Imagery as Argument in Milton`s Areopagitica

Transcription

Imagery as Argument in Milton's Areopagitica
Author(s): JOHN X. EVANS
Source: Texas Studies in Literature and Language, Vol. 8, No. 2 (Summer 1966), pp. 189-205
Published by: University of Texas Press
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JOHN X. EVANS
in Milton'sAreopagitica
Imageryas Argument
IF MILTON HAD NOT SURVIVED THE RESTORATION AND LIVED TO WRITE
his greatpoems,the worldof letterswould be considerably
poorer.
Milton'splace in history
wouldbe secureas a resultof
Nevertheless,
landmarkin
a conspicuous
his earlierworks,especiallyAreopagitica^
forindividualrightsand humandignity.
thehistory
of man'sstruggle
As a protestagainstcensorship
and legislatedmorality,
Areopagitica
standsbesideMill's essayOn Libertyand Thoreau's"Civil Disobedience,"andrankswithbothinpowerandinfluence.
is imliterature
To thestudentof seventeenth-century
Areopagitica
a classicof
portantforanotherreason.It is a rhetorical
masterpiece,
of Areopagitica^
and at the
its kind.The rhetoric
farmoreeffective
same timemuchlessalienatingthantherhetoric
of Milton'spolitical
of surpassing
skill.One findsin theessaya
tracts,is an achievement
of
formidable
truly
array seventeenth-century
tropes,1each used to
none
with
so
but
much
deliberation
and successas the
good effect,
which
are
drawn
from
most
the
familiar
areas of human
metaphors,
and
death; comdisease,medicine,
experience birth,life,nutrition,
2 and from
darkness
verand
worked-out
merce;war; light
carefully
1 The moreobvious
tropesare reductioad absurdum,sarcasmus,licentia,pronominatio,antonomásia,periphrasis,interrogatio,contentio,paradox, exclamattOy
expeditio,conclusio,sermocinatio,demonstration
exemplum,parenthesis,
hypallage,euphemismus,paraenesis,apodixis,propositio,encomium,epitheton,
anaphora,anadiplosis,definitio,translatio,analogia, prosopopoeia,distinctio,diand argumentfromauthority.
visioy
2 What RosemondTuve said about
imageryin Milton's early poetryapplies
here as well: "Milton chose no temporary,
culture-bound
symbols;he wrotein
thathad held men'sfeelingsand theirconceptionsof good and evil fortwo
figures
thousandyears,or in imagesthatpresentedsimplestdesiresand primaryhumane
ideals,or in symbolsthatspokethroughone of theworld'sgreatreligionsof mysteriesand needsthatall religionsspeakof" (Images and Themesin Five Poems by
Milton[Cambridge,Massachusetts,
1957],p. 9) .
In thecase of Areopagitica,Miltonhad to use imagesimpressiveenoughto influenceseveralpolitico-religious
Erastians,and Ingroups- mainlyPresbyterians,
- withoutalienatingany one faction.Milton realized that discretion
dependents
limitedhis choice of figures,and he selectedimages that literarytraditionhad
made imposingand respectable.He knewthattheseimagescould not recoverall
his basic arguthe intellectualand emotionalconsenthe mightlose in presenting
mentsand thatin some instancestheymighteven increasethe annoyanceof his
readers.But he apparentlyfeltthatthe imageswould make the evilsof licensing
so obvious that good sense would overcomehostilityand compel a change of
position.
I go
JOHN X. EVANS
bal patterns
thatpersistently
restateand dramatizeMilton'sarguments
thatinstitutional
is
and destructive.
censorshipsinister
Prominent
as thesemetaphors
a thorough
are,no onehasyetprovided
of
the
contribution
make
to
Milton's
Gilman
said
study
they
argument.
about
in
structure
his
rhetoric.
of
Milton's
nothing
study
metaphoric
Even in hissectionon "patheticproof,"thelogicalplace to discussthe
effectiveness
of the imagery,
he virtually
ignoredit. Banksidentified
the imagesand classified
but
biohis
concern
was exclusively
them,
He
examined
the
to
discover
Milton's
graphical.
imagery
principalin"his
and
his
likes
and
hisknowlterests, preoccupations beliefs,
dislikes,
or
hisexperience
orlackofit,in short,hispersonality"
edge ignorance,
(p. xii). Aware as he was of its artisticand rhetorical
value,Banks
choseto leave thatside of Milton'simageryto otherscholars.Alan
Pricewas thefirst
thesysteand,to date,theonlyscholarto investigate
maticuse ofimagery
in Areopagitica?
His essay,"IncidentalImagery
in Areopagitica"identifies
severalrecurrent
patternsof imagery
thosedrawnfromphysiology,
warfare,disease,and light-darkness
and thereby
alertsthereaderto theirsignificance.
However,as histitle
indicatesat theoutset,Priceunderestimated
thevalue oftheimagery.
For himit was an extremely
effective
bya
polemicaldevicefashioned
brilliant
:
"Milton's
mind
is
method,then, poetic;he
poetic
(p. 222)
universalizes
the particular,
evokingvividlyand accuratelythe individualstate,and at thesame timetransfiguring
it,so thatthewider,
shines
as
enduringsignificance
through."Right he obviouslywas in
thisevaluation,Pricefailedto claimfortheimagery
thefullmeasure
of conceptualimportance
it certainly
in
he sold his
has, and, effect,
short.
Milton's
to
is
it
seems
not
topic
me,
incidental;it is
imagery,
essentialto the development
of his argumentand formsa rhetorical
structure
offargreatercomplexity
thanPrice'sessaydemonstrates.
In thisstudyI proposeto showhoweach sequencecontributes
in its
ownwayto thedevelopment
ofMilton'sarguments.
It willbe obvious
thatI considerthesemetaphors
to be something
morethancleverembellishments
intended
tosatisfy
thereadersappetiteforwitandrhetoric.
I regardthesepatterns
as parathematic
whichnotonlyadd
statements,
dramaticemphasisto a context,
butconceptualize
it in different
terms,
and thereby
fortheabsenceoftheargument
forsephelpcompensate
arationof churchand state,whichMiltondid notuse forfearof anthe Erastians,a factionthathad supportedthe Licensing
tagonizing
3 WilburE. Gilman,Milton'sRhetoric:Studiesin the
Defenseof Liberty(Colombia, Missouri, 1939); Theodore H. Banks, Milton's Imagery (New York,
1950); Alan Price, "Incidental Imageryin Areopagitica" Modern Philology,
XLIX (1952), 217-222.
Imageryas Argument
ιgι
Order,and yetwas themostlikelyof anygroupto changeitsposition
ifpresented
withtherightreasons.4
aftera closeexamination
ofAreopagitica
onecan construct
Certainly
a veryconvincing
but the imagery.
argumentby ignoringeverything
looks
this
:
have a lifeof
the
like
books
summarized, argument
Briefly
theirown,and thisis thelifeof reason,man'shighestfacultyand the
of hisbeing;to suppressa good bookis to destroy
primeendowment
thatmuchofthe author'sreasonas existsin thebookand to destroy
reasonis to killtheimageof God reflected
in man; booksbringnew
formsof knowledgeand truthintothe world,sustainthe lifeof the
ofthecommonwealth
to themoraldevelopment
mind,and contribute
;
somebooksare contaminated
witherrorand spreadit abroad,but,by
and large,booksstrengthen
and preservebody and soul; the 1643
statuteis a perilmuchmorepernicious
thananyhereticalbook,forit
to an agencyof
encouragesa man to turnoverhis moralobligations
to ignorethedivineinjunction
to justify
and theopportunities
licensers,
and to relaxhis defenses
such
be it
himself,
evil;
against
conformity,
or forced,congealsthe spirituallifeand preventsany revoluntary
sponsetodivineinspiration.
Even iflicensing
couldholdoffevil,whichit cannotdo, manwould
be no morepleasingto God, forunassayedvirtue,ensconcedbehind
is not virtueat all. Such fortifications,
shutup
protective
legislation,
out
and
truth
as
well
a
darkness
and
tightagainstsin,keep light
impose
thatgraduallyweakensintellectual
awarenessand moralvision.
To Miltontheissueinvolvedmuchmorethanprinciple;he consideredlicensing
an evilthatthreatened
inparticular
literature
and moralin
and
he
feared
for
not
but for
ity general,
only his contemporaries
futuregenerations
thatwouldfollowhisowntowarda timewhenthe
fromthepastonlybythemorepropresentwouldbe distinguishable
foundgloomofgreaterignoranceand greatererror.
At the heart of Milton'sargumentis his convictionthat books
are therepository
ofhumanreason,theimageofGod in man and the
thatputsmanat thehead ofall temporal
nearestto God
faculty
things,
and theangelsinthegreatchainofbeing.5
He warns(p. 492) that"unlessewarinesse
be us'd,as goodalmostkilla Man as killa good Book;
whokillsa Man killsa reasonablecreature. . . buthe whodestroys
a
goodBooke,killsreasonitselfe,killstheImageofGod as itwerein the
over
eye." As the languageindicates,Miltonviewedthe controversy
4 See
Areopagitica:A Speech of Mr. JohnMilton (London, 1644), ed. Ernest
Sirluck,in the CompleteProse Worksof JohnMilton, II (New Haven, 1959),
176-177.All quotationsfromAreopagiticaare fromthisedition.
ö See ParadiseLost, 470-490.
V,
192
JOHN X. EVANS
licensingas, quite literally,a matterof life (intellectualand spiritual)
and death,and the interrelated
metaphoricpatternsof Areopagiticareiteratethisconcernthroughouttheessay.
The locus of thesepatternsappears at the beginningof the argument
(p. 492 ) , whereMiltonremindshisaudience that
Booksare not absolutelydead things,but do containa potencyof lifein
themto be as activeas thatsoul was whoseprogenytheyare; nay theydo
of thelivingintellect
and extraction
preserveas in a vial thepurestefficacy
thatbredthem.I knowtheyare as lively,and as vigorously
productiveas
thosefabulousDragonsteeth;and beingsownup and down,maychanceto
springup armedmen.6
The radical metaphorof Areopagitica,the lifefigure,proceedsfrom
thisstatement.Throughoutthe essay Milton comparesbooks to living
things,which are variously"the living labours of publick men" (p.
493), "the issue of the brain" (p. 505), "man's intellectualoffspring"
(p. 505 ) , and "the orphanremaindersof worthiestmen" (p. 534) .
Milton tactfullyconcedes (p. 492) thatbecause books have a lifeof
theirown the churchand the commonwealthmust"have a vigilanteyç
to confine,
how booksdemean themselvesas well as men; and thereafter
But the
malefactors."
them
as
on
and
do
the
justice
sharpest
imprison,
and
book
with
treat
a
of
must
care,
prudence
good
guardians society
for it is "the pretious life-bloodof a master spirit,imbalm'd and
treasur'dup on purposeto a lifebeyondlife" (p. 493 ) . Censorshipand
suppression,inevitableconsequencesof licensing,endangerthe life of
reasonpreservedin books.A second image,the death figure,an integral
part of the basic metaphoriccomplex, describesthe threat in very
dramaticterms(p. 493) :
we raiseagainstthelivinglabours
We shouldbe wary. . . whatpersecution
of publickmen,how we spillthatseason'dlifeof man preserv'dand stor'd
sometimes
up in Books; sincewe see a kindeofhomicidemaybe committed,
a kindeofmassacre,
a martyrdome,
and ifitextendto thewholeimpression,
whereofthe executionends not in the slayingof an elementalllife,but
strikesat thatetherealland fiftessence,the breathof reasonit selfe,slays
an immortalitie
ratherthana life?
It is not in the least accidentalthatthe precedingpassage is the tran6 As Sirlucknotes(p. 492 n.), a likelysourceis Bacon's AdvancementofLearning (I, viii,6) : "The imagesof men'switsand knowledgesremainin books,exemptedfromthewrongof timeand capable of perpetualrenovation.Neitherare
theyfitlyto be called images,because theygeneratestill,and cast theirseeds in
the mindsof others,provokingand causinginfiniteactionsand opinionsin succeedingages."
7 The italicshereand in otherquotedpassagesare mine.
Imageryas Argument
ι93
sitionbetweenthe introductionand the firstmain divisionof the argument,which associates licensingwith the evils of the Inquisition and
describesthe similarities
betweenthe two. In developingthispart of the
Milton
argument
pointedlygroups togetherlicensing,the Inquisition,
and death,and stressestheiroppositionto books,the lifeof reason,and
God. He contraststhe tyrannyof the Inquisitionwiththe wisdomand
justice of formerages, when a book survivedat least long enough for
societyto decide itsfate (p. 505) : "Then Books were ever as freelyadmittedinto the World as any otherbirth;the issue of the brain was no
morestifl'dthenthe issueof the womb; no enviousJunosate cros-leg'd
over the nativityof any mans intellectualoffspring; but if it prov'd a
Monster,who denies,but thatit was justlyburnt,or sunkintothe Sea?"
Milton uses anothernatal image in the second part of the treatiseto remind his audience that "out of the rinde of one apple tasted . . . the
knowledgeof good and evill,as two twinsclingingtogether,leapt forth
intothe World" (p. 514) , and grewup so inseparablythatno proscription can sunderthem.A thirdsuch figureappears in the thirdpart of
the argument(p. 530), which convincinglydescribesthe hopelesstask
confrontingevery licenser: "He who is made judge to sit upon the
birthor death of books,whethertheymay be waftedinto thisworld or
not,had need to be a man above the commonmeasure,both studious,
learned, and judicious." The metaphoraccentuatesthe extraordinary
of the licenser,and at the same time suggeststhe scarcity
responsibility
ofsuch men as can conscientiously
and successfully
meetthe demandsof
theoffice.
Two othermetaphoricsequencesare directlyrelatedto thelife-death
complex. In the second main divisionof his argumentMilton concedes
thefallibility
ofthepostlapsarianmindand theexistenceoferror,which
he comparesto disease in itsvirulence.Milton refusesto underestimate
the prevalenceof error- a personcould contractit fromthe Bible itself
(p. 517) : "... forthatofttimesrelatesblasphemynot nicely[and] describesthe carnall sense of wicked men not unelegantly."Nor does he
denythaterroris recurrentand highlycontagious,beingtransmitted
by
thebestand worstof men,the latterbeing "mostable and mostdiligent
to instillthe poison theysuck" (p. 518). Milton admits,too, that the
writersofantiquity"withwhomis bound up thelifeofhumanlearning"
are the source of greatestinfection.When readinghis summary,however,which Milton builds around the disease imagery,one realizesthat
he gainsmorethanhe givesup (p. 520) :
thatthosebooks,& thosein greatestabundancewhichare
Seeingtherefore
likeliestto taintbothlifeand doctrine,cannotbe supprestwithoutthefall
194
JOHNX. EVANS
of learning,and of all abilityin disputation
; and thatthosebooksof either
sortare mostand soonestcatchingto thelearned,fromwhomto thecommon people whateveris hereticallor dissolutemay quicklybe converfd;
and that evill mannersare as perfectly
learntwithoutbooksa thousand
otherwayswhichcannotbe stopt... I am not able to unfold,how this
cautelousenterprise
of licencingcan be exemptedfromthenumberofvain
and impossibleattempts.
Milton's point,forcefully
made as it is, sets offthe delayed implicationsof the image pattern,which at firstseems to confirmthe apprehensionsand argumentsof his opposition.Milton acknowledgesthe
presenceof danger and the possibilityof contamination,but he insists
thattherecentlyprescribedcure is notonlyimpracticable,but farworse
than the disease, forthe body of learningitselfwill inevitablydecline
and die if not sustainedby the unrestricted
labors of men devoted to
thesearchfortruth.
As he articulatesa relatedpoint (p. 521) Milton uses a relatedsephysics): not to all men
quence of figures(fromseventeenth-century
are convictedbooks"temptationsnor vanities,but [to thejudiciousthey
are] usefulldrugsand materiallswherewithto temperand compose effectiveand strongmed'cinswhich mans lifecannot want. The rest,as
childrenand childishmen,who have not the art to qualifie [compound
in therightproportions]and preparetheseworkingmintheingredients
eralls,well may be exhortedto forbear,but hinder'dforciblytheycannot be by all the licencingthat Sainted Inquisitioncould ever yetcontrive."These works,then,need not infectthe reader.To the contrary,
a judiciousperson
and strengthening
theyhave thefacultyof preserving
in mindand spirit8and, ifwe may followtheprobablebias of an earlier
context(p. 520; pp. 193-194 above), resistanceto indecentliterature
mighteven immunize a reader against the infectionof greaterevils
incubatingin the future.
In thesecondof thefourdivisionsof Milton'sargumenthe introduces
a comparativelylong analogy (p. 512) that is clearlypart of the life
ofthemind
sequencein thatit maintainsthatbooksare thenourishment
:
of
of
the
whole
and, byimplication,
body learning
butall kindeof
To thepureall thingsare pure,notonlymeatsand drinks,
knowledgewhetherof good or evill; theknowledgecannotdefile,norconsequentlythebooks,ifthewilland consciencebe notdefiPd.For booksare
as meatsand viandsare; someof good someof evil substance.. . . Whole8 Compare Samson Agonistes(184-186): "Apt wordshave power to swage/
wounds."
The tumoursof a troubledmind,/ And are as balm to festered
Imageryas Argumentin Milton'sAreopagitica
195
some meats to a vitiatedstomach differlittleor nothingfromunwholesome;
and bestbooksto a naughtymindare notunappliableto occasionsofevill.9
The analogy assumesa relationshipbetweentruthand the mindthat
is as naturaland stableas therelationshipbetweenfood and thebody: a
healthybody rejectstaintedfood,so does a virtuousmindrejecterror.10
This part of the analogy, although sufficiently
instructive,is hardly
Milton's
audience
doubtless
original.
expected that the rest of the
run
a
would
analogy
straightcourse, comparingthe ill effectsof bad
books and bad food. Abruptly,however,the comparisonstops with
an importantdistinction,the rhetoricalforceof which depends on the
of the commonplaceimagerythatlies behindit (pp.
verypredictability
512-513):
Bad meatswillscarce breedgood nourishment
in the healthiestconcocbut
herein
the
is
bad
that
tion;
books,
difference of
theyto a discreetand
Reader
in
serve
to
to
judicious
manyrespects discover, confute,to forewarn,
and to illustrate.
Milton's claim that even bad books can have good effectsassumesthe
possibilityof good coming out of evil, and in this looks ahead to his
conceptof the fortunatefall,which accounts formostof the optimism
of Paradise Lost. While explaining that bad books challenge the integrityof the reader, compellinghim to call on his own sensibility,
judgment,and virtue,insteadof relyingon thestrengthof an alien conscience,Milton is clearlyappealing to the intellectualand religiousconvictionsof seventeenth-century
Englishmen,who are once more reminded of the conflictbetween the authoritarianismof the Roman
Catholic Church and the far more tolerantpolicies of English Protestantism,which had long upheld the primacy of the individual conscience. Milton gives this point special emphasis at the end of the
analogy (p. 513) :
I conceive,therefore,
thatwhen God did enlargethe universalldiet of
mansbody,savingevertherulesof temperance,
he thenalso,as before,left
9 This
figureprobablyhas itsgenesisin Paolo Sarpi's Historieof the Council of
of a
Trent,trans.NathanielBrent(London, 1620), VI, 475: "For theprohibition
Booke, is as the prohibitionof a meate,which is not a sentenceagainstit, nor
againsthim thathathpreparedit,but a preceptto him thatis to use it,made by
himwho has the chargeof his health.. . . For howsoeverthebookemaybee good
in it selfe,yetperadventure
it maynotagree to theinfirmitie
of the mindsof this
age."
See Milton'sCommonplaceBook in theCompleteProse Works,I (New Haven,
1953), 451 n.
10On this
pointsee ResterSvendsen,Milton and Science (Cambridge,Massachusetts,1956), pp. 186-187.
I96
JOHNX. EVANS
thedyetingand repastingof our minds;as whereineverymature
arbitrary
man mighthave to exercisehisowneleadingcapacity.
The analogyimplicitlyrestatestheneed to observenaturaland moral
law, both of which promiseimmediatereward if obeyed (order and
harmony) or punishmentifbroken (degenerationand death) . It is apparentby thistimethatthe figuredoes morethan ornamenthis original
point that the best of books can no more cure a soul diseased than the
bestof foodscan restorea sickbody.The analogyrelatesthe immediate
issue of licensingto the whole problem of human knowledgeand the
limitsofman's intellectualworld,whichAdam, Raphael, and Milton,as
attendantspirit,discussat greatlengthand finallyresolvein Book VIII
of Paradise Lost. The figureand the idea drawn throughit are perfectlyconsistentwith Milton's orthodoxyin Paradise Lost. It reaffirms
the importanceof harmonyin the materialand the intellectualorders,
and it in no way conflicts
withRaphael's warningin Paradise Lost (VII,
in
terms
that make it seem a logical extensionof
126-130), expressed
theconceptdevelopedin Areopagitica:
Knowledgeis as food,and needsno less
Her temperanceoverAppetite,to know
In measurewhatthemindmaywell contain,
OppresseselsewithSurfeit,and soonturns
Wisdomto Folly,as Nourishment
to Wind.
However carefulMilton is in each case, he makesclear his conviction
thatman, as a creaturemade in God's image,has a rightto seekKnowledge withinthe "just Circumference"traced by God and that it is the
not the knowledge,of evil thatis reprehensible(pp. 513performance,
514) : "For thoseactionswhichenterinto a man, ratherthan issueout
of him,and thereforedefilenot,God uses not to captivateundera perbut trustshimwiththegiftofreasonto
petual childhoodofprescription,
be hisown chooser."11
11Milton later
(p. 525) turnsfromimage to currentrealityin remindinghis
audiencethatno one has proposeda law to prohibitdrinkand therebyeliminate
drunkenness
he writes,"will be, and must
("householdgluttony").Drunkenness,
be" unless Parliamentcan "inhibitthe multitudesthat frequentthose houses
wheredrunk'nesis sold and harbour'd"(p. 525). Miltonknewthatnot even the
sternestreformers
would advocateprohibition
and surrender
theiruse of drinkin
orderto assurethe sobrietyof others.(See Sirluck'snote,pp. 525-526, on this
of thispassagewithan apparentlyantithetical
paspointand on thereconciliation
sage in Tetrachordon.)He allows the readerto ponderthe similaritiesbetween
licensingand censorshipand to ask whysomelegislatorsproposeto regulatebooks
and ideas whentheseare as muchwithinthe provinceof individualresponsibility
as are foodand drink.
Imageryas Argument
197
II
the essay
carefulreaderof Areopagitica
As a reasonably
discovers,
ofthepressandreligious
freedom
hastwobasicconcerns,
(which,
liberty
freedomof inquiryand freecirunrestricted
forMilton,presupposed
are
his arguments
culationof ideas). Like the principles
themselves,
relevant
to
the
is
in
of
one
what
writes
defense
interactive
he
usually
- but thereis a pointin the essay(the beginning
of thefourth
other
will
order
be "thedissection[p. 530], whicharguesthatthelicensing
of all learningand thestopoftruth")wherehisinterest
couragement
withthistransition
Coincident
shifts
tothesecondissue,religious
liberty.
- commercial,
and lightis the appearanceof new figures
military,
- whichformclustersMiltonplainlyreserved
forthis
darkness
images
and
of
I
indicate
of
As
the
death,
diet,
life,
below,
images
argument.
part
- so closeto the new
birthdo appear at crucialpointsin thissection
figuresthatone realizestheyare thereto emphasizethe connection
- buttheyare fewin numberand do not
betweenthetwomainissues
sectionsof
of thekindfoundin thepreceding
formdefinitive
patterns
theessay.
Miltonusesa variationofthedietfigure(pp. 542-543) in charging
willsustainerrorand schismbyinvesting
themwithreputhatlicensing
ofwitsenhauncestheirautority"
tation( "thepunishing
) , and thatby
or prevent
of
will
the
circulation
books
and
it
inhibit
ideas,
preventing
weaker
ifnotever
the
which
is
of
ever
altogether growth truth,
growing
to
mother
"This
therefore
a
order
stronger:
mayprove nursing
growing
:
and
but
I
shall
shew
how
it
will
a
to
Truth
be step-dame
sects,
easily
first
us tothemaintenance
ofwhatis knownalready."
bydisinabling
The natal image,in combination
witha deathimage,occursagain
in anothercontextthaturgesa vigilantand protective
attitudetoward
likeChrista creatureofdivineoriginand likeChrista victimof
truth,
humantreachery
(p. 549) :
Truthindeedcame once intotheworldwithherdivineMaster,and was a
perfectshape most gloriousto look on: but when he ascended,and his
Apostlesafterhim werelaid asleep,thenstraitarose a wickedrace of deceivers,who . . . tookthe virginTruth,hewdherlovelyformintoa thousand peeces,and scatter'
d themto thefourwinds.
Miltongoeson to insistthatcensorship
is an unreasonable
obstacleto
ofTruth,"whomustlimit
learningand learnedmen,"thesad friends
theirsearchforherunrecovered
limbsto secureareas,and, at theexpenseofsuccess,shunpromising
placesconsidered
dangerous
byofficicustodians
ofnationalmorality.
allydesignated
198
JOHN X. EVANS
At thispointMiltonrecastsoneoftheearlymetaphors
to remindthe
Parliament
thatthesearchfortruthis a holyendeavorno manhas the
: "Suffer
nottheselicencing
tostandat every
righttothwart
prohibitions
of
and
them
that continue
place
forbidding disturbing
opportunity,
our
to
that
continue
to
do
the
torn
seeking,
obsequies
bodyof our
d
Saint"12
martyr"
Thenin oneoftheboldeststatements
tobe foundinAreopagitica
(p.
and
Milton
to
and
reactionaries,
550),
points rigid-minded timorous
chargesthattheyare farmoredangerousto thelifeof the commonwealththanare scholarsand writers
actively
engagedin thepursuitof
in thebodyimage): "Theyare
and truth(again objectified
knowledge
the troublers,
theyare the dividersof unity,who neglectand permit
notothersto unitethosedissevered
pieceswhichare yetwantingto the
bodyofTruth"
The first
ofthenewseriesoffigures,
thecommercial
images,reproach
who
not onlythe censorsbut everylegislator
and everyEnglishman
measure
to
the
wouldreducetruthto thelevelofa commodity
subject
and appraisalofa committee
ofstandards.
Miltonwarnsthatcensors,
likemerchants
and loss,would
dead toeverything
buttheidealofprofit
demandin return
calculable
fortheinvestment
oftheirtimeand virtue,
of
evidenceofreform
to
notions
their
morality.
corresponding
personal
Undersuchconditions
menwouldfinditverydiffigiftedand virtuous
cultindeedto pass through
theeyeof a censor'sneedle.Miltonforeseesas theinevitable
resulta nationofmencraftily
goodbutspiritually
to
sell
their
for
Christian
dead,willing
birthright legalscript.
The firstcommercial
figureappearsas partof a negativedefinition
thatcastsmoredoubtonthefeasibility
ofthelawandonthecompetence
arenotsuch
ofitssponsors(pp. 535-536) : "Truthand understanding
and
statutes
waresas to be monopoliz'dand tradedin by ticketsand
knowlofall
We mustnotthinktomakea staplecommodity
standards.
edgein theLand,to markand licenceitlikeourbroadcloath,and our
woollpacks."
in the
Similarimagesfurnish
thesubstanceof a striking
exemplum
fourth
sectionoftheessay,whereMiltonexposestheevilnatureofthe
statuteand condemnsit as a gravedangerto theindividual
licensing
who willbe temptedto surrender
Christian,
up his moralobligations
andseparatehimself
fromhisreligion(p. 544) :
and to findhimto giveovertoyling,
Whatdoeshe therefore,
butresolvs
thewholemanselfoutsomfactor,
hemaycommit
towhosecareandcredit
12
to
forTruth'ssake/ Is fortitude
Cp. ParadiseLost,XII, 569-570: "Suffering
highestvictory."
Imageryas Argument
ι99
thatmust
agingof his religiousaffairs;som Divine of noteand estimation
be. To him he adheres,resignsthe wholeware-houseof his religion,with
all the locksand keyesintohis custody;and indeedmakestheveryperson
of thatman his religion.... So thata man maysayhis religionis now no
morewithinhimself,
butis becoma dividuallmovable,and goesand comes
neerhim,accordingas thatgood man frequents
thehouse.. . . His religion
comes home at night,praies,is liberallysupt, and sumptuously
laid to
sleep,rises,is saluted,and afterthemalmsey... hisReligionwalksabroad
at eight,and leavs his kindentertainer
in theshoptradingall day without
his religion.
The implicationsare clear enough: theman in themetaphor,bysubhas forfeitedhis prospectsof salcontractinghis moral responsibilities,
vation, and all the world's licenserscannot redeem this loss for him.
The nextparagraphintroducesa confederatefigure:
Anothersorttherebe, who whentheyhear thatall thingsshallbe order'd,
all thingsregulatedand setFd;nothingwritt'nbutwhatpassesthroughthe
custom-house
of certainPublicansthathave thetonagingand poundaging
of all free-spok'ntruth,will straitgive themselvesup into your hands,
mak'em& cut'em out whatreligionyeplease.
Condemnedhereis religionwithoutreligiousfervor,compliancewithout commitment,formwithoutmeaning. It is the old oppositionbetweenChristianrighteousness
and theimperfect
law ( "Law can discover
sin, but not remove" [Paradise Lost, XII, 290]), a conflictthat the
licensinglaw would renew at the expense of truth,mankind'srichest
commodity.
A common arbitratedmoralitywas an anguishingprospectforMilton, who embraced the Puritan concept of justificationthroughindividual faith, a principle that presupposed a personal, unmediated
relationshipbetween man and God, and decisivelyrejected ecclesiastical intervention,
which mightsuppressthe occasional heresybut not
withoutjeopardizingall intellectualinitiativeand creativescholarship,
all imaginativepreachingand religiouszeal.13
In a propheticquestionnear the end of thissection (p. 558), Milton
recaststhe commoditymetaphorto insistthat an agencyof censors,establishedto regulateand dispensemorality,would have a virtualmonopolyon thestaplesoflearningand truth,and iftheyprovedincompetentor unjust stewards,would endangerthe intellectualand spiritual
welfareof the commonwealth: "Should ye set an Oligarchyof twenty
ingrossers[wholesalers]over it [the harvestof knowledge]to bring a
13Cf. Paradise Lost,
XII, 287-314; "Of the Gospel and ChristianLiberty,"De
DoctrinaChristiana,I, 27.
200
JOHNX. EVANS
butwhatis
faminuponourmindsagain,whenwe shallknownothing
measur'dtousbytheirbushel?"
The nextgroupofimages,military
images,appearsto greatadvanwhereMiltonwarnsthatthe
in
the
last
section
of
tage
Areopagitica,
will
true
in hisstruggle
order
hinder
the
Christian
licensing
warfaring
of God. He
to justify
himself
and
the
enemies
by meeting overcoming
reminds
is alwaysan evil,buttemphisaudienceagainthatcensorship
tationmaybe construed
becauseit provides
theoccasionfor
a blessing,
a man to testhis moralstrength
his
and (like Abdiel) demonstrate
allegiancetoGod.14
military
Througha precisely
analogyMiltonclaimsthata
wrought
willbe farmorealert
pastorforcedtorelyuponhisownmoralresources
and watchfulthan he would be if secondedby a forceof guardian
censors(p. 547) :
ifhis
If hisrearand flanks
be notimpaPd[protected
bya fenceofstakes],
backdorebenotsecur'dbytherigidlicencer,
butthata boldbookmaynow
and thenissueforth,
and givetheassaultto someof hisold collections
himthento
itwillconcern
andreference
[sermons
books]in theirtrenches,
abouthis
tostandinwatch,tosetgoodguardsandsentinells
keepwaking,
receiv'dopinions,
towalktheroundandcounter-round
withhisfellowinlestanyof hisflockbe seduc't,whoalso thenwouldbe
spectors,
fearing
better
better
exercis'd
and disciplin'd.
instructed,
The principal
ofMilton's
ofthisanalogyis a restatement
implication
is the bestmeansof safeprincipalargument:an activeintelligence
lifeofa
at one and thesametimethereligious
guardingand enriching
or a commonwealth.
Severalparagraphslaterhe
man,a community,
of
mostfromtheprohibitions
declaresthatthepeoplewho willsuffer
and
source
of
are
themselves
the
best
spiritlicensing
protection
possible
ual renewal(p. 554) : "The shopofwarrehathnottheremoreanvils
and hammerswaking,to fashiontheplates[platearmor]and instrumentsof armedJusticein defenceof beleagur'dTruth,thentherebe
pensand heads. . . sitting
by theirstudiouslamps,musing,searching,
wherewith
topresent
new
notions
and
ideas
. . . theapproachrevolving
in searchof
scholar
the
Here
the
not
Reformation."
is
only pilgrim
ing
and
truthbuttheMilesChristianus
the
armor
of
salvation
by
protected
be
of
There
enemies
and
man.
can
the
God
to
do
battle
ready
against
14See theDe DoctrinaChristiana(I, 8) on thissubject: "A good temptation
is
thatwherebyGod temptseventhe righteousforthepurposeof provingthem,not
as thoughhe wereignorantof the dispositionof theirhearts,but forthe purpose
of exercising
theirfaithor patience,as in thecase of Abrahamand
or manifesting
Job." Isn't thispreciselythe reasonthatGod allowed Satan to temptChrist(as
ParadiseRegainedsuggests)?
Imageryas Argumentin Milton'sAreopagitica
201
littledoubtthatMiltondesignedeveryone of the martialimagesto
remindhis audienceof the "armaturamysticaChristiana"
of St. Paul
6:
which
before
the
of
(Ephesians 13-18),
long
writing Areopagitica
had becomea partoftheRenaissanceliterary
tradition.15
Therecan be
littledoubteitherthatMiltonfoundin EphesianswhateverScriptural
he thought
to justify
hisdisapprovalof a "fugitive
authority
necessary
andcloister'd
unexercis'd
&
thatneversalliesoutand
vertue,
unbreath'd,
seesheradversary,
butslinksoutoftherace,wherethatimmortall
garlandistobe runfor."
Miltonis so confident
ofthemoralstrength
and vitality
oftheEnglishpeoplethathe findsno causeforalarmevenin schisms,
whichhe
comparesin theirvarietyto a new modelarmycomprisedof "small
dividedmaniples[platoonofRomansoldiers]cutting
at every
through
556
Milton's
of
tolerance
angleof [Satan's]unwieldy
brigade"(p.
).16
schismis certainly
but
it
is
means
no
unreasonable.
unconventional,
by
It is,in fact,whollyconsistent
withhisbeliefthatin fighting
God's war
evil
each
Christian
use
of
his
own
against
may
weapons
choosing.As
he insists
in theDe DoctrinaChristiana( I. 27) , the"perfect
law oflibfreed
man
"from
the
of
human
much
moreof
erty"
yoke
judgements,
civildecreesandpenalties
inreligious
matters."
Miltonreassures
thetimidand thedoubtful
thatthosewhostruggle
underthebannerof Truthhave littleto fear(p. 561) : "Let herand
Falsehoodgrapple;whoeverknewTruthputto thewors,in a freeand
open encounter";and he deploysanothermilitary
metaphorin adParliamentthattheyinsultthebestof menand repudiate
monishing
truthitselfwhentheyenjointheirsubjectsto knownothingbut by
statuteand to surrender
theirintelligence
to ignobleadversaries
who
refuse
tomeettheminpublicdebate( p. 562) :
Whena manhathbinlabouring
thehardest
labourin thedeepminesof
hathfurnished
out his findings
in all theirequipage,drawn
knowledge,
forth
hisreasons
as itwerea battellraung'd,
scatter'd
anddefeated
all obintotheplain,offers
himthe
jectionsin hisway,callsout hisadversary
ofwindand sun,ifhe please;onlythathe maytrythematter
advantage
dint
of
forhisopponents
thentosculk,tolayambushments,
by
argument;
15Samuel Chew's last book on
iconography,The Pilgrimageof Life (New
Haven, 1962), givesnumerousinstancesof thePauline armorin Englishliterature
of theRenaissance(pp. 140-143).
15rive
yearslaterMiltonwas even moreemphatic: "I neverknewthattimein
England,when men of truestReligionwere not countedSectaries: but wisdom
now,valor,justice,constancy,prudenceunitedand imbodiedto defendReligion
and our Liberties,bothby wordand deed againsttyranny,
is countedSchismand
faction"(Prefaceto Eikonoklastes,
in The WorksofJohnMilton,V ([New York,
1932],p. 73).
202
JOHN X. EVANS
to keep a narrowbridgeof licencingwherethe challengershouldpasse,
is butweaknesand cowardise
thoughitwerevalouranoughin soldiership,17
in thewarsof Truth.
Miltonthencalls up othermartialimages,insistingagain that"Truth
is strongnext to the Almighty[and] needs no policies,nor stratagems,
nor licencingsto make her victorious,those are the shiftsand the defencesthaterrorusesagainstherpower."18
The militarytermspolarized around the two referencesto licensing
(sculk,to hide [thewordhas thedisparagingconnotationofcowardice];
ambushments,concealed dispositionsof troopswaiting to surprisean
enemy; policiesycraftytricks;stratagems,artificesforobtainingan adstratagems)are
vantage,tricksto surprisean enemy;shifts,subterfuges,
in that theycarryMilton's contemptuousinsinuespeciallynoteworthy
ation thatlicensingis not onlyoffensive
to devoutChristianscholarsbut
a disgraceto theentirenation,long famousforitscourage and integrity,
and alwaysreadyto face an enemyin fairfight.
Images of lightand darknessconstitutethe last metaphoricsequence
conspicuousenoughto requirediscussionhere.These figures,extremely
importantin themselvesbecause theysymbolizethe universalconflict
betweenthe forcesof good and evil,truthand falsehood,19
recapitulate
nearlyeveryotherimage Milton uses in arguinghis case againstlicensing: lightimageryby nature and associationsuggestslife,health, regeneration,and divineinspiration;darknessin turnsuggestsdeath,sickness,decadence,and error.
All of thesefiguresappear in the fourthsection,where Milton condemns the statuteas an enemyof truthand predictsthat it will extinguishthe lamp of knowledge.The firstof theseimages aligns licensing withthe enemiesof God and learningwithtrueProtestantendeavor
(p. 548): "It [licensing]was firstestablishtand put in practice by
Antichristianmalice and mystery,on set purpose to extinguish,if it
were possible,the lightof Reformation,and to settlefalsehood." The
nextfigure,relatedin partto thediseaseimagery,conveysMilton'swarn. 17Soldiership/shouldiership
1644.
is VerylikelyMilton tookthisfigurefromanotherattackon the 1643 statute,
WilliamWalwyn'sCompassionateSamaritane(pp. 55-56), whichappeared four
or fivemonthsbeforeAreopagitica:"Truthwas not used to fearecoulours,or to
seeke shiftsor stratagemsforits advancement!I should ratherthinkethat they
who are assuredofhershoulddesirethatall mensmouthesshouldbe open,thatso
and truthbecomemoregloriousby a victorious
errourmaydiscoverits foulnesse,
conquest after a fightin open field: they shun the battell that doubt their
to theCompleteProse Works,II, 84, 87.
See Sirluck'sIntroduction
strength."
19Examplesof thisconventionare legion.In Milton'sworksthe mostexplicit
associationsof lightand goodness,darknessand evil occurin ParadiseLost: "God
is light"(III, 3) and Hell is "darknessvisible"(I, 63) .
Imageryas Argument
203
itselfis dangerousifit is merelyan objectof coningthatknowledge
and
not
a
meanstothediscovery
ofnewtruths(p. 550) :
templation
We boastourlight;butifwe looknotwisely
on theSunitself,itsmites
us
intodarkness
. . . The lightwhichwe havegain'd,wasgivenus,nottobe
everstaring
fromour
onwardthings
moreremote
on,butbyit to discover
knowledge.
A nationthatusesitsintellectual
resources
and fastensits
unwisely
interest
on learningaccumulatedin thepastis virtually
blindto truths
thatstilllie undiscovered.
On the otherhand,a nationpermitted
to
turnitsgaze fromthepastand to takefulladvantageofitsintellectual
renewsitself,
as uanEaglemuinghermighty
freedom,
constantly
youth,
and kindling
herundazl'deyesat thefullmiddaybeam; purgingand
it selfofheav'nlyradiunsealingherlong-abused
sightat thefountain
ance" (p. 558). Withinthescopeofthismagnificent
image,whichinvitescomparison
withan earlierfigure(p. 543) opposingthe"streamoftruthtothe"muddypoolofconformity
and tradition,"
ingfountain"
- thewellof livingwaters
Miltonhas combinedthe Biblicalfountain
deathto theold lifeof sin and rebirth
in thenew lifeof
symbolizing
brillianceofdivinesplendorthatChrist's
grace- and thetranscendent
on theMountof Transfiguration.20
In fusingthese
discipleswitnessed
theunassailableauthority
ofthe
imagesMiltonclaimsforhisargument
and of Englishliterary
whichhad appropriated
Scriptures
tradition,
each figurewithoutdisturbing
the originalrelationship
betweenthe
Bothby statement
and implication,
symboland itssignification.
then,
Miltonreminds
hisaudiencethata nationseekingtruthwillfinditand
at thatmomentbe renewedliketheeagleand transfigured
likeChrist.
Contrasted
to thelightof knowledge
and itsregenerative
potentialitiesis theblindingeffect
of prejudice,whichdistorts
truth,suppresses
and
learning,and by gettingthe approvalof authority,
misrepresents
hinderstheefforts
oflearnedmen.In thefollowing
context(p. 565),
whichlinkslicensing
and prejudiceoncemore,thecastofthelight-dark
a comparison
withthediseasemetaphors
thatappear
imagery
prompts
intheforepart
oftheessay: "If itcometoprohibiting,
thereisnotought
morelikelyto be prohibited
thentruthitself;whosefirst
appearanceto
oureyesbleared21
and dimm'dwithprejudiceand custom,is moreunandunplausible
thenmanyerrors."
sightly
Miltonadmitted
theexistence
ofeviland infectious
books
Previously
and agreedthattheyrepresent
a dangerto thebodypolitic.Here he
warnsof a much greaterdanger,that of a mentality
corruptedby
20See Svendsen, 158-Γ59.
pp.
£Jölear, ν. trans.,to dim (the eyes) withtears,rheum,or inflammation.
204
JOHNX. EVANS
prejudice and blind to truth,and consequentlyunable to distinguish
betweenrightand wrong.Undeniably,the latterillnessis much more
alarmingthantheformer.
In the final stage of the argumentseveral metaphoricpatternsreappear and produce a kindof verbalreprise,obviouslydesignedto suggest the interrelationship
among the principal concepts and images
earlier
in
the
developed
essay. Milton combinesimages of birth,life,
and death in remindingParliamentthat theyare the true progenitors
of the spiritof libertyand intellectualzeal prevailingthroughoutthe
land and that theywould be cruel and unnaturalto destroytheirown
offspring
(p. 559) :
That our heartsare now morecapacious,our thoughts
moreerectedto the
searchand expectationof greatestand exactestthings,is the issueof your
ownevertupropagatedin us. Ye cannotsuppressethatunlesseyereinforce
an abrogatedand mercilesselaw, that fathersmay dispatchat will their
children.
He refersonce again to the conflictbetweenthe law, as represented
by the statute,and the spirit,as representedby scholarsseekingto find
truthwhereit existsin the world. Licensing,enacted to eliminateerror
and schism,is guiltyof the greatestof all errorsand the perpetuationof
the worstof schisms,in that it preventsdedicated men fromrestoring
and revivingthedismemberedbodyoftruth(p. 564) : "... throughour
forwardness
to suppresse,and our backwardnesto recoverany enthralTd
of
truth
out of the gripe of custom,we care not to keep truth
peece
rentand disunionofall."
whichis thefiercest
from
truth,
separated
To Miltonnothingwas moreinimicalto religiousfervorthanthisprojected unanimityof impressedsouls, all marchingto the music of the
same drummer,deaf to the temptationsof schismaticsand deaf as well
to the "strongand healthfullcommotions"thatproceed fromGod's effortsto stirhispeople to a generalreforming(p. 566 ) .
Milton has said this beforein similarterms; indeed it is one of his
strongestargumentsand we are not surprisedthatit recursas he brings
the essaytowarda conclusion.Nor are we surprisedat therecurrenceof
a familiarimage that furtherarticulatesthe point and binds it to an
antecedentargument(p. 550; p. 203 above) warningagainstobstinate
trustin thedoctrinesand disciplinesofthepast (p. 566 ) :
. . . 'tisnotuntruethatmanysectariesand falseteachersare then[in times
busiestin seducing;but yetmoretrueit is, thatGod thenraises
of reform]
not
to his own workmenofrareabilities,and morethancommonindustry
to
but
what
hath
been
look
back
and
to
revise
gain
taughtheretofore,
only
of truth.
furderand goe on somenew enlightened
stepsin thediscovery
as Argument
inMilton's
Areopagitica 205
Imagery
For such is the orderof Gods enlightning
his Church,to dispenseand
deal out bydegreeshis beam,so as ourearthlyeyesmaybestsustainit.
The lastfigure
in thisrecapitulatory
sequenceandthefinalsignificant
in
identifies
scholarsas thecustodians
image Areopagitica
contemporary
ofthisdivinelightand extolsthesingularachievements
ofthesedevoted
who
their
unlicenc't
to
the
of
men,
books,
"by
contempt an Imprimatur,
first
brokethetripleice clungaboutourhearts,and taughtthepeople
to see day" (p. 568). This metaphor,
one of Milton'smost
certainly
would seem even more audaciousif severalcrucial
striking
figures,
itand,infact,madeitinevitable.
Thissingle
imageshad notanticipated
metaphorregenerates
everyforegoing
disease,and
imageof darkness,
death- all suggested
the heartof the
by the "tripleice" constricting
- and everyimageofintellectual
commonwealth
freedom
and spiritual
- all suggested
nationalwell-being
and personalrenewal
enlightenment,
visionofa faithful
bytheheartreleasedfrombondageand therestored
God's
elect
to
walk
in
the
of
his
unfettered
truth,
people,taughtby
light
the
of
letter
human
and
from
the
law
trust, emancipated
by
imperfect
whichstandsbetweenGod andman.
ArizonaStateUniversity
Tempe

Imagery as Argument in Milton`s Areopagitica

Transcription

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