- Journal of Coastal Research

Transcription

Journal of Coastal Research
SI
71
1–16
Coconut Creek, Florida
2014
Present and Future Challenges of Coastal Erosion in Latin America
Rodolfo Silva†*, M. Luisa Martínez‡,†, Patrick A. Hesp§, Patricio Catalan∞,£, Andres F. Osorio&, Raul
MartellЄ, Monica Fossati+, Graziela Miot da Silva§, Ismael Mariño-Tapia#, Pedro Pereira@, Rodrigo
Cienguegos₴,£, Antonio Klein%, and Georges GovaereѦ
§
Instituto de Ingeniería, Universidad
Nacional Autónoma de México
Mexico City, México
‡
∞
Departamento de Obras Civiles
Universidad Técnica Federico Santa
María, Valparaíso, Chile
&
Grupo OCEANICOS
Universidad Nacional de Colombia
Medellín, Colombia
Є
+
#
₴
†
IMFIA - Facultad de Ingeniería
Universidad de la República
Montevideo, Uruguay
%
Centro de Ciências Tecnológicas da
Terra e do Mar, Universidade do
Vale do Itajaí, Itajaí, Brazil
Instituto de Ecología, A.C.
Xalapa, Veracruz, México
Centro de Investigación y Estudios
Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico
Nacional, Mérida, México
Ѧ
Instituto de Investigaciones en
Ingeniería, Universidad de Costa
Rica, San José, Costa Rica
School of the Environment
Flinders University
Adelaide, South Australia
www.cerf-jcr.org
Subcordinación de Monitoreo Marino
CONABIO
Mexico City, México
£
Departamento de Ingeniería Hidráulica
y Ambiental, Pontificia Universidad
Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
Centro Nacional para la Investigación
en Gestión Integrada de Desastres
Naturales, Santiago, Chile
ABSTRACT
www.JCRonline.org
Silva, R.; Martínez, M.L.; Hesp, P.; Catalan, P.; Osorio, A. F.; Martell, R.; Fossati, M.; Miot da Silva, G.; MariñoTapia, I.; Pereira, P.; Cienfuegos, R.; Klein, A., and Govaere, G., 2014. Present and future challenges of coastal
erosion in Latin America. In: Silva, R., and Strusińska-Correia, A. (eds.), Coastal Erosion and Management along
Developing Coasts: Selected Cases. Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue, No. 71, pp. 1–16. Coconut Creek
(Florida), ISSN 0749-0208.
The coastal zones of Latin America have many landforms and environments, including sedimentary cliffs, deeply
incised estuaries, headlands, barrier coasts and low lying, muddy coastal plains. These forms will respond differently
to the expected changes in climate and associated sea level rise, which may produce coastal erosion in the future.
Considering the coasts of Latin America overall, erosion is not yet a serious threat, although it is widespread and it is
severe in some parts. Major erosion problems are frequently associated with human intervention in sediment supply,
with poor planning or with the morphodynamic nature of the coast. Permanent erosional processes, locally or
regionally, are caused by tectonic subsidence, deforestation and the fragmentation of coastal ecosystems, land use
changes and sediment deficits because of infrastructure built along the coast. In this article we analyse coastal erosion
in Latin America and the challenges it presents to the region. We first highlight the relevance of Latin America in
terms of its biodiversity; then we describe the population at risk, demographic trends and economic growth
throughout the low lying coastal zones. We also examine the vulnerability of the region by analyzing the resilience of
key coastal ecosystems after exposure to the most frequent hazards that affect coastal zones in Latin America,
namely tropical cyclones, sea level rise, ocean acidification, earthquakes and tsunamis. Finally, we discuss seven
case studies of coastal erosion across Latin America. We close the study by pinpointing the main areas of concern in
Latin America and explore possible strategies to overcome erosion and thus sustain economic growth, minimize
population risk and maintain biodiversity.
ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS: Coastal erosion, Low lying coastal areas, Low elevation coastal zone, coastal
hazards, coastal resilience, Latin America.
INTRODUCTION
The morphology of coastal regions has always been partly
shaped by erosion processes. Indeed the evolution of the Earth´s
physical environment as a whole owes much to erosion. These
processes were not given much attention until the adverse
economic, social or environmental effects felt by communities
began to be linked to erosion.
____________________
DOI: 10.2112/SI71-001.1 received 18 August 2013; accepted in
revision 13 September 2014.
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
© Coastal Education & Research Foundation 2014
In the Americas, long before the Conquest, several native
navigation techniques (coastal, lacustrine and fluvial) existed,
with numerous, diverse wooden crafts being used (Biar, 2014).
The construction of larger ports and associated infrastructure
took place when Spaniards arrived in America and commerce
with Europe became important (e.g., O’Rourke and Williamson,
2002). The necessity for harbours, and then new coastal
settlements, was followed by the construction of infrastructure
and thus began the intensive modification of the coasts of The
New World. For over four centuries land management, both
inland and coastal, did not consider the coastal zone as an
integral part of hydrological units such as watersheds. The
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consequence was that the relevance of coastal morphodynamics
was not taken into account until recently, when it became
apparent that this was essential for the security and economic
wellbeing of coastal populations.
The coastal zones of Latin America feature a wide range of
land forms. Expected climate change will bring about sea level
rise and the different landforms will respond in different ways
(e.g., Muehe, 2010). Therefore, it is necessary to explore the
potential vulnerability of the distinct coastal types in response to
climate change. Since risk to people is a key factor in
vulnerability, the risk is greatest in the urbanized coasts, where
the greatest impacts are expected to be caused by floods.
However, the absence of long-term observations of
oceanographic data and detailed topo-bathymetric data (e.g.,
González-Vázquez et al., 2014) presents a major difficulty for
the evaluation of different risk scenarios at local level and
consequently for the application of strategies aimed at
minimizing these impacts on the population.
Coastal erosion along Latin American shorelines, although
widespread and in some parts severe, is not yet seen as a serious
threat considering the coast as a whole. Major erosion problems
are most frequently associated with human intervention in the
sediment flux or are associated with the morphodynamic nature
of river mouths (e.g., Muehe, 2010). In addition, tectonic
subsidence is often a cause of regional vulnerability, as well as
that which occurs in areas of permanent loss of sediments,
owing to deforestation or to fragmentation of coastal ecosystems
(e.g., sand dune vegetation, mangroves), to land use changes
(mostly for agriculture and cattle ranching, and focal urban
sprawl) and to sediment deficits caused by the presence of
infrastructure (dams in the watersheds, jetties and groynes).
Regionally, differentiated climatologic and oceanographic
forcing mechanisms impose different responses to the varied
geologic-geomorphologic environments.
In this article we analyse coastal erosion in Latin America and
the challenges it presents to the region. We first highlight the
relevance of Latin America in terms of its biodiversity and show
the spatial patterns of species richness; we then analyse the
population at risk throughout the low lying coastal areas, as well
as the demographic trends and economic growth. To assess the
vulnerability of this region we also analyse the vulnerability and
resilience of key coastal ecosystems, and explore the most
frequent and intense hazards that occur in the coastal zones,
namely tropical cyclones, sea level rise, ocean acidification,
earthquakes and tsunamis. Finally, we discuss some case studies
of coastal erosion across Latin America; in Cuba, Puerto Rico,
Mexico, Costa Rica, Brazil, Uruguay and Chile. We close the
study by pinpointing the main areas of concern in Latin America
and explore possible strategies to be considered in order to
sustain economic growth, minimize population risk and maintain
regional biodiversity.
LATIN AMERICA IN A WORLD CONTEXT
Different criteria exist to define the countries that make up
Latin America, but for the purposes of this study, we focused on
those countries where Spanish, Portuguese or French is spoken
and which are considered as Latin American by the World Bank
(2014). Hence, Latin America consists of twenty countries (see
Figure 1). Of these, only Bolivia and Paraguay have no
coastline, while three countries are islands (Cuba, Dominican
Republic and Haiti). Based on economic criteria, the World
Bank has considered Haiti as a low-income country; Bolivia, El
Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Paraguay are
lower middle income countries and the rest (Argentina, Brazil,
Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominica, Dominican Republic,
Ecuador, Mexico, Panama, Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela) are
upper middle income countries.
Figure 1. Location of the countries of Latin American.
Biodiversity
As reported by Mittermeier et al., (1997), 70% of the world´s
biodiversity is concentrated in some 17 countries, which are
described as "megadiverse" by the World Conservation
Monitoring Centre of the UN Environment Programme (UNEPWCMC). Of the ten most megadiverse nations in the world, six
are Latin American: Brazil, Colombia, Peru, Mexico, Ecuador
and Venezuela (1st, 2nd, 4th, 5th, 6th and 9th, respectively). The
potential loss of ecosystems due to sea level rise and coastal
erosion will have a shift in response patterns of biodiversity,
both terrestrial and marine.
Spatial patterns of coastal and marine diversity vary
throughout Latin America. Coral reefs (Figure 2a) occur mostly
along the Atlantic coast, and are concentrated in the Caribbean,
Mexico, Central America, Colombia, Venezuela and some parts
of the central region of the Brazilian coast (IMaRS-USF, 2005;
IMaRS-USF and IRD, 2005; Spalding et al., 2001; UNEPWCMC et al., 2010). Worldwide, there is greatest coral reef
species richness in South East Asia, while the Caribbean-Central
America and India follow (Tittensor et al., 2010a). Mangroves
are more widely distributed than coral reefs, and are found along
the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of Latin America (Figure 2b), on
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both shorelines of Mexico, the Caribbean, Central America,
Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador and Brazil (Spalding et al.,
2010a; 2010b; Lopez-Portillo et al., 2011). As with the spatial
pattern of coral reefs, the highest species diversity of mangroves
is also found in South East Asia (Tittensor et al., 2010a), but
ranking in second place are central America, Colombia and
Venezuela. Seagrasses follow a similar distribution pattern,
except that they are more scarce on the Pacific coast, do not
occur in Ecuador, but are found in Chile (Green and Short,
2003) (Figure 2c). Seagrass biodiversity is also concentrated in
South East Asia, while the second most diverse area is the
eastern coast of Africa, followed by the Caribbean (Tittensor et
al., 2010a; 2010b). Finally, Tittensor et al., (2010a; 2010b)
analysed the global patterns of marine diversity in terms of
species richness, and considered a total of 11,567 species that
covered 13 major coastal and maritime species groups: marine
zooplankton,
mangroves,
seagrasses,
corals,
squids,
cephalopods, fish (coastal fish, tuna and sharks) and mammals
(cetaceans and pinnipeds). In Latin America, marine
biodiversity is greatest in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico,
Central America, Colombia and southern Brazil (Figure 2d).
Demographic Trends and Economic Growth
Latin America faces major challenges in terms of population
growth, economic development and the conservation and
restoration of its coastal ecosystems. In addition to the climate
change impact, coastal areas are also exposed to different
environmental conditions that may vary in a very short time
scale (e.g., tectonic activity) or over decades (e.g., El NiñoSouthern Oscillation - ENSO) or even with unpredictable
occurrence (e.g., hurricanes and tsunamis). As a first step to
quantify populations and areas of land vulnerable to maritime
and coastal phenomena, topographic contour levels can be used
to assess exposure.
Land elevation is an interesting point for comparing the
vulnerability of Latin American coasts with respect to other
regions. In this context, a comparison of population growth in
low elevation coastal zones (LECZ), defined here as the
contiguous low lying areas along the coast that are less than 10
metres above sea level, is made with data from Africa, America,
Asia, Europe and Oceania. Using the database generated by
CIESIN (2013) and the World Bank (2014) a new database was
produced with past population trends and a projection for 2100.
The LECZ information was derived from the Shuttle Radar
Topography Mission (SRTM), 3 arc second (~90m).
In Figure 3 we show demographic trends in Africa, America,
Asia, Europe, Oceania and Latin America. In the lower panel,
we show the millions of people in LECZ that are at risk in the
different regions and the estimated population for 2010 as well
as for 2100. African population growth is by far the highest,
followed by Latin America. In the top panel we show the
evolution of population densities for 2010 and 2100 and the
relative area of LECZ and population living in LECZ in 2010
with respect to the total of each region. Excluding Antarctica,
the amount of world land in the LECZ was around 1.8%, by
2010, but 10% of the world population lived in these areas, with
a density of 288 inhabitants per km2; this is expected to increase
to 455 inhabitants per km2 by 2100. Today, 75% of the world
population living in LECZ, is concentrated in Asia. It is clear,
therefore that most of the land at risk in the world are areas of
low elevation in Asia and the Americas. Population density is
estimated to be the highest in Africa and Asia. Because
population growth is highest in Africa, the population at risk
will also increase. The population at risk is lower in the
Americas than in Europe but these trends will reverse as the
population growth is higher in the Americas, especially in Latin
America. The total population living in LECZ in Latin America
for 2010 is 5.6% of its total population while the land at risk is
around 1.8% of its total land area.
Figure 2. Spatial distribution of key coastal ecosystems throughout Latin
America (a) coral reefs (Spalding et al., 2001); (b) mangroves (Spalding
et al., 2010a; 2010b); (c) seagrasses (Green and Short, 2003) and (d)
oceanic and coastal diversity (Tittensor et al., 2010a; 2010b).
By 2100, the expected population trends in these LECZ are
clearly different for each of the continents. For example, from
2000 to 2100 the population is expected to multiply in Africa,
America, Asia, Europe and Oceania by 3.32, 1.78, 1.63, 0.90
and 1.31 times, respectively. In contrast, the population of Latin
America is likely to multiply by 1.83 times, second to Africa, so
while the total population living in Latin America LECZ is
lower than the world average, except for Africa, the risk will
increase substantially for Latin America compared to most of
the world by 2100.
A summary of the population and population density for
1990, 2000, 2010 and that expected for 2100 in Latin American
countries is presented in Figure 4, as well as the relative and
total territory exposed in LECZ. From this figure it can be seen
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that in terms of population density Haiti and the Dominican
Republic are the most vulnerable countries. In Latin America,
the countries with most vulnerable populations and land at risk
are Brazil, Mexico and Argentina, in descending order. Only
Cuba is expected to experience a decrease in coastal population
(-12%); the rest of the countries will experience population
growth, ranging from 30% (Mexico) to 150% (Costa Rica)
between 2010 and 2100. It is interesting to note that Costa Rica,
Cuba, Guatemala, Nicaragua and El Salvador are the only
countries where the relative population density is lower than the
relative LECZ area. Noticeably, tropical cyclones are very
frequent in these countries.
countries. For this reason it was decided to use the human
development index (HDI) proposed by The United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP/RSP, 2006). The HDI is an
index of socioeconomic development that allows comparisons to
be made across regions. UNEP considers HDI = 0.7 threshold as
the limit of countries with high human development. Half the
countries have a relatively high HDI: Chile, (highest), is
followed by Argentina, Uruguay, Cuba, Panamá, Mexico, Costa
Rica, Venezuela, Peru and Brazil (lowest) (Figure 5). In
contrast, HDI in the remaining 10 Latin American countries has
slowly increased and is still suboptimal. Overall, HDI in Latin
America has increased slowly and to a relatively low level, but it
has reached much higher values in comparison with HDI
estimates for the world as a whole.
Figure 4. Relative and total population relative to the national total in
each country, population density and LECZ by country for Latin
America.
Figure 3. Population and LECZ by continent and for Latin America.
Because the socioeconomic conditions of Latin America vary
between countries, and because the cost of living and free
market conditions are not the same, it is difficult to establish an
economic basis for comparison between Latin American
COASTAL HAZARDS AND RESILIENCE
“Vulnerability” refers to the weakness of the exposed system
(e.g., the number of people killed per million exposed) and
“resilience” is the capacity of a system to experience shocks (a
disturbance) while essentially retaining the same function,
structure, and feedbacks (Holling, 1973; Walker et al., 2006;
Escudero et al., 2012). A resilient shoreline reduces population
risk because vulnerability is reduced.
The coasts of Latin America are exposed to a wide range of
hazards that affect the coastal population. Here we explore some
of the frequent and intense hazards faced (tropical
cyclones/hurricanes, sea level rise, ocean acidification,
earthquakes and tsunami events), and analyse how population
vulnerability and coastal resilience determine local risk. In order
to evaluate the most frequent hazards for coastal zones in Latin
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America, a database was built using information of cyclones
(Knapp et al., 2010), sea level rise (NOAA, 2014), acidification
(Halpern et al., 2008), earthquakes and run up from tsunami
(NGDC / WDS, 2014).
In the following sections some of the most common,
documented, natural hazards which affect Latin America are
presented.
the coast relative to specific, stable, vertical points (or bench
marks) on land. However, the measurements at any given tide
station reflect sea level rise as well as vertical land motion, such
as subsidence, glacial rebound, or large-scale tectonic motion.
Because these two levels are changing, the land-water interface
can vary spatially and temporally and must be defined over time.
Local sea level trends may differ greatly from the average rate
of global sea level rise, and can vary widely from one location to
the next. For instance, in some places in the north of the Gulf of
Mexico (Figure 6b) significant subsidence is occurring and so
relative sea level trends show an increase of over 10 mm a year,
while areas of Chile reflect a decrease in relative sea level
because the land is subjected to regional uplift, related to
tectonic factors and subduction effects (Baker et al., 2013).
Relative Sea Level Trends are critical for many coastal
applications, including coastal mapping, marine boundary
delineation, coastal zone management, coastal engineering and
sustainable habitat restoration design. These values focus on
relative sea level trends, computed from the monthly averages of
hourly water levels from specific tide stations, called monthly
mean sea level.
Figure 5. Evolution of the human development index (HDI) over time
for each Latin American country.
Cyclones
Tropical cyclones, called hurricanes in North America, when
the wind speed is greater than 64 kn (120 km/h), occur in many
regions and affect most tropical coasts (Figure 6a). Between
1970 and 2009, these hydrometeorological events claimed
789,000 lives and caused great economic damage in the world
(Peduzzi et al., 2012). Because of the coastal population growth,
all regions have increasing vulnerability to tropical cyclones.
Nevertheless, the risk (exposure times vulnerability) has been
reduced in some regions because the vulnerability (number
killed per million exposed) is lower. This is the case for North
America, where the tropical cyclone/hurricane risk has declined
in spite of an increasing coastal population. In Central and South
America, as well as Asia, vulnerability has decreased
dramatically since 1970, because of improved early warning
systems, the construction of shelters and the reforestation of
coastal areas (Paul, 2009).
Sea Level Rise Trends
Based on tide station measurements around the world, the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007)
Report estimates that over the past century, the global sea level
rise has ranged from 1.7-1.8 mm/yr (IPCC, 2007). Tide stations
measure Local Sea Level, which is the height of the water along
Figure 6. The most frequent and intense hazards for the coastal zones of
Latin America. (a) tropical cyclones (from Knapp et al., 2010); (b) sea
level rise (IPCC, 2007); (c) ocean acidification (after Halpern et al.,
2008); and (d) earthquakes and tsunami runup (NGDC/WDS, 2014).
Acidification
Changes in CO2 concentration alter the aragonite saturation
state (ASS) of the ocean, among other chemical properties of
seawater. As ASS levels drop, the ability of calcifying species
such as corals and shelled invertebrates to create calcium
carbonate structures declines (S22). The global distribution of
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ASS values has been modelled at 1-degree resolution for preindustrial (circa 1870) and modern times (2000-2009) (S23).
Halpern et al., (2008) found intense acidification in the Atlantic
Ocean, but mostly in the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean
(Figure 6c).
In the Caribbean Sea some beaches are retreating because the
coral reefs are becoming less robust and are losing bulk density,
due in part to acidification and excessive sedimentation, and
therefore the energy of the waves is greater on the coast (e.g.,
Odériz, et al., 2014).
Earthquakes and Tsunami
Because of plate tectonic features, earthquakes are common
and relatively frequent in Latin America, especially along the
Pacific coast, as well as in the Caribbean (Figure 6d). Tsunami
runup has been reported all along the Pacific coast, but most
importantly in Chile. Based on the above, coastal populations
and development planners should consider these uncertainties
which are unpredictable and can cause extensive damage and
human loss.
Earthquakes trigger co-seismic crustal deformations that
produce either coastal subsidence or uplift, affecting coastal
environments and changing almost instantaneously the local sea
level. These changes can be as small as a few centimetres or as
large as several meters in vertical (e.g., Farias et al., 2010), i.e.
on the order of the expected see level rise in 2100. Tsunami can
induce a wide range of effects. The most obvious is loss of
human life (e.g., Fritz et al., 2011), but there can also be loss of
infrastructure and economic loss, both direct and indirect (e.g.,
Marin et al., 2010), alteration of coastal environments,
contamination, and changes in coastal geomorphology (e.g.,
Goff et al., 2012; Catalan et al., 2014). Moreover, the temporal
and spatial scales of these events are large; often spanning
hundreds of kilometres of coast for earthquakes, while tsunami
can span the entire Pacific Ocean basin. Similarly, recovery
rates also vary depending on the magnitude and extent of the
damage. For example, there was rapid recovery of coastal sand
barriers following the 2010 Maule earthquake and tsunami in
central Chile (Villagran et al., 2013, Catalan et al., 2014),
indicating a very resilient coast. However, anthropogenic
disturbances have affected the rates of recovery in Japan (e.g.,
Tanaka et al., 2012). The wide extent of tsunami action implies
that they must be taken into consideration also in locations far
away from the areas where they are generated.
Importance of Integrity of Coastal Ecosystems
Depending on the health of coastal ecosystems and their
elements that provide ecosystem services (e.g., coastal stability),
it is possible for a coastline to recover naturally from an extreme
event.
Coastal ecosystems provide important goods and services to
society, such as food, leisure activities and coastal protection
especially in tropical/subtropical regions, and are a vital
component of the earth’s natural environment. Because human
activities have often led to the degradation and fragmentation of
these systems, their resilience has deteriorated and in
consequence, human populations have been adversely affected.
In Latin America, where coastal infrastructure and economic
growth are expanding (e.g., development of ports, tourist
activities and the exploitation of natural resources) and largescale coastal problems have had important impacts on
infrastructure and human well-being (Hong, 2006; Escudero et
al., 2014; Mallmann and Pereira, 2014), interesting ideas have
developed to improve the management of coastal ecosystem
integrity that include the involvement of communities. This is
relevant for the management of strategic ecosystems and
improves the effectiveness of coastal ecosystems. That is,
participatory strategies, such as co-management, help to
improve governability while letting communities adapt to the
needs of coastal ecosystems. This is the case of marine protected
areas in the Caribbean (Camargo, 2009), where the coral reef
ecosystems provide coastal protection. Another example of a
participatory strategy to sustain a Latin American ecosystem is
the fishing program in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, where
the key management goal is not to maximize the fishing catch,
but to maintain the ecosystem and thus allow sustained
production (Appeldoorn, 2008). An opposing case is reported by
González et al. (2014) where conflicting commercial interests
overexploit the natural resources.
Those strategies to maintain the biological balance of the
ecosystems help to improve the coastal resilience. Therefore the
natural services provided, like coastal protection, in the end will
be more effective.
Mangroves, wetlands and dunes are examples of ecosystems
of strategic importance in Latin America. Mangroves are tightly
regulated by ecohydrodynamical processes, which involve
interactions and feedback between terrestrial, estuarine, coastal,
and offshore areas (Wolanski, 2006). Mangroves evolve via
intertwining nonlinear interactions between biological,
chemical, and physical factors, each of which has particular
temporal and spatial scales. To understand the mangrove
ecosystem as a whole, and to preserve it and ensure that human
activity does not disrupt it, interdisciplinary studies should be
undertaken. One example of the importance of mangrove
ecosystems is its function of as a natural sink for atmospheric
CO2 (Ayukai, 1998), and as coastal protection. Mazda et al.
(2007) explain the function of wetlands and mangroves, pointing
out that there is a nonlinear relationship between wave
attenuation and the size of wetland and mangrove ecosystems,
which means that even small wetlands afford substantial
protection from waves. One possibility to increase the coastal
protection in Latin America could be combining manmade
structures with wetlands and mangroves (Blanco et al., 2011;
Urrego et al., 2014).
COASTAL EROSION IN LATIN AMERICA
To illustrate the importance of the conservation of key coastal
elements, some examples from Latin America are presented.
Extreme Hydrometeorological Events
The Effects of Hurricane Wilma (2005) in Quintana
Roo, Mexico
Many coasts in northern Latin America are exposed to intense
tropical cyclones, and many of these coasts are important for
tourism which provides substantial revenue. On October 21st,
2005, hurricane Wilma hit the coast just south of Puerto
Morelos, near Cancún. Contrary to what is usually expected,
aerial photographs revealed substantial sand accumulation after
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the hurricane at Puerto Morelos; the dry beach increased 30
meters (Figure 7). Six months later the coast and the beach
returned to their original condition; prior to Wilma. Three main
factors account for this situation, i) the coral reef, just off the
coast, offered natural protection to the beach, ii) the hurricane
driven hydrodynamics carried sand from the northern beaches to
the south, and iii) sand was available to be eroded from the
dunes and placed in the surfzone and foreshore. In other words,
at Puerto Morelos the natural dynamics of the area increased the
resilience of the coast. In contrast, in nearby Cancun the same
storm removed >7 million cubic meters of sand from the beach
system, leaving 68% of the sub-aerial beach as bare bedrock,
and the rest considerably eroded, given that the foredune sand
was not available. In this case, the infrastructure built on the
dunes along this barrier island restricted the natural sand budget,
generating massive offshore sediment transport that was lost
from the system. Therefore, the conditions for natural dune
regeneration no longer existed and natural recovery was not
possible (Silva et al. 2012).
from there eastward over the Caribbean Sea affecting large
coastal areas.
An Extratropical Storm (2005) in Punta del Este,
Uruguay
Tropical cyclones seldom hit South America (Figure 6a).
However, in 2005, a violent, extratropical storm affected
Uruguay on August 23–24. The winds of the system exceeded
160 km/h for a period of over 12 hours, and affected the
departments of Canelones, Montevideo, San José, Colonia and
Maldonado, where most of the country’s population is
concentrated. The NOAA reports that thousands of homes were
damaged and that seven people were killed. Erosion on the coast
was intense with nearly 3m height lost on some beaches. The
beach pier at Mansa was broken in two (Figure 8). The natural
recovery of the beach-dune system has been very slow: the
resilience of the system was partially weakened because of the
urbanization of the coastal area.
Unexpected Geotectonic Activity
In some cases geological aspects are not considered in studies
of coastal evolution, although they can be very important. On
March 25, 2012 a Mw 7.2 Richter scale earthquake was
registered in Chile, and over 45 shocks were recorded in the
marine area of Mexico, as well as tectonic instability along the
Pacific coast. This generated a landslide at Los Frailes beach, in
Baja California, eroding 1.3 hectares of the beach (figure 9).
This type of sudden beach erosion tends to be reversed naturally
because sediment sources and the hydrodynamics factors which
affect the beach do not change.
Increase of Swell Events
Two situations can cause flooding: cyclones and cold fronts
generating storm surge episodes. Cyclones have a relatively high
impact on coastal areas, especially in cities, in the tropics. The
impact of these tropical storms depends on the orientation of the
coastline, which may act as a natural, protective barrier. Storm
surge episodes, however, are recurrent and are the most frequent
cause of coastal flooding. Other meteorological events that may
cause powerful swell are cold fronts that originate in the North
Pole. These fronts travel southbound to the Gulf of Mexico and
Figure 7. Aerial photographs of Puerto Morelos (Mexico) before(left
photo) and after (rigth photo) hurricane Wilma (2005). Note the large
scale accretion and overwash terrace formed following the hurricane.
Therefore, sometimes flooding is not directly related to local
meteorological conditions, but is the result of hydrodynamic
phenomena causing the arrival of heavy swell from far away. An
example of this is the city of Cartagena de Indias (Colombia),
where urban areas are extremely sensitive to the risk of coastal
flooding during storm surges. A statistical study based on hourly
sea-level observations from 1950 to 2000 showed overflow
levels of 0.29, 0.34, and 0.37 m for return periods of 10, 50, and
100 years. The extreme vulnerability of some areas of Cartagena
to flooding raises questions for the future, taking into account
the rates of sea-level rise as well as the effects of wave erosion
(Andrade et al., 2013).
Ineffective Solutions
In Playa Caldera, Costa Rica, (Figure 10), as in many other
places in Latin America, port management is carried out without
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considering coastal processes. In this case, when sand
accumulates in the harbour, the basin is dredged and the sand is
placed in the middle of the Gulf of Nicoya, outside the natural
system and so it is transported away by the ocean currents. As a
result, the sediment deficit has created severe erosion on Caldera
beach. Approximately one million cubic meters of sediment
have been lost since the 1980s, when the port was built and the
retreat of the coastline has been in the order of 60 m. During
storms, flooding frequently occurs in the village as well as
damage to the road and the houses near the coast.
However, despite these actions there is still erosion taking place
in Varadero.
Figure 9. Los Frailes beach before (2010) and after (2012 and 2013) the
landslide.
Figure 8. Mansa Beach, Punta del Este, Uruguay, after the extratropical
storm on August 23-24, 2005. Courtesy of Luis Teixeira and Rodrigo
Alonso.
Cuban beaches in general show a trend of erosion. In
Varadero beach, the main tourist centre in Cuba, studies by
Juanes et al., (1986) revealed that in the 1980s, the beach
retreated 1.2 m per year. The main causes of the erosion were
identified as sediment deficit and human interventions, such as
the offshore mining of sand and the destruction of the dunes as a
consequence of tourist developments. As a result of these
actions a series of measures were adopted to control the erosion,
some regulatory and some engineering works. Legislation
prohibits the construction of new buildings on the dunes and
existing buildings that are damaged by the erosion are not
repaired, rather they are demolished and not replaced. The most
important engineering project to take place was the beach
nourishment carried out in five stages between 1987 and 2009,
depositing) some 2.3 million cubic meters of sand (Figure 11).
Figure 10. Aerial view of Playa Caldera, Costa Rica. Left panel aerial
photography. Right panel: Satellite image.
Puerto Plata in the Dominican Republic is one of the main
tourist destinations in the country, with beautiful beaches and
winds and waves suitable for all manner of water sports.
Unfortunately, the erosion processes active on this beach
threaten its quality and therefore the attraction of the area is
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diminished. There is a shortage of sand, there are scarps in the
dunes and the shoreline is retreating. The main cause of the
erosion is the deficit in the sediment balance due to a reduction
in the sand deposited by river flows in the region. This reduction
is directly related to sand mining for industry, which began in
the latter part of the 20th century in the Yásica, Camú and
Muñoz rivers. In an attempt to minimize the effects of the
erosion, various measures have been taken including the
building of revetments and groins and the relocation of buildings
landward. None of these measures has stopped the erosion, and
some have had the opposite effect. The photos in Figure 12
show views of Playa Dorada over time. In 1992 there is no sign
of erosion while in 2005 the degradation in the beach system can
be appreciated, as well as the inadequate solutions applied. In
2008 a beach nourishment scheme was successfully executed.
ignoring the unavoidable consequences of their interventions
and having to face coastal erosion, as has been reported by
Gomes and Silva (2014) and Delgadillo-Calzadilla et al., (2014).
1992
2005-a
2005-b
2008
Figure 11. Varadero beach, 2008
Cases like Varadero and Puerto Plata are common in Latin
America. For example (Silva et al., 2012; González-Leija et al.,
2013) reported that more than 7 million cubic meters of sand
were used in two campaigns of beach nourishment in Cancun,
Mexico, and the problem was not solved, merely put off.
Moreover, with the dredging activities other ecosystems were
affected. More critical cases are reported by (Martins and
Pereira, 2014; Martinez et al., 2014) where the sand supply
deficit is originated inland and inaccurate diagnostics of the
problems were made, followed by ineffective coastal protection
measures. It is also common to find local authorities, keen to
build new infrastructures (e.g., harbours, tourist developments),
Figure 12. Views of Puerto Plata (República Dominicana)
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Silva et al.
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In Brazil, Mühe (2005) affirms that although it is not an
imminent threat on the coasts in general, erosion occurs in
places on all the Brazilian coast to a greater or lesser extent, but
it is most prominent on the NE coast (Dominguez, 2009; Vital,
2009; Dillenburg and Hesp, 2009). The erosion is often the
result of human interventions which disrupt the sediment
balance due to constructions which interfere with the free
circulation of coastal sediments. This is the case on the beaches
of Fortaleza and Recife.
Some erosion is also natural as sections of coast continue to
readjust or straighten following the Holocene transgression. For
example, the 620 km long coast of Rio Grande do Sul in
southern Brazil is characterized by two prominent embayments
or re-entrants and two projections (Dillenburg et al., 2009). The
projections are undergoing erosion while the embayments are
undergoing progradation (Dillenburg and Barboza, 2014). In
both cases the barriers predominantly comprise transgressive
dunefield systems, with the most active ones in the eroding
sectors. Efforts to halt the erosion will largely fail due to this
being a long term natural process in the eroding sectors. Hazards
related to dune encroachment in towns and cities and related
health factors (e.g., silicosis - an incurable, progressive lung
disease caused by overexposure to dust containing silica) are
significant in some of these dunefields (Figure 13).
Figure 13. The city of Cidreira, southern Brazil, is sited within an active
transgressive dunefield. The barrier history is one of long term erosion.
Significant hazards exist due to future shoreline erosion, dunefield
migration into infrastructure, and human health (particularly silicosis)
and groundwater pollution. Photo courtesy of Nelson Gruber.
Miot da Silva and Hesp (2013) and Miot da Silva et al.,
(2013) discuss the significant vegetation growth and foredune
development that occurred along approximately 650 km of the
Southern Brazilian Holocene Barrier over the second half of the
last century, particularly in the late 1970’s. This increase in
dunefield stability coincided with a regime shift of the PDO
(Pacific Decadal Oscillation) in 1976/1977 from the ‘cool” to
the “warm” phase (Mantua et al., 1997) This regime shift was
followed by an increased frequency and intensity of El Niño
events (and consequent increase in rainfall) in Southern Brazil
(Dias, 2009) thus contributing to dunefield stabilization,
foredune development, decrease in dune erosion and a potential
decrease in coastal erosion. Projections to 2100 (Junquas et al.,
2012) indicate that these wetter than normal conditions may
persist, or even intensify, while others are showing a potential
increase in the intensity of both El Nino and La Nina into the
future (Ashok et al., 2012). However, a decrease in rainfall
and/or increase in wind velocity may not cause vegetation loss
and consequent potential foredune, or perhaps beach erosion if
hysteresis is substantial (cf. Tsoar, 2005; Miot da Silva and
Hesp, 2013).
Hoefel (1998), Klein et al., (2006) and Araujo et al., (2010)
document the erosion processes at the Piçarras beach, in the
state of Santa Catarina, suggesting that since the mid-1970s the
beach has been continuously eroding and that the imbalance in
the sediment load of the region as a whole is becoming
progressively worse. The latter is due mainly to the construction
of infrastructure in 1974; in addition to the silting of the
remaining coastal lagoon. But the most damaging factors have
been the disorderly development on the active beach profile
(houses on the edge of the sand, buildings and roads close to the
shoreline), combined with the destructive power of high energy
metereological events in the 1980s and 1990s. All of these
factors destabilized the beach system and have impeded its
ability to rejuvenate naturally. Since 1998, three coastal
restoration works have been carried out around the Piçarras river
mouth through beach nourishment programs and coastal
structures in an effort to halt the loss of sediments and increase
the durability of the nourishment.
Unsuitable Location for Tourist Development, Holbox,
Mexico
Sand spits are in a state of continuous morphological change
as a result of the prevailing storm conditions of the maritime
climate, and due to natural recycling of sediment along the spits
leading to the spatio-temporal development of eroding and
prograding sectors. The resilience of the natural ecosystems that
develop here depends on fragile biophysical balances. The
natural topography makes these ecosystems very attractive for
tourist developments, although they are implicitly very high risk
areas. Often economic interests override common sense, so that
governments allow and even encourage tourist development,
putting not only investment but also human lives and
ecosystems at risk. At Holbox, on the Yucatan Peninsula (Figure
14), erosion on the spit is a cause of concern for the hoteliers but
the costs involved for any potential rescue of the beaches is far
greater than the economic benefits generated by the resorts.
Coastal Squeeze
In the north east of Brazil the coastline is generally receding
(Dominguez, 2009; Figure 15). This is noticeable along several
stretches of the coast of Pernambuco, but is felt mostly in the
area of the Recife metropolitan area. Here, as in many other
places, urban encroachment and the construction of
infrastructure along the coast, coupled with sea level rise
processes, has led to a “coastal squeeze”, which results in the
loss of coastal habitats. This is due to the high water mark being
fixed by a hard structure (defence structure, a sea wall, or a city)
and the low water mark migrating landwards in response to
SLR, anthropogenic interference over sediment supply and other
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coastal processes that accelerate shoreline recession. The end
result of coastal squeeze is that ecosystems are lost, the dynamic
nature of the shoreline is limited and hence, the resilience of the
system is diminished.
from the sea. The intense flooding produced by the tsunami
washed away the sandbar thus opening the lagoon to the sea.
Nevertheless, several months after the event, the system had
recovered its previous configuration showing the resiliency of
this system, representative of the post-tsunami response of the
Chilean coast.
Figure 14. Evolution of the sand spit at Holbox, Mexico
Resilience
On February 27, 2010, a huge Mw 8.8 Richter scale
earthquake hit central Chile causing widespread damage but
relatively few casualties, despite its magnitude (Madariaga et
al., 2010). The epicentre was located off the coast near the
Maule region, of Chile, but the rupture area extended over
several hundreds of kilometres (Vigny et al., 2011). This
massive rupture generated devastating tsunami waves that
affected more than 600 km of the Chilean coastline and the
Archipelago of Juan Fernández, 660 km off Valparaíso. Coastal
settlements were severely damaged
several hours after the
initial shock (Fritz et al., 2011; Yamazaki and Cheung, 2011).
Important changes were also produced on beaches and river
mouths with generalized erosion, and co-seismic uplift and
subsidence at different locations (Farías et al., 2010; Villagrán et
al., 2013; Catalán et al., 2014). In general, these sudden changes
were followed by a natural recovery in the following months
with varying times mostly controlled by the available sediment
supply. In figure 16, an example of the impact of the tsunami on
a normally closed coastal lagoon is shown. Prior to the arrival of
tsunami waves, a sandbar was present separating the lagoon
Figure 15. Recife metropolitan area showing urban encroachment and
the construction of infrastructure along the coast. Upper panel: aerial
view of Bairro Novo (Olinda City); Lower Panel: Argus image of Boa
Viagem beach, Brazil.
However, when the stable functioning of an ecosystem is
altered, its ability to recover naturally is lost and, in the long
term, social and environmental sustainability can be affected.
One such example, has been reported by Silva et al., (2012)
(Figure 17) where the costs of artificial recuperation following
hurricane damage in Cancún (Mexico) cost more than a billion
USD in areas where the dunes were built upon and there was no
reef protection. The role of these fragile ecosystems in coastal
resilience is very important in terms of ecosystem services, but
bad management practice and diverse environmental pressures
(i.e. hurricanes and climate change) are placing them at risk.
River mouths
Silva et al.
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As described in Prandle (2009) estuaries are the zones where
the fresh water from a river mixes with sea water. They act as
both sinks and sources for pollutants depending on: (i) the
geographical sources of the contaminants (marine, fluvial,
internal and atmospheric), (ii) their biological and chemical
nature and (iii) temporal variations in tidal amplitude, river flow,
seasons, winds and waves.
Figure 16. Tsunami impact and recovery of the Estero Paredones,
located near Bucalemu, in the VI Region. Upper panel: Photograph
taken few years before the tsunami, of February 27, 2010 event. Middle
panel: Photograph taken in March 2010. Lower panel: Photograph taken
in January 2011.
Figure 17. Extreme erosion (left photo), natural (center photo) and
artificial recovery (right photo) of the beach after the impact of a
hurricane in Cancun, Quintana Roo, Mexico
River mouths generally have a complex, dynamic
morphology, with a high probability of natural erosion on the
banks depending on the sediment balance. River mouths and
deltas have been chosen historically by humans for settlement;
urbanisation that diminishes the natural protection of the coast
against hydro-meteorological forcing, which increases erosion.
Whilst allowing the natural morphological evolution of river
mouths to take place seems the option with least long term risk,
this rarely happens, as there is usually strong social pressure to
intervene in the natural processes in order to reduce the erosion
problem and/or avoid a natural delta migration that could
interfere with population settlements. On the Uruguayan coast,
for example, there are many cases of coastal erosion due to the
natural migration of river mouths, exacerbated by anthropogenic
actions. Several low impact engineering “solutions” has been
proposed by (Teixeira et al., 2008; Solari et al., 2014; Alonso et
al., 2014).
It is necessary to improve the research and monitoring of
estuarine areas in Latin America in order to prevent coastal
erosion at their margins. This is particularly relevant for cities
bordering estuaries, because they are exposed to rising sea level
which changes the magnitudes of tides, surges and waves.
However the underlying, longer-term (decadal) issue is how
estuarine bathymetries will adjust to these future changes
(Prandle, 2009). It is thought that coastal erosion around
estuaries will probably increase.
CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION
Frequently, urgent, short and mid- term solutions are
implemented with insufficient information, thereby increasing
the cost of the long term erosion solution (e.g., Lopez, 2014).
However, in recent years there has been an effort to characterise
coastal systems before any important anthropogenic intervention
is carried out. (e.g., Vidal-Juárez et al., 2014). Also, in a few
instances, state of the art techniques are being employed (e.g.,
Araruna Júnior et al., 2014) to capture the necessary
information.
Regardless of the type of coast, the physical erosion
phenomena (or deposition in some cases) on Latin American
coasts are no different from those occurring in other regions of
the planet (e.g., Nor Aslinda et al., 2014; Strusińska-Correia,
2014). Coastal areas are shaped by, and their temporal and
spatial equilibria depend on, a whole range of underlying
features such as geology, climate variables (e.g., temperature,
precipitation, evapotranspiration, climatic variability), marine
processes (e.g., waves, wind, tides, storms, currents), human
activity (urbanization, beach nourishment, structures, industrial
developments, tourism), sediment transport (e.g., sources and
sinks, river discharges), conditions and characteristics of
sedimentary flows (e.g., quality and quantity of sediment
available), sea level (e.g., local variations, climate variability,
climate change, eustatic movements, tectonic activity), and the
condition of natural ecosystems such as mangroves, coastal dune
vegetation and coral reefs. However, there are certain
ecological, economic and social aspects which give a particular
character to the processes of erosion in Latin America:
Ecological importance. Four of the five most megabiodiverse
countries in the world are found in Latin America.
Trends in population growth. For the next century, the
population growth in Latin America will be the second largest in
the world and it is estimated that the coastal population in LECZ
will grow by 80%.
Coastal squeeze. Current demographic trends and a projected
sea level rise will generate a coastal squeeze resulting in the loss
of natural coastal ecosystems and a reduced resilience of the
coast.
13
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Socioeconomic development. To differing degrees, all Latin
American countries still need to improve the socioeconomic
conditions of their populations. Current demographic trends
indicate that growth will be exacerbated on the coasts and thus
development programs must consider the natural dynamics of
the coastal zone so that natural ecosystems are preserved while
human lives and infrastructure are protected. The rapid growth
of favelas, for example in Brazilian coastal cities, will lead to a
significant increase in stress on coastal ecosystems if left
unchecked (Figure 18).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This publication is one of the results of the Latin American
Regional Network global collaborative project “EXCEED Excellence Center for Development Cooperation – Sustainable
Water Management in Developing Countries” consisting of 35
universities and research centres from 18 countries on 4
continents. The authors would like to acknowledge the support
of the German Academic Exchange Service DAAD, the Centro
de Tecnologia e Geociências da Universidade Federal de
Pernambuco, the Fundação de Amparo a Ciência e Tecnologia
do Estado de Pernambuco-FACEPE and the Instituto de
Ingeniería of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México for
their participation in this EXCEED Project. Andres F. Osorio
would like to acknowledge project number 1118-569-34826 of
Colciencias.
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