2016 Proceedings Bucharest

Transcription

Lumina
The University of South-East Europe
2016 PROCEEDINGS
Bucharest
Conference of Modern Applied Languages
IDENTITY
ACROSS
CULTURES
27-28 May 2016 Bucharest, Romania
Edited by
Lumina Educational Institutions Foundation
Lumina The University of South-East Europe
Editura Lumina Publishing 2016 LUMINA
Editor in Chief: Assist. Prof. Dr. M. Uğur Türkyılmaz
Editorial Board:
Dr. Elena Stoican
(Lumina - The University of South-East Europe, Romania)
Dr. Alexandru Matei
Dr. Çağrı Tuğrul Mart
(Ishik University, Iraq)
Organizing Committee:
Dr. Ugur Turkyilmaz
Dr. Mehmet Ozdemir
(Ishik University, Iraq)
Dr. Yakup Çetin,
(Fatih University, Turkey)
Scientific Committee of 2014 Modern Applied Langauges Conference:
Dr. Alan Tonkyn, England
Dr. Andreea Zamfira, Romania
Dr. Carol Griffits, New Zealand
Dr. Cem Alptekin, Turkey
Dr. Cemal Karaata,Turkey
Dr. Chetan Deshmane, India
Dr. Doğan Bulut, Turkey
Dr. Kimberly Anne Brooks, England
Dr. Marius Grecu, Romania
Dr. Melih Karakuzu, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Dr. Mihaela Toader, Romania
Dr. Richat Sabitov, France
Dr. Speranţa Sofia Milancovici, Romania
Dr. Stăncuţa Dima-Laza, Romania
Dr. Şaban Çepik, Turkey
Dr. Teodor Pătrăuţă, Romania
Dr. Yakup Çetin, Turkey
This journal is included in
CONTENTS
Mar Gutiérrez-Colon Plana, Ana Gimeno-Sanz, Olga Hryckiewicz
Challenges and recommendations toward implementing MALL
in Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Leona Bunting
Vocabulary Learning in English Class: Tablets in the Classroom . . . . . 15
Julie Van de Vyver
The use of mobile technology in the teaching and learning of
foreign languages in French-speaking Belgium: the learners’
perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Enriketa Sogutlu, Miranda Veliaj-Ostrosi
Learners’ Preferences for Isolated and Integrated Form-focused
Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Carmen Zaharia
Cultural beauty: Beauty in the eyes of secondary students with
different nationalities, studying in an international school . . . . . . . . . . 51
Erol Söğütlü, Enriketa Söğütlü
Yabancılara Türkçe Öğretiminde Gökkuşağı Türkçe Setindeki Kültür
Ögeleri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
(Teaching Turkish as a Foreign Language: Culture
Components in Rainbow Turkish Course Books) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Georgiana-Monica IORGA,
Traduzione del Linguaggi Specializzati: Metodologia,
Problemi e Soluzioni. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Claudia-Iulia Voevozeanu
Construction identitaire et identités en conflit dans le discours
de presse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Valbona Keçi
Kindergartens and The Linguistic Development in Pre-School Age... . 109
Drd. Gealapu (Olaru) Simona Cristina
La variation métaphorique interculturelle dans la presse
française et roumaine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Ton Koenraad, TELLConsult, Netherlands
iTILT 2nd Edition: Interactive Teaching in Languages with
Technology. Collaborative action research to develop materials
and methodologies for using interactive technologies in the
language classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
David Bishâ
Blended Learning with MALL at EF Education
First: 13 years of progress in bringing mobile technology
into the language classroom .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Conference of Modern Applied Languages 2016 Proceedings Bucharest
Challenges and recommendations toward implementing MALL
in Higher Education[1]
Mar Gutiérrez-Colon Plana
Department of English and German Studies, Universitat Rovira i Virgili,
Tarragona, Spain
[email protected]
Ana Gimeno-Sanz
CAMILLE Research Group, Department of Applied Linguistics, Universitat
Politècnica de València, Valencia, Spain
[email protected]
Olga Hryckiewicz
Department of English and German Studies, Universitat Rovira i Virgili,
Tarragona, Spain
[email protected]
Abstract: This paper addresses the conclusions drawn from four Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL) projects conducted at the Rovira i
Virgili University in Tarragona, Spain, over a period of five years. More specifically, the authors discuss three of the challenges that stood out upon conducting
these projects. The first, in terms of implementing the technology itself as the
medium of instruction; the second, regarding institutional, staff and learner attitudes towards MALL; and the third, regarding the difficulties to process the
data collected from the experiments. To conclude, the authors will provide a
number of recommendations based on their experience in conducting these
MALL projects.
Keywords: Mobile-Assisted Language Learning, English language,
higher education
1. Introduction
Mobile Learning, better known as mLearning, has the potential of introducing significant changes in language learning and teaching practices. This
1
A previous version of this paper was presented at the 2014 CALL Conference: Research Challenges in
CALL held in Antwerp on 7-9 July.
3
inevitably implies, however, that new challenges have arisen for both teachers
and students alike. The speed at which technology advances is but one example
of these new challenges. mLearning materials designers, practitioners and users
are obliged to constantly update authoring tools, learning scenarios and delivery
devices. For example, only a few years ago the first experiment on MobileAssisted Language Learning (MALL) conducted by the authors was carried out
using short text messages (SMS) and most of the Spanish students who participated at the time did not have smartphones and instant messaging systems,
such as the currently very popular WhatsApp application, simply did not exist.
Looking back, it now seems that this took place in a previous technological era,
but in fact it was only a few years ago, in 2009.
These changes have also obviously brought about new challenges regarding the research approaches used in investigating mLearning. This paper
addresses three such challenges:
1. The first one is technology itself; its heterogeneity and, emerging from
that, the notion of compatibility: technological incompatibilities have
become an issue that has to be addressed in terms of research;
2. The second challenge discussed will refer to the attitudes towards mobile
phones in academic settings: both from an institutional point of view, as
well as that of the learners.
3. The third challenge refers to the question of data, namely, large amounts
of data can be collected in order to analyse learner use of mobile phones
as a language learning tool but there are currently no specific software
tools to aid in organising, analysing and presenting that data. Data still
has to be transferred and adapted to a computer interface, which is extremely time-consuming for the teacher/researcher.
2. Challenges in mLearning
The challenges addressed in this paper have been drawn from the authors’ experience after conducting four MALL projects at the Rovira i Virgili
University (URV) in Tarragona (Spain). All of the findings and conclusions discussed in this section resulted from these projects. Research on MALL at URV
has been carried out since the year 2002. The projects we shall refer to are the
following and were all funded by URV:
- Vocabulary acquisition via mobile phones in the BA degree in English
studies (2009-11) [Gutiérrez-Colon Plana et al., 2012].
4
- Methodological study on the use of 3G mobile phones (smartphones) for
the acquisition of a foreign language (2011-12) [Gutiérrez-Colon Plana
et al., 2013].
- Mobile phones as a tool for the enhancement of university students’
English reading skills (2012-13) [Gutiérrez-Colon Plana, 2013].
- Mobile phones as a support tool for the improvement of university students’ speaking skills (2013-14) [Hryckiewicz, 2014].
The experience and the information gathered throughout these projects
allowed us to draw the following conclusions regarding the challenges encountered.
2.1Challenges regarding technology
Compatibility issues with the software and the actual devices used is still
today one of the drawbacks in successfully implementing innovative mobileassisted language learning strategies. The core of this issue lays in the fact that
most mobile learning activity takes place on devices that were not originally designed with an educational goal in mind. Instead, they were designed for other
purposes, education, being one among many others. This means that when a
mobile phone is used to deliver learning activities, reliability problems of different sorts will arise. The following are examples of some such compatibility
problems encountered in our projects, which were based on the use of SMS or
WhatsApp instant messaging:
- Some students in the group do not receive the message containing the
task.
- Some students in the group are unable to open the attachment (usually a
picture/photo/cartoon) which is crucial to complete the task.
- Some students cannot watch a video attached to the task due to configuration parameters and RAM capacity on their phones and/or the Internet
connection speed.
- Replies from some students are not received by the instructor/researcher, the students claiming to have sent them.
- Some students’ spoken responses to the tasks cannot be assessed or included in the research study due to the low quality of the voice message
received.
- Site accessibility issues – on some campuses certain sites were blocked
5
thus disabling the students from being able to do and submit their tasks
in time and in locations that were convenient for them.
- Beaming of items was not always possible due to the great variety of
handheld devices students possess.
These situations posed various obstacles for the research study, the most
important being the possible unreliability of the results obtained and, implicitly,
the coordination of the project (keeping track of resent messages, new replies
received, etc.). The issues listed above also had a negative influence on learner
motivation because they were, at times, forced to resort to a computer in order
to view an image or watch a video relating to the assignment, which was not
the objective of the study. Learner assessment was also largely obscured and
difficulties emerged due to compatibility issues when attempting to adequately
grade them, a requisite since they were all enrolled in regular English classes as
part of their BA in English Studies. Based on this experience, various questions
arise: What technology it is that we should use? What software applications are
available, what are their related advantages and disadvantages, and would they
eliminate at least some of the problems encountered?
For the time being, as far as we know, there is no universal platform
for mobile devices to operate on; hence compatibility will remain an important
question in the field for a while or our projects will need to resort to environments where compatibility issues no longer emerge.
Site blockage is another issue due to the fact that many educational institutions block Internet sites such as Twitter, Facebook and YouTube which have
often been used for educational purposes in our projects. Thus, mLearning loses
one of its key features – it cannot be used anywhere at any time. Additionally,
these situations also break the continuum between the learner and his or her
learning process, affecting achievements in many instances.
In general, a number of published papers (Trinder, Magill and Roy, 2005;
Corlett and Sharples, 2005; Bradley, Haynes and Boyle, 2005) mention aspects
of usability, either because it was something that was specifically evaluated, or
because usability issues arose during a project. Usability is usually looked at
from the point of view of the problems encountered by the users; still, usability
means that learning/teaching can take place without any of the parties involved
stumbling into obstacles and that it might even be enhanced by certain features.
In the projects to come, we shall attempt to follow Ryan and Finn’s (2005) approach of incorporating and highlighting the positive usability features rather
than trying to eliminate the negative ones, which is often impossible due to
existing circumstances.
6
Network speed and its reliability can also be a weak point in the issue of
usability. Many students rely on free Wi-Fi connections in their daily Internet
access which puts them at a disadvantage when compared with fellow classmates who have flat rate contracts allowing them 24/7 Internet access and, thus,
be less context-dependent than their peers. A weak Internet signal and slow connection was a feature that bothered most of the users who were affected, leaving
any other common negative feature such as screen size, battery life or typing
problems far behind. Our findings are not isolated in this respect; in Smørdal
and Gregory’s (2005) study, for example, network speed resulted in the study
turning out to be an overall negative experience.
2.2Challenges regarding attitude
The second concern that was highly visible in the projects was that of
attitude; namely student, administration and instructors’ attitudes. Before going
any further, though, let us take a look at some of the published literature. In 2013
UNESCO published its “Policy Guidelines for Mobile Learning” where one can
read: “Mobile learning involves the use of mobile technology, either alone or
in combination with other information and communication technology (ICT) to
enable learning anytime and anywhere” (p. 6). It is important to highlight that
UNESCO defines mobile learning as one of the branches of ICT.
This is a crucial fact since several questions arise: What technology it
is that we should use? What software applications are available, and what are
their related advantages and disadvantages; would they eliminate at least some
of the issues encountered? The situation is improving but mobile-learning has
not yet gained the label of a “serious” learning scenario, even amongst university students although they do, more often than not, have a positive attitude towards the medium, just as a number of other studies have shown (Alvarez et al.,
2010; Bonds-Raacke & Raacke, 2008; García-Villada, 2011; Gilgen, 2005; Li
& Walsh, 2011; Liu et al, 2013; MacCallum & Jeffrey, 2009), but mostly as an
add-on.
Still, these very same students will often produce the response tasks to
the mLearning activities (especially the spoken ones) in quite an informal manner, a fact that we believe could be attributed to the medium of instruction –
their personal mobile phone. In fact, when asked to rate “the seriousness and appropriateness” of the mLearning course in their university setting, the numbers
reversed and the experimental group (mLearning) rated it significantly lower
than the control group following the same course and materials but in a regular
class setting.
7
It also became apparent that students do not perceive the fact of failing
to submit a given task on time as being problematic; some did not put as much
effort into the tasks as they normally would in a more traditional assignment.
In later interviews, students admitted that they perceived the tasks (even though
they were an integral part of a regular university course) as “not so important”,
“fun but not serious” and attributed it to the fact that they had to send them via
their mobile phones and that, had they been asked to perform the very same
tasks in class in an academic situation, their perception would have changed.
Also, the institutional view of mLearning manifests itself in the requirement for the researcher to seek official permission in order to be able to use
mobile phones in class, something which is incomprehensible when using any
other technological device such as a computer or a tablet. This reluctance, on
the administrative side, might be due to a certain amount of fear that this type of
technology could be misused in a university setting and possible negative consequences could backfire on the institution. Last but not least, cost might play
an important role here, directive boards being aware of the fact that the change
will imply maintenance and technical support.
All of the above issues were encountered in our research projects
throughout several years. Still, it can be said that small but constant changes for
the better are visible and the situation is slowly improving at the administrative
level as well.
One of the aspects we were most surprised with was the reluctance on
behalf of possible instructors. When told that, if the pilot study brought about
positive results the regular university subjects in question might be taught
through mLearning, some teachers were very sceptical about this fact. Informal interviews with them shed light on such attitudes. The lecturers mention
that they fear their workload would significantly increase and thus their personal time would suffer. Also, even though not overtly expressed, many teachers dread change itself –anything new– and think that it is going to be for the
worse. One response was especially frequent: instructors have doubts regarding
security and privacy issues, and dislike the fact that students will be able to send
their response tasks any day at any time, will come to know their mobile telephone number, be able to view (in the case of WhatsApp, for example) whether
their instructor read the message or not, when they were last connected, etc.
All of these concerns, however, have solutions, and –in due course– we
were able to eradicate these fears and, to some extent, change these attitudes.
First of all, teachers who were enthusiastic about mLearning and technology in
general were chosen to carry out projects and/or deliver full courses. Secondly,
regulations for mobile phone use and connectivity were established, namely a
8
code of practice. In projects to come we will be able to further eliminate the fear
of invading personal space since staff involved in the mLearning courses will be
equipped with mobile phones belonging to the University. Nevertheless, there is
still a lot of progress to be made regarding teacher attitudes towards mLearning.
2.3 Challenges regarding data collection and software
The third issue we would like to mention is that of data collection and
availability of software for data analysis. In general, to conduct a MALL research project, we have to rely on desktop computers and laptops as far as data
collection is concerned. All the responses and messages that learners send are
downloaded onto a computer to be stored, sorted and analysed, largely due to
the mobile systems’ limited storage capacity that makes these operations simply
unviable on a handheld device.
To date, we are obliged to adapt all of the data collected on to a computer
interface. This is extremely time-consuming for the teacher/researcher and often
slows down the process of data processing and the release dates of the results.
To give an example, students’ utterances have to be transferred onto a desktop
computer in order to be processed and analysed and the data has to be analysed
manually. For instance, all the sequential fluency measures have to be examined
manually since there is currently no existing software programme to aid the
researcher in this process. Here we are not only addressing the topic of time investment but also, and more importantly, the reliability of the results and a high
probability of human error that could affect the outcomes of the study.
3. Conclusions
In this paper we have addressed three different challenges that are currently inherent to implementing MALL as an integral part of a language course
and conducting studies aiming to analyse learner mobile device use and learning output, namely, challenges regarding the limitations of the technology itself
and compatibility between platforms; those that relate to the practitioners’ (or
to-be practitioners’) attitude toward integrating mobile devices into their teaching practices and, lastly, the difficulties encountered due to having to transfer
all the data to be analysed onto a different platform such as a desktop computer.
In order to overcome these issues, we believe that MALL still has to become
mainstream in higher education as this will slowly develop into the language
teacher’s favourable attitude toward implementing new learning scenarios that
integrate mobile devices, in much the same way as computers became common
9
teaching tools, a process that led to their “normalisation”, as Bax (2003, p. 23)
put it in 2003 (p. 23) and ratified in 2011 (p. 43). He defines “normalisation” as
“the stage when a technology is invisible, hardly even recognised as a technology, taken for granted in everyday life. […] Most importantly, CALL will be
normalised when computers are treated as always secondary to learning itself,
when the needs of learners will be carefully analysed first of all, and then the
computer used to serve those needs.” We strongly believe that this will also be
the case with mobile devices.
In addition, we agree with Burston’s view (2011, p. 60), that “On the basis of past experience, it is clear that if mobile phone technology is to provide an
effective language learning platform, it will need to meet the following criteria:
- Its use cannot be intrusive.
- Its cost must be minimal.
- Its practical technological constraints must be reduced to a minimum.
- Its learning programs must be based on pedagogical methodologies
grounded in second language acquisition research.”
And lastly, in terms of tracking and reporting on learner use and learner
performance in MALL, researchers need reliable platform solutions integrated
with these resources. Careful planning is necessary in order to evaluate mLearning outcomes. Additionally, evaluating the impact of performance support materials varies considerably from evaluating that of a complete training programme.
With clearly defined objectives, researchers are able to better evaluate the effectiveness of these systems.
We also agree with Marshall (2011) who points out that “Mobile learning is here to stay. There doesn’t appear to be an end in sight as smartphones and
tablet devices become more and more pervasive. Through continual evaluation
and analysis, mobile learning strategies will become an effective component of
any learning strategy. It won’t be long before informal mobile learning becomes
the main element of a holistic learning and performance strategy.”
References
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4. Biographies
Mar Gutiérrez-Colon Plana, PhD in English Philology awarded by the
Universitat Rovira i Virgili, is Associate Professor of English in the Department
of English and German Studies at the Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona,
Spain. Her research interests focus on mLearning, in general, and Mobile-As12
sisted Language Learning (MALL), in particular. She has coordinated several
nationally-funded MALL research projects and educational innovation projects,
having been granted a Teaching Quality Award in 2013 (XIII Premi del Consell Social Universitat Rovira i Virgili a la Qualitat Docent) for her educational
innovation project on integrating WhatsApp to increase learner motivation in
reading comprehension in English.
Ana Gimeno Sanz, PhD in English Philology awarded by the University of Valencia, Spain, is Associate Professor of English in the Department
of Applied Linguistics at the Technical University of Valencia (Universitat
Politècnica de València), Spain. She is head of the CAMILLE Research Group
devoted to Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL). Her research interests focus on CALL, Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL), Content
and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) and Massive Open Online Courses
(MOOCs). She was the former President of EUROCALL, the European Association for Computer-Assisted Language Learning (2005-11) and serves on the
Editorial Boards of ReCALL (CUP) and the CALL Journal (Taylor & Francis).
Olga Hryckiewicz holds a Major in Teaching English as a Foreign Language, awarded in 2005 by the Uniwersytet im. A. Mickiewicza in Poznan, Poland. She currently lectures on Second Language Teaching Methodology in the
MA on Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign/Second Language, Department of English and German Studies, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona,
Spain. Her research interests focus on mLearning and she is currently conducting her doctoral thesis on the use of WhatsApp as a tool for the enhancement of
spoken fluency at university level under the supervision of Dr. Gutiérrez-Colon
Plana.
13
Conference of Modern Applied Languages 14
Vocabulary Learning in English Class: Tablets in the Classroom
Leona Bunting
Department of Applied Information Technology, University of Gothenburg,
Sweden
[email protected]
Abstract: Tablets have become increasingly popular among young
people in Sweden and this rapid increase also resonates in school, especially
in classrooms for younger children. In the present study, the teacher had designed a task in which the students were to work with YouTube clips on tablets
to further their context-based guessing strategies in English when encountering unknown vocabulary, intentionally mimicking a situation the students may
encounter out of school. The aim of this study was to investigate how a teacher
implements a teaching design with the objective to help the students develop
methods for handling unknown vocabulary in English as a second language to
be used both in and out of school. The students’ activities were scrutinized in
view of the teacher’s instructions and the resources available for the task and
also how the teacher scaffolded the students and what prompted scaffolding.
A class of 28 twelve-year-old students and their English teacher in a Swedish
comprehensive school participated in the study. A classroom task was followed
over nine lessons. The lessons were video-recorded and interviews were made
with the teacher and the students. Results show that the students develop various methods for solving a task which many of them find difficult. While some
rely solely on their aural ability to identify and understand new vocabulary,
others make use of context or written text in the clips. The teacher scaffolds the
students mainly by breaking down the task into manageable components. There
are examples of differentiation as the teacher offers more explicit scaffolding
where needed. The teacher’s design of the task allows the students to develop intellectual tools for learning how to learn. It also allows for an adaptive process
which demands great flexibility on the teacher’s part.
Keywords: Tablets in the Classroom
1. Introduction
Tablets have become increasingly popular among young people in Sweden. In 2014, 95% of nine to twelve-year-olds used tablets for both school and
out-of-school purposes (Findahl 2014; Alexandersson & Davidsson, 2014). This
15
rapid increase also resonates in school, especially in classrooms for younger
children. Tablets are considered to be flexible and user-friendly (Huang, Huang,
Huang & Lin, 2012) as well as relatively cheap and easy to use (Alexandersson
& Davidsson, 2014).
This study focuses on a class of twelve-year-olds who were working in
the classroom with a task designed by the teacher. The students were to work
with YouTube clips on tablets to further their context-based guessing strategies
in English when encountering unknown vocabulary, intentionally mimicking a
situation the students may encounter out of school.
Previous studies involving tablets mainly regard upper secondary or university students. Some studies focus on students’ perceived use and attitudes to
mobile devices (Pagel & Lambacher, 2014; Ott, Haglind & Lindström, 2014).
Others point to their potential for higher education (Kaganer, Giordano, Brion
& Tortoriello, 2013) and for learning English in particular (Huang et al., 2012).
A study of 13-14 year-old Spanish students showed that they started to use the
tablets spontaneously to support their learning after being prompted to develop
ideas of how to use them for practising English (Underwood, 2014). A review of
mobile assisted language learning (MALL) research specifically in the area of
second language learning found that most studies have been small-scale, shortterm and experimental (Viberg & Grönlund, 2012). While the design of the present study is similar concerning the small-scale and the experimental aspects, it
differs in the third as it is based on a task initiated by the teacher.
The notion of task is discussed by Greiffenhagen (2008). A task is not
merely an instruction formulated by the teacher, it is also what the students
do with that instruction and how they clarify it and make something out of it
through their work, and finally how this work is ratified by the teacher (ibid.).
In a setting where the students have access to the Internet, the design of the task
can be seen as an ongoing and collective activity as it is formed in a process
in which the students and the teacher take part (Tallvid, Lundin & Lindström,
2012). Having access to the whole of the Internet, the students can use the resources available in ways unanticipated by the teacher, for whom it is impossible to foresee the myriad of opportunities made available by the medium, thus
giving rise to a need for adaptation in the task design. The teacher thus needs to
be flexible and be prepared to change the design of the task (ibid.).
The teacher, however, also needs to recognize when the students need
help. The teacher can then initiate a scaffolding process which enables the students to solve problems they could not have done on their own (cf. Wood, Bruner & Ross, 1976). This involves the teacher breaking down the task into components and letting the students concentrate on the components which lie within
16
their range of competence. It is however crucial that the students are capable of
recognizing the solution before they can produce the necessary steps involved
without assistance (ibid.).
1.1Aim
The aim of the present study is to investigate how a teacher implements
a teaching design with the objective to help the students develop methods for
handling unknown vocabulary in English as a second language both in and out
of school. The students’ activities will be scrutinized in view of the teacher’s
instructions and the resources available for the task.
- How do the students act upon the teacher’s instructions? How do they
solve the task at hand?
- How does the teacher scaffold the students in the activities? What
prompts scaffolding?
2. Method
2.1Collecting the data
The present study is an observation study of a classroom with the researcher as an observer-as-participant. The researcher was not a member of the
group, but participated a little in the group’s activities (cf. Cohen, Manion &
Morrisson, 2011). This means that the researcher in this study tried to be as
unobtrusive as possible in the classroom during the lessons, but for example answered direct questions from the students and the teacher. A class of 28 twelveyear-old students and their English teacher in a Swedish comprehensive school
participated in the study. The teacher had designed a classroom task in which the
students were to work with YouTube on tablets to further their understanding
of primarily language, distinguish and learn new vocabulary and finally present
their findings orally to their classmates. The whole classroom task, all of which
was followed for research purposes, took nine lessons assuming approximately
14 hours.
Permission to video-record the lessons had been obtained from the
school, the parents and the students themselves. The teacher informed the parents in writing about the research project and obtained written consent from all
of them. The teacher also asked the students orally whether they were willing
to participate. One student declined and is thus not present in the material. The
data collected consists of approximately 40 hours in total of video-recordings
17
from three different cameras; one stationary, one mounted to the teacher’s head
and one hand-held operated by the researcher. Data also consist of printed project instructions, materials produced by the students, observation notes, as well
as recorded group interviews with the students and an individual interview with
the teacher. For the present study, the video-recordings and the interviews have
been used.
2.2Analyzing the data
Video-recordings make stable records for detailed, repeated and collaborative analysis of the verbal, visual and material learning practices under scrutiny as it is possible to replay and revisit situations and activities (Heath, Hindmarsh & Luff, 2011). First the filmed material was watched in its entirety by
the researcher. This gave rise to the research questions stated above. During the
analysis stage the focus was to identify and select episodes which showed the
students’ problem-solving and the teacher’s scaffolding. The filmed sequences
picked for scrutiny were transcribed verbatim and non-verbal actions were described in writing using a transcription key adapted from Aronsson & Cekaite
(2009). All transcriptions were then merged into one document to obtain a comprehensive view of the filmed material.
An individual, semi-structured interview was made with the teacher after the last classroom observation. The researcher followed an interview guide
which included questions regarding the teacher’s reasoning surrounding the design and planning of the task as well as her experiences of the task. The interview
was transcribed verbatim. The students, 23 of the total 28, were interviewed in
groups of four or five after the last classroom observation. The reasoning behind
conducting group interviews was that the researcher wanted the benefits of possible discussions among the students, but still wanted to be able to ask questions
to the students individually should one or two students dominate the discussion.
These semi-structured interviews followed an interview guide which included
questions regarding their experiences of the task. It was considered that being
surrounded by their peers would make the students feel safe and that this would
be beneficial for the outcome of the interview (cf. Formosinho & Araujo, 2006).
The parts of the group interviews that addressed the research questions were
also transcribed verbatim. The video material and the interview transcriptions
have been subject to collaborative analyses in various stages of the research
process.
18
3. Results
Results from the video-recorded classroom observations and the interviews show that the students try to solve the task in various ways, which will be
illustrated below. Some struggle when they cannot immediately figure out what
to do, while others quickly develop methods for solving the task. The teacher
scaffolds the students mainly by breaking down the task into manageable units.
In the interview, she mentions that she identifies this need in three ways: If a
student asks for help, if a student looks like they do not know what to do and if
she seems to have previous knowledge of a student needing help. This is also
visible in the observation data.
The teacher gives very open instructions to the task. She lets the students
read a plan she has prepared on paper and makes the comment to the students
”as you can see, it is very, very, brief”. She tells them about the working process
and that they are supposed to finish in four weeks’ time and that they will have
to plan their time accordingly. She adds that they may need to do some work
at home. On the paper, she says, there are also links to what the syllabus for
English states that they need to achieve in English. The teacher then models
what the presentation, the end product of the task, could look like. She shows
a video clip on the projector in the classroom and explains why she has chosen it and some of the vocabulary from it. However, in the interview she also
gives a rationale for the whole task which is not explicitly given to the students
at the time of introducing the task. ”We have talked about this a lot when we
have worked with listening and reading comprehensions - can I understand the
context? About ’guessing comprehension’.” The teacher thus in the interview
expresses an intention to mimick a situation the students may encounter out of
school when encountering unknown vocabulary.
In the group interviews, several students expressed that they tried to find
a funny clip because they wanted to make their classmates laugh. Some tried
to find a clip where there was a lot of talking in order to elicit new vocabulary.
Many of them, however, agreed that it was difficult to identify unknown vocabulary amidst the stream of words in the clips and then being able to look it
up. One girl said: ”I think it was difficult. You have a word in a video, and then
you need to figure out how to spell it and what it means and stuff. It was hard.”
Some of the students developed methods for solving the task more easily. One boy chose a clip where the narration was supplemented by written text,
making finding new vocabulary more accessible. One of the girls wrote down
a time stamp whenever an unknown word appeared in the clip so she could go
back and listen to the context. ”And then when I had looked it up, I went back
19
and checked if it fit into what they were talking about.”
The teacher addresses the students on a group level when there is an
anticipated need for scaffolding for everybody and it is pre-planned. An example of this is when she shows all the students how they can check what the different online dictionaries do, that they offer different possibilities: Some show
pictures, some explain in English and some translate into Swedish. Otherwise
she scaffolds the students individually. As many of the students find the task
difficult, she is very busy responding to students asking for her help. One boy
asks for assistance with his work with an online dictionary and the teacher aids
him by breaking the task down into more manageable components, encouraging
him by asking him things he knows. As the excerpt below illustrates, she praises
him for having chosen such a good word to look up, emergency exit, and asks
him if he recognizes and words in the translation. (T is the teacher and P is the
student.) The following excerpt has been taken from a longer exchange between
the teacher and the student P.
10 T =yes, exit [you see it on signs all the time]
11 P [yes (x)] ((looks at T))
12 T yes, don’t we. And emergency also means, eh, when there’s
danger, right
13 P mm
14 T what does this mean then? ((points to the screen)) Fire escape
15 P fire (x) ((looks at the screen))
16 T yes exactly. And then you understand that it’s linked to=
17 P =yes, fire= ((looks at L))
The teacher responds and scaffolds students who ask for help, students
who look lost and students who usually need assistance. In the interview, the
teacher says: ”I know which students need a lot of scaffolding” and goes on
to say that perhaps she should have targeted those students to an even higher
degree.
4. Conclusion
Following upon a teacher’s implementation of a teaching design to help
the students develop methods for handling unknown vocabulary in English both
in and out of school, this study shows that the students develop and employ vari20
ous methods for identifying and learning new vocabulary. While some students
rely on their aural ability and focus on listening for new words, others choose
clips where there is written text that facilitate the identification of new words or
pay close attention to the context the new word is in to figure out which of the
translations listed in the dictionary could be the appropriate one. There are also
examples of differentiation as the teacher intervenes and offers more explicit
scaffolding where needed. The teacher’s design of the task, using YouTube that
many students watch out of school and tablets that are user-friendly, allows the
students to develop concrete intellectual tools for learning how to learn and
to develop metalearning strategies. The introduction of online dictionaries is
pivotal o this task as guessing the spelling of unknown vocabulary would be a
tall order with only paper dictionaries present, but possible with the online versions as they accept a certain amount of guesswork. Furthermore, the teacher’s
design of the task is explorative and it thus allows for an adaptive process which
demands great flexibility on the teacher’s part.
5. References
Alexandersson, K. & Davidsson, P. (2014). Eleverna och internet [Students and
the internet]. Stockholm:. SE (Stiftelsen för internetinfrastruktur).
Aronsson, K. & Cekaite, A. (2009). Förhandlingar mellan föräldrar och barn
[Negotiations between parents and children]. In A.-M. Markström, M.
Simonsson, I. Söderlind & E. Änggård (Eds.) Barn, barndom och föräldraskap [Children, childhood and parenthood]. Stockholm: Carlssons.
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2011). Research methods in education
(7th ed). London: Routledge (Chapter 23).
Findahl, O. (2014). Svenskarna och internet [Swedes and the internet]. Stockholm:. SE (Stiftelsen för internetinfrastruktur).
Formosinho, J. & Araújo, S.B. (2006). Listening to children as a way to reconstruct knowledge about children: Some methodological implications.
European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 14(1), 21-31.
Greiffenhagen, C. (20089. Unpacking tasks: the fusion of new technology with
instructional work. Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW)
17(1), 35-62.
Heath, C., Hindmarsh, J. & Luff, P. (2011). Video in qualitative research: Analysing social interaction in everyday life. London, UK: SAGE Publications Ltd.
21
Huang, Y-M., Huang, Y-M., Huang, S-H. & Lin, Y-T. (2012). A uniquitous English vocabulary learning system: Evidence of active/passive attitudes vs.
usefulness/ease-of-use. Computers & Education, 58, 273-282).
Kaganer, E., Giordano, G.A., Brion, S. & Tortoriello, M. (2013). Media tablets
for mobile learning. Communications of the ACM, 56(11), 68-75.
Ott, T., Haglind, T. & Lindström, B. (2014). Students’ use of mobile phones
for school work. In M. Kalz, Y. Bayyurt & M. Specht (Eds.) Mobile as
Mainstream-Towards Future Challenges in Mobile Learning. 13th World
Conference on Mobile and Contextual Learning, mLearn 2014, Istanbul,
Turkey, November 3-5, 2014, Proceedings, 69-80.
Pagel, J. W. & Lambacher S. G. (2014). Patterns and effectiveness of mobile
device usage by Japanese undergraduates for L2 acquisition purposes. In
S. Jager, L. Bradley, E. J. Meima & S. Thouësny (Eds.) CALL Design:
Principles and Practice, Proceedings of the 2014 EUROCALL Conference, Groningen, The Netherlands, 284-289.
Tallvid, M., Lundin, J. & Lindström, B. (2012). Using TPACK for analysing
teachers’ task design- Understanding change in a 1:1 laptop setting. In
C.D. Maddux & D. Gibson (Eds.) Research Highlights in Technology and
Teacher Education 2012, Society for Information Technology and Teacher
Education. SITE, 23-30.
Underwood, J. (2014). Using iPads to help teens design their own activities. In
S. Jager, L. Bradley, E. J. Meima & S. Thouësny (Eds.) CALL Design:
Principles and Practice, Proceedings of the 2014 EUROCALL Conference, Groningen, The Netherlands, 385-390.
Viberg, O. & Grönlund, Å. (2012). Mobile assisted language learning: A literature review. mLearn, CEUR Workshop Proceedings, 9-16.
Appendix: Transcription key
word emphasized
WORD
loud speech
°word°quiet speech (sotto voce)
wo:rd prolonged sound
wo::rd
very prolonged sound
[ ] simultaneous or overlapping speech
22
Conference of Modern Applied Languages =
utterances close to one another
(.)
silence
(1.0) length of silence in seconds
(x) non-audible speech
((smiles))
comments, including descriptions of non-verbal and non-vocal
actions such as facial expressions, gestures, posture or movements in
space
wordword said in English instead of Swedish
Biography
Leona Bunting is a PhD student at the Department of Applied Information Technology at the University of Gothenburg, Sweden. She has an M.A.
and an M.Ed. in language education and has taught languages in upper secondary school and worked in teacher education at University West, Sweden.
Her research interests concern the pervasiveness of English in young Swedish
people’s lives; what pre-teens do with English out of school when they engage
in interest-driven activities linked to new media and what they do with English
in school and how teachers handle the students’ out-of-school engagement with
English in the classroom.
23
The use of mobile technology in the teaching and learning of foreign
languages in French-speaking Belgium: the learners’ perspective.
Julie Van de Vyver
Université catholique de Louvain (BE)
[email protected]
Abstract: In the last two decades several private and public initiatives
have been contributing to the development and the integration of technological
tools in secondary education. In Belgium, governmental projects such as ‘les
plans Cyberécole et Cyberclasse’ since 1999 and 2005, ‘l’Ecole Numérique’
since 2011 and the recent ‘plan du Numérique (see www.ecolenumerique.be and
www.digitalwallonia.be for more details) have been set up to equip schools and
educational environments with, among others, computers and tablets. Whilst
surveys have regularly been conducted to evaluate the access to technologies in
our secondary schools, little is known about the actual use and integration of
these technologies in classrooms in general and in our foreign language learning classrooms in particular. In addition, despite available information about
the access to computers in schools, the use of mobile tools has largely been
underinvestigated.
CALL researchers have shown increasing interest in MALL, as the creation of the EUROCALL MALL SIG and the organization of the related two-day
symposium testifies. As a consequence, I have chosen to investigate the use of
MALL in Belgium, focusing on language learning in the last 3 years of secondary education in the French-speaking Federation Wallonia-Brussels.
My presentation aims to assess the pupils’ ownership, use and knowledge of mobile technologies in and outside the classroom. In order to do so,
I designed three online questionnaires for pupils, teachers and school principals. The descriptive analysis of the results will first provide an overview of the
current presence of the computer, the tablet and the smartphone in our pupils’
life. The second part will then focus on the use of these tools in the learning of
foreign languages. The aim of this investigation is to foster the use of mobile
technologies, not only quantitatively but also qualitatively, by providing training to the different stakeholders in education.
gium
Keywords: MALL uses, learner perspectives, mobile tools, survey, Bel-
25
1. Introduction
Technology is now part and parcel of communication and language
learning. For language learners today, the acquisition of communicative skills
also implies the mastery of digital literacies (Murray, 2000; Warschauer 2000,
in Chapelle 2001), as Chapelle also adds (2001, p.1):
“As we enter the 21st century, everyday language use
is so tied to technology that learning language through
technology has become a fact of life with important
implications for all applied linguists, particularly for those
concerned with facets of second language acquisition.”
With the constant evolution of technology, computer-assisted language
learning (CALL) researchers have been investigating how computers could enhance second language acquisition and learning. These experts have started to
focus on mobile learning and its potential to offer various learning opportunities
(see for instance Kukulska-Hulme and Shield, 2008; Godwin, 2008, 2011, in
Ballance, 2012). Mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) researchers have
conducted different types of research, the majority of which were characterized
as experimental and presenting small-scale and short-term case studies (Viberg
and Grönlund, 2012; Burston, 2014).
The Belgian government, willing to foster the use of technology in
schools, has launched different projects meant to first equip the educational institutions with computer labs (viz. Plan Cyberécole in 1999 and Cyberclasse
in 2005) and to then introduce a call for projects (viz. Ecole numérique from
2011 to 2014) in order to provide a certain number of schools with interactive
whiteboards, tablets and other equipment. More recently, the regional government has launched a new project aiming at setting up Wi-Fi coverage in some
pilot schools.
Although implementing mobile learning projects is essential, it seems,
as Neil Davie (2015) points out, that a number of considerations must be made
before implementing mobile learning in instructed settings. These include,
among others, the analysis of the institution needs, the teachers and pupils’ readiness to undertake activities integrating technologies, or the access to technology. Besides, Jarvis & Achilleo (2013) argue that today’s permanent access to
electronic devices makes it increasingly important for scholars and practitioners
to know and understand the different uses of these tools outside school and the
perceptions of their users.
In this context, there was a real need to first observe the current use of
26
mobile technologies in French-speaking Belgium and particularly, the use of
MALL in secondary education before introducing any new MALL project in
schools. The aim of the study was thus to look into how secondary school pupils
use technology in informal and more formal contexts.
2. Design of the study
In order to determine the state of MALL integration in the Federation
Wallonia-Brussels, data was collected through an online survey conducted from
January to April 2016. Although it can arguably be stated that the computer is
not part of mobile technology, it nonetheless appeared essential to collect information on this device as MALL is still at an early stage of development and cannot be considered apart from CALL in our Belgian context. The survey, which
is part of a wider project on attitudes and the acceptance of technologies for language learning and teaching, sought to answer the following research questions:
1. Do pupils in French-speaking Belgium have access to technologies?
2. When and how (often) do these pupils use their computer, tablet and
smartphone?
3. How are these three devices used for language learning in secondary
education according to the pupils?
Of the 15 secondary schools contacted, 10 answered positively and took
part in the survey with at least 3 groups of pupils per school. Each Frenchspeaking province was represented in the survey and the questionnaire was administered anonymously to 1054 pupils in the fourth, fifth and sixth years of
upper-secondary school level. The survey was first pre-tested in one school and
was, as a consequence, slightly adapted. Pupils completed the online questionnaire individually in their school’s computer labs. This method was chosen in
order to obtain a higher response rate to the survey and to ensure the representativeness of the population. Topics addressed in the 15-minute survey included
first the ownership of the computer, the tablet and the smartphone and - second
- the use of these devices in the pupils’ everyday life and subsequently in the
language classroom. The questionnaire mainly consisted in closed questions.
Further in the questionnaire, learners could provide examples of activities integrating some technology for language learning and could cite some digital tools
and programmes they were familiar with. It should be added that pupils who
did not own a particular device could not answer the questions relating to the
personal use of that device.
The results were analyzed using descriptive statistics, and are presented
27
below.
3. Participants
Out of the 1054 respondents, 56% are girls and 44% are boys. 94% of
them speak French as their first language. 1.5% of the respondents are Dutchspeaking; the remaining 4.5% come from different linguistic backgrounds (e.g.:
Spanish, English, Chinese, Russian).
As illustrated in Table 1, we collected between 56 and 325 completed
responses per province (1 to 3 schools per area), with 38% of the pupils in year
4, 36% in year 5 and 24% in year 6.
Table 1: Participants’ profile
Province
Brabant Wallon
Bruxelles
Hainaut
Liege
Luxembourg
Namur
Overall total
Year 4
88
12
130
25
68
79
402
38%
Year 5
72
22
115
32
41
97
379
36%
Year 6
56
22
60
39
19
56
252
24%
not mentioned
1
20
21
2%
Overall total
217
56
325
96
128
232
1054
100%
As can be seen in Figure 1, nearly all participants (97%) are aged between 15 and 18 with a slight majority of 16-year-old respondents. The greatest
percentage of these pupils (87%) follows a general field of education whereas
11% follow a technical field of education. The remaining 2% did not specify the
type of education.
28
Figure 1: Age of the participants
4. Devices ownership
The survey established that nearly all respondents own a computer (98%)
or a smartphone (91%). 72% of them reported that they have a tablet computer
or an iPod, the two devices being included in the same category in the study. As
shown in Figure 2, only 0.2% of the surveyed teenagers have no electronic device and 2.8% own only one device out of the three aforementioned. Most strikingly, 64% of the respondents possess the three devices and 33%, two of them.
Figure 2: Devices ownership
29
5. Usage patterns
The pupils were then asked to answer a set of questions related to the
use of their personal devices. Table 2 shows the daily time spent on the digital
devices ranging from less than 1 hour, 1 to 2 hours, to more than 2 hours. It can
be noticed that the tablet computer is the device which is used the least by the
participants. 57% report using it less than one hour a day whereas 16% use it
more than two hours a day. With regards to the use of the computer, 48% of the
owners indicate they use it less than one hour a day while 19% report spending
more than 2 hours a day on the device.
Table 2: Daily time spent on each device
The figures regarding the use of the smartphone reflect a different usage
pattern from what precedes. Only 15% of its owners use it less than an hour a
day whereas 57% report using it more than two hours daily. Given that nearly
all participants (96%) own at least 2 devices, spending less time on one device
is for most of them explained by the fact that they use several devices a day and
spend more time on the one of their choice.
The survey included additional questions related to the types of use of
the three devices. Respondents were asked to select all tools they use on their
computer, tablet computer and smartphone so as to highlight some usage pat30
terns linked to each device. The results show that the three devices are considered primarily as communication and entertainment devices. Social media and
music/audio come in the top 3 of the list together with games and videos for
the tablet computer, and telephoning and photos for the smartphone. Although
the computer is used for communication purposes and entertainment, it can be
noticed that word processing tools and e-mailing are two other top uses of this
device. It seems that the computer is used by a vast majority of its users for studying and learning. However, respondents report using translation dictionaries
and web search on the 3 devices. Yet, few of them indicate they use educational
apps for language learning.
6. Technology for language learning
The following set of questions dealt with the use of the 3 devices for
language learning. According to the respondents, 35% of them use the computer
during language classes but the vast majority uses it ‘rarely’ to ‘sometimes’.
10% indicate they use their smartphone in the language classroom. More than
60% of them report using it ‘rarely’ to ‘sometimes’ and about 30% ‘quite often’
to ‘all the time’. Out of the 1054 participants, only 2 pupils mention the use of
tablets in the language classroom, which came as a surprise considering the
different actions that have been taken by the government with the Ecole Numérique plan.
Outside the classroom, 25% of the tablet owners and 51% of the smartphone owners use their device for their homework, the majority of them using it
‘sometimes’. The tablet and the smartphone are still mainly used at home even
though they are portable devices which could be used anywhere. As illustrated
in Figure 3, over 50% of the pupils (530) indicate that they use their smartphone
for homework at home. 139 respondents also use it at school and 62, on the way.
Figure 3: Smartphone use for homework - location
31
7. Conclusion
Despite the growing interest in MALL research and practice, the field is
still at an early stage of development. In the French-speaking context of Belgian
education, drawing a picture of the current situation in terms of mobile uses
among pupils seems therefore, according to MALL literature, highly pertinent
if we are to develop mobile learning in institutions. This paper looks into the
digital resources of Belgian pupils as well as their usage patterns in order to
determine the tools they are using and the activities they do on their mobile devices. The online survey, taken by more than 1000 pupils all across the Federation Wallonia-Brussels, provides quantitative insights into the current situation.
It also brings valuable information for the development of Bring Your Own Device (BYOD) scenarios as it shows that, for the moment at least, mobile devices
for language learning are mainly used at home and that the ‘mobility’ feature is
not exploited to the full.
The fact that 96% of the respondents own 2 or 3 electronic devices answers our first research question positively. It appears that pupils aged 15 to 18
do have easy access to computers, tablets and smartphones. As for the second
research question (i.e. when and how (often) do these pupils use their computer,
tablet and smartphone), the usage patterns of the three devices vary depending
on the type of device used and the number of devices owned. However, it can be
highlighted that the majority of the participants use their smartphone more than
2 hours a day, as opposed to the computer and the tablet which are used by more
than half of the users less than one hour a day. All three devices are mainly used
32
for communication and entertainment purposes. Only the computer is used for
more (language) learning tasks by most respondents. With regards to the use of
these technologies in secondary schools, the study demonstrates that, although
the computer is used in the language classroom by 35% of the pupils, the tablet
is still largely absent in the language learning context. As for the smartphone, it
is scarcely used for learning purposes at school. However, it appears that mobile
devices are more widely used for homework purposes, but mostly from home
and only sometimes at school.
8. Limits of the survey
Although the distribution method of the survey ensured that it was completed by at least 1000 pupils in upper secondary school in the different provinces of the FWB, the representativity of that population was not without limitations. As indicated in the study description, the 15 schools that were contacted
did not all answer positively. Therefore, the sample of respondents has become
less varied with regards to the two main school networks in the FWB (viz.
public-run and public-funded schools) and educational orientations. Besides, it
must be added that the data collected is based on pupils’ perceptions and cannot
therefore be considered as true ‘facts of use’. Taking all this into consideration,
it can be said that the survey is more representative of the population of pupils
belonging to the general and technical fields of education in institutions of the
public-funded network.
References
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Language Learning and Technology, 16(3), 21-23. Online http://llt.msu.
edu/issues/october2012/ballance.pdf.
Chapelle, C. A. (2001). Computer Applications in Second Language Acquisition – Foundations for teaching, testing and research, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Davie, N. (2015). Considerations before introducing mobile learning. Technical report, South-Westphalia University of Applied Sciences, Meschede,
Germany. Online https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271201264_Considerations_before_introducing_mobile_learning.
Jarvis, H. & Achilleo, M. (2013). From Computer Assisted Language Learning
(CALL) to Mobile Assisted Language Use (MALU). The Electronic Jour33
nal of English as a Second Language, 16(4), 1-18.
Kukulska-Hulme, A. & Shield, L. (2008). An overview of mobile assisted language learning: From content delivery to supported collaboration and interaction. ReCALL 20(03), 271-289. doi:10.1017/S0958344008000335
Viberg, O. & Grönlund, A. (2012). Mobile-Assisted language learning: a literature review. Proceedings of the 11th World Conference on Mobile and
Contextualised Learning (mLearn2012), Helsinki. Online http://ceur-ws.
org/Vol-955/papers/paper_8.pdf.
Author’s biography
Julie Van de Vyver is a PhD student and teaching assistant in English
linguistics and didactics at the Université catholique de Louvain, Belgium. Her
main research area is foreign language teaching and, more specifically, the integration of mobile technologies in the foreign language learning classroom and
curriculum. Other research interests include the role of mobile learning and the
use of data-driven learning both in instructed foreign language teaching and in
adult education.
34
Learners’ Preferences for Isolated and Integrated Form-focused
Instruction
Enriketa Sogutlu
Department of Education, European University of Tirana, Tirana, ALBANIA
[email protected]
Miranda Veliaj-Ostrosi
Department of English Language, University of Tirana Tirana, ALBANIA
[email protected]
Abstract: The role of grammar knowledge and grammar instruction in
second language acquisition and L2 development used to be a controversial issue in the field of EFL/ESL teaching and learning. Now that grammar has made
its case the disagreement has changed course and focuses on the ways of teaching grammar effectively. The debate of what grammar to teach, how and when,
has led to the development of various trends in grammar instruction. One of the
answers to the how question, is to teach grammar separately or to integrate it in
communicative activities. Spada and Lightbown (2008) introduced isolated and
integrated form-focused instruction as two types of explicit grammar instruction. Since then a lot of research has been conducted on the effectiveness of both
isolated and integrated grammar instruction on learners’ development of L2
explicit knowledge and L2 proficiency; other studies have concentrated on the
learners’ perceptions and preferences for each of these types.
Following a previous study on the effectiveness of consciousness-raising
tasks on development of L2 explicit knowledge, the present study aims to investigate EFL learners’ preferences of integrated and isolated form-focused instruction. The instrument implemented in the study is a questionnaire for learners’
preferences for isolated and integrated form-focused instruction developed by
Spada et al in 2009.
Keywords: ELT, grammar instruction, isolated FFI, integrated FFI,
learners’ perceptions
1. Introduction
The role of grammar knowledge and grammar instruction in the development of second language acquisition and L2 proficiency is no longer a controversial issue; researchers and linguists agree on their undisputable contribu35
tion ( (Dickins & Woods, 1988; Celce-Murcia, 1991; Ellis, 2002a; 2002b, 2006,
2009, 2010; Nassaji & Fotos, 2004, 2011). Viewpoints and positions vary as to
what grammar to teach, when and how; these three issues have been the primary
focus of most research and studies in EFL/ESL classrooms. As for what grammar to teach there is a consensus that teaching should concentrate on forms
and structures. However, there are two arguments: 1) only simple rules should
be taught (Krashen, 1982) and 2) learners should be taught grammatical structures they have difficulty with (Ellis, 2006). Regarding the question of when
to teach grammar the positions are to teach it in the (1) initial or early stages
of L2 acquisition (Ellis N., 2008) or (2) after learners have begun to form their
interlanguage (Ellis R., 2006). The third debated issue focuses on timing: is
there a better moment to focus on grammar structures, that is, should linguistic
features be taught separately from meaning-based activities or should learners’
attention be attracted to form while these activities are taking place? As a possible solution to this issue, Spada and Lightbown (2008) introduced two types of
instruction, which they termed isolated form-focused instruction and integrated
form-focused instruction. They used the first one to refer to grammar instruction in lessons “isolated from communicative or content-based interaction” and
the second to refer to instruction that is “integrated within activities where the
primary emphasis remains on meaning” (p. 184).
The authors’ previous work and research with Moldovan EFL learners
on the effectiveness of consciousness-raising tasks and direct grammar instruction on development of L2 explicit knowledge, demonstrated learners’ familiarity with terminology and eagerness for explicit instruction (Sogutlu & VeliajOstrosi, 2016). The present study aims to investigate whether learners have a
preference for integrated or isolated FFI as both of them include explicit grammar instruction. Although limited this study aims to contribute to research in
learners’ preferences, which is a very important variable that deserves more
attention.
2. Literature review
In this section an overview of literature on two types of form-focused instruction will be presented along with a review of research conducted on learners’ preferences for both types of grammar instruction.
2.1Isolated form-focused instruction (FFI)
As it was mentioned above, Spada and Lightbown (2008) used the term
36
isolated FFI with reference to the way of attracting learners’ attention to form in
lessons separate from communicative activities. They point out that isolated FFI
can be provided before a content-based/communicative activity or after it. I will
use the terms pre-activity isolated FFI to refer to the former and after-activity
isolated FFI to refer to the latter.
In the pre-activity isolated FFI the learners are introduced with a new
linguistic form which they will need in order to convey meaning related to it
while performing the activity. After the introduction, depending on the nature
of the target form, controlled practice can be done in order to enable learners’
acquisition of the target form; this includes structural drills and pattern practice
such as underlining the correct word, putting the words in the correct form,
finishing the sentences, finding and correcting mistakes in sentences, etc. This
kind of instruction includes explicit explanation, use of metalanguage and error
feedback during the exercise phase. All these steps aim to prepare the learners
for an as-good-as-possible performance during the communicative activity. Preactivity isolated FFI corresponds with the first of three types of FFI described
by Ellis (2006) which he items as “focus-on forms” (2001, p. 17). Its primary
aim is also that learners concentrate on a preselected linguistic feature in order
to be able to learn and use it.
After-activity isolated FFI concentrates on explanation of language features which learners had difficulty with during the activity. This means that the
language feature(s) may be planned or incidental, where the latter means extensive treatment of more than one feature (Ellis, 2006). Presentation of features
and their use includes feedback on error, which can be done explicitly by use of
metalinguistic terminology and rule explanation.
Research and studies (Lyster, 2004; Sogutlu & Veliaj-Ostrosi, 2016)
have shown that isolated form-focused instruction may be beneficial to students.
In Lyster’s study the learners were exposed to a context where the primary focus
of the learning process was the target language feature (in this case assigning
the gender in French as a foreign language). The results concluded that FFI
definitely improves the learners’ ability to properly assign grammatical feature.
Findings of Sogutlu’s study showed that explicit explanation of linguistic forms
prior to meaning-based activity contributes to the development of learners’ explicit knowledge of L2.
2.2Integrated form-focused instruction (FFI)
Spada and Lightbown (2008) describe integrated form-focused instruction as teaching in which “learners’ attention is drawn to language form during
37
communicative or content-based activity” (p. 186). Instruction occurs in the
form of brief explanations or corrective feedback with the aim of helping learners to express meaning accurately and effectively. However, this does not mean
that choice of language forms is always incidental; the target forms can also be
planned. Integrated FFI involves statement of rules, use of metalinguistic terminology and feedback in the form of recasts. An example of rule explanation by
use of metalanguage may be one where students have to state how a person’s
life has changed after having read a text about it. They need to employ be used
to and get used to structures in order to give reasons for the changes and his feelings. While students are doing the activity two or three more attraction-catching
changes, or the ones students find more surprising, are selected, and the teacher
gives a brief explanation of meaning and use. Then the other steps are proceeded
with.[1] The correct form of the same features can also be provided in feedback
through recasts (negative/positive error feedback), prompts or metatalk.
Spada and Lightbown’s integrated FFI seems to correspond with two
descriptions called focus on form (Ellis, 2006), and structured grammar-focused
tasks (Nassaji & Fotos, 2011). Ellis described focus on form as instruction that
“entails focus on meaning with attention to form arising out of the communicative activity” (2006, p. 100). This kind of instruction can also be planned, which
means that a task is designed in such a way that it “elicits occasions for using a
predetermined grammar structure”, or incidental, which means that attention to
form is “not predetermined, but occurs in accordance with learners’ linguistic
needs”. According to Nassaji and Fotos, structured grammar-focused tasks also
aim to “draw learners’ attention to form” and to “promote negotiation about
language forms” (p. 100).
Research findings have supported integration of attention to form in
communicative or meaning-based activities (Elgün-Gündüz et al, 2012). In their
study comparing the effectiveness of integrated and isolated instruction in terms
of vocabulary and grammar development Elgün-Gündüz et al (2012) concluded
that students exposed to integrated instruction learned grammar more successfully.
2.3Learners’ beliefs and preferences for grammar instruction
Although learners’ beliefs and preferences for grammar instruction have
not been as largely investigated as other areas in the field of SLA and applied
linguistics, research has demonstrated positive findings on the part of the stu1
This was applied in a previous study where a short passage was used as the main instrument for introduction of the new grammar item.
38
dents. One of the first to have conducted research with such focus was Schulz
(2001), who compared US and Colombian students’ perceptions of explicit
grammar study and corrective feedback. His findings provide evidence that both
groups of students share positive beliefs of the role of grammar instruction in
EFL learning. Another study was conducted by Loewen et al (2009), who concluded that despite the negative view held by some students, learners generally
believed in the efficacy or usefulness of grammar instruction.The findings of a
study done by Sogutlu and Veliaj-Ostrosi (2015) with Albanian EFL learners
also demonstrated a generally positive attitude towards grammar knowledge
and instruction and their role in L2 development.
Learners’ preferences for recent developments in grammar teaching approaches, like the isolated and integrated FFI, however, had not been specifically researched, until Spada et al (2009) developed a questionnaire, which has
been implemented by researchers in different countries such as Elgün-Gündüz
et al (2012), Songhori (2012), Ansarin et al (2014) and Ebrahimi (2015). Some
of the findings revealed a preference on the part of the students towards an integration of grammar instruction in communicative activities (Elgün-Gündüz,
2012; Songhori, 2012); some of them didn’t show a clear preference for any
of the two types (Ebrahimi, 2015); in one, advanced learners seemed to have a
preference for integrated FFI and beginner learners did not show a preference
for isolated FFI or integrated FFI (Ansarin et al, 2014).
3. The study
The present study aims to investigate Moldovan EFL learners’ preferences for integrated or isolated FFI. The questionnaire implemented is the one
developed by Spada (2009) on the grounds that factors like reliability and construct-validity were taken care of during its designation. The questionnaire was
aplied in its original version and consisted of 20 statements, ten per each construct, i.e. isolated and integrated, which were ordered randomly. The learners’
preferences were measured on a Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree(1)
to strongly agree (5) for each statement. The main questions this study aims to
answer are:
What are Moldovan EFL learners’ beliefs and preferences towards isolated and integrated FFI? Is there a difference in preferences between 10th and
12th grade students?
39
3.1Context and participants
99 high school students of a private school in Chisinau, Moldova, participated in this study, but one of the respondents was excluded because half of
the data was missing thus resulting in a sample of 98 respondents. 52 (53.1%)
participants were from 10th grade and 46 (46.9%) were from 12th grade (see Table 1). Although the questionnaires were anonymous 5 students did not declare
their gender; of the ones who did, 35 were males and 58 females. Out of the 92
(93.9%) participants who answered this question, 82 students (89.1%) had been
studying English since primary school (1st to 4th grade), 7 students (7.6%) had
started later in secondary school, while 3 (3.3%) participants had started learning English as a FL in the 10th grade.
Table 1 Participants’Demographic Data
Male
Female
Total
Missing
Total
Class 10
14
34
48
4
52(53.1)
Class 12
21
24
45
1
46(46.9)
Total
35
58
93
5
98
3.2Instrument and data collection
The instrument implemented in this study was the questionnaire developed by Spada et al (2009) on learners’ preferences for isolated or integrated
FFI. After permission from the school administration and the teachers’ agreement to cooperate in this research, the questionnaires were administered by the
learners’ teachers of English during class time, which took approximately 20
minutes.
3.3Data analyses
The SPSS version 21 was used to code the data after the questionnaire
data were collected. Descriptive statistics of the data are summarized in Table 2.
The mean score for each subscale, i.e. the isolated and the integrated, for all the
respondents was calculated as 3.57 and 3.98 respectively. Fractional differences
in standard deviation, 0.38 and 0.44, reflect insignificant variability and dispersion from both mean scores.
40
Table 2 Descriptive statistics for learner’s preferences on isolated and
integrated items
Scales
Isolated
Integrated
N
98
98
Mean
3.5756
3.9840
Std. deviation
0.38511
0.44591
Std. error mean
0.03890
0.04504
Mean scores were also calculated separately for each grade, 10th and
12 . Table 3 summarizes the descriptive statistics for each group’s preference
for each type of instruction. As it can be seen the mean scores for the isolated
scale for the 10th and 12th group were 3.55 and 3.59 respectively; the mean score
for the integrated scale were 3.98 and 3.97 respectively. These figures show
that both groups’ tendency for isolated instruction is around 3.5, which indicates that there is no disagreement or strong disagreement with this subscale.
The mean scores for the integrated subscales reveal a higher tendency for this
subscale, which is approximately 0.4 higher than the mean score for the isolated
subscales. Both groups’ mean scores for the integrated subscale revolve round
4, which show a higher tendency for strong agreement with this subscale. These
results are also supported by standard deviations, 0.327 and 0.444 for the isolated subscale for 10th and 12th grade respectively, and 0.473 and 0.417 for the
integrated subscale; the differences are only fractional, which shows very little
variability and dispersion from the mean scores.
th
In both tables the differences are only fractional, which necessitates operation of inferential analyses.
Table 3 Descriptive statistics for each subscale and grade
Subscales
Isolated
Integrated
Grade
10
12
10
12
N
52
46
52
46
Mean
3.5579
3.5957
3.9885
3.9790
Std. deviation
0.32756
0.44420
0.47389
0.41717
Std. error mean
0.04542
0.06549
0.06572
0.06151
Paired samples t tests were performed in order to discover whether the
differences in preferences for integrated or isolated FFI within each grade are
significant. As it is shown in Table 4, the one-tailed paired samples t test revealed that the learners prefer integrated FFI (m = 3.98, s = 0.44) to isolated FFI
41
(m = 3.57, s = 0.38), t(97) = -7.483, p =0.001. A p value of less than <0.05 indicates that there is a statistically significant difference in learners’ preferences for
the integrated FFI when compared to their preferences for isolated FFI.
Table 4 One-tailed paired samples t test comparing preferences for isolated or integrated FFI
Subscales
IsolatedIntegrated
Mean
Std. deviation
-0.40842
0.54031
STD. error
t
df
mean
0.5458
-7.483 97
(sig onetailed)
0.001
Table 5 gives the results of the paired samples t test within each grade.
The paired sample t test revealed that 10th grade students have a higher preference for integrated FFI (m = 3.99, s = 0.47) than for isolated FFI (m = 3.55,
s = 0.33) t (97) = -6.403, p = 0.001. The paired sample t test for the 12 grade
students revealed that they also have a higher preference for integrated FFI (m
= 3.98, s = 0.42) than for isolated FFI (m = 3.59, s = 0.44) t (97) = -6.403, p =
0.001. The p values of both groups (p = 0.001) indicated that there is statistical
difference in comparison between integrated and isolated FFI in each grade.
This means that both grades show significant tendency for integrated FFI to
isolated FFI.
Table 5 Paired sample t test comparing preferences for integrated or
isolated FFI within each group
Paired differences
Sig. (twot
df
Std. de- Std. error
tailed)
Mean
viation
mean
10th Grade ISO-INT -0.43061 0.48493 0.06725 -6.403 51
0.001
0.001
12th Grade ISO-INT -0.38333 0.60130 0.08866 -4.324 45
Grade
Comparison of preferences for isolated or integrated FFI between the 2
grades is shown in Table 6 through results of independent-sample t test which
was run for this purpose. Although 12th grade students appear to have a higher
tendency towards isolated FFI than 10th grade students, it is not significantly different (p = 0.630 > 0.05). Meanwhile, results for comparison of preferences for
integrated FFI again show there is no significant difference between the grades;
the 10th grade students demonstrated an only fractionally higher tendency for
42
integrated FFI.
Table 6 Independent-sample t test for comparison between groups
Subscales/grades
Isolated
Integrated
10
12
10
12
t test for equality of means
Std. devia- Std. error
Mean
tion
mean
3.55
0.327
0.045
3.59
0.444
0.065
3.98
0.473
0.065
3.97
0.417
0.061
t
-0.483
56
0.104
96
Sig. (twotailed)
0.630
0.917
4. Discussion
The long-debated issue of grammar instruction and its place in EFL/
ESL teaching and learning seems to have been replaced by another controversy:
what kind of grammar to teach and when is it best to teach it? Research has
started to address these topics with the aim of benefiting the learners. However,
learners’ preferences have not been as largely investigated. The authors believe
that grammar instruction and grammar knowledge play an important role in L2
development and proficiency. Based on the class observations and results of a
previous study with Moldovan EFL learners, which revealed a very positive attitude towards grammar and its instruction and eagerness for explicit knowledge
on the part of the learners, the authors were motivated to conduct a study on
Moldovan EFL learners’ preferences for isolated and integrated FFI.
Descriptive statistics revealed results that did not seem so significantly
different from each other when you compared the mean scores and standard
deviation values. On average, learners like both types of grammar instruction.
However, inferential analyses of the data demonstrated that in general the learners have a higher tendency for integrated FFI which is significantly different as
well. In other words, the learners’ preferences towards integrated FFI are significantly different and higher than their preferences for isolated FFI. Comparison of preferences within each grade’s preferences through operation of paired
samples t tests revealed the same results. Both the 10th and 12th grade learners
have a higher preference for integrated FFI, which is also significantly different.
Based on the class observations of a previous study, this can be justified by the
learners’ and teachers’ tendency to correct and make the necessary grammatical explanations almost every time the newly covered grammar item appeared
43
in any kind of activity. However this cannot be definitive and depends on other
variables as well. To sum it up it can be said that both groups prefer integrated
FFI to isolated FFI and this is also reflected in the general results with learners
showing a higher tendency for integrated FFI.
More detailed analyses of the data, through which comparison of preferences for each subscale between grades was also run. Although both grades
learners prefer integrated FFI to isolated FFI comparison of each type of instruction between them revealed that 12th grade learners have a higher preference for isolated FFI than 10th grade learners. However, this tendency does not
appear to be significantly different. Meanwhile, comparison of preferences for
integrated FFI between the two groups showed that 10th grade learners have a
slightly higher tendency for integrated FFI than the 12th grades; though, as with
comparison of isolated FFI, this tendency is insignificantly different. Although
10th grade learners seem to prefer to learn grammar through integrated FFI and
12th grade learners seem to prefer to learn grammar through isolated FFI, the
differences are insignificant.
As a conclusion, it can be said that the participant learners of this study
share no disagreement or strong disagreement for form-focused instruction. On
the contrary, they share a very positive attitude towards both integrated and
isolated FFI with a slightly higher tendency for integrated FFI. This can be accounted for by their familiarity with explicit grammar instruction, which is part
of the dominant traditional language teaching in the country. The preference for
integrated FFI can be explained with the teachers’ tendency and the learners’
expectancy for explicit explanation and coverage of grammar items very often.
Comparison of preferences for isolated and integrated FFI between the groups
demonstrated that there is no difference between the grades. In other words, 10th
grade learners do not prefer integrated grammar instruction more than 12th grade
learners; neither do 12th grade learners have a tendency to prefer isolated grammar instruction more than 10th grade learners.
5. Conclusion
The position of grammar instruction in EFL classes has been a controversial issue due to the role and impact grammar knowledge is thought to play
in the development of L2 knowledge. To settle the issue and provide support for
their position applied linguists and SLA researchers have focused on investigation of various variables. A lot of research for example has been conducted to
measure the effects of form-focused instruction on learners’ L2 development.
Considering teachers and more recently even learners’ preferences as important
44
variables in the process of EFL learning and teaching researchers have begun to
focus on investigation of both teachers and learners’ preferences for particular
types of instruction.
Motivated by a previous study which investigated the effectiveness of
consciousness-raising tasks and direct grammar instruction in the development
of learners’ explicit knowledge, the authors aimed to make another contribution to research in the field. Believing that learner preferences should be taken
into account before implementation of particular teaching strategies, the authors
focused their research on exploration of learners’ preferences for isolated and
integrated form-focused instruction.
Results demonstrated that participant Moldovan EFL learners like to be
taught grammar through both isolated and integrated instruction. However, they
showed a significantly higher tendency for integrated FFI. There was no significant difference between grades in preferences for isolated and integrated FFI;
no group showed a higher preference for one particular type of instruction than
the other group.
Because of the limited number of participants and their almost similar
level this study cannot make definitive generalizing or level-based suggestions.
The authors think that choice of instruction type should be based on results of
research in investigation of learners and teachers’ preferences so that both parts’
tendencies are matched.
Appendix
Student preferences for learning grammar
Please answer the following questions about your preferences about
learning grammar. This will help us understand better how students prefer to be
taught grammar. This is not a test, so there are no “right” or “wrong” answers.
All responses will be kept confidential.
Thank you very much for your help!
Section 1: Personal information
Gender: M/F Class:
Section two: The following are a number of statements about preferences for learning grammar. Please indicate your opinion by circling a number
between 1 and 5.
45
Conference of Modern Applied Languages 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
I like to know exactly which grammar point I am
studying.
I believe my grammar will improve quickly if I
communicate using English.
I find it easy to learn grammar when the instructor teaches it by itself.
I like the teacher to correct my mistakes as soon
as I make them.
I prefer lessons that focus on communication and
teach grammar only when necessary.
I like grammar by seeing the explanation and doing practice exercises.
I like learning grammar by using language.
I can learn grammar during reading or speaking
activities.
I like lessons that focus only on teaching gram9.
mar.
Doing grammar exercises is the best way to learn
10.
to use English more accurately.
I find it hard to learn grammar through reading or
11.
listening activities.
I prefer to learn grammar as I work on different
12.
skills and activities.
8.
13. I like learning grammar by itself.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
46
I find it helpful when the instructor teaches grammar while we read a text.
I like the teacher to correct my mistakes after the
activity is completed.
I can learn grammar while reading or listening to
a passage.
I believe my English will improve quickly if I
study and practice grammar.
I like learning grammar during speaking, writing,
reading or listening activities.
Doing communicative activities is the best way
to learn to use English more accurately.
Strongly
agree
trongly
disagree
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
Conference of Modern Applied Languages 20.
I find it helpful to learn a grammar point before I
read it in a text.
Strongly
agree
1
2
trongly
disagree
3
4
5
Do you have any comments about your beliefs and preferences for learning grammar?
_________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_________We appreciate your time and participation in this project!
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Cultural beauty: Beauty in the eyes of secondary students with different
nationalities, studying in an international school
Carmen Zaharia
Doctoral School of Sociology, University of Bucharest
Abstract: Skinny or curvy? Short or tall? Angelic blond or Latin beauty? Metrosexual or macho man? What do you find beautiful?
Our perception of beauty is influenced by different factors, and mass
media is playing a huge role in this. We are “offered”, on regular basis, images
of perfect beauty, or, better said, of what this is considered to be in our society.
The way beauty is portrayed by media is strongly related to the perception of
beauty in a particular society. The two interconnect and influence one another.
It’s not a novelty the observation that the model of beauty promoted by different media is different from country to country. Our different perceptions of beauty are shaped by the society we live in and by its values.
Multicultural and intercultural education involves a continuous reinterpretation and exchange of individuals’ cultural values. Children and adolescent
studying in an international environment are exposed to a variety of different
cultures and viewpoints.
The question of my research is if secondary school students from different countries, living in the same country and studying in the same school,
develop the idea of a similar model of beauty, despite of the fact that this model
can be in disagreement with the one promoted in their original cultures. Being
exposed to the influence of the media in their host country can produce dramatic
changes in their perceptions, but, might this pressure of the media be strong
enough to alter their perceptions on beauty? Or, could it be true that despite the
cultural differences, we all share some similar criteria of beauty?
Keywords: cultural beauty, multicultural education
1. Cultural beauty: Beauty in the eyes of secondary students with
different nationalities, studying in an international school
In the following study, I intend to investigate how the perception of
beauty may vary or be similar among secondary students from an international
school. The objective is to analyze if international secondary school students
originated from different countries and living in Romania, develop a compara51
ble ideal of beauty. My research setting consists in the classrooms in which I
teach Sociology and Spanish as a foreign language, working with children aged
11 to 18.
2. Globalizing beauty: The social construction of the perception of
beauty
When analyzing the beauty factor, some attempts have been made to
quantify and classify exactly what beauty is, what makes a person beautiful
for the others. Ideas involving body and facial ratio and symmetry emerged in
numerous researches, like, for instance, in the study of Martin Gründl, Marita
Eisenmann-Klein, and Lukas Prantl (2011), “Quantifying Female Bodily Attractiveness by a Statistical Analysis of Body Measurements” or in “Facial Symmetry and the Perception of Beauty” by Gillian Rhodes, Fiona Proffitt, Jonathon
M. Grady and Alex Sumich (2011).
The first one was an experiment having the objective to predict female
bodily attractiveness by using figure measurements. A photograph of a woman suffered modifications producing 243 variations. The traits modified were
weight, hip and waist width, bust size, and legs length. The study involved more
than 34,000 participants in a web experiment. The results showed the importance of the ratio between bust and waist, waist and hip, bust and under-bust,
in making a person to be considered more beautiful (Gründl, M., EisenmannKlein, M., Prantl, L. 2009).
Gillian Rhodes, Fiona Proffitt, Jonathon M. Grady and Alex Sumich
(2011) conducted a study, “Facial Symmetry and the Perception of Beauty”, in
which they analyzed the influence of the facial symmetry in the perception of
beauty. The results of the study showed that a person was considered more beautiful when the symmetry of the face was increased. Perfectly symmetrical faces
were preferred to the other modified images (Rhodes, G., Proffitt, F., Grady,
J.M., Sumich, A. 1998).
However, even with some inherent features of beauty existent, we cannot deny the other factors that influence, alter and settle the patterns of beauty in
different periods of time and in different societies. What was considered beautiful in Medieval Ages is definitely different from nowadays standards. Even in
the last decades we can observe changes in the beauty standards, from the curvy
body to the androgen one, or from the white pale skin to the tan and very tan
one.
Rebecca Gelles (2011) made a research on the female beauty standards
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in Modern India. Her study wanted to examine the influence of the globalized
media on the Indian society regarding the standards of beauty and the effects
that these standards have on the Indian women. The results of her investigation
were showing that India is assimilating the Western standards of beauty and this
fact is in many cases damaging for the Indian women on physical and emotional
level as well (Gelles 2011). Her examples included the growing number of anorexia cases and the increasing desire of getting a lighter skin. Moreover, the
new standards of beauty are often in contradiction with the traditional cultural
standards causing more emotional disturbance in individuals and in the Indian
society (Gelles 2011). This study showed that the model of beauty is very often
imposed by the mass media and that there is a global culture of beauty that is
taking over and pushing back the traditional standards of beauty.
Beauty, or better said, the perception of beauty is a social construct, as it
doesn’t exist just in the individuals, but is strongly related to other factors that
may include the gender, race, class, sexuality of the observer, as well as of the
one that is observed. The understanding, significance and meaning of beauty are
created in relation with other human beings. Beauty does not exist by itself but
it’s rather a construction of the way certain people or groups perceive it.
The idea that beauty is in the eye of the beholder, therefore that we have
different standards of beauty as individuals, has been questioned and argued,
as beauty seems to exist only in a social context, meaning that its standards are
created, reformulated or negotiated by social actors.
Although there might be some features of beauty that are generally valid,
one cannot deny the differences in the perception of beauty in different cultures
and periods of time. But is beauty developing global concepts? The modern
consumer societies, the impact of the media, the boost of the beauty industry,
they all participate in shaping and negotiating the new beauty standards. The
media and the beauty industry are offering the consumers new possibilities to
“create” the beauty according to the new standards, through fashion, cosmetics,
plastic surgeries, exercises for modeling the body, food and supplements to lose
weight and/or add muscular mass.
Is the concept of beauty nowadays globalized and/or standardized, or it’s
still maintaining particularities of its cultural diversity?
3. Beauty and mass media; the impact of Photoshop
Mass media has got a huge influence in our constructed perception of
beauty, and advertising, in particular, is defining and illustrating for the models
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and the ideals of beauty in a society. In particular, the use of different programs
like Photoshop in altering the pictures and making them “acceptable” for a fashion magazine, offered us beauty standards almost impossible to reach.
In 2014, Esther Honig, free-lancer journalist, lunched the “Before and
After” project, an experiment in which she wanted to see how journalists from
40 different countries use Photoshop to enhance a photograph. The purpose was
to spot how standards of beauty may vary across different cultures. In this regard, she sent an unaltered photo of herself to freelancers from different countries, professionals or amateurs in manipulating photos, asking them to “make
her beautiful”, to create a photo that would be used in fashion magazines in their
countries. This project did not mean to be a sociological experiment so it lacks
the rigor for it. However, it resulted in a variety of beauty concepts as seen by
each respondent. The author made the results public, naming each photo with
the name of the country from which the freelancer author was, suggesting that
the photo would reflect cultural concepts of beauty besides the personal ones,
but admitting that is hard to draw the line between what is personal and what is
cultural. Some changes were drastic and the pictures resulted glamorous, others were focused more on a natural look. All the pictures were enhanced by
modifying the eye color, the hair, the tone of the skin, making it usually lighter
(Pakistan darkened the color) and eliminating any imperfections. The US photo
was the one suffering radical changes: the structure of the face was modified
and slimed down, the eye shape was angled upwards, and the eye position on
the face was also changed. The picture from Morocco was the only one with a
ḥijāb, the veil that covers the head and chest of a Muslim woman. The focus of
the eyes was also slightly modified, making the girl to avoid looking the viewer
directly in the eye.
This experiment may bring some evidence in favor of the idea that beauty is not a totally globalized concept and that there are some cultural distinctive
standards that influence the perception of beauty and differentiate it from one
society to another.
4. Perception of beauty of secondary school students with different
nationalities, studying in an international school
The objective of this paper is to analyze if international secondary school
students originated from different countries and living in Romania, develop a
comparable ideal of beauty. For this purpose, I chose 22 students, aged 15-17,
from an international school located in Bucharest. In the group there are 10
students from Romania, 3 from Turkey, 2 from Egypt and one from each of
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the following countries: Great Britain, Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Greece, Spain and
Moldavia.
Students were asked to choose the picture they consider to be the most
beautiful out of 22 pictures from the project “Before and After”.
The second activity was an open questions interview that was trying to
spot what the respondents believed male and female beauty is for them and if
beauty could be created. The last questions were asking respondents to name a
person they consider very beautiful (for male and for female).
For each individual, I compared the answers to these activities to notice
if the description given for “beauty” actually met the choice in activity one.
Then, I compared each one of the answers between individuals to see if there
are significant differences between responses and if the differences could be
correlated in any possible way to the nationality of the students.
The first observation is that the features of beauty mentioned by the respondents do not necessary match the choice they made in activity one, in terms
of eye color and hair color, although, in most cases, it did happen. However,
“clear skin” was found in the description of female beauty and in the choice of
the picture as well, in all the cases where it was mentioned. In comparing individual responses, it was noticed that the features regarding the body, both for
male and female, are rather common in all respondent (slim, toned and curvy
for female, athletic, toned and muscular for males). The most important characteristic of beauty seems to be the “clear skin” and the first thing most of the
respondents said they would notice when meeting someone was “the eyes”.
When asked to mention a woman they consider very beautiful, examples
included personalities from the Hollywood reality shows “The real housewives
of Beverly Hills” and “Meet the Kardashians” and Hollywood actors like Angelina Jolie, Megan Fox and Emma Watson. For men, most boys mentioned football players Beckham and Ronaldo. The other examples involved Hollywood
actors and singers. Although there were nine respondents from Romania, there
was only one response giving a Romanian example of a very beautiful person, Bianca Dragusan (the respondent was a Romanian boy). One Turkish girl
named a Turkish actress, Sezen Aksu and one Iraqi boy named Zayn Malik, an
English singer (former member of the band One Direction) who has Pakistani
origins. Five of the respondents mentioned people from their family including themselves. At the question regarding the possibility of creating the beauty,
most answers were “yes” and the examples referred to make up and plastic surgery, with the mention in some cases that it is a fake beauty.
When considering students nationality in analyzing the responses, there
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were no important visible differences that I could spot. Their answers are rather
common and they represent mostly the image of beauty promoted by mass media with fit and curvy body for women and muscular, athletic for males. The
cosmetic industry may have played a role as well in promoting the importance
of a spotless, clear skin, because this characteristic seemed to be very important
when analyzing male and female beauty by this group of respondents. Even in
choosing the picture from the “Before and After” project, the responses were
quite comparable, the pictures chosen being the ones from Serbia, Italy, UK
and Venezuela (pictures that are quite similar one to another). There were tree
choices involving more dramatic changes, two Argentina (Romanian boys) and
one US (Iraqi boy).
As a conclusion, there is evidence to consider that the current
forms of the globalization of beauty, especially under the pressure of the ideals
offered by mass media, produce patterns of beauty, or better said perception of
beauty, that are similar in individuals with different backgrounds exposed to the
same media culture. This small scale study has many limitations, especially in
demonstrating the connection between media globalization and possible changes in beauty standards. Further research should be made in order to prove the
links between those and to see how influential media is, in fact, in changing our
perception of beauty.
References
Honig, E. (2014) “Before and After” project. Available: http://www.estherhonig.
com/
Gelles, R. (2011) Fair and Lovely: Standards of Beauty, Globalization, and the
Modern Indian Woman”. Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection. Paper 1145. Available: http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/isp_collection/1145
Rhodes, G., Proffitt, F., Grady, J.M., Sumich, A. (1998) Facial Symmetry and
the Perception of Beauty. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 5.4: 659-669.
Internet. 11 Nov. 2011. Available: http://www.springerlink.com/content/
eq4178xr00474432/
Gründl, M., Eisenmann-Klein, M., Prantl, L. (2009) Quantifying Female Bodily
Attractiveness by a Statistical Analysis of Body Measurements. Plastic &
Reconstructive Surgery 123.3: 1064-1071. Internet. 11 Nov. 2011. Available: http://journals.lww.com/plasreconsurg/Abstract/2009/03000/
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Biography
Carmen Zaharia studied Sociology, Psychology and Pedagogy at the
University of Bucharest. She also got a University Degree in Political and Administrative Sciences and a Master’s degree in Sociology, specializing in Security Studies. She finished a postgraduate programme for teaching Spanish,
offered by the University Complutense of Madrid.
In 2004 she started working in the field of education at International
School of Bucharest and ever since she’s been teaching Spanish and Sociology,
being also oral examiner for Spanish Cambridge International Examinations.
She’s been Head of Modern Foreign Languages Department since 2007. She
now follows a PhD Programme in Sociology and she teaches some seminars at
the Faculty of Sociology, University of Bucharest.
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Yabancılara Türkçe Öğretiminde Gökkuşağı Türkçe Setindeki Kültür
Ögeleri
(Teaching Turkish as a Foreign Language: Culture Components in
Rainbow Turkish Course Books)
Erol Söğütlü
Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Bölümü, Uluslararası Burç Üniversitesi, Bosna-Hersek
[email protected]
Enriketa Söğütlü
Pedagoji Bölümü, Tiran Avrupa Üniversitesi, Arnavutluk
[email protected]
Özet: Kültürlerin tanıtılmasında dilin çok önemli bir yeri vardır. Bir
yabancı dili öğrenmek, o dilin bütün dil kurallarını öğrenmenin yanında kültürün edinilmesini de içine alır.Bu araştırmada, yabancılara Türkçe öğretimi
için hazırlanan Dilset Gökkuşağı Türkçe öğretim seti ders kitaplarındaki kültür
ögelerinden bazılarını tespit ederek dilin kültür aktarımındaki yerini görmek
amaçlanmıştır. Bu çalışmada tespitini yaptığımız kültür ögelerinin tanıtılması
ve öğretilmesinin kültür aktarımındaki yeri irdelendi. Yabancı dil öğretiminde
kültür ile dilin birbirinden ayrılmazlığı bir çıkış olarak ele alınıp ders kitaplarında yer alan bu kültür ögelerinin nasıl sunulduğu araştırılmıştır. Gökkuşağı
Türkçe öğretim seti ders kitaplarında metin inceleme yöntemiyle tespit edilen
bu ögeler bütün dünyada da çok dikkat çeken ögelerdir. İnceleme sonunda Gökkuşağı ders kitaplarında sunulan Türk kültürüne ait ögelerin kültür öğretimini
destekleme de yeterli mahiyette olduğu görülmüştür.
Anahtar Kelimeler: kültür, dil, kültür ögeleri, yabancılara Türkçe öğretimi, Gökkuşağı Türkçe Ders kitapları
Abstract: Language plays a very important role in culture promotion.
Besides development of linguistic competence, learning a foreign language encompasses culture acquisition as well. This study aimed to explore the place of
language teaching in culture transmission by identifying some cultural components in Gökkuşağı Türkçe Turkish for Foreigners course books.
The research focused on investigating the contribution of the identified
cultural items in culture promotion and culture transmission. Taking as its start59
ing point the inseparability of language and culture, the study examined the way
these cultural elements have been presented and treated in the textbooks. The
cultural items, which were identified by application of text analyses method,
have also attracted attention all around the world. The findings suggest that the
cultural components of Turkish culture exploited in Gökkuşağı Türkçe Turkish
for Foreigners course books contribute to the promotion and teaching of Turkish culture.
Keywords: language, culture promotion, TFL teaching, cultural components, Gökkuşağı Türkçe
1. Giriş
Yabancı dil öğrenimi yabancı kültürlerin de öğrenilmesini kapsayan bir
süreçtir; doğrudan ya da dolaylı olarak dil öğrenimi yapan öğrenciler dil derslerinde hedef dilin kültürüne maruz kalırlar. 1980’den sonra hız kazanan kültürel
etkileşimin sonucu olarak ders kitaplarında yer alan kültür ögelerinin içeriği
artmaya başlamıştır. Kültürel kazanımların olabilmesi için ders öğretmenleri
kültür ögelerini dil öğretimlerinde kullanmaları çok önemli hale gelmiştir.
Dil, en yalın biçimde insanlar arasında iletişimi sağlayan bir araç olarak
tanımlanmaktadır. İletişimin gerçekleşmesi için verici, alıcı ve mesaj gerekmektedir. Dil en iyi iletişim aracı olduğundan sağlıklı her bir iletişimde bir kültür
öğesi bulunur. Bu yüzden dil kültürden ayrı düşünülemez. “Dil, insanların birbirleriyle daha sağlıklı iletişim kurabilmelerini, insanların birbirleriyle anlaşmasını, birbirlerini tanımalarını ve birbirlerinin yaşam şekillerini öğrenmelerini
sağlayan en doğal ve kolay iletişim aracıdır” (Aksan,1995).
Dil, Türkçe sözlükte: “İnsanların düşündüklerini ve duyduklarını bildirmek için kelimelerle ve işaretlerle yaptıkları antlaşma.”şeklinde tarif edilmiştir
(TDK,2005:520). Kaplan’a göre ise: “Dil duygu ve düşüncenin adeta kabıdır.
Bir milletin duygu ve düşünce hazinesi, dil kabına ve kalıbına dökülür ve bu dil
kabına göre yerden yere, nesilden nesile aktarılır” (Kaplan,1992:139).
Dil, kültürün bir ögesi olmakla birlikte, aynı zamanda kültürün aktarıcısı
ve yaratıcısıdır. Kimi zaman dildeki bir sözcük bir milletin inançları, gelenekleri, ve bireylerin kendi aralarındaki ilişkileri, maddi ve manevi kültürleri hakkında insanlara fikir verebilir.
Küreselleşen dünyada insanlar birbirlerine daha çok yakınlaşmaktadır.
Teknolojinin hızla geliştiği dünyamızda insanların birbirlerini tanıma isteği ve
ticaretin büyümesiyle yabancı dillerin öğrenilmesi daha da çok önem kazanmıştır. Yabancı dil öğretimi aynı zamanda kültür öğretimi demektir. Her toplum,
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kendi dil öğretimini yaparken öğretim esnasında kültürel özelliklerinin öğrenilmesini ve öğretilmesini de ister.
Yabancı dil olarak Türkçenin öğretilmesi Türkiye’nin dünyaya tanıtılmasına büyük bir katkı sunacaktır. Yabancılara Türkçe öğretimi yaparken sadece kelimeleri öğretmek ve bu kelimeleri basmakalıp şekliyle verip geçmek
yeterli değildir. Kelimelerin derin manalarını da vermek gerekir. Çünkü kelimelerin mana köklerinden bir milletin ruh portresini, aile yapısını, din algısını ve
manevi değerlere bakışını çıkarabiliriz.
2. Çalışmamızın Kapsamı ve Metodu
Yabancılara Türkçe öğretiminde kullanılan Gökkuşağı Türkçe öğretim
kitabı setinden ders kitaplarındaki Türk kültüründe olan ögeler metin inceleme
metoduyla taranmıştır.
3. Yöntem
Türkçenin yabancı dil olarak ögretiminde ders kitaplarının incelenmesinde araştırma yaklaşımlı metin içeriği inceleme yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Bu
yöntem gerçekleştirilirken ders kitaplarındaki okuma ve dinleme metinlerinin
dışında görsellikler de ele alınmıştır. İncelemeye alınan metinler, kültürel ögelerin yer alması ve kültürel ögelerin uygulanabilirliğinin dilin iletişimsel ve bilişsel anlamda kazanılmasındaki katkılarının belirlenmesi için değerlendirilmeye
çalışılmıştır. Metinlerin kültür öğretimindeki rolllerinin belirlenmesi, metinlerin
taranması ve metin içeriklerinin incelenmesiyle ortaya çıkacaktır.
4. Araştırmanın Örneklemi
Ele aldığımız bu çalışmada yabancılara Türkçe öğretiminde yaptığı çalışmalarla söz sahibi olan DİLSET Yayınları tarafindan hazırlanan Gökkuşağı Türkçe öğretim setindeki ders kitapları örneklem olarak seçilmiştir. Sadece
Gökkuşağı öğretim setinin veri olarak ele alınmasının amacı Avrupa dil ölçeği
kriterlerine uygun olması, okullarda ve üniversitelerde yaygın olarak kullanılmasıdır.
5. Verilerin Analizi
Örneklemdeki ders kitapları metin tarama tekniği kullanılarak kültür
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ögelerinin metinlerde yer alıp almadığı, metinlerin atasözleri, deyimler ve kalıplaşmış sözler içerip içermediğinin konulara göre tesbiti yapılmıştır.
6. Çalışmanın Amacı
Dil öğretimi kültür öğretimi demektir. Kültür ise milletlerin aynasıdır.
Yabancı dil olarak Türkçenin öğretilmesinde temel kaynak hazırlanan ders kitaplarıdır. Ders kitaplarının dışında ders anlatımında materyal olarak kullanılacak
yardımcı kitaplarda mevcuttur. Bu çalışmadaki amacımız yabancılara Türkçe
öğretiminde kullanılan ders kitaplarındaki okuma ve dinleme metinlerinin yanı
sıra ders kitaplarının ne ölçüde kültürel ögeler içerdigini tespit etmektir. Çünkü,
dil öğretiminde kullanılan araçlar sadece dilin gramerinin öğretilmesinde değil
aynı zamanda kültürün kazanılmasında da önemli bir görev üstlenmektedir.
7. Dil - Kültür İlişkisi
Millletlerin millet olabilmelerini sağlayan, milletlerin varlık sebebi olan
en hayati derecede önem arz eden kültür ögelerinden en temel olanı dildir. Bunun dışında da dil, milletlerin oluşturduğu kültürlerin kendinde göründüğü bir
ayna, kültürlerin muhafaza edildiği ve korunduğu bir mahzendir. Dil, aynı zamanda oluşturduğu kültürün kalabalık toplumlara taşınması ve nesillerden nesillere aktarılmasını sağlayan en sağlam bir köprüdür. Milletleri ortak payda da
toplayan ve bu milletlere millet olma kimliğini kazandıran o milletin dilidir,
kültürüdür. Bir toplumun kimliğini yok etme, yeryüzünden silme amacı taşıyan
ve bu amacıoluşturduğu politikasına yansıtan ülkeler veya medeniyetler öncelikle o milletin dilinin unutulmasına yönelik adımlar atarlar.Dilin unutulmasına
dönük bu adımlar daha sonra o milletin dinini ve en sonunda da kaçınılmaz
olan kültürünü etkiler. Bu da zaman içerisinde o unsurların değişmesi veya yok
olmasıyla milletlerin tarih sahnesinden silinmesine yol açar. Bir toplumun kültürü o toplumun aynasıdır. Bir milletin ruh dünyasını anlamak veya o milleti
çözmek istiyorsak o milletin önce dilini öğrenmeliyiz, ancak bu şekilde bir milletin kültürünü yorumsuz bir şekilde tahlil etme imkanını buluruz. Toplumların
yaşaması ancak dille mümkündür. Dilin kullanılmadığı dönemler, uygarlıklar
ve topluluklar hakkında fikir sahibi olmamız neredeyse imkansızdır.
Asırların ötesinden günümüze kadar süzülüp gelen kültür değerlerimize
ancak dilin taşıyıcı özelliği sayesinde sahip olabiliriz. Türkülerimizi, şarkılarımızı, şiirlerimizi, ninnilerimizi, manilerimizi, atasözlerimizi daha da ekleyeceğimiz bu yazılı ve sözlü kültür ögelerini dilimiz sayesinde günümüze aktarabiliriz. Bu açıdan kültür değerlerimizi dünden bugüne bugünden de yarına
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taşıyabilmenin, geniş topluluklara mal edebilmenin en sağlam, en güvenli ve en
kalıcı yolu dildir.
Dil, bütün kültür tanımlarının içerisinde onu oluşturan değerler silsilesinin başında yer almaktadır. Bu durum dil-millet, dil-kültür ilişkisini açıkça ortaya koyduğu gibi dilin kültürlerin varlığı, onların bütünlüğü, kültürlerin gelişip
devam etmesinin önemini de hissettirir. Şu gerçek herkes tarafından açıkça bilinmelidir ki her milletin kendi adını taşıyan, kendilerine münhasır olan bir dili
vardır. Bir başka ifade tarzıyla söylemek istersek millet olabilmenin en temel
şartlarından biri belki de en birincisi o milletleri oluşturan ve insanların ortak
bir dile sahip olmalarıdır. Dillerin oluşup gelişmesini sağlayan, değişik sayıdaki
seslerden meydana gelen basit anlamlı birlikler olarak görülen o kelimeler, bu
basit dediğimiz annlamlı kelimelere hayat veren milletlerin kültürel atomcuklarıdır. Her birinin içinde o milletin kültürüne ait büyük değerler saklıdır. Dil ve
kültür arasındaki ilişkiyi değişik boyutlarla ele almak mümkündür. Her şeyden
önce dil kültürün taşıyıcısı ve tanığıdır. Bir milletin yaşayışına dair her türlü
maddi ve manevi kültür ögeleri dil ile ifade bulur, tarihten günümüze olduğu
gibi günümüzden gelecek kuşaklara da dil sayesinde taşınır.
Dil kültür ilişkisinin bir başka boyutu ise dilin kültürel değerlerin yansıtıcısı olmasıdır. Bir toplumun dilinden o toplumun kültürel değerlerine ve yaşayışlarına, dünya görüşüne inilebilir. Dil verilerinin incelenmesiyle bir milletin
yaşayış biçiminden tutun da gelenek ve görenekleri, dünya görüşleri, çeşitli nitelikleri kısacası eski dönemdeki kültürleri hakkında değerli bilgiler ve ipuçları
elde edilebilir.
Dil ve kültür ilişkisinin üzerinde duracağımız son boyutu ise kültürel dinamizmin dilde de işlenebilmesidir. Günümüzde İngilizceden dilimize giren kelimeler de toplumsal ve kültürel değişmelerin dile yansımasından başka birşey
değildir. Türkçe kültürel dinamizmin dile yansıması konusunda sıkça dikkate
değer veriler sağlayabilmektedir.
8. Yabancılara Dil Öğretimi ve Kültür Aktarımı.
Kültür ögelerini, Türkçe öğretimi sırasında doğru bir biçimde bizden
farklı kültürlerden gelen bireylere aktarmamız çok önemlidir. Eğer bu kültür
ögelerinin aktarımını doğru bir şekilde yabancı olan bireylere yapamazsak iletişimde sıkıntılar yaşanır; aynı zamanda kültürler arasında farklı algılardan dolayı komik durumların ortaya çıkmasına sebep olabiliriz. Bu kültür aktarımının
doğru aktarılması ancak dilin bütün inceliklerine vakıf olunmakla mümkün olur.
Kültür aktarımı, en yalın anlamıyla bir millete ait kültürel özelliklerin yeni nesillere ve yabancı kişilere anlatılması, kavratılması ve benimsetilmesi işidir.
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Yabancı dil öğretiminde muhatap olduğumuz kesim farklı coğrafyalardan, farklı kültürlerden gelen yabancı kişilerdir. Muhataplarımızın çoğunluğu
bir ihtiyaca binaen yabancı dil olarak Türkçe’yi öğrenmeyi tercih etmişlerdir.
Biz ise seçilen bu tercihleri en iyi şekilde değerlendirerek yabancı dil olarak
Türkçe’yi öğretmede çok dikkatli olmalı ve öğretim esnasında Türk kültür hazinesini en iyi şekilde kullanmalıyız. Türkçe kelimeleri, Türk dilinin seslerini
ve gramer kurallarını mutlaka öğretmeliyiz. Bunları öğretirken kelimelere Türk
kültürünün en değerli hazinelerinden manalı elbiseler giydirmeliyiz. Yabancılara Türkçe öğretimi derslerinde kültür aktarımını farklı metodlarla verebilmenin
yollarını araştırmalıyız.
Yabancılara dil öğretimi ders kitaplarındaki kültürel ögeleri üzerine yapılacak her inceleme, kültürün yabancı dil öğretimiyle nasıl bir ilişki içerisinde
olduğu ve yabancı dil öğretimine ne gibi bir etkilerinin irdelenmesi yönünde
olacaktır. (Ökten, 2014 ve Kavanoz, 2014:848). Kültür öğretiminin dil ile olan
ilişkisi, kültür ve dilin birbirleriyle karşılıklı bağlı olmasına dayalıdır.
Başarılı iletişimin sağlanabilmesi için, mesajı ileten ile alanın birbirlerini anlayabilmeleri ve bu yolda istekli olmaları lazımdır. Bu yüzden herhangi bir
yabancı dil dersinde hem kültürel hem de kültürlerarası konular birbirleriyle son
derece bağlantılı olmalıdır (Byram, 1989).
Dil öğretimi aynı zamanda kültür öğretimidir. Dildeki her türlü yapı ile
anlam arasındaki ilişkinin kültürel bir boyutu vardır. Dolayısıyla o dili öğrenen
kişinin dile vukufiyeti arttıkça, o dili konuşan milletlerin kültürüne olan hakimiyeti de artacaktır.
Kültür aktarımı konusunda değinilmesi gereken önemli bir başka nokta
da şudur: Toplumlar için kültür aktarımı sosyal yaşam açısından önemlidir. Bireylerin topluma uyum sağlamaları, daima iyi bir akademik bilgiye sahip olmalarından daha önemlidir. Okul, akademik bilgiyi sunmanın yanında, ferdin topluma intibakını da sağlamak zorundadır. Hatta bu görevi daha da önceliklidir.
Çünkü toplumdaki hiçbir birey, toplumun bir ferdi olarak yaşamak için akademik bilgiye sahip olmak zorunda değildir. Kültürü dil öğretim proğramlarında
eğitimin bir parçası olarak görmek ve öğretimini yapmak iletişim becerilerini
geliştirme adına faydalı olacağı düşünülmektedir. Öğrenciler, küreselleşmenin
ve uluslararası etkileşimin yoğun bir şekilde yaşandığı dünyamızda diğer kültürlerin temsilcileriyle devamlı karşılaşacaktır. Bu nedenle dil öğretiminde, öğrencilerin uluslararası iletişim becerilerini geliştirmek esastır (Damen, 1987).
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9. Yabancılara Türkçe Öğretimi
Türkiyenin 1980 yılından itibaren dış dunyaya açılması ile birlikte değişen dünya şartları, Türkçenin yabancılara ögretilmesini ve Türkçenin yabancılar tarafından öğrenilmesini zaruri bir ihtiyaç haline getirmiştir. Sovyetler Birliği’nin dağılması ve soğuk savaşın sona ermesi sonucu Orta Asya’daki Türk
cumhuriyetleri başta olmak üzere diğer akraba toplulukları ile kültürel işbirliği
çalışmaları başlatıldı. Bu bağlamda Türk Cumhuriyetlerinden 1993 yılından itibaren “Büyük Öğrenci Projesi” olarak bilinen bir çalışma başlatılarak Türkiye’de on bin öğrencinin yüksek öğrenim görmesi plânlanmış, ilk yıl yedi bin civarında öğrenci getirilmiştir. Türkiye’nin Türk Cumhuriyetleri, Türk ve Akraba
Toplulukları için geleceğe dönük en ciddî teşebbüsü olarak adlandırılabilecek
olan bu proje çerçevesinde şimdiye kadar 21857 burs kullandırılmış ne yazık
ki bunlardan bir kısmı başarısız olmuş ve ülkelerine geri dönmüştür ( Özkan,
2004: 423/424 ).
Türkiye bu projeyi ekonomik kriz yaşamasına rağmen devam ettirme
kararlılığını göstermiştir.
Türkçenin yabancılara öğretilmesinin ayrı bir uzmanlık gerektirdiği zamanla anlaşıldı ve bunun sonucu olarak farklı üniversitelerin bünyesinde Türkçe öğretim merkezleri (TÖMER) kurulmaya başlandı. Bu merkezler Türkçe
öğretimi üzerine birçok çalışmalar yapmıştır. Bunların içinde en önemli yeri
şüphesiz Türkçe öğretim setleri tutar. Bu merkezlerin yaptığı çalışmalarda dil
öğretiminde en önemli materyalin kitaplar olduğu anlaşılmıştır. Kitaplar dil öğretiminin anahtarıdır. Uzun yıllar yabancılara Türkçe öğretimi konusunda kitap
sıkıntısı yaşanmıştır. Kitap yazımı ayrı bir uzmanlık ve teknik gerektirmektedir.
Bu nedenle üniversiteler ve özel yayınevleri yabancıların Türkçe öğretimine yönelik Türkçe öğretim kitapları çıkarmak için ekipler oluşturmuşlar ve bu ekipler
çalışmaya başlamışlardır.
Yabancıların son zamanlarda Türkçe öğrenmeye karşı ilgileri artmaya
başlamıştır. Bu ilginin artması Türk kültürüne duyulan meraktan ve Türkiyenin
dünya konjoktoründe yıldızının parlamasındandır. Globalleşen dünyamızda ülkemizin Avrupa ve Asya’ya açılan kapı hüviyetinde olması gözlerin bu bölgeye
çevrilmesine neden olmuştur. Bunda en büyük etken enerji hatlarının geçiş güzergahı olarak ülkemizin alternatif olmasıdır. Ayrıca yabancılarla kurulan samimi diyaloglar, yurt dışında yaşayan Türklerin yabancılara göstermiş oldukları
misafirperverlik ve komşuluk ilişkileri, Türkiyenin 1980 sonrası her yönüyle
dünyaya açılması, yeni iş alanlarında yıldızının parlaması, genç nüfusunun fazla olması, yeniliklere çok açık olmaları, insanımızın dünyada unutulan ya da
hiç bulunmayan moral değerlerimizi yaşadıkları ülkelerde yaşamaları ve baş65
kalarına göstermeleri, oluşan sıcak insani ilişkiler ve Türk milletinin kendisini
özgürce tanıtma istegi, iletişimin dünyayı yakınlaştırması gibi şartlar Türkçe’ye
duyulan ilginin artmasının sebepleri arasında gösterilebilir.
Ülkeler arasındaki bilimsel, siyasal, sanatsal, kültürel, ticari vb. ilişkiler
gün geçtikçe artmaktadır. Bu tür ilişkiler çok dilliliğin ve çok kültürlülüğün
giderek önem kazandığını, yabancı dil öğrenmenin kaçınılmaz ve gerekli olduğunu göstermektedir. Günümüzde birbirine yabancı olan topluluklar, aralarında
anlaşabilmek ve birbirlerini iyi tanımak için kendi ana dillerinin dışında başka
bir yabancı dil öğrenmeyi istemektedir. Eskiden ayrıcalıklı bir insan olmak için
öğrenilen yabancı dil bugün bu amacını yitirmiş olup insanlar için zorunlu bir
ihtiyaç haline gelmiştir. Bugün Türkiyenin dünya ülkeleriyle ilişkisinin artmaya
başlaması, Türkiyeyi tanınmak ve bilinmek istenen bir ülke ve Türkçeyi de öğrenilmek istenilen bir dil konumuna getirmiştir. Dünya çapında büyük bir ilgiye
mazhar olan Türkçe, ülkemizin değerini yükseltmektedir.
Yabancılara Türkçe öğretiminde amaç sadece insanlara birkaç kelime ve
dilbilgisini öğretmek değil bir dilin ruhunu, özünü yani kültürünü de öğretmek
esas olmalıdır. Yabancılara Türkçe öğretimine yönelik hazırlanacak yeni çalışmalarda veya yapılacak tüm faaliyetlerde kültür boyutu her yönüyle değerlendirilmelidir.
10.Kültür ve Ögeleri
Türk Dil Kurumu sözlüğüne göre ise, kültür (ekin, eski dilde hars) kavramının tanımı şu şekildedir: “Tarihsel, toplumsal gelişme süreci içinde yaratılan bütün maddi ve manevi değerler ile bunları yaratmada, sonraki nesillere
iletmede kullanılan, insanın doğal ve toplumsal çevresine egemenliğinin ölçüsünü gösteren araçların bütünü”. şeklinde tanımı yapılmıştır (Türk Dil Kurmu
Sözlüğü).
Kültür, bir toplumun tarihsel süreç içinde meydana getirdiği ve kuşaktan
kuşağa aktardığı her türlü maddi ve manevi özelliklerin bütününe denir. Kültür,
aynı zamanda bir toplumun kimliğini oluşturur, onu diğer toplumlardan farklı
kılar. Kültür, toplumun yaşayış ve düşünüş tarzıdır.
Kültür, yabancılara Türkçe öğetimini kolaylaştıracak göz önünde bulundurulması gerekli, önemli bir edebiyat terimidir. Dil öğretimi için hazırlanacak
faaliyetlerde ve çalışmalarda kültür ögelerinden mutlaka bir parça bulunmalıdır. Öğrencilerin, kültüre ilgi duymalarına yönelik yapılacak bu çalışmalar aynı
zamanda dili de kolay öğrenmelerini sağlayacaktır. Bir kültür için farklı önem
taşıyan ögeler başka bir kültür için hiçbir anlam ifade etmeyebilir. Toplumların
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ve dünyadaki milletlerin mozayik halindeki bu görünümleri kültür öğelerindeki
farklılıklardan kaynaklanmaktadır.
Kültür, inançlar, gelenekler, normlar, düşünce biçimleri vb. gibi ögeler
manevi kültür ögelerini; maddi kültür ise, kısaca manevi kültürün dışındaki kültürel ögeler olmak üzere iki şekilde tasnif edilebilir. Kültürün maddi ve manevi
ögeleri arasında sürekli bir etkileşim vardır. Birinde meydana gelen bir değişim
diğerini de etkiler. Kültür, toplumun doğal çevresinden yani coğrafi koşullarından etkilenir. Örneğin, dağlık bölgelerde yaşayan toplumların kültürüyle verimli ovalarda yaşayan toplumların kültürü birbirinden farklıdır.
Yabancı dil öğretiminden söz edildiğinde ilk akla, kuşkusuz bir toplumun maddi ve manevi varlığı ile yazılı ve sözlü değerlerini oluşturan kültür
gelir. Uzmanlar tarafından hazırlanacak dil öğretim kaynaklarında kültür ögelerinden hangilerinin kullanılacağı, bu kültür ögelerinin dil öğretiminde nasıl ve
ne şekilde verileceğinin plânlamasının da yapılması bir o kadar önemlidir.
Dil, insanların konuşarak anlaşmalarını sağlayan, iletişimi kolaylaştıran,
sürekli kendini yenileyen kültürün temel ögesidir. Dil öğretiminde yer alması
gereken kültür her milletin zenginliğidir. Türk kültürü ise dilimiz yardımıyla
dünyaya gösterilmesi gereken hazinelerin başında gelir. Türk kültürünün tanıtılması ve öğretilmesi, Türkçenin yabancılara öğretiminde bizim elimizde en
güzel enstrümandır. Türk kültürü, dünya çapında kültürler arasında merakla ilgi
uyandıran bir hazinedir. Kültür kavramı, milletten millete farklılık gösteren, insanların ve milletlerin kaynaşmalarını sağlayan, sıcak dostluklar kurulmasına
vesile olan, tanışmalara ön ayak olan ve bilinen bir kavramdır.
DİLSET Yayınları’nın Gökkuşağı öğretim seti ders kitaplarında yer alan
kültür ögelerinden bazılarını tespit ettik. Tespiti yapılan bu kültür ögeleri dünya
kültürlerinde de çok dikkat çeken kültürel unsurlardır.
11.Türk Kültüründe Aile
Aile, evlilik ve kan bağına dayanan, karı koca, çocuklar, kardeşler arasındaki ilişkilerin oluşturduğu toplum içindeki en küçük birlik, toplum bilimi
karı, koca ve çocuklardan oluşan topluluk, aynı soydan gelen veya aralarında
akrabalık ilişkileri bulunan kimselerin tümü olarak tanımlanır.
Türk kültüründe aile kavramının derin anlamları mevcuttur. Aile, anne
baba ve evlenmemiş çocuklardan teşekkül eden aynı duygu ve düşünce etrafında sevgi dairesinde bir bağlılık üzerinde kurulan, toplumların ayakta kalabilmesini sağlayan ve milletleri güçlü kılan, onların uzun ömürlü yaşamalarını
sağlayan bir çekirdektir. Türk toplumunda insanlar aileye çok önem verir. Aile
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bireylerin bir arada olmalarını sağlar.
Ders kitabı 1’de altıncı konuda “Benim Ailem” okuma - anlama metni
olarak verilmiştir. Burada anne, baba, kız kardeş, erkek kardeş, ağabey, abla,
amca, dayı, teyze, yenge, enişte, büyük baba ve nine gibi kavramlar öğretilecektir. Türk kültüründe ailenin yanında akrabalar da önemlidir. Avrupa toplumunda
birey evdeki kişilere isimleriyle hitap ederken kültürümüzde kan bağıyla birbirlerine bağlı olan insanlara isimleriyle hitap etmek ve çağırmak çok garipsenir. Türk kültüründe sevgi, saygı, anlayış ve kabullenme gibi kavramlar ailede
başlar. İnsan hayatının ilk okulu bizde ailedir. Türk kültüründe aileye; ailede
de çocuklara çok önem verilir. Çocuklar Türk kültüründe evin neşe kaynağıdır,
gül bahçesidir. Kimi toplumlara göre çocuğun olması ve yetiştirilmesi kariyer
planında engel olarak görülür.
Ders kitabı 3’te birinci konu olarak yer alan “Ailemi Çok Seviyorum”
konusunda yukarıda ifade ettiğimiz akraba kelimeleri tekrar verilmiştir. Resimlerle aile yapılarından bahsedilmiştir. Okuma-anlama bölümünde ise aile bütünlüğünde anne babanın hem insanlar için hem de çocuklar için ne kadar önemli
olduğunu anlatan bir okuma metni yer almaktadır. Bu metinde aile bütünlüğünü
resmeden bir fotoğraf yer almaktadır. Kitapta gösterilen resimde adamın oğlu
babasına sarılarak af dilemektedir. Türk kültürüde sarılmak insanlar arasında
samimiyeti, dostluğu gösteren bir kültür ögesidir.Her kültürde sarılmayı karşılayacak kültür ögesi farklı şekillerde gerçekleştirilebilir.
Dinleme-anlama bölümünde ise metin olarak kardeşler arasında yaşanan birbirini düşünme, birbirine yardım etme konulu bir hikaye yer almaktadır.
Günümüz toplumlarında kardeşler arasında yaşanan sıkıntılar aileler arasında
ilişkilerin bozulmasına yol açmaktadır. “Gerçek Kardeşlik” ismiyle yer alan bu
metinde kardeşliği gerçek anlamda öğrencilere göstermektedir. Ayrıca bu metinde aile içerikli konuşma ve yazma bölümleri de yer almaktadır. Yazma ve konuşma bölümlerinin dışında deyimler ve aileyle ilgili kelimelerden oluşturulan
bir bulmaca bölümü de çocuklara ders içinde eğlence katar.
12. Türk Kültüründe Mutfak
Türk mutfağı, dünyanın sayılı zengin mutfakları arasındadır. Bazı görüşlere göre Çin ve Fransız mutfakları ile dünyanın en zengin üç mutfağından birisidir. (Araz, Nezihe s: 93) Dünyada hemen hemen her mutfağın temel sayılacak
bazı özellikleri söz konusudur. Bunlar o mutfağı ötekilerden ayıran özellikler
olarak tanımlanır. Çoğu zaman bunlar din ve inanışların kısıtlamaları, özgü hayvan varlığı ve bitki varlığı ile sınırlıdır (Şavkay, 2000:11).
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Mutfak kültürünün oluşmasında ülkelerin ekonomi durumları, göçebe
yaşam ve iklim şartları etkilidir. Gündelik yaşamın çok hızlı geçmesi ve insanların işgücüne daha çok zaman ayırması tüketme kültüründe yemeğin yerini
sınırlandırmıştır. Toplumsal yaşam kültürünün oluşmasında yemek kültürünün
etkisinin olduğu da kaçınılmaz bir durumdur. Kır ve kurak olan yerlerde yaşayan insanlar her türlü zor şartlara daima dayanıklıdır. Bu tip yerlerde yaşayan
insanlar, gıda kültürünün kazanılmasının etkisiyle sert mizaçlı ve hareketlidirler. Toprakları verimli olan insanlar ise çok gıdalar elde etmenin rahatlığıyla şişmanlarlar ve hareketsizlik onların hantallaşmalarına neden olurlar. Diğer grup
ise her ne kadar verimli topraklarda yaşayan insanlar olsa da elde edilen gıdaların işlenmesi, depolanması, tuzlanması, saklanması gibi aşamaların sonucunda
farklı gıdaların oluşmasıyla insanların daha dikkatli ve ince olmalarına neden
olmaktadır. Kısacası gıda elde etme kültürü insanların karekterlerini belirleyen
bir unsurdur.
Her milletin, ülkenin yapısı ve alışkanlıklarına göre kendi mutfağı vardır. Orta Asya’nın sade yemeğinden zengin Selçuklu ve Osmanlı Mutfağına yol
açılmış, Çin ve Fransız Mutfağı ile birlikte dünyanın en önemli ve bol çeşitli
beğenilen Türk Mutfağı oluşmuştur.
Halıcı (1982) ve Yücecan (1992)’ın belirttiği gibi Türk Mutfağının kendine özgü nitelikler kazanmasında tarihsel birikimi ile çeşitliliğinin yanısıra
coğrafi özelliği ve değişkenliğinin, sosyal düzeni simgelemesinin etkisi büyüktür. Türklerin sosyal yaşantısında eskiden kışlalarda, tekke ve dergahlarda, loncalarda, medreselerde toplu olarak yenen yemekler, bu mutfağın özelliklerinin
oluşmasında çok önemli bir yer tutmuştur.
Ortaçağdan beri uygulanmakta olan toplu beslenme sistemi kentleşme,
teknolojik gelişme ve sanayileşmeye paralel olarak gelişmiş ve yaşantımızın
önemli bir parçası haline gelmiştir (Yücecan, 1992).
Her ülkenin damak tatları ve gündelik öğün adedi farklılık arzetmektedir. Dünyada yaygın halde bulunan yemek kültürümüz insanların zevklerine hitap etmeye devam etmektedir. Yörelere göre farklı tatlarla dünyaya açılan
mutfağımızda insanların beslenmelerinde öneminden şüphe duyulmayan zengin bir kahvaltı kültürümüz bulunmaktadır. Türk kültüründe olan yemek türleri
Ders kitabı 1’de resimlerle birlikte göze hitap edecek şekilde verilmiştir. Ayrıca
kültürümüzde dünyaya mal olmuş olan yemek türlerinden de bahsedilmiştir.
Ders kitabı 3’te Türk kültürünün zenginliklerinden olan kahve ve çay
içme kültürü yer almaktadır. Dünyada kahve kültürü yaygındır. Türk kültüründe
özel yeri olan kahve yapımı dostlukların kalıcı olmasında önemlidir. Kahveden daha çok geleneksel içecek olan çayın hazırlanması, ikram etme adabı ve
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malzemeleri bakımından dünya çay içme kültüründen farklılık teşkil ettiği için
turistlerin ilgisini çekmektedir. Ayrıca ders kitabı 3’te çayın hazırlanması ve ikramı resimlerle gösterilmektedir (s.37).
13. Türk Kültüründe Ziyaretler
İnsan, birlikte yaşayarak kendisini mutlu ve rahat hisseden fakat bireysel
olarak yaşamada zorluklarla karşılaşan sosyal bir varlıktır. İnsanlarla ilgilenme,
onlarla sağlıklı iletişim kurma her millete göre farklıdır. Türk kültüründe ahlaki değerlerimizden olan komşuluk hukuku bize İslam’ın öğrettiği bir konudur.
Gün geçtikçe dünyada kurulan ilişkilerde maddi değerlerin ön planda olması
insanları yalnızlaştırmaktadır. İnsan sosyalleşmede, toplumla iletişim kurma gereksinimi duyan bir varlıktır. 21.yüzyıl dünyasında maddiyat ön planda olduğu
için ilişkilerde de buna göre şekilleniyor. Diğer moral değerlerin olmadığı yerde
insanlar arasında ilişkiler paraya göre kuruluyor. Global dünyada maddiyatın
ilişkilerde ön planda olması ve çıkar eksenli diyalogların kurulması farklı sıkıntılar doğurur. Türk kültüründe ise insanlar arasındaki ilişkiler moral değerlere göre kurulur. Moral değerlerini ise İslam dini sayesinde öğrenir ve pratik
hayatta kullanırız. Günümüz dünyasında insanlar maddiyattan çok mutluluğu
kazandıracak başka arayışlar içindedir.
Türk kültüründe ilişkilerde sevgi ve saygı kavramı etkilidir. Sevgi, insanlara dağıttıkça çoğalan bir manevi değerdir. Bu sevgi ziyaret ettiğimizde,
insanları tanıdığımızda ortaya çıkar. Sevgiyle kurulan ilişkiler sağlam olur. Türk
kültüründe ziyaretler farklı sebeplerden dolayı yapılır. İnsanlar, mutlu anlarında
veya zor zamanlarında kendilerini yakın hissedecekleri, duygularını paylaşacakları bir liman ararlar. Türk kültüründe ziyaretler komşuyla başlar. Her şeyden önce komşu kazanma çok önemlidir. Türkçe’de yer alan “ev almadan önce
komşu al” atasözü her şeyi açıklar mahiyettedir.
Komşularla diyalog içerisinde olmak öncelikle tanışmakla başlar. Tanışmak içinde önce selam kullanılır, selamlaşma tanışmanın ilk adımıdır ardından
küçük ziyaretler yapılabilir. Ziyaret yapmak için yeter ki istekli olalım. Bu yapılacak olan ilk ziyaret diğer ilişkileri de etkileyecektir. Yapılması ve olması gereken ziyaretlerden komşu ziyaretlerinin dışında yeni ev ziyareti, doğum ziyareti,
hasta ziyareti, tebrik etme ziyareti, ölüm ziyareti, evlilik ziyareti, doğum günü
ziyareti, düğün ziyareti, hayırlı olsun ziyareti gibi sayacağımız ziyaret türleri de
bulunmaktadır. Her yapılan ziyaretin kültürlere göre bir yolu yordamı vardır.
Bu yol yordam gelenek ve göreneklere göre belirlenmiştir. Ziyaretlere gelen
misafirler ev sahibi tarafından en iyi şekilde ağırlanır. Ev sahibi gelen misafire,
Türk kültüründe misafir bereketiyle gelir anlayışıyla ikramda kusur etmekten
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çekinmez.
14. Türk Kültüründe Müzik ve Müzik Aletleri
Müzik sevinç, hüzün vb. duyguların ifade edilmesinde, farklı kültürleri
tanımada, sosyal ve kültürel olarak iletişim kurmada önemli bir araç olmakla
birlikte kültürel bir kaynak ve bilimsel olarak araştırılan bir alandır (Babacan,
2011). Müzik dünya kültüründe apayrı bir yeri olan milletlerin gelenek ve göreneklerine, ilgilerine ve zevklerine göre çeşitlilik arzeden bir konudur. Müzikle
kültür aktarımında bulunmak diğer kültür ögelerine göre kolay olduğu kanaatindeyim. Dünyada yaşayan milletlerin meydana getirdiği müziklerin dilinden o
milletin kültürel zenginliği, dil yapısı, ruh dünyası ve insanların yaşama bakışlarına dair bilgiler ortaya çıkar.
İslamdan önce, Arapların çoğunluğu deve, koyun sürülerini besleyerek
göçebe bir hayat sürerek çadırlarda yaşamıştır. Bu yüzden güzel sanatların özellikle şiir kolunda ilerlemişlerdir. Sonra şiire yakın olarak müzik doğmaya başlamıştır. İslamlığın başlangıcında, musikiye karşı bir direnme gösterilmiştir. Şarkı
söylemek pek hoş karşılanmamıştır. Bunun sebebi, müzik ve şarkının insanı
zevk ve sefaya yöneltmesi, dini vazifeleri ihmale götürmesi, ve cinsel istekleri
teşvik etmesi olarak düşünülmesindendir. Daha sonra Peygamberin Kuran-ı Kerim’i güzel okuyanlara karşı memnuniyet duyması ile insanların müziğe karşı
bakış açısını yavaş yavaş değiştirmiştir (Ak, Şahin s:5).
Müzik insanları bir hipnoz hali oluşturarak etkilemiş ve kitlelere zaman
zaman yön vermiştir. Özellikle müzik, duyguları yoğunlaştıran bir özelliğe sahip olduğundan, pek çok medeniyetlerde dini duyguların güçlenmesinde, hastalıkların tedavisinde oldukça yaygın bir yöntem olarak kullanılmıştır (Somakcı,
s.132).
İnsanlar, müzikle söyleyemediği duygularını, sevinçlerini, hüzünlerini
notalara döker. Türk kültüründe müzikle tedavi uygulaması Selçuklulara kadar
dayanır. Her müziğin bir söylenme makamı vardır. Bu makamların tedavide kulllanılması ilk olarak Osmanlı zamanında uygulanmıştır. Müzikle tedavi konusu
üzerinde ciddi çalışmalar yapılmış, hangi müziğin hangi hastalığı iyileştirmede
kullanıldığına kadar tespiti yapılmıştır. Müzik, ülkelerin kendi kültürlerine göre
oluşturdukları çalgılar yardımıyla söylenir. Her kültürde olduğu gibi milletlerin
özdeşleştiği milli çalgıları vardır.
Gökkuşağı Ders kitabı 2’de “Hangi müzikten hoşlanırsınız?” konusu bulunmaktadır. Bu konuda bilinen belli başlı müzik aletlerinin resimleri ve isimleri vardır (s.24). Aynı zamanda Türk müziğinde
hem sesiyle hem de söylediği şarkılarla tanınan Sezen Aksu’yla karşılıklı bir
röportaj yer almaktadır. Dinleme-anlama bölümünde ise iki arkadaşın hobilerle
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alakalı konuşmaları dinleme olarak hazırlanmıştır. Bu bölümde Türk kültüründe
bilinen sanatçılardan Muazzez Ersoy’un bir posteri ile milli çalgımız olan saz
görsel olarak bulunmaktadır. Ders kitabı 4’te yine Türk kültüründe yer alan müzik aletleri fotoğraflarla konmuştur (s.74). Okuma- anlama metni olarak Türk
ve dünya kültüründe tanınan ünlü sanatçımız Barış Manço’nun “Can Bedenden
Çıkmayınca” isimli şarkısıyla birlikte fotoğrafları bu sayfayı süslemiştir (s.75).
Dinleme-anlama bölümünde ise dünya çocuklarının bir araya gelerek Türkçe
Olimpiyatları’nda söyledikleri “Biz Dünya Çocuklarıyız” isimli şarkı ile “Yeni
Bir Dünya” şarkısı işlenmiştir. Ayrıca bu sayfada dünya kültürlerinin bir araya
geldiği sahne fotoğrafı ile (s.76) Türk kültüründe Osmanlı zamanında askerlere
harplere giderken moral vermek için mehter marşlarını söyleyen bir mehter takımı fotoğrafı sayfayı renklendirmiştir.
15. Türk Kültüründe Bayramlar ve Festivaller - şenlikler
Tarihi kayıtlara göre, Türklerin Hunlardan beri bayram ve festival türünden birçok tören ve faaliyetleri vardır. Örneğin; Hun Türkleri beşinci ayda yani
ilkbaharda “Lung-cınğ” adı verilen yerde büyük bir bayram yapmaktaydılar. Bu
bayramda hem inançla ilgili âdetler yerine getirilmekte, hem de türlü müsabakalar düzenlenmekteydi.
Koca’ya göre Bayramlar XI. yüzyılda Türk toplumunda “bayram yeri”
adı verilen bir meydanda kutlanmaktaydı. Bayram yeri, özellikle çiçeklerle süslenmekte, çıra veya meşalelerle aydınlatılmaktaydı. Kaşgarlının ifadesindeki
mekânın çiçeklerle süslenmesinden bayramın ilkbaharda kutlandığını düşünebiliriz. Bayram yerinin aydınlatılmış olmasından biz bayram kutlamalarının
gece de devam ettiğini düşünebiliriz. Burada hemen belirtmeliyiz ki Kaşgarlı
Mahmud bu açıklamalarıyla
Ramazan ve Kurban bayramları gibi dini bir bayramdan değil, milli bir
bayramdan söz etmektedir (Koca, 2002: 51).
Türkler, bayramların ruhuna ve havasına uygun olarak giyinmekteydiler. Kıyafetlerinde kırmızı, yeşil ve sarı renkler hâkimdi. Bayram süslemeleri,
müsabakaya sokulan hayvanlar için de yapılmaktaydı. Hayvanlar çeşitli boyalar, kınalar, boncuklar, nazarlıklar, türlü renklerle, desenlerle, kumaşlarla süslenmekteydi.
Türk kültüründe milli bayramlar ve dini bayramlar kutlanmaktadır. Milli
bayramlarda insanlar birlik ve beraberlik içinde bir araya gelirler ve keyifli dakikalar geçirirler. Türk kültüründe yer alan milli bayramlarda çeşitli etkinlikler
düzenlenir, bu etkinliklerde çeşitli yarışmalar yapılır. Milli bayramlar genellikle
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açık alanlarda, meydanlarda, stadyum ve okullarda kutlanır. Her milli bayram
öncesi okullar, meydanlar süslenir.
Dini bayramlardan en çok Ramazan ve Kurban bayramları kutlanır. Ramazan bayramı müslümanların kutladığı bir bayramdır. Bir ay tutulan oruçtan
sonra gelen ve üç gün süren bir bayramdır. Bu bayramlarda bayramın ilk sabahı erkekler en güzel elbiselerini giyip camiye giderler. Camiden sonra müslümanların birlik duygularını geliştiren toplu olarak bayramlaşma yapılır. Camide
yapılan bu bayramlaşma aile fertleriyle de yapılır. Evde yapılan bu bayramlaşmadan sonra ailece eş dost, akrabalar ve komşular ziyaret edilip büyüklerin
ellerinden öpülür.Türk kültüründe büyüklerin ellerinden öpme geleneği vardır.
Büyüklerin ellerinden öpen çocuklar ise bayram süresince cep harçlığı biriktirirler. Bayramlarda misafirlere tatlılar ikram edilir. Kurban bayramları ise dört
gün sürer. Bu bayramda ise gücü yeten, ekonomik durumu iyi olan müslümanlar
Allah adına büyükbaş bir hayvanı kurban ederler. Burada ise yardımlaşma duygusu ön plandadır. Komşulara et dağıtımı yapılmaktadır. Bu et dağıtımı sosyal
bir sorumluluk üstlenen her müslümanın yaptığı bir adettir.
Ayrıca her ilin kendi değerlerine ait olan özel günler festival olarak
kutlanmaktadır. Nevruz bayramı bunlardan bir tanesidir. İlkbaharın geldiğini
bildiren Mart ayında kutlanan bir bayramdır. Bunun dışında şehirlerin kutladığı festivallerde insanlar bir araya gelip eğlenirler, keyifli dakikalar geçirirler.
Bu festivallerde o yöreye ait ürün veya ürünlerin tanıtımı için bir araya gelinir.
Bu festivaller Türk kültüründe birlik beraberlik duygusunu geliştirmesi yanında turizme de olumlu katkıları olmaktadır. Bayramlarla alakalı ders kitabı 2’de
resimler bulunmaktadır (s:48). Metin olarak ise doğu kültüründe yer alan bayramın gelişini müjdeleyen Nevruz Bayramı ile birlikte Türk kültüründe çocuklara
Atatürk tarafından armağan edilen 23 Nisan Çocuk Bayramı yer almaktadır. Bu
metin diyalog şeklinde ve iki arkadaşın yaptığı telefon konuşması yer alır. Dinleme - anlama bölümünde ise 23 Nisan Çocuk ve Egemenlik bayramı konulu
bir metin bulunmaktadır. Konuşma bölümünde ise bayramlarla ilgili küçük diyaloglar yapılmaktadır. Bayramlarda ve özel günlerde Türk kültüründe yer alan
hediyeleşmeyi ve bayram ziyaretlerini gösteren resimler bulunmaktadır (s:54).
Ders kitabı 3’te ise bayramlarda yapılan kültürümüze ait güzellikleri gösteren
resimler ve bayramlarda kullandığımız sözcükler vardır (s:80). Metin olarak
Anneler Gününü konu edinen bir okuma parçası mevcuttur (s:81). Dinleme parçası olarak bayramların amacını konu edinen insanların mutlu olabilmelerini
sağlayan “Bayramlardaki Gerçek Mutluluk” adlı metin bulunmaktadır. Bayramlarla ilgili deyimler ve kalıplaşmış sözler de bu kitapta yer alan çalışmalardır.
Festivaller günümüzde mahalli idareler tarafından ulusal ve uluslar arası düzeyde gerçekleştirilmekte olup her yıl yenileri yapılmaktadır. Festivaller,
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aynı zamanda Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı’nın desteklediği ve ülkelerin turizmine katkısı azımsanmayacak kadar önemli olan niyetlerin, tüm ideolojilerin,
maddiyatın, çıkarların, savaşların ulaşamayacağı bir yerde tutmak hem asli görevimiz, hem de kültürümüzü en iyi şekilde tanıtmanın, yurtta ve dünyada barışı
sağlamanın ilk koşulu sayılmaktadır (Tuğsav, 2000: 121).
16. Türk Kültüründe Nişan ve Düğünler
Türklerde düğün, yeni bir ev açma, aynı zamanda soyun devamı anlamına da gelmektedir. Ailenin oluşumundaki ilk adım olarak görülen düğün
olgusu ise, eğlence kültürünün bir öğesi olmasının yanı sıra, aileye giden bir
yolun başlangıcı olduğu için önemli görülmüş, bu yüzden bazı düğünlerde dini
uygulamalar da görülmüştür. Dini uygulamaların yapıldığı bu tarz etkinlikler
mevlitli düğün olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Bu sebeple düğünlere yalnız bir
eğlence gözüyle bakılmamıştır.
Türk kültüründe ailenin oluşmasında düğün bir başlangıçtır. Yöreden
yöreye değişen düğünler, kuşaktan kuşağa aktarılarak, günümüze kadar varlığını devam ettirmiştir. Düğünden önce olması gereken bu adetler mutlaka yerine
getirilmelidir. Bu adetler düğünün gerçekleştirilmesinin ön şartıdır. Bu adetler
önce kız isteme, söz kesme, nişan takma, düğün günü belirleme,davetiye basma
ve dağıtma, düğün şeklindedir. Eskiden düğünlere insanlar davullarla çağrılıyordu.
Düğünler, eş dost ve akrabaların toplandığı ve hasret giderdiği mekanlardır. Düğünler eşler arasında bir ömür boyu birlikte yaşamanın herkese duyurulduğu özel ve anlamlı bir seromonidir. Bu seromonide aile üyelerinde düğüne
gelen misafirleri en iyi şekilde ağırlamanın telaşı ve heyecanı vardır.
Düğünler, yabancılara Türkçe öğretiminde kültür aktarımında bulunacağımız önemli bir kültür öğesidir. Düğünlerde uygulanacak adetlerin bir uygulanış sırası bulunmaktadır. Düğünlerde misafirler için özel kazanlarda hazırlanan
yemekler ve tatlılar ikram edilir. Bu yemeğe mümkünse herkesin iştirak etmesi beklenir. Gökkuşağı 4 kitabında yer alan Festivaller ve Şenlikler ünitesinde
okuma - anlama metninde Gaziantep yöresine ait bir düğün yer almaktadır.
17. Türk Kültüründe Geleneksel El Sanatları
Geleneksel Türk el sanatları özünü ve ruhunu geçmişten alan, Türk halkının toplumsal duyguları ve sanatsal beğenileri aracılığı ile kültürel zenginliklerimizi yansıtan değerlerdir. Günümüzde geleneksel Türk el sanatlarının pek
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çok dalı teknolojinin hızla gelişmesi ve endüstrileşme, değişen yaşam şartları ve
değer yargıları gibi nedenlerle eski önemini yitirmiştir. Bazı el sanatlarının ise
kendi özgün çizgisinden uzaklaşarak, yeni üretim biçimleri ile farklı kullanım
alanlarına yönelik üretimleri söz konusudur (Kahveci, 1998:392).
El sanatı ürünleri turizm endüstrisi ile yoğun bir etkileşim içerisinde
olup, turistlerin alış- verişlerinde özel bir yer tutar. Çünkü turist için gittiği yöreye ait olan bir el sanatı ürünü satın almak, hem yaşadığı kişisel tecrübenin
bir delili, hem de evine döndüğünde kendisi için anı niteliği taşıyan bir eşya
olacaktır. Bu nedenle el sanatları turizmin ayrılmaz bir parçasıdır (Bayazıt ve
diğ., 2012:901).
El sanatları, Türk kültüründe turizm alanında ilgi gören ve son zamanlarda ekonomiye artı değer kazandıran bir kültür ögesidir. Türk kültüründe her
şehirin bilinen bir geleneksel el sanatı vardır. Türkçe ders kitaplarında görsel
olarak çinicilik ve ebru sanatı dikkati çekmektedir. Ders kitabı 2 s.58’de bakırcılık, s.60’ta çinicilik ve Gökkuşağı ders kitabı 3 s.63’te ebru sanatını gösteren
fotoğraf karesi ve ebru sanatının yapılışını anlatan okuma-anlama metni bulunmaktadır.
Türk Kültüründe Çizgi Kahramanları
Türk kültüründe çocukların özdeşleştiği deyim yerindeyse hastası olduğu çizgi ve masal kahramanları da vardır. Bu çizgi ve masal kahramanları çocukların büyümesinde ve özellikle karekterlerinin şekillenmesinde çok önemlidir.
Yabancılara Türkçe öğretiminde Türk kültüründe bilinen çizgi kahramanlarını
tanıtmamız ve bu kahramanların yer aldığı küçük filmler göstermemiz kültür
yönünden faydalı olacaktır.
Türk kültüründe çizgi kahramanları denince herkesin aklına gelebilecek
ilk karekterler Karagöz ile Hacivat, Keloğlan, Ali Baba ve Kırk Haramiler ve
Alaaddin’in Sihirli Lambası’dır. Bunların Türk kültüründe yaşanmış hikayeleri
bulunmaktadır. Bunların içerisinde Türk kültüründe yeri büyük olan Karagöz
ile Hacivat karekterini ele alacağız. Gökkuşağı Ders kitabı 3’te on beşinci ünite
içerisinde okuma metni olarak Karagöz ile Hacivat (s.93), dinleme metni olarak
ise Keloğlan yer almaktadır (s.94).
Bu metinlerde her kahraman Anadolu insanının genel karekterini temsil
eder. Anadolu insanı tarafından sevilen Karagöz ile Hacivat halkın eğlence türlerinden biri olmuştur. Oyunun başkahramanları Karagöz ile Hacivat’tır. Halkın
ahlak anlayışını temsil eder. Karagözde işlenen konular komiktir. Mecaz anlamlar, söz oyunları, taklitler en önemli güldürü ögeleridir. Karagöz’ün zıt karekteri
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Hacivat’tır. Hacivat, Karagöz’ün zıttıdır. Her şeyi yapsa da Karagöz’süz yaşayamaz.
Osmanlı döneminde halkın eğlence kültüründe önemli bir yeri olan
Karagöz ile Hacivat, Ramazanlarda, kahvehanelerde, bahçelerde, şenliklerde
oynatılırdı. Bu oyun dönemin sosyal olaylarını eleştirel bir dille anlatıyordu.
Geleneksel olarak devam eden bu tür meddah oyunları günümüzde de Türk kültürünü yabancı turistlere tanıtmak amacıyla uygun mekanlarda oynatılmaktadır.
18.Sonuç
Yabancı dil öğrenmek, farklı bir dil öğrenmektir. Kişiye, kendi dilinden
farklı bir dili öğretirken öğrenme anlamında motivasyonu sağlayabilmek ve öğrendiklerini kalıcı hale getirebilmek için dilin kültürel ögelerinin de mutlaka
aktarılması gerekir.
Öğrencilerin tüm ihtiyaçlarına cevap verebilecek tek bir eğitim proğramından veya ders kitabından bahsetmek mümkün değildir. Bireysel ve kültürel
farklılığın, dil öğrenimindeki tercihleri etkilediği ileri sürülür. Bu nedenle öğrencilerin sosyo-kültürel geçmişleri değerler sistemi ve öğrenmeye karşı sergiledikleri davranışları dikkate alınmalıdır (Finkbeiner,2008). Bizim burada vurgulamak istediğimiz, dil öğrenimindeki iletişimsel yetkinliğin sağlanabilmesi
için hedef dildeki kültürel öğelerin ön planda tutulmasıdır (Tüm ve Sarkmaz,
2012).
Bu çalışmanın temelini yabancılara Türkçe öğretimi alanında yeni çalışmalara imza atan DİLSET yayınlarının set olarak okutulan Gökkuşağı ders kitapları oluşturmuştur. Yabancılara Türkçe öğretiminde ele aldığımız Gökkuşağı
Türkçe ders kitaplarından elde ettiğimiz kültür ögeleri çok çeşitlilik arzetmektedir. Ders kitaplarındaki kültür ögelerinin tespitinde okuma metinleri, dinleme
metinleri ve fotoğraflar üzerinde çalışmamızı tamamladık.
Yabancı dil olarak Türkçe öğretiminde ders kitabı olarak incelenen Dilset Yayınları Gökkuşağı ders kitaplarındaki Türk kültür ögelerinin örnekleri tespit edilmiştir.
Türkçeyi yeni öğrenen temel seviye öğrencileri için kullanılan bu sette,
okuma ve dinleme metinlerinin sayıca fazla yer alması normal bir durumdur.
Metinleri anlayan öğrenciler o dilin kültür ögelerini de daha kolay anlayacaklardır. Biz bu çalışmada Türkçe öğretiminde kullanılan ders kitaplarında yer alan
metinler kültür konularına göre belirlenmiştir. Belirlenen bu kültür ögelerinin
dağılımları kitaplara göre şu şekildedir:
76
Gökkuşağı ders kitabı 1’de kültür ögesi olan 3 metin parçası, 13 adet
kültür öge içerikli fotoğraf, 16 tane kalıplaşmış söz ve 12 tane yer adı yer almaktadır.
Ders kitabı 2’de hem okuma hem dinleme metni olarak 13 adet parça 20
adet kalıplaşmış söz ve 47 adet kültür öge içerikli fotograf bulunmaktadır. Ders
kitabi 3’te hem okuma hem de dinleme metni olarak 24 tane parça, 32 tane deyim, 23 adet kültür içerikli fotoğraf ve 16 tane yer adı ve takım isimleri geçmektedir. Ders kitabı 4’te ise kültür ögesi bulunan 15 tane okuma ve dinleme metni,
32 tane deyim, 32 tane kültürel içerikli fotoğraf bulunmaktadır. Kültür ögeleri
bakımından taranan ders kitaplarında kültür öge içerikli 55 tane metin, 36 tane
kalıplaşmış söz, 64 tane deyim, 103 tane kültürel içerikli fotoğraf ve 28 tane yer
adı geçmektedir. Gökkuşağı ders kitaplarında toplamda 128 tane okuma ve dinleme metni, 64 adet deyim ve 132 tane kültür içerikli fotoğraf bulunmaktadır.
Yabancılara Türkçe öğretiminde ders kitaplarında işlenen metinler görsel unsurlarla desteklenmiştir. Kültürel ögeler, güncelliğini kaybetmeyen konuların dışında dünyanın ilgisini çekebilecek kültürel turizm içerikli konularla
ve fotoğraflarla da desteklenmiştir. Setin ders kitaplarında yer alan cümle kalıpları, sorular ve özellikle üzerinde durduğumuz metinler öğrencilerin anlama
seviyelerine göre ayarlanmıştır. Öğrencinin anlama seviyesinin üstünde olacak
metinler kültürün anlaşılmasında sıkıntı oluşturabilir. Bu sette yukarıda belirttiğimiz konuya çok dikkat edildiğini ve bu çalışmanın buna göre hazırlandığını
düşünüyorum.
Yabancı dil öğretiminde kültür ögelerinin daha iyi kavranılması için öğretmen faktörü de çok önem arzetmektedir. Türkçe öğretmeni, dersleri renklendirmek, sınıfı canlı tutmak için çok özen göstermelidir. Öğretmen, derse
girmeden önce ders anlatım planını, ders senaryosunu hazırlar ve derste hangi
etkinliği nerede ve ne zaman yapacağını belirlerse o ders verimli geçecektir.
Aksi durumlarda ise öğretmen de öğrenci de dersten zevk alamayacaktır. Hangi
ders olursa olsun öğretmen unsuru çok önemlidir. Öğretmenin yeniliklere açık
olması, dersini iyi planlaması ve ders içinde bol bol aktivite yapması gerekir.
Gökkuşağı ders kitaplarında seçtiğimiz kültür ögeleri kitapların içinde
metinler halinde yer almaktadır. Bu metinleri daha çok çeşitlendirerek öğrencilere sunmak gerekiyor. Bu sorumluluğun bilincinde olan öğretmenler birer
gönüllü kültür elçisi olduklarını hiç unutmadan öğrencilere dersi en iyi şekilde
vermenin yollarını araştırmalıdırlar. Yabancılar kültürü ve dili görerek ve yaşayarak öğrenirler.
Yabancılara Türkçe öğretiminde kullanılabilecek kültür ögeleri tespit
edilip bu belirlenen kültür ögeleri hakkında bilgilendirmeler yapıldı. Ders içe77
risinde kullanabileceğimiz kültür ürünlerine yönelik olarak görsellik katarak
vermemiz çok yerinde olacaktır. Örneğin geleneksel el sanatlarımızdan olan
ebru sanatı öğrencilere bir derste ve uygun bir atölyede uygulamalı olarak yaptırılmalıdır. Bu örnekleri yaparken bütün iş takibi ve kontrolü öğretmenlerin
gözetiminde olmalıdır.
Sonuç olarak, mevcut olan bu araştırmanın ana amacını tekrar edersek
yabancı dil öğretiminin yanında kültür öğretimi yapmanın gerekli olduğunu
göstermek ve ders öğrencilerinin Türk halkının var olan yaşam tarzlarını, farklılıklarını ve inançlarını dikkate alarak Türk kültürü hakkında bilgilerini artırmaya yönelik yeni imkanlar sunmak. Kültür ögeleri Türk dili öğretiminde dilin
tamamlayıcı bir parçası olmalıdır.
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Kültürüne Hizmet Vakfı Yayınları, İstanbul, tarihsiz
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BARIN, Erol. (2004). “Yabancılara Türkçe Öğretiminde İlkeler”, Hacettepe
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Bölge Turizmine Etkisi: Güneydoğu Anadolu Bölgesi”, Journal of Life
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BÖLÜKBAŞ, Fatma & KESKİN, Funda (2010). “Yabancı Dil Olarak Türkçe
Öğretiminde Metinlerin Kültür Aktarımındaki İşlevi”. Turkish Studies,
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BYRAM, M. (1989). “Cultural Studies in Foreign Language Education”. Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters.
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Sosyal ve Beşeri Bilimler Dergisi, Cilt 5, No 2, 2013 ISSN: 1309-8012
(Online)
DAMEN, L. (1987). “Culture Learning: The Fifth Dimension in the Language
Classroom”. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley
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Denemesi”, Turkish Studies, 4, 3.
FINKBEINER, C. (2008). “Culture and Good Language Learners”.Lesson from Good Language Learners. Haz. Carol Griffiths. Cambridge University Press: 131- 141.
GÖÇER, Ali ve MOĞUL, Selçuk, “Türkçenin Yabancı Dil Olarak Öğretimi
ile İlgili Çalışmalara Genel Bir Bakış”, Turkish Studies, S: 6(3), (2011),
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Olarak Öğretimi Kaynakçası”, Tübar, XXXII (2012), s.73-126.
İŞCAN, Fehmi. (1998), “Türklerde Spor”, Milli Eğitim Basımevi, Ankara, Spor
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KAHRİMAN, R. & DAĞTAŞ, A.& ÇAPOĞLU, E. & ATEŞAL, Z. (2013).
“Yabancılara Türkçe Öğretimi Kaynakçası”, Türük Dil, Edebiyat ve Halkbilimi Araştırmaları Dergisi, Yıl 1, s. 1 s.80-132
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Folkloristik, 1998, 387-397.
KAPLAN, Mehmet.(1992). “Kültür ve Dil”, Dergah Yayınları,İstanbul,s.139
KIZILASLAN, İrem (2010). “Yabancı Dil Öğretmen Yetiştirme Sürecinde
Kültürlerarasılık”, Milli Eğitim, 185, s.81-89.
KOÇAN, Nurhan, “Geleneksel Sporlarımızdan Ciritin Rekreasyon Amacı İle
Günümüze Uyarlanması”.
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İçin Alternatif Turizm Faaliyetleri Üzerine Teorik Bir Çalışma”, Ticaret
ve Turizm Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Sayı 2, Ankara.
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İnternet kaynakça
http://www.turkcesevdalilari.com/index.php/dil-ve-edebiyat/edebi-bilgiler/
turk-dili
http://www.frmtr.com/felsefe-sosyoloji-psikoloji/5161650-kulturun-ogelerinelerdir.html
http://www.dersbilgileri.org/dil-ve-kultur-iliskisi.html
http://www.delinetciler.net/bilgi-merkez/62204-dil-ve-kultur-iliskisi.html
80
http://www.gonuldiliturkce.blogcu.com/dil-ve-kultur-iliskisi.html
http://www.diyadinnet.com/YararliBilgiler-1315&Bilgi=aile
http://www.yabancilaraturkce.com/kitaplar/ders-kitaplari/gokkusagi-turkceogretim-seti/item/69-gokkusag-5.html
81
Traduzione del Linguaggi Specializzati: Metodologia, Problemi e
Soluzioni
Georgiana-Monica IORGA
Parole chiave: lingua comune, linguaggi specializzati, terminologia,
nomenclatura
Il raporto tra le lingue speciali e la lingua cosidetta comune o standard1
ha avuto una grande attenzione da parte degli studiosi, i quali si sono interessati delle varietà discorsive specialistiche (Scarpa 2001:16). Soprattuttto negli
ambiti tecnico-cientifici, ciascuna lingua speciale tende a essere considerata una
lingua nuova, o cosi come la chiamano alcuni studiosi, artificiale rispetto alla
lingua comune. Essa rappresenta uno strumento che è stato sviluppato per espletare scopi comunicativi ben precisi utilizzando un vocabolario proprio e regole
peculiari. A questa posizione si oppone quella secondo la quale le lingue speciali
non sono una realtà isolata rispetto alle normali strutture della comunicazione
ma sono varietà funzionali del codice di basse costituito dalla lingua comune
che vengono utilizzate in ambiti specifici. Le varietà funzionali sono chiamati
varietà diafasiche della lingua e sono dipendenti dalla situazione effettiva in cui
si svolge l’atto comunicativo. Sono due le componenti maggiori della diafasia:
i registri ed i sottocodici.
I registri “segnano il grado di formalità della situazione comunicativa e il tipo di rapporto con il destinatario”. I sottocodici sono trovati nei testi
di specialità con il nome di linguaggi settoriali, linguaggi specialistici, gerghi
professionali, lingue tecniche (Sălișteanu Cristea 2007:7). Essi rappresentano
numerosi sottosistemi linguistici caratterizzati da lessici specialistici come nomenclature, tassonomie e tecnicismi specifici appartenenti ai vari mestieri e alle
attività umane (medicina, pesca, linguistica, zoologia, o nel nostro caso geologia). Il sottocodice non è utilizzato da tutti gli utenti dalla lingua, ma soprattutto
dagli addetti ai lavori. Così si spiega anche l’esistenza dei dizionari speciali o
dei glossari di termini giuridici, musicali, botanici,ecc., che hanno il ruolo di
spiegare e difondere “terminologie di uso ristretto”.
In seguito verranno descritte le principali marche testuali e retoriche dei
linguaggi specialistici, gli aspetti morfosintattici e gli aspetti lessicali e terminologici. Per introdurre i tratti formali che caratterizzano i linguaggi specialistici,
Scarpa cita un esempio tratto da Berruto (Scarpa 2001:26) dove lo stesso contenuto viene formulato in tre modi diversi l’italiano standard, l’italiano standard
83
letterario (la varietà scritta della tradizione letteraria) e l’italiano tecnico-scientifico. Nei testi specialistici lo stile trasparente deve corrispondere ai requisiti di
precisione, oggettività, economia, chiarezza e appropriatezza che caratterizzano
una comunicazione tanto efficace ( raggiunge il suo obiettivo communicativo)
quanto efficiente ( presenta un equilibrio tra il risultato ottenuto e le risorse impiegate) (Scarpa 2001: 18).
Il requisito della precisione è formato dalla monoreferenzialità, il rigore,
l’impersonalità dell’emittente nei confronti del messaggio che trasmette. Prendiamo il seguente brano: „È caratteristica la presenza di resti fossili di animali
viventi nei corsi d’acqua o sulle loro rive, per esempio Molluschi di acqua dolce, Cocodrilli, Tartarughe palustri, Cetacei odontoceti, Sireni, ecc., mescolati a
resti di animali viventi in acqua salmastra”. L’autore offre al destinatario delle
informazioni chiare e precise relative all’esistenza dei resti fossili e al luogo
dove tali resti possono essere rinvenuti. L’emittente fa la parte dell’intermediario fra l’informazione e il destinatario, con l’unica mira di trasmettere un’informazione giusta.
Il requisito dell’economia corrisponde a un impiego comunicativo efficiente delle strutture linguistiche e all’equilibrio tra l’esigenza di massima differenziazione degli elementi linguistici e quella di minimo sforzo da parte dei
destinatari (il principio di minimax) (Scarpa 2001: 19). Esempi di economia
sono l’uso dei simboli (in fisica le lettere dell’alfabeto greco classico o in chimica le formule delle sostanze), l’affissazione, la derivazione, la giustaposizione o
nel nostro caso l’uso degli iponimi come troviamo nel seguente esempio: „Chiamiamo per semplicità facies salmastre le facies lagunari, di estuario e deltizie,
le quali rispondono a depositi originatisi in ambienti al limite tra bacini marini
e aree emerse, in cui alle acque marine si mescolano le acque dolci portate dai
corsi d’acqua che sfociano nelle lagune o nel mare” (Leonardi 1970: 185). Dunque per ragioni di concisione e semplicità si riduce l’estensione della forma per
evitare le ridondanze.
L’impiego efficace ed efficiente delle strutture linguistiche nella comunicazione specialistica è misurato dalla loro chiarezza (dalla mancanza di ambiguità e dalla decodificazione rapida) e dall’appropriatezza, ossia la rispondenza
del testo alla situazione della comunicazione. Inoltre, l’appropriatezza presuppone il possesso da parte dell’autore di testi scientifici di doti letterarie, i quali
l’aiuti a saper comunicare lo stesso contenuto in modo diverso a seconda dei
destinatari (Scarpa 2001: 19). Secondo il dizionario De Mauro, la voce „trattato” ha il significato di: opera che si occupa metodicamente dei principi fondamentali di una scienza, di una disciplina, di una dottrina o di un particolare tema
(De Mauro variante CD). La struttura del trattato di geologia di Pietro Leonardi
84
corrisponde alla descrizione generale di un tale opera: descrive metodicamente
i principi generali i concetti della geologia, nonchè fornisce una rassegna storica
dell’evoluzione di questa scienza.
Inoltre, la stessa autrice offre una classificazione, adattata da Sabatini nel
1999, dei macrotipi, tipi intermedi e forme testuali concrete in quale i trattati, i
manuali di studio, le enciclopedie, i saggi critici, le relazioni, le lettere d’affari,
le conferenze e le lezioni scritte sono considerati testi mediamente vincolanti (al
contrario dei testi molto vincolanti rappresentati dai testi scientifici, normativi e
tecnico-operativi e quelli poco vincolanti rappresentati dai testi d’arte o letterari) e sono caratterizzati da una funzione esplicativa-argomentativa con il fine di
spiegare nouvi concetti o di proporre e dibattere tesi. (Scarpa 2001: 22).
Nel suo lavoro, La traduzione specializzata. Lingue speciali e mediazione linguistica, l’autrice cita il paragone fatto da Sabatini tra i diversi tipi di testo
in italiano. I tratti piu’ diffusi caratterizzanti i testi „molto vincolanti (scientifici, normativi, tecnici)” e quelli „mediamente vincolanti (trattati e manuali di
studio)”. Per una migliore comprensione di tali caratteristiche, consideriamo
oportuno accompagnare i tratti teorici con esempi scelti dal testo di geologia. La
rigorosa impostazione del testo, con la scansione del discorso in blocchi di testo
concatenati da chiari legami coesivi.
Riferimento a principi, assiomi, postulati, termini, definizioni esposti nel
testo stesso o citati: „Corrispondono alle formazioni originate nella zona che va
dalla piu’ bassa marea al margine della piattaforma continentale (shelf), in acque
agitate dal moto ondoso e dalle correnti marine; Sedimenti pelagici, derivanti
da melme di mare profondo, prevalentemente non organogene, prodotte per decantazione di finissime particelle argillose in sospensione nelle acque calme o
per precipitazione di sostanze disciolte allo stato colloidale ( M. Gignoux, 1950)
(Leonardi 1970: 181)”.
Definizioni di fenomeni, comportamenti, oggetti, processi, attivita’: „
Chiamiano per semplicita’ facies salmastre le facies lagunari, di estuario e deltizie, le quali rispondono a depositit originatisi in ambienti al limite tra bacini
marini e aree emerse, in cui alle acque marine si mescolano le acque dolci portate dai corsi d’acqua che sfociano nelle lagune o nel mare” (Leonardi 1960: 185)
L’inserzione di alcune informazioni anche attraverso simboli, numeri, formule, tabelle e grafici: Tabella Ambiente neritico o sublitorale (da W. C.
Krumbein e L. L. Sloss, 1963) (Leonardi 1960: 182). Uso di legami coesivi semantici come le ripetizioni o iperonimi: „ I sedimenti marini vanno distinti in tre
grandi categorie: a) sedimenti detritici, b) sedimenti organogeni, c) sedimenti
pelagici” (Leonardi 1960: 180-181). Uso di esempi per una migliore compren85
sione del discorso (assente nei testi giuridici): „ Hanno questa origine depositi
di anidrite, gesso, salgemma e altri Sali, che vengono anche sfruttati industrialmente (miniere di Stassfurt, Hallstatt, Ischl, Dürnberg, ecc).” (Leonardi 1960:
185). Uso di sinonimi: „Facies neritiche o sublitorali, Facies batiali o profonde,
Facies salmastre o di transizione, Facies glaciale o morenica, Facies eolica o
desertica, Facies lacustre o limnica, I batoliti o plutoni soggiacenti”.
La sintassi delle lingue speciali è simile a quella della lingua comune
però tra le sue peculiarità ricordiamo: l’uso eccessivo dello stile nominale, la
semplificazione della struttura del periodo, le strutture passive e impersonali,
modi e tempi verbali, modalità o la mancanza delle frasi interogative o esclamative. Per ciò che riguarda la morfologia dei linguaggi specialistici notiamo
un uso rigoroso degli suffissi e prefissi: ad esempio nella terminologia medica
il suffisso –algia indica sempre un dolore (nevralgia), mentre nel caso delle tassonomie botaniche il suffisso –acee indica la famiglia a cui appartiene la pianta
(Rosacee), in queloo della chimica -at indica un sale (Sulfato, Carbonato) e
finalmente in quello della geologia -ene.
La nominalizzazione, ossia la trasformazione di un sintagma verbale in
uno nominale, permette una richezza concettuale e una sintassi sintetica. L’uso
della nominalizzazione dagli scienziati ha la funzione di descrivere un concetto
concreto con l’ausilio di sintagmi nominali che sono caratterizzate da astrattezza. Per evitare le proposizioni relative, il linguaggio specializzato usa gli
aggettivi in –bile e i participi presenti. Forniamo i seguenti esempi appartenenti al nostro testo di geologia: „quando le circolazioni primaverile e autunnale
dell’acqua conducono ossigeno verso le profondita’, questo ferro e’ ossidato e
precipita sotto forma di composti ferrici poco solubili” e „sedimenti organogeni,
derivanti in tutto o in parte prevalente dall’attivita’ degli organismi costruttori”,
„sedimenti detritici, in prevalenza, terrigeni, provenienti dall’erosione di rocce
preesistenti e dal trasporto e deposizione dei materiali derivanti ”.
La semplificazione della struttura del periodo corrisponde alla concisione, semplicita’ e chiarezza e si sofferma sulle informazioni e i concetti che
vengono trattati. La struttura dei periodi e’ generalmente lineare e non marcata,
con frasi emplici e brevi costituite da una principale e una o da una sola principale: „Tra le strutture interne primarie hanno grande importanza pure quelle
che si trovano sui piani di strato”, „ Questa superificie puo’ essere nettamente
definita, mediamente definita o poco definita a seconda dell’energia fisica spesa
sui sedimenti nel luogo di deposizione”.
Le forme passive e impersonali hanno la funzione di „spersonalizzare
e oggettivizzare” (Scarpa 2001: 40) il concetto, il processso, le nozioni e non
l’agente. Generalmente, la forma passiva e’ deagentivata „Il fenomeno e’ stato
86
studiato con notevole dettaglio negli ultimi anni, specialmente alle Isole Bahama” (Leonardi 1970: 152). Ci sono casi quando l’agente viene menzionato
esplicitamente e il suo valore semantico e’ di ribadire che una certa azione e’
compiuta da quell’agente e non da altro: „Tipici esempi sono il Mar Nero ed
alcuni fiordi norvegesi, dove bacini relativamente profondi sono separati dal
mare aperto da soglie rocciose sottomarine” (Leonardi 1970: 155). Aggiungiamo l’osservazione personale che i due casi sopra menzionati si possono distinguere con l’ausilio della preposizione „da”, che sara’ sempre rinvenuta nelle
frasi in cui e’ sottolineato il ruolo dell’agente, mentre in quelle appartenenti alla
prima categoria non viene utilizzata. Per una migliore compresione della forme impersonali offriamo i seguenti esempi: „E’ opportuno segnalare che hanno
origine specialmente nella zona neritica. ..” (Leonardi 1970: 183. „E’caratteristica la presenza di resti fossili di animali viventi nei corsi d’acqua o sulle loro
rive...”, „Si tratta sempre di sedimenti assai ricchi di sostanza organica”..., „Anche nei depositi deltizi si hanno accumuli di vegetali...” (Leonardi 1970: 187). I
riferimenti all’emittente, fatti da egli stesso, sono nella terza persona singolare o
nela prima persona plurale, anche con il valore di plurale academico: „Possiamo
citare come esempio la Valle del Reno..., Passeremo ora in rassegna i principali
tipi di facies continentali” (Leonardi 1970: 188), „Si possono innanzitutto distinguere due categorie fondamentali di facies...” (Leonardi 1970: 180).
Le lingue speciali si distinguono dalla lingua comune per un uso piu’
ristretto dei modi e dei tempi verbali. Per presentare le teorie, le definizioni,
osservazioni, processi, affermazioni si usa l’indicativo presente: „I sedimenti
marini vanno distinti in tre grandi categorie, I depositi evaporitici sono molto poveri o addiritura privi di fossili”. L’autrice accenna il problema dell’uso
dell’indicativo piuttosto che del congiuntivo e cita Mammino che sostiene che
nella lingua dei testi scientifici va privilegiato l’uso dell’indicativo, con il valore
di indicare la realta’, rispetto al congiuntivo, il quale indica l’eventualita’, la
possibilita’ e l’irrealta’.
La stessa Federica Scarpa cita due distinzioni fatti tra il lessico tecnico
e quello subtecnico dai teorici Trimble e Sager et al. Secondo Trimble il lessico
tecnico indica i termini specializzati specifici di una disciplina, mentre quello subtecnico comprende i vocaboli della lingua comune che subiscono una
rideterminazione semnatica in una certa disciplina e acquistano un significato specializzato, infatti l’autrice parla di specializzazione semantica, nonche’
i termini che hanno lo stesso significato in diversi ambiti tecnico-scientifici.
Un’altra differenziazione e’ operata da Sager: termini specifici di una disciplina
usati solo dagli specialisti: facies spelea, sedimenti pelagic; parole della lingua
comune usate nell’ambito delle lingue speciali senza cambiare il loro signifi87
cato: depositi morenici; parole della lingua comune che vengono utilizzate con
un’accezione ristretta.
Un’altra peculiarità è di ordine lessicale ed è rappresentata dai tecnicismi specifici ossia i termini neologici monosemici, di solito prestiti, derivati
o composti di origine latina o greca. I tecnicismi specifici sono molto chiari e
non lasciano la possibilità delle ambiguità ed i loro significati sono conosciuti
normalmente solo da una cerchia ristretta di studiosi. Per una migliore comprensione, notiamo il seguente esempio: i termini semiombrofilo o idrofilo saranno
facilmente capiti da un botanico. I linguaggi settoriali presentano però una difficoltà: i tecnicismi collaterali, quelle parole o sintagmi che, a differenza dei tecnicismi specifici, che non possono essere mai sostituiti, possono trovare invece
un equivalente nella lingua comune. Però sono usati per delineare un linguaggio
specialistico con l’ausilio di un registro più formale. Un altro caso di intreccio
fra i linguaggi specialistici e la lingua comune è quando un tecnicismo diventa
una parola frequente nella lingua standard, diventa dunque una parola comune;
come per esempio la parola vitamina, che ha conservato il suo carattere iniziale,
di tecnicismo specifico nel campo della medicina, ma che ha acquistato anche il
carattere di parola comune, usata con un’alta frequenza. Negli entrambi i casi,
però, si è conservato lo stesso significato.
Bibliografia
Nistor Mihai, Terminologie lingvistică, Bucureşti, Editura Universităţii din
Bucureşti, 2000
Sălișteanu Cristea Oana, Il burocratese. Limbajul administrativ italian, Iași, Editura Polirom, 2007
Sălișteanu Cristea Oana, Introduzione alla dialettologia italiana. Tra lingua e
dialetto, București, Editura DAIM, 2002
Scarpa Federica, La Traduzione Specializzata. Lingue Speciali e Mediazione
Linguistica, Milano, Editore Ulrico Hoepli, 2001
88
Construction identitaire et identités en conflit dans le discours de presse
Claudia-Iulia Voevozeanu
University of Bucharest
Abstract: There is an intrinsic relationship between language and identity, expressed by words to create meaning beyond community-specific values
and behaviours. Understanding (individual and national) identity allows opening towards the otherness, going beyond communication boundaries to improve
the quality of human relationships. Since the satirical press is the best barometer
of a nation, while making inter- and transcultural dialogue happen, it may be
considered, through rhetorics, a complex tool for revealing and understanding
cultural meanings, amusing the reader, raising awareness about behavioural
flaws to help correct them.
At a time when both debates and cultural conflicts get hotter and hotter
in Europe because of the migrants’ crisis and of the terrorist attacks, we attempt, through this paper, to identify and comment upon various marks of concepts such as identity and otherness as they emerge in figures of speech in the
current Romanian, French, and English-language satirical press. We shall investigate the role of the semantics- and discourse-related techniques (especially
irony) used to shape and negotiate identities in the media rhetorics by humour
and critique. This comparative study of the most representative satirical newspapers in Romania, France, and the United Kingdom (paper and electronic
formats) shall help us notice convergent issues, as well as different approaches
depending on the mentality of each population and the semantic features of each
of the three languages.
We are interested in studying figures of speech as bearing cultural information in terms of identity of a nation or a group, on the one hand, and in terms
of intercultural dialogue occurring as a necessity in the globalized world we
live in, on the other hand. We shall compare the pragmatic effects generated by
metaphors, metonymies, oxymora, personifications, plays on words, and puns
which help defining the specificity of identity.
Keywords: critical and humourous goal, identity, irony, media discourse, rhetorics, target.
1. Introduction
Nous nous proposons d’investiguer, par cet article, la double référenti89
alité qui construit chaque individu ou entité sociale, ses deux côtés inséparables
qui interagissent et se définissent l’un à travers l’autre : l’identité et le rapport à l’altérité. Nous allons dégager, d’une part, certains éléments spécifiques
d’une population (traits d’identité nationale ou caractérisant l’appartenance à un
groupe) et de l’autre part, des traits reflétés dans le regard d’autrui qui rendent
une entité facilement reconnaissable, voire ce qui ressort du dialogue interculturel.
Dans le contexte d’une communication et d’un échange permanent de
savoir et de culture, tant matérielle que spirituelle, influencé par la mondialisation, chaque individu ou communauté a besoin d’affirmer son identité, de la
faire émerger, construire et négocier dans l’interaction avec l’autre. L’identité
est une conséquence temporaire d’un processus de devenir culturel, sociopolitique et linguistique en transformation continue. Les traits spécifiques d’une nation sont assez homogènes pour créer l’air de famille dont parlait Wittgenstein,
pour être opposables au spécifique d’une autre nation, mais également assez
hétérogènes pour constituer un cumul complexe de données psychiques et comportementales, décelable à un moment donné de l’histoire.
Et quel outil de communication reflète mieux le parcours d’un peuple
et rend compte de l’état de civilisation humaine à un moment donné sinon la
presse satirique, qui a l’avantage, par l’acuité de son observation et le langage
vert employé, de révéler précisément ce qu’il y ait de plus spécifique et de plus
« malade » dans une société ? Nous allons dégager l’image identitaire de trois
pays vus par eux-mêmes (perspective émique) et par les autres (perspective
étique) à travers des moyens rhétoriques dans un corpus hétérogène (extraits
de presse satirique roumaine, française et anglaise). Nous nous intéresserons
aux moyens rhétoriques qui construisent l’acte ironique car, en tant qu’acte de
langage, il est un fait de communication sociale basé sur la satire, qui vise et qui
produit des effets ludiques, de critique douce, de dérision ou même d’agression
cynique, selon la relation qui s’instaure entre émetteur et récepteur.
2. Démarche d’étude et précisions théoriques
Notre analyse s’est proposé de dégager le discours identitaire roumain,
français et anglais reconnaissable par d’autres nationalités à partir de bribes de
presse satirique actuelle, pour mieux comprendre le fonctionnement des mécanismes participant à la communication interculturelle et à la construction de
l’identité d’une nation. Nous avons créé un inventaire de spécificités et valeurs
et de pensée de ces peuples (à travers les propos directs et les actes commentés des représentants-personnalités du pays en question) et restreint cette ana90
lyse identitaire aux expressions rhétoriques. Loin d’être art oratoire savant et
rigoureux comme dans l’Antiquité ou moyen d’embellissement assez artificiel
comme dans la tragédie classique, la rhétorique contemporaine évolue avec
la société et représente une constante de l’acte de dire nuançant l’intention de
communication. Nous allons constater que les figures de style employées en
journalisme ne servent pas à embellir l’expression, mais à la rendue plus expressive, variée, parfois même plus laide pour les raisons humoristiques de la satire.
Ces tournures recherchées – figures de grammaire au sens strict, mais aussi les
figures de style (connotation) et les figures de pensée (contradiction) – s’opèrent
par des métasémèmes (des tropes sémantiques situés à l’intérieur du langage) et
des métalogismes (des opérations logiques modifiant la relation entre signe et
référent de l’extérieur, par rapport au contexte extralinguistique). Il y a plus de
tropes identitaires que l’on ne le pense dans le langage courant, y compris celui
des médias, dont certains sont explicites (jardin à la française / à l’anglaise)
et d’autres sont implicites (la Révolution de velours en Tchécoslovaquie, en
décembre 1989, le Printemps de Prague en 1968, la Révolution du jasmin en
Tunisie, 2011, symbolisant la pureté, la douceur de vivre, la tolérance qui caractériseraient ce pays). Le niveau de langue renferme des informations non seulement sur le thème de l’énoncé, mais également sur l’énonciateur et sur destinataire du message : le lectorat standard, moyen, ni académicien, ni illettré.
Notre interrogation identitaire est fondée sur la prémisse que la figure rhétorique fondatrice de l’écriture satirique, qui s’enrichit par le concours
d’autres figures (métasémèmes et métalogismes), c’est l’ironie. «La presse satirique est un lieu privilégié de manifestation de l’ironie. La plupart des articles
de la presse satirique relèvent du mode discursif ‘événement commenté’ et cela
s’explique par la visée dominante satirique/ corrective de ce type de presse »
(Siminiciuc, 2010), mais il y a aussi des publications satiriques spécialisées
dans le mode discursif « événement rapporté », aux visées informatives ponctuées de l’intrusion humoristique de l’énonciateur.
Chaque pays existe en tant qu’entité unique par la construction identitaire de ses citoyens à travers les siècles. Chaque individu existe aux yeux de
l’autre par parole et actions, auxquelles les autres peuvent avoir accès toujours
à l’aide du discours. Nous nous sommes limités à dégager quelques éléments
identitaires (discours de personnalités, commentaires sur des leaders d’opinion,
ironies contre les tares d’une nation), dont la juxtaposition et l’interaction contribueraient à la peinture de l’atmosphère constatée au moment ou autour de
l’énonciation. Notre corpus – discontinu, mais actuel – sera formé d’extraits
de journaux satiriques de grande circulation qui traitent de l’actualité nationale
et internationale sous deux formes principalement : a) des événements fictifs
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faisant allusion à un sujet d’actualité ou bien des événements fictifs, avec des
personnages fictifs, faisant écho aux problèmes à long terme de la société, que
nous pouvons considérer comme événements commentés (c’est le cas des journaux roumains Caţavencii, Academia Caţavencu, Times New Roman et Kamikaze et des publications anglaises the Lemon Press et the Daily Mash) et b)
des événements réels, parsemés de commentaires humoristiques implicites, qui
seraient les événements rapportés (dans Le Canard enchaîné, Charlie Hebdo et
Private Eye). Le choix du corpus, collecté sur une période courte (2014-2016)
de manière non-systématisée, a été dicté par le critère de la manifestation de
l’identité au niveau des sujets hétérogènes, notre intérêt pour le sujet étant déterminé par la richesse d’exemples trouvés. Quoique nous nous attendions à ce que
l’identité, à savoir les concepts de spécificité, de comportement et de psychologie (« la notion d’identité socio-discursive serait plus sociale qu’individuelle,
car proche dans ses emplois de celles de statut, de rôle, structure et configuration
de traits de personnalité, descriptifs et/ou évaluatifs », selon Chabrol, 2006b :
21) soit présentée sous l’aspect négatif, honteux, critiqué, désapprouvé par le
journaliste érigé en voix d’une nation, les actes de langage constatés se trouvent
plutôt du côté du positif, visant à faire le lectorat prendre conscience, réagir et
corriger et non pas insulter le public. «La presse satirique est un type particulier
de presse par sa visée satirique, corrective des mœurs, des vices d’une société,
de ses institutions, de ses représentants politiques etc.» (Siminiciuc, 2010).
Le discours satirique a une visée pragmatique qui comporte une interprétation inattendue par rapport à l’expression lexicale. L’effet humoristique
est obtenu justement si le destinataire du propos connaît l’événement de départ
et en devine la transformation puisqu’il est au courant aussi avec les informations ajoutées et le contexte extralinguistique d’une telle opération. Le lecteur
se sert alors de la mémoire interdiscursive (concept proposé par Moirand, 2003 :
99) – qui permet « la circulation de formulations ou de constructions syntaxiques qui traversent les communautés langagières et que les médias contribuent
à faire circuler » – et de son bagage cognitif ou les connaissances culturelles et
pragmatiques relatives au contexte-cible (Henry, 2003). La satire opère donc à
un double niveau référentiel et épistémique, visant de manière profonde les défauts humains dignes d’être critiqués : au-delà de l’apparence humoristique, la
« couche » explicite qui étale ces défauts, l’auteur d’un article satirique critique
une certaine typologie humaine, classe sociale etc. Jugée par la tradition rhétorique ancienne comme antiphrase ou simple renversement de sens, l’ironie s’est
vue mettre à sa juste place par la rhétorique moderne, où elle est classée comme
trope en vertu des intentions propres au locuteur d’accomplir un acte particulier
et de produire un effet (correctif dans notre cas). Catherine Kerbrat-Orecchioni
(1980) par exemple considère l’ironie un trope, car elle relève, d’une part, d’une
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opération rhétorique en tant qu’antiphrase exprimant le contraire de ce qui est
pensé et ce du point de vue sémantique et de l’autre part, d’une opération pragmatique en tant qu’elle est une raillerie qui porte sur des valeurs axiologiques.
L’écriture satirique s’attaque aussi bien aux erreurs des autorités, aux
gaffes des célébrités, qu’aux traits génériques de caractère (superficialité,
faiblesse, stupidité, corruption). Il y a un premier niveau de construction de
la satire, qui est essentiellement basé sur le comique et qui semble porter sur un
personnage ou un événement, mais la véritable valeur de ce genre journalistique
est celle sous-entendue, située au deuxième niveau de l’analyse et qui vise, en
réalité, toute une catégorie, le but étant de tirer un signal d’alarme vis-à-vis des
comportements inadéquats et nuisibles à la société. La position énonciative dans
ce type de presse se situe du côté de l’ironie, ayant une double visée communicative : ludique et corrective, ou, comme disait la journaliste américaine Molly
Ivins, « Satire is traditionally the weapon of the powerless against the powerful
». Mais « pour qu’un énoncé ait un caractère ironique, il faut qu’il fasse écho
à l’opinion de l’interlocuteur ou d’un tiers ‘associé à une attitude de moquerie
ou de désapprobation’ » (Sperber & Wilson, 1989 : 360). La compréhension et
l’approbation du message par le lecteur serait donc l’essence de l’effet de connivence qui assure le succès de l’énonciation. Le discours ironique se laisse
décoder à l’aide de plusieurs types de compétences : linguistique, générique
et idéologique. « Le lecteur qui ne réussit pas à saisir l’ironie (la parodie, la
satire) est celui dont l’attente est d’une manière ou d’une autre insuffisante »
(Hutcheon, 1981 : 149-150). L’ironie pourrait être conçue également « comme
un phénomène de mention: l’ironie consiste, pour un locuteur, à faire écho à des
propos qui ont été ou pourraient être tenus par un autre » (Sperber & Wilson,
1978).
La satire, l’humour et l’ironie dans la presse sont des modalités de refléter la vérité socio-historique d’une communauté. Malgré son apparent manque
de sérieux, la presse satirique peut être considérée comme un laboratoire de la
conscience nationale, parce qu’elle sert à décanter ce qu’il y a de plus spécifiquement national dans l’actualité, les goûts, les mentalités d’une communauté. Nous nous proposons d’étudier la question identitaire dans l’espace public
de la presse satirique dans deux perspectives : l’identité nationale d’une part
(l’appartenance à l’esprit général de la Roumanie, de la France, du RoyaumeUni) et celle linguistique d’autre part (certaines stéréotypies propres aux locuteurs de roumain, de français et d’anglais). Soulignons, néanmoins, que
le journalisme satirique est une pratique découlant de la liberté d’expression
comme valeur sociale fondamentale de toute société démocratique. Il n’est pas
surprenant que l’histoire de ce genre de presse soit assez différente dans les
trois communautés langagières soumises à notre analyse, en étroite corrélation
93
avec l’histoire et l’essor de l’identité nationale, qui ont fait que le phénomène
commence lors de la Révolution de 1789 en France, à l’époque victorienne au
Royaume-Uni et dans la deuxième moitié du XIXe siècle en Roumanie, où le régime communiste a censuré l’expression pendant des décennies. D’après Mercurean (2012 : 9), la presse satirique a le rôle d’informer, d’éduquer, de sensibiliser quant aux réalités actuelles, de délecter et surtout d’appuyer la lutte d’une
nation pour acquérir ses libertés et l’unité nationale. Dans cette perspective, la
satire journalistique a suivi le cours de l’histoire, avec son spécifique respectif
: du berceau d’une démocratie moderne jusqu’aujourd’hui, où les défis sont la
sécurité nationale, le niveau de vie.
Le mode satirique est un processus communicationnel mettant en jeu
trois actants : la cible, le satiriste et le destinataire. Pour saisir correctement
l’intention du satiriste, le destinataire puise dans sa compétence encyclopédique
l’ensemble des connaissances nécessaires à son décryptage. Patrick Charaudeau
(2011) définit l’ironie comme « un acte d’énonciation qui produit une dissociation entre ce qui est dit et ce qui est pensé, cette dissociation étant voulue par le
sujet parlant ». L’auteur en établit ensuite les lignes directrices : au niveau de la
visée pragmatique de l’ironie, nous retenons la raillerie et le sarcasme, ainsi que
« la volonté ‘pédagogique’ de ‘donner une leçon’ » ; Au niveau énonciatif, il y a
la « coexistence d’un sens explicite et d’un sens implicite », alors qu’au niveau
communicationnel, l’ironie suppose l’existence d’une cible, la présence d’un
public et la violation des maximes conversationnelles.
« La vision décalée du monde que nous propose l’acte humoristique, en
mettant à mal des normes de perception, se veut non sérieuse, du moins dans le
paraître. Le sérieux n’est pas dans la nature des choses, il est un jugement porté
sur ce qui se produit dans le monde, que cela procède du comportement des individus ou des événements eux-mêmes. Ce jugement dépend des représentations
qu’ont les individus sur ce qui est conforme à une certaine raison, du point de
vue des connaissances ou des croyances. » (Charaudeau, 2011)
3. L’identité nationale à travers la rhétorique journalistique
Nous allons traiter les trois sous-chapitres suivants du point de vue émique, c’est-à-dire notre brève étude sémantico-discursive va rendre compte de
quelques phénomènes identitaires nationales et comportements individuels dans
une perspective basée spécifiquement sur la manière de penser et des caractéristiques des populations/personnes étudiées, donc de l’intérieur du phénomène.
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3.1 L’identité roumaine
Comment les Roumains se voient-ils eux-mêmes ? La publication Times
New Roman titre, comme allusion à la loi récente interdisant de fumer dans les locaux publics : Alte 12 vicii în afară de fumat care ar trebui interzise în România.
Malgré les insinuations implicites désagréables à l’adresse des Roumains, la
liste reste transparente au niveau pragmatique et crée de l’humour ironisant les
habitudes constatées fréquemment chez notre population, qui soit dérangent les
autres membres de la communauté (« să umbli nespălat prin mijloace de transport în comun » ; « grătarul făcut în balcon » ; « folosirea bormaşinii la discreţie
»), soit indiquent une mentalité figée dans le passé (« votatul pentru PSD ») ou
bien trahissent la vulgarité (« crucile şi icoanele la retrovizoare »), le pédantisme (« sfaturile de slăbit şi viaţă sănătoasă »), l’antipathie contre un autre sousgroupe de Roumains (« buzoienii ») ou ceux qui suivent la mode aveuglement
et avec ostentation, par snobisme (« stilul de viaţă raw-vegan »).
L’ironie est fréquemment utilisée dans Times New Roman, publication
spécialisée en annonces fictives des actualités réinterprétées, visant le caractère
national par généralisations: un Roumain, les Roumains ou simulacres d’autorité, tel Decebal Popescu, savant, personnage cité pour argumenter avec humour
des assertions pseudo-scientifiques. « Parce qu’il n’y a d’identité que fictive,
imaginaire, certaines dénominations » (Roumain, Français, migrant) « qui
construisent le soi et l’autre sont fortement soumises au perpétuel décalage désignatif » variant avec le référent. « Parce que l’identité est une affaire, avant tout,
discursive, elle ne peut échapper ni aux leurres (effet de réalité, de référentialité)
du discours ni à son hétérogénéité constitutive » (Bolon Pedretti, 1998 : 179).
La fiche identitaire des Roumains, dans la vision des journalistes de
Times New Roman, indiquerait qu’ils sont sales, ignorants (« Pentru că românii
se simţeau stingheri, la Therme Bucureşti s-au adus alge, chiştoace şi meduze
»), paresseux (selon la litote « Oficial, munca încă nu este interzisă »), innovateurs par paresse (« Ingenios. Un român a pus anunţ pe poartă Vând ţurţuri
şi peste noapte i s-au furat toţi »), exhibitionnistes (« Un român s-a întors
la Gaudeamus, a uitat să dea Check In pe Facebook »), corrompus, fraudeurs
(« PSD salută alegerile într-un singur tur: Câştigăm lejer, nu mai trebuie să le
fraudăm »), maîtres du faire-semblant (« Religia, obligatorie şi în biserici ») et
porteurs de nombre d’autres tares (« Ferocitatea cu care PNL anunță noi și noi
candidați pentru primăria Capitalei a băgat spaima în bucureșteni. Candidații lor
de până acum au bifat cam toate categoriile umane – pămpălău, șpăgar, bețiv,
anost, legionar, creaționist, habotnic. În afara de onest și competent, n-au ratat
nimic! »).
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L’ironie est à l’honneur aussi dans Kamikaze, qui lance dans l’article
métaphorique Viermii intestinali ai Simonei Halep une attaque à l’adresse des
personnes médiocres profitant de la renommée de la joueuse de tennis pour
critiquer ses échecs. Ces détracteurs sont comparés aux vers qui se nourrissent
de l’énergie de la sportive (« Mediocri care au performanţe doar la halbere şi
coniac-canoe » – jeu de mots entre l’isotopie de l’apparence sport, avec allusion
aux haltères et au canoë et l’isotopie de la réalité, la basse identité de ces individus). Le journal satirique Caţavencii n’épargne, lui non plus, les accumulations
(À propos d’un film : Plictiseala agonizantă care se întinde preț de două ore ar
scoate din răbdări și un ardelean Shaolin cu doctorat în autism), l’insinuation
(« e atât de prost încât are şanse reale la Oscar ») et le paradoxe (« Un profesor
şi-ar fi obligat elevii să înveţe ») parodiant les actualités avec effet de surprise,
qui devrait être la normalité.
L’identité individuelle ressort d’une manière humoristique tout aussi réussie dans la publication Academia Caţavencu, avec parfois des accents sarcastiques. Le titre Prinţul Paul, internat la Viena, pentru că spitalele româneşti
nu au rezerve de sânge albastru s’organise autour d’une syllepse, qui opère
une condensation sémantique selon le principe de monosémémisation des unités
lexicales actualisées, le signifiant unique « sânge » ayant deux valeurs à la fois:
sur le sens dénoté « liquide corporel » imposé par le cotexte étroit (admission à
l’hôpital, réserves de sang) vient se greffer, en vertu du cotexte global et de la
connotation « noblesse », la valeur de « personne noble ».
3.2 L’identité française
La spécialité du Canard enchaîné sont les jeux de mots parsemés dans
les enquêtes menées par les journalistes – une approche humoristique des sujets sérieux. Le discours identitaire du peuple et des personnalités françaises se
construit par des figures rhétoriques traversées par l’ironie : des hyperboles
(« Sarko maîtrise tout, et même au-delà » – la démagogie est tournée en dérision), allusions à des symboles nationaux, à la musique populaire et à la littérature classique, procédé portant sur l’intertextualité (« Elle hésite – choix
cornélien » ; « La France à nouveau divisée et sur un sujet autrement grave
que les retraites ou la décentralization : Johnny ou Eddy ? Hallyday ou Mitchell ? »; « Cabu décoré par l’Élysée ! Cabu célébré par l’armée ! Cabu chanté
par Johnny ! Hommages ! ô désespoir ! » – hyperbole au sujet d’un humoriste
français rempli d’éloges et jeu de mots paronymique avec la fameuse tirade de
Corneille), des syllepses (« Défilés militaires et feux d’artifice du 14-Juillet.
À l’UMP, il y a longtemps qu’on a sorti les pétards. Dérèglements de comptes
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» – le mot « pétards » articule la signification au sens propre, de pièce d’artifice
qui éclate avec bruit, activé par le contexte de la Fête nationale, ainsi qu’au sens
figuré (« scandale » en argot, activé par le contexte financier précaire), alors
que dérèglements de comptes est un jeu de mots avec règlement de comptes,
qui signifie faire justice soi-même, mais la négation insinue le manque de capital à la trésorerie du parti ; « La sécheresse frappe aussi Bercy : les fontaines
d’eau fraîche installées dans les couloirs de Bercy sont à sec. Faute de crédits,
les factures du fournisseur n’ont pas été réglées en pleine vague de chaleur
» – « sècheresse » fonctionne simultanément au sens propre manque d’eau et
au sens figuré manque d’argent), des métonymies (« Le quai d’Orsay » – le
ministère des Affaires étrangères), des métaphores (« François Fillon est un
chat qui guette sa proie » ; « le Conseil des sages » – le Conseil supérieur de
l’audiovisuel, qui veille au respect des valeurs fondamentales de la République
et défend la langue et la culture françaises passées à la radio et à la télévision
; « Le budget du logement a été littéralement passé à la tronçonneuse », avec
allusion à la guillotine des temps de la Révolution française) ; des symboles
(« La France éternelle telle qu’on la vend : champagne, poularde demi-deuil et
french kisses »), du sarcasme à l’adresse de la classe politique démagogue («
Les signes de reprise évoqués par les socialistes relèvent de la pensée magique
» ; « Le Président Hollande vient d’annoncer que le temps de la redistribution
était arrivé. Problème : il n’a pas les moyens de sa générosité » – transposition
d’une promesse et d’une solution à échelle nationale, publique dans la réalité
d’un problème personnel), ellipses, ambiguïté référentielle (« Le mariage pour
tous » c’est « décriminaliser les unions entre homosexuels ») et des jeux de mots
(des Ponts mal chaussés : le siège même des ingénieurs des Ponts et Chaussées,
baptisé Bienvenüe et inauguré trois ans auparavant, a été construit de travers).
3.3 L’identité anglaise
Les extraits du journal britannique The Daily Mash marquent d’ironie
certaines frustrations nationales vis-à-vis des affaires internes et de la place du
pays au sein de l’Union européenne, en les attribuant au premier-ministre, qui
est cible-victime du sarcasme dans nombre d’articles (« David Cameron secures
leftover sandwiches from EU meetings for the British public to enjoy. Our total
lack of progress on benefits and sovereignty is more than compensated for by
our resounding success with sandwiches » ; « Prime Minister David Cameron
has announced business-friendly changes to UK employment laws including
the reintroduction of slavery. That’s it, we’re all moving to Luxembourg » –
symbole des paradis fiscaux). Outre David Cameron, The Daily Mash tourne en
dérision le discours identitaire d’autres personnalités (« Putin’s guide to selfies
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to look like a Greek god » ; « Prince William : I talk to Kate all the time about
clothes and TV shows and my feelings ») ou celui de la population, comme un
écho hyperbolique d’humour noir à la guerre annoncée par la France contre les
islamistes radicaux ou à l’obsession des cinéastes américains pour une guerre
destructrice de l’humanité (« Cheering crowds packed the streets of Britain
as the nation finally got the war it has wanted for so very long. Army recruitment centres have been inundated as tens of thousands abandon their dull lives
»). The Daily Mash suggère la compétition interne des régions britanniques («
Snowfall in unimportant 70% of country may hit London, the part of Britain
that matter » ; « Middle class English people acting a bit Scottish »).
The Lemon Press fait de l’auto-ironie identitaire à l’égard des statistiques
bizarres et des études plus ou moins excentriques entreprises dans les centres de
recherche anglo-saxons, parodiant la rhétorique scientifique des communiqués
en la matière, opaques pour les citoyens ordinaires (« The service used to apply for University courses has reported that women are 35% more likely to go
to University than men. In fact, the most likely people to go to University are
women, Londoners, the affluent, and those of the non-white ethnic group. Poor
white males should now be the focus of outreach efforts »). L’argumentation est
construite sur l’antiphrase, mais la déduction inverse des statistiques ne mène
pas à une réalité concevable. Le but humoristique est atteint justement en vertu
de la connivence ludique. Cet exemple montre les similarités des Anglais et
des Roumains : ils trouvent difficilement du plaisir dans le travail (« Discovery
of a new type of human, named the Unemployed. Homo benefitthiefus » – la
métaphore désigne un voleur profitant d’aides sociales) et leurs politiciens sont
démagogues (« A leader who says things that he sincerely means »; « The electorate is stupid »).
4. Conflit identitaire à travers la rhétorique journalistique
Dans ces trois sous-sections suivantes, nous allons analyser la même catégorie d’éléments identitaires, mais qui se révèlent à travers le dialogue interculturel, témoin verbal de l’interaction avec une autre culture et qui fait ressortir
ses propres spécificités, par contraste. Celle-ci est donc une perspective étique,
extérieure aux phénomènes décrits par la rhétorique dans la presse satirique.
Les informations qui nous intéressent pour cette étude sont tant des commentaires malicieux à l’égard des paroles/actions réelles des personnages réels,
que des propos fictifs attribuées à des personnes publiques réelles ou bien à des
personnages fictifs, symboliques pour leur nation, comme dans une sorte d’écho
aux Lettres persanes permettant à Montesquieu, au XVIIIe siècle, de critiquer
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la société française sous la protection de l’anonymat, sans risquer la censure.
4.1 Conflit identitaire dans la presse satirique roumaine
Illustrons la caractérisation identitaire d’un peuple un d’un individu vu
par le regard d’une autre culture avec quelques extraits de Times New Roman.
L’esprit roumain et hongrois se mettent en lumière réciproquement par l’expression des animosités historiques et du nationalisme qui a toujours eu ses adeptes
enflammés des deux côtés. Ce thème inspirant incessamment les humoristes, qui
prêtent la haine contre les voisins à la voix des personnalités (« Orice, numai nu
maghiară! Emil Boc a pus la intrarea în Cluj plăcuțe în elfă, na’vi și klingoniană.
Emil Boc neagă că ar fi șovin. E complet deplasat să spui așa ceva despre mine.
Bou, da, e posibil să fiu, dar șovin, în nici un caz ») ou des citoyens ordinaires («
Şmecher! Un primar maghiar din Covasna a vopsit steagul secuiesc pe ţurţuri,
ca să vină românii să-i dea jos ») – ces deux extraits imaginent des actions
rusées, extrêmes, ridicules, dites entreprises par les autorités soit pour exclure
les ennemis hongrois de la vie sociale roumaine, soit pour mettre les ennemis
roumains au travail au bénéfice de la communauté hongroise, à leur insu.
Un sujet d’actualité délicat comme l’est la crise des migrants ne saurait être traité que par la dissimulation du sarcasme derrière une parabole faite
d’actions fictives et des personnages vagues : România explică de ce nu poate
primi refugiaţi : « Avem deja mii de angajaţi TVR care nu fac nimic! Sunt imposibil de integrat în societate, nu-şi pot găsi de lucru, dar au nevoie de adăpost,
alimente, haine şi posturi bine plătite – ţara noastră săracă pur şi simplu nu ar
putea suporta şi TVR-ul, şi sirienii ». Emisarii Germaniei şi Franţei şi-au cerut
scuze şi au întrebat dacă ne pot ajuta cu ceva. Ce fragment d’article combinant
le discours direct et le discours indirect pour dissiper la prise de responsabilité
emploie la comparaison entre la crise financière et de qualité humaine au sein
de la télévision publique roumaine (glissant un commentaire sarcastique quant
à la fainéance de ses employés) et le phénomène migratoire au niveau européen
(avec l’ironie contre la générosité idéaliste, sans bases solides de la chancelière allemande Angela Merkel). Le journaliste recourt à un métalogisme par
adjonction de sèmes, hyperbolisant le problème de la télévision au niveau de
la crise humanitaire qui inquiète un continent tout entier. Un autre numéro du
journal fait alterner le discours direct et celui indirect pour attirer le lecteur dans
un scénario imaginé saugrenu, une allégorie qui insinue que toutes les nations
environnantes considérées civilisées (Allemands, Hongrois, Autrichiens) sont
prêtes à prendre une fausse identité (celle roumaine) – implicitement si indésirable, que la perspective de s’y trouver ferait peur même aux migrants, les
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déterminant ainsi de quitter le territoire qu’ils prennent pour « roumain » : Josnic! Ca să alunge refugiaţii, Germania a ridicat la graniţă un panou cu « Bun
venit în România! » Ungurii şi austriecii consideră că, deşi ingenioasă, tactica
nemţilor e destul de laşă. « Noi acum drept cine ne mai putem da? », s-au plâns
reprezentanţii celor două ţări aflate pe traseul refugiaţilor sirieni.
Dans un autre article (Institutul SETI din America a recepţionat primul
mesaj venit din Cosmos, de la o civilizaţie extraterestră. Mesajul e foarte simplu: NU PRIMIM REFUGIAŢI, scris cu Caps Lock în toate limbile Pământului.
Extratereştrii au început deja să ridice un gard intergalactic, care va separa
Calea Lactee de galaxia lor şi au început să controleze toate navele spaţiale
care tranzitează Sistemul Solar. « Extratereştrii vor să ne impună cote de
refugiaţi, altfel ne dau cu o cometă în cap », spune Jeremy R, angajat NASA.
Extratereștrii au atras atenția omenirii că pe lângă arabi, afgani sau pakistanezi nu vor nici români sau bulgari, însă n-au spus precis de ce, argumentând
doar că e vorba de o ‘decizie politică’ și că o eventuală clarificare a situației
acestor categorii inferioare de oameni urmează să fie făcută într-un termen
încă neprecizat.), l’hyperbole (nu produc absolut nimic ; imposibil de integrat
în societate) est utilisée aux côtés des métaphores (extraterrestres qui disposent
à leur bon gré pour Allemagne, cometă pour sancţiune), des métonymies du
type « tout pour la partie » (pământenii, românii), des personnifications (les
extraterrestres connaissent le langage humain) et des allusions identitaires croisées (les Hongrois ont bâti une muraille pour empêcher les refugiés de passer
leurs frontières, les Roumains et les Bulgares sont considérés, implicitement, la
honte de l’Europe, les arabes etc. sont une masse amorphe d’infortunés du sort,
les Américains sont une source crédible concernant les sciences de l’espace)
pour élever le problème des migrants au niveau extraterrestre, au nom duquel
le journaliste se permet d’affirmer tout ce qu’il veut, faute de contre-arguments
et prenant pour levier l’autorité de l’Agence Spatiale américaine, qu’il cite de
manière fictive. Le conflit identitaire et interculturel relève une fois de plus l’identité nationale par contraste et parodie certaines dissensions actuelles : Vaslui! Sloganul
turistic « Aici îți bați copiii și nu riști nimic » a atras mii de turiști norvegieni
pentru minunile vieţii tradiţionale din regiune. « E adevărat! Aici chiar poţi
să-i dai celui mic o scatoalcă şi nimeni nu va încerca să te civilizeze », spune
Ragnar Decebalsson, sculer-matriţer din Oslo. ‘Exact cum era la noi acum o
mie de ani, pe vremea vikingilor. Am aterizat de trei ore şi l-am tras deja pe
fi-miu de urechi în plină stradă. Nimeni n-a schiţat un gest! Dacă asta se poate
numi stradă, bineînţeles ». « Nu credeam că o să văd un tărâm atât de bogat în
obiceiuri străvechi. Ştiaţi că vasluienii au 174 de cuvinte pentru ‘altoit copilul’?
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Noi n-avem atâtea cuvinte pentru ‘bogăţie’ şi ‘fond de pensii de 700 de miliarde
de euro’ », a adăugat Jolf Onufriengar, un alt turist scandinav. Cet exemple
singe le style syntaxico-éconciatif des émissions informatives, qui, elles, font
appel aux éléments d’oralité spécifiques au médium pour rendre le message
moins formel qu’un article de presse écrit sur le même sujet. L’écart identitaire
entre Norvégiens riches, civilisés et même trop exagérés vis-à-vis de la violence
contre les enfants et Roumains habitant un espace-temps ancestral, rustique et
barbare est hyperbolisé. Une flèche acide est également jetée à l’adresse des
habitants de la zone moldave, qui incarnent le mieux l’image de la pauvreté et
de la violence domestique.
Le conflit identitaire est reflété aussi, par parodie du discours des personnalités et par allusion aux faits historiques récents, le caractère faible des
Roumains et Moldaves voleurs et mendiants labiles, comparé à la dureté russe :
Kremlinul se dă bătut. Ţigănia politică de la Chişinău e dovada că moldovenii
sunt fraţii noştri. Românitatea fraților noștri de peste Prut nu mai poate fi pusă
la îndoială. Au avut 5 propuneri de premier într-o săptămână. Se ceartă dacă
să pună premier un hoț sau un trădător. Dacă erau ruși, președintele Timofti era
deja secerat cu Kalashnikovul în stradă. E clar că sunt români, numai românii
fac asemenea mizerii. Moldovenii tot pașapoarte românești și-au făcut, ca să
poată să meargă la furat sau la cerșit în Germania și Suedia. Descoperirea
făcută de ruși schimbă toată strategia acestora în Moldova: « Nu-i mai anexăm
pe românii ăștia de moldoveni, că poate ne contaminăm și noi de românism și
ajungem slabi, ca ei. Mai bine să se unească cu România, să-și combine sărăcia
și prostia! », explică Vladimir Putin.
Le discours identitaire roumain se négocie vis-à-vis d’autres cultures,
que ce soit l’identité individuelle (allusion à l’affaire judiciaire des forêts, aux
pratiques de la Révolution française et aux paroles métaphoriques des figures
historiques – Louis XIV avec son L’État, c’est moi et Marie-Antoinette avec
Qu’ils mangent de la brioche – auxquelles semblent se comparer certains nobles
roumains : « Prinţul Paul, judecat ca o alteţă regală. La DNA Braşov s-a adus
o ghilotină. Prinţesa Lia i-a anunţat pe români că, dacă nu au bani de pâine şi
păduri, să mănânce cozonac și să-și ia brad de plastic. Acesta a mai explicat că
nu a furat nimic, el fiind figură regală toată țara i se cuvine. ») ou de l’identité
nationale (Ambasada Japoniei, dată afară pentru a treia oară din sediu pentru
că avea bulină roşie. Reprezentanţii municipalităţii au declarat că « nicăieri nu
sunt prevăzute excepţii » şi că « nu glumim cu siguranţa publică ». « Sunt obosit
şi dezamăgit », se plânge Daihatsu Miyagi, ambasadorul Japoniei la Bucureşti,
« Într-o zi o să-i scriu Împăratului să schimbe naibii steagul, că cu românii nu te
poţi înţelege. » – le contraste est visible entre les Roumains irréalistes, bureau101
crates, inflexibles (et fiers de l’être) au nom d’un faux objectif de sécurité et les
Japonais soumis, calmes et polis qui observent les règles en place.
Un journaliste du Kamikaze décrit un échange avec un Burkinabé qui
témoigne du dialogue interculturel ou de son absence autour de quelques éléments identitaires : l’ignorance de l’étranger, les clichés erronés (les Roumains
sont tous des « Gipsy » et beaucoup mendient à Paris, la Transylvanie est le pays
de Dracula, la capitale de la Roumanie est Budapest) et le mystère de l’altérité
(pourquoi le premier ministre roumain a démissionné suite à l’incendie du club,
alors que François Hollande n’a pas quitté sa fonction après Charlie Hebdo et
les attentats du 13 novembre à Paris), qui rapproche les cultures. Le langage
métaphorique y est présent par une série d’expressions courantes de nos jours :
îl ascultam şi nu procesam nimic ; încă mai compilam informatia ; cerşetorii
români bântuie Parisul.
La palette rhétorique employée dans la presse satirique roumaine pour
qualifier le discours interculturel et la manière dont les journalistes roumains
apprécient les réalités étrangères comprend, toujours en association avec l’ironie ou le sarcasme, des paradoxes (« Culmea e că femeile frumoase nu pot fi
complexate decât de urâtele fermecătoare » ; « Producătorii alimentari se laudă
că au început să-şi facă produsele comestibile »), comparaisons (« Semăna cu o
cămilă »), litotes (« Fără să-l audă prea mulţi »), personnifications (« Moldova
şi-a pierdut bourii, dropiile şi fetele frumoase. Istoria i-a furat darurile naturale
»), métaphores (« Castelul Hearst, perla alcoolică a Californiei »), hyperboles
(« Morman de dolari pe care nu-i putea opri să-i intre în buzunare »), euphémisme (« medicament » pour « bouteille d’alcool »), épithète (« trubadur »).
4.2 Conflit identitaire dans la presse satirique française
Les articles parus dans Le Canard enchaîné font souvent appel aux références culturelles internationales pour faire le pendant des questions nationales,
à travers des métaphores, celles-ci étant motivées par l’écart (Le Guern 1973
: 66) entre les attentes du lecteur et l’expression produite par l’énonciateur, qui
crée un effet de surprise pour le premier (« Des militaires venus de 25 pays en
Irak : cette tour de Babel militaire » ; « La montée au Golgotha de Luc Ferry
est aussi budgétaire » ; « Paul Bremer, le grand manitou américain de Bagdad
» ; « La Géorgie est au cœur d’une guerre froide économique avec la Russie »
; « Edouard Chevardnadze, le renard blanc du Caucase »),des syllepses (« Le
grand froid de Varsovie » a à la fois un sens propre et un sens figuré : « température basse » et « accueil réservé de la part des autorités polonaises »), des jeux
de mots reposant sur l’homophonie (les dirigeants de la Géorgie – dissidents
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de sagesse qui ont surtout eu le mérite de rompre à temps avec un des derniers
brontosaures métaphoriques de l’ère communiste ; le premier-ministre français
récemment nommé Manuel Valls [v a l s] a besoin d’un Manuel de survie en
politique, mais il mène la valse [v a l s], voire c’est lui qui dirige dorénavant les
jeux politiques). Certains leaders politiques sont désignés dans la presse satirique française par leur surnom très familier : Sarko pour Nicolas Sarkozy, Ségo
pour Ségolène Royal, Gorby pour Mikhaïl Gorbatchev.
Par le même jeu du dialogue interculturel, Le Canard enchaîné fait ressortir des traits identitaires d’autres nations, comme l’absence flagrante d’égalité
entre les sexes en Iran, incriminée par une antiphrase (Fin de l’embargo. L’Iran
commande 114 Airbus. 57 pour les hommes, 57 pour les femmes) faisant écho
ironique à la démocratie française si vantée. L’interrogation rhétorique To be or
not Taubira fait allusion phonique au jeu de mots du To be or not to be shakespearien, quelques jours avant la démission annoncée par la ministre de la Justice Christiane Taubira. Catherine Kerbrat-Orecchioni juge que les jeux de mots
exploitent la connivence ludique entre émetteur et lecteur de presse : « si les
jeux de mots ont un caractère ‘subversif’ c’est essentiellement par rapport aux
règles linguistiques […] et c’est cette transgression des règles de la sémantique
discursive qui est censée procurer aux interlocuteurs un certain plaisir partagé »
(2011 : 119). Un titre elliptique comme À George W. Bush, le djihad reconnaissant réussit pourtant à transmettre bien d’informations identitaires sur le conflit
entre américains et musulmanes extrémistes. Le sarcasme des journalistes se
déferle contre l’absence de mesure prise suite aux attentats à Paris, masquée par
le discours politique vide (« Jusqu’où ira l’état d’urgence? Hollande: Rasons le
Père Noël et interdisons la poupée Barbue ») parodié par allusion aux symboles
transculturels sans rapport avec la crise terroriste, qui fonctionne grâce à l’isotopie de la barbe, apanage des terroristes, sous-entendue ou indiquée par paronymie dans les deux exemples innocents. Catherine Kerbrat-Orecchioni (2011 :
119) juge que les jeux de mots exploitent la connivence ludique entre émetteur
et lecteur de presse : « cette transgression des règles de la sémantique discursive
est censée procurer aux interlocuteurs un certain plaisir partagé ». L’identité par
contraste est révélée dans Charlie Hebdo à travers des métaphores (« Le harcèlement sexuel est une plaie quotidienne pour les femmes du monde arabe » ;
« La femme égyptienne est une ligne rouge à ne pas franchir » ; « Lutter contre
ce fléau »), des métonymies (« Solides têtes frondeuses ») et des insinuations
(« Tous veulent les femmes à leur place : l›église, la cuisine et le berceau » ; Le
discours stigmatisant sur « les musulmans » qui aboutira nécessairement à des
pogroms antibronzés rappelle de pages noires de l’histoire).
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4.3 Conflit identitaire dans la presse satirique anglaise
Le journal britannique de satire The Lemon Press s’attaque aux marques,
valeurs et symboles faisant la fierté d’autres nations (Volkswagen et la qualité
pour les Allemands, le cycliste Lance Armstrong et la performance pour les
Américains ; même les neutres Suisses apparaissent tout aussi antipathiques
que les Israéliens, qui font, eux, l’objet de blagues attestées) pour les tourner en
dérision à travers un article plein d’hyperboles et paradoxes : comment pourrait donc cette voiture de manufacturation menteuse et ancienne passer pour le
modèle auto du moment et être vendue uniquement pour la bonne réputation
de sa marque ? Cela prouve au moins le succès du discours identitaire : « Car
review. The new Deceit model is surely Volkswagen’s finest moment. A new advert shows the car with the looks of a Ferrari, and the environmental credentials
of a vegetarian’s fart. Underneath the impressive façade, lies the engine, chassis,
emissions and interior of a 1973 Robin Reliant. Pathological liar, sociopath, and
proud new owner, Lance Armstrong : I never thought a car could be so perfect!
I’ve spent all my life lying while on a sodding push bike! If I’d known I could
drive a car this dishonest I never would have bothered. The Volkswagen CEO
originally ordered that the car should be installed with a GPS that tells antiSemitic jokes, and burn and maim both passengers and innocent pedestrians,
especially the Swiss. Volkswagen: manufactured in Germany, with American
values. »
La publication The Daily Mash met un bémol aux événements tragiques
présentés et fait jouer dans l’intertextualité l’isotopie innocente des dessins animés et du film Star Wars à côté de l’isotopie du terrorisme réel (« Mickey Mouse
has delivered a stark warning to terrorists, following the arrest of a gunman
at the Magic Kingdom. Flanked by two Imperial Stormtroopers, he said: Any
invasion of any realm of my empire will be met with a kick up the arse so hard
it would wake Osama Bin Laden from his CIA cloning chamber »), alors que
Private Eye emploie une série de figures pour illustrer son discours identitaire
(la métonymie « Old hands at Buckingham Palace » pour un ancien employé
du palais, la métaphore « the Patron » et le diminutif familier « Granny » pour
la Reine, l’allusion historique « The Queen faces the prospect of a Marie Antoinette moment as she sits in a specially constructed royal box looking down on
her subjects tucking into their sandwiches » et le jeu de mots « Putin-on-Thames
», indiquant l’influence reconnue de la kleptocratie du président Poutine (« Dirty Russian money and property here in London »).
Pour conclure, nous constatons que le discours satirique fait usage de «
‘litote’» pour interpréter le procédé énonciatif ‘ironique’ où l’on suppose que le
locuteur veut dire bien plus qu’il ne dit ou d’’hyperbole’ pour le procédé ‘sar104
castique’, quand il dit bien plus qu’il ne voulait dire. (Chabrol 2006a : 10). La
variété et la complexité des procédés tant sémantiques que logiques présentées
dans notre étude nous ont permis de démontrer le rôle du langage figuratif dans
la presse satirique ayant pour cible l’espace privé, avec des aspects de la vie
quotidienne, ainsi que l’espace public, des personnalités individuelles connues
au monde entier et des personnages collectifs tels les peuples. La visée communicative sous-jacente à la presse satirique est, nous le confirmons, la visée
corrective. Dans les trois contextes culturels, l’on constate une certaine liberté
thématique avec une prédominance des thèmes relatifs aux pratiques sociales
relevant de la sphère publique, alors que les valeurs semblent être similaires.
La cible dans extraits des trois langues est toujours construite comme un autre, un adversaire que l’on stigmatise à travers des traits identitaires : l’autorité
démagogue, le pouvoir corrompu, la population déboussolée et superficielle, les
terroristes menaçants, la pauvreté, le manque d’éducation.
5. Conclusions
L’ironie est le fil rouge de la presse satirique, une modalité d’organisation
du discours linguistique qui nous intéresse en tant que révélateur implicite du
spécifique identitaire et du dialogue interculturel, malgré la façon propre à
chaque communauté de concevoir la réalité. Ce que nous avons dégagé par cette étude de l’ironie, c’est l’écart voulu entre ce qui est dit explicitement et ce
qui est transmis et compris effectivement à l’aide du contexte extralinguistique,
écart appelé par Grice (1979 : 59) implicitation (implicature en anglais), notion
qui correspond à l’exploitation – lire : à la transgression – de l’une des maximes
(de quantité, de qualité, de relation et de manière), qui, observées, assurent le
succès de la communication.
Nous avons regardé l’ironie comme phénomène polyphonique au sens
des théories énonciatives modernes et comme effet de raillerie produit par la
concours de plusieurs autres figures linguistiques (métasémèmes) et discoursives (métalogismes). L’ironie comme marqueur conversationnel de l’identité et
de l’altérité se manifeste tant au niveau microstructurel (dans les jeux de mots),
qu’au niveau macrostructurel (dans la parodie).
Notre analyse portant sur les extraits de presse satirique de langue
roumaine, française et anglaise a pu valider les suggestions théoriques et méthodologiques indiquées en début d’article et nous a permis de constater des
éléments de convergence au niveau du contenu qui assurent la cohérence culturelle (la critique des comportements des élus, tels la corruption et l’absence
de fermeté diplomatique ou bien des tares d’une population, telles la fainé105
ance, la vulgarité, la stupidité…) et de l’expression (la technique discursive de
l’ironie et des figures telles la métaphore, la métonymie, l’antiphrase, les jeux de
mots), mais aussi des différences entre les visées culturelles et la dynamique de
l’identité d’une nation en métamorphose permanente dans l’espace réel, décanté
dans l’espace virtuel des publications satiriques. La presse satirique roumaine
a des enjeux différents par rapport à ceux occidentales pour la raison que notre
pays se confronte à d’autres soucis sociaux que l’immigration massive et le
terrorisme à grande échelle. Les journalistes satiriques publient des pamphlets
caricaturant les problèmes dans un registre mineur : ils visent, par exemple, les
autorités qui ne mettent pas en place (à temps) le processus de déneigement,
les réseaux de politiciens corrompus qui organisent du tourisme électoral, les
imposteurs académiques qui réussissent à écrire plusieurs ouvrages ainsi-dits
« scientifiques » dans juste quelques mois en prison, prouesse qui leur garantit,
selon la loi, des mois de liberté gagnés.
Le but ultime de la presse satirique est l’effet humoristique, obtenu
autant que la connivence ludique fonctionne entre le journaliste et le lecteur,
c’est-à-dire autant que les deux connaissent l’écart entre les faits présentés et la
réalité, entre les signes fictifs souvent exagérés et les référents, avec leurs connotations justifiant le passage au niveau des tropes par suppression ou ajout de
sèmes. L’ironie sert à réduire la tension et le dramatisme des sujets sensibles,
à relativiser les circonstances pour permettre au lecteur d’avoir un regard plus
équilibré sur les faits présentés et, dans le cas de la presse satirique, de tirer des
leçons à partir des tares ridiculisées. L’ironie est une technique discursive prévisible pour le destinataire qui sait qu’il a sous les yeux une publication déclarée
satirique, par conséquent il est parfaitement en mesure de décoder le message et
ses significations sous-jacentes.
Sources
Academia Caţavencu, Caţavencii, Kamikaze, Times New Roman, Charlie Hebdo, Le Canard enchaîné, Private Eye, The Daily Mash, The Lemon Press
(2014 - 2016)
Références
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Chabrol, C. (2006a). « Humour et médias », in Questions de communication no
106
10/2006 Humour et medias. Définition, genres et cultures, Claude Chabrol (éditeur), 7-17.
Chabrol, C. (2006b). « ‘Identités’ sociales et discursives », in Questions
de communication no 10/2006 Humour et medias. Définition, genres et
cultures, sous la direction de Claude Chabrol, 15-27.
Charaudeau, P. (2011). « Des catégories pour l’humour. Précisions, rectifications, compléments », patrick-charaudeau.com/Des-categories-pour-l-humour,274.html.
Grice, P. (1979). « Logique et conversation », in Communications, 30, p. 5772, traduction de « Logic and Conversation », Syntax and Semantics, vol.
III, Speech Acts, éd. par P. Cole et J. L. Morgan, Academic Press, Inc.,
1975, 41-58.
Henry, J. (2003). La traduction des jeux de mots, Paris, Presses Sorbonne Nouvelle.
Hutcheon, L. (1981). « Ironie, satire, parodie. Une approche pragmatique de
l’ironie », Poétique no 46, 140-155.
Le Guern, M. (1973). Sémantique de la métaphore et de la métonymie, Paris,
Larousse.
Kerbrat-Orecchioni, C. (1980). « L’ironie comme trope », Poétique n°41, 108127.
Kerbrat-Orecchioni, C. (2011). « De la connivence ludique à la connivence critique : jeux de mots et ironie dans les titres de Libération », in Maria Dolores Vivero Garcia (éditeur), Humour et crises sociales. Regards croisés
France-Espagne, Paris, L’Harmattan, 117-150.
Mercurean, C.-M. (2012). Revista satirică Gura satului şi ilustraţiile sale (résumé de la thèse de doctorat, 1-19), Alba Iulia, Presses de l’Université «1
Decembrie 1918».
Moirand, S. (2003). « Les lieux d’inscription d’une mémoire interdiscursive »,
Le langage des médias : Discours éphémères, Textes réunis et édités par
Juhani Härmä, Limoges, L’Harmattan, 83-111.
Siminiciuc, E. (2010). « Fonctionnement et fonction de l’ironie dans un type de
presse particulier : la presse satirique. Étude de cas », URL : https://libra.
unine.ch/export/DL/.../19155.pdf.
Sperber, D. & Wilson, D. (1978). « Les ironies comme mentions », Poétique no
36, 399-412.
107
Sperber, D. & Wilson, D. (1989). « La pertinence », Paris, Ed. de Minuit.
108
Kindergartens and The Linguistic Development in Pre-School Age.
Valbona Keçi
Doctorate,
[email protected]
Abstract: Kindergartens give a special contribute in the linguistic development of children. The field of linguistic development involves vocabulary,
communication, reading, writing. The linguistic skills of the children date earlier than in the kindergarten and are filled continuously after it. However, these
years have a great importance in the linguistic development of children. Important is to keep in mind to avoid turning the kindergarten into a first class of
the middle school. Important is to make clear to parents what the linguistic development field involves. Therefore, work at the field of linguistic development
helps children learn letters and the alphabet, show interest in writing and learning them, or more precisely to make the first attempts to write known words and
repeated continuously, to learn rhymes, fairytales, and to retell them, to discuss
about characters of those fairytales, to express likes and why, to discuss about
actual themes, to play with different roles, to draw something about a heard
fairytale, to ask questions and to expect an answer, to create relations between
the actions of the characters and their attitudes or those of their friends. Most
of the time parents want to teach children as early as possible how to read. This
has to do with what most parents, because of the absence of information and
because of the absence of a qualified attention in the direction of pre-school
education, want to turn kindergarten into a copy of a weak teaching of first
grade, where children just read and write, but the program has clearly assigned
what skills should the child earn in the field of linguistic development and in the
methodology that should use to realize that. Kindergarten teaches children how
to communicate, how to appreciate a rhyme or a fairytale, how to read figures,
how to interpret characters, and so on. This is the only way that leads the child
into formal reading, the way where you should walk into full and clear reading.
Keywords: Kindergarten, Linguistic development, communication, vocabulary, reading, writing.
1. Introduction
Today a big scientific debate is developed about the importance that
reading has the exercising of the child during early childhood and how able is
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the child to learn and read. Every child learns a lot more than necessary. Pre—
schooler achives a lot of indicatiors through the good development of concepts
and speaking. It achieves much more than only through education.Its job in the
biggest part of the time is restriced from the interests of children, from their
experience inside and outside the kindergarten. Live in the group of 3-year old
children, so as in that of 5, there s nothing about appropriate lessons of language
and reading. Its skills, the pre-schooler,earns them through fairy tales theatres,
games and other activites that stimulate listening and communication. Since the
first group takes a great importance the fact how the teacher will familiarise the
children with the book, how will it stimulate the desire and interest to read. The
skilled teacher knows how to dramatise a fairytale and make it live. They start to
imagine and live in the world of fairytales and rhymes. The depth of understanding according to the development of speaking and language is increasing. When
children start to make their rhymes original, we have a special type of growth.
With this and other ways, the kindergarten makes the development of literar
skills of children with no pressure, softly and narurally. In the enviroment of the
kindergarten children are stimulated in the development of the language from
different figurative tools, drawing and self works with their ownname, notebook
stickers or colours and their own names in their drawers. Through books with
figures, the child follows and learns to connect meanings with the respective figure and listens the explanation of the teacher for them, and takes the specialites
winning the feeling of success in reading. The teacher should be very sensible
about the linguistic development. This is the key to success. Children should
communicate about what they do,what they understand, what they learn and
what they think. In this study we will focus in the components of the linguistic development field like communication vocabulary, reading and writing, to
whom is dedicated a special attention in the programe of preschool –education.
2. Communication
In the field of linguistic --communicative development, teachers and
parents should work cauting on same components, development through symbols, speaking language, listening language, written language, skills about
books and sings,nobody of language and learning strategies.It is known that the
purpose of communication through a random sign system,is the transmission
of information. The ways to communicate are several. That is why every act of
communication, even though simple, is a complicated phenomena that means
the presence and cooperation of several factors without whom communication
would be impossible. Children are able to produce a large number of sounds.
To make and combinate sounds and also to undertand the significations of these
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combinations,in humans take part vocal structures,brain neuromuscular system
and sense organs.
Early development of speaking in children dipens very much on the
quality of the relationships between them and the person who takes care of
them and on the cognitive development of the child. Howerer, almost every
body between the age,say their first word, mother or father. During the second
year of life babies increase their vocabulary and almost use a word to express
the meaning of another word. Around the age of 5 children have created a vocabulary with a thousand words and easily used past e future tense. Besides
speaking communication and writing, another way is communication with body
language. Characteristics of pre—school communication.
- Observation of the message.
- Group monologues.
- Egocentric speaking.
Kindergarten and the activity that the child makes during the day in contact with the group (friends ), teacher, affects, really much the perfection of the
communicative skills of the child. Pre—school age combies with the age of
rapid developments and the imition of school age For 5 years old children it is
important to talk, to express what they think and how they feel. They are willing
to speak, and exercising speaking during this age is very important to develop
communicative skills. Pre—school age is the age of big Why.s. At this age children make infinite questions and the answers they receive from their teacher and
from each—other, also activisation, checking sentences and completing what
their friend said, help very much the process of communication. Their speaking,
grammar is a process that should be seen like a process, in progress. The teacher
should help children keep on achieving from communicative skills,making interesting questions and reflecting on what they say. The teacher should not forget that her group is more about talking rather than staying quiet. She can help
children enrich their vocabulary presenting them interesting experiences and
ideas. Communication within the group gives them helping ideas so that they
can socialize with each—other, share ideas and feelings, work together, obey
rules, show what they know and what they remember. Communication should
be a major part of everything the teacher does with children. A large amount
of time should be spent encouraging 5 years olders to make humour, activities
that make them willing to learn new words and speak more. A special value has
work in groups for stories that do not last very much and for this we have to
make sure that children feel well when they hear the story. Should be used as
much books as possible, also drawings, to give information about the topic be111
ing discussed. Activities with books and drawings help children broaden their
horizon about different topics that teachers want to discuss with children.
3. Reading
A large number of children like to play with games finding the alphabet
letters and all the words. This helps them write and read. Children show interest
on words and letters. It is important to label things inside and outside the class
because with the passing of time children will know the words. Children like
when they see their name written. Probably the first letters they learn are those
of their name. Children show more interes on words and letters. It is important
to label things inside and outside the class because with the passing of time
children will know the words. Children like when they see their name written.
Probably the first letters they learn are those of their name. Children show more
interes if they understand the importance of reading. The duty of the kindergarten is to encourage the child to read better through the activities below.
1. Children should read every –day.
2. Making reading a pleasant activity.
3. Children should discuss about different topics.
- A book.
- Their favorite topic.
- About shapes and colours.
- Different stories.
- Files with different words.
- Action files. 4. Children start to like reading.
- Listening to stories that can be read aloud.
- Reading every time their favorite book.
- Helping them undertand a storybook.
- Helping them understand that the story has a beginning an end.
- Trying to get to know words and sings.
Telling and listening to stories develops the reading skills of children develops their skills and leads them to read in the right way. The development and
complecsity of the brain increases when children are able to listen to stories, to
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sing songs, to play with objects and to grah the attention of a grown up they care
very much. Children like to listen to the same story several times. Stories develop their imagination, their abilities to understand feelings and emotions, their
abilities to solve problems and to offer alternative about the behaviour. To be a
regular reader children need learn to have books. Reading a story is an art. Requires knowledge and practice on the story. The story teaches children about the
challenges in life for example, conflicts, sadness and happiness loss and feeling
something again. A story helps in the development of speaking, listening, reading and writing. So as for the stories to realize their purpose,it is important that
the teachers have in mind some strategies that should be followed.
- The teacher should understand the story before reading it to the child.
- Should ensure that all children are sit in a confortable way ready to listen, a calm atmosphere is a key to success.
- Keeping the book so as children can see figures and words.
- Adopting the voice to the character
- Discussing about the figures. It is of major importance discussing about
figures rather than the teacher reading the book.
- The teacher should point the words while reading.
- Using gestures, body language and face expressions to adopt with the
content of the story.
- Observing carefully the children reactions and answering their comments.
- Stopping in a critical point of the story and asking about what they think
will happen next. (Prediction )
- Making the story as attractive and real as possible.
- In the end of the story, asking children about what was the story about,
its meaning, their favorite character and why.
- Stimulating children with question like how could have the story ended.
The best books for 2–6 years old children are,,
- Story books.
- Books reflecting their life.
- Friendship books.
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- Books about brothers and sisters.
- Books with simple texts they can read and remember.
The literature used during this age is divided in different groups, for
children depending on their gender, for children depending on their age, discussions about stories, learning through poetry and songs, using a lot of open questions, and drawing pictures to explain the meaning of poems.
4. Vocabulary.
The vocabulary of pre—school age should not only be seen as a group
of words that children have according to their age, but in its complexity, in the
sematic acept of meaningful relations,in the linguistic and non-linguistic aspect.
This vocabulary and having it depend on different factors that should be seen
and treated not only in the phsyco-linguistic aspect but also in the social-linguistic one, in proportion with the development level and the social enviroment,of
social transmission structures where family is primar, whereas the enviroment is
becoming larger everyday including pre—school education. So the vocabulary
of pre—school should be seen and treated in the concrete flow of development,
differentiation, from factors of the social-regional character, ethnic group, economical and social stade, civil level, cultural and educational, with the fact they
follow or not pre—school education until the quality of work in kindergarten
and differences seen because of gender. Analysis about the vocabulary of children and following his development are more than essential.
This way will be available a more oriented and concrete work according to the state of the capacity of age-group and of practical communicative
situations (when we play,sing,learn,a poetry ).Linguistic development of preschoolers and of the vocabulary they posses, should be seen and followed in
its flow,not only from one group age to the other, but also within a group age.
Should be kept in mind their abilities. Words that preschoolers know and should
know should be seen as an expressions of the imagination these children have,
of their character and their dinamics in this age. During preschool years the
child broadens visibly its vocabulary. The vocabulary includes:
- Using grammar forms.
- Understanding language as a social activity.
Different scientists have studied the vocabulary of pre-schoolers and its
characteristics. One of them is Roger Brawn. He has specified 5 stages related
to the linguistic development of children. This development from one stage to
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the other becomes more complex, ,
FIRST STAGE (18 months age )—In this stage the child uses sentences
with two words which is called telegraphic speaking.
SECOND STAGE (2 years and above ) –In this stage the child uses longer sentences. However we should keep in mind that the child.
- Does not know the meaning of all words.
- Uses words in a restricted way.
- Inverts new word that are not understandable for the others.
- Simplifies grammatical rules.
- Uses a word to label a bigger class of thing or objects uses a word in a
rather small understanding area.
THIRD STAGE --The child learns how to modify simple sentences,
forms the form of negative sentences and questions.
FOURTH AND FIFTH STAGE --The child learns how to use more sophisticated ellements of language and rules are better understood. They also
learn new words and simultaneously they learn how to connect words with the
figures of books. There are same ways we should use during this period of the
development of a child like reading or telling a story from the selected literature (books with figures,traditional literature,artistical literature,non-artistical
one,biographies,poetry,and their discussion).
5. Writing
Learning how to write since early age is also an important ability the
child learns and knows in the kindergarten. Children start to understand that
writing is different from drawing. They are repeated and ordered according to
a specific direction. Usually, children between the age 4—6 start to write letters and numbers. Before a child learns how to draw with a pencil or marker, he
should have passed a lot of stages on learning how to write. In the kindergarten
children should be given the chance to use their hands before they start writing
in the right way. Playing different games are useful to prepare the fingers and
the hands to write.
Children like to write notes or messages for their friends or other grown
ups,so they start writing. They give a meaning to this notes, even through they
don’t have one. In the kindergarten we should encourange children to explain
their story through this notes. This is the first step and quickly this notes will
115
turn into letters everyone can understand Children pass from the phase of random notes to controlled ones, to the alphabet letters,to the consonants they use.
Only through the possibilities children have to practice, they can simplify the
elementary elements of writing. Preschool children develop their reading abilities and writing abilities at the same time. One field of the development helps
the other. It is equally important that the teacher offers possibilities to practice
writing of authentical materials and making possible the process of reading. Involving writing in everyday work is important to support the immediate development of the child relating and writing. There are same factors that affect the
process of reading in kindergarten. The big job done in the kindergarten related
to communication reading and enrichment of the vocabulary,affect the field of
writing. The majority of the activities of the kindergarten have as a purpose the
development of the speaking of children. At every age the human is, he can
communicate with another only when he has clear ideas and notions of communication. But enrichment of the vocabulary, also that of concepts, starts before
the child enters the kindergarten and continues after it. Using the vocabulary to
understand and action to express ideas in decisive. Expressing in itself takes the
form of telling, communication, dramatizing and drawing. Reading and writing have vital importance for every person, but have not a single purpose in the
activity of the child when he is in the kindergarten. The 5 years old specifies
things through action. Every kind of lesson and activity that is realized in the
kindergarten, affects and helps that language is developed continiously.
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Mroz, J. “Let’s Pretend.”(Feb.2009) Parents Magazine, Norton: New York
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La variation métaphorique interculturelle dans la presse française et
roumaine
Drd. Gealapu (Olaru) Simona Cristina
Université de Bucarest
[email protected]
Abstract: This research focuses on highlighting the relation between
cultural context and metaphorical variation dwelling on the Ukrainian crisis in
French and Romanian press.
Our analysis will be based on cognitive semantics principles: metaphor
is a cognitive instrument which allows us to comprehend an abstract or new
concept (target domain- TD) in terms of a concrete, well known concept (source
domain- SD) due to a set of correspondences or mappings established between
these two. (Lakoff & Johnson, 1985)
In order to legitimate our approach we will rely on Kövecses` theory
concerning cultural influence on metaphorical variation. ( Kövecses, 2004,
2005,2010).
First of all, we will make the distinction between conceptual metaphor
(that structures our conceptual system) and metaphorical expression (that is a
linguistic trace of the former).
The provided corpus consists of about 200 metaphorical expressions,
identified, during 2013-2015, in French and Romanian newspapers dealing
with Ukrainian crisis.
The purpose of corpus analysis is to offer straight answers to the following questions:
Are the conceptual metaphors of our corpus universal or do they vary
according to the cultural context of each country?
What are the main causes of metaphorical variation in French and Romanian newspapers illustrating Ukrainian crisis?
What aspects of Ukrainian crisis metaphors are affected by cultural
variation in French and Romanian press?
The conclusions of our article will underline the similarities between
conceptual metaphors in French and Romanian press (due to universal body
experience), but also the differences between metaphorical expressions (due to
119
distinct cultural contexts).
Keywords: conceptual metaphor, cultural context, French and Romanian press, metaphorical expression, metaphorical variation, Ukrainian crisis.
1. Introduction
Dans cet article nous nous proposons dàborder la problématique du rapport entre la métaphore conceptuelle et le contexte culturel où elle fonctionne.
Pour démontrer la forte connexion qui s`établit entre la création, respectivement lèmploi des expressions métaphoriques par les habitants dùn pays et leur
culture, nous allons nous appuyer sur lànalyse des métaphores linguistiques
(environ 200) employées par la presse généraliste française et roumaine, dans la
période 2013-2015, pour présenter la crise politique ukrainienne.
Lànalyse détaillée de notre corpus suivra les principes de la sémantique
cognitive, selon lesquels la métaphore est un outil cognitif, indispensable à notre
vie quotidienne, qui nous permet de mieux comprendre et structurer un concept
abstrait ou nouveau (domaine cible- DC) dans les termes dùn autre concept
concret, tangible (domaine source- DS), grâce à une série de correspondances
ontologiques ou épistémiques qui s`établissent entre ces deux concepts – grâce
à ce que les cognitivistes appellent « projection métaphorique » ou « metaphorical mappings ». ( Lakoff et Jonson, 1985).
Les premiers travaux des linguistes cognitivistes ont visé à démontrer
le caractère universel des métaphores conceptuelles[1] plutôt que leur variation
culturelle dans les diverses langues. Pour soutenir la thèse de lùniversalité des
métaphores conceptuelles, ceux-ci se sont servis de la notion dèmbodiment qui
fait référence au fait que la connaissance et la compréhension quòn a du monde
sont basées sur lèxpérience corporelle universelle de l`humain (« universal
body experience »). (ibidem.)
Pourtant, Kövecses (2004, 2005, 2010) a montré par ses recherches que
la création des métaphores conceptuelles est culturellement dépendante. Ainsi,
il redéfinit la notion dèmbodiment :
(…) it is important, however, not to think of embodiment
as a mechanical and automatic force shaping conceptual
metaphors (and conceptual systems in general) but as
a complex set of factors to which speakers can apply
differential experiential foci. ( Kövecses, 2010, p.8)
1
La métaphore conceptuelle LE BONHEUR EST EN HAUT apparaît dans toutes les langues et cultures.
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En nous appuyant sur la thèse de Kövecses, nous allons mettre en évidence, à làide de notre corpus, que la conceptualisation métaphorique visant
la crise ukrainienne est doublement définie : dùne part par lèxpérience corporelle universelle et dàutre part par le contexte culturel, (historique, social, etc.)
spécifique à chaque pays, respectivement la France et la Roumanie.
Ainsi, nous allons essayer de montrer, dans ce qui suit, comment les
aspects culturels spécifiques influencent la variation métaphorique, notamment
les similitudes et les différences entre la perspective métaphorique française et
celle roumaine concernant le bouleversement politique ukrainien.
Lànalyse de la variation métaphorique entre deux cultures européennes
(française et roumaine) a un caractère de nouveauté, car toutes les recherches
déployées par les cognitivistes, jusqu`à présent, ont visé à faire ressortir les différences métaphoriques entre des cultures très différentes, telles que la culture
européenne et la culture chinoise (Yu Ning apud. Kövecses, 2010), etc.
2. Variation métaphorique dans la presse française et roumaine
Avant de commencer lànalyse de notre corpus, il faut faire la distinction
entre métaphore (conceptuelle) qui structure notre système de pensée et qui offre les champs sémantiques sur lesquels on bâtit les expressions métaphoriques
(ex. LA DIPLOMATIE POLITIQUE, CÈST LA GUERRE) et métaphore linguistique ou expression métaphorique qui est la trace linguistique de la première, un cas individuel, concret dùne métaphore conceptuelle :
[1] Une nouvelle croisade diplomatique se prépare. À sa
tête, les États-Unis avec comme supplétifs plusieurs pays
parmi lesquels la France. (L`Humanité, 14.09.2014)
Dans ce qui suit nous allons nous occuper de lànalyse des métaphores/
expressions métaphoriques exploitant les domaines source statistiquement
dominants dans notre corpus : la guerre, le jeu, la maladie et les relations familiales/ de couple.
2.1 Métaphores guerrières
Commençons par les expressions métaphoriques les plus fréquentes
dans notre corpus: celles ayant comme DS la guerre.
Bien que les deux presses, française et roumaine, emploient la même
métaphore conceptuelle, à savoir LA DIPLOMATIE POLITIQUE, CÈST
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LA GUERRE, les traces linguistiques de celle-ci sont assez différentes, sous
lìnfluence, entre autres, du contexte culturel particulier à chaque pays.
Afin de réaliser une analyse plus approfondie des expressions métaphoriques guerrières, classons-les en trois sous-catégories: le type dàrmement, les
actions des combattants, et la typologie des confrontations.
Pour mettre en évidence la réaction diplomatique agressive des grandes
puissances européennes face à lìntervention de la Russie en Ukraine, les journalistes français et roumains font appel aux différents types dàrmement. Nous
remarquons la prédilection des journalistes français pour lèmploi métaphorique
des noms dàrmes modernes, puissantes, afin de décrire les tensions diplomatiques et politiques actuelles :
[2] Et leur (OTAN) deuxième erreur a été de ne pas
associer la Russie à la gestion du dossier ukrainien. Cela
aurait évité de nous retrouver désormais devant une bombe
à retardement au sein même de l’Europe. (L`Humanité,
03.04.2014)
[3] La salve d’obus diplomatiques sur la Russie avait
commencé en début de semaine avec une déclaration du
Conseil européen accusant unilatéralement Moscou de la
reprise des violences dans l’est de l’Ukraine. (L`Humanité,
30.01.2015)
Lèmploi métaphorique des noms dàrmes performantes dans la presse
française est influencé par le contexte historique et culturel français : la France
a toujours été une puissance militaire importante, dòù son intérêt pour les nouvelles technologies militaires.
En revanche, les journalistes roumains font appel à des noms dàrmes
plus anciennes pour présenter les mêmes réalités politiques :
[4] Dar aşa, ţară vîrf de lance în conflictul dintre SUA
şi Federaţia Rusă, Ucrainei i se trec cu vederea toate
abaterile de la democraţie. (Evenimentul Zilei, 24.07.2014)
[5] Băsescu Traian este foarte vocal când susţine
creşterea nivelului de sancţiuni aplicate Rusiei dar trimite
săgeţi direct ţintite spre “mercantilii” de la Berlin, Paris
sau Roma care au schimburi economice substanţiale cu
Moscova. (Jurnalul Național, 28.07.2014)
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Ce type de lexique renvoie à l’histoire plus ancienne des conflits où les
Roumains ont lutté pour défendre leur territoire contre les envahisseurs avec
des armes peu performantes, souvent fabriquées par eux-mêmes (les flèches, la
lance).
Quant à la typologie des confrontations servant de support aux expressions métaphoriques, on remarque, sous lìnfluence culturelle, une plus grande
variété dans la presse française: «bataille», «lutte», « combat », «guerre»,
«croisade» :
[6] Et dans cette lutte [entre les clans millionnaires
ukrainiens], vient se greffer une bataille géopolitique entre
la Russie et les États-Unis. (L`Humanité, 21.02.2014)
[7] Une nouvelle croisade diplomatique se prépare. A sa
tête, les Etats-Unis avec comme supplétifs plusieurs pays
parmi lesquels la France. (L`Humanité, 14.09.2014)
[8] La Crimée vit dans la guerre des rumeurs. (L`Humanité,
04.03.2014)
La presse roumaine nèmploie que deux termes, «război» et «bătălie» :
[9] Rusia, în absenţa altor resurse, este angajată întrun război de diplomaţie publică cu Occidentul. (www.
adevarul.ro, 18.04.2014)
[10] Este vorba de o bătălie geopolitică între SUA şi
Federaţia Rusă pentru a avea influenţă asupra Ucrainei,
bătălie la care a luat parte şi Uniunea Europeană. Mai
multe state mici precum Slovacia suferă din cauza acestor
bătălii geopolitice », declara Robert Fico. (Jurnalul
Național, 15.09.2014)
Le statut historique de conquérants des Français et lèsprit plutôt pacifiste des Roumains pourraient également servir dèxplication pour làbondance,
dans la presse française, des expressions métaphoriques reposant sur les actions des combattants-hommes politiques, beaucoup plus nombreuses (mener
un combat, attaquer, défendre, mettre le feu aux poudres, etc.) que dans la presse
roumaine (a lua ostatici).
[11] Mais surtout, l’Union Européenne n’a pas mené le
combat qu’il fallait mener. (Le Monde, 22.11.2013)
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[12] La Russie répondra si ses intérêts sont attaqués en
Ukraine. (Le Monde, 22.04.2014)
[13] À l’Est, on estime n’avoir aucune personnalité qui
défende leurs intérêts politiques depuis … (L`Humanité,
03.04.2014)
[14] Leur dernière rencontre [le sommet Ukraine-EU] et
il y a deux ans avait mis le feu aux poudres en Ukraine.
(L`Humanité, 22.05.2015)
[15] Putin consideră că Ucraina a devenit ‘’ostatic al
intereselor altora’’. (Jurnalul Național, 13.09.2014)
2.2 Métaphores médicales
Afin de présenter métaphoriquement la détérioration progressive de la
situation politique ukrainienne, les journalistes français et roumains font appel
au même domaine conceptuel, celui de la maladie : LA CRISE POLITIQUE
EST UNE MALADIE.
En analysant les expressions métaphoriques médicales de notre corpus,
nous remarquons que les contextes socioculturels français, respectivement roumain mettent leur empreinte sur le choix des termes médicaux dans la mise en
scène de la crise ukrainienne.
Ainsi, le contexte socioculturel français, caractérisé par un système médical très performant influence lèmploi des expressions métaphoriques médicales
décrivant làggravation des tensions politiques dans lÈst de lÈurope. Nous
observons, dans la presse française, un lexique médical bien spécialisé, qui sert
de base métaphorique pour les expressions présentant soit lìntensification de la
crise ukrainienne (« paralysie », « métastase », « amputer », « diagnostic », etc.),
soit la nécessité dùne intervention diplomatico-politique urgente (« réanimer »,
« thérapie de choc », etc.):
[16] (…), c’est dans le Donbass industriel que les
métastases de la crise politique s’étaient développées,
menaçant l’intégrité territoriale de l’Ukraine. (Le Monde,
07.07.2014)
[17] Pour tenter de sortir de la paralysie politique (…),
le président Porochenko, élu en mai, a annoncé des
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élections législatives anticipées le 26 octobre. (Le Monde,
26.08.2014)
[18] Avant la crise, le PCU [le parti communiste ukrainien]
avait demandé qu’un diagnostic soit réalisé sur les
conséquences des deux choix. (L`Humanité, 03.06.2014)
[19] L’Ukraine ….amputée de la Crimée. (L`Humanité,
12.03.2014)
[20] La situation ukrainienne est instrumentalisée pour
réanimer l’OTAN et réunir les Alliés autour des Etats-Unis,
a déclaré le président russe, Vladimir Poutine. (http://
fr.sputniknews.com/, 12.09.2014)
[21] Une thérapie de choc à la bruxelloise [des réformes
fixées par l’UE pour lÙkraine] (l`Humanité, 22.05.2015)
Quant aux journalistes roumains, ceux-ci, afin illustrer làugmentation
des tensions politiques, ont recours à des termes médicaux peu spécialisés, qui
tiennent plutôt de la médicine traditionnelle (« a face gargară », « a turna apă
rece peste capetele ȋnfierbântate » - lorsquòn a de la fièvre) :
[22] Cu prietenie şi iubire fraternă, poporul rus a
avertizat poporul român că, dacă mai face multă gargară,
o să primească şi el nişte ajutoare. (Jurnalul Național,
16.09.2014)
[23] Este de așteptat și ca Joe Biden să mai toarne niște
apă rece peste capetele prea ȋnfierbântate. (www.ziare.
com, 19.04.2014)
À remarquer l’ironie évidente dans les exemples [21], [22] et [23]. En
roumain surtout, en [22] l’énoncé est construit en antiphrase, révélée par le
verbe a avertiza/avertir utilisé avec son sens propre et qui est en contraste avec
le syntagme prietenie şi iubire fraternă/amitié et amour fraternels, tout comme
« a face gargară », métaphore usuelle pour protester, est en contraste avec a
primi ajutoare/recevoir de l’aide, expression qui acquiert en contexte la signification de a fi atacat militar/risquer une attaque armée.
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2.3 Métaphores du jeu
Pour mettre en évidence la stratégie politique des États impliqués dans
ce conflit, la presse française et roumaine utilisent la même métaphore conceptuelle LA DIPLOMATIE POLITIQUE EST UN JEU avec les sous-domaines: le
jeu d`échecs et le jeu de cartes.
En ce qui concerne les expressions métaphoriques du jeu d`échecs,
celles-ci sont employées par les deux presses afin de mettre en lumière la
tactique diplomatique des grandes puissances (la Russie, lÒTAN): des pays
comme lÙkraine et la Roumanie sont des pions sur la table d`échecs, faciles à
manipuler, à manœuvrer par celles-ci:
[24] Ukraine : agitant la menace d’une «grande guerre»,
Kiev permet à l’Otan d’avancer ses pions à l’Est de
l’Europe. (L`Humanité, 02.09.2014)
[25] Désormais, la menace plane aussi sur l’Europe,
l’Ukraine étant devenue la pièce avancée de l’Otan dans
son projet d’étouffer la Russie (L`Humanité, 08.08.2014).
[26]Pour le spécialiste des questions géostratégiques
russes Jean Géronimo, « l’Ukraine apparaît comme
une pièce maîtresse dans le cadre d’une guerre tiède
que se livrent les États-Unis et la Russie» (L`Humanité,
08.08.2014).
[27] România, împinsă a fi un pion agresiv într-un conflict
geopolitic între SUA şi Rusia, se află într-un moment de
maximă tensiune cu Federaţia Rusă (Evenimentul Zilei,
12.05.2014).
[28] (…)“jocul de şah geostrategic se face în vecinătatea
noastră (Jurnalul Naţional, 18.09.2014).
[29] Dacă spui că vicepremierul Rusiei este «nebunul
regelui care vrea să enerveze», de ce intri tu, ca președinte
de țară, exact ȋn jocul lui? (www.ziare.com, 13.04.2014)
En se servant du DS du jeu d`échecs, le journaliste transfère sur le
concept de conflit certains attributs propres aux joueurs d`échecs, comme :
lìntelligence, la stratégie, la précision des mouvements; les hommes politiques
sont perçus comme des joueurs habiles qui cherchent tactiquement à décour126
ager, à intimider leur adversaire.
Quant aux expressions métaphoriques du jeu de cartes, celles-ci sont
surtout repérables dans la presse française où elles mettent en relief la pratique
diplomatique à risque, les mouvements parfois trop osés des joueurs-hommes
politiques, qui leur permettent d`échapper aux responsabilités tout en mettant en
danger la sécurité et la stabilité des pays européens :
[30] Le grand jeu dÒbama. C’est aussi, tactiquement,
l’utilisation de la «carte» russe pour neutraliser quelques
dossiers brûlants, à défaut de les résoudre en profondeur
(Le Monde, 28.11.2013).
[31] En Ukraine, Vladimir Poutine joue la carte du chaos
(Le Monde, 02.05.2014).
[32] Un changement radical se prépare dans le monde.
Avec un risque: que les joueurs ne se maîtrisant plus
jouent la carte du pire (L`Humanité, 01.09.2014).
[33] « Il s’agit encore une fois d’une simple redistribution
des cartes entre les divers groupes oligarchiques qui
ne pensent qu’à leur enrichissement personnel ». [le
sociologue Volodimir Ishchenko parlant de l`élection de
P. Porochenko] (L`Humanité, 25.05.2014)
Lèmploi du domaine source du jeu de cartes, pour conceptualiser la
stratégie diplomatique des grandes puissances est culturellement déterminé par
le penchant pour le divertissement et les jeux de société, parmi lesquels les jeux
de cartes occupent une place importante.
Dans la presse roumaine, ce type dèxpressions métaphoriques sont
très peu représentées, apparaissant dans des métaphores banales, comme nous
pouvons lòbserver dans lèxemple ci-dessous :
[34] Faptul că Putin şi-a scos toţi aşii din mânecă arată
că Rusia nu este deloc pe cât de puternică vrea să pară.
(Evenimentul Zilei, 01.05.2015)
2.4 Métaphores familiales
Enfin, nous allons aborder les expressions métaphoriques familiales qui
signalent une différence évidente entre les visions des deux presses concernant
127
les rapports diplomatico-politiques entre les pays impliqués dans le conflit russo-ukrainien.
Ainsi, pour présenter le rapprochement historique entre la Russie et
lÙkraine, les journalistes roumains ont recours à deux métaphores conceptuelles:
- LÙKRAINE EST LA SŒUR/ LE FRERE DE LA RUSSIE
[35] Spunem adesea că este un popor-frate, o ţară soră
[Ucraina], iar atunci trebuie să acţionăm ca nişte rude
apropiate şi să susţinem poporul ucrainean care se află
într-o situaţie dificilă, a adăugat Putin (Jurnalul Național,
19.12.2013).
[36] (...) multi cetateni rusi (...) au credinta că Ucraina
este sora mai mică a Rusiei (Gazeta Liberă, 15.03.2014).
[37] Preşedintele rus, Vladimir Putin, a respins, marţi,
orice încercare de a caracteriza acţiunile ruseşti din
Crimeea drept o invazie sau o agresiune, declarând, în
schimb, că Rusia nu face decât să apere „naţiunea-soră”
ucraineană, care se confruntă acum cu o instabilitate
periculoasă şi cu o mişcare naţionalistă şi extremistă din
ce în ce mai puternică.” (www.adevarul.ro, 04.03.2014)
- LA RUSSIE EST LA MÈRE DE LA CRIMÉE:
[38] Crimeea nu va mai face parte niciodată din Ucraina
după ce s-a întors la ţara-mamă Rusia (www.mediafax.ro,
16.03.2015).
On pourrait expliquer làbondance des métaphores familiales dans la
presse roumaine par les fortes relations historiques et politiques avec la Russie
et la Moldavie (ancienne partie de la Roumanie).
Dàutre part, la presse française nèmploie que très peu le DS de la
famille, en sàxant uniquement sur les rapports de couple. Ce type dèxpression
métaphorique, repérable également dans la presse roumaine, met en évidence la
coopération politique ([39]) ou par contre, les incompatibilités politiques entre
deux ou plusieurs hommes politiques ou pays ([40], [41]) :
[39] Le couple Hollande-Fabius roule des mécaniques
128
devant les Russes. (L`Humanité, 29.07.2014)
[40] Rusia și Ucraina: Căsătorie imposibilă (www.timpul.
md, 25.12.2013)
[41] Putin și Prorochenko sunt un cuplu „improbabil”,
potrivit media europeană (www.timpul.md, 18.02.1015).
3. Conclusions
Notre travail fait ressortir deux aspects importants : le caractère universel des métaphores conceptuelles et la variation culturelle des expressions
métaphoriques.
Bien que les presses française et roumaine emploient les mêmes domaines source dans la conceptualisation de la crise ukrainienne, à savoir : la
guerre, la maladie, le jeu (d`échecs et de cartes) et la famille/les relations de
couple, nous observons une certaine variation des expressions métaphoriques
sous lìnfluence du contexte culturel, historique, social de chaque pays.
Même si notre démarche présente quelques limitations qui dérivent principalement des dimensions réduites de notre corpus, elle peut croyons-nous servir de point de départ dans la recherche d’une spécificité culturelle dans l’emploi
des expressions métaphoriques.
Références :
LAKOFF, G. & JOHNSON, M. (1985), Les métaphores dans la vie quotidienne, Paris, Les Éditions de Minuit.
KÖVECSES, Z. (2004), “Cultural Variation In Metaphor”, European Journal of
English Studies, 8, 263–274.
KÖVECSES, Z. (2005), Metaphor in Culture.Universality and Variation, New
York, Cambridge University Press.
KÖVECSES, Z. (2010), “Metaphor and Culture” in Acta Universitatis Sapientiae, Philologica, 2, 197-220.
Biography
Simona Cristina Gealapu (Olaru) graduated the Faculty of Foreign
129
Languages and Literatures (Applied Modern Languages: English, French) at
the University of Bucharest. At the moment she is a Ph.D. student at “Cultural
Studies and Identities” Doctoral School, University of Bucharest. Her areas of
interest include discourse analysis and conceptual metaphor.
She is the author of three scientific works: Les Moyens de paiementglossaire français-roumain, Hoffman, 2013; Le jeu-outil pédagogique en classe
de FLE, Hoffman, 2011; Les défis de la communication interculturelle, Hoffman, 2011.
Her current activity is teaching French language at “Iulia Hasdeu” National College, in Bucharest.
130
iTILT 2 Edition: Interactive Teaching in Languages with Technology.
Collaborative action research to develop materials and methodologies for
using interactive technologies in the language classroom.
nd
Ton Koenraad, TELLConsult, Netherlands
[email protected]
Abstract: In this paper we describe the development and (interim) results of two European funded projects with the same acronym ‘iTILT’, targeted
at supporting approaches to language teaching using interactive technologies
in educational contexts varying from primary and secondary schools, to vocational colleges and universities.
The projects involved are ‘Interactive Technologies In Language Teaching’ (2011-2013) and ‘Interactive Teaching in Languages with Technology’
(2014-2017).
The first run of the project focused on the use of interactive whiteboards
(IWB) for teaching foreign languages. Its main outputs described below include
resources for teacher training, design criteria for IWB-supported language
teaching, a database with video reports of classroom practices and references
to related research and IWB file repositories.
We present ways to exploit iTILT’s currently available resources in
teacher education and continuing professional development and reflect on the
results and impact of this project on the basis of related partner research including a collective volume with case studies of IWB use in language education
(Cutrim Schmid & Whyte, 2014).
We also report on the rationale for, development and interim results of
the second edition of the project ‘iTILT2’ (http://itilt2.eu). This follow-up project expands the focus on interactive whiteboards to a wider range of new and
emerging interactive technologies (such as tablets, smartphones, learner response systems, and videoconferencing software) for teaching and learning second languages.
We elaborate on the design of this new research and professional development project based on collaborative action research in a task-based framework (Whyte, 2015) and similar recent insights on teacher competence development and sustainable integration of ICT in education in general.
Keywords: EU project, IWB, CALL, MALL, m-learning, interactive
classroom technologies
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1. Introduction
Interactive Teaching in Languages with Technology (iTILT2) is a project
to support interactive approaches to language teaching with classroom technologies. The project builds on a previous project entitled ‘Interactive Technologies
In Language Teaching’ (2011-2013), with the same acronym ‘iTILT’, focusing
on the use of interactive whiteboards (IWB) for teaching foreign languages.
This project developed an open educational web resource which includes over
250 video clips of IWB-mediated language teaching practices in 7 EU countries (http://itilt.eu). Other related academic spin-off results include a collective
volume with case studies of IWB use in language education (Cutrim Schmid
& Whyte, 2014) and a research monograph focusing on collaborative action
research in a task-based framework (Whyte, 2015).
The new three year project (2014-2017) moves beyond the IWB to focus on developing effective teaching and learning of second languages with
a wider range of new and emerging interactive technologies (such as tablets,
smartphones and videoconferencing). It involves supporting teachers in taskbased approaches to technology integration though observation, reflection and
sharing via an online community of practice.
After describing the initial project’s rationale and deliverables we will
briefly present ways to exploit iTILT’s currently available resources in initial
teacher education and continuing professional development (Koenraad et al.,
2015). We then proceed to describe some of the iITLT1 evaluation and impact
research and how the related insights inspired the design principles for the iTILT2 project.
We conclude by presenting the objectives and interim results of the new
project, including the evolving e-resource used by iTILT 2 partners for professional development with respect to interactive language teaching with technologies, examples of technology-mediated language tasks, and the online community of practice development.
2. ITILT 1
2.1 Project initiative
The initiative for the initial iTILT project was triggered by the positive
pedagogical benefits of Interactive Whiteboards (IWB) in education as claimed
in various publications including enhancing the scope of interactivity and learn132
er engagement, the development support for so-called “electronic literacies”
and meeting the needs of students with diverse learning styles.
For the development of the project definition findings published by the
prospect partners were used. These publications addressed topics including the
IWB potential for language education (Cutrim Schmid, 2009), the teacher professional development process (Beauchamp, 2004) and preconditions for successful implementation of IWB in education (Koenraad, 2008).
A number of observations in these studies confirmed conclusions also
arrived at in other papers and metastudies e.g. that IWB use does not of its own
accord provide added value in educational practice (Kennewell, 2006; Higgins
et al., 2007) and that for the improvement of student attainment there is a need
for materials designed specifically for this medium as well as for IWB-related
teachers’ pedagogical skills, knowledge and media literacy in general (Gray et
al., 2007; Fisser & Gervedink-Nijhuis, 2007).
2.2 Project Rationale and deliverables
Analysis of the evaluation data of a number IWB projects e.g. in Australia (Kearney & Schuck, 2008) and the UK (Someck et al., 2007)) available at
the time of the project definition development led to the conclusion that in order
to integrate IWB technology successfully into their daily practice, teachers need
adequate training and support in how to use the tool in their daily practice, to be
aware of strategies and procedures for designing effective IWB materials, and
to have the opportunity to reflect on their own practice.
With respect to language education in general there also appeared to be a
lack of materials and good practices in general and for supporting communicative approaches in particular (Koenraad, 2008). This then motivated a project
design with a strong focus on the pedagogical dimension of technology integration and the related teacher education issues. Aiming to inspire teachers and
help them gain confidence with IWB technology in communicative language
teaching and learning the initiators defined the project in such a way that, in collaboration with the partners involved (language teachers, teacher educators and
researchers), a number of web-based resources could be developed, including:
a) a handbook containing model lesson plans and sample materials based
on a set of design criteria, practical information on how to design IWB flipcharts
and how to use them in the classroom and deal with copyright issues.
b) an open educational repository with over 250 multimedia reports including video clips of IWB-mediated language teaching practices by 44 teach133
ers of 6 languages in four education sectors in 7 countries.
c) a digital library offering over 200 annotated links to additional resources in the field of IWB and language education including related research,
relevant collections of IWB (training) materials and related communities.
2.3 Exploitation of project results
Below we describe the project results described in 2.2 in more detail and
report a number of ways in which these resources can be used for professional
development purposes.
2.3.1The iTILT Training Handbook and related IWB teaching
materials
The Training Handbook can be downloaded for free as a PDF file in
6 different languages. Students and/or teachers new to IWB can use the basic
information on the technology involved and read about the iTILT project. The
general guidelines to make the most of IWB and the criteria specifically for
modern foreign language (MFL) materials design cover a number of aspects
including methodological principles, learner engagement, features and practical considerations. They can be used as a reference point for materials analysis
activities and to structure discussions on pedagogy and observed practice. For a
summary of the extended version in (Cutrim Schmid & Whyte, 2014) see Shona
Whyte’s blogpost: https://shonawhyte.wordpress.com/2016/05/25/materials-design-
criteria-for-iwb-supported-language-teaching/
The IWB-mediated lesson descriptions are meant to inspire practitioners and can be used to illustrate the application of the iTILT criteria in materials
design for a variety of MFL curriculum areas. The related IWB teaching materials facilitate (micro-)teaching to actually try out working with IWB-based
content based on communcative language learning principle and practice (new)
procedures and interventions. The embedded information and guidelines on the
aspects Activity, Aim, Design, and Potential function as a teaching manual and
scaffold (de)constructing training tasks to adapt an/or design content.
This embedded info feature also greatly facilitates the training of technically heterogeneous course groups and helps trigger reflection and discussion.
The template used for these files also serves as a model that can be customised
for potential (local) collective materials development initiatives. It stimulates
content developers to make their planned goals and ideas on lesson execution
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explicit by adding meta-data information and so support efficient sharing while
also promoting adherance to copyright rules.
Teachers’ knowledge about copyright issues in educational materials
can be (further) developed with the help of the information in the Handbook on
this topic related to IWB based materials. Guided hands-on exploration of IWB
materials repositories can support the understanding and application in practice
of the principles involved while promoting the use of and contribution to open
educational resourses (OER).
In short the information in and the practical resources that come with
the Handbook can help (student) teachers how to adapt, design and share IWB
flipcharts and expand their teaching behavourial repertoire in IWB-mediated
lesson episodes in the language classroom.
2.3.2The Video Clips Collection
During the course of the iTILT project, the researchers at the partner
institutions in France, Wales, Germany, Belgium, Turkey, and in Spain, cooperated with language teachers (primary, secondary and tertiary).
The teachers were provided with training on how to use the IWBs, and
they were advised on how to make their lessons more interactive. Later on, their
lessons were recorded and consequently co-analysed during video stimulated
reflective dialogue (VSRD) sessions. For the production of the clips key sequences illustrating the use of specific IWB features and/or teacher behaviour
were then selected on the basis of consensus.
The results were then tagged and entered into a database resulting in a
Video Clips collection of over 250 “classroom practice reports” in 6 languages
(English, French, Spanish, Dutch, Turkish, and Welsh), for different sectors (primary, secondary, university and vocational education). These, so-called practice
reports files are designed to function as ‘learning objects’ as each individual
multi-media document consists - beside the video clip – of a description of the
development of the lesson(s), the actual lesson plan, teacher and learner audio
commentaries and IWB files used.
Depending on the level of experience with IWB use they can be used
to inspire teachers by having them explore how colleagues (in other contexts /
countries) use the IWB for specific curriculum components or get ideas on how
to use specific IWB features for particular language learning activities. Guided
viewing can encourage reflection on IWB use in modern language education
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and support awareness raising for quality criteria in materials design and teacher
behaviour.
In initial teacher education video analysis activities can help to develop
classroom observation skills and support the understanding, adoption and development of teacher behaviour related to differences in pedagogical approaches
and related second language acquisition (SLA) concepts.
The framework described in (Whyte et al., 2014) can support analyzing
interaction during IWB-mediated activities as it facilitates the analysis of three
main aspects of IWB use: participant configuration, IWB tools and features, and
language teaching objectives. The instrument can help identify four levels of
interaction (drill, display, simulation, and communication) and includes dimensions that focus on form/meaning, level of contextualisation and authenticity of
tasks, as well as teacher/learner control over activities.
When used in the context of local, colleagial professional development
initiatives it can serve as a tool for the analysis of teachers’ own video-recorded
lessons and/or to structure feedback procedures and share observations of other
teachers’ lessons.
With follow-up tasks teachers can be challenged to suggest ways for
adapting the activities observed in the video sequences in order to match with
negotiated criteria. The focus could be only on the teaching behaviour and/or
classroom organisation, but also on the teaching materials used.
In sum, the video clips resourse – together with the available powerful
search engine – by facilitating explorative and analytic activities can contribute
to engage teachers in reflection, critique and professional dialogue with respect
to methodology and pedagogical approaches in language education and IWB
use in particular.
2.3.3The Library
The digital library with its references to a wide variety of content specifically relevant for modern languages including MFL IWB materials repositories, external practice reports, online communities, expertise centers, conference
proceedings, academic research and practitioner blogs aims to raise awareness
of available external resources. The search engine and tag suggestions support
the development of topic-related search skills. And in this way the project also
hopes to promote teacher autonomy by supporting local classroom research and
stimulating Personal Learning Network (PLN) development as part of individual continuing professional development (CPD) and lifelong learning efforts.
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The library section entitled “The iTILT Partner Clip Selection” contains
a series of blogposts in which iTILT team members highlight a number of clips
from the iTILT.eu website, illustrating classroom practices that explore one or
more of the criteria that the iTILT team expects to be conducive to effective
communicative language teaching. It can be most useful when introducing the
iTILT materials design criteria, especially in initial teacher education. But also
as a format professionals can use to illustrate and share their views on innovative or effective IWB use.
To conclude, the multilingual iTILT website is structured around these
main resources. In addition a Help section offers support in the form of How-toblogs, FAQs, and video Tutorials illustrating how to use the resources and the
main functionalities in order to get the most out of the website.
All iTILT materials are open source, free of charge and made available
under the Creative Commons licence. This license allows others to download
the work and share it as long as they credit the owner and do not change it in any
way or use it commercially.
2.3.4 iTILT related research and analysis of impact
Throughout the development process of the iTILT project partners have
undertaken a number of (classroom) research initiatives, including both quantitative and qualitative analyses of IWB use by project teachers. We summarize
main findings of a selection of them below.
At the start of the project time invested in baseline data collection to inspire general project development strategies and the design of training materials
in particular. Online questionnaires were used with a focus on i) demographic
details, ii) perceived confidence levels in relation to IWB use, iii) perceived
confidence levels in relation to general ICT use. Hillier et al (2013), reporting
on findings in the iTILT project in relation to Beauchamp’s (2004) transitional
framework, suggest that overall, teachers indicated relatively low levels of confidence with particular features and tools of the IWB, despite the varied levels
of experience (in IWB use and teaching) in the countries involved
Other iTILT related research concerned teacher-selected video clips and
teacher and learner interview data (Whyte et al., 2012) from sessions in primary
foreign language classes in France and Wales, with 4 teachers from each country across 5 primary schools.
Analysis of the video data showed a rather conservative and cautious approach to IWB use for language teaching. Despite this, teachers perceived their
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learners to feel motivated and more engaged in language lessons. Learners not
only confirmed the teachers’ perceptions but some also reported that the IWB
facilitated and supported their language learning.
Another collaborative article was written by Cutrim Schmid and Whyte
(2012) with a focus on France and Germany. The article placed greater emphasis on language models adopted by teachers and additional data was collected
via other programmes and projects to produce a longitudinal study which covered IWB use and
video-conferencing. The authors concluded that despite teacher and
trainers’ expectations that their teaching approach would shift towards a more
socio-constructivist model, a variety of differing teaching approaches were implemented across the spectrum from grammar-translation to more constructivist models. It was also noted that a variety of language teaching approaches
were used, and that the degree to which teachers altered their teaching practices
varied. A further conclusion was that isolated training sessions alone are insufficient as teachers also require constructive feedback, adequate time to allow
for development of skills and on-going training and support in order to shift
towards a more socio-constructivist approach to language teaching (Cutrim
Schmid & Whyte, 2012).
Evaluating iTILT1 the general conclusion is that the project has been
successful if only considering the number of professionals reached and the quantitative use that has been made of its deliverables. The team is also pleased with
the quality of the outputs and the additional research the project has generated.
The exceptionally positive external evaluation by The Education, Audiovisual
and Culture Executive Agency, responsible for the management of certain parts
of the EU’s funding programmes in the fields of education (EACEA) http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/, and the positive reviews (Davidson Devall, 2015; Guichon &
Merlet, 2016) of the collectively produced resource book for teacher development (Cutrim Schmid & White, 2014) are considered to support these conclusions.
On the other hand findings of the research concerning teachers’ uptake
and integration of interactive technologies such as the IWB in the language
classroom showed that, while teachers were generally able to develop their use
of specific technical features of the IWB for language teaching, and were also
willing to allow learners access to the tool, many tended to restrict themselves to
a relatively limited palette of tools and features in the service of rather circumscribed teaching objectives. In many cases the interactive potential of the IWB
was not fully exploited in teaching and learning activities.
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The findings have motivated the team to prolong its efficient collaboration and apply for a follow-up project whose design takes these issues into account so that a professional development process can be realised that leads to
Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) (Mishra & Koehler,
2006) for all professionals involved i.e integrates innovation both in technology
use and in language pedagogy and related professional development courses.
Insights from this body of research have also affected the content and
methodology of related training courses for pre- and in-service teachers. More
information on the current offer of iTILT-based, international, ErasmusPlus
fundable courses is available at: http://www.koenraad.info/content/current-courses
3. iTILT 2
3.1 Rationale and design principles for iTILT2
Motivated by the fact that new technological resources such as mobile
technologies, tablets and other smart devices are currently gaining currency in
language classrooms and challenged by the outcomes of the iTILT research reported above, the iTILT partners see a need in further projects less for technical
support in integrating new technologies but rather for pedagogical assistance in
designing and implementing communicative methodologies which promote effective language learning.
In addition to promoting the integration of technology in language education the ambition of the project team is to also support pedagogical innovation
by supporting teachers in implementing technology mediated task-based approaches through observation, reflection and sharing via an online community
of practice.
Teacher design teams
A central feature of the project will therefore be the role of teachers from
different countries and different age groups as co-researchers working with the
project team in teacher design teams, developing new ideas on how to use new
technologies in teaching and learning languages. This will ensure that the project is grounded in current classroom practice (provided by the teachers and
schools), but also reflects expertise of effective language teaching and effective teaching with technology (provided by the research team) (also see Voogt,
2015).
The ambition is to assist teachers in articulating the pedagogical rationale
underlying their practice, and uniquely, to engage them in translating classroom
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research into theory building about ICT-enabled learning design principles and
strategic technology use.
This approach also allows student teachers to participate which could
also support TPACK development programs in the partner teacher education
institutions as many may well face the same challenges found in recent research
in the Netherlands i.e. 1) most teacher educators lack relevant ‘TPACK skills’2)
ICT integration in many school practice schools is still in its infancy providing
only limited opportunities for student teachers to pilot applications and materials or in general apply theoretical knowledge in practice (Huizinga, 2015).
Recording classroom practice and practice reports
The team will continue to video record classroom practice as it is seen
as an effective strategy. Firstly with a view to the usefulness of classroom video
recordings both for the process of generating ideas, designing and adapting materials and developing theory by the teachers and resarchers involved and the
resulting clips as input for (collaborative) analytic activities for effective professional development as referred to in 2.2. and reported during iTILT1 (Cutrim
Schmid, 2011) and in other publications e.g. (Hennessy & Deaney, 2009; Scarino, 2014; Hennessy, 2014).
But also to promote this method in iTILT partner teacher education organisations as it offers opportunities to assess a teacher’s technology integration competency which can be demonstrated by the way a teacher acts in the
classroom with respect to technology (pedagogy) and the capability to reason
professionally about his/ her acting. For (partner) schools it can support the validation of the impact and value of on-going, school-based professional learning
activities and facilitate the development of a knowledge creating profession that
is able to address issues such as the need for evidence to guide the innovation
process (Fransen, 2016).
The (video) practice analysis framework
Although the current framework as described in (Whyte et al., 2014)
was developed for observation and analysis of IWB-mediated classroom teaching for language teachers, trainers and researchers, the tool can be adapted for
the analysis of interaction mediated by other interactive technologies. iTILT
partners therefore actively liaise with other projects exploring interactive technologies and study results that could potentially be used for this purpose such
as generic models, e.g. the m-learning toolkit, informed by (Kearney & Burden
2012).
Website
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Guidelines for the design and development of the new website will also
be based on strategies and lessons learned reported in another iTILT partner
paper on the challenges and opportunities associated with developing an open
educational resource (Whyte et al., 2013). They include the meta-data development procedure and quality assurance measures e.g. planning phases for piloting training resources, classroom video clips and the
beta version of the website to ensure central involvement of the project
teachers and other language educators.
3.2 The iTILT2 Project definition summary
iTILT 2 (Interactive Teaching in Languages with Technology) is a European Project funded by the Erasmus Plus programme (2014-17). The project investigates the effective use of interactive technologies for task-based language
teaching (TBLT). The project builds on, and extends, the EU project iTILT (interactive Technologies in Language Teaching) funded by the European Lifelong
Learning Programme (KA2 Languages, 2011-13), focusing on the interactive
whiteboard (IWB) for teaching foreign languages. iTILT 2 moves beyond the
IWB to focus on developing effective teaching and learning of second languages with a wider range of new and emerging interactive technologies, such as iPads, tablet PCs, learner response systems, and videoconferencing software. The
educational contexts vary from primary and secondary schools, to vocational
colleges and universities. Its central objective is to promote effective foreign
language teaching and learning by supporting teachers in their integration of a
variety of interactive technologies into communicative classroom practice.
The following activities are currently being carried out:
3.3 iTILT2 interim results
3.3.1 Documentation of teacher participants baseline
Like in the iTILT1 project (Hillier et al., 2013) data were collected to
establish the baseline situation of participating practitioners to establish training
needs and allow post project impact evaluation. For this four online questionnaires, one for each type of technology (laptops, tablets, mobile phones and
IWBs) possibly used at the participating schools, were used. Here we only report the currently available results for the tablets survey based on 9 respondent
reactions from 4 different countries. The majority of the teachers appears not
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to use tablets in every language lesson (due to lack of access reported by 6
respondents), however in the lessons in which tablets were incorporated, they
were likely to be used in a small group or individual work rather than a whole
class approach. Most respondents believe that tablets are beneficial to learning
a foreign language; all teachers surveyed indicated that they perceived tablets to
both increase pupil motivation and increase engagement. As to technical skills
most of the teachers surveyed are fairly confident in using the basic functions of
tablets, such as playing video clips, recording video and using the camera. However, more complex processes have divided opinion. Just over half of the surveyed teachers (5/9 teachers), responded feeling confident using and downloading applications and screen casting/mirroring. Video editing software proved
to bring out the least confident responses, with only 3 teachers responding that
they felt confident using the software. Only one teacher reported to use video
conferencing software in language teaching, however four teachers have indicated a confidence in using video conferencing in a more general context. This
is interesting as it indicates that there are technologies that teachers are familiar
with and confident in using, and yet are not used in a language teaching context.
3.3.2 Teacher education programme
The 16 months professional development programme consists of an introductory one-day workshop, in which 20 participating teachers are introduced
to the theoretical framework underlying the overall professional development
programme and presented with examples of effective use of interactive technologies.
Ongoing pedagogical support for the teachers is provided via:
a) professional development e-resources (for use in combination with
iTILT resources), providing teachers with tools for self-training and self-reflection. All partners have planned to finish the training by September 2016.
b) consultancy provided by project partners, in which they will observe
technology-enhanced lessons and involve teachers in the critical evaluation of
these lessons. Project partners will also take advantage of these school visits
to support teachers in the design of technologyenhanced lessons and provide
them with teaching resources (c.f. Huizinga et al., 2015)
c) video-stimulated reflection
At least two lessons will be video-recorded by the project partners and
used for video stimulated reflective dialogue (VSRD) sessions with the participant teachers (reflective practice being another important element of the profes142
sional development programme). Most partners have completed the first recording sessions. In the course of the final year (2017) extracts from these lesson
recordings, along with supporting materials, will be added to project’s website.
d) online collaborative support network
A Google group has been created to support the development of an online community of practice (CoP) (Lave & Wenger, 1991) that will allow participating teachers from the different partner countries to upload vlogs (video diary
clips), short clips of classroom practice, and lesson plans and resources. Teachers can exploit the CoP network to gain insights into other teachers’ practice,
give and receive feedback, and exchange teaching materials and other resources
(also c.f. Pareja Roblin, 2014). This collaborative support platform for teachers
is seen as a key element of the training programme as it will allow teachers to
explore and play with new ideas and share experiences with peers (Dikkers,
2012) while offering professional development opportunities for teacher educators (Brody & Hadar, 2015).
3.3.3 e-Resource
The project is developing a professional development e-resource, which
will be valuable to both pre-service and in-service teachers of languages. Eventually this document will include four main sections: 1. Short introduction to
task based language teaching and general principles for task design. 2. Guidelines and step-by-step instructions on how the project website can be exploited
for professional development. 3. Examples of in-service and pre-service teacher
training activities based on the content of the website (e.g. video clips, teacher/
pupil commentaries, other resources). 4. Further examples of technology use
(e.g. videoconferencing software and tablets) with clear references to theories
of second language acquisition and language teaching methodology.
Among the illustrative examples with interactive technologies aiming
to make language learning more learner-centered, authentic and task-based included are a number that were developed and piloted during the first phase of
the iTILT2 project (Preparation Stage - September 2014 to June 2015) by two
partner institutions.
One of them describes a video-communication project where two
schools have worked together on the design of the tasks which allowed them to
engage in a video- conversation using the Brigit Conferencing Software, which
supports IWB-mediated online collaboration.
The German learners (7 year olds) in the Kloesterleschule in Schwaebi143
sch Gmuend and the French learners (8-9 year olds) in the Ecole Boissier in
Antibes, though located in different countries, were able to share documents,
annotate directly on their whiteboards and save the changes, while engaging in
a video- communication.
A webcamera, microphones and speakers were connected to the classroom computer, allowing full functionality of the software. The teachers, with
the help of the university researchers, designed and implemented two language
learning tasks which involved genuine exchange of information and use of English.
In the ‘Introduction’ session the learners had a pre-prepared file with
photos, gender, age, as well as pictures showing likes and dislikes. Previously,
both groups had worked with this vocabulary in class, either by playing paperbased games or IWB activities. This helped the students to prepare their own
identity cards with their profile photographs and all the relative information, but
they were also to ask the other students for the same information.
Before each session, the German and the French teacher determined the
sentence structures and chunks used during the sessions to avoid problems in
understanding each other or getting confused. Therefore, in the videoconferencing lesson, one group took turns introducing themselves, the other took turns
completing (drag-and-drop tool) identity cards for the first group, followed by
a change of roles.
One child from each remote classroom would come to the front and engage in a conversation, asking and giving information. The group that needed to
complete the identity cards had to determine whether the person speaking is a
boy or a girl, and then drag-and-drop a corresponding picture.
The Brigit Conferencing Software allows screen sharing, so the group
that was introducing itself could monitor and check if the identity cards were
being filled in correctly. Other questions were related to their age, favourite food
and favourite animal (see Fig. 1).
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Fig 1. Task result: (almost) completed identity card
Again, the choice of vocabulary was limited to the words that both
groups have used and practiced in class, but some students made attempts to
improvise and say something that was not learnt in class. It is important to add
that the IWB was just one of the stations, that is, while some students performed
actions on the IWB and asked for information, the others were busy working on
the paper-based worksheets that were identical to the one that was being shown
on the screen. They also needed to listen carefully and fill in the worksheets.
In addition to suggesting ways of integrating and demonstrating combined use of new interactive media this example also aims to illustrate new innovative ways of using the IWB and show that it can be a valuable addition to
the foreign language classroom.
3.3.4 Collaboration with pre-service teachers
In two partner countries the participating teachers have started preparations to support collaboration with pre-service teachers to combine the novice
teachers’ theoretical and technical knowledge with their experienced colleagues’
classroom craft in the design, implementation and evaluation of technologyenhanced lessons (Cutrim Schmid & Whyte, 2014).
3.3.5 Multiplier Events
Three multiplier events to share practice and reflection have been
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planned. The first of these has taken place at the University of Nice Sophia
Antipolis, France. Its results are available here: https://sites.google.com/site/itiltnice2015/talks-and-workshops.
The second is to take place on November 7, 2016 at Antwerp University.
3.3.6 The library
The fragmented nature of the current knowledge base and the scarcity of
rigorous studies on the use of tablets across the curriculum as also reported in
(Haßler, 2015) – let alone specifically for modern languages –provided a good
rationale for the inclusion of the digital Library as a deliverable. So, after some
technical modifications to the current metadata structure of the available digital
library resource new content related to interactive classroom technology use
and Mobile Assisted Language Learning (MALL) will be added. As in iTILT
1 the main focus is on curating content offering suggestions for materials repositories, networking opportunities for practitioners and collecting references
to relevant webinars, reports on affordances and reviews of apps for foreign
language learning, relevant research and resources in related projects.
To help realise this the project has also entered into (associate partner)
relationships with a number of related EU projects including the project ‘Mobile
enhanced tools and approaches for innovative language learning and assessment’ (M-Lang) http://histproject.no/node/905 that aims to upgrade the professional skills of (language) teaching staff with respect to innovative learning and
assessment methods by means of state-of-the art mobile enriched technologies
and so improve learning outcomes. Another iTILT partner project is ‘Transforming European Learner Language into Learning Opportunities’ (TELL-OP)
http://www.tellop.eu/ promoting personalized e-learning of languages in the contexts of higher & adult education, in particular, through mobile devices using
Data Driven Learning (DDL) approaches.
iTILT also partners with projects with other specific objectives to support the development of mobile learning such as ‘Transforming Teacher Educator’s Pedagogies’ (MTTEP) www.mttep.eu which addresses the issue of lack of
competence in the educational use of tablets at teacher education level and aims
to support teacher educators in how they use mobile technologies in their teaching in initial teacher education and with teachers in continuing professional development. And the project ‘Inclusive Education with Tablets’ (IncluEdu) http://
incluedu.com/ which aims to stimulate a wider uptake of ICT in teaching and
learning to increase the level of inclusion in a wide array of educational organisations by producing a collection of practical inclusive learning and teaching
146
scenarios.
Other organisations and (inter)national) initiatives whose developments
and outputs are closely followed include the EuroCALL SIG Mobile Assisted
Language Learning (MALL) http://www.eurocall-languages.org/sigs/mall-sig and
the ICT and Education section of the Kennisrotonde (KnowledgeRoundabout)
https://www.nro.nl/kb-category/ict-en-onderwijs/, one of the NRO projects that is
part of the Dutch Organisation of Scientific Research (NWO) that commissions,
supports and disseminates ICT-related classroom practice research based on
practitioner questions.
University OER research repositories are screened in search for contributions by Faculties of Education reporting exploration and implementation of
the latest technologies relevant for the iTILT project. These result from the increased collaboration with their school practice schools involving student teachers at BA and MA level in the school innovation process by piloting new methodologies and/or researching specific local implementation issues. An example
of the resulting publications of classroom-based research is a study reporting
research how a series of paper-based lessons could be developed on an iPad so
added value was created for the training of reading skills. This involved criteria development for feature-based selection of apps (Socrative, App Writer NL,
iBooks Author, Pictello en Book Creator) and evaluation of the piloting of the
contents designed in iBooks Author, the selected app (Onstein, 2015).
The project is particularly interested in supporting the dissemination of
the results of this type of ‘grass roots explorations’ as they can help the current
generation of student teachers and teacher educators to support schools to integrate new interactive technologies (Burden & Hopkins, 2016).
To conclude, the intention is to also include studies in the Library that
research how (self-directed) language students actually use mobile devices as
this knowledge can help educators better understand how mobile devices feature in language learning and can be harnessed in contributing to it, see e.g.
(Demouy et al., 2016).
4. Conclusion
The design, development strategies, results and research related to both
iTILT projects are and will be targeted at contributing to the training of (student)
teachers and teacher educators (Whyte, S. (2015) and the effective pedagogical
exploitation of IWB and mobile devices in language education.
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151
Blended Learning with MALL at EF Education
First: 13 years of progress in bringing mobile technology into the
language classroom
David Bishâ
EF Education First, Zürich
[email protected]
Abstract: Context in language teaching is everything, so I would like
to help ground the discussions at this EUROCALL MALL workshop into the
context of English and world language teaching at EF Education First. I will
share the story of EF’s struggles and triumphs in integrating MALL into our
curriculum and teaching spaces.
EF was an early adopter of blended learning in our language teaching
back in 2007, capitalising on our own online English school to provide a VLE
courseware based extension and support to classroom work in computer labs.
We started with mobile handheld devices right back then.
Fast forward to the advent of the iPad in 2010 and were presented with
a fresh opportunity to rethink how we could blend learning in the classroom,
especially with the lure of BYOD.
As a former teacher trainer and director of studies, one of the aspects
I cherish most in the use of MALL is not only what it gives students, but the
teacher empowerment it offers. Given the size of EF, we have been very lucky to
be able to trail and develop our own software alongside our teachers as we have
sought to resolve key challenges.
At EF we are now looking towards the next horizon of blended learning
in which MALL will surely be an integral part. I will close by briefly mentioning
some of the future directions we are contemplating.
Keywords: MALL, Blended Learning, Microblending, flipped classroom, ICT,
1. Why MALL is important to EF
EF Education First is the world’s largest private education company (we
employ over 40,000 people) with 500 offices and schools in over 100 countries
(EF 2016a).
I work for EF’s International Language Schools where in addition to the
153
learning potential of MALL I benefit from the support of non-academic drivers
that make the conditions ripe for this learning:
- Innovation is alluring to our students
- Devices and gadgets sell well in our demographic
- Our students are travelling and keeping in touch by distance
- Flexible learning spaces are cost effective
Although the bulk of my work is with the language division where students are studying abroad to learn English and other languages, what also makes
EF special is that since 1995 our EF Labs division have been working first with
CD-ROMS and then Internet to bring technology-enabled study from home to
distance students worldwide (EF, 2016b).
2. EF’s First Step to Blended Learning
This came when in 2007 Dr Christopher McCormick initiated a project
to bring together elements of our online learning tool Englishtown, with our
own series of course books. As EF had been working on its own materials for
many years already both sets of materials were written around the same core
syllabus making a strong fit in the learning objectives of our LMS (Learning
Management System) content and traditional materials.
For hardware we initially retrofitting language labs with PCs in our older
schools and built custom computer labs in newer premises.
Nonetheless, with iPods being the must-have device and the emergence
of language learning podcasts these materials included a series of specially written short videos that could be accessed on an MP3 player called ‘Pod English’.
3. The First Step into MALL
We entered MALL right away back in 2007. At the time that meant providing hardware so we offered our students DELL handheld pocket PCs which
we called the LPod which accessed the Internet through school-based wifi.
LPods gave access to a basic set of the features on our LMS (iLab) with basic
study tools like an online dictionary and even included some social networking
like the iClub where you could contact classmates.
We learned from this early bold step that although the device was attractive, motivating and far cheaper than the PCs of the day (Fig. 1.1), the limitation
154
of not accessing the costly mobile network meant that anytime-anywhere learning was restricted to places in and around the school. This made for some great
treasure hunts and one off activities but not aiding more out of class authentic
study. Similarly the WAP (Wireless Application Protocol) websites available at
the time were limited.
Table 1. learning with the handeld ‘LPod’ in 2007
Pros
Cheap (IRO 100 USD)
Anytime-anywhere access in school
Personal dictionary/ wordlist
Web access for additional research
Recording of speaking activities
Cons
Not on mobile network
Limited Wifi availability
Poor (WAP) websites
No teacher involvement
Not integrated
4. Improving classroom-based blending
Greater integration seemed to be what was lacking. From teachers and
students alike we got the message that this blended learning was not blended
enough.
The use of computer labs could lead to ‘siloed’ learning where the student was focussed on the input of an individual machine. This unquestionably
gave rapid personalised learning and focus on language form but our students
are primarily travelling abroad to study with us to enjoy the benefits of communicative language teaching through social interaction.
We initially addressed this through removing divisions between stations
in the language labs and successive syllabus revisions, re-imagining more interactive ways to access the online material as pair work and group work tasks and
through enhanced teacher mentoring and training.
5. iPad Changes the game
In 2010 Steve Jobs launched the iPad as his mobile solution to the limitations of netbooks. This offered a new immersive hands-on experience where
students were somehow closer to the learning, in Jobs words ‘Intimate’ (Everystevejobsvideo, 2013).
To me and others at EF there was now a way to bring our students closer
155
together and more able to interact with the media. Our board and marketing
team saw the benefits it too and so my colleagues and I had the enviable job
of imagining how a MALL pedagogy could bring the integration and interaction we wanted allowing us to continue our commitment to blending inside the
classroom space and time
6. Extending EF’s methodology for MALL
As well as equipping the academic team with iPads I was bundled off to
EUROCALL for more inspiration and came back truly fired up with an extensive list of people to follow and MALL studies to read.
To get practical fast (within a single term) we took two parallel approaches to ensuring iPads could be used in our classrooms.
1. The EF Labs team updated all our VLE content (which was in Flash)
to HTML5 – making our online school totally accessible on an iPad
through an app. This was a huge programming task probably only made
possible by the fact we had a 600 strong staff in our Shanghai team at
the time.
2. I took sets of iPads into schools and started experimenting with tasks
they could use with groups of students. This was classic action research
with me and teachers experimenting with what worked and developing
a series of activity frameworks I made into a teachers book ‘The iPad
Cookbook’ (not available outside EF). These were effectively the type of
frameworks called for by Kukulska-Hulme & Shield (2008).
We were now able to combine the flexibility of authentic web based
media with our on VLE on demand in a variety of learning spaces. This had
the additional cost benefit of increasing the capacity of schools which had been
dependent on the number of fixed computer lab seats available. As one of our
School Directors pragmatically put it ‘We used to take the class into the computer room, now we take the computers into the classrooms’.
At the time, the teachers and I made much use of the revised Blooms
Digital Taxonomy (Churches, 2007) on a task based learning framework to ensure the students were challenged and creative rather than simply consuming
media (see Conole et al, 2008 & Kukulska-Hulme & Shield, 2008).
7. BYOD then and now
To move from a large number of PCs to a large number of mobile de156
vices was a huge challenge.
Our initial strategy in 2010 was that we would include an iPad in the
price of a longer course as well as running competitions and incentives and as
the device was sure to be popular anyway we would maybe only need a few
extra devices in each school for any student to be able to learn with the iPads at
any time.
This was becoming popularly known as a BYOD (Bring Your Own Device) strategy but back then as shown in Table 2 it had its drawbacks. Primarily
although students did bring something they wanted to use their own favoured
devices - I remember observing a lesson in 2011 with 5 different personal devices on the table as well as the iPads. At the time apps were very distinct from
device to device and training and preparation for all these eventualities:
Table 2. BYOD circa 2011
Pros
Less inventory management
Less maintenance
Nothing to sell to students
Cons
Maintaining student devices
Device variety
Nothing to give away
Ultimately our inventory or devices and techniques for device management had to increase with each school ending up with several class sets of iPads
in custom EF designed charging cases that could be carried into class. We even
designed our own iPad headset mic which allows multiple students to listen to
one device without interrupting another group but still allows them an ear free
to they can talk as they watch and listen.
As other tablets became available it was always a question whether we
stayed with iPads, especially as Apple’s IOS and tools treated iPads as personal
devices set up to be used by a single owner.
This configuration and installation was initially highly time consuming and manual requiring extensive training for individual technicians in each
school to maintain the software on iPads until we were able to satisfactorily use
MDM (Mobile Device Management) to configure, update and track all of our
iPads remotely.
157
8. The EF Classroom App – designed with teachers
Our EF Labs team had grown in expertise making a number of smaller
IOS apps, and in 2011 we founded the Classroom Technology Experience team
to build our unique EF Classroom App.
This was developed to take the teaching frameworks developed with
teachers and to place them into a lesson delivery system.
Effective integration of MALL in the classroom space undoubtedly
hinges on having a set of tools teachers are ready and willing to work with.
Through our extended period of a staged rollout of iPads in over 20 of our
schools we had listened to what teachers were asking for when using technology
in the classroom. Some of their top requests may not seem constructive:
1. Slower change/easier learning curve
2. Printed teacher materials so they can ‘take them home’
3. Ability to stop students being distracted
4. Classic teacher fronted one to many interaction (Videos / PPT)
We dealt with the first two wishes in part with by loaning iPads and having them ready for teachers to prepare with in the staffroom. But what we really
see in this list is that teachers are pushing back strongly towards call that allows
them affords them an element of control so that they can effectively microblend
the use of the technology into lessons they have ownership of.
The evolving app contained all of the features of the most popular apps
such as a writing tool, video recording and playback, flashcards and quizzes as
well as the ability to access all of our VLE content plus any web based media.
What makes the app truly unique is that the teacher’s iPad acts as a
controller, starting a lesson which students joined creating an ad-hoc network of
all the iPads in the room. The teacher is able to serve media content, launch an
activity or give the students free control over tools on the iPad. As they do this
the teacher is guided by an on-screen lesson plan and notes.
While teachers ask for control and ownership they like support and advice so we have created a full library of lessons corresponding with our course
books although any of these can be customised and extended or the teacher can
build and save their own lessons from scratch, making the app responsive to the
needs of them and their students.
We are considering introduction of knowledge model into the content
being covered in these lessons as part of our Mentor project, this will allow us
158
to track what students are learning and provide the teacher with feedback on
where extra input is needed suggesting lessons activities or media or whether it
is time to move on
9. Summary
At times this presentation reads a little like an Apple advertisement but
we have always simply looked for the opportunities MALL has to offer to extend and disrupt our pedagogy to enhance modes of learning.
The ultimate aim is to provide a blended learning experience where
MALL allows teacher and student to bring technology into the classroom exactly as and where need.
With nod towards Warschauer & Healey’s stages of CALL (1998),
Kukulska-Hulme and Shield (2008) and Peuntedura’s 2014 SAMR model I have
attempted to sythensise EF’s progress with MALL into Figure 1 where we have
moved from a pre-MALL content delivery modality on individual machines
though the disruptive pedagogy we can offer today towards the transparent yet
personalised learning we have yet to reach.
Fig 1. Developing MALL at EF
Stage:
0. Media ‘ICT’
1. PDA
2. iPad
3. BYOD
Multiple integrated
Modality Pre-MALL
Personal VLE & Guided
tools
Pedagogy Content delivery Additive Disruptive
Personalised
10. Where next?
We have now completed the development to serve our Classroom App
experience across multiple devices types at the same time a system which we
are trailing in Swedish secondary schools to facilitate the integration of technology in truly BYOD enabled classes across the curriculum.
Meanwhile the trends in mobile device design offers devices that are
now specifically ‘somewhere’ with the ability to detect the users movement and
location in devices such as the Occulus Rift headset which offers an even more
immersive Virtual Reality experience.
Devices are also getting smaller, more personal and more individual:
Samsung patented a contact-lens sized device as I was preparing for this presentation in April 2016 (Van Boom).
159
For me the next challenge is avoiding the danger that MALL individualisation and personalisation could place fully absorbed learners further apart
rather than bring them closer together in a classroom language learning setting.
I am fortunate to have observed a wonderful summer of classroom
teaching by many teachers who embrace MALL in the classroom and I know
between us we have the answers.
References
Churches A, (2007), Edorigami, blooms taxonomy and digital approaches. Retrieved from http://edorigami.wikispaces.com/Bloom%27s+and+ICT+tools
Conole, G., Maarten de Laat, M., Dillonc, T. & Darbya J. (2008) Disruptive
technologies’, ‘pedagogical innovation’: What’s new? Findings from an
in-depth study of students’ use and perception of technology. Computers
& Education, 50(2), pp 511–524
EF (2016a). Our Company. Retrieved from http://www.ef.co.uk/about-us/our-company/
EF (2016b). Our History. Retrieved from http://www.ef.co.uk/about-us/our-history/
Everystevejobsvideo (2013, December 30). Steve Jobs introduces Original
iPad - Apple Special Event (2010) [Video file]. Retrieved from https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=_KN-5zmvjAo
Kukulska-Hulme, A., & Shield, L. (2008). An overview of mobile assisted language learning: From content delivery to supported collaboration and interaction. ReCALL, 20(3), pp. 271–289.
Puentedura, R (2014). SAMR Model http://hippasus.com/rrpweblog/ Van Boom, D. (2016, April 6) .Where we’re going we don’t need headsets: Samsung receives patent for AR contact lenses. Retrieved from http://www.
cnet.com/news/where-were-going-we-dont-need-headsets-samsung-files-patent-for-smart-contact-lenses/
Warschauer, M, & Healey, D. (1998) Computers and language learning: an
overview Language Teaching, 31(2),pp. 57-71.
David Bish: Biography
David Bish, Director of Academic Management at EF Education First
since 2012, has been a teacher, teacher trainer, materials designer and Academic
160
Manager.
David has worked in state schools and universities in countries including the UK, Czech Republic and Russia and has visited many more as a teacher
trainer and conference speaker.
He has a long history with computers in teaching having written teaching software for mathematics, programming and EFL and is currently completing his doctoral research at the University of Exeter on the impact language
teachers and institutions can have on use of ICT tools in the EFL classrooms
under a ‘microblended’ model.
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