 65, with highest over 85 § Greatest increase has been among 15-­‐24, especially males o Sex—males commit suicide more, females attempt more § Higher rate of success with males=methods used o Race—white commit more than non-­‐whites § Rates for non-­‐white rising, especially ages 15-­‐24 o Marital Status—marriage lessens risk § Rate higher for single, never married § Higher for widows § Even higher for divorced § Greatest first yr after losing spouse o History—fam hx o Diagnosis—95% have diagnosed mental disorder § Depressive d/o, substance abuse, schizophrenia have highest risk of completion § Mood d/o w/ psychosis=5x greater § Increased when depressive symptoms begin to improve o Bx—state intention to commit suicide § Greater with specific plan and means of carrying out plan § Bx consistent w decision to die o Other: § Hopelessness § Recent life stress § Physical illness—elderly © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
38
•
Adolescents o Second leading cause of death among older adolescents o Increase rate ages 15-­‐24 o Most common method for male/females is firearms § Increased when intoxicated and when firearms available at home o Predictors: § Diagnosis of depression § Use of drugs § Antisocial bx § Others: • Previous suicidality • Direct/indirect exposure to suicide of another • Precipitant—interpersonal loss, especially loss that involves personal humiliation o Suicide in school/one that receives media ttn. tends to be imitated o Attempts are often impulsive and may represent attempt to manipulate others, gain ttn./affection, express anger, or obtain some benefit o Prevention: § “Most ominous warning signs”—talking about one’s own death, reunion with deceased, giving away possessions • Social withdrawal, poor coping skills, self-­‐destructive bx •
Older Adults o Increase drastically starting at age 65 and 85 y/o white men are 4x more likely than 20 y/o men o Less likely to communicate intent, more likely to use violent/lethal method, less likely to attempt suicide as way to gain ttn. o Risk factors: § Poor health § Depression § Schizophrenia § Alcohol dependent § Organic brain d/o o Warning signs: § Destructive bx § Altering will § Becoming negative and hostile in interpersonal relations Prevention o Hospitalization: § High risk § Psychotic, intoxicated, or debilitating medical condition § Does not have adequate support system o Outpatient § Risk is low to moderate •
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
39
§
§
§
Adequate support system Hx vague/non-­‐lethal threats/gestures Techniques: • “No suicide” contracts • Increasing frequency of contact w clt • Providing ct w emergency phone numbers • Involving fam and friends in tx • No access to firearms SUPERVISION/CONSULTATION •
•
•
Voluntary relationship btw professional helper and individual group/social unit o Consultant is expert/specialist and is hired on ad-­‐hoc basis to solve specific work-­‐related problem Consultation vs. supervision o Supervision=continuous basis o Supervisor=administrative authority, consultant=free to reject suggestions of consultant o Consultant=not member of consultee’s organization o Consultation=specific problem, supervision=general work-­‐related activities o Consultation=relationship is voluntary and able to terminate Forms of Consultation o Mental Health/Psychodynamic Consultation § Maximizing social/emotional development of clients under consultee’s care § Client-­‐Centered Case Consultation—helping consultee develop plan to work more effectively w particular ct § Consultee-­‐Centered Case Consultation—focused on problems w/in consultee • Problems may involve lack of knowledge, skill or ability • May involve emotional issues on part of consultee • THEME INTERFERENCE—type of transference that may be focus of consultation in organizations o Unresolved conflict, related to life experience/fantasy affects perception/handling of work-­‐related prob § Program-­‐Centered Administrative Consultation—working w administration to suggest some actions consultees might take in order to develop, expand or modify clinical/agency program © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
40
Consultee-­‐Centered Administrative Consultation—difficulties w consultee that limit effectiveness in administering program or bringing about program change o Behavioral/Educational Consultation § Bringing about change in consultees or clients through use of behavioral methods o Systems/Process Consultation § Entire organization is viewed as consultee and is targeted for change § Improving satisfaction among members of organization will improve organization as whole § Focuses on improving interpersonal skills § Clarify and refurbish norms and roles in order to improve interpersonal and subsystem processes § Develop sustained organizational capacity for solving problems o Advocacy Consultation § Set of activities performed by consultant to further goals of disenfranchised group § Bringing about institutional change in order to benefit consultee §
MENTAL HEALTH HOSPITALS AND DEINSTITUTIONALIZATION •
•
•
Rates of mental illness are higher for females than males, admission rates to state/county psychiatric hospitals are higher for males o Men=much more likely to engage in “acting out” bx that are considered dangerous and threatening to society Largest population of psych inpts are 25-­‐44 y/o o For males, second largest is 18-­‐24 y/o o For females, second is 45-­‐64 y/o o Highest: never been married, then… § Divorced/separated § Married § Widowed o Majority are white, but when population proportions considered, members of minority are overrepresented Deinstitutionalization o Discharge of large number of pts from public psychiatric hospitals § Ongoing trend that began in 1950s § Community should be responsible for mental health of its citizens § Psychotropic drugs have also contributed © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
41
o Pts have been released into various aftercare clinics, where they cont to receive psychiatric and rehab services § Also halfway houses and board-­‐and-­‐care facilities § End result= “revolving door” • Pts have been readmitted to mental hospitals • Initially, up to 80% were readmitted in first 2 yrs § Readmission contributes to poor coordination btw hospital and community mental health centers, in adequate psych f/u, and lack of govt support for residential programs o Not nearly as successful as had been hoped § Fomented wholesale neglect of chronically disabled psych population § Usually results in increase of symptomatology because support systems are not available o Involuntary Commitment § Power of state to commit person involuntarily to mental institution has historically been based on principle of parens patriae or right of State to regulate person’s life if State believed person is incapable of doing so him/herself • Wyatt v. Stickney o Court in Alabama ruled States that commit person under this principle are obliged to provide adequate treatment § “Need for Treatment” under doctrine is no longer sufficient reason for involuntary hospitalization • Donaldson v. O’Conner o Finding of mental illness alone could not justify locking person up against will and keeping him indefinitely in simple custodial confinement • There is still no constitutional basis for confining such person’s involuntarily if they are dangerous to no one and can live safely in freedom § Specific bx criterion used by most Stated is whether person is dangerous to self/others • Most common safeguard is “2-­‐PC” where 2 physicians must agree that pt needs to be hospitalized involuntarily o Mental Pts and Criminal Proceedings § Competency to stand trial • Defendant must understand nature of proceedings against him and must be able to cooperate with defense counsel § When found incompetent, commitment lasting appr. 6 mo usually follows • Treat mental illness and get defendant back to court to stand trial © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
42
•
When not expected to improve, “Jackson” hearing is held in order to establish individual will not regain competency in foreseeable future o Charges against are automatically dropped and he can be retained only under civil commitment procedures o Not Guilty by Reason of Insanity § “M’Naghten test”—stipulates that defendant must have known wrongfulness of act at time of offense in order to be found “sane” • Added bx criterion that must be present for finding of “insanity”—act must be result of “irresistible impulse” § Durham test—established criminal act had to be “product” of mental illness • Overturned in 1972 and replaced with American Law Institute Rule (ALI rule) o Exculpate (declare guiltless) those crimincal acts where defendant was unable to appreciate criminality of action and was unable to conform actions to law § 1985—added that defense must prove presence of insanity by “clear and convincing evidence” § If found not guilty by reason of insanity, defendant usually committed involuntarily to inpt psych hospital until found to be no longer dangerous RESEARCH ISSUES •
Child Abuse o Characteristics of Abused Children § Age—very young—younger than 2 § Gender—early childhood, males physically abused more • Adolescence—females more • Sexual abuse, younger girls and older boys • Physical abuse is same for boys/girls, but girls more for sexual abuse § Premature and difficult births § Poor school achievement and delays in cognition § Aggressiveness § More problems in relationships w teachers and adults § Children may develop attachments to those who cause them distress o Characteristics of Abusive Adults § SES—lower § Ethinicity—whites outnumber AA, although higher for nonwhites overall © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
43
Childhood Hx—parents being maltreated themselves • Almost all have hx of some form of deprivation § Psych Characteristics—10% psychotic • Wide range of emotional d/o • Described as immature, impulsive, dependent, sado-­‐
masochistic, egocentric, narcissistic, and demanding § Low tolerance for infant bx and be ignorant about normal child development § May misinterpret bx in negative ways and rely on harsh punishment and coercion to control child’s bx § Increased when fam is experiencing stress due to chronic poverty, social isolation, marital discord o Physical abuse puts child at risk not only to become abusive parent, but also to develop wide range of psychopathology § Severe personality d/o and illness in schizophrenic range o Only one parent typically involved in beating and other participates passively by covering up o In sexual abuse, abuser is typically either relative or close fam friend §
•
•
Assessment o Interviewing and observing alleged victims and perpetrators in attempt to determine if any characteristic signs of child abuse are present § Interviews with involved parties and witnesses § Observation of child § Psych testing o Anatomically correct dolls § Most commonly used with verbal children who lack skills or are too embarrassed to discuss sexual matters, or with preverbal and MR children § Help children who would otherwise be unable to discuss sexual abuse § Sexually abused children are more common to have aggressive play and play involving touching private parts § Facilitate memory for details of sexual abuse but it is unlikely to help child remember forgotten incidents of abuse § Do not appear to increase likelihood that children will fabricate stories of abuse Spouse Abuse o Characteristics of Abusive Husbands § Low self-­‐esteem § Feeling inadequate § Acceptance of stereotyped male role § Pathological jealousy § Tendency to blame other for actions § Fam hx of domestic violence © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
44
o
o
o
o
•
Rape § Inability to tolerate stress § Poor impulse control § Emotional dependence § Unrealistic expectations of marital relationship § Alcohol involved in majority of domestic violence cases Characteristics of Battered Wives § Low self-­‐esteem § Acceptance of stereotyped female role § Acceptance of responsibility for batter’s actions § Feelings of guilt § Numerous psychophysical complaints § “Martyrlike” bx § Belief that no one could help them escape predicament § Economic and/or emotional dependence on husband § Belief that they provoke anger and violence § Fam hx of domestic violence § Isolation from fam-­‐of-­‐origin § Pregnancy is risk factor for abuse Cycle of Violence § Tension-­‐Building—batterer is moody and tense and victim believes she must “walk on eggshells” to accommodate him and avoid setting him off § Acute Battering Incident—most intense and destructive incident of abuse occurs • May be physical beating or verbal assault • Inicident cannot be controlled or predicted § Honeymoon Phase—batterer is remorseful and apologetic • May promise never to do it again, shower w gifts • Complicates intervention because it represents time when it is most difficult for woman to leave, but also time when mental health professionals are most likely to be involved Factors Affecting Spouse Abuse § Relationship tends to remain fairly stable when balance btw costs of abuse and benefits of relationship are about equal § Pregnancy, presence of infants or teenagers, holidays, and major televised sporting event, unemployment increase severity/frequency Prevention and TX § Arresting and prosecuting violent offenders in fan abusive disputes o One of the most under-­‐reported crimes in country © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
45
o Act of aggression and humiliation that is expressed through sexual means o Characteristics of Rapist § Four categories: • Sexual sadist—aroused by pain of victims • Exploitative Predators—use victims for gratification in impulsive way • Inadequate Men—believe no women would voluntarily sleep with them and are obsessed with fantasies about sex • Men for whom rape is displaced expression of anger and rage § Tend to repeat act rather than isolate it as an unusual incident • Most rapes are planned in advance and committed in rapist’s own neighborhood • Social skills were found to be deviant and deficient • Sexual performance was often impaired during rape § Men are usually 25-­‐44 y/o § Alcohol involved § Rape occurs in accompaniment to other crimes, such as physical assault o Victims § Typically btw 15-­‐24 y/o § Same race § Member of lower SES § Regain psychological equilibrium within 6 mo to 1 yr after attack § Long-­‐term rxns include avoidance of sexual interaction, sexual symptoms, and symptoms of PTSD § Fare best when they receive immediate support and are able to ventilate fear and rage to supportive fam, drs, and law enforcement § Recovery is predicted by whether or not victim withdraws from environmental stimuli associated with attack •
Teen Pregnancy o US is highest rate of industrialized nations o Decline attributed to decreased sexual activity, increased condom use, use of injectable and implant contraceptives o Teen pregnancy prevention programs had no effect on sexual activity § Did increase use of contraceptives and decreased rate of pregnancy © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
46
MARRIAGE, CHILDBIRTH, and DIVORCE §
§
§
Those who are married are most satisfied w lives and healthier, physically and psychologically o Effect moderated by marital satisfaction § U shape btw length of time married and satisfaction • Decreases over first 10 yrs, w men showing effect earlier • For women, dissatisfaction occurs with children • Satisfaction increased at time when children leave home and at retirement age Women who terminate unwanted pregnancy o Risk of severe negative rxn increased if lacks support system, had psychological conflicts and poor coping abilities before pregnancy, blames herself for pregnancy, or had abortion during 2nd trimester o Spontaneous miscarriage tends to result in negative depressive rxn that lasts up to one yr Marital break-­‐up is associated w increased risk for psychopathology, physical illness, and suicide o Distress associated with divorce is strongest among older people and men in this population report more unhappiness ECONOMIC STATUS •
Highest admission rates in mental institutions and longest length of hospitalization o Decreases in both indices as one moves up the SES ladder © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
47
GROWTH AND LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT Foundations of Early Development NATURE VS NURTURE •
GxE Interaction—interaction of genetics and environment to produce given outcome •
•
Genetype—characteristics that are determined by info coded on genes Phenotype—person’s observable and measurable characteristics which develop from an interaction btw genetics and environment •
Range of Reaction—individual’s genetics set boundaries for possible phenotypes that can occur o Genes set boundaries for range of reaction but environment determines which outcomes will materialize o For many traits, reaction range is larger for those with high genetic endowment than those with low genetic endowment •
Critical Period—limited time span during which person is biologically prepared to acquire certain behaviors but requires the presence of appropriate environmental stimuli for development to actually occur Sensitive Period—critical period in humans o Though there are optimal times for certain capacities to develop, those capacities can develop, to some degree, at earlier or later times •
•
Maturation—genetically-­‐determined patterns of development o Environmental factors have little or no impact on maturationally-­‐
determined characteristics o Order in which behaviors emerge is same regardless of environmental factors •
Canalization—narrow developmental path that characteristics take due to being relatively resistant to environmental forces •
Secular Trends—provide evidence of impact of environment on development o Long-­‐term patterns/differences across different cohorts GENETIC INFLUENCES © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
48
•
Heritability Index—statistic used to estimate degree to which particular characteristic can be attributed to genetic factors o Estimates are obtained from kinship studies that compare individuals within family to one another •
Disorders Due to Recessive/Dominant Genes o Recessive: § Phenylketonuria (PKU)—lack enzyme needed to digest amino acid phenylalanine • In undigested form remains toxic agent in brain and causes severe MR • MR prevented by adherence to diet low in phenylalanine during first 6-­‐9 yrs (ex. Milk, eggs, fish, bread) § Tay-­‐Saschs § Sickle-­‐cell anemia § Cystic Fibrosis o Dominant: § Huntington’s Chorea—degenerative disorder of CNS • Characterized by cognitive, motor and psychiatric symptoms •
Disorders Due to Chromosomal Abnormalities o Additional Chromosomes: § Down Syndrome—Trisomy 21 • 1:800 live births • Frequency rises dramatically with maternal age • Characterized by moderate to profound MR and physical features (i.e. Short stocky build, flattened face, protruding tongue, almond shaped face) • Also often have heart abnormalities, thyroid dysfunction, malformations of intestinal tract, and susceptibility to respiratory infections o Sex-­‐Linked: § Klinefelter’s Syndrome—extra X • Males • Typical masculine interests in childhood and develop normal male identity, but show incomplete development of secondary sex characteristics and often sterile § Turner’s Syndrome—all or part of second X is missing • Female • Do not develop secondary sex characteristics, are sterile, and tend to have short stature, stubby fingers, and webbed neck § Fragile X Syndrome—weak site on X • Both male and female © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
49
•
o Negative effects are usually more evident in males who lack influence of normal X Unique constellation of physical, intellectual, and behavioral deficits (i.e. moderate-­‐severe MR, facial deformities, and rapid, staccato speech rhythm) PRENATAL INFLUENCES •
Teratogens—environmental agents (i.e. durgs, toxins, infections) that cause abnormalities by interfering with normal prenatal development o Germinal Period—conception to implantation (8-­‐10 days later) § Exposure may only damage few cells, have little or no effect on development, or may cause death o Embryonic Period—end of 2nd week to end of 8th week § Organism is more susceptible to major structural defects as result, mainly organs o Fetal Period—beginning 9th week to birth § Organ systems less affected, but exposure can cause less severe defects, especially for external genitalia and brain • Prolonged exposure tends to cause growth retardation and lowered IQ •
Most Commonly Encountered Teratogens o Alcohol—severe and largely irreversible abnormalities § Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)—vary depending on amount of alcohol consumed • Include growth retardation, facial deformities, microcephaly (small, underdeveloped brain), irritability, hyperactivity, and variety of neurological abnormalities • MR, with IQ averaging 65-­‐70 • Leading cause of MR in US § Fetal Alcohol Effects (FAE)—alcohol exposed but without full syndrome • More common • Present with 1 or more symptoms § 1:100 live births with FAS or FAE o Illegal Drugs § Herin or Methadone—increases risk for prematurity, low birth weight, physical abnormalities, respiratory disease, and morality at birth • Physically addicted to drug and display withdrawl symptoms at birth § Marijuana—low birth weight, muscle tremors, increased startle response and visual problems © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
50
Cocaine—retarded fetal growth, preterm birth and malformations of brain, intestinal and genital-­‐urinary tract • Hemorrhages, lesions and swelling in brain, small head circumference, genital and urinary tract deformities, heart defects, brain seizure, and abnormalities in motor development • Due to altered function of neurotransmitters, tend to show more irritability, rigidity, muscle tremors, difficult self-­‐
soothing, difficulty being consoled, and excessively reactive to environmental stimuli • Impaired sensory function, decreased visual attention, and difficulty regulating own state of arousal (i.e. asleep, awake, attentive) • In school setting, problems with concentration, memory, learning disabilities, and social problems o Prescription and OTC Drugs § Benzodiazapines—feeding problems, hypothermia, and deficiency in muscle tone § Lithium—increases risk for Edstein’s Anomaly (defect in heart) • When taken at time of birth—perinatal syndrome, including bluish discoloration of skin and decreased muscle tone § Valproic Acid—increases risk of fetal malformation o Smoking—high risk for spontaneous abortion, prematurity, low birth weight, and death during period surrounding birth § Less responsive to environment and more irritable § Increased hyperactivity, short attention span, and reduced school achievement in reading, math, and spelling o Maternal Disease § Rubella Virus (German Measles)—heart defects, eye cataracts, deafness, GI anolmalies, and MR • 20% due shortly after birth § Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV)—risk of miscarriage increased 3-­‐fold during pregnancy • If contracted through delivery—high risk of death, brain damage, and blindness o Typically, C-­‐section done § Cytomegalovirus (CMV)—embryo dying • If later in pregnancy—retarded growth, blindness, deafness, MR, microencephaly (small head circumference associated with delayed motor, speech and mental development) and cerebral palsy § Syphilis—deafness, facial deformities, malformations of teeth and bones, excess fluid in brain and MR § HIV—higher than average rates of prematurity and often small for gestational age §
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
51
•
•
•
Early symptoms include increased susceptibility to other infections, failure to thrive, swollen lympth nodes and development delays High risk for immunologic abnormalities and CNS dysfunctions including loss of developmental milestones, attention and concentration problems, and declining IQ With antiviral therapy, risk can be reduced to 2% transmission •
Other Maternal Conditions o Prenatal Malnutrition—depend on when and the severity § First Trimester—spontaneous abortion or congenital malformations § Third Trimester—low birth weight, low brain weight due to fewer neurons, less extensive branching of dendrites, and reduced myelinization • Apathy, unresponsiveness to environmental stimulation, irritability, abnormally high pitch cry, intellectual deficits, and lags in motor development o Emotional Stress—chronic, severe anxiety or stress on mother § Spontaneous abortion, premature delivery and more difficult labor § High risk for low birth weight, respiratory problems, exhibiting higher-­‐than-­‐normal levels of irritability and hyperactivity, bowel irregularities and problems related to sleep and eating o Maternal Age—percentage of babies born low in birth weight is greatest for mothers under age 15 and over 45 § Women over age 35—miscarriage, placenta previa, high BP, diabetes, and birth by C-­‐section • Increased risk of congenital birth defects •
Other Complications of Pregnancy or Delivery o Premature Infants—born before 37 weeks § Increases due to: lack of prenatal care, malnutrition, maternal age (younger than 15), drug use, low SES, and multiple gestations § Premature infants w/o significant abnormalities often catch up with peers, in terms of cognitive language and social skills, by 2-­‐3 yr/old o Small-­‐For-­‐Gestational-­‐Age (SGA)—below 10th% § Respiratory disease, hypoglycemia and asphyxia during birth o Fetal Distress—prolonged anoxia, whether by twisted cord, sedatives given or other factors, may result in delayed cognitive and motor development, MR and cerebral palsy EARLY PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
52
•
Infant Reflexes o Types: § Palmar Grasp—grasps finger pressed against surface of palm § Babinski—extends big toe and spreads small toe when sole of foot is stroked § Moro or Startle—when head drops slightly or sudden sound, arches back, extends legs, and throws arms outward as if grabbing for support § Stepping—when upright position and soles of feet touch floor, makes stepping motions o Disappear during first 6 months of life due to gradual increase in voluntary control •
Early Sensory Skills o Vision § Birth—prefer facial images § 1 month—discriminate mother’s face § 2-­‐3 months—color vision § 6 months—depth perception and visual acuity close to that of adult o Hearing § Last few months of development—hears sounds in uterus § Newborn—somewhat less sensitive than that of adult § Few days after birth—prefer human voice, recognize mother’s voice, distinguish between vowels “a” and “i” § Soon after birth—sound and auditory localization (turning heard toward direction of sound), but this ability disappears between 2-­‐4 months and then re-­‐emerges and becomes fully developed by 12 months o Taste § Distinguish between all four tastes at birth § Show preference for sweet taste o Smell § Unpleasant odors during first days following birth § Discriminate between different odors by 2-­‐7 days old •
Brain Development in Infancy and Childhood o Especially cortex, development occurs following birth and brain development continues until early adolescence o Most neurons are already present at birth, so development involves: § Growth of new dendrites, which create synapses § Myelinization • Begin to form myelin in first month in primary cortex o Accounts for ability to perform certain voluntary movements in one month of age © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
53
•
•
•
Primary sensory area next Most myelinization is complete by end of year 2, it continues at slower rate into early adolescence Early Motor Development o Motor Milestones § 1 month—Gross Motor=turns head from side to side when prone; Fine Motor=strong grasp reflex § 3 months—Gross=holds head erect when sitting but head bobs forward; regards own hand; Fine=holds rattle, pulls at clothes, can bring objects in hand to mouth § 5 months—Gross=when sitting, holds head erect and steady, reaches and grasps, puts foot to mouth when supine; Fine=plays with toes, takes objects directly to mouth, grasps objects voluntarily § 7 months—Gross=sits, leaning forward on both hands, stands with help; Fine=transfers objects from one hand to next § 9 months—Gross=creeps on hands and knees, pulls self to standing position when holding onto furniture; Fine=use of thumb and index finger to grasp (Pincer grasp) § 11-­‐15 months—Gross=walks holding onto furniture, stands alone, walks without help (12-­‐14 mos); Fine=can remove objects from tight enclosure (11 mo), turn page in book (12 mo), and use cup well (15 mo) § 18-­‐24 months—Gross=runs clumsily, walks stairs with hand held, can use spoon (18 mo), goes up and down stairs alone, kicks ball, and 50% use toilet during day o Early practice can affect age reached of certain motor milestones § Early training does not have impact on long-­‐term outcomes for basic skills but may affect more complex motor skills FAMILY RISK FACTORS •
•
Factors: o Low SES o Overcrowding or large family size o Severe marital discord o Parental criminality o Maternal psychopathology o Placement of child outside of home Psychiatric risk was 2% for children with one/no risk factors, and 21% for those with 4/+ ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES: ECOLOGICAL MODEL © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
54
Bronfenbrenner o Four interacting systems § Microsystem—immediate setting • Includes family, daycare, school § Mesosystem—interconnections between different components of child’s microsystem § Exosystem—aspects of environment that child is not in direct contact with but is affected by § Macrosystem—aspects of society that affect child’s development Cognition and Communication •
PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT •
Adaptation and Equilibration o Adaptation—building cognitive schemas, which are organized ways of thinking about the world, through interactions with environment § Two complementary processes: • Assimilation—incorporates and interprets new information in terms of existing schemas • Accommodation—schemas are modified to take into account newly understood properties of object o Equilibration—continuous movement between cognitive equilibrium, a state in which we use existing schemas to interpret reality (assimilate) and disequilibrium, a state in which we notice that information doesn’t fit into our current schemas § Disequilibrium forces us to modify current schemas (accommodate) so that we can understand new information •
Stages of Cognitive Development o Cognitive development proceeds sequentially in four stages, with each one building upon earlier stage § Sensorimotor Stage—birth to 2 yrs • Learns about objects through sensory information and motor activity • Learning is thought to be result of CIRCULAR REACTION—
behaviors are performed to reproduce events that happened initially by chance o Substage 1: Basic Reflexes—birth to 1 mo § First schemas are inborn reflexes and newborn begins to get control over them o Substage 2: Primary Circular Reactions—1 to 4 mo § Infant finds actions involving their bodies by accident then learns to repeat them by trial and error © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
55
§
o Substage 3: Secondary Circular Reaction—4 to 8 mo § Infants find actions involving objects in environment, then try to reproduce actions/events by trial and error o Substage 4: Coordination of Secondary Schemas—8 to 12 mo § Infants intentionally put together two schemas (secondary circular reactions) to reach goal or solve problem § Object permanence begins o Substage 5: Tertiary Circular Reactions—12 to 18 mo § Infants are curious, explore through trial and error, trying to produce novel reactions or consequences o Substage 6: Transition to Symbolic Thought—18 to 24 mo § Toddlers begin to form mental or symbolic representations of events, using body movements for movements of objects, to think about events and to determine consequences of action • Key achievements of stage: o OBJECT PERMANENCE—understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible o DEFFERED IMITATION—ability to imitate observed act at later point in time and beginning of make-­‐believe play o Both are results of beginning of symbolic thought, which allows child to use words, activities, and mental images to stand for objects Preoperational Stage—2 to 7 years • Extraordinary increase in symbolic thought, resulting in tremendous strides in language and appearance of substitute pretend play and sociodramatic play • Emergence of intuitive thought • Limited by EGOCENTRISM—inability to understand that others do not experience world same way o Underlies magical thinking and animism § MAGICAL THINKING—erroneous belief that one has control over objects/events or that thinking about something will actually make it occur § ANIMISM—belief that objects have thoughts/feelings/other life-­‐like qualities © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
56
§
§
o Magical thinking is result of precausal or transductive reasoning, which reflects incomplete understanding of cause and effect by children • Unable to conserve, or understand that underlying properties of object may not change even when its physical appearance changes o CENTRATION—tendency to focus on one detail of situation to neglect of other important features o IRREVERSIBILITY—inability to understand that actions can be reversed Concrete Operational Stage—7 to 12 years • Development of reversibility and decentration, which enable concrete operational child to conserve o CONSERVATION—develops sequentially throughout concrete stage § First comes conservation of number, then conservation of length, liquid, mass, area, weight, and volume § HORIZONTAL DECALAGE—sequential mastery of concepts within single stage of development • TRANSITIVITY—ability to mentally sort objects o Hierarchical classification—ability to sort objects in hierarchies of classes and subclasses based on similarities and differences among groups Formal Operational Stage—12/+ years • Thinks logically when dealing with concrete, tangible information but cannot process abstract, hypothetical information very well • Characterized by: o Hypothetical-­‐deductive reasoning—ability to arrive at and test alternative explanations for observed events o Propositional thought—ability to evaluate logical validity of verbal assertions without making reference to real-­‐world circumstances • Adolescents are prone to formal operational egocentrism—
rigid insistence that world can become better place through implementation of their idealistic schemas o Characteristics: § IMAGINARY AUDIENCE—belief that others are as concerned with and critical of adolescent’s behavior as him/herself § PERSONAL FABLE—belief that s/he is unique and indestructible © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
57
•
Research on Piaget’s Theory o Generally, idea that cognitive development occurs in invariant sequence of stages has been confirmed o Criticized for underestimating cognitive abilities of children, especially preoperational children o While Piaget claimed that everyone reaches formal operational stage, there is evidence that only about ½ of adult population reaches this stage and that many adults use formal operational thought only in their areas of expertise and experience NEO-­‐PIAGETIAN AND INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORIES •
•
Constructivist approach—development in stages with qualitative differences like Piaget o Unlike Piaget—increasing complexity of stages in terms of child’s info processing system or upper limits or constraints on levels of functioning o Combine info processing and Piagetian theories, recognizing roles of both ENDOGENOUS (biological maturation) and EXOGENOUS (social learning and experience) factors in cognitive development Information Processing o Cognitive processes of mind compare to functioning of computer programs and processes § Logical rules and strategies § Limited capacity for nature and amount of info that can be processed o Children can become better information processors or thinkers through brain and sensory systems changes and learning rules/strategies for processing info better VYGOTSKY’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT •
•
•
Cognition depends on social, cultural, and historical context Development is directly related to social interactions and that learning always occurs on two levels: o Child and another person (INTERPERSONAL) o Within child (INTRAPERSONAL) ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT o Gap btw what child can do alone and what s/he can accomplish with help from parents or more competent peers o Learning occurs most rapidly when teaching is within zone o Support provided to child by others is referred as SCAFFOLDING § Most effective when involves giving cues, encouraging thinking about other possible actions and modeling © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
58
MEMORY IN CHILDHOOD •
•
•
•
•
Ability to recall is influenced by: o Nature of event o Number of times they experience them o Availability of cues or reminders Infants tested at 2/4/6mo can recall details about hidden objects, location, and size Children ages 1-­‐3 are capable of immediate and long-­‐term recall of specific events that occurred several months ago When adults are asked about earliest memories, most cannot recall anything before age 3 (INFANTILE AMNESIA) o Result of lack of schematic organization of experience, different way of encoding in early childhood, and importance of language development Memory increases at steady rate during preschool years and shows substantial gains at about age 7 (transition from early to middle childhood), which is due to: o Consistent use of rehearsal and mother memory strategies o Increased short-­‐term memory capacity o Increased knowledge about things that are to be remembered o Development of meta-­‐memory, or knowledge about one’s one memory processes CRYING IN INFANCY First way that infants communicate Three distinct cries o Basic cry—associated with hunger o Pain cry o Angry cry • By week 3—cry for attention • Infant’s cries on adults o Crying causes changes in heart rate, skin conduction, and other measures of physiological arousal in parents and non-­‐parents o LANGUAGE ACQUISITION •
•
•
•
Key features of language: o System of words that stand for something o It is rule-­‐governed o Within confines of rules, it is creative Sequence of Language Development o Different cultures progress through similar stages of development o Milestones: § Cooing (1-­‐2 mo)—vowel-­‐like sounds, usually emitted when content § Babbling (4-­‐6 mo)—repetition of consonant-­‐vowel combinations © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
59
Babies begin around same age in all linguistic environments and initially produce similar repertoire of sounds • By 9 mo, sounds narrow to those of language exposed to First words (10-­‐16 mo)—refer to people or manipulable or moving objects and events that have salient properties of change (bye-­‐bye, up, more) Holophrastic Speech (12-­‐18 mo)—combining single word with gestures and intonation to express entire thought/sentence Telegraphic Speech (18-­‐24 mo)—two word sentences that are made up of most critical words Rapid Vocabulary Growth (30-­‐36 mo)—vocab of 1000 words and use simple three word sentences Development of Complex Grammatical Forms (3-­‐6 yrs)—correctly use verb “to be,” master concept of negation, and ask questions • By age 6, connect whole sentences and verb phrases, produce embedded sentences, use direct and indirect objects, and construct sentences in passive voice •
§
§
§
§
§
THEORIES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT •
Behavioral Theories—result of classical and operant conditioning and imitation o Focus on strategies that caregivers and others use to facilitate language development § Strategies include use of MOTHERESE (talking in simple sentences at slow pace and with high-­‐pitched voice) and RECASTING (rephrasing child’s sentence in different way) •
Nativist Theories—role of innate, genetically-­‐determined factors in language learning o Quickly learn to apply very complex grammatical rules to sentences they have never heard before § Rules so complex that they cannot be directly taught to or independently discovered by cognitively immature children o Born with biologically innate language acquisition device (LAD) that enables children who have acquired sufficient vocab to combine words into novel but grammatically consistent utterances and to understand meaning of what they hear o Support for theory—certain aspects are universal, brain lateralizes language on left, and language is best acquired during sensitive period •
Cognitive Theories—motivated by child’s desire to express meaning © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
60
o Language does not introduce new meanings to child, but is used to express only those meanings the child has already formulated independently of language BILINGUALISM •
•
•
•
3 million American children speak other language in their home Bilingual children perform better on tests of cognitive flexibility, divergent thinking and metalinguistic awareness CODE SWITCHING—changing to another language during conversation o Several functions: § If bilingual speaker cannot express self adequately in other language § Bilingual speaker may switch to minority language as sign of solidarity with group § Way to express attitude towards listener Major problem in evaluating bilingual education is existing programs vary widely in terms of teacher experience, school resources, and SES backgrounds o Overall, children in good-­‐quality bilingual programs do as well in acquiring English skills and learn subject matter as well or even better COMMUNICATION: GENDER DIFFERENCES •
•
•
Women are more likely than men to ask rhetorical questions, hesitate, use hedge (sort of, I guess), and add tag questions in statements (its warm in here, isn’t it?) Men do not interrupt more often Men talk more than women overall SLEEP PROBLEMS IN INFANCY •
•
•
30% of children have difficulties during first few years Infant sleep problem often become chronic if left untreated FERBERIZING (progressive waiting method)—training children to fall asleep and stay asleep by letting them cry for prescribed period of time before comforting them Social Development ATTACHMENT •
Strong affectional tie we feel for special people in our lives that leads us to feel pleasure and joy when we interact with them and to be comforted by their nearness in times of stress © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
61
•
•
•
Theories of Attachment o Freud viewed it as result of feeding § Research has shown feeding is less important for attachment than other factors o Harlow—separated monkeys from mothers at birth § Spent more time with terry-­‐cloth mother § Concluded CONTACT COMFORT (pleasant tactile sensation provided by soft, cuddly parent) is more important than feeding o Bowlby’s Ethological Theory—infants and mothers are biologically programmed for attachment § Infant is endowed with set of built in, attachment-­‐related bx § Mothers respond with bx that are appropriate to infant’s attachment needs § Evolutionally, purpose of bx is to keep infant’s mother in close proximity and increase infant’s chances for survival § Also proposed that children begin to develop mental representations of self and attachment figures during first year • “INTERNAL WORKING MODELS” for self and others that guide bx in later relationships Attachment Phenomena o Infants begin to show preference for mother over other people by 4 mo, but do not exhibit clear signs of attachment until 6-­‐7 mo o Primary signs of attachment include: § Social Referencing—6 mo • SOCIAL REFERENCING—“read” emotional rxns of mother and other caregivers, especially in uncertain situations, and use info to guide own bx § Separation Anxiety—6 mo • Respond with distress to separation from primary caregiver o Strongest when infant is btw 14-­‐18 mo, and gradually lessens in intensity and frequency through preschool years § Stranger Anxiety—strong negative rxn to strangers as early as 6 mo, although more common at 8-­‐10 mo • Reaches peak at 18 mo and gradually declines during 2 yr • Intensity is affected by situational factors § Response to Prolonged Separation—15-­‐30 mo were separated from mothers for extended period of time, infants exhibit predictable sequence of bx: • Protest—loud crying, restlessness, rejection of attn from other adults • Despair—crying, inactivity, withdrawl • Detachment—apathy that may continue even when mother returns Patterns of Attachment © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
62
o Ainsworth noted differences are result of how responsive mother is to child’s needs § Secure Attachment—baby actively explores environment when alone or with mother • Friendly to stranger when mother is present but clearly prefer mother to stranger • Show distress when mother leaves and seek physical contact with her when she returns • Mothers are emotionally sensitive and responsive § Anxious/Avoidant Attachment—babies are uninterested in environment • Show little distress when mother leaves and avoid contact with her when she returns • May or may not be wary of strangers • Mothers are impatient and nonresponsive or overly responsive, involved and stimulating § Anxious/Resistant Attachment—babies are anxious even when mother is present and become very distressed when she leaved • Ambivalent when she returns and may resist her attempts to make physical contact • Very wary of strangers even when mother is present • Mothers are inconsistent in responses to child, sometimes being indifferent and other times being enthusiastic § Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment—babies have conflicting responses to mother and alternate btw avoidance/resistance and proximity-­‐seeking • Bx is dazed, confused, and apprehensive • Seen in maltreated babies by caregivers •
Adult Attachment Patterns o Adult Attachment Interview (AAI)—shown to be effective measure of intergenerational transmission of attachment patterns § Used to elicit details about early family like, relationships with parents, and unresolved emotional issues o Patterns: § Secure-­‐Autonomous—value attachment relationships and have secure base provided by at least one parent • Do not idealize parents nor do they feel angry about childhood • Able to integrate both positive and negative experiences • Most of their own children have Secure Attachment Pattern § Dismissing—devalue importance of attachment relationships and are guarded and defensive when asked about childhood • Idealize parents, yet cannot support their positive evaluations with concrete examples © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
63
§
§
• ¾ of their own children are Avoidantly Attached Preoccupied—confused and incoherent regarding attachment memories • Disappointment, frustrated attempts to please their parents, and role reversals • Enmeshed with family of origin issues and may be angry or have sense of resignation that problems cannot be overcome • Most of children have Ambivalent (Anxious/Resistant) Attachments Unresolved—severe trauma and early losses tend to show this pattern • Have not mourned not integrated losses • Frightened by memories associated with trauma and may dissociate to avoid pain • Very negative and dysfunctional relationships with own children, often being abusive and neglectful • Children tend to develop Disorganized/Disoriented attachments PEER RELATIONS •
•
•
•
•
•
Infants begin to interact w peers by 6 mo through smiling, touching, gesturing, and vocalizing At 14 mo, peer interactions revolve around playing w toys and often accompanied by fights over toys or displays of affection During preschool yrs, children begin to prefer some peers over others, and this preference is usually based on similarity in terms of gender, age, and bx tendencies Peer interactions increase during elementary school yrs, so that children spend increasingly more time w peers than w adults o During these yrs, peer groups are strictly gender-­‐segregated, and choice of friends related to shared activities and reciprocity During adolescence, groups become less segregated by gender, and friendships are more based on mutual intimacy and self-­‐disclosure and similarity in terms of interests, attitudes, and values Gender Differences o Differences become more pronounces w increasing age o Female pattern of relating as “enabling” style § Increase intimacy and equality btw peers and is characterized by expressing agreement, making suggestions, and providing support o Boys exhibit “restrictive” style § Tends to interfere with continuing interaction § Bragging, contradicting, and interrupting © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
64
o Friendship—girls place more importance on intimate, emotional aspects, while boys are more interested in sharing activities and interests •
Popularity o Social bx seems to be much more important—popular children are skilled at initiating and maintaining positive relationships w peers § They are more outgoing, supportive, communicative, cooperative, and nonpunitive than less popular children o Popular children tend to be more intelligent and more successful academically § Rejected children are more aggressive and show higher levels of disruptiveness, physical aggressiveness, and other negative bx •
Peer Rejection vs Peer Neglect o Children who are rejected by peers differ than those neglected o Rejected—have more psychological and bx problems than neglected o Neglected children are related primarily to social isolation § Rejected children exhibit wider range of problems and their problems are more likely to continue into adulthood o Rejected status is more stable over time and settings o Rejected children were much less likely than neglected to experience improvement in peer status when they changed peer groups by schools or attending summer camp •
Conformity o Actually depends on number of factors, such as age, nature of bx in question, and individual characteristics of adolescent o Adolescents are most conforming to peers when they are btw ages of 12-­‐14 § Engage in antisocial bx, they are influenced to engage in prosocial bx as well § Peer pressure is more likely to impact attitudes and bx related to status in peer group while parents have greater effect on life decisions and values MORAL DEVELOPMENT •
Both Piaget and Kohlberg link moral development to changes in cognitive maturity •
Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development o HETERONOMOUS MORALITY—morality of constraint § Characteristic of children ages 4-­‐7 © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
65
Children view rules as absolute and unchangeable and believe in imminent justice § Base judgments primarily on act’s consequences—more negative consequences, worse the act § Inflexible moral reasoning at this stage is due to combination of preoperational egocentrism and constraint of parental authority o AUTONOMOUS MORALITY—morality of reciprocity § By age 7-­‐8 § Rules are recognized as being determined by agreement btw individuals and, consequently, alterable § Consider intentions of actor to be most important § Decline in egocentrism, social interactions with peers, and gradual release from adult vigilance and constraint o Children under age of 6 usually equate lies with things they are not supposed to say § Btw 6-­‐10, label any untruth as lie § By 11, understand that only intentionally false statement is lie § Children do no deliberately lie until 7 • Children as young as 3-­‐4 intentionally lie to avoid punishment or embarrassment §
•
Kolhberg’s Theory of Moral Development o Stages and Levels § Preconventional—morality based on consequences of act o Bx are punished are regarded at bad, while bx rewarded are good • Stage 1—punishment and obedience orientation o Focus on avoiding punishment when making moral judgments • Stage 2—instrumental hedonistic orientation o That which satisfies their own needs as moral § Conventional—moral reasoning is guided by desire to maintain existing social laws, rules and norms • Stage 3—“good boy-­‐good girl” (social relations) orientation o Oriented toward maintaining approval of relatives and friends • Stage 4—authority and social order-­‐maintaining orientation o Toward obeying society’s laws and rules § Post-­‐Conventional—morality in terms of self-­‐chosen principles • Stage 5—social contract and individual rights orientation o Oriented toward upholding democratically-­‐determined laws, but recognizes that laws can be ignored or changed for valid reason • Stage 6—universal ethical principles orientation © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
66
o
o
o
o
•
o Reflects fundamental universal ethical principles that transcend legal standards § Although not a 1:1 correspondence btw age and level, transition from preconventional to conventional occurs btw age 10-­‐13, while transition from conventional to post-­‐conventional (if it happens at all) occurs in mid-­‐adolescence or later Key assumptions: § Children pass through stages in invariant sequence, although stages 5 and 6 are not reached by most people § Development is outgrowth of cognitive development § Each stage represents organized whole Stages relate to moral reasoning more than moral conduct § Low correlation btw stage or development and actual bx § Higher the stage, stronger relationship btw reasoning and bx Development occurs in invariant sequence of stages that parallels cognitive development § Cognitive growth does not by itself guarantee person will progress through stages and that other factors have an effect on development • SOCIAL PERSPECTIVE-­‐TAKING—ability to understand perspective of others • Parents’ childrearing practices, peer interactions, and formal education Theory criticized by Gilligan § Emphasizes principles of justice and fairness and reflects a “male bias” since males are more likely to refer to these principles when making moral judgments, while females are more likely to refer to interpersonal conncectedness and care • Research has generally not supported Gilligan o No consistent differences Conscience, Temperament, and Discipline o Children develop higher level conscience when their parents rely on love-­‐
oriented discipline techniques, such as praise, social isolation, and withdrawal of affection, rather than objected-­‐oriented techniques, such as tangible rewards, physical punishment, or withdrawal of material objects or privileges § More recent research indicates relationship btw type of discipline and development of conscience may be more complex than previously thought o Most effective form of discipline depends on child’s temperament § Toddlers who have fearful temperament develop conscience better when parents use gentle discipline that deemphasizes power and capitalizes on child’s internal discomfort, than when parent uses negative discipline, based on power, threats, or angry commands © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
67
Gentle discipline elicits optimal level of arousal in child, which facilitates semantic processing of parent’s message that can then be internalized o Gentle discipline was not found to be effective in promoting conscience in fearless toddlers § Did not readily respond w internal discomfort when presented with gentle discipline following bx transgressions § May be due to insufficient level of arousal among fearless children in response to gentle discipline § Best promoted through use of secure attachment and maternal responsiveness which promotes child’s cooperation based on positive motivation inherent in relationship rather than anxiety over consequences of misbx §
•
Gender Identity Development o Individual’s own sense of identification as male or female, distinguished from actual biological sex o By 3, have established gender-­‐role id and can id themselves as either girl or boy, recognize what is expected or appropriate of them as girls/boys and note that other are same/opposite sex o Greater impact than biological sex on self-­‐esteem in children and that androgyny is associated with highest levels of self-­‐esteem in boys/girls § Masculinity, to a somewhat lesser degree, is associated with higher levels of self-­‐esteem than femininity in both boys/girls o Differences decrease in late adolescence and early adulthood, however increase again once first child is born and primary responsibility for child rearing and domestic responsibilities is maintained by woman § Gender role reversal starts in middle-­‐age, with women becoming more outgoing, independent, active and competitive and men becoming more dependent, sensitive and passive •
Theories of Gender-­‐Identity Development o Social Learning Theory—social factors role on development of id, yet primarily emphasizes impact of modeling and reinforcement § Children first gain gender-­‐typed bx through rewards and punishments, modeling and imitation and then develop gender-­‐role id o Gender Schema Theory—children develop schema about what is expected of them as girls/boys w/in sociocultural environment, these schemas influence how they perceive and think about world and then apply schemas to own bx § Social-­‐cognitive approach—both social, notably sociocultural factors, and cognitive processes © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
68
o Cognitive-­‐Developmental Theory—gender-­‐role id parallels cognitive development across 3 stages: § Gender Identity—child recognizes the s/he is male/female • Age 2-­‐3 § Gender Stability—gender identity is consistent over time § Gender Constancy—understanding that gender does change because of changes in appearance, bx, or situations • Age 6-­‐7 o Psychodynamic Theory—resolution of psychosexual crisis of phallic stage Personality and Identity TEMPERAMENT •
•
•
•
Individual’s basic bx style Strong genetic component and be primary contributor to personality o Identical twins are more similar in terms of temperament Relatively stable during first yr of life o More stable over lifespan when measurements of temperament are made after child reached 2 o Prior to age 1, not good predictor of temperament Dimensions of Temperament o Thomas and Chess § Distinguished btw 9 dimensions • Activity level • Rhythmicity • Approach/withdrawal • Adaptability • Threshold of responsiveness • Intensity of rxn • Quality of mood • Distractibility • Attn span/persistence § 3 groups • Easy Children—usually cheerful, have rxns to new stimuli that are low to moderate in intensity, adapt easily to changes, and have regular feeding and sleeping schedules • Slow-­‐to-­‐Warm-­‐Up Children—sad/tense, have low intensity rxns to new stimuli, take time to adapt to change and initially withdraw from new experiences, and have variable feeding and sleeping schedules © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
69
•
•
Difficult Children—respond to new experiences with irritability, are difficult to soothe, are very active, and have irregular feeding and sleeping schedules Goodness-­‐of-­‐Fit o Healthy psychological development requires goodness-­‐of-­‐fit btw child’s temperament and environmental factors, especially parents § Maladjustment is caused by poorness-­‐of-­‐fit btw child and environment FREUD’S THEORY OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT •
•
At each stage, either too much/little gratification of impulses can result in fixation of psychic energies at stage o Overgratification=person unwilling to move onto next stage o Undergratification=person continually seeking gratification of the frustrated drive Stages: o Oral Stage—birth-­‐1 § Sensual pleasure is obtained through mouth, tongue lips § Newly emerging ego directs baby’s sucking activities towards breast or bottle to satisfy hunger and obtain pleasant stimulation § Fixation may result in habits such as thumbsucking, fingernail biting, and pencil chewing beginning in childhood and overeating and smoking later in life o Anal Stage—1-­‐3 § Pleasure is derived from anal and urethral areas of body § Child must learn to postpone release of feces and urine, and toilet training becomes major conflict § Fixation produces anal retentiveness (obsessive punctuality, orderliness, and cleanliness) or anal expulsion (messiness and disorder) o Phallic Stage—3-­‐6 § Child derives pleasure from genital stimulation § Oedipal or Electra conflict takes place • Child feels unconscious sexual desire for opposite-­‐sex parent but represses desire out of fear of punishment by same-­‐sex parent § If conflict is resolved successfully, child identifies with same-­‐sex parent and superego formed o Latency Stage—6-­‐Puberty § Sexual instincts lie repressed and dormant § Child works on solidifying superego by playing w and id w same-­‐sex children and assimilating social values from larger society © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
70
•
o Genital Stage—Post Puberty § Sexual drive of early phallic stage is reactivated but can now be gratified through love relationships outside of fam § If development has proceeded appropriately during earlier stages, this stage is characterized by mature sexuality Criticized for overemphasizing influence of sexual feelings on development, failing to acknowledge role of social and intellectual factors, and not addressing developmental tasks of later years ERIKSON’S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT •
•
•
Emphasizes psychosocial development and describes psychosocial conflict as occurring throughout lifespan New stage builds on progress made in previous stages, and successful outcome in each stage is more likely is previous developmental conflicts have been successfully resolved Stages: o Trust vs. Mistrust—birth-­‐1 § Due to warm, responsive parental care and pleasurable sensations while feeding, infant gains sense of confidence that caregivers are predictable, good and gratifying § Mistrust of others results when infant has to wait too long for comfort and is handles harshly o Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt—1-­‐3 § Increasing motor control and cognitive skills lead to greater exploration and independence § Autonomy is fostered when parents offer guided opportunities for free choice and do not overly restrict or shame child o Initiative vs. Guilt—3-­‐6 § Through make-­‐believe play, children learn about roles and institutions of society and gain insight into type of person they can become § Initiative develops when parents support child’s emerging sense of purpose and direction § Too many parental demands for self-­‐control may lead to excessive guilt o Industry vs. Inferiority—6-­‐Puberty § Children develop capacity for productive work and cooperation with others § Inferiority develops when experiences in school, peer groups or with parents do not foster feelings of competence and mastery o Identity vs. Identity Confusion—Adolescence § Transition btw childhood and adulthood § Tasks of earlier stages become integrated into lasting sense of identity © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
71
Person optimally develops coherent sense of who s/he is and what his/her place is in society § Negative outcome is confusion about one’s sexual and occupational identity o Intimacy vs. Isolation—Young Adulthood § Relationships w others enhance person’s sense of identity and provide gratifying feelings of connectedness § Unsuccessful resolution results in inability to establish close relationships, intense fear of rejection, and isolation o Generativity vs. Stagnation—Middle Adulthood § Contributing to younger generations through child-­‐rearing, serving as mentor/teacher, and productive work § Failure to contribute in one/more results in sense of stagnation and boredom o Ego Integrity vs. Despair—Old Age § Look back at who they are and what they have done during their lives § Integrity results from feeling like was worthwhile § Despair and regret result from sense of dissatisfaction PARENTING AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT §
•
Parental bx is one environmental variable that is known to have strong impact on child’s personality development •
Dimensions of Parenting o Warmth vs. Hostility § Warm parent—affectionate, regularly puts child’s needs first, enthusiastic about child’s activities, responds to child with empathy and sensitivity § Hostile parent—quick to criticize, rarely shows affection, overtly rejecting § Children from warm family are more securely attached in first 2 yrs, higher self-­‐esteem an IQs, and more empathetic and altruistic o Restrictiveness vs. Permissiveness § Restrictive parents—highly controlling and demanding and expect unwavering obedience to rules • Children tend to be obedient and timid and have difficulty establishing close relationships § Permissive parents—have few rules, make few demands, let children make own decisions • Children are relatively thoughtless toward others and are only moderately independent § Optimal parenting style is one that falls in middle © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
72
•
Parenting Styles o Authoritative Parents—set high standards, expect children to comply w rules § Gain control by explaining rules and seeking children’s input into fam decisions § Very warm and nurturant § Children have best outcomes: independent, achievement-­‐oriented, friendly, self-­‐confident § High levels of emotional support or responsiveness along w firmness and high standards or demands on child § Most predictive of higher academic achievement o Authoritarian Parents—controlling and demanding and expect children to accept their commands in unquestioning manner § Respond w punitive manner § Children are insecure, timid, unhappy, and may grow up to be dependent and lacking motivation o Permissive Parents—though nurturant and accepting, fail to assert authority § Children have difficulty controlling their impulses, ignore rules and regulations, and are not very involved in academic and work activities o Uninvolved Parents—undemanding and indifferent to or rejecting of children § Display little commitment to being parents and keep their children at distance § Children are noncompliant and demanding, lack self-­‐control, and prone to antisocial bx § Characteristics of parenting (weak parental supervision, lack of reasonable rules, lax/erractic discipline, parent-­‐child relationship that is hostile, indifferent, apathetic) are those that are most predictive of delinquency in adolescence ADOLESCENT PERSONALITY AND IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT •
Physical Development and Personality o Many difference become increasingly apparent in adolescence o Adolescent growth spurts begin 2 yrs earlier for girls than boys o Best adjustment outcomes are found among early-­‐maturing boys; then average-­‐maturing boys and girls; then late-­‐maturing girls; and last by late maturing boys and early maturing girls § Latter group has most severe problems, including emotional instability, declines in academic achievement, and drug/alcohol use •
Marci’s Identity Statuses © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
73
o Extension of Erikson, that reflects different patterns with regards to occupational choice and religious and political beliefs § Identity Diffusion—have not undergone identity crisis and are not committed to an identity § Identity Foreclosure—strong commitment to identity that was not outcome of identity crisis but was suggested by parent/other person § Identity Moratorium—having identity crisis and is actively exploring different options and beliefs § Identity Achievement—resolved identity crisis and is committed to particular identity o 60% of people have achieved stable identity by 24 o Identity crisis is relatively uncommon and it is most often during early years in college •
Gilligan’s “Loss of Voice” o Females experience as result of internalization of sexist messages o High risk for relational crisis—abandoning themselves and other in order to conform to cultural expectations about femininity o Pressure to conform highest in middle school years DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOPATHOLOGY •
Deviant and normal bx have common origins and deviant bx can arise from diverse developmental pathways •
Fears o Content of normal childhood fears changes w development § Infancy—loud noise, strange objects, and strangers § Early childhood—animals peak at age 3, followed by fear of dark at 4-­‐
5, fear of imaginary creatures after age 5 § After age 5—number and intensity of fears decline § Adolescence—social and sexual situations o Only 5% older than 5 have fears that are excessive or unrealistic o Treatment § Self-­‐control procedure, making self-­‐statements—most effective for fear of dark § Modeling § Contact desensitization § Participant modeling—animals, dental/medical treatments, test anxiety social withdrawal •
Aggression o Boys/girls show similar levels prior to age 1 © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
74
o During next few years, boys become more aggressive and girls less aggressive § Boys—more likely to engage in overt aggression § Girls—relational aggression o Aggression is due to combination of biological and environmental factors § Parenting Factors—highly aggressive children often come from homes where parents are rejecting and lacking warmth, are permissive or indifferent toward child’s aggressiveness, and rely on power assertive discipline as means of control • High levels of aggression are associated with insecure/resistant attachment pattern and lax monitoring of child’s activities and bx • Coercive family interaction model of aggression—social learning perspective and proposes child learns to act aggressively as result of both imitation and rewards they receive for acting in aggressive ways o Parents of highly aggressive children often reinforce aggressive bx by responding w attn and approval § They model aggression through parenting practices, which typically involve high rates of commands combined w inconsistent, harsh physical punishment § Cognitive Factors—aggressive children are much more likely to report that is it easier to perform aggressive acts and difficult to inhibit aggressive impulses and feel confident that aggression will have positive outcomes, including reducing aversive treatment by others • Dodge and Crick believe aggression involve 5 steps: o Encoding of social cues o Interpretation of social cues o Response search o Response evaluation o Response enactment o Skillful processing at each step will lead to competent performance within situation, whereas biased or deficient processing will lead to deviant, possibly aggressive, antisocial bx § TV viewing—more violent, aggressive TV programs, more aggressive child becomes • Tv violence is stimulating increase in adult aggression in males and famles • Effect persists even when effects of SES, intellect, age, and variety of parenting factors are controlled § Interventions for aggression—social skills training is most effective © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
75
•
•
Alternative ways of resolving conflict, using cognitive interventions to help child accurately interpret statements and bx of others, and empathy training to encourage identity of feelings of others and to express own approach Bx modification program—alter way parents interact w aggressive children o Reinforce desirable bx, enforce rules consistently, and use time-­‐out and nonphysical punishment •
Risk and Resilience o Higher risk factors: § Severe marital discord § Low SES § Large fam size or overcrowding § Parental criminality or psychiatric dx § Placement of child outside of home o Infants are high risk were less likely to develop problems when they were temperamentally “easy” and socially responsive as infants, and had consistent caregiver •
Chronic Illness o Children with conditions that involve brain functioning have more bx problems and poorer social functioning o Family functioning, in particular fam cohesion and support for child, is positively correlated with adjustment o Parental adjustment is positively correlated with adjustment o Chronically ill boys (esp 6-­‐11 yrs) are at greater risk for bx problem than chronically ill girls, while girls are at greater risk for self-­‐reported symptoms of distress o Adolescents are particularly higher risk for not adhering to treatment regimens, because of increased concern about “being different” o Children who are told about illness early have better psych adjustment § Tell child truth in way that is consistent w age and level of understanding •
Teen Drug Use o Rate of current illicit drug use among 12 or older is 8.3% o Tobacco, alcohol, marijuana Family Influences on Development DIVORCE © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
76
•
Effects on Parenting o Promote state of disorganization—“Diminishing Capacity to Parent” § Continues for about 2 yrs after divorce § Ordinary household routines usually disintegrate § Inconsistent with discipline and vacillate btw being detached and highly punitive o Mothers may show less affection toward children, especially sons § May start to treat sons more harshly o Fathers tend to become more indulgent and permissive o Parents without physical custody initially spend more time w children, but contact diminishes over time •
Effects on Children o Rxns are moderated by several factors, including age, gender, and custodial arrangements § Age: • Preschool—most negative outcomes, especially short-­‐term o Difficult for them to understand reasons for divorce and are prone to self-­‐blame, reversion to more immature bx, and intense separation anxiety • Long-­‐term consequences are worse for older children o 10 yrs after divorce, preschoolers had fewer memories of period surrounding divorce, while older children expressed painful memories and fears about own ability to have happy marriage § Gender: • Boys suffer more severe short and long term consequences o Following divorce, presadolescent boys often exhibit increase in bx, such as noncompliance, demandingness, and hostility • Girls more likely to exhibit internalizing bx o “Sleeper Effect”—girls in preschool/elementary may have few problems initially, but as adolescence, exhibit noncompliance, low self-­‐esteem, emotional problems, and antisocial bx § More likely than intact families to marry young, be pregnant before marriage, and choose psychologically unstable husband § Custody Arrangements • Live w same-­‐sex parent are better adjusted, especially for boys o Findings are inconsistent § For adolescence, father custody is associated with higher rates of depression/anxiety, poorer grades, and other problems © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
77
o School Performance § Negative impact § Not only lower grades, but also like school less, exhibit more peer and bx problems at school, and at higher risk for dropping out § Negative impact worse for boys and older children •
Factor Affecting Consequences of Divorce o Open conflict=more likely to experience negative aftereffects § More poorly adjusted o Positive relationship with both parents, extended fam support, positive school environment, and no substantial upheaval in daily routines=better outcome o Serious adjustment problems are seen in those who already had difficulties before divorce STEPPARENTS •
•
When custodial mother has another adult in house, there is “BUFFERING EFFECT” and reduces negative consequences o May not apply to stepparents § Have high levels of authoritarian parenting and children have lower grades and higher rates of delinquency § May be beneficial for younger boys in reducing anxiety, anger, and adjustment problems, although not for adolescent boys who continue to have problems Children have more problems with stepparents than own parents o Stepfathers—relationship is often distant, disengaged, and unpleasant § Relationship appears to improve w sons over time, although not daughters o Stepmothers—more frequent, but often abrasive GAY AND LESBIAN PARENTS •
Being raised by G/L parents does not increase risk for negative developmental outcomes MATERNAL EMPLOYMENT AND DAYCARE •
Maternal employment=greater life satisfaction for both low/middle income mothers, as long as employment is consistent w her/partners preferences o Children have higher levels of self-­‐esteem and better fam/peer relations, and less sex-­‐stereotyped in beliefs and attitudes © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
78
May be more pronounced in daughters—higher self-­‐esteem and being more career and achievement oriented, and more assertive § Sons—scored lower on measures of school achievement and intelligence • Now seen in mothers that work 40+ hrs § Traditional dual-­‐earner fam that is unequal—children may exhibit more anxiety/depression and may rate selves lower w peer acceptance and school achievement o No long-­‐term affects noted Daycare o High quality=no consistent negative effects § Positive effects on social development o Enriched daycares may improve intellectual abilities of lower-­‐income o May be more self-­‐sufficient, more cooperative w peers, and more adaptable to new social situations, they may be less compliant with adults and more aggressive w other children o Low quality=greater distractibility and lower task involvement §
•
FATHER-­‐CHILD RELATIONSHIPS •
•
•
Spend considerably less time Fathers spend more time w play activities, and tend to be more “rough-­‐and-­‐
tumble” When mother works full-­‐time and father assumes role as primary caregiver, traditional parental roles do not necessarily change SIBLING RELATIONSHIPS •
•
•
In early childhood, both positive and negative interactions, but positive more common o Rivalries occur when same gender and close in age and when one/both are highly active and emotionally intense § Early rivalry more common when parents have inconsistent disciplinary practices In middle childhood, relationship characterized by combination of closeness and conflict Late childhood, relationship becomes more egalitarian in terms of power and nurturance o Usually decline in sibling involvement as peer relationships increase o Conflicts may continue, especially when close in age, but peak in early adolescence and then decline © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
79
Adult Development PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADULTHOOD •
•
•
Happiness, assertiveness, and hostility seem to be established early in life and remain stable Women often experience increases in self-­‐efficacy and assertiveness and decline in dependence Midlife involves shift from extraversion to introversion •
Levinson’s “Seasons of a Man’s Life” o 4 Seasons/Stages § Infancy through adolescence § Early adulthood • “Entering the world” • “Age 30 transition” o Define the “dream”—vision of ideal life • “Settling down” § Middle adulthood • Being young vs old, being attached to others vs being separated • “Deflation of dream”—realizes goals are not really worthwhile and/or will not be fulfilled § Late adulthood o 80% of men experience midlife crisis § Research=only crisis for minority of men •
Neugarten’s Kansas City Study o Adults aged 40-­‐70 o Confirmed adulthood is time of both consistency and change o Around age 50—usually transition from outer-­‐world to an inner-­‐world orientation and from active to passive mastery o Midlife=shift in perspective from “time since birth” to “time until death” COGNITIVE CHANGE IN ADULTHOOD •
Aging and Intelligence o Increasing age has relatively little effect on verbal tasks that measure acquired knowledge, but has negative impact on nonverbal tasks that require rapid responding to and processing novel info § WAIS • Classic aging pattern o Little decline on four stored knowledge—Info, Vocab, Arith, Comp © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
80
§
o Moderate decline on other two verbal—Sim and Digit Span o Sharper decline on five performance • Crystallized intelligence • Fluid intelligence—active processing of info and is directly affected by loss of neurons, depletion of certain neurotransmitters, that occur w age Terminal Drop—substantial drop in all facets of intelligence occurs months before death •
Aging and Processing Speed o Slowing of mental and physical functions § Reduced info processing speed is believed to underlie many age-­‐
related decrements o Circadian cycles § Young children and late adulthood—primarily morning is optimal § Age 12—shift away from morning § Young adults—evening § Synchrony Effect—matching task demands and preferred time of day • Attention regulation is regulated over time of day effects •
Age and Attention o Sustained and selective attn are not significantly affected by increasing age o Age affects divided attn •
Age and Memory o Aging Effects on Brain § Begins to shrink as result of loss of neurons beginning at 30 § After 60, acceleration in atrophy § Impacts hippocampus, cortex, and locus cereleus § Develops senile plaques and enlarged ventricles § Reduced blood flow and decreased level of some transmitters § Compensates for some neuron loss by developing new connections btw remaining neurons • New brain cells develop in hippocampus during adult yrs § Declines in recent long-­‐term memory, followed by working memory • Remote long-­‐term memory is relatively unaffected by age • Mostly problems w encoding strategies o Memory training can be useful o Short-­‐Term and Long-­‐Term Memory § ST=Primary and working memory © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
81
Primary=retain small amount of info in conscious memory for short period of time • WM=capacity to manipulate and transform info while it is held in primary memory • Older adults do not differ from younger adults with primary memory, but differ with WM o May be more to loss in processing speed than reduced storage capacity LT=recent and remote memory • Recent= more affected than remote o Ineffective encoding o Training in encoding is more beneficial for older than younger •
§
o Aspects of Long-­‐Term Memory § Episodic vs Semantic vs Procedural Memory • Increasing age has greatest impact on episodic (ability to recall personal experience) o Most likely due to problems with deliberate processing and retrieval § Verbal vs Nonverbal Memory • Age decline in visuospatial memory mirror those in verbal memory § Prospective Memory • Ability to remember to do things in future • Do less well than younger § Explicit vs Implicit Memory • Explicit—conscious recollection of material • Implicit—automatic/nonconscious recollection • Prob with explicit but not implicit § Metamemory • Knowledge about one’s own memory • Older=less accurate o Nature of inaccuracy seems to depend in situation § In general—underestimate § Making predictions about performance—
overestimate o Aging and Wisdom § Wisdom—expertise in fundamental pragmatics of life permitting exceptional insight and judgment involving complex and uncertain matters of human condition § Increases over life © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
82
§
Personality factors and wisdom-­‐related experience seem to be more important determinants of wisdom than intelligence AGING AND SEXUALITY •
•
•
Older women do not differ from younger ones in terms of sex drive but do experience number of changes including less intense orgasms, thinner vaginal walls, and reduced sexual lubrication Men=erections occur less spontaneously, require more time to develop and are more difficult to maintain o Longer refractory period Sexual activity declines with age o Best predictor is previous activity in life DEATH AND DYING •
•
•
•
•
•
Prior to age 2—lack understanding of death 2-­‐7—think death is reversible sleep-­‐like state 7-­‐11—recognize death is irreversible and become anxious about death of loved ones adulthood—fear of death peaks in middle-­‐age elderly—talk more about death, seem less fearful Kubler-­‐Ross—5 stages (denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance [DABDA]) o Hope sppears to be common feeling among terminally ill DIAGNOSIS AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGY DISORDERS USUALLY FIRST DIAGNOSED IN INFANCY, CHILDHOOD, OR ADOLESCENCE •
Intellectual Disability (Mental Retardation) o 3 criteria must be met: § Significantly subaverage intellectual functioning § Two areas of adaptive functioning § Onset before age 18 o Degrees of MR § Mild—IQ=50-­‐55 to 70 • Constitutes majority • Little distinction from peers until late childhood • Acquire academic skills of about 6th grade by adolescence © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
83
§
§
§
• Able to independently live and work at semiskilled jobs Moderate—IQ=35-­‐40 to 50-­‐55 • Require guidance and minimal supervision in social/occupational skills • Unlikely to progress beyond 2nd grade • Unskilled/semiskilled wok under close supervision in sheltered workshops or job settings Severe—IQ=20-­‐25 to 35-­‐40 • Poor motor skills and limited communication • Learn to talk and can be trained in elementary hygiene skills • Simple tasks and live in community in group homes/families under close supervision Profound—IQ=below 20-­‐25 • Severe limitations in motor/sensory functioning • Highly structured environment with constant aid and supervision • Live in group homes, intermediate care facilities or families • Simple tasks under close supervision in sheltered workshops o Etiology § Primarily biological and/or psychosocial • Early alteration of embryonic development is most common factor § Environmental and other mental d/o predisposing factors • Pregnancy and perinatal problems • Hereditary factors § In 30-­‐40%, not clear etiology § Biological factors • Inherited causes, chromosomal changes, early prenatal injury due to toxins, problems during pregnancy perinatal persiod, and medical conditions in childhood o PKU o Tay-­‐Sachs Disease o Fragile X Chromosome Syndrome o Down’s Syndrome § Faulty distribution of chromosomes when egg/sperm formed § 47 chromosomes • Extra 21st chromosome • Fetal malnutrition, HIV, prematurity, anoxia, direct injury to head/brain • After birth, meningitis and encephalitis, lead poisoning, malnutrition, anoxia by head injury § Psychosocial Factors © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
84
•
•
•
Cultural-­‐familial retardation Early deprivation of nurturance, deficiencies in health care, early deficiencies in social/cognitive/other stimulation, poverty Also associated with Autism o Borderline Intellectual Functioning § IQ=71-­‐84 § Level of adaptive functioning distinguishes it from MR •
Austism Spectrum Disorders o Autistic Disorder § At least 2 symptoms from category 1 and one each from categories 2 and 3 • 1. Social interaction • 2. Communication • 3. Restricted repetitive and stereotyped patterns of bx, interests, activities § Before age 3, must be delayed/abnormal functioning in social interaction, language used in social communication, or symbolic or imaginative play § Rarely speak • Echolalia—echoing of words • Reversals in pronouns • Unaware of others § Show minimal interest in friendships • Lack understanding of customs of social interaction § Perseverative play and obsessive desire to maintain status quo • React intensely to minor changes in surroundings • More attached to things than people • Preoccupied with single limited interest § 4-­‐5x more common in males § Few reach IQ of normal range § 75% co-­‐d/o w MR § Some exhibit above average or exceptional skills in particular area §
Etiology • Equal across SES and not correlated with parental personality characteristics, ed, occupation, race • Persistent high levels of autonomic arousal, ventricular enlargement, frontal lobe dysfunction, cerebellar underdevelopment, abnormal patterns of brain lateralization © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
85
•
§
Maternal rubella, complications at birth, elevated levels of serotonin in brain Treatment • Pharmacological or psychotherapeutic o Neuroleptics—reduce aggression, emotional lability, withdrawal, stereotyped bx • Early intensive bx interventions o Operant tech—successful at eliminating abnormal bx and adding desirable bx § Improve communication o Most effective when program initiated when child is v young, actively involves parents, implemented at home, involves extremely intensive work, provides structured environment, underscores generalization to other settings, uses contract that delineates bx changes to be made and methods for accomplishing them • Good outcomes—achievement of independence and normal social life o Small percentage living and working independently o 2% attain normal functioning and 40% high functioning • Best prognosis—early language skills, overall intellectual level, severity, o Influenced by how much usable language by age 7 o Developmental milestones, social maturity ad bx, time in school, comorbid neuropsychiatric d/o o Rett’s Disorder § Progressive pattern of developmental regression that begins before age 4 § Life-­‐long communication and bx problems § Seem normal in prenatal and perinatal periods and for at least 5 mo after birth § Initial signs include deceleration of head growth and loss of hand skills, repetitive hand washing or hand-­‐wringing gestures after 30 mo § Uncoordinated gait and trunk movts, severe deficiencies in expressive and receptive language development, serious psychomotor retardation § W/in few yrs of onset, loses interest in social environment § Genetic mutation • Less common than Autism • Only in females (X-­‐linked) © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
86
•
Severe or profound MR o Childhood Degenerative Disorder § Progressive d/o that begins after period of normal development § Significant regression in several areas of functioning after normal development of 2/+ yrs § Significant loss of developmental skills in at least 2 areas • Expressive/receptive language • Social skills/adaptive bx • Bowel/bladder control • Play • Motor skills § Social and communication impairments and behavioral signs found in autism § Very rare, less common than autism o Asperger’s Disorder § Deficits in social interaction and bx, interest, and activity patterns found in autism • Show no clinically significant delay in language development, self-­‐help skills, cognitive development, or curiosity about environment § More common in males •
Learning Disorders o Considerably lower than expected achievement § More than 2SD btw ach and IQ o Written expression, reading, math § Reading: • Surface (orthogonal) Dyslexia—ability to read regularly-­‐
spelled words but inability to decipher words that are spelled irregularly • Deep Dyslexia—several types of reading errors o Semantic paralexia—producing response that is related to target word in meaning but not visually or phonologically o MR can be co-­‐dx § Most frequent co-­‐dx is ADHD, CD, ODD, MDD o Etiology § Neurological factors—inattention, short-­‐term mem, hysperactivity, left-­‐right confusion • Signs of brain injury © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
87
§
§
Toxins, early malnutrition, early iron deficiencies, food allergies, hemispheric abnormalities, cerebellar-­‐vestibular dysfunction (Otitis media with effusion—inflammation of middle ear accompanied by accumulation of liquid in middle ear cleft) Cognitive processing deficit o Treatment § Bx and/or educational training •
Communication and Motor Skills Disorders o Mixed Receptive-­‐Expressive Language Disorder § Receptive/expressive considerably lower than nonverbal intellectual capability o Phonological Disorder § Does not use speech sounds expected for age and dialect § Only when difficulties impede academic/occupational achievement or social communication to some extent o Stuttering § Abnormalities in usual fluency and time pattering of speech, which are not appropriate for age § Begins btw ages 2 and 7 § Treated successfully by dealing with emotional pressure child feels § 60% of cases, remits on its own by age 16 o Motor Skills Disorder § Substantial impairment in development of motor coordination § Markedly impede scholastic achievement or day-­‐to-­‐day activities •
ADHD and Disruptive Bx Disorders o ADHD § Developmentally inappropriate degrees of inattention and/or impulsiveness and hyperactivity § Types: • Combined Type—6 or more symptoms of inattention and 6 or more symptoms of hyperactivity-­‐impulsiveness • Inattentive Type—6/+ symptoms of inattention, but fewer than 6 hyperactivity-­‐impulsiveness • Hyperactivity-­‐impulsiveness Type—6/+ hyperactivity-­‐
impulsiveness, but fewer than 6 inattention © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
88
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
Onset must be before age 7, duration must be 6 months, and symptoms present in at least 2 settings Several points lower on IQ 4-­‐9x more common in boys Often co-­‐morbid • Conduct/antisocial problems • Emotional d/o • LD • Social maladjustment, motor incoordination, visual/auditory impairment Untreated—delinquent and antisocial young adults • Restlessness, low frustration tolerance, emotional lability, low self-­‐esteem, impulsivity, difficulty concentrating In Adults: • Impaired social/occupational functioning • Require childhood hx and presence of at least 12: o Sense of underachievement, not meeting one’s goals, chronic procrastination, intolerance of boredom, easily distracted, low frustration tolerance, impulsiveness, tendency to worry needlessly, sense of insecurity • Resemble/mask ADHD: o Anxiety o Bipolar o MDD o OCD o D/o of impulse control o Substance Abuse o Hyper-­‐ or hypo-­‐thyroidism o Personality characteristics: § Passive-­‐aggressive § Narcissism • Greater difficulty in maintaining personal/professional relationships • Tend to participate in more impulsive/risky sexual bx and more sexual partners Etiology • Biological variables o Abnormalities in right frontal lobe, striatum, and cerebellum § Also regions of parietal lobe o Diminished glucose metabolism and decreased blood flow in prefrontal regions and pathways connecting regions to caudate nucleus © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
89
•
§
o Higher rates among relatives—genetic o Food allergies, high lead levels, maternal use of alcohol/nicotine during pregnancy Behavioral Disinhibition Hypothesis o Lack of ability to adjust activity levels to fit requirements of different settings, not attention deficits o Inattention in dull, repetitious, familiar, v structured and/or irregular reinforcement situations Treatment • Pharmacological and bx/cog-­‐bx methods o CNS stimulants § Higher doses—more effective for reducing activity levels and improving social bx § Lower doses—improve attention § Stimulant tx—changes may be short-­‐lived § Side effects: • Somatic symptoms—decreased appetite, insomnia, stomach aches • Movt abnormalities—motor/vocal tics and stereotyped bx • OCD symptoms • Growth suppression o Bx/Cog-­‐Bx § Younger—contingency management at home/school § Older—self-­‐monitoring § No evidence for long-­‐term generalization § Bx tech produce best results when: • Parents participate in treatment, set consistent rules, provide kids w carefully structured environment and schedule • Positive reinforcement is used in combination with punishment and when tangible rewards are used as reinforcers o Conduct Disorder § Defy society’s rules and norms, chronic pattern of violation of social order in variety of settings § 3/+ signs in last 6 mo • Aggression to people/animals • Destruction of property • Deceitfulness or theft © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
90
§
§
§
§
§
• Serious violation of rules Childhood CD=one symptoms prior to age 10 • More overt aggression/violence and greater chance of co-­‐
existing d/os (ADHD, substance abuse) • More likely to continue to engage in antisocial bx in adulthood Adolescent DC=develop at age 10 or later • Less severe symptoms and problematic bx linked to associations w peers Lower achievement tests, more difficulty complying w classroom rules, display lower levels of concern for feelings/welfare of others, lower moral judgment, lower self-­‐esteem, more irritable, less accepted by peers, poorer abstract thinking, more likely to evidence deficits in verbal meditational abilities Below on verbal subtests by no difference on non-­‐verbal subtests Dx of Antisocial Personality D/o in adulthood §
Etiology • Biological factors o Inability to experience high levels of emotional arousal and genetic predisposition • Environmental and fam factors o Poverty, large fam size, parental neglect/rejection, fam discord, physical/sexual abuse, overly harsh/inconsistent/lax discipline, parental psychopathology §
Treatment • Combination bx and fam tx o Multisystematic Therapy (MST) § Addressing multiple determinants and factors in social network that are contributing to bx § Strategic fam tx, structural fam tx, bx parent training, and CBT o Most effective when begins before adolescence and includes parent education o Oppositional Defiant Disorder § Negativistic, argumentative, defiant to adults § Does not bring child into conflict w law § Tension at home § Rarely accepts responsibility and blames others/circumstances § 4 symptoms for 6 mo § Sometimes evolves into CD or mood d/o © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
91
§
•
Tx is usually combination of bx and fam tx Feeding and Eating Disorders o Pica § Non-­‐nutritive substances are ingested on persistent basis for at least one month § Onset 1-­‐2 yrs old § Remits in early childhood § Often associated w MR o Rumination Disorder § Recurrent regurgitation and rechewing of food for at least one months following period of normal functioning § Appears 3-­‐12 mo old § Potentially fatal o Feeding Disorder of Infancy or Early Childhood § “failure to thrive” § Chronic failure to eat enough, w weight loss or failure to gain any weight for at least 1 mo § Begins in 1 y/o •
Tic Disorders o Tic=involuntary, sudden, rapid, recurrent, nonrhythmic, stereotyped motor movt/vocalization o Tourette’s Disorder § Onset in childhood, as early as 2 y/o, or adolescence, before age 18 § Motor and vocal tics • Coprolalia—utterance of obscene/vulgar words § Chronic § Co-­‐morbid • OCD • ADHD • LD • MDD • Social problems § Have problems with attention and overactivity that interfere w academic performance § TX is combination of school interventions, ind and fam tx, and pharmacotherapy o Chronic Motor/Vocal Tic Disorder © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
92
§
§
•
Either single/multiple motor or vocal tics, but not both Symptoms and impairment less severe Elimination Disorders o Encopresis § Repeated involuntary/sometimes intentional passage of feces § At least once/mo over 3/+ mo § At least 4 y/o o Enuresis § Voiding of urine either while awake and/or asleep § 2 wettings/wk for 3 mo § More commone in males § TX: moisture alarm (“bell and pad”), antidepressants, hypnosis, and bladder control exercises •
Separation Anxiety o Excessive anx lasting for at least 4 wks in response to separation from home/attachment figure o School phobia—ages 5-­‐7, usually caused by separation anx § When in adolescence, commonly early sign of MDD or more serious mental d/o o Causes: parental over-­‐pretectedness, insecurity as result of loss/trauma, unresolved dependency issues in parents which result in subtle reinforcement of dependency of child o TX: ind tx, fam tx, bx interventions •
Selective Mutism o Chronic failure to talk in particular social situations for at least 1 mo despite talking in other situations and competence and ease w language required in social situation •
Reactive Attachment Disorder o Extremely disturbed and developmentally inappropriate social relatedness o Subtypes: § Inhibited—chronic failure to initiate or respond in age-­‐expected manner to most social interactions § Disinhibited—indiscriminate sociability o Always associated w extremely pathogenic care, which can take form of chronic neglect of emotional and/or physical needs or multiple changes in caregivers that prevent child from forming permanent/reliable attachments © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
93
•
Stereotyped Movt Disorder o Repetitive, apparently driven motor bx that are not functional o Bx cause physical harm to child and/or interfere significantly w normal activities o Often associated with MR •
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) o Chronic exposure to alcohol in utero and typically characterized by failure to thrive and developmental delays o Impaired motor coordination, attention and memory, MR, hyperactivity, impulsivity, poor judgment o Basal ganglia, hippocampus, frontal lobes o V thin due to not developing normal levels of adipose tissue and facial characteristics include short nose, narrow upper lip, small chin, and flat mid-­‐face o Average IQ of 68 (mild MR) •
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) o Hx of respiratory difficulties (apnea) present at birth, low birth weight, shorter body length o 5:1,000 births § 3rd most frequent cause of death for infants btw 1 mo-­‐1 y/o •
Childhood Depression o Features similar to adult depression o Young children show separation anxiety resulting in school phobia § Adolescents show antisocial bx, including aggression, withdrawal, inattention o Often masked as delinquency, phobias, underachievement, psychosomatic complaints, hyperactivity, or aggression o Associated with fam abuse and neglect o Sad facial expression, irritability o Recurrent thoughts of death/suicide may take form of accident proneness o Under age of 8, likely to express psychomotor agitation as irritability and tantrums § Older—aggressiveness and antisocial bx © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
94
MENTAL DISORDERS DUE TO GENERAL MEDICAL CONDITION •
For dx, need following criteria: o Evidence mental disturbance is direct physiological consequence of gen med cond § Whether onset of med cond and mental symptoms occur closely together in time § Whether signs of mental d/o are representative of primary mental d/o or are atypical § Whether med cond typically produces mental symptoms that are displayed o Mental disturbance can’t better be explained by presence of mental d/o o Mental symptoms cannot occur solely in course of delirium •
Personality Change Due to Gen Med Cond o Lasting personality disturbance is believed to be due to direct physiological effects of gen med cond o CNS neoplasm, cerebrovascular disease, Huntington’s Chorea, epilepsy, HIV/AIDS, endocrine conditions •
Catatonic Disorder Due to Gen Med Cond o Catatonia is believed to be due to direct physiological effects o Head trauma, cerebrovascular disease, encephalitis, metabolic condition SUBSTANCE-­‐INDUCED DISORDERS •
Substance Intoxication o Reversible syndrome as result of recent ingestion of/exposure to substance o Changes during/shortly after using/being exposed to substance and these changes are due to physiological effects of substance on CNS o Alcohol, amphetamines, caffeine, cannabis, cocaine, hallucinogens, inhalants, opiods, PCP, sedatives, anxiolytics o Intoxication includes maladaptive bx/psychological changes and specific signs of substance’s effects on CNS •
Substance Withdrawal o Reversible syndrome develops as result of recently terminating/reducing use of substance after using it heavily/long period of time o Alcohol, amphetamines, cocaine, nicotine, opioids, hypnotics, anxiolytics o Specific cluster of symptoms w/in few hours/days after decreasing/stopping use o Usually associated with Substance Dependence © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
95
Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder o Hallucinogen flashbacks—transient re-­‐experiencing of perceptual disturbances that occurred during intoxication o Occurs in someone who is not currently using DELIRIUM, DEMENTIA AND AMNESTIC AND OTHER COGNITIVE DISORDERS •
•
2 Criteria to meet: o Impairment in cognition/memory that represents substantial change from previous level of functioning o Evidence that symptoms are direct physiological consequence of gen med cond, substance or combination o **all these d/o fall under Mental D/O due to Gen Med Cond and/or Substance-­‐
Induced Mental D/O •
Delirium o Disturbance of consciousness (reduced level of awareness and understanding of environment, impaired ability to focus/maintain/switch attn), along with either change in cognition (mem impairment) or development of perceptual disturbances (misinterpretations, illusions, hallucinations) o Onset is relatively rapid and duration is usually brief, rarely more than 1 mo o Most common over age 60 o Etiology § Infections, metabolic d/o, electrolyte imbalance, renal disease, thiamine deficiency, post-­‐operative states, hypertensive encephalopathy, head trauma, brain lesions § Substance-­‐Induced Delirium, Substance Intoxication Delirium, Substance Withdrawal Delirium, medication effects, exposure to toxins § High risk: • Older pts (over 60) following surgery or result of medical illness • Decreased “cerebral reserve”—dementia, HIV, stroke, CNS injuries • Post-­‐cardiotomy pts • Going through drug withdrawal o Treatment § Medical and psychological, as well as medication § Evaluate for suicide •
Dementia o Multiple impairments § Memory § At least one symptom: • Aphasia • Apraxia © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
96
• Agnosia (inability to identify/recognize objects) • Disturbance of exec func o Differs from delirium § Dementia—relatively alert • Delirium—apparent confusion and clouding of consciousness § Dementia—course is more variable • Can be progressive, static, remissive • Delirium—symptoms fluctuate during course of day and may remit in few hrs or persist for weeks before resolving § Common over age 85 § Pseudodementia—depression impairs cognition • Usually date onset of cog deficits more precisely than cases of true dementia, because onset is usually very sudden • Usually concerned, even more so, about cog deficits • In depression, memory problems are transitory and ordinarily involve procedural memory and recall memory o People w dementia exhibit more wide-­‐spread and progressive memory impairments, and recall and recognition are both affected o Alzheimer’s § Half of all cases § Stages: • 1—lasts 2-­‐4 yrs o Short term memory loss begins o Early deficits in recent memory • 2—lasts 2-­‐10 yrs o Deficits increase in severity over time o Further mem impairment, resulting in retrograde and anterograde amnesia o Restlessness, flat/labile mood, fluent aphasia, difficulty performing complex tasks o Aphasia, apraxia, agnosia, personality changes, delusions, hallucinations o Lack of awareness of gross cog impairments • 3—lasts 1-­‐3 yrs o Serious impairment in most areas • Duration from onset to death is 8-­‐10 yrs § More common in women § Risk factors: • Head injury, exposure to toxins, Down’s Syndrome, alcohol abuse, long-­‐standing physical inactivity • First-­‐degree relative § Psych tx focuses on optimizing immediate environment and providing support for pt and fam © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
97
§
Disease has been linked to neurotransmitters Acetylcholine and L-­‐
glutamate o Vascular Dementia § Cog impairment is patchy, w some func being affected while others are intact § Symptom onset is usually abrupt and course is stepwise and fluctuating o Dementia Due to HIV § Factors of intelligence, age, somatic symptoms of depression are sig predictors of HIV progression and prognosis § Dementia occurs in 2/3 of AIDS pts § Death usually occurs in 1-­‐6 mo after development of severe symptoms o Substance-­‐Induced Persisting Dementia § Applies when: • Cog impairments are causally related to persisting effects of substance use • Symptoms continue after no longer experiencing intoxication/withdrawal § Persisting effects of substance use, not of direct effects of intoxication/withdrawal •
Amnestic Disorder o Mem impairment and no other significant cog impairments o Marked diminishment of ability to learn new info (anterograde amnesia) or recall learned info/events in past (retrograde amnesia) o Etiology § Cerebrovascular disease, head trauma, surgery, hypoxia, herpes complex, encephalitis, seizure § Alcohol and sedatives, hypnotics, anxiolytics § Korsakoff’s syndrome—thiamine and Vit B deficiency § Anticonvulsants, toxins (lead, mercury, carbon monoxide, industrial solvents) § Associated w substance are result of persisting effects of substance use, rather than effects of intox/withdrawal o Post Traumatic Amnesia § Common symptom resulting from head injury § Pattern of mental disturbance characterized by mem failure for day-­‐to-­‐
day events, disorientation, misidentification of fam/friends, impaired attn and illusions © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
98
SUBSTANCE USE DISORDERS o Substance Dependence o More serious o Cluster of cog, bx, and physiological symptoms indicating continued use of substance despite sig substance-­‐related prob o At least 3 in last 12 mo o Substance Abuse o Maladaptive pattern of substance use o At least 1 in 12 mo o Does not and has never met criteria for Substance Dependence o Specific substances: o Alcohol § Acts to depress NS • Disinhibitory § Intoxication—evidenced by maladaptive psychological/bx signs • Chronic, heavy use can cause cog impairment • Verbal subtests unaffected, but performance are suppressed o Especially visuospatial § Withdrawal—terminates/cuts back on long-­‐term and heavy alcohol use • Agitated state occurs • Alcohol Withdrawal Delirium (delirium tremens) o Signs of delirium plus vivid hallucinations, delusions, autonomic hyperactivity and agitation § Korsakoff’s syndrome—thiamine deficiency that causes damage to thalamus • Impairment in recent memory § Genetic factors o Cocaine § Maladaptive bx and psych changes that include euphoria, interpersonal sensitivity, talkativeness, hypervigilence, and impaired judgment § Physical signs such as tachycardia, papillary dilation, elevated/lowered BP, psychomotor agitation/retardation, nausea/vomitting o Cannabis § Sedation, mild euphoria, and high doses alter perceptions of time/sensation § Complex perceptual/motor tasks are impaired short-­‐term, often w/o person being aware of it • No long-­‐term adverse effects © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
99
o Caffeine § Intoxication—restlessness, nervousness, excitement, tachycardia/arrythmia, inexhaustibility, psychomotor agitation, GI prob, flushed face o Treatment o Alcohol § AA § Antabuse—severe nausea when mixed w alcohol § Naltrexone—blocks rewarding effects of drinking and craving alcohol § Acamprosate—reduced w/drawal symptoms § Fam and ind tx § Abstinence Violation Effect (AVE)—Initial relapses lead to feelings of guilt and failure, which in turn lead to more relapses o Substance Addiction § Combination of biological and psychological tx o Nicotine § Strong desire to quit, awareness of negative health consequences of smoking and social support for quitting § Multimodal Behavioral Approach—social skills, relapse prevention training, stimulus control, rapid smoking § Barrier—fear of w/drawal • Nicotine Replacement Therapy—nictine gum, transdermal patch, nicotine inhaler o Relapse Prevention Therapy § CBT approach for dependence § Collection of maladaptive, over-­‐learned habit patterns, rather than merely physiological response to substance use § Individuals are viewed as being responsible for learning and practicing more adaptive habits § High-­‐risk situations: • Negative emotional states • Interpersonal conflicts • Social pressure § Primary goal—help build coping mech/alternative habits to more effectively deal w high-­‐risk situations SCHIZOPHRENIA AND PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS o Schizophrenia o “Splitting of the mind” o Affects: § Content of thought § Form of thought § Perception § Affect © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
100
§
§
§
§
Sense of self Volition Interpersonal functioning Psychomotor bx o Diagnosis § Criteria: • Active phase for sig time during 1 mo period that includes delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, grossly disorganized/catatonic bx, negative symptoms o Positive symptoms—distortions/exaggerations of normal functioning § Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, catatonic/grossly disorganized bx o Negative symptoms—diminishment/loss of functions that are normally present § Alogia—restricted fluency/productivity of thought/speech § Avolition—restricted initiation of goal-­‐directed bx § Anhedonia • Deterioration from previous level of functioning • Persist for at least 6 mo § Cicumstantiality—less serious sign than loosening associations, involving point never being reached § Acute episodes lasting less than 6 mo—Schizophreniform D/O § Male have earlier onset (18-­‐25 yrs) • Females—25-­‐mid 30’s § Premorbid personalities are often suspicious, introverted, w/drawn, eccentric § Equally common in males/females § Die at earlier age • Unnatural causes, such as suicide, violence being done to person, accidents § Chronic o Types § Disorganized—disorganized bx/speech, flat/inappropriate affect • Regression to extremely primitive uninhibited and unorganized bx • No organized delusions § Cataonic—psychomotor disturbance such as mutism, extreme negativism, rigidity, posturing, motoric immobility and/or extreme excitemen § Paranoid—speak quite lucidly, often convincingly, about unreal world © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
101
§
§
• Auditory hallucinations or one/more delusions present Undifferentiated Residual—at least one schizophrenic episode and continue to display negative signs of illness • No prominent, positive psychotic symptoms o Etiology § Genetic • Other factors contribute to development • Certain psychosocial factors need to be present too • Diathesis-­‐Stress/Vulnerability Theory-­‐-­‐Predisposed to d/o are confronted w adverse and stressful environment § Biochemical • Dopamine Hypothesis—excess of monoamine neurotransmitters (dopamine) or increased sensitivity to dopamine § Neurological irregularities • Structural brain abnormalities—no single abnormality explains o Increased volume of lateral and third ventricle • Functional brain abnormalities—few consistent diff o Poor performance on certain cog tasks is accompanied by smaller increase in blood flow to prefrontal cortex • Neurotransmitter imbalance—norepinephrine, serotonin, glutamate o Positive effects of clozapine are directly related to norepinephrine levels § Cross-­‐Ethnic Diff • Higher incidence rate for AA § Industrialized/Non-­‐industrialized countries • Third world countries tend to have more acute onset, but shorter clinical course and more often than not have complete remission • 65% of pts in industrialized countries had continuous/episodic illness w/o full remission as compared to 39% in developing countries 5 yrs later o Treatment § Pharmacological tx—most effective for reducing positive symptoms • Antipsychotics • Newer “atypical” antipsychotics appear to be as effective in reducing positive symptoms and are more effective relieving negative symptoms o Risperidone (Risperal) o Clozapine (Clozaril) o Aripiprazole (Abilify) © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
102
§
§
Social skills training V few support ind insight-­‐oriented tx • Rather reality-­‐adaptive support or fam counseling o Schizophreniform Disorder o Identical to schizophrenia except symptoms last 1-­‐6 mo and impaired func is not required o Schizoaffective Disorder o Both Mood D/O and Schizophrenia § Psychotic features more prominent than Mood D/O w Psychotic Features § Period of 2 wks or more where psychotic but not mood symptoms are present o Delusional Disorder o Delusion that is persistent (at least 1 mo), not bizarre, not due to other mental d/o, w bx that is not otherwise odd, and functioning that is not markedly impaired o Nonbizarre delusions—theoretically plausible or do not violate currently accepted laws of universe § Focus on: • Erotomanic—person, usually of higher status, is in love u pt • Grandiose • Jealous • Persecutory • Somatic • Mixed • Unspecified o Brief Psychotic Disorder o At least one psychotic symptom o Very sudden onset and lasts from couple of hr to 1 mo o Full return to premorbid level of functioning o Overwhelming confusion and emotional turmoil o Brief Reactive Psychosis—Symptoms occur after person has endured one/more markedly stressful events o Shared Psychotic Disorder o Rare o Delusional system develops in second person as result of close relationship w subject who already had psychotic d/o w prominent delusions o Folie a Deux—2-­‐member relationship © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
103
MOOD DISORDERS o Episodes: o Manic—at least one week § Abnormally elevated, expansive, irritable mood § Grandiosity, decreased need for sleep, increased talking, flight of ideas, distractibility, excessive risk-­‐taking, marked impairment in social/occupational functioning, need for hospitalization, development of psychotic features § Euphoric mood is often brittle and may give way quickly to irritability and anger o Hypomanic—not as severe § No impairment of social/occupational functioning, no need for hospitalization, psychotic features never present § At least 4 days o Mixed—at least one week § Almost everyday, both manic and depressive episodes o Major Depressive—change from previous functioning § 2 week period § Depressed mood and/or loss of interest in pleasure o Bipolar o Bipolar I § Presence of at least one manic/mixed and often one/more depressive § Academic/occupational failure, severe marital discord, periodic antisocial conduct § Risk of suicide o Bipolar II § One/more depressive and at least one hypomanic § Must not have ever had manic/mixed o Cyclothymic Disorder § Disturbance in mood for at least 2 yrs § Alternated btw hypomanic and depression that is too mild to be considered major depressive episode § Daily functioning is not impaired o Depressive Disorders o MDD § One/more depressive episodes w/o manic/mixed/hypomanic § Industrialized countries—MDD 2x as common in adolescents and adult women than among men o Postpartum Depression § Symptoms sufficiently severe to warrant diagnosis of Mood D/O § Last 2-­‐8 wks, but can persist for 1 yr © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
104
§ Onset of mood episode w/in 4 wks after delivery o Dysthymic Disorder § Less severe § General mood lasting in a consistent way over 2 yr/+ § Chronic § Few impairments in daily functioning • Represents characteristic mode of functioning § Double Depression—dysthymic + depression o Seasonal Affective Disorder § Onset and remission of MDD at characteristic times f yr • Onset is usually fall/winter, remission is spring § Abnormal regulation of melatonin secretion by pineal gland o Etiology o Genetic o Severe environmental stress underlies § Describe experiencing 3x as many stressful events o Biochemical § Norepinephrine/Catecholamine Hypothesis • Depression=low NE • Mania=excess NE § Permissive Theory • Depression=low NE and serotonin • Mania=high NE and low serotonin § Sleep disturbance • Usually short delay in onset of REM, reduced slow-­‐wave sleep, early morning awakening o Psych § Psychoanalytic—intrapsychic ambivalence • Love/hate which were directed at object is now directed internally and intrapsychic struggle leads to depression • Angry feelings are turned inward and become unconscious self-­‐
reproached manifested consciously as depressive symptoms § Cog/CBT • Cog distortions and dysfunctional automatic thoughts § Learned helplessness—attributional style in which negative events are viewed as stable over time rather than transient, global rather than specific, internal rather than external § Self-­‐control Model of Depression • Selective attn to negative events in environment • Selective attn to immediate as opposed to long-­‐range outcomes of bx • Stringent standards for self-­‐evaluation • Negative attributions for one’s own bx © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
105
•
•
Insufficient self-­‐reinforcement Excessive self-­‐punishment o Treatment o Medications § Lithium § Antidepressants—tricyclics, SSRIs, MAOIs, heterocyclic antidepressant • SSRIs and tricyclics are most effective • MAOIs are used for atypical depression o CBT and interpersonal therapy (IPT) § CBT • Identify automatic thoughts that cause depression • Help to see how thoughts distort reality • Help understand why faulty thoughts are unfounded § Operant conditioning—low rate of response contingent reinforcement § Classical conditioning—“neurotic depression” • Conditioning process in which person develops anx in response to various stimuli and then anx acts as antecedent for depression § Learned helplessness—prolonged exposure to unescapable aversive stimuli lead to increased emotional arousal and eventually to depressed mood § Increase pleasurable activities, improve social skills § Combined CBT approach is best § IPT—interpersonal difficulties stem from disturbances early in life o CBT and meds are equally effective § CBT more effective for mild depression § Meds are first-­‐line for mod/sev depression o Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) § Effective in severe endogenous forms of depression involving delusions or suicidal ideations and depressions that have not improved w/ antidepressants o Relapse prevention was more effective w/ psychotherapy than prevention w/ med alone ANXIETY DISORDERS •
Panic Disorder o Repeated, unexpected panic attacks o At least one attack followed by 1 mo of chronic worry about having another, potential repercussions of attack, or marked change in bx related to attack o With Agoraphobia—more severe § Higher rates of comorbidity • GAD § 1/3 to 1/2 dx w Panic D/O also have Agoraphobia © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
106
o Etiology § Development of panic attacks and unusually high levels of sodium lactate § Genetic o Treatment § Most effective is CBT • Emphasizes exposure to internal cues that are associated w attack § Similar biologically to depression • Antidepressants—Imipramine and MAOis • Alprazolan (benzodiazepine) • Use of beta-­‐blocker not found consistent •
Phobias o Agoraphobia Without History of Panic Disorder § Fear of experiencing panic-­‐like symptoms, but not full blown panic attacks § Diarrhea and dizziness § Alcohol/drug dependence often associated w d/o o Social Phobia § Focuses avoidance of social/performance situations where anticipates other will observe, judge, or scrutinize or that exposed to strangers § Situationally Bound Panic Attacks—panic attacks that occur upon exposure to situation • Shyness, performance anx, stage fright are not considered social phobias unless they cause clinically sig distress or impairment in functioning § Onset in adolescence, although late onset after sig life event § Chronic and life-­‐long § Equal gender ratio o Specific Phobia § Persistent fear of and desire to avoid specific stimuli § Hypochondriasis—fear of acquiring/being exposed to disease § Blood-­‐Injection-­‐Injury Type (Health phobia)—fear cued by seeing blood or injury or by receiving/injection • Strong vasogal response • Onset early childhood • Younger age for women for onset o Etiology § Psychoanalytic—result of paralyzing conflict due to unacceptable sexual/aggressive impulses toward person/obj, that has become unconsciously associated w obj of phobia and results in irrational fear so intense it interferes w functioning • Displacing fear toward specific obj © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
107
Behavioral—classical conditioning Biology—certain stimuli are more likely to provoke phobic response • Biologically prepared stimuli—at one time, posed true threat to human survival o Treatment § Medication • Tricyclic antidepressant and SSRIs • Imipramine (TCA)—agoraphobia • Most effective w social phobia § Behavioral • In-­‐vivo exposure—most effective for agoraphobia o Flooding • Modeling • Hypnosis • Combined drug and bx is most effective to prevent relapse § Cog • Effective w specific phobias § Muscle tension • Effective for Blood-­‐Injection-­‐Injury § Group therapy §
§
•
OCD o Obsessions—persistent/urgently recurring thoughts that person experiences as intrusive, inappropriate, distressing, and outside of control o Compulsions—repetitive bx/ritual that are performed in response to obsessions o Excessive and not associated in any practical/functional way to things they are intended to offset/prevent o First appear in adolescence/early adulthood o Comorbid w MDD o Disproportionately higher SES and higher intelligence o Etiology § Frued—ego and superego development outstripped libido development • Over-­‐reliance on defense mech such as rxn formation and displacement § Behavioral—2 Factory Theory • First acquires anx response to previously neutral stimulus as result of classical conditioning • Then engages in compulsive rituals in order to avoid stimulus § Brain imaging—abnormalities in basal ganglia and frontal lobes o Treatment § Behavioral © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
108
Exposure to environmental cues that evoke bx along w response prevention • In-­‐vivo exposure is best tx • Habituation and thought stopping have worked w obsessions • Prob w bx tx—do little to reduce depression, sexual dysfunction, and difficult fam relationships o Supportive tx recommended Biological • SSRIs—most prescribed to reduce symptoms • Symptoms reappear after med d/c •
§
•
PTSD and Acute Stress Disorder o PTSD § 2 conditions: • Experienced/seen/been confronted w event that involved death/serious injury, high potential for death/injury, or some other threat to physical well-­‐being of self/others • Reacted to event w extreme fear, helplessness or horror § Re-­‐experiencing of traumatic event • Intrusive and painful recollections, dreams, and/or nightmares about event • Reliving trauma in real ways during dissociative states • Additionally: o Avoidance of stimuli related to trauma and numbing of general responses o Persistent symptoms of heightened arousal § More than 1 mo • Acute=less than 3 mo • Chronic=more than 3 mo § Treatment • Crisis intervention • CBT or behavioral o Extinguish symptoms and develop better coping strategies o Prolonged exposure is best treatment • Psychopharm o Target symptoms of MDD, panic d/o or persisting psychotic symptoms become too intense o Antidepressants • Brief psychodynamic therapy o Integrate experience into overall personality structure o Hypnosis and relaxation training • Prospect for remission is good if time btw trauma and development of symptoms is short • Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
109
o CBT and client-­‐centered w lateral eye movements o Bilateral stimulation accelerates info processing as in REM sleep o More effective than no tx, but less effective than exposure o Acute Stress Disorder § Same kind of traumatic event § Occur w/in 1 mo of extreme stressor and last from 2 days to 1 mo § During event or after, person experiences at least 3 dissociative symptoms •
GAD o
o
o
o
Excessive anx and worry about multiple life circumstances Lasts 6 mo 3 characteristics and person finds it difficult to control worry TX incorporates bx and cog, such as progressive relaxation, in-­‐vivo and imaginary exposure, and cog restructuring § Combined CBT most effective SOMATOFORM DISORDERS, FACTICIOUS DISORDERS, AND MALINGERING •
Somatoform Disorders o Physical symptoms that have no known physiological cause and are believed to be attributable to psychological factors o Conversion Disorder § At least one symptom or deficit impairing voluntary motor/sensory function and symptom suggests physiological cause/disorder but appears to be expression of underlying psychological conflict/need § Conflict/stressful event occurred shortly before onset of symptom, or is associated w intensification of symptoms • After full exploration, symptoms cannot be fully accounted for by physiological cause • Symptoms are not deliberate § Two mechanisms: • Primary gain—reduces anx and keeps internal conflict/need out of conscious awareness • Secondary gain—helps avoid noxious activity or obtain otherwise unavailable support from environment § Psychological factor must be associated w initiation or intensification of symptoms/deficit § Treated: © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
110
•
Hypnosis, narcosis (interview that takes place while pt is under influence of drug that induces semi-­‐conscious state) or dramatic placebo o Somatization Disorder § Repeated and multiple somatic complaints lasting several yrs § Med attn sought but no physical cause found § Briquet’s syndrome • Chronic syndrome w recurrent symptoms affecting various organs w no demonstrable physical d/o § Chronic § Onset usually teens and always before 30 § c/o: • 4 pain symptoms • 2 GI symptoms • 1 sexual symptom • 1 pseudoneurological symptom o Pain Disorder § Preoccupation w pain w no physical condition to account for pain § Cog and CBT § Passive coping strategies—associated w worse pain and adjustment among chronic pain pats and may also serve as psychological enforcer of pain • Active coping strategies—entail pt taking responsibility for pain management and include attempts to control pain/function in spite of it are associated w less pain and better adjustment o Undifferentiated Somatoform Disorder § At least 1 physcial complaint that persisted for 6 mo and cannot be fully explained by med cond or substance use § Duration of less than 6 mo=Somatoform D/O NOS o Hypochondriasis § Preoccupied w fears of having serious disease § Chronic § No delusions § Acknowledge fears are exaggerated § Predisposing factor=pt or fam w past disease § Absence of disease conviction in hypochondriasis • Reaches extremely strong, unreasonable and delusional proportions in Delusional D/O, Somatic Type © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
111
o Body Dysmorphic Disorder § Preoccupied w non-­‐existent/slight physical flaw and concern is very unreasonable, causing distress and interfering w usual functioning •
Factitious Disorders o Physical/psych symptoms that are deliberately produced or simulated o Voluntary nature of symptoms does not necessarily mean individual has complete control over them § Bx are “voluntary” in sense that they are deliberate and purposeful, but not in sense that they can be controlled § Resemble compulsions o Treatment § Symptom management § Supportive tx § Fam/grp tx § Confrontational techniques requires caution, given risk of defensiveness, denial, or therapeutic relationship termination o Factitious Disorder w Psychological Symptoms § Pseudopsychosis • Deliberate production/feigning of psych (often psychotic) symptoms • Represent individual’s conception of mental d/o • Induced by use of psychoactive substances •
o Factitious Disorder w Physical Symptoms § Voluntary production/faking of physical symptoms § Munchausen syndrome or hospital addiction o Factious Disorder by Proxy § Non-­‐DSM-­‐5 d/o § Mothers appear to be sole suffers of d/o • Leads them to fabricate/actually create medical symptoms in children in order to receive medical care Malingering o Not mental d/o, but Condition That May Be a Focus of Clinical Attention o Deliberate production of either fraudulent/exaggerated symptoms, motivated by external incentives o Under control of individual PERSONALITY DISORDERS •
Enduring characteristics of person are inflexible, maladaptive, and result of either sign impairment in daily func or subjective distress © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
112
o Chronic o Overt manifestations might well wane by middle age o Hx of dev prob in childhood •
Paranoid Personality D/O o Distrust and suspiciousness in which ind consistently interprets motives of others as malevolent o Fear of being exploited or harmed by others in some way o Hypervigilient and take precautions against any perceived threat o Does not involve delusions § Suspiciousness is usually not far enough outside realm of possibility to be considered delusion o While under stress, may experience transient psychotic episodes, lasting min to hrs o Treatment: § Supportive tx—most effective • Avoid directly challenging suspicions § Bx and CBT—anx and oversensitivity •
Schizoid Personality D/O o Indifference to social relationships and limited range of emotional expression in social situations o Introverted and preoccupied, showing little emotion except for infrequent signs of irritability o Work—if social contact is not required •
Schizotypal Personality D/O o Social and interpersonal deficits involving extreme discomfort w and limited capacity for close relationships, and by markedly eccentric/odd perceptual and cog distortions and bx o Say that they want close relationships o Unlike Schizoid, peculiar/odd thoughts/bx/appearance Schizophrenia—psychotic thoughts, disturbances in affect, social deterioration • Lasting 6/+ mo Schizophreniform Disorder—schizophrenic symptoms • Lasting -­‐/6 mo Schizoaffective Disorder—psychotic disturbance w Schizophrenic and Mood symptoms, but neither criteria met © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
113
Schizoid Personality Disorder—social isolation, restricted affect, prefers to be loner Schizotypal Personality Disorder—peculiarities of thought, appearance and bx, but not as severe as schizophrenic d/o •
•
•
Speech is odd, but not loose or incoherent Thought may be unusual, but not bizarre and strange If stress-­‐induced psychotic symptoms, they are transient and not as severe •
Histrionic Personality Disorder o Excessive emotionality and attention-­‐seeking o Constantly seek reassurance, approval, praise o Theatrical, usually attractive and seductive § Use physical appearance to get attn o Dependent/clingy § Unlike Dependent Personality D/O, due to being more emotional and exaggerated in affective and bx responses •
Narcissistic Personality Disorder o Grandiosity, need for admiration, lack of empathy o Exhibitionistic o Feelings of entitlement include no sense of reciprocal responsibility o Constant attn and admiration, react to criticism as threat to self-­‐esteem, alternate btw overidealization and devaluation of others § Expectations are that they deserve the best of everything from others, and if not, devalued o Unrealistic fantasies of achievement, talent, and often relentless, joyless drive towards goals that are never felt to be accomplished o Etiology: § Unempathetic and unresponsive mother, thus developing precarious and vulnerable self-­‐representation § Arrest in development rather than defense • If age-­‐appropriate infantile grandiosity is not neutralized by mother’s mirroring of reality, grandiosity remains •
Borderline Personality Disorder o Instability of interpersonal relationships, self-­‐image, and affect, as well as sign impulsivity o Mood usually dysphoric, but is often interrupted by periods of intense anger, despair, or panic § Feelings are triggered by interpersonal conflict/abandonment § Attempt suicide © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
114
o Etiology: § Psychoanalytic—ego/obj relations rd
• Fixation at 3 stage of development of normal internalized obj relations (when good self-­‐ and obj-­‐representations and bad self-­‐ and obj-­‐representations are perceived as distinct and unrelated) § Innate biological disposition toward aggression § Obj relations • Abnormalities in separation-­‐individuation process due to parents’ clinging to child or lack of support/attn o Fixated at stage of development, experiencing feelings of rage/hopelessness/emptiness (Abandonment Depression) and continuously vacillating btw fear of abandonment and fear of domination § Dominant defense mech—splitting • Unable to view self/others as possessing both good/bad qualities § Cog—inability to acknowledge “wants” and to discriminate btw “wants” and “needs” • Anger results from notion that others “should act well toward them and that conditions of world must be easy or it is awful” o Treatment: § CBT—decreasing self-­‐destructive bx, improving prob solv, and acquiring more reasonable self-­‐perceptions of others § Meds § Dialectical Bx Tx (DBT)—Linehan • Further development of CBT that emphasizes self-­‐soothing, social skills, and group dynamics • Focuses on here-­‐and-­‐now • Regulate affect § Many demonstrate sign reduction/remission of symptoms by middle age or sooner • Impulsive symp quickest to resolve • Affective symp, which are chronic, show least improvement w age •
Antisocial Personality Disorder o Disregard for violation of rights of other people that has been present since age 15 o Also known as psychopathy, sociopathy or dissocial personality d/o o Hx of symp of CD before age 15 o Childhood—hx of lying, stealing, and aggression § Adolescence—signs of truancy, aggressive sexual bx and drug/alcohol abuse • Subjective feelings of boredom, depression, tension o More common in males o Co-­‐morbid w CD, ADHD and absence of fam discipline © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
115
Criminal bx, often become less evident as ind grows older Chronic Poor prognosis Symptoms such as difficulties w interpersonal relationships may persist Etiology: § Fam factors § Genetics • Strong genetic influence on higher order factors o Callous/unemotional and impulsive/irresponsible § Three interrelated dimensions of psychopathic personality: • Interpersonal style of grandiosity/glibness/manipulation • Affective disposition of unemotionality/callousness/lack of empathy • Bx dimension/lifestyle involving need for stimulation/impulsivity/irresponsibility § Biology • Brainwave abnormalities—excessive slow-­‐wave activity § Lower than normal levels of arousal and anx • Tend to seek excitement and stimulation to elevate arousal level o Treatment: § Usually resist tx • Nothing wrong w them • Uncooperative and manipulative § Bx—modest success in institutional setting • Must have: o Withdrawal of reinforcements for inappropriate bx and punishment for antisocial acts o Modeling of appropriate bx amd shaping of desired bx through graded reinforcement o Gradual fading of external rewards and reinforcers as person takes more self-­‐control and responsibility • Reducing impulsivity, anger, and other specific bx o
o
o
o
o
•
•
Avoidant Personality Disorder o Social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, and hypersensitivity to negative evaluation o Timid and shy o Very few personal relationships o Avoids social situations—still longs for contact and relationships § Unlike schizoid personality who have no desire for relationships Dependent Personality Disorder o Pervasive and excessive need to be taken care of, leading to clinging, submissive bx and fears of separation o Passive and sacrifice own needs and desires to those of others © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
116
•
•
§ Clearly excessive and do not simply reflect cultural norms o Co-­‐Dependence—condition in which person inadvertently or deliberately supports addiction or dependence of another person § Assumption of responsibility for meeting needs of another-­‐to exclusion of one’s own needs § Continued investment of self-­‐esteem in control of others § Enmeshed relationship w chemically-­‐dependent, personality-­‐disordered, impulse-­‐disordered, or other co-­‐dependent person § Other symptoms such as excessive denial, depression, anx, and stress related medical illness Obsessive-­‐Compulsive Personality Disorder o Preoccupation w perfectionism, orderliness, and mental and interpersonal control, which severely limits openness, flexibility, and efficiency o Overly moralistic and judgmental o Indecisive, stingy (money and emotions) o Most comfortable w sameness and order and resist change and spontaneity o Does not involve obsessions or compulsions § Involves compulsively driven bx o Reaction formation—defending against unacceptable impulse by expressing its opposite Eating Disorders o Anorexia Nervosa § Refusal to maintain body weight over minimal normal weight (85%/-­‐ of what is expected) § Intense fear of losing control of one’s weight or becoming fat even though underweight § Distorted body image—excessive influence of body weight and shape on self-­‐image or denial of dangerousness of current low body weight § Amenorrhea—postmenarchal females § Adolescent females § Specifiers: • Restricting Type—weight loss is mostly accomplished through dieting, fasting, or excessive exercise without regular pattern of binge eating or purging • Binge Eating/Purging Type—engages in binge eating and/or purging § Denial—difficult to become engaged in tx § Etiology: • Fam factors o Upper middle class o Domineering, over-­‐involved and insensitive mother o Affectively uninvolved father o Home in which food/weight has greater than ordinary sign © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
117
o Child’s needs for individuation and support are actually neglected or ignored o Seen as attempt to obtain control and independence in fam where these are otherwise denied to pt • Psychoanalytic—fear of increasing sexuality and/or oral impregnation • Developmental—weight phobia (fear of growing up) • Biological—abnormalities of endocrine system or hypothalamus • Genentic predisposition § Treatment: • Back to normal weight • Bx and CBT—maintenance of normal eating patterns • Cog—altering faulty thinking and inaccurate beliefs about weight, food, and consequences of eating • Fam Tx—“family lunch” o Fam members and therapist eat meal together o Bring dysfunctional fam interactions to attn of fam members o Teach parents positive ways of getting pt to eat while still respecting autonomy • Neurotransmitters—low levels of serotonin o Fluoxetine (Prozac) and other SSRIs o o Bulimia Nervosa § Recurrent episodes of binge eating and/or repeated inappropriate compensatory bx to prevent weight gain § Occur average of 2x/wk for 3 mo and are unduly influenced by body shape and weight § Purging and Non-­‐purging Types § Involves secretive, rapis consumption of food, often accompanied w feelings of depression/guilt/lack of control over consumption § Syndrome is rare, but substantial number of overweight women engage in binge eating § Female § Age of onset btw 16-­‐19 § Predominantly young, educated white women from middle/upper SES § Low self-­‐esteem, external locus of control, fear of interpersonal intimacy and perfectionistic tendencies § Bx signs: • Frequent weight fluc of 10/+lbs • Emotional labile and impulsive • Social adjustment problems • Depression • Perfectionism motivated by need for approval § Etiology: © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
118
Combo of physiological, psych, and social/environmental factors o Disturbed body image and desire to be thinner, low self-­‐
esteem, emotional instability • Fam factors—chaotic, highly conflicted and neglectful fam environment o Parents who emphasize importance of outward appearances o Parental overconcern w dieting and body shape or weight • Sexually abused • Unlike anorexia purging-­‐type, able to maintain body weight o Able to maintain façade of normalcy • Tend to be aware bx is d/o and abnormal o More likely to engage in tx Treatment: • Immediate goal—restore normal eating pattern o Maintain patterns and address fam/intrapsychic roots of problem as longer-­‐term goal • Key goals: o Obtain control over eating bx o Alter dysfunctional beliefs of eating/body shape/weight o CBT—self-­‐monitoring and cog restructuring •
§
•
Dissociative Disorders o Sudden changes in consciousness, identity, memory, or perception § Sudden/gradual § Chronic/transient o Dissociative Amnesia § Sudden inability to remember important personal info, usually of stressful/traumatic nature, that is too extensive to be attributed to ordinary forgetfulness § Retrospectively reported memory gap or series of gaps for aspects of life hx § Gaps are related to traumatic/stressful event § Followed by full recovery of memory o Dissociative Fugue § Abrupt, unanticipated travel away from home/work, inability to remember some/all of one’s past and confusion about identity or partial/complete adoption of new identity § May not recall events that took place during fugue § Only temporary absence § Rare © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
119
§
§
Most often in wartime or after natural disaster Associated w heavy alcohol use o Dissociative Identity Disorder § Existence in one’s individual of at least 2 diff identities/personality states, w at least 2 identities /personality states recurrently taking control of person’s bx § Unable to remember essential personal info to extent that is too great to attribute to ordinary forgetfulness § Transitions btw are usually abrupt • Brought on by psychosocial stress § Each distinct personality has own bx/mem/relationships • Subpersonalities (alters) may deny awareness of one another § Severe childhood trauma o Depersonalization Disorder § Persistent/repeated episodes of depersonalization severe enough to cause sign distress/conspicuously impair func § Sense of estrangement from one’s self, feelings of unreality, dreamlike states, and ego-­‐dystonic bodily sensations • Reality testing remains intact § Cannot recall essential personal info § Derealization—alteration in perceptions of obj, other people, or time § Set off by acute stress o Dissociative Disorder, NOS § Ganser’s syndrome—“syndrome of approximate answers” • First noted in prisoners who gave answers to questions that were close to truth but not completely true • Associates w hallucinations, disorientation, amnesia, lack of insight •
Sexual and Gender Identity Disorders o Paraphilias § Repeated, powerful sexually-­‐arousing fantasies or urges to engage in sexual bx involving either nonhuman obj, suffering/humiliation of self/partner, children, or other nonconsenting partners § Desires are persistent and are experienced as compulsions over which person has little/no control § Types: • Fetishism • Sexual Sadism/Masochism © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
120
§
§
§
§
• Transvestism • Exhibitionism • Voyeurism • Pedophilia • Frotteurism If present but does not cause marked distress/impairment, then not paraphilia Urges, activities, fantasies that are obligatory w/o which arousal cannot take place Co-­‐morbid w personality d/o Treatment: • Bx interventions—aversive counterconditioning o Covert sensitization—pairing btw aversive stimulus and exciting obj occurs in imagination o Orgasmic reconditioning—masturbate in presence of appropriately sexually exciting stimulus o Social skills training o Cog restructuring o Sexual Dysfunction § R/O med/substance causes § Sexual Response Cycle: • Desire—sexual fantasies and desire to have sex o D/O: Hypoactive Sexual Desire D/O and Sexual Aversion D/O • Excitement—feeling of sexual pleasure and consequent physiological changes o D/O: Female Sexual Arousal D/O, Male Erectile D/O • Orgasm—culmination of sexual pleasure and release of sexual tension o D/O: Female Orgasmic Disorder, Male Orgasmic D/O, Premature Ejaculation • Resolution—sense of general relaxation, muscle relaxation and general well-­‐being o No DSM d/o § Sexual Pain Disorders: • Vaginismus—involuntary contractions of muscles • Dyspareunia—sexual pain § All d/o classified as: • Due to psych factors or combined factors • Life-­‐long (primary) or acquired • Situational or generalized § Most common in males is Premature Ejaculation; females is Orgasmic D/O © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
121
§
•
Treatment: • Bx and CBT • Causes of dysfunction are: o Performance anx, faulty info, early conditioning, faulty expectations, ignorance of sexual physiology o Model for tx: § Pre-­‐treatment counseling, relationship counseling, sensate focus, cog restructuring • Sensate focus—couple becomes desensitized to anx cues • Specific dysfunctions o Hypoactive Sexual Desire D/O and Female Orgasmic D/O—direct masturbation o Vaginismus—relaxation training and progressive dilation of vagina o Premature Ejaculation—squeeze tech § Types: • Primary—present throughout adulthood • Secondary—during adulthood w man who has not experienced problem before o Neurological d/o § SSRIs (Prozac/Fluoxetine) and some TCAs o Kegel exercises o Gender Identity Disorder § Intense/chronic identification w opposite gender, persistent unease w one’s actual sex, or sense of inappropriateness in gender role of one’s sex, severe enough to cause marked distress or sign impede functioning § Unease w/sense of inappropriateness about gender is manifested as preoccupation w getting rid of primary and secondary sex charact or belief they were born in wrong sex Sleep Disorders o Chronic o Assumed to be caused by internal abnormalities in sleep-­‐wake generating or timing mech and may be complicated by conditioning o Dyssomnias § Disturbances in amount, quality and timing of sleep § Insomnia—diff falling/staying asleep or not feeling rested after seemingly sufficient periods of sleep • Last for 1/+ mo § Hypersomnia—daytime sleepiness, sleep attacks, extreme sleepiness for at least 1 mo • Not due to lack of sleep © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
122
Nocturnal sleep is prolonged in idiopathic hypersomnia and variable in secondary hypersomnia • Genetic predisposed • Secondary hypersomnia causes: o Neurologic o General med, various intoxications, conditions leading to brain hypoxia o Psych Narcolepsy—overcome w irresistible sleepiness and sleep attacks of brief duration that occur unpredictably, almost daily over at least 3 mo • Cataplexy—sudden loss of partial/complete muscle tone during excitement/arousal o Distinguishing feature • Repeated intrusions of REM elements into transition btw sleep and wakefulness o Hyponopompic (while awakening) or Hypnagogic (while falling asleep) hallucinations or sleep paralysis at start/end of sleep episodes • Genentic Breathing-­‐Related Sleep Disorder—disruption of sleep causing either sleepiness or insomnia • Sleep apnea o Types: § Obstructive—caused by relaxation of soft tissue in back of throat that closes airway and blocks passage of air § Central—brain fails to signal muscles to breath § Mixed o Treatment: § Mild—positional therapy, nose strips, oral/dental appliances § CPAP • Hypopneas (abnormal slow/shallow breathing) • Hypoventiliation (abnormal blood oxygen and CO2 often due to impairment in ventilatory control) Circadian Rhythm Sleep Disorder • Poor match btw sleep-­‐wake schedule • Causes repeated and persistent sleep disruptions •
§
§
§
o Parasomnias § Aberrant bx/physiological event during sleep or threshold btw sleep and awakening § Nightmare Disorder § Sleep Terror D/O—no detailed dream remembered © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
123
§
§
Sleepwalking D/O • Low level autonomic arousal • Onset 6-­‐12 Types: • During REM—Nightmare and sleep paralysis • Non-­‐REM—Sleepwalking and Sleep Terror •
Impulse Control Disorders o Pathological gambling o Pyromania o Kleptomania o Intermittent Explosive D/O o Trichotillomania •
Adjustment Disorders o Develops emotional/bx symptoms in rxn to identifiable stressor w/in 3 mo of onset of stressor o After stressor/effects of stressor are terminated, symptoms cannot last for more than 6 mo more MISC CLINICAL ISSUES •
Symptoms Definitions o Illusions—misperception/misinterpretation of actual external stimuli o Delusions—false beliefs that are firmly held despite clear evidence to contrary and do not represent beliefs that are widely accepted by culture o Hallucinations—sensory perceptions that seem real but occur w/o presence of external stimuli o Magical thinking—erroneous belief that one’s thoughts/actions will cause/prevent specific outcomes o Ideas of reference—belief that external events have particular meaning •
Obesity o Fam and genetic more than environment o Metabolic rate is slower—heredity o TX: Bx § Self-­‐monitoring § Reinforcement of increase in activity level § Slowing of eating rate § Stimulus control § Adherence to low-­‐fat, high fiber diet § Reinforcement and self-­‐reinforcement to obtain short-­‐term goals o Cog and group tx © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
124
•
•
Epilepsy o NS d/o involving reoccurring seizures w/o identifiable cause o Types: § Partial/focal • Begins as uncomfortable twitching of small part of body • Can affect entire body § Generalized o Generalized tonic-­‐clonic seizure—grand-­‐mal § Episodes of convulsions, unconsciousness and muscle rigidity § Person falls into deep sleep o Generalized absence seizure—petit-­‐mal § Involve very brief LOC w few/no other symptoms § No deep sleep o Complex partial seizures—temporal lobe seizures § Complex=impact consciousness § Involuntary chewing, lip smacking, fidgeting, walking in circles § Stare blankly and walk around in daze o Simple partial seizures—Jacksonian seizures § No LOC § Affect only one side o Both complex and simple partial have focal onset o Anticonvulsant meds Tension Headaches, Migraines, and Pain Reduction o Tension HA § Occur frequently and thought to be caused by sustained contractions of muscles in forehead, scalp and neck § Constant pain usually on both sides § EMG biofeedback § Trained to decrease muscle tension § Relaxation training o Migraine HA § Intense throbbing pain, typically on one side of head, and often accompanied by nausea and/or GI prob § Often aura § Caused by dilation and spasms of cerebral blood flow § Thermal hand warming biofeedback o Reducing pain in general § Operant tx § Maintenance of pain through environmental contingencies § Cog and relaxation tech § Antidepressants • TCA (Elavil) if pain is neuropathic or headache • SSRIs to prevent HA © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
125
•
Essential Hypertension (high BP) o Two categories: § Primary (essential) § Secondary o Fam hx, high resting heart rate, chronic obese, stress, increase w age, higher for blacks o Secondary: result of known d/o o Tx: relaxation, medication, biofeedback •
Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS) o Bx, psych, physical symptoms few days before, lasting to end of period o Decrements in cogn, impairments of judgment, alteration of consciousness have not been found o Premenstrual Dysphoric D/O: begin to ease few days from onset of menses and absent in week following menses § Disturbances are so serious that interfere with function, social act, and interpersonal relationships § Less common than PMS o Antidepressants •
Stress o Consequence of threat of potential/actual loss of valued resources o General Adaptation Syndrome—set of characteristic responses over time under conditions of stress § Period of adaptation to stressful stimulus, then breakdown of normal func leading to exhaustion and even death § Provoke identical neurphysical responses § Three stages: (ARE) • Alarm rxn is first o Pituitary-­‐adrenal system mobilizes sympathetic arousal system • Resistance next o Defenses stabilized and symptoms disappear, but at price • Exhaustion last o Maintain prolonged resistance, energy is depleted o Psychology § Help pt learn voluntary control over physiological symptoms of stress § Helping pt consider changing environmental conditions that are creating stress § Helping pt change way s/he responds to stressors o Cognitive Reappraisal—Evaluation of person’s coping mechanisms © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
126
•
Type A Behavior and Heart Attacks o Competitive, achievement oriented, highly involved w work, having strong sense of urgency and meeting deadlines, active and aggressive o Jenkins Activity Survey (JAS) o Personality attributes of anger, hostility, and aggression are more predictive of medical d/o than are job involvement and time urgency o Depression •
Sickness Impact Profile o Used to assess impact of disease on both physical and emotional functioning o 136 items o Higher score=greatest level of dysfunction © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
127
ETHICS AND PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE INTRODUCTION AND APPLICABILITY • Code of Conduct consists of: o Intro and Applicability—intent, organization, procedural considerations, and scope of application of Ethics Code o Preamble—ASPRIRATIONAL goals o 5 General Principles—ASPRIRATIONAL goals o Specific Ethical Standards—ENFORCABLE rules of conduct • Applies to only psychologist’s activities that are part of scientific, educational, or professional roles as psychologists GENERAL PRINCIPLES • Principle A—Beneficence and Nonmalificence o Strive to benefit those w whom they work and take care to do no harm • Principle B—Fidelity and Responsibility o Establish relationships of trust w those w whom they work o Professional and scientific responsibilities to society and to specific communities in which they work • Principle C—Integrity o Seek to promote accuracy, honesty, and truthfulness in science, teaching, and practice • Principle D—Justice o Recognize fairness and justice entitle all persons to access to and benefit from contributions of psych and to equal quality in processes, procedures, and services • Principle E—Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity o Respect dignity and worth of all people, and rights of ind to privacy, and self-­‐
determination • If Ethical Standard establishes higher standard of conduct than is required by law, psychologist must meet higher ethical standard ***I am creating EPPP-­‐like scenarios as this section is mainly applied to situations rather than theory info*** © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
128
INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATION PSYCHOLOGY •
•
•
Personnel Psych—theory and applications related to evaluating, selecting, and training workers o Job analysis, performance appraisal, personnel selection, training, career counseling Organizational Psych—ind and grp processes w/in organizations and concerned w factors that affect such outcomes as job satisfaction, motivation, work effectiveness, quality of life o Leadership style, decision-­‐making, organizational development Engineering Psych—human factors psych and ergonomics o Relationships btw workers and work context o Work schedules, job burnout, accidents PERSONNEL PSYCH • Job Analysis o Conducted for: § Developing and validating selection instruments § Identifying measures of job performance § Assisting in development of training programs o Techniques: § Job-­‐oriented—task requirements of job § Worker-­‐oriented—knowledge, skills, abilities, and personal characteristics that are required for successful job performance o Methods: § Interviews § Questionnaires • Position Analysis Questionnaire o Job is rated in terms of importance § Direct observation § Work diaries • Performance Evaluation o Performance appraisal or merit rating o Process of evaluating person’s job performance o Criterion measures: § Objective—direct, quantitative measures of performance • Limitation: do not measure many important facets of performance o Limited by situational factors o May not be useful for evaluating performance in complex jobs § Subjective—rely on judgment of rater © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
129
Useful for assessing complex, less concrete aspects of job performance • Disadvantages: raters sometimes not motivated to provide accurate ratings or do not understand rating scale o Rater bias • Peer ratings—valid, particularly for predicting supervisor rating, promotions, and training success o Subjective Rating Techniques § Personnel Comparison Systems (PCS)—rating employee by comparing to other employees • Ranked order system—ranks employees from best to worst • Paired comparison system—each employee is compared w every other employee on each job bx o Larger # employees, more impractical method • Forced distribution system—rater categorizes employees into predetermined distribution • Advantage: reduce effects of rater biases § Critical Incidents—descriptions of specific job bx that are associated w v good and v poor performance • Likert-­‐type rating § Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales (BARS)—rated on several dimensions of job performance • Each dimension has set of “bx anchors” • Likert scale • Differs from other rating scales in its construction o Involves several steps and multiple contributors o Diff grps of workers/supervisors are responsible for identifying job dimensions and critical incidents in terms of importance on job • Advantage: produces info that is useful for employee feedback o Format and development process may improve rating accuracy • Disadvantages: time-­‐consuming to construct o Usually specific to particular job § Behavioral-­‐Observations Scales (BOS)—similar to BARS w advantages/disadvantages • Unlike BARS, rater indicates how often employee performs each critical incident § Forced-­‐Choice Checklists (FCCL)—series of statements that have been grped so that statements in each grp are similar in terms of social desirability and ability to distinguish btw successful and unsuccessful job performance • Helps reduced social desirability and rater bias o Rater Biases •
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
130
Halo Effect—tendency to judge all aspects of person’s bx on basis of single attribute or characteristic § Central Tendency, Leniency, Strictness Biases • Central Tendency—tendency to assign average ratings to all ratees • Leniency Bias—tendency to give all ratees positive ratings • Strictness Bias—tendency to give all ratees negative ratings § Contract Effect—tendency to give ratings on basis of comparison to other ratees § Best way to reduce bias is to adequately train raters • Training is more effective when it focuses less on rating errors and more on accuracy • Frame of reference training—help raters recognize multidimensional nature of job performance and to ensure that diff raters have same conceptualizations of job performance Personnel Selection o Selection Procedures § Predict job performance and facilitate hiring decisions § Selection Techniques: • Cognitive Ability Tests—most valid predictor of job performance across jobs and settings o Validity increases as complexity of job increases • Job Knowledge Tests—job specific, commonly used when ind have previous experience or training o Good predictors of performance o Validity of job knowledge tests increases as job complexity and job-­‐test similarity increase • Work Samples—sample of work bx in standardized, job-­‐like conditions o Good predictors of job performance o Samples of motor-­‐skills have more validity than verbal skills o Acceptable to applicants and are less likely than other methods to unfairly discriminate o Also used as trainability tests § Identify people who are likely to benefit from training § Include period of structures, controlled learning followed by evaluation of work performance o Realistic Job Preview—prevent unrealistic expectations about job in order to reduce turnover • Interviews—tend to be only moderately accurate in predicting job performance §
•
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
131
•
o Validity depends on content of interview, nature of criterion, how interview is conducted o Structured interviews—found to have higher predictive validity • Biographical Information (Biodata)—ask for info about applicant’s work hx, ed, and personal interests and skills o Highly predictive of job success when empirically validated o Only slightly less valid than cog tests o Advantage: useful for predicting turnover o Weighted Application Bank, Biographical Info Bank o Disadvantage: specific to job and to organization § Lacks face validity • Assessment Centers—used for selection, promotion, and training of administrative and managerial level employees o Conducted in grps o Multiple methods of assessment o In-­‐basket test—seeing how ind responds to kinds of tasks that he will actually encounter on job o Evaluation by team o Validity coefficients are generally high o Disadvantages: expensive to develop and administer § Criterion contamination occurs when rater’s knowledge of person’s performance on selection instrument affects how rater evaluates performance once he is on job • Personality Tests—“big five” personality dimensions of extraversion, agreeableness, openness, emotional stability, and conscientiousness o Measure specific characteristics that have been found to be more accurate predictors of job performance than those measuring global traits o Better predictors of contextual performance, while cog tests are better for predicting task performance • Interest Tests—low validity for predicting success o Useful for counseling and for predicting satisfaction, persistence, and choice • Integrity Tests—validity lower in terms of predicting performance o Used to select employees w reduced probability of counterproductive job bx Legal Issues in Personnel Selection o Adverse Impact © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
132
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)—Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures • Provide standards for tests and other procedures that are used as basis for employment decisions • Adverse impact—produces substantially diff rate of selection for diff grps that are defined on basis of gender/race/age • Using 80% rule o Adverse impact occurring when selection rate for minority grp is less than 80% of selection rate of majority grp • May be permitted when selection criterion is “bona fide occupational qualification” o Valid reason for hiring substantially larger proportion of particular grp § Causes: • Differential validity—selection procedure is valid predictor of performance for one grp and is either less valid or not valid for another grp o Actually rare phenomenon o When occurs, neg affects majority grp just as often as minority • Unfairness—occurs when one grp consistently scores lower than another grp on selection test, but both grps perform equally well on job o Score Adjustment § Women and members of minority grps tend to score lower § Several methods for compensating for this bias • Separate Cutoffs • Within Grp Norming—converting raw scores to standard scores, % ranks w/in each grp and then using same predetermined cutoff for both grps • Banding—treating scores w/in given score range as equivalent o Americans with Disabilities Act § 1990 § Prohibits employers from discriminating against disability § Specifically excludes ind who are currently engaging in illegal drug use from protection • Does protect past substance abusers as long as they are participating in or have completed supervised rehab program and are not currently using drugs Psychometric Issues in Personnel Selection o Incremental Validity §
•
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
133
Usefulness of selection test in terms of decision-­‐making accuracy Incremental validity=Positive hit rate-­‐ Base Rate Maximized when its validity coefficient is large, when base rate is mod, and selection ratio is low o Utility Analysis § Assess cost-­‐effectiveness of selection procedure § Utility is defined as dollar gain in job performance when using selection procedure of interest as opposed to using prior or alternative procedure o Combining Predictors § Multiple predictors are often preferred because they provide more info about applicants than one predictor § Predictors should have low correlation w other predictors and high correlation w criterion § Multiple Regression—estimate applicant’s score on criterion on basis of scores on 2/+ predictors • Compensatory techniques—applicant who gets low score on one predictor can make up for it by high score on another predictor § Multiple Cutoff—applicant must score above minimum cutoff on each predictor in order to be hired • Noncompensatory • Useful when minimum level of competence in multiple domains is necessary § Multiple Hurdle—noncompensatory • Applicants must meet minimum level one on predictor to move on to next predictor • Saves time and money Training o Three basic steps in training program development: § Needs Analysis—determining if and what kind of training is necessary • 4 components: o Organization analysis—is training what org needs to solve problem? o Task analysis—determining what knowledge, skills, abilities are required to perform job satisfactorily o Person analysis—if employees have deficits in areas identified by task analysis o Demographic analysis—determine training needs of employees from diff grps § Program Design—selection of training program format is based on consideration of cost factors, material to be taught, and characteristics of trainees • Most effective training program is one that teaches skills that closely approximate those necessary for job • Common types of training: §
§
§
•
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
134
§
o On-­‐the-­‐job Training—trainee performs job under guidance of experienced employee § Job rotation—rotating employees through several jobs to increase range of skills to perform other jobs in company § Advantages: economy—does not have to establish separate training facility or employ professional trainers § Disadvantages: carelessly planned and poorly implemented, increases danger that production rates will be slowed and accident rates will increase • Current workers may not make best trainers o Vestibule Training—combine advantages of off-­‐the-­‐job and on-­‐the-­‐job § Providing training in physical replication or simulation § Useful when consequences of errors or slowdowns are too serious for on-­‐job • Repeated practice is required to learn task • When special coaching is required o Classroom Training—simulated work environment is set up in separate training facility § No emphasis on production § More personalized attn § Do not have worry about making costly or embarrassing errors, damaging equipment, or slowing production o Programmed Instruction—info that had been broken down into logical, organized sequences § Paper-­‐and-­‐pencil book-­‐type formats to computer-­‐
assisted instruction § Not effective for teaching many complex skills § Useful for teaching content knowledge, especially that requiring rote memorization § Advantage: allows trainees to progress at own pace Program Evaluation • 3 dimensions: o Formative evaluations—assess variables internal to program § Identify necessary changes to program than can be made while program is in progress o Summative eval—assess effectiveness of program § Take place after program is complete o Training program is evaluates in terms of cost-­‐
effectiveness © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
135
•
•
•
Kirkpatrick’s framework of four levels of criteria o Used to assess effectiveness of training programs and effects of training on employees o Level 1—rxn criterion § Participants’ responses to training o Level 2—learning criteria § What has been learned during course of training o Level 3—bx criteria § Impact of intervention on ind’s bx or performance in workplace o Level 4—results criteria § Impact of training on broader organizational goals and objectives o Phillips added: Level 5—return on investment § Calculate return on investment of intervention or training Career Counseling o Tests Used § Aptitude Tests • Assess potential for learning or performance • Special aptitude tests—assess specific abilities needed for job o High degree of specificity • Multiple aptitude batteries—number of tests that each measure diff aptitude § Achievement Tests • Measure how well person has mastered particular domain § Interest Tests Theories of Career Choice o Personality variables that lead person to choose particular occupation § Holland’s Personality and Environmental Typology • 6 personality types: o Realistic o Investigative o Artistic o Social o Enterprising o Conventional • Occupational environment in terms of same 6 categories • Fit btw personality type and occupational environment—
Congruence § Roe’s Fields and Levels Theory • Links children’s experiences w parents to their later occupational choice and level they achieve w/in occupation © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
136
3 parenting orientations: o Overprotective o Avoidant o Acceptant • Parenting orientation affects children’s needs and personality traits, which influence occupational outcomes o Sequence of stages person passes through in vocational development § Super’s Career and Life Development Theory • Career development can be described in terms of predictable sequence of stages and that tasks of each stage must be mastered in order for ind to progress to next stage • Self-­‐concept—person’s abilities, interests, values, personality traits, physicality o Achieve job satisfaction when they are able to express selves and develop self-­‐concept through work roles • 5 developmental stages of career development: o Growth (birth-­‐15 y/o)—begins to develop capacities, attitudes, interests, and needs associated w voc self-­‐
concept o Exploration (15-­‐24)—career choices are narrowed but not finalized o Establishment (25-­‐44)—effort is made to establish permanent place in chosen occupational field o Maintenance (45-­‐64)—continuation of establishment pattern o Decline (65+)—decline in work output and eventual retirement • Career maturity—extent that person has mastered tasks related to developmental stage o Life space—varied social roles adopted at diff points during life span • Life Career Rainbow—9 major roles that ind adopts during 5 diff life stages of career development • Archway of Career Development—depicts personal and environmental factors that combine to determine person’s career path § Tiedeman and O’Hare’s Decision Making Model • Based on Erikson’s psychosocial theory of ego identity • Many differentiations and reintegration’s of ind’s experience during career development • career-­‐related correlates to each Erikson’s eight psychosocial crisis resolutions § Miller-­‐Tiedman and Tiedman’s Decision Making Model • 2 kinds of reality: •
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
137
§
§
o Personal reality—though, act, direction, bx that ind feels is right for self o Common reality—what “they” say you should do o In order for ind to enhance development of career, must be aware of realities Gottfredson’s Theory of Circumscription and Compromise • How gender and prestige influence and limit career choice • 3 y/o-­‐mid-­‐adolescence—expression of occupational aspirations emerges as process of elimination or is outcome of competing processes of circumscription and compromise o Circumscription—progressive elimination of least preferred options/alternatives that occurs as child becomes increasingly aware of occ diff in gender and sex-­‐
type, prestige, and then field of work o Compromise—expansion of occ preferences in recog of and accommodation to external constraints encountered in implementing preferences Krumboltz’s Social Learning Theory of Career Decision Making (SLTCDM) • Career transitions result from learning experiences from planned and unplanned encounters w people, institutions and events in each person’s particular environment • Results in ind forming worldviews and beliefs about self that affect occ aspirations and actions ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY—FOUNDATIONS • Historical Background o Taylor’s Scientific Management § Founder of scientific management § Improve work productivity by applying several simple principles: • Use scientific methods to determine best way of doing particular job • Divide jobs into most elementary components • Use piece-­‐rate incentive system in which pay depends on output as way to motivate workers § Fundamental assumptions about worker: • Motivation affects performance • Typical worker is motivated exclusively by economic incentives • Average worker needs constant supervision o Weber’s Bureaucracy § Organizational effectiveness is maximized when org adopts bureaucratic structure that is characterized by formal rules and regulations, impersonal treatment of employees, division of labor, hierarchical structure, and rational, efficient approach © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
138
•
o Human Relations Approach § Worker performance is affected primarily by social factors including attitudes towards supervisors and co-­‐workers and informal work grp norms § Improvement in performance resulting from increased attn became know as Hawthorne effect o Systems Approach § Org is open system that receives input from w/in and w/out • Changes in one part of org affect all other parts • Whole org is entity greater than sum of constituent parts § Assumptions: • Workers have diverse needs • Org vary in terms of structure, culture and other characteristics • There is no one managerial strategy that will work for all people and all org at al times o Theory Z § Consensual decision-­‐making, slow promotion, and holistic knowledge • Combo of American and Japanese philosophies • Ind responsibility • Long-­‐term employment and moderately specialized career path o Total Quality Management § Emphasis on product quality § Changes in org’s structure and culture and in job characteristics § Structure—flattening of traditional managerial hierarchy, increased teamwork, and reduced ratio of mangers to nonmanagers § Culture—increased emphasis on cooperation and fairness in treatment of employees § Jobs: • Skill variety—cross trained, constant learning and development • Task variety—whole product or component of product and see how work fits into bigger picture • Autonomy, Participation, and Empowerment—high degree of decision making authority • Task Significance—contact and communication w external customers • Feedback—directly from work process Leadership o Leadership Styles and Traits § Autocratic, Democratic vs Laissez-­‐Faire Leaders • Autocratic—make decisions alone and instruct subordinates what to do • Democratic—involve subordinates in decision-­‐making process • Laissez-­‐Faire—allow subordinates to make decisions on their own w little guidance or help © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
139
Productivity is highest w autocratic, especially when work is routine • More satisfied, more creative, have better relationships w leader, more likely to cont working in absence of leader when leader is democratic § Consideration vs. Initiating Structure • Leaders high in consideration—person oriented and focus on human relations aspects of supervision • High in initiating structure—more task oriented and focus on setting goals, ensuring that subordinates follow rules, and clarify subordinate and leader roles • Leaders can be high on both, low on both, or one high and one low § Personality Traits • Effective leadership—no single trait that distinguishes good leaders • Relationship btw leader traits and effectiveness is moderated by: o Characteristics of supervisees o Type of task o Nature of work environment o Leadership Theories § Theory X vs. Theory Y Leaders • Theory X—most consistent with scientific management and include beliefs that: o Work is inherently distasteful o Most workers lack ambition and need to be directed o Motivation dominated by lower-­‐level needs • Theory Y—closer to human relations approach and believe that: o Work is as natural as play o Most workers are self-­‐directed, responsible, and ambitious o Workers require freedom and autonomy • Theory Y more likely to lead to effective organization § Fiedler’s Contingency Theory (LPC) • Leader’s effective is determined by combination of leader’s style and characteristics if situation • Least Preferred Coworker Scale (LPC) o High LPC=describe least preferred coworker in + terms § Primarily relationship-­‐oriented o Low LPC=describe least preferred coworkers in – terms § Task and achievement oriented • Situations favorableness—degree to which it enables leader to control and influence subordinates o 3 factors: § Relationship btw leader and subordinate § Structure of task •
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
140
§
§
§
§ Leader’s ability to enforce compliance • Low LPC—performs best in situations that are wither v favorable or v unfavorable in terms of control • High LPC—most effective when situation is moderately favorable • No single leadership style is most effective in all situations House’s Path-­‐Goal Theory of Leadership • Predicts that subordinates satisfaction and motivation are maximized when they perceive that leader is helping them achieve desired goals • Leaders adopt styles that: o Helps subordinates identify specific ways to achieve goals o Removes obstacles to goals o Rewards subordinates for accomplishing goals • Styles: o Instrumental (directive) leader—specific guidelines and establish clear rules and procedures o Supportive leader—establishing supportive relationships w subordinates o Participative leader—include subordinates in decision-­‐
making o Achievement-­‐oriented leader—set challenging goals and encourage higher levels of performance • Predicts best leadership style depends on attributes of situations Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Model • Task and relationship orientation • Optimal style depends on job maturity of subordinates, which is determined by subordinate’s ability and willingness to accept responsibility: o Employee’s ability and willingness to accept responsibility are both low, leader should adopt TELLING style § High task orientation and low relationship orientation o Employee has low ability but high willingness to accept responsibility, leader should adopt SELLING style § High task, high relationship o Employee has high ability but low willingness, leader should adopt PARTICIPATING style § Low task, high relationship o Employee’s ability and willingness to accept responsibility are both high, leader should adopt DELEGATING style § Low task, low relationship Transformational vs. Transactional Leadership • Transformational—interrelated components of idealized or charisma influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized considered © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
141
§
§
o Change-­‐focused o Influence and motivate subordinates by activating subordinate’s higher order needs, appealing to higher ideals and values, encouraging sacrifice self-­‐interest for sake of org, and clarifying what is needed to accomplish change • Transactional—stability than change and leadership is contingent on reinforcement o Subordinates are motivated by leader’s use of rewards, promises, threats Vroom and Yetton’s Normative (Decision-­‐Making) Model • Contingency model that describes 5 leadership styles that are distinguished by extent to which leader includes grp members in decision making process o Al (autocratic) leaders—do not consult subordinates and male decisions n own o All (autocratic) leaders—obtain inform from subordinates but make final decision on own o Cl (consultative) leaders—discuss prob w each subordinate individually and make final decision on own o Cll (consultative) leaders—discuss prob w subordinate as grp and make final decision on own o Gll (grp decision) leaders—discuss prob w subordinate as grp and make final decision as grp • Best style depends on attributes of situation o Quality of decision o Importance of acceptance of decision by subordinates o Time needed to make decision • Decision tree—indicates optimal leader style based on leader’s answers to series of questions that address situations attributes Leader Member Exchange (LMX) Theory • Leadership as process that is centered on interactions btw leaders and members, w dyadic relationship btw them being focal point • Not all members of org achieve same quality of relationship w leaders and explains how relationships w various members can develop • Members fall into either “in-­‐grp” or “out-­‐grp” and nature of relationship btw leader and member is determining factor as to which grp member belongs o Out-­‐grp—lower quality, w both parties only completing formal role obligations o In-­‐grp—more decision making influence, access to resources and responsibilities and receive more leader support, trust, and initiative beyond obligations at work © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
142
•
Organizational Developemnt and Change o Organizational Development (OD) § Phases of Organizational Change • Process involves 7 distinct phases o Entry—identification of need for some org change § Consultant must determine general nature of prob o Contracting—specifies terms and conditions of participation o Diagnosis—consultant assesses probs and collects data, often through use of standardized questionnaires and interviews o Feedback—org is helped to understand diagnostic info obtained so that it can begin to address prob o Planning—consultant and decision-­‐makers work to develop corrective-­‐action plan o Intervention—action plan implemented o Evaluation—progress of intervention assessed § Techniques classified as OD interventions: • Systems approach that focuses on entire org • Involvement of everyone in company • Commitment and support of top management • View of change as long-­‐term, planned activity • Use of internal/external change agent who initiates change o Quality of Work Life Interventions (QWL) § Org effectiveness increases as worker satisfaction, motivation, and commitment increase § QWL involves job restructuring, or redesigning jobs so that they are more interesting and challenging and provide workers w greater participation in decision-­‐making § Quality of Circles (QC)—small grps of workers from same dept who meet regularly to discuss how work can be improved • Voluntary • Decisions reached are not binding on company • May increase productivity, satisfaction, and commitment as well as overall effectiveness o Effects often temporary o Organizational Surveys § Assess employee attitudes and opinions about various aspects of work § Gauge rxns to new programs or recent decisions § Anonymous § Results are provided to employees § Positive results § Help solve prob and give employees greater sense of influence in org o Process Consultation © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
143
Efforts to help team members understand and alter processes that are undermining their interactions § Observe workers interact § Share their obs and make suggestions for future improvement o Organizational Change Strategies § Strategies for overcoming resistance to planned change in org: • Empirical-­‐Rational—based on assumption that people are basically rational o If they have all relevant info about situation, will act in accord w self-­‐interest • Normative-­‐Reeducative—based on assumption that social norms underlie patterns of bx in org o Focus on changing attitudes, values, relationships in order to bring about change and acceptance of change • Power-­‐Coercive—using rewards, punishment, legitimate authority to coerce employees to comply w change o Resistance to Change § When workers are allowed to participate fully in decisions concerning change, they will enthusiastically support it Organizational Bx o Communication Networks § Types: • Centralized—all comm. Must pass through 1 person or 1 position • Decentralized—info flows more freely btw inds § Centralized more efficient when tasks are simple and mundane § Decentralized work best when jobs are complex and when cooperation is necessary for task • More ind satisfaction o Ind Decision-­‐Making § Rational-­‐Economic Model—find optimal solution • Search for all possible solutions and weigh alternatives until they make decision that results in greatest benefit for org • Maximizing • Not practical to implement in orgs, where lack of info and/or time prevents decision-­‐makers from considering all alternatives § Administrative Model—evaluating solutions as they become available and selecting first solution that is minimally acceptable • Satisficing o Driver’s Decision Making Styles § Determine ind style: • Amount of info considered—ANALYSIS OF SITUATION • Focus on # of alternative decisions identified—SOLUTION FORMATION §
•
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
144
Those that are fast-­‐acting and rely upon minimal amount of info necessary to choose one/more good enough solutions—SATISFICERS § Those who are slow to act and use all time and resources to consider all relevant info before making decision—MAXIMIZERS § Unifocus—use info to produce only 1 course of action § Mutifocus—info to develop many alternatives § 5 Decision-­‐Making Styles: • Decisive—Satisficing and uni-­‐focused o Speed and efficiency o Inflexible and short-­‐sighted • Flexible—satisficing and multi-­‐focused o Moves fast, but willing to drop 1 tactic in favor of another • Hierarchic—maximizing and uni-­‐focused o Use lot of info to identify best solution and then work to develop detailed/specific plan of action o Rigid and over-­‐controlling • Integrative—maximizing and multi-­‐focused o A lot of info and then they develop variety of alternatives • Systematic—more complex style that combines hierarchic and integrative o Relies upon analysis of maximum info but at times is uni-­‐
focused and other times multi-­‐focused § Decisive and flexible=things done quickly and when issues to be considered are relatively simple § Hierarchic, Integrative, Systematic=prob complex and consequences are long-­‐term and costly o Prospect Theory § Loss Aversion—tendency to be influenced more by potential losses than potential gains when making decision o Organizational Justice § Degree to which employees are fairly treated § Distributive Justice—perceived fairness of outcomes, such as hiring, performance appraisals, raise requests, layoff § Procedural Justice—perceived fairness of process or procedure by which outcomes are allocated § Interactional Justice—perceptions of interpersonal exchange btw ind and supervisor/3rd party • Informational Justice—amount of info or appropriateness of explanations provided about why procedures were used or outcomes were distributed in certain way • Interpersonal Justice—how ind is treated by supervisor/3rd party involved in executing procedures or determining outcomes § Procedural=best predictor of work performance and counterproductive work bx §
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
145
o Organizational Culture § Shared assumptions, values, norms and tangible signs of org members taught to new members through formal statements and informal bx § 3 levels: • Bx and observable artifacts—most visible and consists of outward manifestations o Bx and artifacts tell what grp is doing, not why • Values—preferences for certain bx or outcomes • Underlying Assumptions—grow out of values, until they become taken for granted, out of awareness and unconscious o Gender Issues § Physical Appearance—may work to women’s disadvantage • Less attractive=more suitable by male executives • Physically attractive males=more suitable § Leadership Style—do not differ markedly § Gender Wage Inequality—women earn 60 cents for every $1 by males • Comparable Worth—men/women should get equal pay for performing jobs that have equivalent worth ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCH—MOTIVATION, SATISFACTION AND COMMITMENT • Motivation—sum of forces that produce, direct and maintain effort expended in particular bx • Work performance=motivation and ability o Ability is more important than motivation in explaining diff in job performance • Need Theories of Work Motivation o People are willing to exert effort when effort will lead to fulfillment of certain deficiencies or needs o Maslow’s Need Hierarchy § 5 basic needs—hierarchy • Physiological needs • Safety needs • Social needs • Esteem needs • Self-­‐actualization needs § Workers will exert effort to meet lowest unsatisfied needs § Does not have much empirical support o Alderfer’s ERG Theory § Similar to Maslow § 3 needs • Existence • Relatedness • Growth © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
146
•
§ Does not predict needs arise in hierarchy o McClelland’s Need for Achievement § Responses to TAT § Need for Achievement • High need=autonomy and personal responsibility o Moderately difficult goals o Seek recognition for efforts o Highly motivated to put effort into work o Tend to stay on job longer o Perform better • Strongly related to entrepreneurial success § High need for power—control over others, visibility, prestige, status, and recognition § High need for affiliation—good interpersonal relationships • Sensitive to criticism • Prefer to avoid conflict o Herzberg’s Two-­‐Factor Theory § Theory of both motivation and satisfaction § Satisfaction and dissatisfaction represent 2 separate states and that each is affected by diff factors • Hygiene factors fulfill Maslow’s lower-­‐order needs • When hygiene factors are absent, worker is dissatisfied § Motivator factors fulfill Maslow’s higher order needs • When motivator factors are adequate, worker is satisfied and motivated • Absence does not cause dissatisfaction § To increase satisfaction and motivation, job must provide motivator factors § Job enrichment is best known application • Redesigning job so that worker has more challenge § Has not been entirely supported by research o Job Characteristics Model § 5 characteristics influence internal work motivation, satisfaction, work quality, and absenteeism/turnover • Skill variety • Task identity • Task significance • Autonomy • Feedback § Job Diagnostic Survey and Job Characteristic Inventory • When jobs redesigned, improve motivation, satisfaction, absenteeism and turnover o Work quality less affected Cognitive Theories of Motivation © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
147
•
o Motivation=complex decision-­‐making process that involves weighing alternatives, costs and benefits and likelihood of achieving desired outcomes o Goal-­‐Setting-­‐Theory—Locke § Goals serve 2 purposes: • Basis of motivation • Direct bx § Most important contribution to worker’s willingness to work—
conscious acceptance of and commitment to goals • Goal attainment is maximized when goals are specific and moderately difficult • Frequent feedback • Worker participation in goal-­‐setting § Management by Objective (MBO)—goal-­‐setting theory • Having employee and superior agree to specific, measurable goals that employee will accomplish during specific time period § Evaluation of theory: • Combining goal setting w feedback=positive effect • Ind differences in effects of goal setting • Employees work harder when they participate in goal-­‐setting • Difficult ind goals produce poorer performance than grp goals or no goals o Equity Theory § People assess both inputs and outcomes § Compare input/output ratio to that of others • If ratios comparable=state of equity and maintain current level • Input/output ratio is less/greater=state of inequity and employee motivate to try to create equity § State of underpayment=greater impact than overpayment § Outcome justice—fairness of outcomes § Procedural justice—fairness of procedures used to determine outcomes o Expectancy Theory § Motivation is function of 3 variables: • Belief that effort will lead to successful performance • Belief that successful performance will result in certain outcomes • Desirability of outcomes Reinforcement Theories of Motivation o Applies principles of operant conditioning to work motivation: § People keep doing things that have rewarding outcomes § People avoid doing things that have neg outcomes § People eventually stop doing things that don’t have rewarding outcomes o Most reinforcement models focus on extrinsic rewards except Deci’s model of intrinsic motivation © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
148
Intrinsic reinforcement more important to motivation and that extrinsic reinforcement tends to reduce motivation of those who obtain intrinsic rewards from work o Incentive Theory § Organizational settings—incentives which motivate employees to be most productive (extrinsic rewards) Job Satisfaction o Effects of Personal Characteristics § Age is sign and + correlated w satisfaction • Older=higher § Level in org hierarchy is correlated w satisfaction § Non-­‐whites are more likely to express dissatisfaction that whites o Effects of Job Characteristics § Impact of pay on satisfaction=not entirely clear • Relationship w pay is complex, but positively correlated • Increased satisfaction may be due to other rewards that high-­‐paid workers obtain • Perceptions that own pay is fair may be more important o Pay is related to level of performance o Comparable worth o Consequences of Satisfaction § Satisfaction is moderately and – related to absenteeism and turnover • Highest correlation is satisfaction and turnover § Satisfaction and performance—positive but weak correlation • When pay tied to performance=+ correlation • Pay not connected= -­‐ correlation § Satisfaction connected w physical and mental health Organizational Commitment o Extend to which person identifies w org and is willing to work to help org achieve its goals o Greatest when job provides opportunities for personal growth and responsibility o Moderate to strong – correlation w absenteeism and turnover o May increase resistance to change §
•
•
HUMAN FACTORS/ENGINEERING PSYCHOLOGY • Fit btw workers and work procedures, environment, and equipment • Person-­‐Matching Systems o Both components must work together • Work Schedules © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
149
•
•
o Compressed Work Week—increases # of hrs worked per day and decreased # days worked in given period § Research is mixed • Positive effects—supervisor ratings of employee performance, employee overall job satisfaction, employee satisfaction w work sched • Not strong impact on objective measures of job performance or absenteeism o Flextime—allows employees to determine own daily sched as long as they work total # hrs and are present at work during certain core hrs § Increased job satisfaction, satisfaction w sched, productivity, decreased absenteeism o Shift Work—labor force § Less productive on night shift than day • Prone to make more errors and have more serious accidents § Rotating shift—lower productivity, higher accident rate, and physical and mental health prob Fatigue, Stress and Burnout o Fatigue § Subjective feeling of tiredness that affects both physiological and mental processes § Performance decrement § Rest breaks o Stress § Increased in past 2 decades § Type A personality § Police, fire fighters, computer programmers, dental assistant, electrician, plumber, social worker, telephone operator, hairdresser, psychologist o Burnout § Potential response to chronic stress § Physical and emotional exhaustion, sense of reduced personal accomplishment, tendency to think in impersonal terms § Higher among women, single and divorced, people who have little opportunity for promotion, professionals who deal frequently w people Safety and Accidents o Accident prone personality—pessimism, low level of trust in others, generally depressed temperament o Training is single most effective way to improve safe work bx o Safe procedures: § Programs organized around positive theme more likely to be effective than score tactics § Safety posters alone are not effective © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
150
• Most likely to have impact when they are specific Management commitment to safety programs is key contributor to their success § Incentives for accident reduction Work Environment o Noise—long-­‐term exposure has adverse effects on productivity § Intermittent noise is more distracting than constant § Irrelevant more than related to task § Meaningful more than non-­‐meaningful o Music—slight positive effect on productivity is work is repetitive, simple and mundane § Complex tasks—no consistent positive effects §
•
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
151
COGNITIVE-­‐AFFECTIVE BASES OF BEHAVIOR LEARNING THEORY AND BEHAVIOR THERAPY • Definition of Learning o Relatively permanent change in potential performance/bx as result of experience o Excludes changes resulting from maturation, disease, physical injury, fatigue, adaptation, or influence of drugs • Early Theorists and Research o Thorndike § Beginning of animal experimentation • Animal Intelligence § Learning bx of cats using prob or puzzle boxes • Boxes allowed animals to obtain reward or to escape from box by performing simple act § Trial-­‐and-­‐error Learning § Approximates Darwin’s notion of adaptive selection o Thorndike’s Laws of Learning § Law of Effect • Responses that are accompanied/followed by pleasant consequences will be more likely to be repeated in future, while responses accompanied/closely followed by discomfort will be less likely to be repeated § Law of Exercise • Response that is repeated often enough in presence of particular stimulus will become more closely bonded to that stimulus and will more likely be repeated in presence of stimulus o Stimulus-­‐response associations are strengthened through repetition § Law of Readiness • Behaving organism must be ready to perform act before performing it could be satisfying § Minor Law: • Law of Spread of Effect o When act has satisfying consequences, this pleasure becomes associated w other acts that occur at approximately same time o Transfer of Training § Doctrine of Formal Discipline—practice or formal studying strengthens intellectual functions © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
152
Transfer of training is not due to development of intellectual or memory faculties rather it is caused by similarity of concepts and techniques • Transfer was specific rather than general § Theory of Identical Elements—transfer increases as similarity of stimulus and response elements in training and performance environments increases • New learning is facilitated by previous learning only to extent that new learning contains elements identical to those in previous or amount of transfer is determined by number of elements that 2 situations have in common • Identical elements improve transfer of training for both verbal and motor tasks and that psychological similarity has been shown to be more important for transfer than physical similarity o Watson § Behaviorism § Psychologists should focus on only observable, measurable bx § Individuals are born w certain number of reflexes and that all learning is due to result of classical conditioning involving those reflexes • Differences in experience alone can account for differences in bx § Radical behaviorism—thought as nothing more than “covert speech” involving tiny movts of larynx and believed that emotions are result of glandular activity • Little Albert §
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING • Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Paradigm o Classical Conditioning—response that is customarily elicited by given stimulus will also be elicited by substitute is substitute is presented just prior to original § Unconditioned Stimulus (US) § Unconditioned Response (UR) § Conditioned Response (CR) § Conditioned Stimulus (CS) CSàUSàUR after repetition…CSàCR • Types of Conditioning o Effectiveness of CC is affected by temporal relationship btw CS and US o Types § Stimulus Conditioning—CS and US are presented at same time § Delayed Conditioning—CS precedes but overlaps US § Trace Conditioning—CS presented and terminated prior to US § Backward Conditioning—US preceded CS • Probably no conditioning under this circumstance © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
153
•
•
•
•
•
•
o Generally CR is strongest and most rapidly acquired when DELAYED procedure is uses and least w BACKWARD Extinction o If CS is repeatedly presented outside presence of US, after some trials, CR will diminish o Some reinforcement is needed to maintain conditioning Spontaneous Recovery o When organism no longer responds to CS, it might appear that effects of conditioning have been wiped out o After period of time, response will reappear if CS is readministered o Extinguished response is not forgotten but rather inhibited/suppressed o Overshadowing—more salient CS is more strongly conditioned than less salient CS and sometimes occurs in situation where 2 simultaneous CSs of different salience are paired w an US § Cue Deflation Effect—when extinction of response to more salient, or overshadowing, CS leads to increased CR to less salient CS Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination o Stimulus Generalization—Learning can generalize to similar stimuli § Little Albert § Mediated Stimulus Generalization—stimulus serves as mediator, or connecting link, btw 2 stimuli that themselves are never paired o Stimulus Discrimination—org can be conditioned to discriminate btw diff stimuli § If one reinforced more than other, only reinforced stimulus will evoke CR Experimental Neurosis o If discrimination task is too difficult and stimuli cannot be differentiated readily enough, evoked response is confusion Higher Order Conditioning o Once conditioning is well-­‐established, CS can become US for another stimulus o Pavlov could not get third order conditioning o Sensory Preconditioning—2 CSs are paired during preconditioning sessions Blocking o One CS blocks/inhibits learning of second CS o Even after many trials, where 1st CS and 2nd CS are paired w US, 2nd CS does not elicit CR § 1st CS has blocked association btw 2nd CS and US o Backward Blocking—CR to 2nd CS is reduced © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
154
2 CSs are simultaneously paired w US and then only one CS continues to be paired w US § Finally when other CS is tested, its associative strength is reduced leading to weakening of conditioning to other CS Pseudoconditioning o Experimental conditions themselves become CS o True for conditioning of fear responses o Change in bx is not conditioned to bell, but rather response is an artifact of learning situation itself §
•
THERAPEUTIC TECHNIQUES BASED ON CLASSICAL CONDITIONING • Techniques Based on Counterconditioning o Counterconditioning—pairing undesirable bx w incompatible bx so that undesirable bx is eliminated o Systematic Desensitization— Encouraging ind to imagine feared obj/situation while engaged in response that is incompatible w anx § Developed by Joseph Wolpe § Progressive Relaxation § Wolpe’s procedure: • Relaxation training • Establishing hierarchy of least to most anx-­‐provoking stimuli • Desensitizing pt to these stimuli by having imagine each while in relaxed state, preceding from least to more frightening ones • After desensitized through imagination, begin confronting anx-­‐
arousing stimuli in-­‐vivo § Wolpe referred to his tx as RECIPROCAL INHIBITION—anx is inhibited by response that is the reciprocal of anx • Interchangeable w counterconditioning • Underlying physiological mechanism is involved in process o Dominance of parasympathetic NS activity over sympathetic § Effective w phobias, stuttering, sexual dysfunction and insomnia o Other uses for counterconditioning § Assertiveness training—assertive bxs are incompatible w anx § Bx rehearsal § Sensate focus—reduce anx aroused by sexual situations • Techniques Based on Classical Extinction o Many maladaptive responses have origin in US-­‐CS pairings § Anx/fear developed through classical conditioning o Classical extinction involves repeatedly presenting CS w/o US until CS no longer elicits CR © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
155
•
o Two major techniques: § Flooding—exposing to feared stimulus while preventing from engaging in usual avoidance response • Deliberate exposure w response prevention o Pairing of experience w relaxation is not necessary o Imagination or in vivo • Problem: paradoxical effect of increasing fear o Incubation effect or paradoxical enhancement effect o Deal w this by gradually expose to aspects of feared stimulus—Graded Exposure or Graduated Extinction • Research: o In vivo is more effective than imaginal o Prolonged exposure is more effective than brief o In vivo or graded exposure is particularly effective in tx of Agoraphobia and OCD • Exposure procedures also include exposure to physical sensations associated w panic attacks o Interoceptive exposure—exposure to panic-­‐like physical sensations such as hyperventilation, shaking head, and body tension § Implosive Therapy—imaginal exposure to stimulus • Involved psychoanalytic as well as bx component o Psychodynamic themes which are thought to underlie phobia are incorporated into imagery o Flooding—no attempt to incorporate psychodynamic themes o Research: psychodynamic component not necessary Techniques Based on Aversive Conditioning o Aversive Conditioning—noxious stimulus is paired w bx targeted for elimination § Eventually avoidance response elicited by noxious stimulus will be elicited by targeted bx § Noxious stimulus=US, targeted stimulus=CS o In-­‐vivo Aversive Conditioning § Research: works best if… • Program is part of natural environment • Biologically appropriate aversive stimulus is used, preferably in same modality as target bx • Ct encouraged to take self-­‐control of situation • Aversion conditioning is combined w positive reinforcement of adaptive response o Covert Sensitization § Counterconditioning in imagination to reduce/eliminate undesirable bx © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
156
Research: more effective in treating paraphilias than in treating obesity and addictive bx, and is most successful when supplemented w actual aversive stimuli OPERANT CONDITIONING • Operant Conditioning o B.F. Skinner o Operant=response that is voluntarily emitted and learned as result of environmental consequences that follow it o Differ from respondant bx: § Operant—voluntarily emitted, vs respondant—automatically elicited by stimuli § Operant—occur as result of environmental consequences that follow them, vs. respondant—occur as result of pairings btw US and CS • Reinforcement and Punishment o Reinforcer=event that increases bx o Punishment=event that decreased bx o Positive=stimulus applied o Negative=stimulus removed o Operant strength can be measured in 2 ways: § By rate of responding during acquisition § By total number of responses before extinction trials • Operant Extinction o w/drawal of reinforcement from previously reinforced bx so that bx is decreased/eliminated o Underlies one bx explanation of depression § When formerly successful bx fails to produce expected reinforcers, will cease to respond even if conditions and bx could again be successful o Reformulated Learned Helplessness § Depressed people blame selves for bad outcomes, which reduced self-­‐
esteem and consider their internal attributions to be both global and stable o Lewinsohn’s Behavioral Model § Depression is associated w low rate of response-­‐contingent positive reinforcement • Low rate of social and other bx, basically extinguishing contingent bx o Response Burst § Removal of reinforcer does not result in immediate decrease of bx § Temporary increase in bx o Behavioral Contrast § 2 bx have been reinforced separately and then 1 bx is extinguished §
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
157
•
•
•
§ Other bx increases frequency o Spontaneous Recovery § Responsiveness increases w/o any reinforcement trials Primary vs Secondary Reinforcement o Primary—inherently valuable § Does not acquire reinforcing value through prior experience o Secondary—reinforcing value only through repeated pairings w primary reinforcers § If paired w many types of primary reinforcers, acquire power unrelated to any individual primary reinforcer—Generalized Secondary Reinforcer • Ex. Money Schedules of Reinforcement o Continuous—if every response is reinforced § Fast learning, fast satiation, and fast extinction o Intermittent/Partial—greater response to extinction § Thinning=switching from continuous to intermittent § Four Types: • Fixed Ratio—occurs after fixed # of responses • Fixed Interval—occurs after fixed period of time regardless of # of responses o Scallop Effect—responding very slow/nonexistent immediately following reinforcement then gradually increases and very rapid just before another reinforcement is due o Produces lowest rate of responding and lowest resistance to extinction • Variable Ratio—occurs after variable # of responses o Relationship btw bx and reinforcement is unpredictable o High and constant rate of responding and most resistant to extinction • Variable Interval—after unpredictable amount of time o Matching Law—when subjects are provided w 2/+ simultaneously available opportunities for reinforcement, rate of responding will be proportional to relative rate of reinforcement Escape and Avoidance Conditioning o Escape Conditioning—some action that allows to escape from aversive stimulus § Escape bx increases due to removal of stimulus o Avoidance Conditioning § 2 Factor theory of learning from aversive consequences: • Factor 1—various bx, situations, obj are persistently avoided due to classical conditioning © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
158
Factor 2—avoidance responses are negatively reinforced by termination of fear/anx each time bx, situations, obj are avoided § Bx learned through avoidance conditioning are v resistant to extinction § Phobias Discrimination and Generalization o Stimulus Discrimination and Generalization § Stimulus Discrimination—gives certain bx in presence of one stimulus but not another § Stimulus Generalization—learned to respond in particular way to one discriminative stimulus and then responds in same way to diff but similar stimulus o Discriminative and S-­‐Delta Stimuli § Discriminative Stimulus—Bx will be reinforced only in presence of particular stimulus § S-­‐Delta Stimulus—stimulus can serve as environmental cue that particular bx will NOT be reinforced o Chaining § Series of related and simple bx are tied together to form more complex bx § Each response acts as both secondary response as well as discriminative stimulus for next response in chain § Backward chaining—training begins w last bx in to-­‐be-­‐learned sequence of bx and then works backward from there o Response Generalization and Shaping § Response Generalization—when reinforcement increases occurrence of 1 response, it may also increase occurrence of similar responses § Shaping—reinforced for emitting responses that gradually approach bx that is desired • Method of successive Approximation—reinforcing closer and closer approximations of desired bx • Resembles chaining in that both involve series of responses o Outcome of chaining is complex series of bx § Each link must be maintained in order for complex bx to occur o Outcome of shaping is only 1 simple bx § Once learns final bx, successive approximations are no longer necessary and no longer reinforced Superstitious Learning (Adventitious Reinforcement) o Responses reinforced adventitiously or accidentally by coincidental pairing of response and reinforcement Factors that Influence Effectiveness of Reinforcement and Punishment •
•
•
•
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
159
•
o Positive reinforcement is most successful if reinforcer is available only after target bx has been performed o Shorter interval btw bx and reinforcement, more effective is reinforcement o Acquisition of new bx is most effective is bx is reinforced on continuous reinforcement schedule § Maintenance of bx is maximized when intermittent o Verbal clarification of relationship btw bx and delivery of reinforcement increases effectiveness of reinforcement, as do verbal/physical prompts o Greater magnitude of reinforcer, greater effectiveness § Past certain point, satiation can occur (loses value) Punishment o Works best if it is extreme and continual o Sooner punishment is delivered, more effective o Most effective if consistently applied o Most effective when there is verbal clarification about relationship btw punishment and bx § Warning cue increases effectiveness o Reinforcers for target bx should be withheld when bx is punished o Ineffective if it is progressively increased in magnitude § Instead, administered at maximum intensity from outset § Habituation—decrease in responsiveness to constant stimulus, thereby requiring larger stimulus in order to achieve previous level of responsiveness o Once punishment is removed, bx tended to return to baseline § At first, it will reach higher level than baseline THERAPEUTIC TECHNIQUES BASED ON OPERANT CONDITIONING • Techniques based on Reinforcement o Shaping § Lovaas—Autism o Premack Principle—probability-­‐differential theory, using high probability bx to reinforce low probability bx § “first you work, then you play” • Techniques based on Punishment and Extinction o Time-­‐Out § Form of extinction, but can be considered punishment as well o Overcorrection § Both correction of neg bx and repeated and exaggerated practice of alternative appropriate bx o Response-­‐Cost © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
160
•
§ Neg punishment § One of the more effective tech of punishment o Differential Reinforcement for Other Bx (DRO) § Combination of operant extinction and pos reinforcement § Non-­‐reinforcement (extinction) of target bx and reinforcement of all other bx except target bx § Differential Reinforcement for Incompatible Bx (DRI)—reinforcement occurs only following bx that are compatible w target bx § Differential Reinforcement for Low-­‐Frequency Responding (DRL) Token Economy and Contingency Contracts o Contingency Contracting—establishing formal written contract btw tx and ct § Specifies target bx and reinforcers and/or punishers that will be made contingent upon them • Quid Pro Quo Contracts—requires bx change by more than 1 party § Delinquency, marital prob, academic prob, addictive bx § Effective: • Contract is informative about both tx strategies and expected outcomes • Contract explicitly defines rewards for meeting goals and sanctions for failing to meet terms • Bx included are capable of being monitored • Elicits statements from ct that s/he will participate fully in tx program o Token Economy § Less susceptible to satiation than primary reinforcers § Disadvantages: • Bx established within them do not generalize to other environments o Ways to reduce prob: § Gradually switch to reinforcers that will be available in natural environment § Reinforce only bx that will continue to be reinforced in natural environment COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES • Gestalt Learning Theory o Sudden novel solution—insight learning o Cog restructuring of environment o Process enables to achieve goal o Trial-­‐and-­‐error experience—necessary prerequisite o Actively reorganize perceptions on basis of “Gestalt Law” © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
161
Incomplete experience will lead to distortions of memory in order to experience stimuli as completed and if that doesn’t happen, to a motivation to complete learning, which results in better memory for incomplete tasks than for complete tasks Tolman’s Cognitive Learning Theory o Learning was not result of conditioning alone § Cog understanding was also necessary § Learning was acquisition of cognitive structure or cognitive map o Place learning—learns location of paths or places rather than movement responses in response to stimuli o Latent Learning—occurs w/o reinforcement and does not immediately manifest itself in performance Social Learning Theory o Cognitive meditational processes—influence of stimuli and reinforcement on bx is largely determined by cog processes, which govern what environmental influences are attended to and how they are perceived and interpreted o Observational Learning—one watches model perform bx and then imitates § Person imitates bx because imitation has been reinforced in past § External reinforcement is not necessary for observational learning per Bandura § Most higher learning was result of modeling per Bandura • Attentional mechanisms • Retentional mechanisms • Performance mechanisms • Reinforcement mechanisms § Bx can be reinforcing in itself • Graded participant modeling—slowly engages in modeled bx o More effective than simple modeling § High status models more likely to be imitated than low • More likely to occur when model perceived as similar to ct and when multiple models are used Harlow: Curiosity and Learning Sets o Nature of task can be rewarding enough o Unlearned reinforcers may have to be expanded to include needs to explore and manipulate § Experience when certain types of prob enables to solve similar kinds of prob more efficiently—Learning how to Learn §
•
•
•
MISC ISSUES IN LEARNING AND BX THEORY • Drive Reduction Theory o Clark Hull © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
162
Drive level as motivation for learning Probability of bx occurring depends on strength of learning habi and motivation or level of drive o Miller and Dollard § Learning of aggressive responses § Frustration and Aggression • Prior to any manifestation of hostility, there was always some frustration • Aggression is expressed directly or learns that direct expression is socially unwise and displaces it § Psychopathic symptoms are learned bx • If drive is induced, its reduction will serve as reward • Any bx reduces fear drive becomes more likely to recur when fear is present again • Learns responses in order to reduce drive—coping responses • Psychopathic symptoms allow escape from original fear and serve to reinforce symptoms bx • Two categories of drives (gradients): o Those that lead to approach a situation (goal) o Those that lead to avoid goal • Some goals elicit both drives—approach-­‐avoidance conflicts • Avoidance gradient is stronger than approach gradient Biological Factors of Learning o Preparedness Dimension § Bx can be divided into 4 levels of susceptibility to genetic influence/variables • Complete—instinct or imprinting • Somewhat facilitated • Minimally influenced • Contraprepared or difficult because of genetic factors o Conditioning Through Self-­‐Stimulation § Medial forebrain bundle in lateral hypothalamus was most effective area in evoking bx § Reward centers closely parallel maps of distribution of norepinephrine tracts • Synaptic release of NE is associated w feelings of well-­‐being, elation and euphoria Yerkes-­‐Dodson Law o Optimal level of arousal for learning and performance of any task § Higher levels of arousal are most appropriate for relatively simple tasks, while lower levels of arousal optimize performance of relatively complex tasks §
§
•
•
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
163
•
•
o Regardless of task difficulty, relationship btw arousal and performance rake shape of inverted U Behavioral Assessment o Pure bx orientation, personality is equivalent to sum total of individual’s bx in social environment § Person doesn’t have personality • Rather, has bx repertoire, which is modified w/in given range, depending on environmental contingencies o ABC model (antecedents, bx, consequences) § Situational analysis § Response enumeration phase § Response evaluation § Referred to as functional analysis—identify functional relationships btw antecedent, bx and consequences Memory and Cognition o Memory § Savings method—method of relearning • Measure of speed of relearning list • Overlearning resulted in savings of both time and errors upon relearning § Nature of forgetting • Initial drop-­‐off followed by slower forgetting over time o Multi-­‐Store model § 3 levels • Sensory mem • STM • LTM § Brief storage of sensory info, after stimuli have been removed • No more than 2-­‐3 sec • Auditory info=echoic store • Visual info=iconic store § Transferred to STM when it becomes focus of attn • Limited amount of info for brief period of time • 7 +/-­‐ 2 as amt of info retained w rehearsal • Chunking can greatly increase • “Working memory”—prefrontal cortex and cingulated cortex o Articulatory loop—process of rapid verbal repetition of to-­‐
be-­‐remembered info to facilitate maintaining it in WM § LTM • Unlimited capacity • Elaborative rehearsal—thinking about meaning of new info and its relation to info already in mem • 3 components: © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
164
o
o
o
o
o
o
o Procedural mem—acquired through observation and practice and are difficult to forget o Semantic mem—knowledge about language o Episodic mem—info about events that have been personally experienced • Explicit vs implicit o Explicit—retrieved w awareness of remembering and can be revealed by direct testing of mem § Declarative mem o Implicit—retrieved w/o conscious effort or even awareness § Skills and conditioned responses o Implicit=procedural, explicit=semantic and episodic Serial Position Effect § Recall words from beginning and end of list best § Beginning=LTM, end=STM Flashbulb Memory § Vivid, detailed mem of emotionally-­‐charged or surprising events § Events that involve specific people/things that occurred at specific time § Most accurate when event has personal significance or consequences § Fade over time Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia § Anterograde—recall info they learned prior to trauma but not new info • Cannot transfer info from STM to LTM § Retrograde—failure to remember events prior to trauma § Neurologically impaired ct who have retrograde usually also have antergrade, but reverse is not always true • Pseudodementia=retrograde but not anterograde • Dissociative Amnesia—lack of physiological etiology of cog symptoms Schema Theory of Memory § Schemas affect how we store and retrieve info § Memory is filtered through our schema Mnemonic Devices § Method of loci—associating each item to be remembered w mental images of “places” § Eidetic imagery—ability to maintain mental pic of obj even after it is removed • More common in children Context and State Dependence § Encoding specificity hypothesis—closer relationship btw encoding, storage and retrieval, better recall of info • Better recall when in same learning/retrieval environment than when diff § Context dependence—emotional state same in learning/retrieval envir © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
165
State dependence—same physical state Overlearning § Best for simple tasks Forgetting § Decay—memory trace deteriorates unless accessed § Interference—forgotten due to competing experiences • Retroactive inhibition—new experience interferes w earlier one o Only results from events that occur in waking life o When sleep follows learning of new info, better recall • Proactive inhibition—previous learning interferes w more recent learning Repression § Not recalled due to emotional significance § Active inhibition of recall accounts for forgetting § Dynamic and unconscious process Misinformation Effect § Incorporation of incorrect or inaccurate info § Constructed by combining actual mem w content of suggestions received from other sources of info § Discrepancy Detection principle—susceptibility to misinfo is inversely related to ability to notice discrepancies • Greater susceptibility to misinfo associated w: o Passage of time o Retention times o Timing of reporting/testing o Age • Resistance to post-­‐event suggestion is greatest when ct has strong, accurate original mem Attn § Internal cog process by which one actively selects environmental info or actively processes info from internal sources § Types: • Selective Attn—one event while filtering out/ignoring irrelevant events • Cock-­‐tail Party Phenomena—intently focus on one conversation and unaware of another, but when mention your name, you will immediately get shift ur attn • Sustained Attn—direct and focus attn on specific stimuli over extended period • Divided Attn—attn on more than one event simultaneously • Change Blindness—difficulty perceiving major changes to unattended-­‐to parts of visual image when changes are introduced during brief interruptions in presentation of image §
o
o
o
o
o
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
166
Exogenous Attn—automatic attraction of attn due to sudden appearance of stimulus o Bottom-­‐up—not under ct’s control • Endogenous Attn—typical top-­‐down, attentional effort under control of individual o Feature Integration Theory § Focused visual attn is what allows us to perceive obj as entire entity rather than meaningless cluster of features • Features of obj are processed rapidly and parallel and this process does not require focused visual attn • Perception of obj does necessitate focused visual attn bc entails serial processing obj’s features and integration of those features to create whole obj o Automaticity § Ability to chunk so rapidly and efficiently that processes entails virtually no attn § Overlearning o Metacognition § Thinking about thinking § Develop early adolescence in conjunction w Piaget’s formal operational stage •
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
167
BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR NERVOUS SYSTEM • Divisions of NS o NS=CNS (spinal cord and brain) and peripheral NS (somatic and autonomic NS) o Peripheral NS § Nerves that carry info from sense organs to CNS (afferent nerves) and nerves that carry info from CNS to muscles and glands (efferent nerves) § Somatic NS—controls actions of skeletal muscles • Voluntary movt • Responds to signals from senses § Autonomic NS—smooth muscles, viscera, and glands • Involuntary • Changes in autonomic arousal are highly correlated w changes in emotionality • 2 divisions: o Sympathetic—flight or fight o Parasympathetic—deactivates o CNS § Brain—primitive core, old brain called limbic system, and new brain • Anatomically—hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain § Spinal Cord • Damage can cause: o Paresis—slight or partial paralysis o Parasthesia—abnormal sensations o Hyperesthesia—abnormal sensitivity to sensation • Some communication btw CNS and peripheral NS is mediated by SC w/o brain involvement • Neuron o Glial cells provide physical support, nutrients, and means of cleaning debris in NS o 3 main parts: § Cell body/soma § Dendrites—respond to stimulation from other neurons and carry info towards soma § Axon—carry info away • May have many branches—collaterals o Neuronal Conduction § Conduction is electrochemical process by which info is received and processed w/in neuron § Action potential or spike © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
168
Speed of conduction is affected by larger diameter of axon and myelin sheath (salutatory conduction) Synaptic Transmission o Neuron sending info is referred to as presynaptic neuron o Neuron receiving info is postsynaptic neuron o Specific Transmitters § Acetylcholine • Found in CNS, at neuromuscular junctions and at certain synapses in autonomic NS • Cholinergic neurons—secrete Ach • Excitatory effect at junctions btw nerves and muscle fibers and causes muscles to contract o Defects: impairments in voluntary movt • Inhibitory effect—heart and respiratory muscles o Also associates w learning and mem, mediate sexual bx, REM sleep and sleep-­‐wake cycle § Catecholamines • Norepinephrine (noradrenaline), Epinephrine (adrenaline) and Dopamine • Personality, mood, drive, sleep, mem • Lack of NE and Dopamine: depression • Excessive Dopamine and NE: schizophrenia • Dopamine: o Movt o Excess: Tourette’s § Degeneration of neurons that secrete dopamine cause muscular rigidity and tremors of Parkinson’s o Reinforcing actions of stimulants, nicotine, and opiates § Serotonin • Anx, mood, eating, sleep, arousal, temp regulation, aggression, modulation of pain and migraines • Lack: depression, OCD, PTSD, aggression • Excess: schizophrenia, anorexia, and autism § GABA • Most abundant neurotransmitter • Inhibitory role—eating, sleep, anx, seizures • Lack: anx, Parkinson’s o Deficits in motor region of brain—Huntington’s § Glutamate • Major excitatory neurotransmitter • Learning, mem, long-­‐term potentiation (STMàLTM) • Overactivity: seizures, stroke, Alzheimer's disease, Huntington’s § Endorphins §
•
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
169
•
Inhibit pain, reduce anx in thalamus and cerebral cortex, feelings of pleasure BRAIN • Hindbrain and Midbrain o Hindbrain—brain stem (medulla oblongata, pons), cerebellum § Medulla Oblongata—breathing, heart rate, BP, digestion • Damage=fatal § Pons—connects 2 halves of cerebellum • Regulates states of arousal • Trigger and maintain slow wave sleep § Cerebellum—balance, coordinates movts, controls posture o Midbrain—mesencephalon § Substantia Nigra—extrapyramidal motor system • Movt—smoothness, initiation, termination, directedness § Reticular Formation—diffuse network of interconnected neurons that extends from SC through hindbrain to midbrain • Sleep and arousal, sensations of pain and touch, respiration and control of reflexes • Reticular Activating System (RAS)—fibers from reticular formation, thalamus, and sensory areas of brain o Waking state, arousal, and attn • Forebrain o Hypothalamus, thalamus, basal ganglia, limbic system, and cerebral cortex o Hypthalamus—autonomic NS and endrocrine system via influence on pituitary gland § Body’s homeostasis § Control of motivated bx—drinking, feeding, sex, aggression, and maternal bx • Translation of strong feelings (rage, fear, excitement) into physical responses § Contains suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)—circadian rhythms o Thalamus—central switching station § Relays incoming sensory info to cortex for all senses except olfaction § Processes info sent btw diff cortical regions and btw cortex and subcortical regions § Language, mem, motor activity o Basal Ganglia—caudate nucleus, globus pallidus, and putamen § Code and relay info associated w control of voluntary movt, motoric expression of emotion and sensorimotor learning o Limbic System—mediate emotional component of bx © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
170
Amygadala—integrates and directs emotional bx, attaches emotional signficance to info it receives from senses, and mediates defensive/aggressive bx • Kluver-­‐Bucy Syndrome—reduced fear and aggression, increased docility, altered dietary habits, “psychic blindness” and hypersexuality § Septum—inhibits emotionality § Hippocampus—mem, learning • Mem consolidation Cerebral Cortex o Lobes: § Frontal—motor bx, expressive lang, higher-­‐level cog, orientation • Primary motor—pyramidal motor system o Control of voluntary movt • Premotor cortex—Broca’s area • Prefrontal cortex—personality expression, emotion, mem, executive func • “Frontal lobe personality”—depressive syndrome or pseudodepression o Apathy, lack of drive, little verbal output, inability to plan and focus attn • Psychopathic syndrome—pseudopsychopathy o Sexual inhibition, coarse lang, peculiar and facetious sense of humor, inappropriate social bx, lack of concern for others § Temporal—receptive lang, mem, emotion • Wernicke’s area—comp of lang o Dysnomia—inability to name fam obj o Usually unaware of prob o Connected to Broca’s by arcuate fasciculous § Conduction aphasia—speaks fluently and comprehends speech but cannot repeat what is heard • LTM • Right=deju-­‐vu experience • Organic amnesia § Parietal—primary somatosensory cortex locates on postcentral gyrus • Processing somatosensory input and integrating info w visual and other sensory info • Tactile agnosia—inability to identify obj by touch using contrlateral hand • Contralateral neglect—loss of knowledge about/interest in one side of body • Asomatognosia—inability to recognitze body parts §
•
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
171
Anosognosia Gertmann’s syndrome—dominant parietal o Agraphia, acalculia, left-­‐right disorientation and finger agnosia § Occipital—visual cortex o Lateralization of Function § Higher cortical functions § Lt=rational half • Analytical thinking, sequencing, logical ability • Damage: clinical depression, anx § Rt=artistic, musical • Damage: apathy, indifference o Split Brain Research § Rt=understanding of spatial relationships, expression of emotions, facial recognition, creativity § Lt=understanding logic, analytical thinking, written and spoken lang •
•
PHYSIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CONSCIOUSNESS AND BEHAVIOR • Emotion o James-­‐Lange Theory § Emotions occur when people experience autonomic arousal in response to environmental stimuli and then interpret arousal as emotional state o Cannon-­‐Bard Theory § Environmental stimuli simultaneously stimulate thalamus and cortex, which produce sympathetic NS arousal and emotional feeling § Arousal accompanies emotional feeling rather than causes it o Cognitive-­‐Arousal Theory § Emotion as related to physiological arousal and cog attributions for that arousal § Environmental cues often determine causal attributions for arousal o Universal Emotions § 6 basic emotions: • Fear • Anger • Joy • Sadness • Surprise • Disgust § Certain emotions are innate, universal and form basic components of more complex emotions • Hunger and Feeding o Brain Mechanism in Hunger © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
172
Appetite appears to involve interactive relationship btw hypothalamus, hindbrain, and limbic system • Hypothalamus—lateral and ventromedial areas o Primary center for hunger and satiety o Receives info through metabolic, neural and hormonal signals to mediate energy intake/expenditure • Hindbrain—receives signals from GI tract then transmits info to hypothalamus for integration w other info • Limbic—emotive properties of food o Obesity § Overeat because inherently more sensitive to certain extral cues than to internal physiological ones Sexual Bx o Sex Hormones § Pituitary gland and gonads are primary source • Pituitary—produces luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) o FSH causes production of sperm and release of ova o Gonads produce androgens and estrogen in response to LH § Androgens—testosterone and other androgens are primary male sex hormones but are also found in females § Estrogens—normal sexual development and healthy functioning of repro system • Also found in males § Progesterone—healthy functioning of repro system in women and for functioning of placenta § Menopause—reduction in estrogen, progesterone and testosterone • Estrogen replacement tx (ERT) and hormone replacement tx (HRT) Sleep o Sleep Cycle § 5 distinct stages (first 4 are alow-­‐wave and non REM, while 5th is REM) • Stage 1—transition btw wake and sleep o Alpha waves disappear giving way to slower theta waves • Stage 2—after few min o Theta waves w intermittent sleep spindles and K complexes • Stage 3—appearance of large, slow delta waves • Stage 4—dominant delta waves o Deeper breathing and slowed heart rate, lower BP o Stages 3 and 4=deep sleep §
•
•
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
173
Stage 5—REM o Paradoxical sleep because EEG activity is typical of aroused NS, while responsivity of sleep to environment is low § Lasts for about 100 min and recurs 4-­‐6 times in normal night § Early REM periods are about 10 min long and increase to 50 by end of night § Age and Sleep • First 6 mo—only REM and non-­‐REM patterns o First 2-­‐3 mo—sleep begins w REM • Increasing age=decreasing REM in # hrs and % of total sleep • Total sleep also decreases w age o REM Deprivation § Alter sleep patterns and can increase anx and irritability, adverse effect on cog § Adverse effects disappear o Sleep D/O § Insomnia—inability to fall asleep quickly, frequently waking during night and early morning awakening § Nightmare D/O—repeated frightening dreams that cause sleeper to wake Memory o Temporal lobe—LTM o Hippocampus—mem consolidation o Prefrontal cortex—STM o Korsakoff’s—produces lesions in mammillary bodies and thalamus § Retrograde and anterograde amnesia, confabs, and apathy o LTM—changes in structure/physiology of synaptic membranes (LT potentiation) o Increased production of RNA •
•
ENDROCRINE SYSTEM • Pituitary Gland o Only secretes hormones that act directly on organs through control of hypothalamus § Also influences secretion of other glands o Growth hormone (GH) and Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) § GH—aka somatotropic hormone (STH) • Stimulates growth by acting on epiphyseal plates at ends of bones • Oversecretion: giantism (child) or acromegaly (grossly enlarged feet, hands, facial features) • Undersecretion: dwarfism (child) • Adrenal Cortex © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
174
•
•
•
o Cortisol—stimulates liver to convert energy stores into glucose § Elevates by psych stress o Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)—influences release of cortisol § Undersecretion—Addison’s disease (fatigue, fainting spells, loss of appetite, decreased body weight, depression, apathy) § Oversecretion—Cushing’s disease (obesity, mem loss, moos swings, depression, and somatic delusions Gonads o Sex hormones controlled by hypothalamus, pituitary and gonads o LH and FSH control release of sex hormones by gonads Thyroid o Release of hormone thyroxin, controls metabolism o Deficiency: physical maldevelopment and intellectual impairment (cretinism) o Undersecretion: hypothyroidism—slowed metabolism, reduced appetite, weight gain, lowered heart rate and body temp, decreased sex drive, depression, and deficits in cog (attn and mem) o Oversecretion: hyperthyroidism (Grave’s Disease)—elevated body temp, increased metabolism, increased appetite, weight loss, accelerated heart rate, nervousness, agitation, fatigue, insomnia, mania and decreased attn span Pancreas o Insulin—absorption phase of metaboloism o Diabetes –inability of pancreas to produce insulin o Oversecretion: hypoglycemia SENSATION AND PERCEPTION • Vision o Anatomy of Eye § Light wavesàcornea, pupil, lens, retina o Reception § Kinds of receptors: • Rods o Sensitive only to degrees of brightness o Sensing stimuli in low levels of light o Periphery of retina • Cones o Specialized for seeing color o Visual acuity o Function only in daylight o Cluster around center of retina (fovea) § Optic nerve • Two separate bundles of fibers © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
175
§
•
•
•
•
o Fibers from inner half of eye and crosses to other side of brain o Fibers from outer half of eye and stays on same side of brain Visual signals travel via optic tract to lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of thalamus and then to visual cortex in occipital lobe Audition o Anatomy of Ear § Hair cells are auditory receptors • Transform mechanical vibrations to neural activity • Travels via auditory nerve to thalamus to temporal lobe o Principles of Coding § Stimulus excites auditory system in sound waves o Auditory Localization § Orient toward direction of sound § Present at birth, declines btw 1-­‐4 mo, re-­‐emerges btw 4-­‐5 mo and gradually improves until fully developed at 12 mo Somesthesis o Neural Pathway § Touch (pressure), body position (kinesthesia), temp and pain o Pain § Affected by subject variables such as knowledge, attn, motivation, and suggestibility § Chronic pain is associated w various forms of depressive d/o • “Pain-­‐prone”—pain is form of masked depression § Environmental or genetic predisposition for developing pain § Afferent nerve fibers • Large myelinated fibers and small afferent unmyelinated fibers • Gate-­‐control theory—activation of large fibers inhibits transmission of pain by smaller fibers because pain mediation system can only handle limited # of sensations o Large fibers “close gate” Smell and Taste o Smell § Afferent pathways for smell run directly to brain through limbic system § Smell not relayed from thalamus to cortex § Most primitive sense § Not crossed in brain Psychophysics o Relationship btw magnitude of physical stimuli and psychological sensations o 2 kinds of thresholds” © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
176
§ Absolute—weakest stimulus that person can detect § Difference –smallest physical diff btw 2 stimuli that is recognized as diff o Magnitude estimation—relationship btw physical stimuli and internal sensation differs for diff stimuli NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS • Diagnosis: Brain Imaging Techniques o Structural Techniques: MRI and CT § Series of images at diff levels giving info and direct visualization of structures and features o Functional Techniques: PET, SPECT, fMRI § Info about both structure and function § PET—mapping distribution of neurotransmitters and identifying brain dysfunction due to stroke, epilepsy, tumor, dementia, nerve tearing and other brain-­‐impairing conditions • Focal Brain Syndromes o Aphasia—disturbance in lang production and/or comprehension § Dysarthria—problems w articulation o Alexia—reading disability o Apraxia—inability to learn/perform complex, purposeful movt despite normal muscle strength and coordination § Ideomotor apraxia—cannot carry out command to perform particular movt but may be able to perform movt spontaneously § Constructional apraxia—cannot draw/copy simple figures or arrange clocks in pattern o Agnosia—inability to recognize fam obj in absence of disturbance in primary sensory system § Tactile, auditory, visual § Visual—recognize fam obj by sight • Aperceptive agnosia—visual distortion that prevents recognition of obj o Cannot recognize obj by sight but can ID it kinesthetically when it is placed in hand • Associative visual agnosia—disconnection of visual and lang areas of brain o Cannot name obj but can demonstrate how it is used and match it w similar obj • Prosopagnosia—inability to recognize familiar faces o Anosognosia—inability or unwillingness to recognize one’s own functional impairment § Typically denied w hemiplegia § Usually due to stroke affecting right parietal cortex © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
177
•
•
•
•
Brain Tumors o Children develop tumors in brainstem or cerebellum more often o Adults more likely in cerebral cortex Stroke o Most occur in middle cerebral artery—frontal, temporal, parietal and basal ganglia § Contralateral hemiplegia, sensory loss, dementia, homonymous hemianopsia o Anterior CA—frontal, parietal, corpus callosum, caudate nucleus § Hemiplegia and sensory loss in contralateral side, dementia, affective disturbance o Posterior CA—thalamus, temporal, occipital § Cortical blindness, visual deficits, anterograde amnesia, agitated delirium Head Trauma o Open head trauma—do not lose consciousness § Often resolve relatively rapidly o CHI—LOC § Duration of anterograde amnesia is best predictor of degree of injury and recovery Motor Disorder o Damage to SC, structures of extrapyramidal motor system, or motor areas of cortex o Extrapyradimal system disorders: § Huntington’s • Combo of cog deterioration, personality, and affective changes, and abnormalities in movt • Dominant, autosomal degenerative d/o • Systems first appear btw 30-­‐50 y/o • Initial signs=affective o Then followed by forgetfulness, personality changes, motor systems (clumbiness, incoordination and fidgeting) o Later, athetosis (slow writhing movt) and chorea become more prominent • Substantia nigra, basal ganglia and cortex all affected o CT/MRI=reduced volume in basal ganglia o PET=reduced metabolic brain activity • Neurotransmitters linked=Ach, GABA, dopamine § Parkinson’s • Degenerative brain d/o w abnormalities in movt • Exhibit symptoms of depression © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
178
•
•
•
20% have depressive symptoms preceding onset of motor impairments by average of 5 yrs Reduced levels of serotonin Due to degeneration of dopamine-­‐producing cells in substania nigra, which in turn affects basal ganglia, thalamus, and cortex PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY • Antidepressants o Effects occur in first 2 weeks, but way require up to 6 weeks o Tricyclics (TCA) § Imipramine (Tofranil) § Clomipramine (Anafranil) § Amitriptyline (Elavil) § Blocking reuptake of NE and serotonin at synapse § Most effective in relieving vegetative symptoms of depression • Appetite disturbance, sleep disturbance, anhedonia, psychomotor retardation § Panic attacks, agoraphobia, obsessive states, chronic pain, bulimia, and enuresis § Anticholinergic effects—common side effect • Also cause cardiovascular effects o SSRIs § Fluoxetine (Prozac) § Sertraline (Zoloft) § Paroxetine (Paxil) § Commonly used w OCD, binge eating, Panic d/o, and anx § Increasing availability of serotonin at synapse by inhibiting reuptake § Quicker onset of effectiveness and produce fewer/less severe side effects than TCA § Do not cause cog impairments or anticholinergic side effects § May cause GI, loss of appetite, decreased libido, dizziness, headaches § May produce akathesia (motor restlessness) and other extrapyramidal side effects § Prozac only FDA SSRI for children age 8/-­‐ o MAOIs § Phenelzine (Nardil) § Tranylcypromine (Parnate) § Block action of enzymes that break down NE and serotonin, making more available in synapses § Atypical depression symptoms • Increased appetite, hypersomnia, rejection-­‐sensitivity, mood reactivity, symptom increase as day progresses, accompanying symptoms of phobic-­‐anxiety, panic or hypochondriasis © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
179
Most serious side effect is potentially fatal hypertensive crisis, characterized by elevated BP and convulsions • Can occur in conjunction w foods containing moderate to high levels of amino acid tyramine o Newer Antidepressants § Selective serotonin NE reuptake inhibitors (SSNRIs) • Venlafaxine (Effexor) • Duloxetine (Cymbalta) • MDD, GAD, social anx, panic d/o § Serotonin-­‐2 antagonist and reuptake inhibitors • Nefazadone (Serzone) • Trazadone (Desyrel) o Impotence o May cause orthostatic hypertension and penile erection prob § Tetracyclic antidepressant • Mirtazipine (Remeron) o Noradrenaline and selective serotonin antidepressant (NaSSA) • Maprotiline (Ludiomil) • Increases noradrenaline and serotonin in brain • Acts as antihistamine § NE dopamine reuptake inhibitor (NDRI) • Bupropion (Wellbutrin, Zyban) • Depression, smoking cessation, and distractibility due to ADHD § NE reuptake inhibitor (NRI) or noradreneline reuptake inhibitor (NARI) • Reboxetine (Edronax) • Atomoxetine (Stattera) Mood Stabilizers o Lithium § Bipolar § Reduces/eliminates symptoms of mania and levels out mood swings § Schizophrenia, intermittent explosive d/o, epilepsy and episodic binge drinking § May reduce postsynaptic responsivity to dopamine and NE o Anticonvulsants, especially carbamazepine (Tegretol), can be as effective as Lithium for mania § Valproic Acid—effective and has fewer side effects § Thought to affect serotonin Antipsychotics o Traditional antipsychotics work by blocking dopamine receptors § Chlorpromazine (Thorazine) § Haloperidol (Haldol) §
•
•
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
180
Thioridazine (Mellaril) Fluphenazine (Prolixin, Permitil) Used for schizophrenia, acute mania and psychotic symptoms of other mood d/o • For schizophrenia—most useful in alleviating positive symptoms o Delusions, hallucinations, agitation • Unlikely to effect disturbed cog functioning § Dopamine hypothesis—schizophrenia is related to overactivity of dopamine § Physiological mechanisms underlying schizophrenia are more complex and may involve imbalance of dopamine, NE and serotonin o Atypical antipsychotics affect dopamine, serotonin and glutamate receptors § Clozapine (Clozaril) § Risperidone (Risperdal) § Olanzapine (Zyprexa) § Ariprazole (Abilify) § Schizophrenia, d/o w psychotic features § Clozapine lowers activity of multiple neurotransmitters—dopamine, serotonin and NE • Also used w motor symptoms of movt d/o (Parkinson’s and Huntington’s) § Alleviate positive and negative symptoms (anhedonia, affective flattening) o Side-­‐effects § Traditional—anticholinergic and extrapyramidal effects • Tardive dyskinesia—delayed effect and rarely occurs until after 6 mo o Can be alleviated to some degree, esp in younger ct, by w/drawing gradually § Atypical—not associated c TD or other extrapyramidal effects • Agranulocytosis • Higher rate of seizures • Anticholinergic effect—sedation and hypotension § Both can cause neuroleptic malignant syndrome typically w/in first 2 weeks Sedatives, Hypnotics, and Anxiolytics o Benzodiazepines—anxiolytic (anti-­‐anx) § Diazepam (Valium) § Alprazolam (Xanax) § Clonazepam (Klonopin) § Lorazepam (Ativan) § Triazolam (Halcion) § Anx, insomnia, severe EtOH w/drawl, cerebal palsy, petit mal epilepsy § Enhancing activity of GABA—inhibitory effect on CNS §
§
§
•
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
181
Common side effects—drowsiness and sedation • Anterograde amnesia—IV Valium and Ativan • Addictive o Barbituates § Thiopental (Pentothal) § Amobarbital (Amytal) § Secobarbital (Seconal) § Safer than benzos § Interrupt impulses to reticular activating system § Addictive o Azapirones § Buspirone (BuSpar) § Reduces anx w/o prominent sedative effect or exerting anticonvulsant or muscle relaxant effects § Enhance activity of dopamine and noradrenaline and reduce activity of serotonin and Ach § Does not appear to be subject to abuse, addictive or habit forming o Beta-­‐Blockers § Propranolol (Inderal) § Anx (public speaking and performance anx), high BP, cardiac arrhythmia, migraine, essential tremor § Reduce activity of beta-­‐adrenergic neurons, which innervate cardiovascular and respiratory systems § Less effective than benzos w cog and psychic experience § More likely to cause mem impairment Psychostimulants o Methylphenidate (Ritalin) o Pemoline (Cylert) o Cocaine, amphetamines o Innervate CNS by mimicking or petentiating action of catecholamines (NE and dopamine) o Decrease motor activity, diminish impulsiveness, increase vigilance and attn o Side effects: OCD, exacerbate tics Narcotic-­‐Analgesics o Natural opiods (opium, morphine, codeine) and pure/semi-­‐synthetic derivatives (heronin, Percodan, Demerol, methadone) o Binding to enkephalin-­‐receptors in CNS and block transmission of neural impulses o Physically addictive o Methadone—detox for heroin o Buprenorphine (Subutex)—approved by FDA for tx of opiod addiction § No w/drawal symptoms §
•
•
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
182
RESEARCH METHODS AND STATISTICS RESEARCH DESIGN IV/DV • Correlational Research—IV=predictor variables, DV=criterion variables • Multiple IVs o Combined every level of one IV w every level of other IVs=FACTORIAL EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Internal Validity • Whether causal relationship exists btw IV and DVs, not extraneous variables • Extraneous variables=CONFOUND o CONFOUNDED EXPERIMENT=contaminated by extraneous variables • Primary way to ensure internal validity is to make sure that the grps are equivalent in every respect except for the IV • Threats to Internal Validity o History—any external event, besides experimental tx, that affects scores or status on DV o Maturation—any internal change that occurs in subjects while experiment is in progress and exerts systematic effect on DV § Ex. Fatigue, boredom, hunger, development o Testing—previous experience w test o Instrumentation—change in DV scores may be observed from pretest to post-­‐
test because nature of measuring instrument changed § One way to control—use highly reliable measuring instruments o Statistical Regression—tendency of extreme scores to fall closer to mean upon retesting o Selection—pre-­‐existing subject factors that account for scores on DV o Differential Mortality—when study involves 2/+ grps, occurs when people who drop-­‐out of one grp differ in systematic ways from people who remain in study o Experimenter Bias—researcher may unconsciously communicate expectations to subjects § Experimenter expectancy (Rosenthal Effect or Pygmalion Effect)—bx of subjects changes as result of experimenter expectancies, rather than as result of IV § Another error is when experimenter makes errors in direction of research hypothesis when scoring/reporting results § Effects can be overcome through using double-­‐blind Controlling for Threats to Internal Validity • Random Assignment—most powerful method for controlling extraneous variables o Probability of being assigned to particular grp is same o “Great equalizer” © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
183
•
•
•
•
o Random assignment vs Random Selection § Random selection=method of selecting subjects into study • All members of population have equal chance of being selected § Random assignment=takes place after subjects selected • Subjects who have already selected, probability of being assigned to each grp is same Matching—can control for effects of specific extraneous variable o Identifying subjects who are similar in terms of status on extraneous variable, then grping similar subjects and randomly assigning members of matched grp to tx grps Blocking—studying effects of extraneous variable to determine if and to what degree it is accounting for scores on DV o Making extraneous variable another IV o Matching vs Blocking § Matching=ensure equivalency in terms of extraneous variable § Blocking=determine effects of extraneous variable Holding Extraneous Variable Constant o Completely eliminates effects of extraneous variable o Involves including only subjects who are homogenous in terms of status on extraneous variable o Problem=results of study cannot be generalized to populations that are not sampled Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) o Statistical strategy for increasing internal validity o Like post-­‐hoc matching, after data are obtained, DV scores are adjusted so that subjects are equalized in terms of status on 1/+ extraneous variables o Problem=does not control for extraneous variables that researcher has not identified and measured External Validity • Generalizability of results • Threats to External Validity o Interaction btw Selection and Tx—“interaction”=some variable has one effect under one set of circumstances but different effect under another set of circumstances § Given effect is not generalizable § Effects of given tx would not generalize to other members of population of interest o Interaction btw Hx and Tx—effects of tx do not generalize beyond setting and/or time period in which experiment is done o Interaction btw Testing and Tx—results in which pretests are used might not generalize to cases in which pretests were not used § Pretest may “sensitize” subjects to purpose of study or otherwise increase susceptibility to respond to tx (PRETEST SENSITIZATION) © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
184
•
o Demand Characteristics—cues in research setting that allow subjects to guess research hypothesis § Subjects may behave differently than they would in field o Hawthorne Effect—tendency of subjects to behave differently due to mere fact they are participating in research o Order Effects (Carryover Effects or Multiple Tx Interference)—repeated measures design Ways to Increase External Validity o Random Selection—random sampling—all members of population under study have equal chance of being selected to participate § Stratified Random Sampling—taking random sample of each of several subgrps of total target population • Ensure proportionate representation of defined pop subgrps § Cluster Sampling—unit of sampling is naturally occurring grp of ind rather than ind • Mutlistage Cluster Sampling—selecting successively smaller clusters o Naturalistic Research—bx observed and recorded in natural setting § Controls for threats to external validity that are due to artifacts of lab (Hawthorne Effect and Demand Characteristics) § Study will lack internal validity o Single-­‐ and Double-­‐Blind Research—single-­‐blind=subj not informed of purpose of study or tx assigned to; double-­‐blind=neither experimenter nor subj knows grp assigned to § Useful in reducing threats to external validity that habe to do with artifacts of lab setting o Counterbalancing—controlling order effects § Diff sub/grps receive tx in diff order § Latin Square Design—ordering administration of tx so that each appears once and only once in every position Specific Research Designs and Strategies • True Experimental Research—investigator randomly assigns sub to diff grps, which receive diff levels of manipulated variable o Offer greatest internal validity • Quasi-­‐Experimental Research—random assignment of subj to grps not possible o Involves use of intact grps • Correlational Research—research does not manipulate variable of interest o Variables are measured rather than manipulated o Does not have any internal validity § Impossible to infer casual relationship btw variables on basis of results of correlational research o Used for purpose of prediction • Developmental Research—assessing variables as function of time o 3 types: © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
185
Longitudinal Design—same people are studied over long period of time • Problems=high cost (money/time), high drop out, practice effects • Underestimate true age-­‐related change o Subj drop out tend to be those who are less able on task studied § Show misleading low level of age-­‐related decline o Practice effects can facilitate performance on DV § True-­‐age related declines in performance may be masked § Cross-­‐Sectional Design—diff grps, divided by age, are assessed at same time • Problem: Cohort Effects—observed diff btw age grps may have to do with experience rather than age • Tend to over-­‐estimate true age-­‐related declines in performance § Cross-­‐Sequential Design—combines methods of longitudinal and cross-­‐
sectional • Samples of diff age grps are assessed on 2/+ occasions • Control for cohort effects associated w cross-­‐sectional studies • Less time-­‐consuming than longitudinal • Reduce drop out Time-­‐Series Design—taking multiple measurements over time in order to assess effects of IV o Sometimes referred to as interrupted time-­‐series design—series of measurements on DV is interrupted by administration of tx o Advantage: rule out many threats to internal validity, such as maturation, regression and testing o In one-­‐grp interrupted time-­‐series design, major threat to internal validity is hx § Control by using 2-­‐grp time-­‐series design Single-­‐Subject Designs—bx mod o DV is measured several times during both phases o Great deal of variability in target bx poses major threat o AB Design—simplest § Single baseline and single tx o Reversal/Withdrawal Design—controls for hx and other extraneous factors in AB § Tx withdrawn and data collected to determine if bx returns to original level § ABA design—additional baseline during which tx withdrawn § ABAB design—tx re-­‐applied after second baseline • Advantages over ABA: o If bx changes in predicted direction after second tx, additional confirmation that tx is responsible for observed changes on DV o If study ends w w/drawal condition, subj is left back in condition research is trying to change in first place §
•
•
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
186
•
o Multiple Baseline Design—when reversal not possible § Applying tx sequentially, across diff baselines Qualitative/Descriptive Research—theory is developed from data rather than derived a priori o Surveys—vulnerable to many threats to validity § Often internal validity is not issue § External validity—mail surveys, subj self-­‐select themselves into study o Case Studies—detailed examination of single case § Based on assumption that case under study can be viewed as example of more general class § Most useful as pilot studies for identifying variables that can be studied in more thorough and systematic manner o Protocol Analysis—research involving collection and analysis of verbatim reports § Usually does not involve traditional quantitative tech § Analysis is based on interpretation of verbal protocol INTRODUCTORY AND DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS •
Descriptive stats are used to describe set of data collected from sample o Inferential methods are used to make inferences about entire pop on the basis of sample Scales of Measurement • Nominal Data—divided variables into unordered categories into which data may fall o Ex. Sex, hair color • Ordinal Data—ordering of categories o Orders amts of variable being measured so that we know that individuals in cat 1 have less/more of attribute than cat 2 o However we do not know anything about how much more/less is possessed o Ex. Rank order, high/mod/low • Interval Data—numbers are equal distances apart but scale has no absolute zero point o Ex. IQ, most standardized tests o Addition and subtraction can be performed but not multiplication or division • Ratio Data—identical to interval, except w absolute zero point o Multiplication and division o Ex. Dollar amt, time, distance Frequency Distributions • Provides summary of set of data • Number of cases that fall at given category or score or w/in given score range • Normal Distribution o Bell shaped curve o Symmetrical © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
187
•
o Greatest number of cases fall close to mean of distribution, w fewer and fewer cases occurring the farther one gets from the mean Skewed Distribution o Negatively Skewed—larger portion of scores fall toward high end of scale § Long tail on left § “Easy test” o Positively Skewed—larger portion of scores fall at low end of scale § Long tail on right § “Difficult test” Measures of Central Tendency • Mean—average o Most useful measure of CT o V sensitive to extreme values—misleading when data is highly skewed • Median—middle value of data when ordered from lowest to highest o Md o Less sensitive to extreme scores o May be more useful measure when distribution is skewed • Mode—most frequent value in collection of #s o When more than 1 #=multimodal § Bimodal=2 modes • Relationship btw mean, median, mode o Normal distribution—three are equal o Positively skewed—mean>median>mode o Negatively skewed—mode>median>mean o Mean will always be pulled towards the tail Measures of Variability (Dispersion) • How spread of scores are • Range—difference btw highest and lowest scores in set o Limited: § Affected by extreme scores § Tells us nothing about distribution § Useful only as v general description of variability • Variance—average of squared differences of each observation from mean o Measure of how score disperse around mean o Measure of variability of distribution o Measure of variability that many statistical tests use in formulas o Equal to square of SD • Standard Deviation—square root of variance o Expected deviation from mean of score chosen at random o Normal distribution—SD can be used to calculate percentage of score that will fall w/in given range or at cut-­‐off scores Transformed Scores © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
188
•
•
•
•
•
Allow ind raw score to be compared to scores in rest of distribution Z-­‐scores (Standard Scores)—raw scores stated in SD terms o Measures how many SD given raw score is from mean o Advantage: permit comparison across diff measures/tests o When raw scores are transformed, shape of distribution does not change (LINEAR TRANSFORMATION) T-­‐scores—based on 10 pt intervals w T=50 being mean and every 10 pts above/below 50 equivalent to SD away from mean Stanine Score—divide distribution into 9 equal intervals w 1 being lowest ninth of distribution and 9 being highest ninth o Mean of 5 and SD of 2 Percentile Ranks—flat distribution—w/in given range of percentile ranks, there will always be same # of scores o Converting raw scores to PR will result in change in shape of distribution (NONLINEAR TRANFORMATION) Standard Deviation Curve • 68% of all scores fall btw SD -­‐1 and +1 • 95% fall btw SD -­‐2 and +2 • 99.7% fall btw SD -­‐3 and +3 • In normal distribution: o Z-­‐score of +1.0= PR of 84 § Cutoff point for top 16% o Z-­‐score of -­‐1.0= PR of 16 § Cutoff pt for bottom 16% o Z-­‐score of +2.0=PR 98 § Cutoff for top 2% o Z-­‐score of -­‐2.0= PR of 2 § Cutoff for bottom 2% INFERENTIAL STATISTICS Samples, Pops, Sampling Error • Sampling Error—invariable result of using samples to study pop o Inaccuracy of sample value o Diff btw sample value (Statistic) and corresponding pop value (Parameter) Standard Error of Mean • Diff btw sample mean and pop mean • Expected error of given sample mean • SEmean=s.d./√N o N=size of sample o S.d.=SD of population • As sample size increases, SE becomes smaller © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
189
o Relationship btw SE of mean and size is INVERSE Statistical Hypothesis Testin • Null vs. Alternative Hypothesis • Null hypothesis—hypothesis of no difference • Alternative hypothesis—experimental hypothesis • Two are mutually exclusive • Expressed in terms of population parameters • One-­‐tailed vs. Two-­‐tailed Hypotheses o Two-­‐tailed=mean is diff from another mean but do not know direction o One-­‐tailed=mean is greater than or less than another mean • Statistical Decision Making o Risk of Error Occurring in Testing Null • Type I Error and Alpha Level o Type I Error—when null is rejected when it is true § “thinking you have something when you really don’t” § Alpha Level—probability of making Type I • Level of significance (p) • Usually set by research in advance § Null is true greater than 5% (Retention region) • Null is rejected (Rejection region) § Significance level—prob of rejecting null as being true • Type II (Beta) Error and Power o Failure to reject null when it is false o “thinking you don’t have something when you really do” o Not known to researcher at outset of study o Power—prob of rejecting null when it is false § Prob of not making Type II error § Sensitivity of statistical test § Factors that affect power: • Sample size—larger sample=greater power • Alpha—as pre-­‐set alpha increases=power increases • Directional and Non-­‐directional Statistical Tests—directional (one-­‐tailed) is used to test directional hypothesis and nondirectional (two-­‐tailed) is used to test nondirectional hypothesis o One-­‐tailed>two-­‐tailed • Magnitude of Pop Diff—greater diff btw pop means=more likely researcher will be able to detect diff § Increasing alpha has effect of increasing power • Prob of making Type I error increases=prob of Type II decreases Parametric and Nonparametric Stat Tests • Parametric=used for interval and ratio data © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
190
•
o Ex. T-­‐test, ANOVA o Based on assumptions: § Normal distribution § Homogeneity of Variance—variance of all grps equal § Independence of Observations o If assumptions not met, use of parametric tests can lead to misleading results Nonparametric=ordinal or nominal scales o Ex. Chi-­‐square, Mann-­‐Whitney U o Generally less powerful than parametric tests Both share one assumption: both assume data come from unbiased sample •
INFERENTIAL STAT TESTS Parametric Tests • T-­‐test/Student’s t-­‐test—test hypotheses about 2 diff means o Cannot be used if there are more than 2 means involved in comparison o One Sample t-­‐test—compare mean of single sample to known pop mean § Degrees of freedom=N-­‐1 o T-­‐test for Independent Samples—compare 2 means derived from independent (unrelated) samples § Df=N-­‐2 o T-­‐test for Correlated Samples—samples related to each other in some way § Df=N-­‐1 (N=PAIRS of scores) • One-­‐Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) o 1 IV w more than 2 grps are compared o F ratio o Only tells you if there is some diff btw grp means § Does not indicate specifically which grps differ from which other grps § Post-­‐hoc tests must be conducted to identify exactly where significance lies o Logic of ANOVA and Deviation of F Ratio § F ratio=comparison btw 2 estimates of variance (btw-­‐grp and w/in-­‐grp) • Btw=treatment variance—degree to which grps as whole differ from one another • W/in=error variance—degree to which subjects w/in experimental grp differ from each other § ANOVA stat is fraction: variance btw grps/ variance w/in grps o ANOVA Summary Table § Sum of Squares=measure of variability of set of data § Degrees of Freedom • 2 sources of degrees of freedom for one-­‐way ANOVA: o Dfb=k-­‐1 (k=# grps) o Dfw=N-­‐k (N=total # subj) § Mean Square=estimate btw and w/in grp variance © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
191
Btw grp variance=Mean Square Btw (MSB) o Sum of Squares btw/dfb • W/in grp variance=Mean Square Within (MSW) o Sum of Squares w/in/dfw § F-­‐Ratio and Significance Level • F=MSB/MSW § Post-­‐hoc Tests for Analysis of Variance • More comparisons you make=more likely at least one Type I • Post-­‐hoc takes this into account by controlling alpha level for individual comparisons • Ex. Scheffe test and Tukey Honestly Significant Difference Test o Scheffe is most conservative—provides greatest protection against inflation in Type I rate that occurs w multiple comparisons § Problem: decreasing Type I increases Type II o Pairwise comparisons, Tukey is appropriate § Provide enough protection against Type I when only pairwise comparisons made § Other Forms of ANOVA • One-­‐way ANOVA for repeated measures—used when subjs receive all levels of IV • Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA)—used to adjust DV scores to control for effects of extraneous variable Factorial ANOVA o Involves more than 1 IV § Ex. Two-­‐way ANOVA=2 IVs, Three-­‐way ANOVA=3 IVs o Main effect refers to effect on 1 IV by itself, while interaction effect has to do w effects of IV at diff levels of other IVs § Main effect=diff of marginal means o Whenever there is an interaction effect, you must interpret main effects w caution § Need to know how effect of 1 variable is moderated by level of other variable o More than 1 F ratio o Variations of Factorial ANOVA § Factorial ANOVA for repeated measures—all levels of all IVs are applied to single grp of subj § Mixed ANOVA—more than 1 IV • Design has at least 1 btw-­‐subj IV and at least 1 repeated measures (w/in subj) variable Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) o 2/+ DVs and 1/+ IVs o Advantage over multiple ANOVAs=reduces experiment-­‐wise error rate (reduces prob of making at least 1 Type I) •
•
•
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
192
Nonparametric Tests • Chi-­‐Square o Categorical/nominal data § Used when frequencies, # subj w/in category, are given 2
o x o Single-­‐sample Chi-­‐Square—collecting categorical data from only one sample of individuals § Df=C-­‐1 (C=# categories) o Multiple sample Chi-­‐Square—adding another variable in addition to one that gives rise to classification categories § Df=(C-­‐1)(R-­‐1) (R=# of rows or levels of 2nd variable) o Cautions: § All observations must be independent of each other § Each observation can be classified into only one category or cell § Percentages of observations w/in categories cannot be compared o Calculating Expected Frequencies § Single-­‐sample—depend of nature of null hypothesis itself § Total # of sub/ # cells • Other Nonparametric Tests o Mann Whitney U—rank-­‐ordered involves 2 IVs o Wilcoxon Matched-­‐Pairs Test—2 correlated grps are being compared using rank-­‐order data o Kruskal-­‐Wallis Test—more than 2 grps are compared § Analysis of variance for rank-­‐ordered data Design of Study Parametric Test Nonparametric Alternative 1 IV, 2 independent grps t-­‐test for ind. samples Mann-­‐Whitney U 1 IV, 2 correlated grps t-­‐test for correlated samples Wilcoxon Matched Pairs 1 IV, 2/+ ind grp one-­‐way ANOVA Kruskal-­‐Wallis CORRELATION AND REGRESSION Correlation and Correlation Coefficient • Correlation=relationship btw 2/+ variables • Correlation coefficient=number ranges from -­‐1.00 to +1.00 o Magnitude and direction • Scattergram • Correlation and Causality—high correlation btw 2 variables does not mean variables have causal relationship Type of Correlations • Pearson r—most commonly used © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
193
•
o Measured on interval or ratio scale o Factors affecting Pearson r: § Linearity—assumes linear relationship § Homoscedasticity—dispersion of scores is equal • Heteroscedasticity will lower correlation coefficient § Range of Scores—wider range=more accurate estimation of correlation • Restricted section=lower r o Interpretation of r § Coefficient of Determination—square of correlation coefficient indicates percentage of variability in 1 measure that is accounted for by variability in other measure Other Correlation Coefficients o Point-­‐Biserial and Biserial Coefficients § Relates one continuous variable and one dichotomous variable o Phi and Tetrachoric Coefficients § Phi—both variables are dichotomous § Tetrachoric—both are artificially dichotomized o Contingency § Two nominally scaled variables o Spearman’s Rho § Two variables that have been ordinally ranked Name of Coefficient Pearson Point Biserial Biserial Phi Tetrachoric Spearman’s rho Eta If X is: continuous true dichotomy artificial dichotomy true dichotomy artificial dichotomy ranked continuous If Y is: continuous continuous continuous true dichotomy artificial dichotomy ranked continuous Regression • IV=predictor variable, DV=criterion variable • Assumptions: o Linear relationship and that relationship can be depicted as straight line (REGRESSION LINE) o Error score is diff btw predicted and actual criterion scores § Assumed to be normally distributed w mean of 0 § Correlation btw error scores and actual criterion scores is assumed to be 0 § Both must be homoscedastic • Regression can be used as substitute for one-­‐way ANOVA • Multiple correlation and multiple regression © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
194
o Relationship btw 2/+ predictor variables and 1 criterion variable can be assessed w multiple correlation coefficient (multiple R) o Use of scores on more than 1 predictor to estimate scores on criterion is multiple regression o Multiple correlation coefficient is highest when predictor variables each have high correlations w criterion but low correlations w each other § Better when each predictor provides new info about criterion § Significant predictor overlap=multicollinearity § After you have 3-­‐4 predictors, adding additional ones will not yield significant increase in predictive power of multiple regression even if new tests have substantial correlation w criterion • Due to 5th test being bound to have high correlation w one of previous predictors o Multiple correlation coefficient is never lower than highest simple correlation btw ind predictor and criterion o Multiple R can never be negative o Multiple R can be squared in order to facilitate its interpretation § Coefficient of multiple determination—proportion of variance in criterion variable accounted for by combination of predictor variables • Stepwise Multiple Regression o Relatively large number of potential predictors, but you want to use smaller subset of predictors in final multiple regression equation o Goal=come up w smallest se of predictors that maximizes predictive power o Forward stepwise regression—start out w one predictor and ass predictors to equation one at a time o Backward stepwise regression—start out w all potential predictors and remove predictors one at a time Other Correlational Techniques • Canonical Correlation—multiple criterion and multiple predictor variables o 2/+ predictors to 2/+ criterion variables at once • Discriminant Function Analysis—scores on 2/+ variables are combined in order to determine whether they can be used to predict which criterion grp person will belong to o Compared to multiple regression where multiple predictors are used to estimate criterion score, rather than criterion grp membership o Differential Validity—each predictor has diff correlation w each criterion variable § Low differential validity=would not be useful in helping to place ind in specific grp criterion • Logistic Regression—like DFA in making predictions about criterion grp person belongs to o Differences: © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
195
DFA requires that number of assumptions about data be met (multivariate normal distribution and homogeneity of variance and covariance) • Logistic regression does not rest on these assumptions § While predictors in DFA must use continuous data, LR may be nominal or continuous o Primarily used in research w dichotomous DVs or cases in which person can be classified into 1 of 2 criterion grps Multiple Cutoff—identifying diff cutoff scores on series of predictors o Ind must score at/above cutoff on each predictor to be predicted as successful on criterion § If does not meet cutoff, unsuccessful regardless of scores on other predictors o Compared to multiple regression, high scores on one of predictors can compensate for low score on another Partial Correlation—if relationship btw 2 variables is obtained, but it is suspected that one or more other variables contribute to relationship, other variables can be controlled for statistically by partialling out its effect o Converse of partial correlation is ZERO-­‐ORDER correlation—correlation btw 2 variables is determined w/o regard to any other variables § All other variables are ignored even though they might contribute to relationship o Suppressor Variable—3rd variable may account for spuriously low correlation btw 1/+ predictors and criterion § Suppresses relationship btw predictor and criterion Structural Equation Modeling—assumption is linear relationship btw variables o Path Analysis and LISREL § PA used to verify simpler causal models that propose only one-­‐way causal flow btw variables • LISREL can be used when model includes one or two-­‐way causal relationships § Whereas PA can be used in models that includes observed variables only, LISREL can be used when model specifies both latent and observed variables Trend Analysis—measuring nature of effect in repeated measures design o Both variables are quantitative o Research not so much interested in determining magnitude of relationship btw 2 variables as trend of change in DV over time o Break points—scores for all subjs change direction in predictable way §
•
•
•
•
ADVANCED STATISTICS Theoretical Sampling Distribution • Decisions concerning how close values of particular sample are to actual pop values=Inferential stats © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
196
o Theoretical distribution—sampling distribution § Pop—whole set of cases researcher is interested in • Includes every single score in pop § Sample distribution—set of scores from sample § Sampling Distribution—distribution of values w each value computed from same-­‐sized samples drawn w replacement from pop • All possible sample we choose must have same size • Each pop member must have same probability of being included or re-­‐included over and over again into same sample Central Limits Theorem • Assumptions: o As sample size increases, shape of sampling distribution of means approaches normal shape, even if pop distribution is not normally distributed o Mean of sampling distribution of means is equal to mean of pop • Sampling distribution of means has less variability than pop distribution • SD of sampling distribution of means is equal to pop SD divided by square root of size of samples from which means were obtained o SD will tell you how much given value can be expected to deviate from pop mean Robustness of Stat Tests • Robust—rate of false rejections of null is not substantially increased by violation of these assumptions Time-­‐Series Analysis • Interrupted time-­‐series design is one in which DV is measure multiple times before and after tx is administered • Independence of observations will be violated because means across measurements will be related to each other • Autocorrelation—correlation btw observations at given lags Bayes’ Theorem • Formula for obtaining special type of conditional probability • Used to revise conditional probabilities based on additional info • Conditional probabilities and base rates Meta-­‐Analysis • Method of analyzing grp of independent studies w common conceptual basis • Yields EFFECT SIZE—magnitude of IV’s effect • Advantage: allows for consideration of size of effects • Criticism: process is subject to biases of person doing analysis © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
197
PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENTS Intelligence THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE •
•
•
•
•
•
Francis Galton o Pioneered measurement of individual differences more than century ago o Intelligence is unitary faculty, inherited trait, and distributed normally in population from high to low § Inherited as genetic traits are inherited o Present controversy regarding “nature vs. nurture” Charles Spearman o Two-­‐factor theory of intelligence o All mental tasks require two kinds of ability: § General ability (“g”) • Common to all intellectual tasks § Specific ability (“s”) • Always specific to given task Louis Thurstone o Single unitary intelligence index is inadequate to describe mental endowment o Group of independent intellectual factors § Primary Mental Abilities—word fluency, memory, spatial relationships, reasoning o Multiple-­‐factor analysis method J. P. Guilford o Matrix of 120 elements that comprise intelligence § Divergent Thinking—generate new, creative, and different ideas § Convergent Thinking—ability to group divergent ideas and synthesize them into one unifying concept Raymond Cattell o Two kinds of intelligence: § Fluid—on-­‐the-­‐spot reasoning ability • Ability to see complex relationships and solve problems • Tied to nervous system and independent of culture and formal training • Most susceptible to effects of aging or brain damage § Crystallized—almost entirely dependent on cultural and educational experience • Vocabulary and information knowledge • Remains stable David Wechsler o Global way © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
198
o High ability on one intellectual reasoning task is reasonably predictive of high ability on another o Centered on ability to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with environment •
•
Robert Sternberg o Triarchic model: § Componential (analytical)—methods that are used to process and analyze info § Experimental (creative)—unfamiliar circumstances and tasks are dealt with § Practical (contextual)—respond to environment Howard Garner o Multiple intelligences (8): § Linguistic § Logical-­‐mathematical § Musical § Bodily-­‐kinesthetic § Spatial § Interpersonal § Intrapersonal § Naturalist STUDIES OF INTELLIGENCE •
Heredity vs. Environment o Difference in IQ’s can be attributed to 50% heredity and 50% to environment o Children resemble biological parents’ scores to significantly greater degree (.50) than foster children resemble foster parents’ scores (.00-­‐.20) o Orphaned infants with MR given individual attention showed significant improvement in IQ scores compared to infants who remains in orphanage •
Stability of Intelligence o Ability of infant intelligence tests to predict IQ is low o Infant’s visual recognition memory and visual attn appear to correlate with some later intellectual faculties, such as vocab o Such tests do show better long-­‐term prediction for very low-­‐scoring babies § Screening purpose •
Group Differences in Intelligence o Gender Differences § Females—higher on tests of verbal skills © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
199
Males—higher on tests of spatial ability Differences have declined sharply over years Differences noted in hemispheric specialization • Greater quantity of circulating testosterone in brains of prenatal males shows growth rate of left hemisphere and results in relatively greater development of right hemisphere • Lack of testosterone in females results in reverse developmental pattern o Birth Order § First-­‐born tend to have greater intellectual ability than later-­‐born § Confluence Model—as number of children in fam increase, amount of intellectual stimulation and other important fam resources available to each child declines • Older children have advantage in intellectual development compared to younger siblings, for they have greater access to stimulation and fam resources in early years • Predicts fam size is negatively correlated with intellectual ability of children o Children closer together in age will suffer more from adverse effects of larger fam o Race/Ethinicity § Caucasians tend to score higher than AA of intellectual functioning • Differences are primarily due to innate, genetic differences o Widely criticized o AA children adopted by Caus. Parents § Environmental influences can considerably impact intelligence tests scores later §
§
§
MEASURES OF INTELLIGENCE •
Originally developed by Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon in 1905-­‐1908 o Discriminate children in Parisian schools with MR o Measured judgment, comp, and reasoning •
STANFORD-­‐BINET o Lewis Terman—1916 o Adapted Binet-­‐Simon scales for American use o Hierarchical model of intelligence with global g factor, routing, subtests, and functional-­‐level design o Age 2-­‐85+yrs o Can diagnose developmental abilities and exceptionalities, abilities and aptitude research, early childhood assessment, psychoeducational evals, career, clinical, forensic and neuropsych assessment o Subtests are grouped into content factors: © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
200
§ Fluid Reasoning § Knowledge § Quantitative Reasoning § Visual-­‐Spatial Processing § Working Memory o Testing begins with two routing subtests: Vocab and Object Series/Matrices § Divided into age levels and chronological age/estimated ability level o Deviation IQ—standardized deviation across all age levels § Advantage—scores can be compared across ages o Composite Scores: § Factor Index—combining one nonverbal subtest and its verbal components § Domain (verbal and nonverbal IQ)—based on subtests of respective five factor index scales § Abbreviated IQ—two routing subtests § Full Scale—all 10 subtests •
WECHSLER SCALES o WISC § Ages 6-­‐16.11 § Developed on neurocognitive models of info processing § 10 core subtests and 5 optional subtests § 4 Index Scores: • Verbal Comprehension • Perceptual Reasoning • Working Memory • Processing Speed § Scores also obtained for subtests and FSIQ o WPPSI § Ages 2.6-­‐7.3 • Divided into 2 age bands: o 2.6-­‐3.11 o 4-­‐7.3 § Newest version adds General Language Composite for both groups, and Processing Speed Quotient for older § Scores also obtained for VIQ, PIQ, and FSIQ o WAIS § Ages 16-­‐89 § Efforts made to make test less biased against various ethnic groups, less sexist in appearance, and eliminate items that were too easy/ambiguous § 14 subtests—7 verbal and 7 nonverbal § VCI, PRI, WMI, PSI and FSIQ § Verbal Subtests © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
201
Vocab—most accurate for general intellectual capacity (“g”) and most resistant to aging, mental deterioration, and emotional disturbance o Entails: learning ability, fund of knowledge, concept formation, long-­‐term memory, and language development o POOR PERFORMANCE: poor education, low intelligence, alternate cultural background or early brain injury • Info—long-­‐term memory and available crystallized intelligence resulting from interaction of ability and cultural experience o Least affected by organic disorder or brain injury o POOR PERFORMANCE—educational deficits, low intelligence, alternate cultural background • Comp—judgment, insight, common sense o POOR PERFORMANCE—impaired judgment, early brain damage or psychosis • Arith—reasoning ability, concentration, mental arithmetic and memory o POOR PERFORMANCE—impaired concentration or antisocial tendencies • Sim—abstract and logical thinking and verbal concept formation o POOR PERFORMANCE—severe brain dysfunction, schizophrenia, depression and long-­‐term deterioration • LNS—concentration, attention, tracking, and sequencing ability o Most sensitive verbal subtest to effects of aging o POOR PERFORMANCE—dyslexia, illiteracy, inattention, anxiety or lack of concentration • Digit Span—attn, short-­‐term memory, immediate auditory recall o POOR PERFORMANCE—MR, distractibility, anxiety, hearing impairment or brain damage Performance Subtests • Pict Compl—visual organization, long-­‐term memory, concentration, reasoning o Relatively unaffected by brain damage o POOR PERFORMANCE—alternate cultural background, poor concentration, poor perceptual-­‐conceptual integration, psychotic depression or schizophrenia • Pict Arr—nonverbal reasoning, interpretation of social situations, visual perception, foresight, planning •
§
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
202
§
o POOR PERFORMANCE—visual perception, right hemispheric damage, anxiety, schizophrenia, or varied cultural background • BD—visual motor coordination, nonverbal concept formation, visual spatial comprehension o POOR PERFORMANCE—hyperactivity, anxiety, paranoia or brain damage • Obj Assem—perceptual organization, visual-­‐motor coordination, speed of mental processing and ability to perceive visual part-­‐whole relationships o POOR PERFORMANCE—anxiety, depression, schizophrenia, hyperactivity, visual-­‐perceptual problems brain damage (notably right parietal) • Digit Sym Cod—visual motor coordination, speed of mental operations, psychomotor speed and short-­‐term memory o Most sensitive subtest to effects of aging and affected by lesions in many areas of brain • MR—nonverbal reasoning, such as analogy and serial reasoning, visual info, and simultaneous processing o One of best measures of “g” among performance subtests • Sym Search—processing speed, visual short-­‐term memory. Planning and perceptual organization o POOR PERFORMANCE—learning disability, distractibility, anxiety or visual perceptual problems WAIS RELIABILITY and VALIDITY • High reliability o Average reliability coefficients range from .88-­‐.97 o When testing profound MR or extremely gifted, Stanford-­‐Binet is more useful measure • Factors: o Verbal Comp—Info, Vocab, Sim § Good estimate of person’s premorbid functioning • “Hold” tests o Percep Org—Pict Comp, BD, MR § “No Hold Tests”—Digit Span, BD, Digit Sym, and Sim o WM—Digit Span, Arith, LNS § Concentration, attn, sequential processing § Affecting by anxiety and ability to make mental shifts o Processing Speed—Digit Sym Coding, Sym Search § Concentration, hand-­‐eye coordination, visual analysis © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
203
VCI-­‐PRI Discrepancies: Interpretation • Alzheimer’s disease o Do better on verbal subtests (highest on Info and Vocab) than performance subtests (lowest on Digit Sym and BD) o Discrepancy is usually 10/+ pts • Hearing Impairment o Lower scores on verbal (lowest on Digit Span) o Performance—BD and Obj Assem=normal § Difficulty with Pict Comp, Pict Arr and Coding subtests § Lowest score on Pic Arr • Alcoholism o Higher VCI—normal range o Higher on Verbal Comp than Percep Org • ADHD o Higher Verbal Comp than WM o Higher Percep Org than Processing Speed o Correlated for individuals with learning disabilities Cognitive Assessments o Kaufman Tests § Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-­‐ABC-­‐II) • Cognitive ability based on Luria’s neuropsych model and Cattell-­‐Horn-­‐Carroll Theory of cognitive abilities • By minimizing verbal instructions and responses, it is designed to be culture-­‐free • Ages 3-­‐18 • Scales: o Simultaneous o Sequential o Planning o Learning o Knowledge § Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test • Ages 4-­‐90 • Brief measure of verbal and nonverbal abilities o Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) § Ages 5-­‐17.11 § Diverse backgrounds § Distinguish learning disability, ADHD § Design interventions to improve learning § 4 cognitive functions: • Planning • Attn §
•
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
204
• Simultaneous Processing • Sequential Processing o Slosson Tests § Slosson Intelligence Test-­‐Primary (SIT-­‐P-­‐1) • Quick estimate of cognitive abilities • Ages 2-­‐7.11 • IQs from 10-­‐170+ • Assist in identification of children at risk for educational failure or those who may need additional testing • VIQ and PIQ and total standard score § Slosson Intelligence Test for Children and Adults (SIT-­‐R3) • Brief individual screening test for Crystallized Verbal Intelligence • Ages 4-­‐65 • IQs from 36-­‐164 • Appropriate for visually impaired or blind o Differential Ability Scales (DAS) § Cognitive and achievement tests § Ages 2.6-­‐17.11 § Cognitive=General Conceptual Ability—ability to perform complex mental processing that involves conceptualization and transformation of info § Achievement=info for ability-­‐achievement discrepancy analysis o Woodcock-­‐Johnson Tests of Cognitive Ability § Achievement (WJ-­‐III)—scholastic aptitude and oral language § Cognitive—general intellectual ability and specific cognitive abilities § Ages 2-­‐90+ § Ability/achievement discrepancy is most commonly used method of evaluating eligibility for special programs •
Developmental Scales o Infant and early childhood intelligence tests are typically developmental scales measuring motor, social, perceptual, sensory, and language (at age 18 mo) o Gesell Developmental Schedules § Standardized measures of infant and early childhood development (4 wks to 6 yrs) § Areas of motor, adaptive, language, person-­‐social functions § Observations of child’s activities and info given by mother/caretaker o Bayley Scales of Infant Development § Identify developmental delays and plan intervention strategies § Ages 1-­‐42 mo § New scales of social-­‐emotional and adaptive behavior § Old scales of cognitive, language, and motor © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
205
Optional scale assessed behavior during testing Best assessment measure of infant development and provides valuable info about patterns of early development o Denver Developmental Screening Test II (Denver II) § Birth-­‐6yrs § Screens for developmental delays § Based on direct observation of child’s performance § 4 developmental domains: • Personal-­‐social • Language • Fine motor adaptive • Gross motor § Often used in medical setting §
§
•
Assessments of Adaptive Behavior o MR—subaverage intelligence and significantly below average social adaptation o Adaptive Bx—ability and competency of individual to meet expected standards of personal independence and social responsibility in relation to his/her age and cultural group o Differentiate btw “six-­‐hr retardation” (one who is slow only in school environment) from MR child who is below average in all environments o Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale § Individual’s personal and social sufficiency § Assist in developing educational and treatment plans § Birth to 90 yrs § MR, autism spectrum, brain injury, ADHD, dementia § Domains: • Communication • Daily living skills • Socialization • Motor Skills • Maladaptive Bx (optional) § AAMD Adaptive Behavior Scale • Age 3+ • Observations of social, personal hygiene, language and maladaptive bx § Adaptive Behavior Inventory for Children • More sensitive assessment of racial minority children • 242 interview questions, with parent/caregiver providing answers • Dimensions: o Family o Community © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
206
o
o
o
o
•
Peer relations Non-­‐academic school roles Earner/consumer Self-­‐maintenance Nonverbal and “Culture Free” Measures of Intelligence o Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT-­‐III) § 175 cars with 4 pictures on each o Columbia Mental Maturity Scale § General reasoning § Set of pictures and asked to indicate which one doesn’t belong with others § IQ score § Ages 3.6-­‐9.11 § Useful for sensorimotor disorders or for trouble speaking/reading o Haptic Intelligence Scale § Ages 16+ § Partially-­‐sighted or blind § Subtests: • BD • Object Completion • Pattern Board • Digit Symb • Obj Assem • Bead Arithmetic § Uses tactile stimuli § Can be administered alone or along with WAIS o Leiter International Performance Scale-­‐Revised (Leiter-­‐R) § Administered without verbal instructions § Ages 2-­‐21 § Language or reading problems or hearing impaired § Match picture response cards to same pictures on an easel o Culture Fair Intelligence Test § 3 scales for different age groups • 4-­‐8yrs and adults with MR • 8-­‐13 and average adults • Grades 10-­‐16 and superior adults § Responses to picture and pattern stimuli and test nonverbal skills as seriation, classification, and matrices § Not possible to design culture-­‐free or culture-­‐fair test o Raven’s Progressive Matrices § Perceptual ability and spatial logic § Ages 6-­‐80 § “culture-­‐fair” intelligence test © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
207
o System of Multicultural Pluralistic Assessment (SOMPA) § Broad-­‐based assessment § Social competency § Ages 5-­‐11 § Measures: • Adaptive behavior inventory • Sociocultural scales • Health history • WISC-­‐IV/WPPSI-­‐III • Bender-­‐Gestalt • Set of physical dexterity tasks § Standardized scores available for Caucasian, Latino and AA •
•
Group Intelligence Tests o Used in army, industry, schools and other settings that require testing large group of people o Frequently multiple choice and organize questions by content with each area separately-­‐times, or combine various content questions and organize questions in order of increasing difficulty o Otis-­‐Lennon School Ability Test (OLSAT7) § Reasoning skills and strengths/weaknesses in performing variety of reasoning tasks § Areas: • Verbal comp • Verbal reasoning • Pictorial reasoning • Figural reasoning • Quantitative reasoning o Cognitive Abilities Test (CogAT) § Kindergarten through grade 12 § Patterns and level of abilities in reasoning and problem solving § Verbal, quantitative and nonverbal reasoning abilities, and composite score o Wonderlic Personnel Test § 12 min paper and pencil test of mental ability for adults § 50 numerical, verbal and spatial items § Unfairly discriminates against individuals of culturally-­‐diverse groups for various jobs Achievement vs. Aptitude Tests o Aptitude=limited, defined homogeneous groups of abilities § PREDICTORS of future bx § General measures correlate strongly with educational achievement o Achievement=end result of learning program © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
208
§ Retention of content and typically used in educational settings o While aptitude tests supposedly measure potential capacity for future learning, achievement measures what person has already learned/developed capacity MISC ISSUES IN INTELLIGENCE TESTING •
Effects of Coaching on Standardized Tests o Improve only minimally with intensive short-­‐term coaching o Effects on SAT somewhat greater on math than verbal o Larger if there are multiple practice tests and if practice and criterion tests are similar/identical •
Test-­‐Wiseness o Nothing more than application of individual’s general cognitive ability of test-­‐taking task •
Gifted Children o Achieve slightly higher scores on measures of self-­‐concept, especially in areas related to academics o Better with metacognitive skills o Process information more efficiently, especially on novel tasks that require insight •
Test Anxiety o Related to fear of failure in situation in which person is being evaluated o High test anxiety—lower achievement scores and decreased educational attainment across board PUBLICATIONS RELEVANT TO TESTING •
Mental Measurement Yearbooks o Most commercially available psychological, educational, and vocational tests o Critical reviews of tests, info on reliability and validity School Psychology SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT •
Effective school: o Strong leadership, with principals who are active and energetic o Orderly and structured, but not oppressive and rigid, atmosphere © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
209
o
o
o
o
Teachers who participate in decision making Educational staff who have high expectations that children will learn Emphasis on academics Frequent monitoring of student’s performance •
Smalls schools are more effective than large o Large=too few opportunities to assume roles, leading to easy alienation o Small=under-­‐manned § Students exposed to opportunities to engage in several social roles and feel more involved •
School Psychologists and Consultations o Models: § Mental health model—consultant interacts with parents/teacher/principal in order to help person resolve problem involving child § Behavioral model—consultant focuses directly on presenting problem of consultee § Adlerian model—emphasizes preventative interventions by consultants, who educate parents/teachers and apply assumptions and content of Adlerian theory o Targeting school environment, rather than student, is more effective •
Curriculum-­‐Based Assessment o Educational assessment that is closely linked to particular curriculum o Performance level—provide feedback about instruction itself, so that necessary changes can be made to better fit student’s ability and current knowledge o Purpose is to help identify progress in terms of existing curriculum and any changes in instruction that would aid student’s progress in completing curriculum •
Montessori Teaching Method o Cognitive development is product of interactions btw individual and environment o Orderly but stimulating environment o Children are encourages to select own activities from environment that contains variety of self-­‐teaching toys/materials § Are free to do what they want, within limits, and are encouraged to exercise self-­‐discipline § Materials, which children can work with and master at own rate, are designed to promote motor, sensory and language development, which are viewed as prerequisites to academic learning © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
210
Academic training begins at age 4 and builds on sensory, motor and language skills previously acquired o Criticized for not providing enough opportunity for small-­‐group interaction, cooperative activities, and verbal interaction with peers and teachers §
RESEARCH ISSUES IN SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY •
Project Head Start o Early intervention program for children of poverty o Involves year of preschool education, nutritional and medical services, and parent involvement in education and program administration o Study found that one year had only marginal effects on intelligence and school achievement •
Bilingual Education o Immigrant non-­‐English speaking children in quality bilingual programs learn English and subject matter at least as well •
Ability Tracking o Grouping children in classrooms based on their ability level o Significant negative effects on low to moderate achieving children, and few to no positive effects for high achievers •
Teachers’ Gender Bias o Male and female teachers pay more attn to boys than girls § Both positive and negative biases • Boys—educational needs or behavior problems, attn that fosters academic achievement o They are more likely to bring attn to themselves and act-­‐out behaviorally •
Cooperative Learning o Teacher assigns students to learning groups consisting of 4-­‐6 members o Forms: § Student Team Learning—team competes with other teams of learners • After teacher presents lesson, teams meet to discuss lesson • Each student takes quiz and performance is summed to create team score © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
211
Jigsaw—each student is given unique info on topic that while group is studying • Teach other group members what they have learned § Learning Together—students work together to complete single worksheet § Group Investigation—each group takes different task and is responsible for allocating subtasks to each member • Open-­‐ended investigations using variety of resource materials • Group prepares reports to present to rest of class o Research § Designed properly have positive effect on achievement • Equally likely in elementary/secondary school, urban/suburban/rural, high/average/low achievers, whites/minorities • Positive effect in other areas besides achievement o Increases quantity and quality of cross-­‐ethnic friendships and interactions o Improves relationships btw mainstream academically handicapped and nonmainstream o Increase self-­‐esteem, altruism, and probability that student will be liked by others § Reduces interpersonal problems in emotional disturbed § Student accountability—distinguishes success from nonsuccessful §
LEGAL ISSUES IN SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY •
Federal Guidelines o Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975/Individuals with Disabilities Education Act § Free appropriate public education ages 3-­‐21 regardless of ability § IEPs § “Least restrictive environment” § Parental access to child evaluations, reports and inclusion in meetings o Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act/Buckley Amendment § Eligible students (after age 18) and parents have right to access educational records and challenge any content § Psychologist’s evals and materials created and maintained by psychologist for educational institution • Personal and individual notes not included § Records no longer useful/relevant be destroyed © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
212
•
Testing o Placement in special classes on basis of scores on intelligence tests have been challenged o Larry P. vs. Riles § Parents of group of AA children challenged placement in EMR classes because they claimed tests were culturally biased § Preliminary injunction banning use of intelligence test scores as criterion for placing children in EMR § 1979—ban was permanent o PACE vs. Hannon § Concluded only eight items on WISC-­‐R were biased § Because intelligence tests only one part of assessment procedure, finding minimal bias in one predictive measure was in consequential o Present time, issue still unresolved •
Mainstreaming o Placing disabled students in regular classes for all/part of day o Beneficial effects on academic achievement of students with disabilities © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
213
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY INTRO AND HX • Definition o Scientific study of how ind’s feelings, thoughts and bx are influenced bu social stimuli • Hx Background o Muzefer Sherif § It is possible to study social stimuli in rigorous, scientific manner o Kurt Lewin § First major theorist to study how internal and external factors influence bx § Field Theory • LIFE SPACE of ind—consists of person and psych environment o IMMEDIATE PRESENT o Totality of all possible factors that influence person § Needs, goals, external events • Conflict situations o Person moves toward goals in field that have positive valence and away from negative valence o Conflict occurs when forces directing person towards/away from goal are opposite and about equal strength § Approach-­‐Approach Conflict—located btw 2 pos goal obj of equal attractiveness • Initially, response is ambivalence, but as moves toward 1 goal, it becomes more attractive and other goal becomes less attractive § Avoidance-­‐Avoidance Conflict—choose btw 2 neg alternatives • If it is possible to leave, then conflict resolved • Person will vacillate btw 2 goals and then achieve equilibrium § Approach-­‐Avoidance Conflict—drawn to/repelled by same situation at same times • Similar to avoidance-­‐avoidance, if person can leave • Personal eventually reaches equilibrium at point where approach and avoidance forces are balanced • Avoidance gradient is steeper than approach gradient—avoidance response becomes much stronger © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
214
o Zeigarnik Effect § Interrupting sub in middle of task has effect of leaving him in state of tension and disequilibrium § To reduce tension, sub wants to complete task and remembers uncompleted tasks better than completed ones SOCIAL PERCEPTION • Ways in which people try to make sense of themselves, others and grps • Self-­‐concept o Sum total of ind’s beliefs about own personal attributes o Self-­‐Perception Theory § Person arrives at self-­‐concept in same way he obtains concept of others § When internal cues are weak/difficult to interpret, people infer what they think or how they feel by observing own bx and situation in which it takes place § Two-­‐Factor Theory (Schachter) • To experience specific emotion, person must first experience physiological arousal and then must make cog interpretation of arousal • Reactions of others helps us make interpretations o Overjustification Hypothesis § Rewarding people for enjoyable activity can undermine interest in activity § INTRINSIC and EXTRINSIC motivation • People are intrinsically motivated when they engage in activity out of enjoyment, w/o expecting reward • Extrinsically motivated when we do something to get reard § When we are rewarded for activity that was previously intrinsically motivated, bx becomes overjustified or over-­‐rewarded • Intrinsic motivation loses power and activity no longer perceived as inherently enjoyable • Lose interest in activity § When people are rewarded for enjoyable bx, they observe themselves engaging in bx to obtain reward • Reason they engage in activity in first place was to be rewarded o Social Comparison Theory § Influence of other people affects self-­‐concept § When people are uncertain about their abilities/opinions, they evaluate themselves by comparing themselves to similar others § People we turn to for social comparison are similar to us in relevant ways § When our self-­‐esteem is at stake, we may make downward comparisons © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
215
When individuals feel threatened, neg characteristic is subject to self-­‐evaluation, low self-­‐esteem o Self-­‐Verification Theory § People need and seek confirmation of self-­‐concept, regardless of whether self-­‐conceot is + or – § Prefer to be right rather than happy § Selective interaction—choosing to interact w those who confirm self-­‐
concepts and avid those that do not § Not only seek confirmation of self-­‐concept, but are motivated to attend to, recall and believe it § Depressed people seek more – feedback from others and are more rejected by others • Exacerbate symptoms Attribution Theory o Understanding of how people perceive and think about causes of what happens to themselves and others o Fundamental Attribution Error § Tendency to UNDERESTIMATE impact of situations and OVERESTIMATE role of personal factors § Focus on person rather than situation o Actor-­‐Observer Effect § Situational attributions of own bx § Exception: • Cause of our own successes o More likely attributional • We explain failures—actor-­‐observer effect holds true o Tendency to credit our successes but blame situational factors for our failures—SELF-­‐SERVING BIAS § Does not apply to depression or low self-­‐esteem o Weiner’s Attributional Theory of Motivation and Emotion § Attributions for success and failure § Can be to factors that are: • Internal or external • Stable or unstable • Controllable or uncontrollable § Rotter’s notion of locus of control • Internal or external locus of control o High internal—themselves as causes of things that happen to them § More achievement oriented and self-­‐confident o High external—external factors as cause of what happens to them § Anx, suspicious, dogmatic § Intent and Global •
•
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
216
Accomplishments attributed to intentional and specific causes produce greatest pride • Neg bx attributed to specific and intentional causes produce greatest blame, shame, guilt o Belief in Just World § Attributions for misfortunes of others § Get what we deserve and deserve what we get § Common tendency to blame victim § Defense against painful reality that we are vulnerable to twists and turns of fate o Locus of Control and Locus of Responsibility § Person’s attributions are influenced by ethnicity and racial identity § Locus of Control—beliefs that fate is determined either by own actions or independently of own actions § Locus of Responsibility—degree of responsibility or blame one places on ind or system § Independent of one another § Intersection of two creates worldviews: • Internal Control and Internal Responsibility—success/failure is due to one’s own efforts/abilities o Dominant culture in US • Internal Control and External Responsibility—ability to shape own life, but recognizes external barriers such as discrimination do exist o Minority groups • External Control and Internal Responsibility—marginalized ind who feel they have little control over own fate, and deny existence of racism and blame selves for plight • External Control and External Responsibility—little control over lives (learned helplessness) and blame system for it Impression Formation o Process of integrating info about person to form coherent impression o False Consensus Bias § Tendency to overestimate degree to which others conform to us in terms of their opinions, attributes, and bx o Central Traits § Certain characteristics imply more about person than others § Provide unique info about person and are associated w many other characteristics o Primacy Effect § Info presented early in sequence has greatest impact • Impact of info may persist even when later opposing evidence is presented •
•
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
217
Does not occur in all cases • Irrelevant activity intervenes • Person warned not to jump to conclusions, o Trait Negativity Bias § Evaluating other—weigh neg info more heavily than pos info o Confirmation Bias § Tendency to form impressions on basis of above mentioned cog distortions is compounded by tendency to seek, interpret, create info that verifies existing beliefs § Once we form impression, strategies for learning about world are likely to confirm impression § Rosenhan’s “pseudopatient study” • Real pts were able to recognize pseudopts were not mentall ill • None of the psychiatrists or staff members did • Tend to view reality in terms of beliefs and impressions about it § Self-­‐fulfilling Prophecy—person’s expectations about bx of others can lead to fulfillment of those expectations • Pygmalion in Classroom study—teachers told of intellectual growth spurt, which was later observed in class Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination o Stereotype—cog BELIEF that associates grps of people w certain traits o Prejudice—neg FEELINGS about person based solely on grp membership o Discrimination—BX directed against persons due to identification w grp o Prejudice and Discrimination § Authoritarian Personality—prejudiced personality § Conventional, rigid in thinking, sexually inhibited, submissive to authority, and intolerant of others who are different o Social Identity Theory—strive to maintain and enhance self-­‐esteem § Social identity—enhanced by believing our own group is attractive and belittling members of other grps • Enhance own self-­‐esteem o Reducing Intergroup Hostility § Robber’s Cave Study—development and mitigation of grp hostility through competition • Superordinate goals—shared goals that required cooperation btw grps § Jigsaw Classroom—cooperation as method of reducing hostility • Racially mixed classrooms where materials were divided into subtopics and each student was responsible for learning one subtopic and teaching other students • Less prejudice § Doll study—2/3 of children preferred playing w white doll than brown ones • Brown dolls looked “bad” while white ones were perceived as “nice” §
•
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
218
§
• 1/3 picked white doll as doll that looked like them Contact Hypothesis • Direct contact btw members of hostile grps will reduce stereotyping, prejudice and discrimination • Conditions must be met: o Contact must be btw 2 equal status grps o Contact should involve personal contact btw 2 grps o Contact situation should provide opportunity for mutual cooperative activity to achieve joint goal o Social norms in contact situation must favor and encourage cooperation, grp equality, and intergroup contact • School desegregation—increase prejudice in majority of white students and failed because conditions were not met SOCIAL INTERACTION •
•
Affiliation and Attraction o Variables related to Affiliation § Anxiety—affiliation reduces fear and anx • First born and only children showed strongest tendency to affiliate and need to affiliate decreased for later-­‐born children • Situations where survival is issue—affiliate w those who have successfully undergone experience and are better informed § Gender—females spend more time in conversation, more likely to talk to same sex, affiliate more in public o Variable related to Interpersonal Attractiveness § Physical Proximity—tend to like others near us • Exposure Effect—repeated contact w something/someone is sufficient to increase attraction • Proximity may not guarantee + social interaction, but provide opportunity § Similarity § Complementary § Physical Attractiveness § Self-­‐Disclosure—best if reciprocal § Reciprocity § Costs and Benefits • Social Exchange Theory—economic model of relationships that offer greater reward than cost o Emotion-­‐in-­‐Relationships Model § + and – emotions are most likely to arise in relationship when one partner’s bx disconfirms other partner’s expectations Altruistic and Prosocial Bx © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
219
•
o Helping Bx § Presence of bystanders reduces helping of any one person—Bystander Apathy • Greater # bystanders, greater bystander apathy § Causes: • Diffusion of responsibility • Social influence • Evaluation apprehension • Confusion of responsibility—person approached victim, that person perhaps may feel responsible for misfortunes by others that may come upon scene § Victim is obviously in distress and problem is not ambiguous, likelihood of prosocial bx is increased § Others are more likely to help when someone has already intervened § More likely to help in rural areas o Cooperation § Non-­‐zero-­‐sum game—games where gains and losses do not sum to 0 § Even if it is in players interests to cooperate, most people compete anyway § Prisoner’s Dilemma Aggression o Instrumental aggression—bx is means to some other end o Hostile aggression—venting of neg emotions o Learned Aggression—greatly influences by learning § Children tend to imitate aggr. bx of adults • More important, powerful, successful, liked, familiar adult is, more child will imitate o Social and Situational Influences of Aggression § Frustration-­‐Aggression Hypothesis • Frustration always leads to aggression and aggression is always preceded by frustration • If aggression is inhibited by fear/punishment or lack of access to source of frustration, it will be displaced to another target • Contemporary psych—path btw frustration and aggressive response is held to include intervening cog, attributions, prior learning, and person’s characterological means of dealing w aversive stimuli § Catharsis Theory • Aggressive act can reduce person’s inclination to engage in other aggressive acts • Not supported by research § Temperature • High temp are + coorelated w crime rates © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
220
§
§
Deindividuation • People who would rarely/never be violent in interactions will display uncharacteristic violence and aggression under sway of crowd • Sense of autonomy • Attend less to internal standards of conduct, react more to immediate situation and are less sensitive to long-­‐term consequences of bx Assigned Roles • Prison study by Zimbardo • Assigned institutional roles can have powerful effect on aggressive bx SOCIAL INFLUENCE • Conformity and Compliance o Conformity § 2 types Conformity • Informational—using other’s bx as source of accurate info in order to avoid mistakes, particularly when ind is unsure of own accuracy • Normative—“going along” w group norms simply due to grp pressure—desire to be accepted by grp and void criticism o Factors influencing conformity: § Grp size—increases w size, but only up to a point § Unanimity § Ambiguity § Cohesiveness § Personality Characteristics—low self-­‐esteem, low intelligence, high need for approval, authoritarianism o Minority influence § Large grp can change its opinions/bx based on lead of one person § Conditions under which minority will influence majority: • Minority’s position is consistent • Minority is not perceived as rigid, psych imbalanced, biased • Minority must not waver in support of position • Minority is not member of familiar gro arguing in favor of that grp’s interests § People stand up for beliefs against majority are generally perceived as competent and honest, they are also highly disliked § Idiosyncrasy credits—person must first conform to grp in order to establish credentials as “competent insider” • Once person has collected these credits, attempts to deviate/become leader will be more accepted o Psych Reactance © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
221
If person perceived that sense of control or freedom of choice is threatened, there will be attempt to re-­‐establish freedom § Conformity and compliance are less likely to occur in situations where person feels freedom to choose is being threatened o Compliance § Occurs when people agree to explicit requests to do something § Foot-­‐in-­‐the-­‐Door • Start w very small request and proceed from there to larger request • Oncer we observe ourselves complying w small request, we comply w larger one because we want our bx to remain consistent § Door-­‐in-­‐the-­‐Face • Making initial request that is so large that it is sure to be rejected and then coming back w 2nd more reasonable request § Low-­‐Balling • Securing agreement w request and then increasing size of request by revealing hidden costs • Effective technique Bases of Social Power o Social power—ability to influence others and resist influence on us § Reward Power—holder’s ability to reward others § Coercive Power—holder’s ability to punish others § Legitimate Power—holder’s valid authority in given situation § Referent Power—person’s attraction to or desire to be like holder of power § Expert Power—holder has special knowledge or expertise § Informational power—person’s possession of specific, desired piece of info o Leaders who combine expert and reference power tend to be most effective Group Processes o Social Facilitation § Effects others have on our performance § Presence of others enhances performance on simple tasks and impairs on complex tasks § Mere presence of others increases drive, which can be defined as diffuse physiological arousal that energizes performance o Social Loafing § Pooled performance of group § Compared to what people can do by themselves, ind output declines when people are working as grp §
•
•
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
222
Neg consequences: • Does not occur under all conditions • Simple, boring, and require same effort of everyone o Reduced or eliminated—believe that ind contributions are identifiable or think that their contribution is uniquely necessary for grp to succeed o Regard task as personally relevant, challenging or highly attractive o Group Decision-­‐Making § Superior to ind decision-­‐making § In grp, greater range of ideas and info is available § Impair due to: • Group polarization—tendency of inds to start off w similar views to end up w more extreme position after grp discussion o More persuasive arguments in favor of particular position members are exposed to o Grp members know each other’s positions before discussion begins o Members consider grp to be “ingrp” • Groupthink—mode of thinking that people engage in when they are involved in cohesive grp, when member’s strivings for unanimity override motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action o Excessive tendency among grp members to seek concurrence, to point where decision reached by grp may be irrational and impulsively made o High cohesiveness, grp composition of people from similar backgrounds, group isolation from others, presence of strong leader, lack of systematic procedures for making and reviewing decisions, and presence of stressful situation o Likely in newly formed grps o Symptoms: overestimation of grp, closemindedness, increased pressures toward uniformity o Reduce: § Avoid isolation by bringing people who are not part of grp into grp discussion § Increasing leader’s impartiality by having him refrain from taking strong position and encouraging criticism of his judgments § Encouraging norm of critical review by creating independent subgrps to work on same policy issue, assigning one member role of devils advocate, and holding second chance metg where preliminary decision is reconsidered §
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
223
Brainstrorming • Ind working alone produce greater quantity of ideas o Group Tasks § Additive task—grp product is sum of all members’ contributions § Conjunctive task—grp product is determined by ind w poorest performance § Disjunctive task—grp performance is determined by performance of indi w best performance § Compensatory task—grp product determined by performance of average member o Resolving Conflict: Mediation and Arbitration § 3rd party intervention § Successful mediation: • Modifying physical and/or social structure of conflict • Modifying issue structure by helping disputants clarify issues and indentify alternative solutions • Increasing disputants motivation to reach agreement by fostering trust btw them, diffusing emotions, and helping disputants see agreement is possible § Arbitration is alternative to mediation §
ATTITUDES AND ATTITUDE CHANGE • Attitude—relatively stable and enduring predisposition to act, think or feel in certain way toward obj/person/situation • Attitude Measurement o Self-­‐report Measures § Social Distance Scale—measures attitudes toward diff ethnic grps § Semantic Differential Scale—rate obj in terms of several items that assess obj’s favorableness, power or activity § Bogus Pipeline—ind may not be totally honest about attitudes • Subj wired to elaborate mechanical device that supposedly records true feelings • Relationship Btw Attitudes and Bx o Attitude has bx, cog, and affective dimension o Factors affecting relationship btw Attitudes and Bx § Attitudes could be better predictors of bx when: • Measures of attitude and bx are specific • Attitudes are well-­‐informed • Info on which attitude is based was obtained through experience • Attitude is readily accessible to awareness § Social norms © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
224
Attitudes and norms don’t directly influence bx, rather lead to formation of behavioral intention • Not always followed through on § Attitude will predict bx if: • Attitude is not consistent w social norms • Person is able to follow through on intention to carry through w bx Theories of Attitude Change o Cognitive Dissonance Theory § Cognitions are inconsistent, we experience state of dissonance which is unpleasant state of tension • To reduce, we must take steps to restore consistency o Changing attitude, adding consonant cog, or reducing importance of conflict § Insufficient justification—dissonance because actions were inconsistent w beleifs • Resolved by changing opinion § 4 steps necessary for arousal of dissonance and its reduction through attitude change: • Attitude discrepant bx must have neg consequences • Person must feel personally responsible for actions • Discrepancy must produce physiological arousal • Person must attribute arousal to own bx o Heider’s Balance Theory § We desire consistency § Consistency btw attitudes and feelings toward others • Balance when same attitude towards those we like and diff attitude towards those we dislike • Imbalanced—motivated to change either attitude or feelings toward person in order to have balance Variables Related to Attitude Change o Change in response to persuasive communication is function of communicator, communication or audience o Communicator § Tends to be persuasive w more credibility and likability § Credibility—stems from competence and trustworthiness • Sleep effect—credible communicator produces more immediate attitude change o Over time, impact of credible communicator decreases and that of noncredible increases o As time passes, we forget source of message but continue to remember message itself o Communication §
•
•
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
225
§
§
§
§
§
§
Amount of Info—if person is not listening to message, long messages are better because they give superficial appearance of being factual • For those listening, longer messages better if they do indeed contain a lot of supporting info Repetition—repeatedly presenting exact same message from exact same source may be effective • Mere exposure • Exposure effect is enhanced if presentations are brief and spread out over time One-­‐sided and Two-­‐sided Arguments • Presenting both sides is most effective if person is initially opposed to issue, is relatively well-­‐informed about issue, or is educated • If he is initially favorable, poorly informed, or relatively uneducated, one-­‐sided is more effective • Two-­‐sided—protecting audience from effects of competing info o Communicator presents weakened version of opposing point of view, audience becomes more resistant to opposing arguments presented later o Inoculation Theory—most effective way of increasing resistance is to build up defenses Discrepancy—moderately discrepant from target’s initial position is most effective • Too discrepant, attitude change will be too radical • Not discrepant, person will agree w communicator and there will be no room for attitude change • Interaction btw credibility and discrepancy—highly credible communicator, optimal level of discrepancy is greater than for low credible Appeals to Fear—high levels of fear tend not to produce much attitude change • Inducing fear can be effective if fear-­‐arousing message includes specific instructions on how to avoid feared danger Order of Presentation—side presented first will have more impact if second immediately follows and attitude measurement occurs at later time • Primacy Effect—both messages fade from memory and only greater impact of first impressions is left • Recency Effect—period of time elapses btw first and second, second will be more effective o Fresher in memory • No primacy or recency occurs if: o Second immediately follows first and attitude assessment takes place right away © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
226
o Period of time elapses btw 2 messages and btw last message and attitude measurement o Target Audience § Personality and Demographic Variables • Low-­‐esteem will show greater attitude change § Forewarning • When people know in advance that they are to be targets of persuasion, it is more difficult to change attitudes o Elaboration Likelihood Model § 2 routes to persuasive communication • Central route—think carefully about contents of message • Peripheral route—do not think carefully § Listeners most likely to take central route when they are well-­‐informed and not distracted • Message easily learned and stimulated listener to dwell on favorable thoughts § When distracted or uninformed, more amenable cures received by peripheral route MISC TOPICS • Environmental Psych o Effect of physical environment on bx o Crowding § High density seems to enhance feelings person already has § Depend on whether or not person is distracted • Crowding can lower performance on complex tasks or improve performance on well-­‐learned tasks § Men being more sensitive to and stressed by high density situations • More negative for men than women o Personal Space § Greater required by people low in self-­‐esteem and high I authoritarianiam § Men need more personal space § Violations don’t have any deleterious effects • Intensify affective rxn person is experiencing at time o Climate § Neg impact of air pollution, humidity, lunar cycles on bx o Noise § 2 most damaging ingredients in noise stress are unpredictability and uncontrollability • Neg affect performance as well as social bx o Increase aggressiveness, reduce helping others • Decreased performance on number of school tasks o TV Viewing © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
227
Read less, do more poorly in school, spend less time in fam interactions Aggressive bx, tolerance for aggression Reinforce traditional sex-­‐role stereotypes Applications of Social Psych o Law § Jury Size—fewer than 12 people are more likely to convict since they are less likely to contain more than one hold-­‐out for acquittal which, according to small-­‐grp research, would help lone dissenter “stick to guns” § Child Witnesses—children ages 5-­‐10y/o were less accurate witnesses, but did not misremember touches that did not occur § Procedure—judges give jury instructions 2x • Effectively enhances juror’s recall and interpretation of evidence § Presentation of Evidence—graphic evidence lowered juror’s standards of proof, and brought out pro-­‐prosecution biases § Defendant Features—more lenient treatment to physically attractive defendents • Judges give lighter sentences to physically attractive convicted defendants § Pretrial Publicity—neg publicity more likely to vote for conviction § Inadmissable Evidence—do not ignore it and jury rely on it more § Eyewitness Memory—bias and distort memory of eyewitnesses • Reconstructive memory—after we observe something, additional info about it becomes integrated into our mem of original event o Health § Type A Personality • Competitive striving achievement, sense of time urgency, hostility, aggression • Hostility complex—cynical mistrust of and contempt for others, along w tendency to readily express these feelings • Contrasting is hardiness: o Sense of personal control over events o Commitment, sense of purpose in one’s work and activities o Challenge or sense of healthy optimism in seeing life as series of challenges that make one stronger § Buffer Effect • Interaction btw stress and social support • Under low stress, social support is not necessary for good health • When stress is high, high levels of social support buffer or protect • Research shows actual relationship btw social support and physical health • Perceived levels of social support also buffer § Health Belief Model §
§
§
•
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
228
•
•
•
Attempt to understand why people seem unwilling to use preventive disease measures and screening tests that were available to them Very valuable tool in both predicting and understanding people’s health-­‐related decision making process Identifies perceived barriers as most influential variable for predicting and explaining health-­‐related bx © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
229
TEST CONSTRUCTION AND INTERPRETATION TEST CONSTRUCTION Psychological Tests— Objective and standardized measure of sample of bx • Standardization—uniformity of procedure in administering and scoring test o Reduces measurement error o Establishment of norms § Permits comparison of ind performance on diff tests § Do not provide absolute/universal standard of “good” or “bad” performance • Norms always provide relative rather than absolute standards • Objective—administration, scoring, and interpretation of scores are independent of subjective judgment of particular examiner • Sample of Bx—bx sample will be truly representative of whole bx Standards of Test Construction • Reliability—consistency o Provides repeatable, consistent results • Validity—measures what it purports to measure Test Characteristics • Maximum vs. Typical Performance o Maximum=examinee’s best possible performance or what person can do § Ex. Achievement and aptitude tests o Typical=what examinee usually does or feels § Ex. Interest and personality tests • Speed, Power and Mastery Tests o Speed—response time assessed o Power—level of difficulty a person can attain o Mastery—designed to determine whether person can attain pre-­‐established level of acceptable performance § All or none score § Test basic skills • Ceiling and Floor Effects o Limited ceiling=doesn’t include adequate range of difficult items § High achieving ind get same or v similar score o Limited floor=doesn’t include adequate range of easy items so that all low-­‐
achieving examinees obtain same/similar score • Ipsative vs. Normative Measures o Ipsative—ind is frame of reference in score reporting § Scores are reported in terms of relative strength of attributes w/in ind § Examinee express preference for one item over others, rather than responding to each item individually o Normative—provide measure of absolute strength of each attribute measured © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
230
§
§
Answer all items Compared to those of other examinees RELIABILITY Classical Test Theory • Given examinee’s obtained test score consists of 2 components: o True score=actual status on whatever attribute is tested o Error=factors that are irrelevant to whatever is being measured Methods of Estimating Reliability • Reliability coefficient=correlation coefficient that ranges from 0.0 to +1.0 o Don’t square it—directly indicated proportion of variability that is true score variability • Test-­‐Retest Reliability o “time sampling” or factors related to time are source of measurement error o Longer interval btw administrations, more susceptible scores to effects of random error and lower test-­‐retest reliability coefficient o Potential drawbacks: § Retaking test § Not appropriate for assessing reliability of tests that measure unstable attributes o Recommended only for tests that are not appreciably affected by repetition • Alternate Forms Reliability o Coefficient of equivalence o Tends to be lower than test-­‐retest § Related to both differenced in content btw 2 forms and passage of time • Internal Consistency Reliability o Correlations among ind items o Split-­‐Half Reliability—dividing test in 2 and obtaining correlation btw halves § Spearman-­‐Brown formula—estimates effect of shortening test will have on reliability coefficient § Problem: correlation will vary depending on how items divided • Use coefficient alpha or Kuder-­‐Richardson Formula 20 o Kudar-­‐Richardson=when items are dichotomously scored o Cronbach’s coefficient alpha=multiple-­‐scored items § Major source of error=content sampling or item heterogeneity § Inappropriate for assessing reliability of speed tests • Interscorer Reliability o Inter-­‐rater reliability o Concern for measures on which scoring depends on rater judgment o Kappa coefficient=measure of agreement btw 2 judges who each rate set of objects using nominal scales o Increased if raters are well-­‐trained and if they know they are being observed § Also if rating scale used is adequate © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
231
o Recording bx: § Duration recording—rater records elapsed time during which target bx occurs § Frequency recording—count # of times target bx occurs § Interval recording—in given interval, noting whether subj is engaging in target bx § Continuous recording—recording all bx of target subj during observation session Standard Error of Measurement • How much error ind test score can be expected to have o SEMEAS=SDx√(1-­‐rxx) • Confidence interval • Probability that true score lies within range of plus/minus 1 SEMEAS =68% o Lies within range of plus/minus 1.96 SEMEAS =95% o Lies within range of plus/minus 2.58 SEMEAS =99% • If reliability coefficient is +1.0, standard error of measurement equals 0 Factors Affecting Reliability • Short tests are less reliable than longer tests • As grp taking test becomes more homogenous, variability of scores (and reliability coefficient) decreases • It test items are too difficult, most people will get low scores on test, and vise versa • Higher probability that examinees can guess correct answer, lower the reliability coefficient • For particular kind of reliability, inter-­‐item consistency as measured by Kudar-­‐
Richardson or coefficient alpha methods, reliability is increased as items become more homogeneous VALIDITY Content Validity • Test items adequately and representatively sample content area to be measured • Face validity=test appears to examinees to measure what it is intended to measure Criterion-­‐Related Validity • Predicting ind’s bx in specified situations o Scores on predictor test are correlated w outside criterion • Criterion-­‐Related Validity Coefficient o Correlation coefficient, such as Pearson r is used to determine correlation btw predictor and criterion o Ranges from -­‐1.0 to +1.0 o Square of coefficient indicates proportion of variability in criterion that is explained by variability predictor • Concurrent vs. Predictive Validation © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
232
•
•
o Validation=procedures used to determine how valid predictor is o Concurrent validation—predictor and criterion data are collected at or at about same time o Predictive validation—scores on predictor are collected first, and criterion data are collected at some future point o Concurrent most appropriate for tests designed to assess current status on criterion, while predictive is better for tests designed to predict future status Standard Error of Estimate o Interpreting ind’s predicted score on given criterion measure o Vs. Standard Error of Measurement: § SEM is related to reliability coefficient; SEE is related to validity coefficient § SEM is sued to estimate where true test score is likely to fall, given obtained score on that same test • No predictor measure involved • SEE is used to determine where actual criterion score is likely to fall, given criterion score that was predicted by another measure Decision-­‐Making o When using predictor tests, it is not necessary to attempt to predict exact score on criterion measure § Goal is usually to predict whether/not person will meet/exceed certain minimum standard/criterion performance—criterion cutoff point False Negatives (Invalid Rejection)—scored below cutoff pt on predictor but turned out to be successful on criterion True Negatives (Valid Rejection)—scored below cutoff on predictor and turned out to be unsuccessful at criterion True Positives (Valid Acceptance)—scored above cutoff pt on predictor and turn out to be successful at criterion False Positives (False Acceptance)—scored above cutoff pt but did not turn out to be successful on criterion
© www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
233
•
o Raising predictor cutoff pt (moving vertical line to rt) results in fewer positives and more negatives § Raising predictor cutoff score increases ratio of true positives to false positive • Even though there will be fewer true positives overall, greater percentage of positives will be true positives o Lower criterion cutoff score (move horizontal down), there will be more false negatives and true positives, while there will be fewer true negatives and false positives Factors Affecting Validity Coefficient (magnitude) o Heterogeneity of examinees—coefficient lowered if there is restricted range of scores § More homogenous validation grp, lower coefficient o Reliability of predictor and criterion—both must be reliable § Unreliable test will always be invalid, but reliable test will not always be valid o Moderator Variables—variables that affect validity of test § When present, test is said to have differential validity—diff validity coefficient for one subgrp than another § Ex. Males vs. females o Cross-­‐validation—after test is validated, typically re-­‐validated w sample of ind diff from original validation sample o Criterion Contamination—predictor scores themselves influence ind’s criterion status § Artificially inflates validity coefficient § To prevent: anyone involved in assigning criterion ratings should not have knowledge of examinee’s scores on predictor Construct Validity • Construct=psychological variable that is abstract o Not directly observable o Inferred • Degree that it measures theoretical construct or trait • Worked out over period of time on basis of accumulation of evidence • Convergent and Discriminant (Divergent) Validation o Convergent=requires that diff ways of measuring same trait yield similar results o Discriminant=low correlation w another test that measures diff construct § Low correlation coefficient=high validity © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
234
o Multitrait-­‐Multimethod Matrix Monotrait-­‐monomethod coefficients —correlation btw measure and itself § Monotrait-­‐heteromethod coefficients —correlations btw 2 measures that assess same (mono) trait using diff (hetero) methods § Heterotrait-­‐monomethod coefficients —correlation btw 2 measures that measure diff traits using same method § Heterotrait-­‐hetermethod coefficients —correlation btw 2 measures that measure diff traits using diff methods • Factor Analysis o Conducted for variety of purposes, one of which is to assess construct validity of test or number of tests o Detect structure in number of variables § Start w large number of variables and classify them into sets o Factor loading—correlation btw given test and given factor § Range from +1 to -­‐1 § Squared to determine proportion of variability in test accounted for by factor o Communality—to determine proportion of variance of test that is attributable to factors (h2) § Factor loadings squared and added § Variance specific to test and not explained by these 2 factors is unique variance (u2) • Subtract communality from 1.00 o Explained Variance (Eigenvalues)—sum of squares of loadings at bottom of each factor § Measure of amount of variance in all tests accounted for by factor § Determine whether or not factor is accounting for significant amount of variability in tests § Convert to percentages ([Eigenvalue x 100]/# tests) § Factors will be ordered in terms of size of eigenvalue • Factor I will explain more of what is going on in tests than Factor II § Sum of eigenvalues can be no larger than number of tests included in analysis o Interpreting and Naming Factors § Rotation—procedure that facilitates interpretation of factor matrix • Redividing test’s communalities so that clearer pattern of loadings emerges • 2 general strategies for rotations: o Orthogonal—factors that are independent/uncorrelated from each other © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
235
•
o Oblique—factors that are correlated w each other to some degree • Communiality can only be calculated by squaring and summing factor loadings in orthogonal • Following rotation, explained variance/eigenvalue for each factor may change Techniques Related to Factor Analysis o Principle Components Analysis—usually end w similar results whether you choose PCA or FA § Similarities btw PCA and FA • Used for same purpose—to reduce larger set of variables to fewer underlying traits/constructs • Derive factor matrix, which indicates correlation btw variables in analysis and underlying constructs • Eigenvalues are computed by squaring and summing factor loadings in unrotated factor matrix’s column • Underlying elements are ordered in terms of explanatory power § Differences • Factor=FA, principal component or eigenvector=PCA • Assumption of PCA is total variance is variable consists of 2 elements: explained variance and error variance o FA, variance is assumed to be composed of 3 elements: communality, specificity, and error • PCA=factors always uncorrelated o No oblique rotation in PCA o Cluster Analysis—place objects into categories § Difference btw CA and FA • Only variables that are measured using interval/ratio data can be used in FA o Any type of data in CA • Factors in FA are usually interpreted as underlying traits/constructs measured by variables in analysis o Clusters in CA are just categories and not necessarily traits or latent variables • CA is not designed for use in studies where there is a priori hypothesis regarding what categories objs will cluster into o FA is often used to test hypotheses Relationship btw Reliability and Validity • Validity coefficient is less than, or at most, equal to square root of reliability coefficient o Cannot be any higher • Correction for Attenuation—used to determine what would happen to validity coefficient if reliability were higher © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
236
ITEM ANALYSIS Item Difficulty • Percentage of examinees who answer item correctly o Item difficulty index (p) § Higher p=less difficult item • Choose items w moderate difficulty level o Increases test score validity o Provide maximum differentiation btw high-­‐ and low-­‐scoring examinees • Rule of thumb: average difficulty level of items should be halfway btw 1.0 (everyone passing) and level of success expected by chance alone • Nature of Item Difficulty Data o P level expresses item difficulty in terms of ordinal scale Item Discrimination • Degree to which test item differentiates among examinees in terms of bx that test is designed to measure • Can be assessed by calculating item discrimination index (D) o Range in value from 100 to -­‐100 § 100=maximum discriminability Item Response Theory • Complex math approach to item analysis • Item characteristic curves (ICC)=graphs which depicts each item in terms of how difficult item was for inds in diff ability grps o Useful way of depicting both item difficulty and item discrimination o Discrimination and difficulty level of item are 2 of 3 item parameters identified by ICC § 3rd is probability that examinee can answer question correctly by guessing INTERPRETATION OF TEST SCORES Norm-­‐Referenced Interpretation • Developmental Norms—indicate how far along normal developmental path ind has progressed o Mental age score o Grade equivalent score o Disadvantage: do not permit comparisons of inds at diff age levels § Scores not comparable • Within-­‐Grp Norms—comparison of examinee’s score to those of most nearly standardized sample o Percentile ranks—percentage of persons in standardized sample who fall below given raw score § Advantage: easy to interpret © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
237
Disadvantage: represent ranks and do not allow interpretations in terms of absolute amount of diff btw scores o Standard scores—express raw score’s distance from mean in terms of SD units § Z-­‐scores—directly indicate how many SD units score falls above/below mean § T-­‐scores—mean of 50, SD of 10 § Stanine scores—range from 1-­‐9, mean=5, SD=2 § Deviation IQ scores—mean=100, SD=15 • Permit comparison across age grps §
Personal Message: I hope you find The EPPP Study Guide 2015 useful and that it helps you prepare for success! For more articles by Modern Psychologist visit our site: www.modernpsychologist.com For creative ideas, comments, suggestions, and info donations: [email protected] © www.modernpsychologist.com/ | EPPP Study Guide 2015
238