Composition and Evolution of the Lithosphere
Transcription
Composition and Evolution of the Lithosphere
Composition and Evolution of the Lithosphere Matthias G. Barth Universität Mainz MYRES II: Dynamics of the Lithosphere Contents Earth’s Layers The Earth is divided into three chemical layers: the core, the mantle and the crust Chemical & mechanical differences Like boiled egg A Geologist’s View of the Earth The outermost sublayer is the most active geologically. Large scale geological processes occur, including earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain building and the creation of ocean basins. The Lithosphere Greek (lithos = stone) outermost layer made of crust and uppermost mantle rigid broken up into the moving plates that contain the world's continents and oceans asthenosphere = “fluidlike” Isostasy Continental lithosphere is less dense than oceanic lithosphere and “floats” higher than oceanic lithosphere. Oceans vs Continents Oceanic Lithosphere young simple ☺ thin crust mantle density related to cooling Continental Lithosphere long history complicated (uh-oh…) thick crust no simple density relationships Mineralogy and composition of the Lithosphere Mineralogy plagioclase K-feldspar quartz amphiboles, pyroxenes (Fe, Mg minerals) Continental Crust hydrous minerals intermediate (micas, amphiboles) Plagioclase Oceanic Crust clinopyroxene orthopyroxene (olivine) olivine Upper Mantle orthopyroxene (< 400 km) (clinopyroxene) (plagioclase, spinel, garnet) Bulk Composition mafic ultramafic Oceanic vs. Continental Crust Oceanic Lithosphere vP = velocity of the longitudinal wave Detailed Structure of Ocean Crust Oceanic Crust and Upper Mantle Structure Lithology and thickness of a typical ophiolite sequence, based on the Samial Ophiolite in Oman. An ophiolite is a sequence of rock that is interpreted as representing oceanic lithosphere. After Boudier and Nicolas (1985) Marine Sedimentary Rocks Pillow Lavas contact between lava and seawater Sheeted Dyke Complex feeder dykes of the basalt Isotropic Gabbro “magma chamber” Layered Gabbro “magma chamber” Ultramafic Cumulates transition zone between crust and mantle MTZ – Moho Transition Zone Residual Peridotite “depleted mantle” Thermal Structure of Oceanic Lithosphere z ⎞ ⎟ ⎝ 2 Kt ⎠ ⎛ cooling of a half-space: T (z, t ) = T0 + (T∞ − T0 )erf ⎜ good approximation for lithosphere <80 Ma after Boudier et al. (1988) Igneous Processes at Mid-Ocean Ridges Melt Transport after Niu (2004) Peridotite Melting polybaric melting at MOR >2.5 – 0.8 GPa 10-25% partial melting mostly in the spinel stability field depleted source magma separation 1.2 – 0.8 GPa (25-35 km) ~40% fractional crystallization of olivine ± plagioclase Abyssal Peridotites slow-spreading ridges: lherzolites cpx-bearing harzburgites fast-spreading ridges: cpx-bearing harzburgites cpx-poor harzburgites after Niu and Hékinian (199 Chemical Composition of Abyssal Peridotites increasing degree of melting Al2O3 MORB source s ou dr g hy an eltin m MgO increases CaO, Al2O3, TiO2, Na2O decrease decreasing density 5 4 5% 3 near-fractional melting incompatible trace elements extremely depleted low H2O in residue ab y 10% 2 ss al p er id o 15% tit e 20% 1 s 25% SSZ perid otite s 0 36 38 40 42 44 MgO [wt%] 46 48 50 The Axial Magma Chamber original model: semi-permanent Periodic reinjection of fresh, primitive MORB from below Dikes upward through the extending and faulting roof Fractional crystallization derivative MORB magmas Crystallization near top and along the sides successive layers of gabbro (layer 3) Layering in lower gabbros (layer 3B) from density currents flowing down the sloping walls and floor Dense olivine and pyroxene crystals ultramafic cumulates (layerafter 4)Byran und Moore (1977) A modern concept of the axial magma chamber beneath a fast-spreading ridge after Perfit et al. (1994) Geology, 22, 375-379. Slow-Spreading Ridge Dike-like mush zone and a smaller transition zone beneath welldeveloped rift valley Most of body well below the liquidus temperature, so convection and mixing is far less likely than at fast ridges Magmas at slow-spreading ridges are generally less differentiated than fast ridges 2 Depth (km) Rift Valley 4 6 Moho Transition zone Gabbro Mush 8 after Sinton and Detrick (1992) J. Geophys. Res., 97, 197-216. 10 5 0 Distance (km) 5 10 Continents “Float” on top of the Mantle Density of continental crust = 2.7 Density of oceanic crust = 3.1 The Structure of the Continental Crust The continental crust is the layer of granitic and sedimentary rock which forms the continents and the areas of shallow seabed close to their shores, known as continental shelves. NNE Scandinavian Caledonides, Barents Sea Archean Crustal Province Svecofennian Crustal Province SSW 0 Depth 20 [km] 40 60 0 after Wedepohl (1995) 200 400 600 km 800 1000 1200 Sediments, Granites, Gneisses vp < 6 - 6.5 km/s Mafic Granulites vp = 6.9 - 7.5 km/s Felsic Granulites vp = 6.5 - 6.9 km/s Lithospheric Mantle vp = > 8.1 km/s 1400 Upper continental crust (UCC) Most accessible; but also heterogeneous and differentiated. About 30% of the continental area is submerged beneath the oceans. Precambrian shields and platforms (cratons) structure well-known, with Z = 35 - 45 km; Vp = 5.8 - 6.4 km/s (UCC), 6.5 - 7.2 km/s (LCC) Conrad discontinuity - present or absent Orogenic belts - crustal structures very complicated. In some areas, the Moho is transitional, rather than discontinuous. Methods for determining the composition of the UCC a) Using geological maps to obtain weighted averages (Clarke, 1889; Clarke and Washington, 1924). (b) Analysis of composite samples of large surface areas (Shaw et al., 1967). (c) Geochemical approach - analysis of fine-grained sediments (shales or loess) and determine the composition of insoluble elements. Estimation of other elemental abundances from a variety of geochemical principles (Goldschmidt, 1933; Taylor and McLennan, 1985; Rudnick and Fountain, 1995). Upper Continental Crust composition of UCC ≈ granodiorite sedimentary and granitic rock 31.7% of CC (constrained by heat flow data) thickness 10-13 km major element compositions of different estimates after Rudnick and Gao (2004) Trace Elements in the Upper Crust highly enriched in incompatible trace elements heat-producing elements (K, Th, U) are concentrated negative Eu anomaly low Nb & Ta high Pb after Rudnick and Gao (2004) The Deep Continental Crust Vp Data of Crustal Sections after Rudnick and Fountain (1995) vP - density correlation linking geophysical data to deep crustal lithologies P-wave velocity seismic anisotropy density heat flow lower crustal xenoliths high-grade metamorphic terranes lithology after Rudnick and Fountain (1995) Composition of the Deep Crust less well constrained than upper crust middle crust 29.6% of bulk crust amphibolite facies metamorphic rocks similar to upper crust lower crust 38.8% of bulk crust mafic granulite facies country rocks and basic intrusives and/or cumulates less enriched in incompatible trace elements not strictly residual (or complementary t t) after Rudnick and Gao (2004) Continental Crust – Summary intermediate composition relatively high Mg# enriched in incompatible elements low Nb/La and low Nb/Ta inconsistent with single-stage melting of peridotitic mantle ca. 30-40 Additional Processes delamination density foundering of mafic lower crust silicic melts derived from subducted oceanic crust more prevalent in the Archean? weathering preferential recycling of Mg ± Ca into the mantle ultramafic cumulates in the uppermost mantle unlikely – uppermost mantle dominated by restitic peridotite crustal recycling important throughout Earth history Origin of Continental Crust 4.5 4.0 Archean TTG La / Nb 3.5 Arc 3.0 2.5 continental crust 2.0 1.5 1.0 Intraplate lava 0.5 0 20 40 60 80 Growth in convergent margins (%) after Barth et al. (2000) 100 Two-Stage Process 1) mantle melting lower crust 2) lower crustal melting upper crust after Hawkesworth and Kemp (2006) Recycling of the Residue residue of lower crustal melting is complementary to upper crust return of the residue to the mantle shorter residence time of the lower crust than the upper crust after Hawkesworth and Kemp (2006) Heat Flow heat flow and surface heat production are correlated average heat production of CC bulk continental crust: 0.79 – 0.95 µW/m3 heat flow component: 32 – 38 mW/m2 Precambrian crust: 0.77 ± 0.08 µW/m3 23 – 30 mW/m2 Phanerozoic crust: 1.03 ± 0.08 µW/m3 37 – 43 mW/m2 after Jaupart and Mareschal (20 When did the continental crust begin to form? Oldest known rocks are from the Great Slave Province in Canada and are approximately 4 Ga old. Oldest known mineral is a zircon is from Australian sediments whose metamorphic age is 3.5 Ga. Inherited zircons are as old as 4.4 Ga! Age of the Continental Crust When did the continents grow? The Continental Lithospheric Mantle thick (60 to >250 km) age ± 200 Ma of the overlying crust thickness & composition varies systematically with age Phanerozoic: 60-130 km Proterozoic: 150-180 km Archean: 180-250 km Archean CLM is strongly depleted and highly buoyant ± metasomatically overprinted enriched in incompatible elements “enriched” isotopic signature (low 143Nd/144Nd, high 87Sr/86Sr) Age-Dependant Composition older after Griffin et al. (2003) more depleted lower intrinsic density Archean CLM is unique not simply more depleted higher Si/Mg lower Cr#, Ca/Al, Fe/Al at a given Mg# subcalcic garnets & diamonds often overprinted cryptic metasomatism modal metasomatism original composition difficult to reconstruct are only the depleted ones preserved? after Griffin et al. (2003) How was the unique Archean CLM produced? high-degree melting at high pressure “komatiite extraction” subduction-related “lithospheric stacking” after Griffin et al. (2003) Two Major Archean Crustal Rock Associations Granulites (granite/gneiss comlexes): gneisses of tonalites, granodiorites, granites, and layered intrusive gabbros Greenstones: basaltic, andesitic, and rhyolitic volcanic rocks with metamorphosed sediments and basaltic pillow lavas (sequential transition) Tectonics Granulites: island arc and continental margins Greenstones: back arc basins Granites: later intrusions Greenstone Belts “Greenstone Belts” are basically metamorphosed basalts and graywacke (discussed below) sandstones deposited as pillow lavas and turbidity flows on the floors of ancient seas. When protocontinents collided and accreted, the ocean floors filled with these basalts and graywackes collapsed, forming greenstone belts that also accreted to the growing protocontinent. Thus some of the early seafloor survived destruction (by subduction) and became part of the stable craton. Evolution of greenstone belts A. Basins between protocontinents fill with basalts, B. when protocontinents collide, they “collapse” the oceans filled with basalts and graywackes, forming greenstone belts. Archaean domeand-keel patterns Vertical tectonics (“sagduction”) Zimbabwe (2.7 Ga) Pilbara (3.5 Ga) TTGs and adakites Are TTGs and adakites similar? Y ! s e No That’s the stuff active scientific research is made of … ! MgO increases inTTG in course of time SiO2 decreases inTTG in course of time Adakites have exactly the same evolution pattern as (young) TTG are systematically MgO poorer than For the same SiO , experimental melts 2 TTG