Monitoring Shoreline Changes in the Gulf of Khambhat, India During

OPEN JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING AND POSITIONING
VOLUME 1, NUMBER 1, JUNE 2014
OPEN JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING AND POSITIONING
Monitoring Shoreline Changes in the Gulf
of Khambhat, India During 1966-2004 Using
RESOURCESAT-1 LISS-III
Mukesh Gupta1,2 *
1
4141, Earth Sciences and Hydrology Division, Marine and Earth Sciences Group, Remote Sensing Applications and Image
Processing Area, Space Applications Centre, Indian Space Research Organisation, Ahmedabad 380 015, Gujarat, India.
2 463, Wallace Building, Centre for Earth Observation Science, Department of Environment and Geography, Clayton H. Riddell
Faculty of Environment, Earth, and Resources, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg R3T 2N2, Manitoba, Canada.
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract:
This paper provides an assessment of the shoreline changes, which occurred during 1966 2004
in the coastal regions of the Gulf of Khambhat using RESOURCESAT-1 LISS-III (Linear Imaging
Self Scanner) data. The remote sensing observations of the Gulf show a large area facing a
serious threat due to dramatically changing shorelines. The entire coast around the Gulf has
undergone accretion except some parts of the northern region and a few areas near the Mahi
and Dhadhar estuaries where erosion is observed. These significant landform changes have
occurred in four decades. The study has also shown the potential of the enhanced radiometric
resolution satellite remote sensing data to be utilized for preparing good quality cartographic
maps with improved shorelines leaving behind old maps prepared using conventional geodetic/ground surveys. The detection/quantification of shoreline change in the Gulf of Khambhat
using advanced/latest models is proposed as an avenue of further research.
Keywords:
Coastal processes; Erosion; Gulf of Khambhat; Remote sensing; RESOURCESAT-1 LISS-III;
Shoreline change
1. INTRODUCTION
Shoreline change subsequent to global warming of the planet and tidal forcing is a serious concern for
the security of life and property around the world. Several natural and human-induced coastal hazards
affect the Indian coast, modify the coastal processes operating in the region, and need to be monitored
regularly. The Gulf of Khambhat (earlier known as Gulf of Cambay) in the Indian subcontinent has been
an ancient center for trade with the maritime routes to Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean and has notably
undergone tremendous industrial developments after the colonial independence in 1947. Major ports of
Bharuch, Bhavnagar, Daman, Khambhat, and Surat lie in this region. The erosion/accretion along the
coastline of the Gulf is predominant due to semi-diurnal tidal effects [1–3], which make the shoreline in
this region vulnerable to changes. It is also one of the major fishing areas along the Gujarat coast. Several
inlets and creeks formed by the confluence of Mahi, Narmada, and Shetrunji Rivers characterize the Gulf
27
OPEN JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING AND POSITIONING
[4]. A full understanding of shoreline changes requires understanding of the regional coastal processes,
tidal inputs in the region, recognizing coastal hazards, identifying vulnerability, mapping zones of risks,
developing site specific mitigation techniques including preservation, augmentation, and restoration of
natural environment, and monitoring implementation of mitigation recommendations [5]. Integrated
coastal zone management and regulation of activities in the coastal zone have been adopted for the Indian
coast [6, 7].
The coastal region of Gulf of Khambhat and Gujarat state as a whole have undergone dramatic
geomorphological changes due to changing shorelines since ancient times. These changes have impacted
many civilizations in the last 10,000 years, and are also evidenced through archaeological findings [8].
The shoreline of Gulf of Khambhat area is predominantly a low lying flat, land packed with river mouths,
creeks, estuaries, backwaters, mangroves, deltas, swales, mudflats, saltpans, etc. The anticipated sea-level
rise due to global warming is expected to flood these coastal zones [9]. Many geological and geomorphic
evidences show that the changes in sea-level lead to significant physical changes to shorelines particularly
softer sandy shores as the coast adjusts to changing water levels. These physical changes including
shoreline erosion and increased flooding may expose coastal buildings, roads, and other infrastructure to
damage; hence, there is a need to identify coastal areas vulnerable to such changes to be able to effectively
plan coastal developments [5]. Changes in the mean sea-level relative to the land are prone to the initiation
or acceleration of significant landform changes in the Gulf of Khambhat region.
The shoreline of the Gulf of Khambhat is a part of the dynamic coastal zone that experiences opposing
winds and the associated onshore coastal currents during July, which traps the freshwater in the Gulf region.
Low-salinity plumes emerging from Gulf of Khambhat during post-monsoon have been discovered, though,
there is no river discharge during this period [10]. Besides, sediment dynamics and geomorphological
changes occurring in the Gulf of Khambhat, the eutrophication and biological productivity are also
dramatically affected by the discharge brought by the three estuaries; i.e. Mahi, Narmada, and Sabarmati
[11]. Since the advent of satellite remote sensing, coastal monitoring has become much simpler and
efficient.
Remote sensing and geo-information techniques for the Indian coast have proven to be one of the
extremely useful tools for understanding coastal processes and hazards [12–14]. Satellite data have also
proved to be useful in creating baseline inventory of the entire Indian coastline at 1:250,000, 1:50,000,
and 1:25,000 scales [15–17]. Previous studies show wetland features between high and low water
lines and land use features of the adjoining shore (up to 1.5 km from high water line). Researchers
[15–17] carried out the shoreline change mapping (1967 1968, 1985 1989, 1990 1992 periods) for
the entire Indian coast using Landsat MSS/TM and IRS LISS II (7-bit quantization) data on 1:250,000
and 1:50,000 scale. In this paper, the shoreline changes for a period 1966 2004 are reported with an
objective to infer geomorphological evolution of shoreline in the Gulf of Khambhat to facilitate adequate
coastal management plans in the region, and to demonstrate the improved radiometric resolution (10-bit)
capability of RESOURCESAT-1 LISS-III to delineate shoreline around the Gulf of Khambhat.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Study Area
The Gulf of Khambhat, Gujarat, lies in the west coast of India and north of Arabian Sea between
20 000 N 22 300 N, and longitude 71 000 E 73 000 E (Figure 1). It is about 80 km wide at the mouth and
less than 25 km in the interior. The longitudinal stretch of the Gulf is about 140 km. The tidal flats and
tidal creeks cover this entire coastal region. Major rivers of Mahi, Narmada, and Sabarmati, and many
28
Monitoring Shoreline Changes in the Gulf of Khambhat, India During 1966-2004 Using RESOURCESAT-1
LISS-III
Table 1. Major specifications of RESOURCESAT-1 LISS-III.
System Parameter
Value
Spectral bands
0.52–0.59 µ
0.62–0.68 µ
0.77–0.86 µ
1.55–1.70 µ (SWIRa )
Spatial resolution
23.5 m
Swath
141 km
Band2: 28–31
Saturation radiance Band3: 26–28
(mw/cm2 /sr/µ)
Band4: 27–30
Band5: 7.5
Integration time
3.32 ms
Quantization
7-bit; 10-bit (SWIR)
a SWIR: Shortwave infrared.
other rivulets are the sources of freshwater to the Gulf. The Gulf is shallow with depths up to 30 m in the
middle. The seawater is highly turbid containing very high concentrations of suspended sediments due to
strong tidal mixing and re-suspension of sediments.
2.2 Data Used
The imagery used in the study is a cloud- and haze-free RESOURCESAT-1 LISS-III imagery of 27
March 2004 from different regions of the Gulf. The Indian satellite, RESOURCESAT-1 [also known
as IRS (Indian Remote Sensing Satellite)-P6], launched on 17 October 2003 carried LISS-III (Linear
Imaging Self Scanner) among various other sensors (Table 1). The satellite was launched by PSLV
(Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle)-C5 rocket into a Sun-synchronous orbit at an altitude of 817 km and the
equatorial crossing time is 10:30 am (Indian Standard Time). The atmospheric correction of the images
is not considered as it is assumed that the changes in the top of atmosphere remained uniform over the
whole study area and are not a major consideration for shoreline mapping.
Old topographical maps prepared by Survey of India (SOI) and RESOURCESAT-1 LISS-III ‘precision
geocoded’ (Level 3 accuracy 100 m) satellite data products are used to interpret shoreline at 150 ⇥ 150 (28
km ⇥ 28 km) grid and to prepare a mosaic image afterwards. The SOI prepares maps based on intensive
geodetic, geological, geophysical, photogrammetric, topographical, and aerial surveys. The satellite
products are geocoded by the National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), Hyderabad, India using SOI maps
and a large number of precision ground control points (GCP) as reference. These products are carefully
generated after applying radiometric and geometric corrections, orthorectification, orienting the image to
true north and generating the product with an output resolution, suitable to the map scale (1:50,000). The
digital elevation model (DEM) used in orthorectification are derived from digitizing topographic sheets
and GCPs with locational (horizontal) accuracy 25±15 m [18, 19]. For orthorectification, the locational
(horizontal) accuracy according to Moorthi et al. [19] is 25 m considering 11 or more GCPs. This accuracy
of 25 m is the best available for 150 ⇥ 150 coverage for this product. A maximum error of ±15 m is
expected for the same. This implies that most points are centered around 25 m with a maximum deviation
(if any) of 15 m on either side of mean. Precision geocoded products at 100 m accuracy are generated
from these orthorectified images. This is an additional step beyond the systematic corrections. The aim
of precision correction is to improve the location accuracy of the data product, i.e. latitude, longitude
knowledge or the map projection coordinates of the image features in the final product [19]. The precision
29
OPEN JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING AND POSITIONING
Khambhat
Bhavnagar
Dahej
Gujarat
Aliabet
Hazira
Gulf of Khambhat
India
Figure 1. A geographic map of the study area.
geocoded products are value-added products that are thoroughly checked for misregistration, mosaicking
problems, noise-related artifacts, and area coverage aside from other quality assurance such as removal
of vertical striping and geometric quality. The products are available in Geographic Latitude/Longitude
coordinate system with the Polyconic projection and WGS (World Geodetic System)-84 datum. Standard
geocoded products have 5–6 pixel internal distortion, which is not compatible to mapping standards of
1:50,000 scale, so precision geocoded products are used for shoreline mapping. The NRSC provides
an accuracy of 100 m in its precision geocoded products. The GCPs used for orthorectification (before
the precision geocoded image is prepared) have an accuracy of 25 m. The precision geocoded products
at 100 m accuracy are generated using these orthorectified images and supplied to users for intended
applications. Thus, the final image has an accuracy of 100 m, which is also the accuracy of shoreline
detection. Therefore, the accuracy of shoreline detection based on the location of GCP is 100 m; however,
the pixel size in the image (spatial resolution of LISS-III) is 23.5 m.
2.3 Shoreline Extraction Technique
The shoreline in the topographic sheets of 1966 1977 is extracted from the marked high water
line, and the shoreline from the imagery is extracted from Band5 [shortwave infrared (SWIR-with
10-bit quantization)] of LISS-III (Table 1), because the water absorption is strongest in this region of
electromagnetic spectrum rendering negligible water-leaving radiance in this band. LISS-III Band5
(1.55–1.70 µ) has an improved radiometric resolution (10-bit quantization) over previous sensors (6 or
30
Monitoring Shoreline Changes in the Gulf of Khambhat, India During 1966-2004 Using RESOURCESAT-1
LISS-III
Table 2. Survey of India (SOI) topographic sheet number and the year of survey.
SOI
topographic Year of survey
sheet number
46 B7
1966 1967
46 B8
1977
46 B11
1971 1972
46 B12
1971 1972
46 C1
1966 1967
46 C9
1971 1972
46 C10
1971 1972
46 C11
1970 1972
46 C14
1972 1973
7-bit). Due to its enhanced radiometric resolution at 23.5 m spatial resolution, Band5 can be a good
discriminator of land and turbid seawater boundary. A complete post-launch data quality evaluation (DQE)
(radiometric and geometric) was performed during calibration mode of acquisition (commissioning).
Inflight LED (light emitting diode)-based calibration was programmed during night pass in real-time.
Onboard calibration data are compared with the ground reference data to perform radiometric calibration.
The digitization (on-screen drawing of the shoreline) was carried out to retrieve shoreline from the
imagery. An aggregate of 10 satellite images of the same date were used that corresponded with SOI
map numbering scheme. These maps/images were 46 (B7, B8, B11, B12), C1, C9, C12, (C10, C11,
and C14) (Table 2). The NRSC provided satellite imageries (only the shoreline area) for each identified
SOI map section. Each section image, e.g. C10, C14, etc. is exactly the same size of the corresponding
SOI topographic sheet. Some of the images were mosaicked according to the map sections grouped in
brackets above. No inconsistency was observed in the borders of mosaicked images. A broad approach
followed includes, a) Creation of digital shoreline maps (using the existing coastal thematic maps prepared
at 1:50,000 scale from SOI topographic sheets 1966 1977 and satellite image); and b) Overlaying of
high water shoreline onto the shoreline derived from the satellite images. The shoreline extracted from
topographic sheets is also overlaid onto the false color composite (FCC) (R4:G3:B2) images of the
corresponding map sections and is visually inspected for comparison.
3. RESULTS
During 1966 2004, most areas along the coastline of the Gulf have undergone accretion including
coastal region around Tapi and Mindhola estuaries, and Hazira port (Figure 2). The main reasons behind
this accretion are attributed to the strong tidal currents and a large load of sediments brought through the
major rivers; i.e. Dhadhar, Mahi, Narmada, and Sabarmati Rivers. Figure 3 provides a mosaic of all the
segments of topographic sheets (in blue) overlaid by the shoreline derived from the satellite data of 27
March 2004 (in red) showing accretion in most areas except some parts of the northern Gulf.
Rajawat et al. [14] utilized the IRS-P4 OCM (Ocean Color Monitor) data with temporal resolution of
two days and 360 m spatial resolution to understand regional sediment dynamics according to the flooding
and ebbing tides. They observed that the sediments as well as pollutants under the influence of strong tidal
currents underwent dispersion and settled within the Gulf of Khambhat resulting in siltation at a rapid
rate. It is evident from LISS-III data that the entire coast around the Gulf of Khambhat shows accretion
except the northern region and a few areas near northern parts of the Mahi and Narmada estuaries (Figure
31
OPEN JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING AND POSITIONING
Gulf of Khambhat
Hazira
Tapi
estuary
Mindhola
estuary
46 C12
High Water Line
10 km
0
Figure 2. RESOURCESAT-1 LISS-III (false color composite, R4:G3:B2) image of a section of Gulf of Khambhat
overlaid by high water line (in yellow) derived from topographic sheets of 1970 1972 (map section 46
C12). Also shown are the locations of Hazira port, Mindhola, and Tapi estuaries.
73ºE
72ºE
B7 B
B11
Khambhat
B12
B1
Mahi estuary
B8
22ºN
Dhadhar
estuary
C9
C1
Bhavnagar
Dahej
Narmada
estuary
Aliabett
C10
C14
C11
Hazira
C12
Tapi
estuary
21ºN
Figure 3. Shoreline changes derived from RESOURCESAT-1 LISS-III (27 March 2004) and SOI topographic sheets
during 1966 1977. Each grid has the same size as that of a precision geocoded image. Accretion is
observed in almost entire coastline of the Gulf of Khambhat. The SOI topographic map sections are also
shown. Bolded line segments are the edges of mosaics of the corresponding images.
32
20 km
0
B7
B11
B8
B12
46
Sa
ba
rm
ati
R.
Monitoring Shoreline Changes in the Gulf of Khambhat, India During 1966-2004 Using RESOURCESAT-1
LISS-III
Khambhat
Mahi estuary
High Water Line
Gulf of Khambhat
Figure 4. RESOURCESAT-1 LISS-III (false color composite, R4:G3:B2) image of a section of Gulf of Khambhat
overlaid by high water line (in yellow) derived from topographic sheets of 1966 1977 (map sections 46
B7, B8, B11, and B12). Also shown are the locations of Khambhat city, Mahi estuary, and Sabarmati
River. A large area of land has eroded.
4). Figure 5 shows that a large area of land is vulnerable to flooding as depicted by high water line drawn
from topographic sheets of 1966 1977. This accretion area, formed in about 40 years, now includes
several saltpans around the outer limits of Bhavnagar city. A large area, which is unoccupied by industrial
developmental activities and human settlement around Dhadhar estuary, is under heavy siltation evident
from LISS-III observations. A large accretion around north of Dhadhar estuary is also observed (Figure
6). This accretion, which has now made the Aliabet Island accessible via land route, has occurred in four
decades in the areas around Narmada estuary, and new vegetation has grown in the region (Figure 7).
4. DISCUSSION
The case studies from the tide-dominated Gulf of Khambhat, Gujarat along the west coast of India are
discussed. The shoreline change in the Gulf is grouped into five regions. Figures 2 7 show in details,
the erosion/accretion that has occurred in each of the regions. It may be understood that even without
substantial sea-level rise and climate change, coasts can undergo significant geomorphological changes
over relatively short periods of time. Such changes may be continuous and progressive (e.g., the long
term physical adjustment of shorelines to the last-glacial sea-level that stabilized at roughly its present
level around 6,500 years ago), or it may be episodic and non-linear (e.g., repeated major adjustments
of sandy shores to occasional periods of more frequent than usual storm activity). Human modification
of shores and coastal processes, through construction of sea walls, groynes, breakwaters, jetties, and in
many other ways also cause physical changes to shorelines often in ways that are not expected and many
modified shorelines are continuing to adjust in response to such disturbances. Hence, a wide range of
coastal hazards including flooding and coastal erosion have posed risks to human coastal infrastructure
and other assets throughout history, often for reasons unrelated to shoreline change.
33
OPEN JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING AND POSITIONING
High Water Line
46 C1
Bhavnagar
10 km
0
Figure 5. RESOURCESAT-1 LISS-III (false color composite, R4:G3:B2) image of a section of Gulf of Khambhat
overlaid by high water line (in yellow) derived from topographic sheets of 1966 1967 (map section 46
C1). Also shown is the location of Bhavnagar city.
Devajagan
Dhadhar
estuary
Gulf
of
Khambhat
46 C9
10 km
0
Figure 6. RESOURCESAT-1 LISS-III (false color composite, R4:G3:B2) image of a section of Gulf of Khambhat
overlaid by high water line (in yellow) derived from topographic sheets of 1971 1972 (map section 46
C9). Also shown is the location of Dhadhar estuary.
34
Monitoring Shoreline Changes in the Gulf of Khambhat, India During 1966-2004 Using RESOURCESAT-1
LISS-III
Dahej
Narmada
estuary
Aliabet island
High Water Line
20 km
Gulf of
Khambhat
0
C10
C14
46
C11
Figure 7. RESOURCESAT-1 LISS-III (false color composite, R4:G3:B2) image of a section of Gulf of Khambhat
overlaid by high water line (in yellow) derived from topographic sheets of 1970 1973 (map sections 46
C10, C11, and C14). Also shown are the locations of Aliabet Island, Dahej port, and Narmada estuary.
It is important to circumspect that shoreline change and climate change are not the only causes of
coastal hazards; however, the anthropogenic shoreline change (including agricultural growth, ports and
harbor development) that accelerated during the past century or so has added a major new factor into
the complexity of natural processes determining coastal landform changes. Coastal flooding and erosion
hazards are likely to increase due to the shoreline change and climate change.
The Gulf of Khambhat is a part of the widest continental shelf on the west coast of India. Mumbai is
located in the southeastern and Veraval in the southwestern corner of the region and the entire coastline
around the Gulf has undergone large industrial and urban growth. The proposed developmental activities
such as the Kalpasar project which aim to create a freshwater reservoir by closing off the Gulf itself and
use the large tidal range to generate power add to the importance of the region. The Gulf is a strongly
converging channel experiencing tides with large amplitudes. The tide amplitude range in this region is
8–11 m with tidal current velocities as high as 10 m/s. The large tidal ranges give rise to strong tidal
currents and provide a mechanism for transport of suspended sediments in the Gulf of Khambhat. The net
transport of sediments is toward land as evidenced by extensive mudflats [15, 16].
Though, during 2000 2010, the understanding of the impacts of sea-level rise on the shorelines has
advanced greatly, the linkages between sea-level rise and the shoreline response still lack a thorough
understanding. The Gulf of Khambhat exemplifies significant erosion/accretion due to causes including
sea-level changes and tidal forcing in this region. The changes that occurred in four-decade period, as
shown in this paper, produce an evidence of this fact. A shoreline retreat model that considers tidal
forcing as main constituent can further help quantify the erosion/accretion. The Bruun Rule [20], a
two-dimensional model of shoreline response to sea-level rise, is not applicable in the Gulf of Khambhat.
This Rule is abandoned because it ignores various important geological and oceanographic principles [21];
e.g., tidal forcing, which dominate in the Gulf. The model-based analysis and computation of shoreline
change, however, is outside the focus of this paper.
35
OPEN JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING AND POSITIONING
The sharp delineation capability of RESOURCESAT-1 LISS-III Band5, having an improved radiometric
resolution of 10-bit, provided a much better data source over previous satellite data (7-bit) for shoreline
delineation studies [12]. Such type of high radiometric and spatial resolution data make a promising
candidate for preparing satellite-based cartographic digital maps with much better accuracy than that
achieved through conventional ground surveys. It is also a prerequisite in studies such as shoreline change
detection at high temporal and spatial scales.
5. CONCLUSION
The present work included an assessment of the geomorphological changes that occurred during
1966 2004 in the coastal regions of the Gulf of Khambhat using satellite remote sensing techniques.
It is alarming that the entire coast around the Gulf of Khambhat has undergone accretion except some
parts of northern region and few areas near the Mahi and Dhadhar estuaries where erosion has occurred.
These significant geomorphological and landform changes have merely occurred in past four decades
(1966 2004). In the current context, the model-based analysis, and quantification of the eroded/accreted
areas is not provided; which can be a topic of future work for micro planning of the industrial infrastructure
and coastal tourism development. Quantified information (mainly restricted to Government of India use)
of the areas of vulnerability with a timeline is a requirement for integrated coastal zone management,
inundation measures and its impact on human settlement and crops. The detection/quantification of
shoreline change in the Gulf of Khambhat using advanced/improved models is proposed as an avenue of
further research. This study has also shown a potential of the enhanced radiometric resolution satellite
remote sensing data to be utilized for preparing better cartographic maps with improved shorelines
leaving behind conventional geodetic/ground surveys. With the NRSC having started producing ‘precision
geocoded’ products for coastal regions, India is prepared to venture into the enhanced resolution digital
cartography era.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author expresses gratitude to the Director, Space Applications Centre (Indian Space Research
Organisation, Department of Space, Government of India), Ahmedabad, India for providing necessary
data and facilities. Many thanks are due to Dr. Shailesh R. Nayak, SAC (now at Ministry of Earth
Sciences, Government of India) for his leadership during this project.
References
[1] A. S. Unnikrishnan, S. R. Shetye, and G. S. Michael, “Tidal propagation in the Gulf of Khambhat,
Bombay High, and surrounding areas,” Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences-Earth and
Planetary Sciences, vol. 108, no. 3, pp. 155–177, 1999.
[2] R. Nayak and S. Shetye, “Tides in the Gulf of Khambhat, west coast of India,” Estuarine, Coastal
and Shelf Science, vol. 57, no. 1, pp. 249–254, 2003.
[3] V. S. Kumar and K. A. Kumar, “Waves and currents in tide-dominated location off Dahej, Gulf of
Khambhat, India,” Marine Geodesy, vol. 33, no. 2-3, pp. 218–231, 2010.
[4] B. Patel and I. A. Balapatel, “Some observations on the prawn fishery of Gulf of Khambhat, Gujarat,”
Indian Journal of Fisheries, vol. 29, no. 1 & 2, pp. 63–70, 1983.
36
Monitoring Shoreline Changes in the Gulf of Khambhat, India During 1966-2004 Using RESOURCESAT-1
LISS-III
[5] A. S. Rajawat, S. Bhattacharya, S. Jain, M. Gupta, P. Jayaprasad, V. Tamilarasan, Ajai, and S. Nayak,
“Coastal vulnerability mapping for the Indian coast,” in The 2nd International Symposium on
Geoinformation for disaster management, Goa. International Society for Photogrammetry and
Remote Sensing, 2006.
[6] S. Sonak, P. Pangam, and A. Giriyan, “Green reconstruction of the tsunami-affected areas in India
using the integrated coastal zone management concept,” Journal of Environmental Management,
vol. 89, no. 1, pp. 14–23, 2008.
[7] A. G. Untawale, “Change of coastal land use, its impact, and management options,” Multiple
Dimensions of global environmental change, TERI Press, New Delhi, India, pp. 23–43, 2006.
[8] A. Gaur and K. Vora, “Ancient shorelines of Gujarat, India, during the Indus civilization (late
mid-holocene): A study based on archaeological evidences,” Current Science, vol. 77, pp. 180–185,
1999.
[9] K. Lambeck and J. Chappell, “Sea level change through the last glacial cycle,” Science, vol. 292,
no. 5517, pp. 679–686, 2001.
[10] A. Rao, M. Joshi, and M. Ravichandran, “Observed low-salinity plume off Gulf of Khambhat, India,
during post-monsoon period,” Geophysical Research Letters, vol. 36, no. 3, 2009.
[11] S. Deshkar, J. Lakhmapurkar, and D. Gavali, “State of three estuaries of Gulf of Khambhat,” Indian
Journal of Marine Sciences, vol. 41, no. 1, pp. 70–75, 2012.
[12] P. S. Desai, A. Narain, S. R. Nayak, B. Manikiam, S. Adiga, and A. N. Nath, “IRS-1A applications
for coastal and marine resources,” Current Science, vol. 61, no. 3, pp. 204–208, 1991.
[13] S. R. Nayak, R. K. Sarangi, and A. S. Rajawat, “Application of IRS-P4 OCM data to study the
impact of cyclone on coastal environment of Orissa,” Current Science, vol. 80, no. 9, pp. 1208–1212,
2001.
[14] A. S. Rajawat, M. Gupta, Y. Pradhan, A. Thomaskutty, and S. Nayak, “Coastal processes along the
Indian coast-Case studies based on synergistic use of IRS-P4 OCM and IRS-1C/1D data,” Indian
Journal of Marine Sciences, vol. 34, no. 4, pp. 459–472, 2005.
[15] S. R. Nayak and B. Sahai, “Coastal morphology: a case study of the Gulf of Khambhat (Cambay),”
International Journal of Remote Sensing, vol. 6, no. 3-4, pp. 559–567, 1985.
[16] M. Shaikh, S. Nayak, P. Shah, and B. Jambusaria, “Coastal landform mapping around the Gulf of
Khambhat using Landsat TM data,” Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing, vol. 17, no. 1,
pp. 41–48, 1989.
[17] S. Nayak, P. Chauhan, H. B. Chauhan, A. Bahuguna, and A. N. Nath, “IRS-1C applications for
coastal zone management,” Current Science, vol. 70, no. 7, pp. 614–618, 1996.
[18] B. Gopalakrishna, K. V. Iyer, A. Goswami, M. Alurkar, Y. P. Rana, P. K. Srivastava, and K. L.
Majumder, “Approach for generation of digital elevation models (DEM) and orthoimages from
IRS-1C stereo data,” International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial
Information Sciences, vol. XXXII, no. 1, pp. 164–171, 1998.
[19] S. M. Moorthi, N. Dube, D. Dhar, B. Kartikeyan, and R. Ramakrishnan, “Resourcesat (IRS-P6) value
added data products,” Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 277–283,
2005.
[20] P. Bruun, “The Bruun Rule of erosion by sea-level rise: a discussion on large-scale two-and threedimensional usages,” Journal of Coastal Research, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 627–648, 1988.
[21] J. A. G. Cooper and O. H. Pilkey, “Sea-level rise and shoreline retreat: time to abandon the Bruun
Rule,” Global and Planetary Change, vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 157–171, 2004.
37
About This Journal
RSP is an open access journal published by Scientific Online Publishing. This journal focus on the
following scopes (but not limited to):
3D Technologies
Image Compression and Image Processing
Aerial Photography
Indoor and Wireless Positioning
Cartography and Map Publishing
Light Detection and Ranging
Digital Photogrammetry
Mobile Mapping System
Geoinformatics
Natural Hazards
Geo-physics
Remote Sensing
Geography
Spatial Science
Global Positioning Systems
Surveying and Mapping
Global Information Systems
Visualization
Welcome to submit your original manuscripts to us. For more information, please visit our website:
http://www.scipublish.com/journals/RSP/
You can click the bellows to follow us:
Facebook:
Twitter:
https://www.facebook.com/scipublish
https://twitter.com/scionlinepub
LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/company/scientific-online-publishing-usa
Google+:
https://google.com/+ScipublishSOP
SOP welcomes authors to contribute their research outcomes under the following rules:
Although glad to publish all original and new research achievements, SOP can’t bear any
misbehavior: plagiarism, forgery or manipulation of experimental data.
As an international publisher, SOP highly values different cultures and adopts cautious attitude
towards religion, politics, race, war and ethics.
SOP helps to propagate scientific results but shares no responsibility of any legal risks or harmful
effects caused by article along with the authors.
SOP maintains the strictest peer review, but holds a neutral attitude for all the published articles.
SOP is an open platform, waiting for senior experts serving on the editorial boards to advance the
progress of research together.