Magic plants in the south of Ghana

Magic plants in the south of Ghana
Britt Myren
Biology Leiden University
Research internship
Dr. Tinde van Andel
April 2011
Index
Abstract
1
1. Introduction
2
1.1 Magic plants and sacred forests
2
1.2 Research questions and hypothesis
3
2. Methods
4
2.1 Research area
4
2.2 Research team
7
2.3 Research methods
7
2.3.1 Preparation
7
2.3.2 Interview
7
2.4 Interview Methods
9
2.5 Key informants
10
2.6 My input as an Anthropologist
11
3. Results
13
3.1 The Respondents and the Sacred Forests
13
3.2 Sacred places
18
3.3 Most important Magic Plants
23
3.4 Dealing with diseases by supernatural agents
25
3.5 Witchcraft and plants
27
3.6 Pregnancy and infancy
29
3.6.1 Female infertility
29
3.6.2 Spiritual protection
29
3.7 Using Magic Plants
30
3.7.1 Bath
31
3.7.2 Enema
32
3.7.3 Burning (smoke)
32
3.7.4 Boil and drink as tea
32
3.7.5 Rubbing the medicine on the body
33
3.7.6 Planted in gardens
33
3.7.7 Put in food
33
3.8 Sacred Forest and Shrines
3.8.1 Shrines, Sacred forests and the Church
3.9 The sale of magic plants and protected trees
33
34
36
4. Discussion
38
4.1 Method evaluation
38
4.1.1 Interviews
38
4.1.2 Bushwalks
39
4.1.3 Suggestions
39
4.2 Bias
40
4.2.1 Respondents
40
4.2.2 Definitions of spiritual and physical medicine
40
4.2.3 Shrines, Sacred Forests and Christians
40
4.3 Rituals and spiritual diseases
41
4.3.1 Schnapps
41
4.3.2 Spiritual diseases
41
4.3.3 Infertility
43
4.3.4 Why people go to a shrine
43
4.3.5 Witchcraft
44
4.3.6 New religions and old religions
45
4.3.7 What is sacred in the South of Ghana?
46
4.3.8 The market
46
4.3.9 Practice of plant preparation
48
5. Conclusion
50
Word of Gratitude
52
Appendix 1 Literature
I
Appendix 2 Interview
IV
Appendix 3 List Ghanaian Magic Plants
VII
Appendix 4 Spirits in the South of Ghana
XX
Abstract
The use of magic plants in the south of Ghana is very important. There are many sacred forests, sacred
plants and shrines where these magic plants grow. Insufficient research by people from different fields
has been carried out on which plants are used for magical or spiritual purposes, for rituals or in the
treatment of diseases. The main question in my research is Do people in the south of Ghana use magic
plants, and if they do, why?'
In this research I looked at various plants that are used for spiritual and magical purposes, to become
spiritually healthy, to get rid of witchcraft and other mishaps, and to worship gods. As an
anthropologist I looked especially at the connection between certain magic plants and the uses and
beliefs that are attributed to them. Most of my research is based on semi-structured interviews that I
prepared before entering the field. I also took walks through the bush and the forest with my
respondents to collect many samples of magic plants. The majority of the plant determinations were
carried out by us at the University of Legon in Accra and at the Wageningen branch of the National
herbarium of the Netherlands. In addition, I also carried out intensive literature research to find out
why people in Ghana use magic plants.
Magic plants are used to treat many diseases and other difficult issues. Among the most common
reasons given by respondents as to why the use magic plants or visit shrines were to prevent
convulsions, to treat female infertility, to obtain a visa to travel to Europe or the USA, and to get rid of
witchcraft or other bad spirits. Magic plants do not grow only in sacred forests, they are also planted
next to shrines and in people’s own gardens for protection. Many sacred plants are sold in the market,
even though these sacred plants are believed by many Ghanaians to be very dangerous to collect.
People in the south of Ghana use magic plants because of their religion and because of local beliefs
and values, regardless of whether they are Christian, Muslim or adhere to a traditional religion. The
spirits most people believe in live in the forests, rivers and trees and in other natural places. People’s
belief in witchcraft and ancestral spirits was noticeable in many of the places we visited. There is a
belief that they can cause mishap and diseases, especially in small children. Magic plants are used to
treat these effects or to prevent such things from happening. The distinction between ‘physical’ and
‘spiritual’ diseases is still sometimes unclear.
Because lumber companies chop down many sacred trees, and probably because magic plants are
being sold in large quantities in markets throughout the south of Ghana, these plants are becoming rare.
In sacred forests, next to shrines or in the gardens of many people, these plants are protected. But even
in some sacred forests or protected areas, lumber companies still chop these plants down.
1
1. Introduction
1.1 Magic plants and sacred forests
The traditional religion of the people in parts of West Africa is closely connected to several plant
species. Anthropologists, and other scientists have studied the traditional beliefs and religions of the
West Africans extensively. Unfortunately, I have found very few examples of researchers actually
naming the species of the plant the people use in their religion or in connection with magic rituals.
Many researchers can name one or two magic or religious species, but most of them use only local
names (Ventevogel 1996; Gottlieb 2004). What these researchers do mention is the importance of the
plants that people use when they are practising their magic rituals or witchcraft. This links sacred
plants to their religion, but it does not explain the greater value these magic plants have in treating
diseases. The medicinal value of these plants is not acknowledged. They are categorized as ‘magical’,
which means not useful for anything except religion.
In this field of research, Nichter (2008) also notes, that it is important to look at local practices, local
practical knowledge and the role this knowledge might play in health promotion as well as disease
prevention and management. The field I have done research in is called ethnomedicine or ethnobotany.
Ethnomedicine is the subdivision of medical anthropology which contains 'those beliefs and practices
relating to disease which are the products of indigenous cultural development and are not explicitly
derived from the conceptual framework of modern medicine' (Foster 1978: 5). In medical research it is
very important that there is an emphasis on the diseases, or illnesses, that are looked at from an
indigenous cultural point of view.
Local herbalists and priest-healers have an important role in providing ideas about treatment and
disease. When trying to understand African medicine, people do 'not see the magical practices of many
healers as advantageous for African medicine' (Ventevogel 1996: 46). The local perceptions that are so
important in understanding local health, as Nichter has noted, are just as important when looking at
magical practices as when looking at the ways of treating a stomach problem. 'Cultural beliefs are
among one of the most powerful influencing factors in people's healthcare hunting behaviour' (Obeng
2009: 11). As an anthropologist, it is important to find these cultural beliefs.
Researchers have not yet done intense fieldwork on magical plants in the south of Ghana. In the
literature research, I have found several examples where the authors named only tree species that were
standing in a shrine (Parrinder 1961), or a sacred tree that is protected by people (Ouinsavi et al. 2005).
Research by Addai and Obiri (2007) on the Kumasi market does not give a good view of the various
magical plants that are being sold at the market in Ghana. Magical plants can show how people view
certain diseases, because the treatment for a spiritually caused disease is generally different from a
2
physically caused disease. When western-trained doctors want to work together with traditional
healers, they must understand local people’s views of illness and treatment. Otherwise things can go
wrong because both do not understand each other, as the PRETIH programme mentioned in
Ventevogel (1996) shows. The Ghanaian view is usually different from that of western-trained doctors
when looking at spiritual diseases. The uses of magic plants can explain a lot of the perspectives and
views of Ghanaians on treating diseases.
The worshipping of sacred plants is very important for the people in West Africa (Ouinsavi et al. 2005;
Ouinsavi & Sokpon 2008; Ray & Ramachandra 2010; Ali & Butz 2003). Hundreds of sacred forests
are being carefully protected by local communities. The conservation of trees and plants is possible
because people in West Africa believe these plants are connected to spirits. People protect small
patches of forest and the sacred forests are an example of that. Ramachandra & Ray (2010) note that
even very small pieces of forested land (smaller than one hectare) are being protected because people
have very strong religious beliefs about these plants. A lot of these species are also vanishing, because
of the timber companies, deforestation by small-scale farmers and cattle herders, urbanization and
commercial palm oil and rubber plantations. Because of the rise of popularity of the Christian and
Muslim religion in Ghana, much of the knowledge about magic plants is probably disappearing.
Sacred forests can keep plants from getting extinct. A lot of the biodiversity will be lost if researchers
and policy makers do not give enough attention to magical plants and sacred forests (Ray &
Ramachandra 2010; Ali and Butz 2003).
1.2 Research questions and hypothesis
Given the lack of knowledge about the use of magical plants in southern Ghana, my main question is:
Do people in the south of Ghana use magic plants, and why?
To elaborate on the subject, answers to the following questions can give a full understanding. These
questions are:

Which plants are considered magical by the traders, herbalists/priest healers, local villagers
and people who are connected to shrines in southern Ghana, and why?

What are the most famous magic plants among the respondents?

What are the different ideas about fertility and spiritual health of mother and child and which
plants are used?

What rituals/taboos/rules are related to magic (medicinal) plants?

Does the current harvesting of magic plants cause problems for sustainability?
The hypotheses for this research are: Traditional healers collect magic plants only in sacred forests or
gardens. And: Traditional healers treat physical problems and spiritual problems in a spiritual way.
3
2. Methods
2.1 Research area:
The research was carried out in the south of Ghana, West Africa. The fieldwork started on 30 June
2010 and ended on 30 August 2010. In total, I was in Ghana for nine weeks. Eight of these nine weeks
I spent doing my research. One week I spent as a holiday. In Accra, the Ghanaian capital, we had a
house where we stayed throughout the two months and where we could organize our data with our
laptops and keep our belongings. The reason we stayed in Accra was because the Legon University in
Accra had a herbarium where we could identify our plants and because of the large medicinal plant
markets in Accra which were important for our research. Five of the eight weeks we spent travelling to
different places to visit a certain city or village to do the research. The fields of research were these
villages and cities, the markets where they sell medicinal and magic herbs, the sacred forests and the
shrines. Interviews were also carried out at the homes or shrines of the priests/herbalist/healers.
Ghana is divided into different regions. I carried out my research in Greater Accra Region, Central
Region, Western Region, Ashanti Region, Eastern Region and Volta Region. This way, we have
covered the whole south of Ghana (see Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Map of Ghana, divided in the different
regions. Black dots indicate fieldwork locations.
4
The duration of each fieldwork location varied from one to six days. In Figure 2, a map is shown with
the locations of general interviews and the number of respondents in that location. The market surveys
were carried out in Accra (Nima market and Timber market), Cape Coast (Central market) and
Kumasi (Kejetia market). We also visited Kakum National Park (Central Region), but we did not do
an interview there. Figure 3 shows the different landscapes in Ghana to give an illustration of the
different areas we visited for our research.
Kumasi (1)
Akoase (2)
Metsrikasa (2)
Klefe (1)
Kakum
Alabokazo (5)
Accra (2)
Efutu (1)
Cape Coast
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
Map with the cities and villages where I have
Map of Ghana that shows the different
done general interviews on magic plant use
landscapes and the forested areas.
and the number of respondents in those areas.
5
Figure 4.
The sacred forests and shrines visited during this research.
6 7
8 9
11
10
12
2
1
13
4
3 5
Apart from the shrines mentioned in Figure 4, we visited several other shrines that were located either
in or near people's houses. Some were at historical locations like the slave dungeon in Cape Coast
Castle.
6
2.2 Research team
This fieldwork was done in an interdisciplinary research team. The team consisted of one
ethnobotanist, my supervisor, Dr Tinde van Andel; two anthropologists, Sabine van Onselen and me,
Britt Myren; and one masters student of organic agriculture, Michael Kermah (a Ghanaian from
Elkwe, Western Region, who is a Nzema). During the research, our team was almost always together:
during interviews, during visits to sacred forests or shrines and at the markets. There were days when
our interview schedules or our plans were different and then we separated. Everybody had their own
areas of responsibility and research topics, but all the topics were connected or overlapped.
2.3 Research methods
2.3.1.Preparation
Before going into the field I had made a database where I noted all the plants that were once
documented as having a connection with magic, or been seen as sacred in Ghana. The literature I have
used to make this database is from a book by Irvine (1961) called 'Woody Plants of Ghana' and a book
by Abbiw (1990) called 'Useful Plants of Ghana'. I used this database to look at these plants in the
herbarium at the University of Leiden and the herbarium at the University of Wageningen to get a first
glance at the various plants. I also prepared myself by finding various sacred locations on the internet,
for example a shrine in Kumasi, and by looking at the documentary ‘Demons of Ghana’. In this
documentary we found that there is a special shrine in Nungua which we thought would be interesting
to visit. I have also read a good deal of literature on different rituals that were performed in Ghana, for
example in Müller & Ritz-Müller (2000). In one of these chapters, we found that there is a special
Mami Wata shrine in the Volta Region which we could visit. I have also read about the ideas that exist
about magic in Ghana in Awuah-Nyamekye (2008) and about the many names the Ghanaians have for
their gods and deities (www.afsani.org). I read some very specific literature on a god the Ghanaians
pray to: Mami Wata in Collier and Fleischmann (2003), and other literature on the healers and
herbalists in Ghana which Ventevogel (1996) writes about in his book. I have also read some literature
that concerned the Akan in West-Africa, in Konadu (2008). Some other literature written by
Mafimisebi and Oguntade (2010) concerns Southwest Nigeria, but because there is a lot of migration I
thought it could be interesting to read. This literature, and some others, I have used to design my
interview.
2.3.2.Interview
With the help of this literature I constructed an interview in English, the text of which you can see in
Appendix 2. The reason that I wrote it in English was because I had to think beforehand what the best
way would be to ask certain questions in English. English is the official language in Ghana and I
7
worked with English-speaking translators when respondents did not speak English. I put together a
semi-structured interview in which some of the questions required a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer.
My interview started with questions related to demographic issues: age, gender, place of birth, place of
residence, tribe, education, occupation and some psycho-social factors about their religion and what
types of healers they were (in their own view). The main interview was divided into two different
parts. The first part included general questions (including questions about the spiritual health of
women and children). The second part consisted of questions about the sacred forests.
The questions about the sacred forest were also asked of people who visited shrines or acted as shrinekeepers or linguists. Sometimes I could do the whole interview with one person, asking both the
general questions and the sacred forest questions. When I started the general questions, I asked how
they came to learn about medicinal plants and the rituals they performed; what kinds of problems they
solved; whether plants had spiritual powers; where they collected these plants, and whether they
continued to learn about new plants and uses. I asked them where the most important spirits lived,
whether there were trees that housed spirits and why a specific spirit preferred a certain plant or tree.
Only some informants were asked how they contacted those spirits, because we also interviewed
market vendors who only sold these plants. I asked respondents whether they used plants to chase
away bad spirits, to get more luck in life, to undo witchcraft, to carry out witchcraft or to protect
people against witchcraft. In the end I always asked if they had a shrine for prayer or consultation and
whether I could see the shrine. To further the general interview, I also asked some questions about the
spiritual health of women and children. I started with the questions about children, asking if they treat
children with spiritual problems, if they protect these children, and asking what happens if you do not
protect children with certain plants. I also asked whether there were certain plants or treatments that
would help a baby to become strong or walk early. Then I asked whether they treated women with
spiritual problems (for example. for a successful pregnancy, strong child), if there were spiritual
reasons why women could not have children, if there existed a spirit or plants that could help you to
conceive children and how you could take care of unborn children’s spirits during pregnancy.
In the second part of the interview, I prepared seven questions that concerned the sacred forests. I
always started by asking whether they visited the sacred forest, then I asked about the history of the
sacred forest (or the shrine). I asked whether certain trees and herbs were sacred and why, if there
were certain rituals to follow before you could harvest plants in the sacred forest and I asked who was
allowed to enter the sacred forest. Because of the increasing influence of Christianity in Southern
Ghana, I have asked whether people who went to church still used these plants and whether
churchgoers ever destroyed or chopped down sacred trees or plants. When I asked these questions to a
shrine-keeper, I only changed the words 'sacred forest' into 'shrine'.
8
2.4 Interview methods
My respondents were not randomly selected, but suggested by our contacts on the ground, who also
acted as key informants and sometimes also as interpreters. One key contact (Shaybu Abdullah) was
interviewed as a respondent because he was very knowledgeable about the sacred forest we visited
with him. There were several knowledgeable people who agreed to be interviewed and I chose to
incorporate these interviews into my research. Not everybody was willing to speak freely, but if there
was an interesting story to tell I always wanted to hear it.
When first meeting respondents, I started by asking whether they were agreeable to being interviewed
(oral consent). I explained the reason why I had come to Ghana and the type of research I was doing:
research about magic plants. Part of the research method was to explain that respondents would be
paid for their time. The reason for this was that they all had professions that we wanted to ask
questions about and we were taking a lot of their time. This was especially so of the market vendors,
who had to stop working in order to be interviewed. We paid ten cedis (± € 5.00) for a short interview,
20 cedis (± €1.00) for a long interview and 30 cedis (± €15.00) if we also took a walk through the
forest, which sometimes took us a couple of hours after the interview. This amount of money was
comparable with the salary of an average traditional healer. Some people were not satisfied with the
amount we wanted to give them and sometimes we gave our respondent a little more money, but most
of the time the respondents were very happy with the compensation.
Along with my translator, I tried to choose a place that was comfortable for my respondent during the
interview. When interviewing, I used a voice-recorder, I took photographs and sometimes made a short
film. My translator was, most of the time, my fellow student, Michael Kermah. When it was not possible
for Michael to translate, we found an acquaintance of the respondent or somebody in the city or village
who spoke good English. This way, in every interview, I asked the questions in English and the
interpreter translated it into whichever of the languages (Twi, Ga, Nzema, Ewe, Fante, Hausa or Ashanti)
the informant spoke. In some cases I forgot to ask a question, but indirectly people did answer the
question. The way the respondent answered the question was by answering it spontaneously later on, in
the end I counted it as an answer to the question.
After the interview, I tried to make another appointment, preferably directly after the interview, to
collect samples of the various plants that were mentioned in the interview. Some plants were collected in
the forests, some around the houses or in the villages of the respondents, and some were bought at the
markets. When vernacular names were mentioned during the interview, I tried to write them down as
correctly as I could. Because Michael attended almost every interview, he sometimes helped me to write
the names down correctly. Using their local names, we collected the plants after the interview or as part
of the interview. Afterwards we compared them with plants that we, or Tinde, had already collected.
Most of the time, Tinde took part in the plant collection, but as a group we all helped in comparing the
9
plants and in comparing our interview results. Sometimes we wrote the vernacular names down
differently, mostly phonetically, and then we had to listen to the tape or look at what the others wrote
down to figure out what kind of plant was being referred to.
After the initial interview, I continued with a semi-formal interview when we were walking through
the forest. I knew the topics I wanted to talk about and the questions I wanted to ask in the forest.
Some respondents who walked with us through the forest were people we did not interview, for
example tourist guides. On these occasions, I was not the only person asking questions that were
important for my research. Tinde also asked a lot of question and sometimes Michael did too. For
example, I asked my respondents about the different plants we saw, or I asked people on the street
certain questions about trees that were standing in the middle of the town. I also read books and some
articles I brought with me during the fieldwork to try to recognize new things.
2.5 Key informants
Our first key informant in Akoase was Elvis Owosu. He was the brother of a cleaner who works in the
AMC, whom my supervisor had met before we went to Ghana. He knew the people from his own
village and introduced us to the various herbalists, healers and priests. He also took us to the sacred
forests in his area.
In Cape Coast, we did not have a key informant. We relied on the tourist guides, who knew a good
deal about the history of the shrines we visited as well as about the plants. In Alabokazo, our key
informant was the father of Michael’s girlfriend, Shaybu Abdullah. He knew almost everybody in his
village and was popular and well known. This made it easier to make certain contacts. On the one-day
trip to Wassa Saamany, my key informant was Michael. Michael had worked in this area before and
had met the chief we wanted to interview. In Kumasi, we did not have a key informant. We relied on
the shrine-keepers of the Ashanti shrines we visited. In Ho, Tinde made some contacts through a
lawyer named Hillary Gbedemah, who used to live in that area. With these key informants we could
'ensure community participation' (Martin 1995: 6) for some part. This was a good way to secure the
cooperation of the local authorities and we knew how to find the respondents we were looking for. The
way we chose the women who were selling medicinal/magic herbs and artefacts on the market, was to
just walking around the market and see how they reacted to us. We chose them based on the number of
different plants they were selling and on whether they were willing to talk to us. The inclusion criteria
of our respondents was as follows: they had to be knowledgeable about a certain shrine or sacred
forest, they had to be working with plants in a spiritual way, they had to have advertised themselves as
priests, healers or herbalists, or they had to be selling medicinal and magic plants.
Sometimes there were problems with the respondents expressing reluctance to share their knowledge
of healing practices with us. We were refused twice in the Western Region near Alabokazo because
10
these people were afraid that we would steal their knowledge and sell it.
A few respondents were only interested in taking large amounts of
money from us, which we did not have. This is a problem Martin (1995)
also encounters when carrying out ethnobotanical research (1995: 239).
Without good key informants, it would not have been possible to create
an immediate sense of trust with our respondents. This is another reason
why the key informants were important. We also.tried to find our
...Figure 5: Sign leading.....by looking at roadside signs, like the one you can see in
....to a Native doctor ................Figure 5. This shows a sign which will lead you to a 'Native doctor'. The
painted mermaid on the sign is the spirit Mami Wata, which I will explain in my research results.
Hand-painted signs are a feature of Ghanaian life. They are also made for priest .healers (or herbalists)
and for shrines. In some cases, we knocked on the doors of our respondents or walked into their
gardens to ask them if we could interview them. Sometimes we did not use the interview list, but just
started to look around and to see what they could tell us about the place.
2.6 My input as an Anthropologist
My role as an anthropologist was to perform empirical observation and look at certain types of
behaviour in respondents and non-respondents in relation to certain plants. But the various research
methods that are used in ethnobotany are a mix of anthropological research methods and botanical
research methods. As an anthropologist, I tried to intensify the direct contact with the people during
our stays in the different places and I tried to discover why people use magic plants. I conducted some
participant observation as well, but these were not directly linked to the research. I participated in the
way people lived, the way they made their food and in walking with them to the farm where they
collected the plants.
The ethnobotanical research methods I acquired by studying the flora and fauna of the area started
with a visit to the botanical gardens at the University of Legon in Accra. There I learned how to collect
a plant specimen, what to write down when collecting a plant, the importance of learning the different
family names of the plants and how to identify them. Other botanical information was collected by my
supervisor, for example the latitude and longitude of the area, the geological formation and the
determination of the different soil types. My supervisor did most of the plant identification, but we
also helped to identify some of the plants in the herbarium at the University of Legon. I also
collaborated with the market surveys, counting how many plants vendors had in their market stalls and
asking how many plants they sold every week. We counted the various varieties of plants and the total
number of stalls that were selling medicinal/magic herbs and object. Together with Michael I also
went to several places and came into contact with people who told me about the sustainability of the
harvest of magic plants. This was Michaels' research, but I have incorporated some of the data we
11
found together in my research results. In Figure 6 you can see two respondents, Elea Nyanda (on the
left) and Osofo Mela (on the right), harvesting bark from a tree in the bush to use for some of their
magic medicine.
Figure 6: Elea Nyanda and Osofo Mela harvesting bark in a nearby forest in Alabokazo.
12
3.Results
3.1 The Respondents and the Sacred Forests
I interviewed a total of 25 respondents who came from 17 different villages or cities and who
belonged to nine different tribes. I interviewed more men than women because we encountered more
male traditional healers and shrine-keepers than female ones (see Table 1). While almost all market
vendors selling magic herbs were female, most priest-healers and shrine-keepers were male.
Table 1: Gender of respondents interviewed in Southern Ghana.
Gender
Male
Female
Total
Frequency Percent (%)
15
60,0
10
40,0
25
100,0
Table 2 gives an overview of general information about the respondents who took part in the research.
The interview has been divided into two parts. The largest part of the interview was called 'General
questions'. These were the questions about physical and spiritual treatments for certain illnesses and
for mother and infant care. The other part of the interview was called 'Sacred forest'. The questions
here were asked only about shrines or sacred forests. To show which questions were asked to whom,
general questions have been marked with a 'G' and questions concerning the sacred forests and shrines
with an 'SF' in the column headed 'Interview type'. An 'X' was placed when there was no data
available.
There are different types of traditional religions listed in the column 'Religion' and these had various
names. Komele Blay Tanoe adhered to a religion called Komenle (Nzema), while Ela Nyanda and
Monzu Nyonra adhered to a religion called Nyankaba (Nzema). The name of the religion of Kisudé
Tugo and O. Hugbezé Tsikata is unknown to me, but they called it a Traditional religion themselves.
Meraky Agbaizah was a follower of the Mami Wata cult. The word Komenle in Nzema is the same as
Okomfoͻ, which is someone who is concerned with the spirits of the rivers and the forest. They have
described it as more than a traditional religion. Osofo Mela’s religion was called the Twelve Apostles,
but people in the area called her also an Osofoͻ. An osofoͻ is someone who is concerned with the
spirits in the sky and which is something of a mix between the traditional religion and Christianity. It
seemed that my informants adhered to several religions at the same time.
Most of the respondents had acquired their knowledge about the different uses of magic plants from
family members. These family members were also often fetish priests, herbalists, shrine owners or
13
shrine-keepers, or guardians of a sacred forest. The other way my respondents had acquired their
knowledge was from the spirits. One of my respondents explained that he stayed in the forest for about
a year and after that time he had learned all the things he needed to know. Sometimes the spirits
continued to contact the herbalists or priest-healers by talking to them spiritually (such as in dreams)
or taking them to the plant they needed for the ailment they were treating. We saw one woman who
shook and twisted her head, which, according to our key informant, meant that she was possessed by a
spirit who was taking her to some plants that we needed to see.
In the column 'Education', I have used different labels for the education levels of my respondents. I
have used the term 'none' for the people who had no education at all. For the people who had fewer
than six years of education, the label 'some' is used. For the people who had more than six years of
education, I have used the label 'high'. The term 'knowledgeable' is used for people who knew a lot
about the topic of the interview. For example, [people may be knowledgeable because they have lived
in the area for a long time, or because of the connection they had with the sacred forest or the shrine.
In the last column, the type of healer is described. This description does not say anything about the
kinds of disease they would treat, because all of them knew spiritual medicine as well as physical
medicine. They have all also treated physical problems in a spiritual way.
Table 3 and Table 4 describe the various sacred forests and shrines we visited. I used the term
'officially protected' when the forest area or shrine is officially protected by the Ghanaian Forestry
Department or another official organ of the government of Ghana, or when it is protected by an
international body such as UNESCO. The size of the areas we visited varied between small (smaller
than one ha²), medium (one ha² to two ha²) and large (larger than two ha²). The column 'Name of
spirit' indicates which spirit people believed lived in the sacred forest or around the shrine. In that
column you can read the local name that the respondents use for the spirit that lives there.
14
Table 2: Database respondents
Interv.
type
G
G,SF
Interv.
Nr.
1
2
G
G
SF
SF
3
4
5
6
SF
7
Patience Ediakuba
Lydia Sady
Edward Borteh
Samual Mensah
A. Nangasudo Nana baa
the 7th
SF
G
8
9
Mm. Stella Amoah
Uncle Ageiku
G
10
SF
G,SF
G
Name
Kwame Amoako
Nana Kofi Aprada
Age Gender
78 M
48 M
Place residence
Akoase
Akoase
F
F
M
M
Place birth
Akoase
Obo (Nkawkaw)
Suhum (Eastern
Region)
Accra
x
Wassa Domama
Religion
Christian
Muslim
Occupation
retired linguist
Priest healer
Education
some
x
Type of healer
herbalist
priest healer
Accra
Accra
Nungua
Wassa Domama
Tribe
Akyem
Kwahu
Akuapim
(Suhum)
Ga
Ga
Wassa
Christian
Methodist
Christian
Christian
market vendor
market vendor
Herbalist
tour guide
some
some
high
some
Lower Saltpond
Lower Saltpond
Fante
Christian
Chief
high
60s F
56 M
x
Efutu
Anomabu
Efutu
Fante
Fante
Methodist
Methodist
retired teacher
Native doctor
high
high
Osofo Mela
60s F
Alabokazo
Nzema
Twelve apostles
herbalist/farmer
none
11
12
13
Tunvoa Ankoma II
Komele Blay Tanoe
Ackah Assuah
70s M
51 F
42 M
Alabokazo
area of Wassa
Saamany
Alabokazo
Alabokazo
Wassa Saamany
Alabokazo
Alabokazo
Wassa
Nzema
Nzema
Katholic
Trad. Religion
Roman Katholic
Chief
Komenle
Spiritualist
high
none
none
SF
G
G
G
14
15
16
17
Shaybu Abdullah
Elea Nyanda
Monzu Nyonra
Adama Ibrahim
M
F
F
F
Alabokazo
Alabokazo
Alabokazo
Accra
Alabokazo
Alabokazo
Alabokazo
Sewaba(Kumasi)
Nzema
Nzema
Nzema
Hausa
Muslim
Trad. Religion
Trad. Religion
Muslim
Farmer
Farmer
Farmer
market vendor
some
none
none
some
G
18
Asare Dickson
40-50 M
Edwinase?
Edwinase
Ashanti
shrine linguist
high
G,SF
19
Robert Dzah
x
Klefe
Ewe
Christian
Evangelical
Presbyterian
knowledgeable healer/seller
herbalist
herbalist
knowledgeable on rockshrine
knowledgeable chief on
shrine/cultural heritage
knowledgeable on
shrine/history
Native docter (=herbalist)
Osofo, priest
of Twelve Apostle Church
knowledgeable chief
on shrine/cultural heritage
Priest healer (Komele)
Herbalist/spiritualist
knowledgeable on plants
and spiritual things
Herbalist
Herbalist/spiritualist
knowledgeable market seller
knowledgeable on shrine/
history
72 M
retired teacher
high
SF
G
G
20
21
22
Joseph Tettey Teeh
Mr. Kisudé Tugo
O. Hugbezé Tsikata
Accra (Bortianor) Bortianor
Xevi area
Metsrikasa
x
Metsrikasa
Ga
Ewe
Ewe
Christian
Traditional
Traditional
Tailor
fetish priestess
Fetish priestess
high
none
none
SF
23
Koku Mensa
70s
M
x
Besease Ejisu
Ashanti
x
linguist shrine
none
SF
24
Kwasi Otawa
40s
M
x
Larteh Kubease
x
Christian
linguist shrine
high
SF
25
Meraky Agbaizah
20s
F
x
Adomi bridge
Ewe
Traditional
neighbor shrine
high
25
30
50
21
46
60
40
36
70 M
60s M
70s M
65 F
herbalist (pos.plant uses)
knowledgeable of
sacred forest
fetish priest
fetish priestess/herbalist
knowledgeable on
shrine/history; linguist
knowledgeable
on shrine/history
Knowledgeable
on shrine/history
15
Table 3: Sacred forests and shrines
Forest Shrine Name
What is it?
Holy
place? History
Yes
No
X
Sacred trees and liana's
Yes
History sacredness unknown.
2 Kwahu Ridge Yes
No
Kwahu
Yes
History sacredness unknown.
3 Nungua
Wassa
4 Domama
Lower
5 Saltpond
Yes
Yes
Yes
Place where people came before they went to war. Special place during Homowo Ga Festival..
Yes
Yes
Gborbu
Wassa Domama
Rockshrine
Forest area on mountain ridge
Small forest surrounded by white
wall, with sixty shrines inside
Yes
Spirit in rock that protects village. Yao onkoma (hunter) discovered the rock.
No
Yes
Posuban shrine
A big rock,surrounded by forest
two big ficus trees, few sacred trees
and concrete shrines
Yes
There were 2 sacred trees, next to a posuban shrine building made in 1687. Ecotourism attraction.
Yes
Ancestors have put walking stick in ground and it grew like a tree, sacred stone and the shrine used to
install a chief to get protection from spirits. Asafo warriors used to walk through village with
drums and pass all the posuban shrines in Anomabu. Tourist attraction.
Yes
Ancestors fell in water and started village on that spot.
Yes
spirit in creek, people came to live here because of water. Creek always contains water in dry season.
Location
1 Akoase
6 Anomabu
Wassa
7 Saamany
No
Yes
Anomabu nr. 1
Yes
Yes
Tumfoum
8 Alabokazo
Yes
Yes
Tanoe
one big Kigelia africana, next to a
concrete shrine
Forest area on mountain, sacred
places (shrines) inside
shrine at Nyazu creek that always
has water
9 Alabokazo
Yes
No
Kwanyema
Forest area
Yes
spirit in river and war shrine.
10 Edwinase
No
Yes
Ancestor spat out cola nut on ground which grew into a big tree.
Yes
Yes
Yes
spirit at river bank/hunters came here/ancestors. Clean creek provides village with drinking water.
12 Besease Ejisu No
Larteh
13 Kubease
No
near Adome
14 bridge
No
Yes
Besease shrine
Yes
Obosom Tanoe of the river gave Yaa Asantewa her power before war against English.
Yes
Yes
Ficus has spirit in it, was there before priest was born.
Yes
Akonadi
Abidjan Mami
Wata shrine
stone house with plants inside
Forest with creek at the beginning of
the forest
museum; shrine - stone house with
plants inside
shrine - stone house with plants
inside
house at the bank of the river with a
gate, trees surrounding the place
Yes
11 Bortianor
Edwinase
Solo Monkey
Forest Reserve
Yes
First shrine at river bank, then another was made in the village. Water spirit because of Volta River bank.
15 Abrafo
No
Kakum National
Park
large forest reserve
No
Ceiba pentandra; ancestors started village under this tree. In 1932 established as Protected Area.,
1992 opened park and Ghana Heritage Conservation Trust ensures sustainability of the park.
Yes
16
Table 4. Sacred plants and level of protection in visited shrines and sacred forests
Location
Sacred trees, herbs and lianas present in area
Official protection
Community protection
1
Akoase
None
2
Kwahu
Ridge
Nungua
Okoubaka aubrevillei, Dalbergia sp., Dalbergia saxatilis, Ceiba
pentandra.
Dalbergia sp., Dalbergia saxatilis, Djippin (unidentified).
Yes, some from community
and kwame himself
Yes, by some people
Ficus, Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides, Ceiba pentandra, Newbouldia
laevis.
Milicia excelsa, wild yam, Ficus on shrine.
None
Ficus polita ssp. polita, Avicennia africana, Thespesia populnea.
None
Kigelia africana, Dracaena fragrans, Ficus polita ssp. polita.
None
Dalbergia sp., Adenia dinklagei, Bamboo
None
None
3
4
5
6
7
Wassa
Domama
Lower
Saltpond
Anomabu
Forest Reserve but illegal logging present
Yes
8
Wassa
Saamany
Alabokazo
9
Alabokazo
10
Edwinase
Scoparia dulcis, Parinari excelsa, Milicia excelsa, Pachira insignis,
Costus, Baphia nitida.
Hallea stipulosa, Piptadeniastrum africanum, Milicia excelsa,
Petersianthus macrocarpus, Distemonanthus benthamianus,
Caloncoba sp., Canarium schweinfurthii, Uapaca guineensis,
Pentaclethra macrophylla, Coelocaryon sphaerocarpum, Sube
(unidentified), Kokobe mblabuwa (unidentified), Ezinli
(unidentified), Ofram (unidentified), Nyangwo (unidentified)
Bahia nitida, Cola nitida, Sanseviera spp.
11
Bortianor
Ficus.
Yes, UNESCO World Heritage/ linguist
shrine
No
12
Besease
Ejisu
Larteh
Kubease
near Adome
bridge
Abrafo
Newbouldia laevis, Baphia nitida.
Yes, UNESCO World Heritage; museum
Newbouldia laevis, Ficus.
No
Ceiba pentandra, Newbouldia laevis, Terminalia catappa,
Adansonia digitata
Ceiba pentandra, Newbouldia laevis, Terminalia Catapa, Adansonia
digitata, Dalbergia saxatilis, Dalbergia sp..
No
13
14
15
None
Yes, National Forestry Department /
Ghana Heritage Conservation Trust
Name spirits
present
Motia
Size
area
small
Djippin (in Djippin
tree), just 'spirit'
Snake God Ofu
large
Bosom kese
medium
Yes, the chief and the
community
Yes, community protection
Ancestral spirits
small
Obukuesi
small
Yes, the chief, the elders and
the community
Yes, Blay Tanoe, priestess of
shrine
Yes, the chief, linguist and
community
Tumfoum
medium
Nyazu rain godess
medium
-
medium
Yes, linguist and community
Ancestral spirits
small
Yes, Land owners Komi Ete;
Rasta and community
Yes, linguist shrine
Solo
medium
Tano war spirit
small
Yes, linguist shrine. Fiercely
protected by villagers
Yes, shrine keeper
Nana Akonadi
small
Mami Wata
small
No. Illegal collection present
Ancestral spirits
large
Fiercely protected by
villagers.
Yes
small
17
3.2 Sacred places
We visited a total of 15 sacred forests and shrines. Each shrine or sacred forest had its own spiritual
meaning and rituals connected to it. The historical reasons why these forests and shrines were seen as
sacred places, were very important. Half (six out of 12) of the places were sacred because a spirit lived
in a nearby natural phenomenon, such as a rock, a tree, a forest, a river, or in the shrine itself. One
third (four out of 12) of the places we visited were sacred because the history of the shrine or sacred
forest was related to ancestors or ancestral spirits that had created the village at that location. Other
reasons why a place was considered sacred were because it has been a war shrine and had helped their
ancestors during war. Sometimes, the history was related to hunters who would get strength in that
place to hunt and find their way home again from the deep forest.
In Akoase we visited our first sacred forest. Kwame, our respondent, brought us to two sacred trees
about a two-kilometre walk from the village of Akoase. Before we could go there, we had to bring six
fresh fowl eggs and one bottle of schnapps. The first sacred liana we were brought to was Ahomakyem
(Twi) (Fabaceae Dalbergia saxatilis). Unfortunately the tree on which this liana was growing had
been cut down by a lumber company, leaving only a tree stump. The liana, fortunately, was still alive.
At the stump of the tree Kwame had made a shrine out of old and
new twigs, as you can see in Figure 7. Kwame is standing in front of
the shrine performing rituals. The shrine was triangular in shape and
inside that part he placed the fowl eggs we had brought with us. He
also offered some schnapps to this shrine and he drank some, while
talking in a kind of prayer to the spirit of the tree. We had to go to the
Ahomakyem before going to the other tree, because these rituals
would keep us safe and grant permission. While walking to the other
tree, we had to leave our stuff behind and Kwame went towards the
dangerous tree first, the Odi (Twi) tree (Santalaceae Okoubaka
Figure 7: Shrine in the forest
near Akoase
......aubrevillei). After a little while we were allowed to follow, but the
old man was very disappointed when he saw that this tree had also been
cut down by the lumber company. This was very unfortunate for him, but to please the spirits he
placed some eggs under the tree trunk and poured some libation. The tree stump was sprouting again,
so the Odi tree was not yet dead. Libation is what Ghanaians call the pouring of small amounts of
alcohol for the spirits, ancestors, and gods. Kwame continued with some prayers and Elvis, our key
informant, replied to Kwame when he spoke some words. This was the only way we could safely visit
the tree. On this occasion it was not necessary, but on sacred days Kwame told us he had to be naked
to be able to go near the tree.
18
I have called Kwahu a forested space that is located on the Kwahu plateau. This is where sacred trees
grew according to our informant Nana Kofi Aprada. The forest was officially protected by the
National Forestry Department of Ghana. Nana Kofi Aprada brought us there. Michael was very afraid
and would not dare to come with us to see the sacred trees. Before we left we had to buy a bottle of
schnapps, fowl eggs and a living dove. Nana Kofi Aprada drove us to the Kwahu plateau which was a
lot higher than Akoase, the village we had come from. We entered the forest at a piece of rock we
could walk on. Again, we had to leave our stuff and our shoes behind. Nana Kofi Aprada told us, that
people from the Christian churches came to pray on that plateau of rock. Sometimes they even spent
the night there. Nana Kofi Aprada did not have a shrine there, but he spoke to his sacred tree, Djippin
(Twi) from that rock. We could not make a collection from that tree (leaves were too high) and thus
we have no scientific name for it. He had said many prayers and poured some libations at the tree. He
also showed us another very sacred liana, Ahoma bosom (Twi) (Fabaceae Dalbergia sp.). When you
cut this liana, a flow of red sap comes out of it. Many people see this as a very dangerous liana which
you should be careful with when you cut it, because you can cut yourself when you do it wrong. You
can also make somebody else bleed when you say your enemy’s name while cutting the bark. ‘Just
like this liana bleeds, he will bleed too’, Nana Kofi Aprada said. He showed us a few other sacred
trees that were also growing nearby.
A very special shrine that we visited was Gborbu in Nungua. When we tried to get there, a taxi driver
would not take us because it was too dangerous for him. We decided to walk there on our own. On the
roadside on our way through the village, we saw a large Ceiba pentandra (Malvaceae) standing with a
small white wall surrounding half of the tree. This was covered with a white cloth. This was a very
special tree and nobody would tell us anything about it. The sacred forest was not very extensive, but
it was entirely surrounded by a two-metre high white wall and a gate, which was open. Only on sacred
days could the priest of the sacred forest, and few others, enter and go to the shrines to make sacrifices
to the gods and spirits in the shrines. We could not enter the shrine and the priest would hardly speak
to us. He was a very powerful man in that village. This shrine was connected to a very powerful snake
god, Ofu. There were about 60 shrines inside that sacred forest, an interpreter told us.
Wassa Domama Rock shrine is a shrine with an
interesting local history. The shrine was located
inside a forest, which was protected by the
community. We had to pay a contribution at a
tourist office, which was run by locals, to get a
tour guide to take us to the rock shrine. Nobody
could come in with a cutlass, because they might
be tempted to chop something. A sacred tree that
Figure 8: Inside Wassa Domama Rock shine
could never be cut was the Odum (Twi) tree (Milicia
19
excelsa), which was standing inside that forest. The rock shrine itself consisted of a few large rocks
that were piled up in a way that allowed you to walk underneath. Figure 8 shows the inside of the rock
shrine with multiple bottles of schnapps lying on the ground. Our tour guide, Samual Mensah, told us
that people still came to ask for something they wanted to the spirit that lives there. In return the
people who asked for something had to offer something, schnapps or food for example. The chief and
the elders heard the problems and the questions of the community and the chief and the elders passed
them on to the priestess. That priestess could contact the spirits, which spoke through her. The myth of
the shrine was a story about a man called Yao Onkoma who discovered the rock when he was hunting.
He heard people singing and drumming and thought it was a village, but he discovered it was a rock.
Only poultry were walking there (probably the spirits, our guide explained). The spirits that lived
inside the rock told him that he must not tell anyone. He disobeyed the spirits by telling the chief and
by leaving his shoes on. After that he died because he did not listen to the spirits. The spirit appeared
to a woman who had come to perform rituals. The spirit told her what she should not do (do not come
with slippers or shoes on and do not come during a menstrual period). The people from the community
had to offer a three-month old sheep, and then the problem was solved. The area inside the sacred
rock, the shrine, was covered with a lot of empty schnapps bottles offered to the spirits.
In Lower Saltpond we visited a posuban shrine. The
posuban shrine itself is a colourfully painted concrete
building of about two meters high. The posuban shrine
shows a part of the history and the characteristics of the
community.
Before
the
posuban shrine was built, there
was a shrine to two Ficus
polita ssp. polita (Moraceae)
Figure 9: Posuban shrine and sacred trees .......trees. Figure 9 shows the posuban
shrine and on the right-hand side of the photo it shows the two big sacred
trees. The two sacred trees were both protected by a small brick wall
surrounding the trunks. Several bottles of schnapps were still placed ...........Figure 10: wall around
under the tree. The two trees were very old and one of them was a strangler................Ficus polita ssp.
polita fig (See Figure 10). A house that was built next to the posuban shrine, was used to store drums
that are used on festival days and when a chief has died. We did not get permission from the chief to
see this.
In Anomabu we found another concrete shrine with colourful painting. Near this shrine important trees
were growing, an old Kigelia africana (Bignoniaceae), a Dracaena fragrans (Draceanaceae) and
Ficus polita ssp. polita. The Kigelia africana was sacred, because the ancestors of the people that live
in Anomabu put a walking stick in the ground and it grew into this tree. This tree is also used for
20
medicine. The fruit that falls off the tree are given to herbalists that live near Anomabu. An obosom
was living inside this tree. This obosom was also living in the stone that was standing to the left of the
tree. This stone is used to install a chief and to make sure that he would be protected by the spirits. The
chief has to sit three times on the stone, then he walks to the concrete shrine next to it and takes an
oath. An extra-small house was also standing were the drums were kept. These drums were used by
Asafo warriors when walking through the village and past all the posuban shrines in Anomabu. The
shrine is just for the people who live in Anomabu.
The sacred forest in Wassa Saamany has two main sacred places. The name of one of those sacred
places is Tumfoum and the elders go there on festival days. The reason that this is a sacred place is
because the ancestors fell from the sky into the Anroba river on that spot. The ancestors were in the
water for seven days, then they came out of the water and moved onto the land to settle a village. But
after many tribal wars, few people remained and those people who have survived settled the village
right there in Wassa Saamany. There was also another sacred place in the village which was behind
some bushes. In the middle of this area, a small pool of water was connected to a creek where bamboo
grew. This bamboo was sacred and the chief did not let anyone cut down the bamboo anymore. In
doing this, he has also found a way to protect the creek.
In Alabokazo, Komenle Blay Tanoe showed us her two shrines. One shrine was located at the sacred
Njazo creek at the end of the area where her mother had made a shrine. This creek was always
flowing, even when there was a drought. This made this creek special and sacred. The mother of
Komele Blay Tanoe was the priestess of the shrine before she herself became the priestess of the
shrine. The other shrine was at her house and a fence was built around the area using Enyane
(Costaceae Costus lucanusianus). On the picture on the front page, you can see Blay Tanoe standing in
front of her shrine at her house. The door behind her is the entrance to that shrine. The shrine at her
house was much smaller than the shrine at the creek, it had a white curtain and behind that curtain
there were six to eight chairs to make sure every spirit could sit. The Costus is on the ground, she has
her food on it. This was used to make you spiritually clean before entering her house and her shrine.
She has planted a Newbouldia laevis (Bignoniaceae) for protection against witches and wizards. This
is the tree on her left. She has also planted a Jatropha curcas (Euphorbiaceae) in a pot which is on her
right in the picture. These give her house and shrine spiritual protection.
Another sacred forest in Alabokazo was Kwanyema. When we walked towards this sacred forest
through the bush, it was very difficult to know exactly where and when we entered the sacred forest.
Only the son of the linguist of the sacred forest and Shaybu Abdullah knew this. Shaybu told me that if
I should see a snake in this forest I should not be afraid. he explained that this snake is one of the
spirits that lived in that forest and that it would disappear. In this sacred forest, many sacred trees,
lianas and shrubs were growing.
21
In Edwinase, there were two sacred places, a sacred tree called Edwene (Ashanti) (Baphia nitida,
Fabaceae) under which the first fetish priest settled and healed people. That is the reason why the
village is called Edwinase (meaning ‘under the Edwene tree’). Another sacred place was the shrine
that was build around a cola tree. This tree was sacred because one of the ancestors chewed a cola nut
and spat it on the ground, after that this large tree grew out of it.
In Bortianor we saw a sacred forest which was owned by a family called Kommiète. This is the name
of the ancestors and the name of the descendants of this family. The Solo creek shrine was on the river
bank which was sacred. Solo is the name of the spirit that lives there and the creek. Even the fish in
the water were not eaten because this is a sacred river. The forest has been sacred for a long time. The
creek provided exceptionally clean drinking water to the village, which was situated in a heavily
deforested and polluted area.
In Besease we visited a shrine which is now a museum. This is the shrine where obosom Tanoe of the
river gave the famous Ashanti Queen, Yaa Asantewa, her power before she started the war against the
English. Although it is a museum, there is a place behind a door where sacred artefacts are kept and
which nobody is allowed to see. The sacred objects are used only on sacred days and on festival days.
The Akonadi shrine in Larteh had many sacred areas
and objects. In front of this shrine there was a large
Ficus growing and the people connected with the
shrine put a white cloth around it (see Figure 11). This
is a sacred tree which has been there for a long time.
The respondents did not tell me why it was sacred. In
the shrine, there was a sacred area and an area behind
a door where the sacred artefacts were kept. We were
not allowed to see what these sacred areas looked like.
Figure 11: Entrance of the Akonedi shrine ..............The priest of the shrine asked the spirits if it was okay
for us to ask some questions. The priest had to ask permission from the spirits, he poured libation into
a hole with a lit on it which was a sacred hole where a spirit lives. The priest said some prayers
together with elders and the linguist of the shrine. Afterwards he told us we could ask some questions.
On the open place inside the shrine, a Newbouldia leavis was growing. This tree must have been
special, because people have made a hole in the roof to let the tree grow tall. A calabash was standing
against the Newbouldia leavis on a tripod. This contained holy water.
22
The last sacred place we have visited was the Abidjan Mami
Wata shrine. This shrine was inside a village where a statue,
wall paintings and sacred objects were standing. But the
sacred place where Mami Wata lived was on the bank of the
Volta River. A stool was standing in the water, decorated
with shiny stones, cowry shells and other shiny objects. This
was the place where Mami Wata appeared her festival days.
Figure 12: house where mmotia spirit lives ...Once a year, hundreds of people come to ask something from
Mami Wata. There was also a small house standing in the water, which symbolized the place where
Mami Wata lived, which was actually under water. Somewhat further away from the river, a small
house was standing where the mmotia .spirit was living (see Figure 12). People offered bananas and
other fruit when they consulted the mmotia about finding lost friends and relatives. The mmotia spirit
can also help you find your way back from the forest. The area was separated by a fence and kept very
clean from rubbish.
3.3 Most important Magic Plants
By the end of my research, we had collected 166 different plants with a spiritual or magical purpose
for the treatment of disease and/or for religious purposes. In Appendix 3, you can see all the magic
plants that we collected. In the following, I will explain the ten most ‘famous’ magic plants that we
found in the south of Ghana. Table 5 shows the species which, according to my respondents, have the
highest number of uses. It also shows the number of interviews during which each plant was
mentioned. These plants had more uses than were referred to in the interviews, this means that a lot of
the uses were pointed out during bush walks.
Table 5: Top ten most frequently mentioned magic plants
Ɛmi (Twi)
# of
interviews
7
6
4
5
6
3
# of magic
uses
12
10
10
9
9
8
Anyeba (Ga)
Nyanya (Twi)
Duakankan (Twi)
Onyina (Twi)
3
1
3
7
8
7
6
5
1
2
3
4
5
Family
Bignoniaceae
Santalaceae
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Leguminoseae
Species name
Newbouldia laevis
Okoubaka aubrevillei
Dalbergia sp.
Daniellia ogea
Distemonanthus benthamianus
Local name
Nii Nyaba (Twi)
Odi (Twi) seed
Ahomabosom (Twi)
Ehye (Twi)
Eholonvia (Nzema)
6
7
8
9
10
Lamiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Cucurbitaceae
Asteraceae
Malvaceae
Ocimum americanum
Croton gratissimus
Momordica charantia
Ageratum conyzoides
Ceiba pentandra
23
The plant that was mentioned most is the Nii Nyaba (Twi) or Nii Abaa (Ga), it means 'chief seed'. This
is the Newbouldia laevis. This tree is used in a bath for health, or to bring luck. It is also burned along
with other plants to drive away bad spirits. A lot of people grow this tree in their back garden or in
their shrines, because the respondents believe that if a witch or wizard flies over the tree, they will fall
down. So in this way the household or shrine would be protected against bad spirits. It was also used
to protect adults and babies against witchcraft and the leaves were used in a bath to treat children with
convulsions.
The second most mentioned plant was the Odi (Twi) tree, Okoubaka aubrevillei. My respondents
believed that the mmotia spirit lived inside this tree. Its seeds were used to make sure that a baby
would survive in the womb and after birth. You could tie some Odi on a broken limb along with other
plants and the break would heal. It was used in combination with other plants and honey to treat
convulsions, added to a bath for protection against witchcraft, and used to treat children and adults
with spiritual problems and bad dreams. It is also believed to bring luck. It is also used in porridge in
combination with other plants to strengthen children’s bones and allow them to walk early. No wizard
would come if you keep the Odi seed in your house.
The third most frequently mentioned magic plant is the liana, Ahomabosom (Twi), the name of which
means 'rope of the spirit'. This name is used to describe number of species in the genus Dalbergia sp.
Many people were afraid of this liana, because it is believed that it can be used to cause harm to
others. The respondents told us that they had to pour libation before cutting this liana – otherwise they
would die. Traditional healers use a part of this liana in water, which makes the water red. In that
water the healer would bathe a patient before treating him. It is used to chase away bad spirits, to bring
luck and a good marriage, to protect against witchcraft and to treat children and adults with spiritual
problems. If you boil this liana and drink the water, it is believed that you will get all your blood back
if a witch has taken it away spiritually.
The fourth most mentioned magical plant is Ehye (Twi), or Gum Copal Tree in English. This is the
Daniellia ogea. Usually it is the resin and the bark of this tree that are used. This tree can be cut only
after performing rituals. When burning the resin or bark from this tree in combination with other
plants, the smell is believed to drive away bad spirits. It is also used in the church as incense. Ehye,
and tree other incenses, are also used to bring luck and good marriage.
The fifth most mentioned magical plant is Eholonvia (Nzema) or Ayene baka (Nzema), which means
witchcraft leaf. This is the Distemonanthus benthamianus. This plant is used to chase away evil spirits
and when burning it at night it is believed you can call the soul of the witch. When the witch appears,
you can ask the witch why you are being harmed and what the witch wants in return. When my
respondent does this, she can, for example, save the life of a child who has been attacked by a witch.
This tree is said to grow only in sacred places. If a woman wants to collect the bark, it is believed she
24
will be taken by the spirit; but man can collect it as long as he is guided by the spirit. Yet we saw that
many branches of Eholonvia were being sold on the market................................................................
The sixth most mentioned plant is Ɛmi (Twi), Ocimum americanum. This plant is mostly used to chase
away bad spirits and to bathe adults and children for protection against witchcraft. The seventh most
frequently mentioned plant is Ayen ahabaye (Twi) or Anyeba (Ga), Croton gratissimus
(Euphorbiaceae). This plant is used to drive away bad spirits and for protection against witchcraft. It is
also used in a bath in combination with other plants to guard against convulsions.
The eighth most often mentioned plant is Nyanya (Twi), or African Cucumber in English. This is the
Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae). This plant was only mentioned once in an interview, but
referred to many times while walking through the bush or the village. It is used to protect adults and
children against bad spirits. Priests wear it around their neck to bring luck and spiritual protection and
it is put on the head of a chief when he is being installed to make sure no evil spirits can hurt him. The
ninth most famous magic plant is Tutsumeka kwoshepo or Duakankan (Twi) which means 'it stinks'.
This is the Ageratum conyzoides (Asteraceae). This plant, when applied on a broom, can be used by
witches to fly to America or Europe without a passport or a visa. People told us that every witch uses
it to fly. It can also be used to treat convulsions, to help children walk early, and if you want to aid
conception. You can tell the leaves what you want and then you can do everything.
The tenth most mentioned magic plant is Onyina (Twi) or Silk cotton tree in English. This is the Ceiba
pentandra. This is the only plant that was mentioned many times during an interview, but which does
not have many different uses. People believe that witches sit on this tree and live in it. It has many
gods inside it and it can chase away bad spirits. Therefore it is never cut down. This is visible because
in many deforested areas, Ceiba pentandra is the only large tree that remains. On the other hand, it is
also something many people in the south of Ghana do not believe any more. Lumber companies are
now cutting this tree to make plywood.
3.4 Dealing with diseases caused by supernatural agents
Many diseases were said to have been caused by witchcraft or spirits. The most important spirits we
‘encountered’ during our research, or were explained to us elaborately by our respondents, are
explained in Appendix 4. In the interview, I asked people whether they thought that asthma,
convulsions and epilepsy were physical or spiritual diseases (or both). All of the respondents said that
epilepsy and convulsions were diseases that had a spiritual cause, but some of these respondents also
said that they could have physical causes as well. Asthma was mostly seen as a disease coming from a
physical source, although some thought that it could also have a spiritual cause.
Seventeen different plants were recommended for the treatment of convulsions. When I asked the
respondents if they treated children with spiritual problems, 15 out of the 16 (94%) respondents said
25
'yes, I treat convulsions'. This means that many respondents saw convulsions a spiritual disease that
affects children. Everybody said that it can be spiritual. Only 30% (3 out of 10) of the respondents said
that it could be physical as well as caused by witchcraft. Some believed that it is only physical when
accompanied by fever; without fever, it is spiritual. If when it is accepted that the initial cause was
physical, it is felt that spirits can get involved and make it worse. Sixty percent (six out of ten) of the
respondents said that convulsions were a spiritually caused disease and one respondent said that it
could be caused by witchcraft.
More than a third (38%, three out of eight) of the respondents said that epilepsy can be physical, but
the involvement of spirits can make it worse. Half (four out of eight) of the respondents said that
epilepsy was a spiritual disease that could be caused by a curse and one respondent said that it is
mostly caused by witchcraft. One respondent called epilepsy a 'spiritual disease for blacks'. He said
that a medicine for this disease is Ahomakyem (Dalbergia saxatilis). The sap that comes from this
liana is like blood and it is used in combination with the bark to treat epilepsy.
Two thirds (66%, four out of six) of the respondents said that asthma is a physical disease and 33%
(two out of six) said that that it can come from both a spiritual and a physical source.
There were other diseases mentioned that were believed to have spiritual sources. These diseases were
not mentioned during the interviews, but referred to during our bushwalks in the forest. Gonorrhoea
and other sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are believed to have spiritual causes. An STD that is
similar to having shingles, a disease in which the skin comes off in flakes, was seen by a respondent as
the first sign of HIV/AIDS. This could be caused by a spiritual source or by witchcraft. This was the
only time HIV/AIDS was mentioned during my research. It is believed that witchcraft can cause
people to have trouble excreting bodily waste and can cause bloody stools. In total, we found five
different plants that were used to cure STDs of spiritual origin. You can find these in Appendix 3.
These plants are: Kindinginli male (Nzema) (Dalbergia sp. TVA 5917), Kindinginli female (Nzema)
(Menispermaceae Tiliacora leonensis), Ehwia tefema (Nzema) (Malvaceae Corchorus aestuans),
Nyamenle kyina (Nzema) (Verbenaceae Vitex grandifolia), Alonwoba (Nzema) (Amaranthaceae
Amaranthus spinosus).
'Witchcraft causes diseases that look like STDs. Witches can draw a spiritual line on the floor and when you step
over it you have an STD. If you are coming around, they will see if you are cheating. They do it in the night.
Sometimes they do it for a different person and you have it. If you have the spiritual eye, you can see it' (Shaybu
Abdullah 31-07-2010).
Diseases which cause your nose to fall off, bring on elephantiasis or cause handicaps such as a
hunched back are all diseases that my respondents saw as something that could be caused by a
spiritual source or witchcraft. Added to this list were blindness, lumps, bad dreams, female infertility,
26
vomiting blood and shaking of the hands and body. Heart disease is also believed to come from a
spiritual source. Even a cough or sore throat can be caused by spirits – a treatment we found effective
for this ailment was the spiritual plant Nyilanyila (Nzema) Scoparia dulcis (Scrophulariaceae). You
have to grind the plant, add leaves from another plant, (Obrane atu ata (Twi)/ Faviema (Nzema) Sida
acuta (Malvaceae)), mix it with bee honey and then you lick it. It is believe that a woman can use
witchcraft to make a man sexually weak, when he has cheated on her, for example. Shaybu Abdullah
explained another reason why a man could become impotent. It usually happened when they went
after another man's wife. A man inflicts it on another man: they do juju (juju is the spiritual medicine)
and he becomes impotent.
When people are mentally ill, when a person sees things that are not there, act strange, run around,
scream and say invisible things are behind him – these were explained by our respondents as
spiritually caused mental ailments caused by the patient being attacked by a spirit or being the victim
of witchcraft. This can happen to adults all of a sudden. At the Mami Wata shrine, there was a way to
treat these people. But before the shrine-keepers let the mad people come to the shrine, they put them
behind a fence surrounding a large Baobab (Adansonia digitata). When the mad people calmed down,
they were allowed to ask Mami Wata and the mmotia spirit to help them. A cause of madness was
explained when I asked the question: 'what happens if you do not protect your child with magic
plants'? Two (out of 11) respondents said that the child could get mental illness, become mad or have a
shallow brain. Respondent Komele Blay Tanoe explained that you can notice this when 'They go to
school and they do not understand anything'................
3.5 Witchcraft and plants
Three questions in my interview concerned witchcraft. One question was if the respondents knew how
to get rid of witchcraft and 13 out of the 14 people I asked this question to gave an answer. Eight
people mentioned a useful recipe. Because almost everybody to whom I asked this question knew the
answer, it means that people were not afraid to answer this question.
Another question which concerned witchcraft was more
difficult for people to answer. This concerned whether
the respondents knew which plants to use to perform
witchcraft. Of the 13 respondents to whom I asked the
question, 10 gave an answer. Half (five out of ten) said
that they did not knew such plants. One respondent
knew, but she said she could never tell us. Four..............
Figure 13: Nyakankan put a broom to fly........... ..respondents replied that they did know how to use such
plants. One of these was Nana Kofi Aprada. He told us that Nyakankan in Twi (Ageratum conyzoides)
could be put on a broom and on that broom witches can fly without a visa to America and Europe (see
27
Figure 13). Ackah Assuah told us that witches use a plantain leaf as an aircraft to fly. Robert Dzah
explained that with Ficus thonningii (Moraceae) and some fibre you can tie a juju which witches use
on their enemies. Onokobor Hugbezé Tsikata told us a way to mix three different plants, wrap them in
a white cloth, put this in a calabash and hang it above the door or window. When you need luck, a job,
a husband, a lucky marriage, or a good deal in the market, just pour some libation under it and say its
special name. Then you will get what you want.
Only few people could tell me something about what kind of plants witches use, but 14 out of the 14
people could tell me something about how to protect somebody against witchcraft. I was given 11
different recipes and two people mentioned a plant that can help to protect you from witchcraft. One
respondent, Osofo Mela, used water from her artificial well. A way to protect yourself is to use a plant
to counteract what a witch has done to you. Whatever spell the witch has put on you, it will be
returned to the witch who has sent it. The respondents who named just one plant all named the Nii
Nyaba (Newbouldia leavis), which they grow in their gardens. They planted it there because it causes
overflying witches to fall down from the sky. So this tree protects against attacks from witches.
An example given by Michael Kermah on witchcraft, is one that shows how people see witchcraft in
their everyday lives. Michael and some friends from Takzim had a taxi, but that taxi broke down a
couple of times. They took the taxi to 'the blind man', Ackah Assuah, who told them there was
witchcraft involved in their unfortunate car. Witches rode in it during the night. Ackah Assuah
performed some rituals and after that the car never broke down again. Ackah Assuah has done this for
several cars, I was told.
One of our key informants, Elvis Owosu, told us that witches hide in Ceiba
pentandra trees, because of their horizontal branches (see Figure 14). They
sit there and they eat human flesh in a spiritual way. Many still believe that
you cannot cut it, because if you do, you will die. You cannot see them, only
when a fetish priest performs some rituals and after these rituals you can see
these witches. The timber companies cut this tree down despite the presence
of witches in it, so many people do not believe it any more. Still, there are
people who still believe, because some of these trees are still standing in
Figure 14: Ceiba ..................areas where the rest of the trees have been cut down. The Milicia excelsa is
pentandra ..........................also a tree that is allowed to stand because some people still fear to cut it.
On the other hand, the carpentry shop in Akuase uses this wood to make heavy-duty wooden beams
and mortars..............................................................................................................
28
3.6 Pregnancy and infancy
3.6.1.Female infertility
Having children is one of the deepest wishes a Ghanaian woman has, as is shown in the reasons given
as to why the respondents go to shrines and sacred forests (see section 3.8). We found 26 different
plants and treatments that are used when a woman cannot conceive. According to my respondents,
there are several reasons why a woman could be infertile. More than half (63%, seven out of 11) of the
respondents said that a woman can become infertile as a result of a curse or witchcraft. If witchcraft is
the reason, it was said that it can take the womb away. Witches can put a bottle inside a woman, or
witches can put a sickness inside the ‘stomach’. More than one third (36%, four out of 11) of the
respondents said that it could be because of a sickness which could also be physical. 'It is a disease',
one respondent said.
We have recorded many ways to help a woman who is unable to bear children. There are shrines
where you can ask a spirit associated with the shrine, or the ancestors, to help you conceive. In return,
you must place an offering. The vast majority (94%, 15 out of 16) of our respondents knew a medicine
or way to treat a woman if she as not becoming pregnant. More than one third (37%, six out of 16) of
the respondents gave a physical medicine. The way one woman explained the effect of this medicine
was that 'stuff comes out and then you can have a baby again. It cleanses your stomach'. This seems to
refer to a medicine that contracts the uterus and causes vaginal fluid or provokes menstruation that will
‘clean out’ the uterus. Almost two thirds (63%, ten out of 16) of the respondents knew a medicine to
use when barrenness was caused by a spiritual disease. Some of the respondents said that a healer
could contact the spirit to ask what medicine should be used. One respondent mentioned that the help
of ancestral spirits could help women conceive.
3.6.2 Spiritual protection
When a woman is pregnant, people take care of the unborn child's spirit. Half (4 out of 8) of the
respondents knew several plants to do this. Over one third (38%, three out of eight) of the respondents
consulted the spirits, performed rituals or tied a spiritual rope around the belly of the pregnant woman.
Only 13% (one out of eight) of the respondents said that he did not know the answer, he only knew a
physical medicine for a pregnant woman. Three medicines that were given to protect an unborn child's
spirit were used on the outside of the body. Elea Nyanda advised mixing the plants with cream or oil
and rubbing it on the skin. This prevents spirits from invading the body. Monzu Nyonra mentioned the
spiritual rope and the putting of plants on the body to drive away evil spirits, and Adama Ibrahim
mentioned a spiritual bath to protect the baby from harm.
When children are born, it is very important to protect them from malevolent forces. All the 11 people
I asked whether they knew ways to protect a child said ‘yes’. This shows that people believe it is very
29
important to protect a baby. Joseph Tettey Teeh mentioned a way to protect twins. This is very special.
You put scarring on the faces of the twins and put fried, pounded leaves of Nyanyarang (Ga)
(Momordica charantia) in it to close the wound. If you do not protect the child, 82% (nine out of 11)
of the respondents said that the child would die. Two of these nine people also mentioned that the
child could get a mental illness, become mad or get a shallow brain. Two out of all the 11 answers
were that the child would be inflicted with witchcraft or get convulsions or other spiritual diseases.
Some of the children that are born in a certain place in the family need to be protected even more. The
tenth child is still seen as a very special child, because it has special spirits. There is a special ritual to
protect these children spiritually when they are born. The mother has to shave her hair, cut the nails
from her toes and hands and carry the tenth-born when the ritual starts. Then a priest has to put special
herbs into water and the people from the community carry this sacred water as the mother walks
through the main district in the community. The chief follows her and in the main district the people
sprinkle water on the baby with a shrub they call Nyilanyila (Nzema) (Scoparia dulcis), or in English
sacred broom. This will spiritually cleanse the baby, after this the mother, father and the child bathe in
the water while the chief recites words.
All children are expected to crawl and to walk early. Of the nine people I asked whether they knew
ways to make a baby strong or crawl or walk early, all nine said yes. Two mentioned a way to make a
baby strong and seven respondents mentioned a way to make a baby walk early. Komele Blay Tanoe
knew a medicine that would make a baby walk very early, at the age of six or seven months. Only one
person, Shaybu Abdullah, could give me a reason why people would want to make their child walk
early. He said that 'because of all the witches, who can take away bones, they want a child to walk
early. Then you can check that the baby is okay'. Michael Kermah added that people want to make
sure ‘a vulture has not eaten away the child bones’ and that parents were afraid their child would be
handicapped. As soon as the child started to walk, its parents would be at ease.
3.7 Using Magic Plants
When a magic plant was mentioned as a treatment for spiritually caused diseases, there was usually a
specific way of preparing or administering the medicine. The various ways of preparing and
administering that were mentioned most frequently are listed in Table 6.
30
Table 6:The eight most frequently mentioned ways of administering magic plants
Preparation
method
# of plant
species
Number of uses
Bath
55
80
Enema
41
51
Burn (smoke)
32
47
Boil and drink
29
33
Rubbed on body
22
27
Planted in garden
19
22
Put in food
16
19
3.7.1.Bath
A bath is prepared by putting a part of the plant, or the whole plant, into a basin of water. Then the
adult
or
child
bathes
in
it.
Baths
are
usually
used
most
to
protect
a
child,
or an adult, against bad spirits, witchcraft or just.protection in general. In Figure 15,16 a man is taking
a herbal bath during a Ga festival for spiritual cleansing and protection for the coming year. Many of
the respondents also mentioned that it was used to get
rid of witchcraft or tochase away bad spirits. Out of the
80 different uses, 15 (19%) were to treat convulsions
with a bath. A bath can also be used to bring luck,
marriage, employment, happiness and a healthy child.
Sometimes, reciting was done while bathing. People
have to recite what they want while taking the bath. My
respondents explained that this way you can also return
Figure 15,16: Spiritual bath taken ........................the harm that spirits are causing you back to the sender,
during a Ga festival ......................... .................the source (usually a witch or wizard). Examples of what
people ask for in their recitations were protection against witchcraft, protection for a baby, luck and a
good marriage.
31
3.7.2.Enema
An enema is called a bentua in Twi, but even my respondents
who did not speak Twi called an enema a bentua. They also
call the equipment (a rubber syringe or a calabash of
Lagenaria siceraria) you use to administer an enema, a
bentua. The way they prepared it, was by grinding some (or
one) plant with some water. Then they put it in the equipment,
Figure 17: The calabash..............................the bentua. This can be a calabash with a long pointy end to
which is used as a bentua..........................put in your rectum. On the other side is a bowl where they put
the medicine in (see Figure 17). Because they do not let any air come .into the bowl, it will get sucked
into the rectum automatically. This is the old way of using a bentua, but some people (most of the time
old people) still use this. We have seen a new way of administering a bentua, which is done with a
rubber version, which they fill with the liquid medicine and then squeeze the contents into the patients
intestines. Bentua's are used to help a baby walk early, to treat infertility, to cure gonorrhoea, to assist
with the removal of waste from the body, and for impotence that’s from a spiritual source. It can also
make an unborn baby strong if the pregnant mother has spiritual problems.
3.7.3.Burning.(smoke)
Smoke is created by burning the bark or dried leaves of several plants. This smoke will make ensure
evil spirits and witchcraft are chased away. A respondent said that the smell will drive them away.
Sometimes you have to burn these plants inside the house to let the smell stay in the house. Sometimes
the respondents said the smoke needs to be inhaled to treat convulsions from a spiritual source for
example. It is also used for protection, or to bring luck and a good marriage. One respondent told us
that the ash that remains after burning the plant is put in three small cuts that are made somewhere on
the body. This is for spiritual protection. In Bortianor, Joseph Tettey Teeh told us that the tribal marks
also identify members of a family. He told us that scarring is also done to protect twins, but he did not
tell us whether or not ash was put inside the scars.
3.7.4.Boil.and.drink.as.tea
The plant parts are boiled in water, which is drunk by the patient. This way of administering is used to
treat female infertility with a spiritual cause. It is also used to protect a baby from the day it is born, it
is used against bad dreams and it is used to treat male impotence. It can be given to a man who is
sexually weak as a result of witchcraft. A wife can also give it to a new husband to make him faithful.
32
3.7.5.Rubbing.the.medicine.on.the.body
Ground plant parts are put in oil, cream or perfume and rubbed on the body. The potion can also be put
on clothes, for example when your husband has died and he is still haunting you, or during a religious
festival. It is usually used on the body to chase away evil spirits. When it is applied externally,
witchcraft cannot invade the body: nobody can harm you spiritually. A respondent told us that it could
be rubbed on a STD which was caused by a spiritual source, or when the hands and body were
shaking. When it is used on the body by mixing the plants with perfume, this ointment can be used
when you want a job, luck, a husband or a visa to travel.
3.7.6.Planted.in.gardens
Some plants are planted in people’s gardens or next to shrines to
protect the household or the shrine against evil. Such planting
prevents evil spirits from entering the premises. The Newbouldia
laevis makes witches fall out of the sky if they fly over this tree. In
Figure 18 the Newbouldia laevis is to the right of the native doctor,
Uncle Ageiku, who planted the tree to protect his house from witches
and wizards. This gives his house and shrine spiritual protection. On
the picture on the front page, you can see Komenle Blay Tanoe in her
yard. She has planted the Newbouldia laevis, which is the tree on her
left. This would give her house and shrine spiritual protection.
Figure 18: Newbouldia laevis planted in yard
3.7.7.Put.in.food
Often the leaves of the plant, or the entire plant, are cooked in food. The majority of the respondents
did this to protect against evil spirits or to chase them away. It is also used in this way to make a child
walk early, for blindness or heart diseases with a spiritual cause, or for female infertility. One
respondent, Nana Kofi Aprada, had a special way of treating convulsions where he mixes several
plants (Ageratum conyzoides, Okoubaka aubrevillei, Piperaceae Piper guineense, the cola nut and a
grinded kameleon) with honey to give to a child who is having convulsions.
3.8 Sacred Forest and Shrines
Visitors to the sacred forests and shrines ask for children, twins and even triplets. Some go to ask for a
husband or a wife to marry or a good marriage with an existing spouse. Others are there for health
reasons and to cure diseases such as convulsions. A very common reason to visit forests and shrines is
33
to ask for a visa for travel to America and Europe. Some simply go to ask for wealth, and others visit
the sacred places when they are having problems at work. Visitors’ requests are very diverse and
people go to different shrines with different problems and wishes. But most people go when they are
having problems conceiving or if they want to get a travel visa for America or Europe.
The sacred forests we visited (Table 3, 4) were almost always protected by the community, the chief,
or the priest or priestess. This is because people’s fears and desires are connected to these sacred
places. The majority of these places were protected by the community and permission was always
needed to enter, whether it was from the linguist, the chief or the community. In some places, only the
person taking care to the shrine was allowed to enter, in others, everybody was allowed after
permission or after paying a small fee. In Besease and Edwinase, we had to pay to enter because the
sites were made into a museum. At Kakum rainforest, we also had to pay because it was a National
Park and had become a major tourist attraction.
Two thirds (ten out of 15) of the respondents we asked whether there were any rituals before
harvesting in the sacred forest or shrine, said that after permission you needed to perform rituals (bring
schnapps/eggs/take shoes off/ pay money). In 20% of the sacred places (three out of 15), you could
never harvest a forest product (on sacred days) or step into the forest with a cutlass.
3.8.1 Shrines, Sacred forests and the Church
In villages and cities, there were many churches close to the areas in which shrines and sacred forests
were situated. When I asked if people from the church still used the plants from the sacred forest or
shrine, or visited to the sacred forest or shrine, 77% (ten out of 13) of the respondents said that people
from the church still used the plants or visited the shrine. 'Many still believe', said one respondent, and
another said that 'the god's go to church too'. Almost one quarter (23%, three out of 13) of the
respondents said that people from the church did not come. One respondent said that 'It is a custom
they do not go there' and another said that 'church people are a bit afraid'. Christians did not come and
destroy anything, as 'they do not go without permission or they will be inflicted'. This means that
something bad would happen to them. Apparently, local Christians still made use of the sacred forests
and the shrines. Shrine keepers said that 'this [the shrine or sacred forest] was here before church' and
'it has been here forever'. One respondent, Nana Kofi Aprada, said that people from the church do
destroy the forest, because 'they are afraid of it'.
The respondents have told us that the way the church acts towards the sacred forests and the shrines is
quite peaceful. The reason these people act in a good way towards each other is, for example, shown at
the Edwinase shrine where the history of ancestors was connected to the history of the shrine (see
section 3.2). The shrine Anomabu Number 1 was also connected to the history of ancestors. The high
sacred tree next to the concrete shrine grew when an ancestor put his walking stick in the ground. This
34
is part of their history and as they have said, it has been there forever. Even in Kakum rainforest, our
guide told us that many ancestors settled under the Ceiba pentandra with its large plank roots where
they could find shelter. Many cities and villages are named after the settler tree, for example the great
city of Kumasi. Kum means tree in Ashanti. And the first settlers lived under this tree. Because this
tree is believed to help with health problems, it developed into a shrine. Okomfo Anokye planted two
trees in the forest and predicted that one tree would live and become the capital of Ashanti. Hence is
derived the name Kumasi (the tree lived); the place in which the other tree was planted became
Kumawu (the tree died) (GhanaWeb 1994-2011).
Only 20% (five out of 25) of the respondents
described their religion as a ‘traditional
religion’. This means that 80% practise another
religion as well as their traditional beliefs and
their work as priest-healers, vendors of magic
plants or shrine-keepers. There were striking
examples of ways in which traditional religion
became intertwined with Christianity. Osofoͻ
Mela had an artificial well in front of her home
with a large stone cross on top of it (see Figure
Figure 19: Osofo Mela wearing ritual clothing in front.......19). She responded to the question about where
of.the artificial well with a cross on top of the well..............the spirit lived with the answer, 'within us'. She
was the only one who gave such an answer. The rest of the respondents saw spirits as something
outside of themselves. The spirits lived in the trees, in the forest and in the river. Osofoͻ Mela
responded in a way a Christian would as Christians are more likely to believe that the spirit is inside of
you. She used sacred water from her well to protect people from witchcraft, to protect pregnant
women with spiritual problems and to take care of the spirits of unborn children.
Another example is Mami Wata. The statue of Mami Wata is a white mermaid with several heads, but
in front of the same statue there was also a small statue of Jesus. The shrine-keeper told us that Mami
Wata lived under the water with Jesus Christ in Lake Volta in an alter universe, similar to ours, in their
own house. Everything looked just like our world, but more beautiful. Our respondent Meraky
Agbaizah told us that many pastors come to Mami Wata in search of spiritual inspiration, which they
then spread in their own Christian churches. In return, they offer many kinds of sweets to Mami Wata.
Earlier I mentioned that Ehye (Twi) is one of the most magical plants, but it is also used in church as
an incense. The herbalist that was active in the Gborbu shrine in Nungua was convinced that the magic
tree Newbouldia laevis was the same as the ‘hysop tree’ in the Bible. Although he worshipped at that
shrine, he thought of himself as a good Christian. We heard many times that Muslims were more
knowledgeable about the use of magic plants than were Christians. The few respondents that were
35
Muslim, did know a great deal about magic plant usages. In Kumasi, several of the magic plant and
fetish vendors were Hausa Muslims.
3.9 The sale of magic plants and protected trees
Figure 20 shows an example of a market stall. Lydia
Sady is standing next to her market stall at the Nima
market in Accra. In the picture you can see many objects
used in various rituals, but Lydia also sells many
different plants, some of which are regarded as
dangerous. On many other market stalls, dangerous
plants were sold which could not be cut without first
performing certain rituals. For example, when you cut the
Figure 20: Lydia Sady in Nima market, Accra......Ahomabossom (Twi) (Dalbergia sp.) liana, red sap comes
out. Two respondents told me that if you cut this liana when it is in your own shadow, you will
actually be cutting yourself. This means that you can never cut this liana in the morning or in the
evening when the sun gives a long shadow. If a woman passes Ahomabossom, her menstruation will
stop immediately. Only men can cut this tree. Our tour guide at the Kakum National Park told us that a
man cut Ahomabossom on his farm and then died because he did not know the rituals. Many people
are scared of the Odi tree (Okoubaka aubrevillei). They said that if you go near the tree and perform
no rituals you will die. Many rituals are required (see section 3.2) to harvest parts of this tree,
including the seeds, which are often used and sold at the market. The grandmother of one of our key
informants, Elvis, became sick near an Odi tree. She was also a fetish priestess and those who work
with herbs are not scared because it is important to cure someone. They obey the taboos of sacred
trees, but this priestess got sick anyway. A lot of plants are seen as dangerous and described as plants
you should never cut. Table 7 lists most of the plants that require the performance of rituals before
harvesting. The Odi (Twi) tree concerns the magic uses of the tree as well as the magic uses of the
seeds of the tree
36
Table 7: Dangerous plants which should not be harvested without performing special rituals
Family
Fabaceae
Santalaceae
Fabaceae
Leguminoseae
Malvaceae
Fabaceae
Moraceae
Species name
Dalbergia sp.
Okoubaka aubrevillei
Daniellia ogea
Distemonanthus benthamianus
Ceiba pentandra
Dalbergia saxatilis
Milicia excelsa
Combretaceae
Combretum comosum
Passifloraceae
Fabaceae
Adenia dinklagei
Baphia nitida
Local name
Ahomabosom (Twi)
Odi (Twi)
Ehye (Twi)
Eholonvia (Nzema)
Onyina (Twi)
Ahomakyem (Twi)
Odum (Twi)
Echilebenle nyema
(Nzema)
Nyema taboa
(Nzema)
Dwen (Fante)
# of
interviews
4
10
5
6
7
4
6
4
# of magic
uses
10
15
9
9
5
4
5
5
5
5
2
4
These dangerous and magical plants are protected in many sacred forests and shrines. During
interviews, most of my respondents only mentioned one use per plant, sometimes two. I found a
higher number magic uses than the number of uses that were mentioned during interviews for most of
the plants. The reason some plants were mentioned in the same number of uses in the interview as in
the total number of magic uses, is probably because these plants are high trees which you usually do
not encounter when walking through the bush. Many of these high rainforest trees are cut down by
lumber companies for example. This is the same for those plants which were mentioned more often in
the interview than the number of uses I counted. In all the places we visited, there was at least one
sacred tree which could never be cut down. In all the markets that we visited, however, many of these
sacred, dangerous plants were being sold. That is why the first five of the plants mentioned in Table 7
are also in the list of the most mentioned magic plants in Southern Ghana. For example, Odi seeds
were sold on many market stalls in Accra and Kumasi. The people who sold these magic plants asked
quite a lot of money for them (€ 0.50 per seed), because they are so dangerous to collect. We think that
there are people who collect these in large amounts (with or without rituals) to sell them on for a lot of
money. Sometimes rare species like Okoubaka aubrevillei may be considered dangerous to approach,
but at the same time its timber and seeds are in high demand. This makes felling the tree and collecting
the seeds economically interesting for the brave hearted.
37
4. Discussion
4.1 Method evaluation
4.1.1.Interviews
The interviews I used were designed together with my supervisor. I practised and adapted my
interview with my Ghanaian fellow student, Michael Kermah, to make sure that the respondents would
understand my questions. In the field, however, I found that some questions were still difficult for my
respondents to grasp. Sometimes the answer came after a while, or after the interpreter had found a
better way to translate the question. Most of the time, my interpreter knew what I wanted to find out,
which made it easier for me. Still, I sometimes had to formulate the question in another way so the
translator would understand it.
A small contribution was reserved for paying our respondents for the interview. I found this a good
way show gratitude for the time the respondents were spending with us and the answers they were
giving. Most of the people I interviewed were very happy when they received payment for their time.
The women on the market seemed most pleased, because it was their job of course and they could not
work while we were talking with them. If I had not given these women some payment, they probably
would not have spoken to us at all. They were also happy that we bought some of the magic plants
from their stalls. Occasionally, it was difficult to negotiate with the respondents about their payment
because some of them (mostly men who had some prestige in the community as healers) wanted a lot
more money than we could offer them. They were not satisfied with the amount we offered. This
meant that negotiation was a substantial part of the introductory process before the interviewing
started.
Another problem I ran into was the fact that some people did not want to answer some of my
questions. The questions about witchcraft and magic were subjects that not all respondents were
familiar with or wanted to be associated with. Some people wanted to answer my questions, but they
did not know all the answers, as information on magic plants or witchcraft is not common knowledge
among all priest-healers or shrine-keepers. My interview was too long for some people, especially
when I was interviewing on the market where vendors had only a limited amount of time. I was unable
to finish a few interviews because the respondent did not have the patience or goodwill to answer all
of the questions.
I did not encounter many problems with the method, but as an anthropologist (rather than a botanist) it
was a challenge to recognize a lot of the plants that my respondents expected me to. Most of the
species we found were plants that I had never seen before. There were days when I would work with
38
Michael alone and collect the plants we encountered by ourselves. This can only be done when you
know something about these plants. In the end, I saw so many plants that I was able to recognize
several of the more common ones. I found it a very useful fact that Michael was doing the interviews
and plant collecting with me. He knew a lot more about plants than I, and in that way we helped each
other.
4.1.2.Bushwalks
I would like to focus on the bushwalks next,
because these walks were very important for
my research. During these walks through the
forests, which I took with almost all of my
respondents, people would talk a lot more
freely (see Figure 21). People are at ease in
the bush where they feel more comfortable
than sitting in a place and talking about plants
they could not see in front of them. It was
very important to show that I was able and
Figure 21: Bushwalk with Osofo Mela and Elea Nyanda........willing able to walk to all these places in the in
the forest in Alabokazo..............................................................bush and the forest. My respondents saw that I
was not afraid to get dirty or to walk a great distance to see where the sacred area was located. And of
course I was able to see the shrine close by instead of looking at it from a distance. This part of the
method was especially useful when carrying out research on the subject of magic plants. Another
advantage is that during the walk, we encountered magic plants that respondents forgot to mention
during the interviews.
4.1.3.Suggestions
Based on my experience with field research on the uses of magic plants, I would suggest making the
interview a bit shorter. When people are talking about specific kinds of plant uses, they do not want to
talk too long, or too loud, because some uses are secret. I would most certainly want to advise going
into the bush with the respondents. That is the place where they can talk freely and show you the many
plants they encounter while walking. I would find it interesting if a little bit more attention was placed
on the magical 'spiritual health' of infants and women. In my research, this turned out to be very
important when comparing this to treating illness and looking at certain diseases. Further research is
needed about the causes, treatments and perceptions on STD's, infertility and several forms of mental
illnesses.
39
During my research, we stayed in the villages we visited for up to one week at a time. I noticed that
we could have collected much more information if we had stayed in places longer. When we went
back to Accra, we visited the Timber and Nima markets. This meant that we got to know the women
who sell herbs in the market quite well. This contact was very important when we were doing more
detailed research on those places. The subject of my research was at times very vague and abstract, so
it was difficult to get concrete answers to certain questions. Some questions did not have one simple
answer because it was a complicated matter. Some of the answers that were given were connected to
another answer in the same interview, which meant that it was very easy to ask the same question
twice although I do not think I did so.
4.2 Bias
4.2.1.Respondents
There was a bias in the number of respondents. Because I did not have the same number of
respondents in every town or city that I did my research in, it is not representative for the whole of the
south of Ghana. I found my respondents through the key informants, not at random, which means that
they are dependent. And not every traditional healer wanted to cooperate. That is the reason why I
could not have taken a random sample as well. However, in this type of research, where you are
dependent on the goodwill of your informants, it is almost impossible to work with random samples.
4.2.2 Definitions of spiritual and physical medicine
For Ghanaians, there is a thin line between what is classified as a spiritual medicine and what is
classified as a physical medicine. Body and spirit are separate items, but they are very intertwined.
From my point of view, I could not always tell whether or not a medicine that was used against a
spiritual ailment would in western medicine also count as a medicine because it has an effect on their
physical health. This way I relied on what my respondents classified as a spiritually caused disease or
as a physically caused disease. This would make the medicine they described to me automatically
‘spiritual’ or ‘physical’.
4.2.3 Shrines, Sacred Forests and Christians
We carried out our research only at shrines and in sacred forests that are still visited frequently by
Ghanaians and are well known by many people as places where traditional people go. Other people
told us about these shrines and sacred forests, which meant that they were popular. This might have
influenced the answers to question 23 and 24 because there was probably not a lot of conflict
surrounding these places. The places where there was conflict between Christians and people who
adhere to the traditional religions were probably not so well known or could already have been
40
destroyed. I did not visit any Christian church to ask for opinions about the shrines and sacred forests
in the vicinity. This is another reason why the answers are biased.
4.3 Rituals and spiritual diseases
4.3.1 Schnapps
As my research shows, 60% (ten out of 17) of the respondents contact their spirits with schnapps.
Priest-healers and shrine-keepers poured this alcohol
under trees as libation and sometimes drank a little. Figure
22 shows a shrine where many bottles of schnapps have
been offered to the spirit of the shrine. Parrinder (1961)
also saw that alcohol was an important ingredient in
Ghana and that rum was usually poured onto a newly
prepared medicine. Müller and Ritz-Müller (2010) also
mention that brandy is used in rituals. I never saw rum and
Figure 22: Bottles of schnapps at a shrine.........brandy being used in preparing medicine. The schnapps we
saw was the Dutch drink 'jonge jenever' (gin) made in Schiedam, Holland, or a cheaper Ghanaian
substitute with a similar shaped bottle and label. About 150 years ago, jenever was introduced to
Ghana by Dutch slave traders. The name of that gin was 'Henkes schnapps', which is probably the
reason why people call it schnapps in Ghana today. About 150 years ago, the gin bottle became a way
of exchanging and paying. The company Lucas Bols B.V. (Besloten Vennootschap (B.V.) which is a
Dutch private company) where the gin is being produced exported about 63,000 litres per year
(reported in 2001) of this drink to Ghana. Most of the schnapps exported to Ghana is used in rituals
and on special occasions such as funerals, weddings and to celebrate the birth of a child (de Boevere
2006). Pouring libation is still one of the most important facets of many rituals, especially when
contacting ancestor spirits or gods. The fact that ‘old fashioned’ stone gin bottles are used illustrates
that ancestors prefer the drinks they were familiar with to modern imports such as Coca Cola or vodka.
4.3.2 Spiritual diseases
Although the WHO notes that AIDS is one of the main causes of death for adults in Ghana (WHO
Regional Office for Africa 2009), none of my respondents mentioned AIDS as a spiritual disease. The
smallpox that Parrinder (1961) mentioned was a very major cause of death in the 1950s, but I did not
find any shrine or god that was worshipped to cure this disease. The gods who gave people smallpox
must have disappeared, or other attributes are now being ascribed to them.
The protection of small babies is seen as highly important. In my results you can see that 82% of the
respondents mentioned that death could occur if you did not protect your baby against bad magic. It is
41
widely believed that babies can be afflicted with witchcraft, become mad, or suffer from convulsions if
thy are not protected. Malaria is still a major health problem in Ghana, just as AIDS is (WHO
Regional Office for Africa 2009). In 1996 when Ventevogel did his research in Ghana, he saw that
convulsions were seen as a disease caused by magic. Some attempts have been made to address this
question in the PRHETIH programme. The WHO does not mention the occurrence of convulsions in
Ghana as one of the main causes of death in children under five years, but of all the people who treated
children with spiritual problems, 94% mentioned convulsions because they are such an common cause
of death. A child is having convulsions when he or she is having involuntary and uncoordinated
movements, and altered consciousness (Ventevogel 1996). Convulsions in young children are most
often caused by conditions that raise the body temperature, such as malaria or other infectious
diseases. Other causes can be dehydration or neurological disorders such as epilepsy. Because the
WHO does mention malaria as one of the most common health problems, I can conclude that
convulsions are the way the high fevers caused by malaria are noticed by Ghanaians. The way
convulsions were treated was usually by giving the child a cool bath, which is the correct treatment,
according to Ventevogel, because the healer cools down the body of the child with cold water. But
there were also cases where my respondents used smoke, or made them drink a concoction of herbs.
According to Ventevogel, smoke and letting the child drink herbal concoctions are incorrect
treatments and could cause the child to suffocate. My respondents saw convulsions as a spiritual
disease, and they treated it that way. This is probably because it occurs often, it looks frightening and
people cannot control it.
Epilepsy is also seen as a supernatural disease in Southern Ghana, but some respondents also saw it as
something that came from a physical source. Although people mentioned epilepsy as coming from a
physical source, the respondents said that it was usually caused by a spiritual source. Obeng (2009)
noted that when people think that epilepsy is caused by spirits, they go to a traditional healer first.
Many of the traditional healers or market vendors in my research said they knew ways of treating
epilepsy in a spiritual way. They probably knew this because many people came to ask for a treatment
from the traditional healer or market vender before going to a hospital. According to our informants,
even sexually transmitted diseases and infertility could be caused by witchcraft, so these diseases
needed to be cured by traditional healers in a spiritual way. Diseases that can make you look different,
such as elephantiasis or being born with a lump was also something to be careful with because it is
believed to usually be caused by spirits. The buruli ulcer which Bigelow et al. (2002) mention as a
major problem in the Ga district was not mentioned by any of our respondents in the interviews, not as
a disease or any treatments for that disease. My respondents did mention ulcers in general, but they did
not specify whether the buruli ulcer was one of them. Because of the importance of having a healthy,
social life without evil spirits in it or witchcraft, it has become normal to be only healthy when
especially this part is taken care of (Ventevogel 1996).
42
I want to briefly mention what Grottanelli (1988) noted about what happens when a woman gives birth
to her tenth child. From our key informant, Shaybu Abdullah (who is a Nzema), we learned a story of
what people do now when the tenth child is born. The tenth child is still seen as a very special child
because it has special spirits. A special ritual cleanses the baby in a spiritual way and protects it from
bad magic. This story illustrates that people in Nzema Land have found a new way for parents to keep
their tenth baby instead of giving it away, as Grottanelli saw when he carried out his research.
4.3.3 Infertility
Tsey (1997) and Grottanelli (1988) mention the ideas people had as to how women become infertile.
Tsey mentions that a living thing can get into the womb, which can be natural or caused by witches.
There exists a medicine that can make the woman 'give birth' to this spiritual thing in her womb. This
is something we came across as well: 36% (four out of 11) of my respondents told us that a sickness
can come into the ‘stomach’, which can be a physically or a spiritually caused disease. They called it
fibroids, which is the term for a disease that could prevent a woman from having children. Uterine
fibroids are the most common non-cancerous tumours in women of childbearing age. Fibroids are
made of muscle cells and other tissues that grow in and around the wall of the uterus, or womb. The
cause of fibroids is unknown. In the United States, risk factors include being African-American or
being overweight (NIH 2010).
A respondent also described medicine to us which would make this 'thing' in the womb come out. But
63% of the respondents did not share the opinion that infertility was a physical problem. Grottanelli
encountered a belief that women could become infertile when the womb was stolen by means of
witchcraft, which meant that that woman would be permanently barren. From my respondents we also
heard that witchcraft can take the womb away, or a witch can put a bottle inside the stomach so the
woman cannot have children anymore. To treat such a woman, you have to make sure that the
witchcraft goes away, which involves the use of magic plants, sacrifices at shrines and the help of
spirits.
4.3.4 Why people go to a shrine
In most of the shrines I visited, I heard that people go there because they are
barren. What Collier and Fleischmann (2003) noted is that you can show
Mami Wata that you want to follow her by not having any children. Our
informants, however, told us that people come deliberately to Mami Wata to
ask for help conceiving children. ’You can even ask for twins or triplets’,
according to our interpreter, Meraky Agbaizah, from the Volta River shrine.
Most of the time the spirits were believed to be able to help a woman become
Figure 23: Besease shrine......pregnant, but you had to ask these spirits first and sometimes even offer a
43
sacrifice. In some of the shrines, bone remains from offered sheep were shown to the visitors. In
Figure 23 you can see the bone remains of the sheep that were hanging on the wall in the Besease
shrine. Every bone represented a woman who had asked the spirit of the shrine for help conceiving and
offered a sheep in return.
Other reasons why people went to shrines was because they wanted good marriages, husbands or
wives, or passports and visas to travel abroad. Requests for the ability to travel to America and Europe
is something I have not found in any literature on Ghana. This has turned out to be one of the main
requests that many men bring to the shrines and forests and it also features, but to a lesser extent, in
the requests of the women. Globalization, migration, increasing tourism in Ghana and the
opportunities that some people are getting through education and marriage to travel abroad have
stimulated Ghanaians to look for better opportunities abroad.
4.3.5 Witchcraft
Parrinder (1961) said that witches suck the blood or eat the souls of their victims like vampires, who
meet in hollow or high trees, iroko, or baobab and the like. I found something similar in Ghana, where
Elvis Owuso told us that tree witches live in the high Ceiba pentandra, and they eat human flesh in a
spiritual way. Although Parrinder did his fieldwork in the 1930s and 1940s, a similar fear of witches
sitting in large trees still exists. Many still believe that you cannot cut down this tree, because if you
do, you will die. Recently, lumber companies started to cut Ceiba for plywood in areas where all other
valuable trees had already been felled. But there are still many people who do believe the tree should
be spared, because when we were driving on the road to other villages, on numerous occasions we saw
this tree standing in an open space where the rest of the trees were taken away. This shows that some
people in Ghana still have the belief that this is a very sacred tree and that you should be careful before
cutting it down.
The Milicia excelsa is another tree that is also seen as sacred and feared by witches and wizards.
Parrinder (1961) was told that witches eat the flesh of their victims on the branches of this tree. I have
heard the same story but not about the Milicia tree, it was about the Ceiba pentandra. That the story
has switched to another tree could explain why Milicia is now frequently being felled by the lumber
companies. In the Akoase region, these trees were cut down in large numbers for the manufacture of
wooden beams and mortars. After carrying out the necessary rituals you can cut this tree without
danger, people told us. Just like Ouinsavi et al. (2005) saw, this tree is still used for many medicinal,
and especially, spiritual treatments.
Witchcraft is explained as a relation between men and unfortunate events (Evans-Pritchard 1976).
Michael Kermah’s story about his friends’ taxi is a good example of this. The taxi broke down several
times, but it was only after the spiritualist – who the people from Alabokazo call 'the blind man' –
44
looked at it and performed rituals, that the ‘witch stopped driving in their car’ and the car never broke
down again. This gave them an explanation for their difficulties, and a solution.
4.3.6 New religions and old religions
The rise of Christianity and Islam has a good deal of influence on traditional religion in Ghana. As the
documentary, 'Demons of Ghana' showed, many priests were terribly against the old religion and tried
to banish it from the minds of the people. This is a current issue in Ghana. With the number of
Christians already estimated at 69%, it shows the religious power Christianity is acquiring in Ghana
(Bureau of Public Affairs 2005). Personally, I did not witness such conflicts. According to shrinekeepers, 'church people' do not destroy the sacred forests or shrines, because they have ‘been here
forever'. The churches have a certain respect for that history and they see this as normal because it has
never changed or been taken away. There was only one person from a sacred forest, of the 13 people,
who have said that 'they are afraid of it' and that that is why church people destroy it.
Although there is some rejection of the old religion, my respondents also mentioned (just like
Grottanelli (1988) and Ventevogel (1996) noted about Christians), that 'many still believe' and that
their 'gods go to church too'. Grottanelli’s example shows a relationship between the Twelve Apostles
Church and the traditional religion. The missionaries made a well and the people in Nzema Land use
this water. This is something I witnessed in the Nzema area as well. One of my respondents, the priest
healer, Osofo MƐla, had such a well in her garden with a large stone cross on it. She shows this very
link between Christianity and the traditional religion when she uses sacred water from the well to
protect pregnant women against evil spirits. She is the respondent who gave the answer, ‘within us’ to
the question about where spirits live. She was the only Osofo (see section 3.1) we interviewed and the
only one who gave this answer, which resembles an answer a Christian would give. This is because
most priest-healers believe that spirits and ancestors live outside the body, in trees, forests, rocks and
rivers. When a spirit does ‘invade’ the body, it was seen as something unique. Osofo MƐla referred to
these spirits as being within us all the time. This is something that comes from the Bible where they
say that the Holy Spirit is inside you. Ibrahim et al. (2010) shows that Christians go to the market to
buy herbs for spiritual ailments. We have also heard of Christians who still practise spiritual herbalism
to help them when they think it is needed. Edward Borteh, who was a Ga herbalist, was the healer
attached to the priest of a large shrine in Nungua. He is believed to have known of plants with spiritual
powers and where spirits lived. He was convinced that the magic tree Newbouldia laevis was the same
as the ‘hysop tree’ in the Bible, and therefore it had spiritual power.
The most striking example of how an old religion can merge with a newly arrived religion such as
Christianity, happened when we were at the Mami Wata shrine. They told us that many Church pastors
come to this shrine 'to receive the Holy Spirit'. They spread their divine inspiration later in their
45
churches. In return, these pastors bring gifts like sweets, toffees, mirrors, perfume, incense and so on
for Mami Wata.
4.3.7 What is sacred in the South of Ghana?
Just like the literature shows, the objects I found to be sacred are also large trees, like the Ceiba
pentandra and the Milicia excelsa in the different areas in the south of Ghana. we also found a very
large rock that was considered sacred because a spirit lived in it. People see something as sacred
because it represents a spirit. The Newbouldia laevis which Parrinder (1961) found in many shrines, is
something I also found in many shrines. This tree is seen as especially powerful for protection against
witches. When witches fly over this tree, they fall down so they cannot reach the house of the person
they want to harm. We found such a tree in almost every priest healer’s or herbalist’s garden.
Ouinsavi et al. (2005) talked about the way the ancestors settled under the Milicia excelsa tree. We
encountered the same stories about how ancestors travelled to the place where the village is sited today
and settled under a large tree. But we heard many of the same stories about the Ceiba pentandra, Ficus
and also one about Baphia nitida, which the village was named after. Another story from the same
area showed that the Cola nitida tree was seen as sacred. When an ancestor spat the cola nut in the
ground, a tree grew out of it. This tree still stands in the middle of the Edwinase shrine.
Durkheim (Net Industries and its Licensors 2010) said that anything can be a representation of the
sacred, and that is also what I saw. A hole in the ground was sacred, because that is where they poured
the libation (schnapps/ jenever) in for the ancestral spirits and other spirits. Just like Adinyira and
Hyland (1972) saw inside the Ashanti shrines, I saw sacred river banks and artefacts in special rooms
in shrines which were considered sacred. And, of course, the many plants with sacred power that we
collected during our fieldwork prove that the traditional beliefs are still very much alive in Southern
Ghana today.
4.3.8 The market
There is a rising demand for herbal medicine in
many places in sub-Saharan Africa and in Ghana
(Cocks & Møller, 2002; Ibrahim et al. 2010; Addai
& Obiri 2007). We also saw the large number of
plants and other objects that were sold in the
markets (see Figure 24). The markets are so large in
the cities because people here have found that
markets are a cheaper way of getting their medicine
– and most important, they have found markets to be
Figure 24: Nima market, Accra.................................... a.new way of getting the plants they need that do not
46
grow near their homes anymore. Some rainforest trees and lianas are becoming extinct because of the
deforestation by lumber companies and the waste that is destroying a lot of existing nature (Ray &
Ramachandra 2010). The fact that people have to walk long distances to find the medicinal plants they
need, even in the rural areas, is something we found in every village. Although people plant some of
these plants in their own gardens, just like Houghton (2003) saw, it is not enough to save the large
rainforest trees like Milicia excelsa, Okoubaka aubrevillei, Distemonanthus benthamianus and large
woody lianas of Dalbergia sp. We found certain barks or roots being imported all the way from the
North of Ghana, Nigeria and other neighbouring countries. This shows that many of these trees and
shrubs do not grow in the south of Ghana any more, although some do not grow there because of the
climate. Instead of travelling these great distances, the markets have made it possible for people from
the city to get their medicines for any type of reason (Müller & Ritz-Müller 2000).
We saw a connection between the many sacred trees and plants we found and the fact that many of
these sacred trees are available in markets. One liana we found, Ahoma bosom (Dalbergia sp.), was
known as a very dangerous liana, because it had red sap that looked just like blood. When you cut it in
the wrong way, you could die, so the story goes. The same story was told about the seeds of the Odi
tree (Okoubaka aubrevillei): if you did not perform all the appropriate rituals while collecting the
seeds, you would not survive. But to our surprise, many of these seeds and parts of the liana were sold
on the market for a good price. Many people must have learned the appropriate rituals from priesthealers – or maybe money has taken away their fear.
The quantity of seeds and other plant parts that turn up for sale in the markets endangers the survival
of these sacred trees and shrubs and puts the sacred forests at risk. When people lose their religious
beliefs about the sacred forests, a lot more degradation is going to take place. Probably the barks and
roots that were sold in the markets were not harvested in a sustainable way, because of the large
quantities on sale. In the literature (Ali & Butz 2003), I found that the management of these forested
areas is not adjusted to what the people believe. By using modern management schemes to protect
areas, governmental bodies have failed to incorporate the spiritual and social wellness of the
community. The local community has a way of using the area which is linked to their beliefs. Ray &
Ramachandra (2010) argue that these management bodies do not always protect the smaller sacred
forest areas that are also important for biodiversity.
In the markets in South Africa and Nigeria, a lot of plants are being sold for spiritual reasons, such as
protection against witchcraft or against evil spirits. The research on Ghana, by Addai and Obiri (2007),
did not show many plants used for rituals or magic. Ibrahim et al. (2010) and Cocks and Møller (2002)
also did not find many plants (less than 10% of all species) sold for spiritual treatment in South Africa.
The reason for the ‘scarcity’ of magic plants on the market is probably that the uses of these plants are
badly documented in Ghana and elsewhere and because people do not easily talk about it. In my
47
research, I found that many of the plants that were sold on the market were for spiritual purposes. A
lot of plants had more than one purpose, spiritual and physical ...............................
4.3.9 Practice of plant preparation
Mafimisebi and Oguntada (2010) mention that some traditional medicines are effective only when an
incantation is recited during their preparation and administration. I also found that reciting is important
during preparation and administration. When a priest prepares a protection bath, he has to recite what
he wants, and only then will it work. But this is important only for this particular medicine, not for
every medicine. Sometimes people do not recite anything during preparation or administration. But
when we saw that reciting was important for a treatment to work, people had to recite during bathing.
The various ways of administering medicines mentioned by Ventevogel (1996), were the same as
those we encountered. For example drinking, rectal insertion (enema), bodily application, bathing,
putting medicine in the ears, eyes or nose, or cooking it in soup or porridge. We encountered putting
medicine in the nose and the eyes only once, but never in the ears. Another way of protecting babies is
mentioned by Grottanelli (1988). It concerns women who have lost their first three children in the first
weeks of their lives. When this happens, they name the fourth child after the great river god, Tanoe. In
Alabokazo we interviewed a woman who was called Tanoe. She said she was named after the river
spirit Tanoe and that that was the reason why she was very powerful.
An enema, a bentua as they call it in Twi (see section 3.7.2), can be very dangerous because, as
Ventevogel mentions, you can get paralysis and ascites, which is the swelling of the belly because of
fluid. Our respondents did not think that a bentua could be bad for your health. I saw that a bentua is
used by almost every parent who wants to make their child strong or to make it walk or crawl early. It
is also used when a woman is barren and when a pregnant woman has spiritual problems. The bentua
is seen by the Akan as something that can reach the belly easily and quickly and that protection needs
to be done on the outside of the body (Ventevogel 1996). My research also shows that bentuas are
used when problems are inside the belly, or the body in general. But other problems can occur as well.
Using the bentua can injure the rectum and can cause bleeding. When only one or two bentua syringes
are used in the whole family, this can lead to infections and the transmission of
disease........................................................
Just as Gottlieb (2004) encountered, we also came across many 'local magical techniques' that are
believed to make a child start walking. Only one person explained to us why a child needs to start
walking early. The reason we were given is different from what Gottlieb found, which was that the
parents can only start having sex again once their youngest child has started to walk. Shaybu Abdullah
told us that the reason parents wanted children to walk early was because witchcraft can take away the
bones from the child. If this happens the child would never walk. To be sure that the child will walk,
48
people try to make the child walk (or crawl) as early as possible. Special stews were made with certain
plants to make a child healthy and strong at an early age.
To protect an unborn child's spirit, medicine is always applied on the outside of the mother’s body,
although the baby is inside. They mix plants with oil so the woman can rub this on her body, or tie a
rope around her belly or let the woman take a bath. This is in line with Ventevogel (1996) where he
states that protection is something that must be done outside the body. Many ways to protect
somebody from witchcraft or evil spirits, both babies and adults, was done by bathing with herbs. This
is also something Gottlieb (2004) mentions: protecting a baby by bathing it with special herbs. We
found that reversing the effects of witchcraft and chasing away evil spirits were often done by burning
certain barks or other plant parts in a room. This was mentioned many times by our respondents, but is
not mentioned in much of the literature as something that is done frequently.
49
5. Conclusion
The main question remains: Do people in the south of Ghana use magic plants, and if so, why? The
answer is yes, people in the South of Ghana use many magic plants. I have encountered 166 plant
species used for magic purposes during my research, which is a lot. These plants are used for several
reasons.
The respondents in my interview believe that there are spirits in the rivers, forests, rocks, sea,
mountain, sacred forests and shrines. These spirits, and witchcraft, influence their daily lives. Also
ancestral spirits are very important and people need to honor them with rituals. My respondents have
shown that there are many diseases or mishaps, which can be caused due to witchcraft or bad spirits.
This is one of the reasons why people would use magic plants. Herbs were used when diseases such as
convulsion or epilepsy occurred, which are seen as diseases that can be caused by witchcraft or bad
spirits. When a woman is barren, it is most of the times caused by witchcraft. Many other diseases are
thought to be caused from a spiritual source and these diseases also need a spiritual treatment where
magic plants are being used. For example, to treat convulsion a bath is the most effective way to treat
a child when having a fit. My respondents have used a bath with magic plants most of the time, but the
use of inhaling smoke, or drinking a concoction are also used. This can make the child suffocate, but
people think that these magic plants can cure this spiritually caused disease. An enema has also been
said to be used to treat a child from convulsion and in a majority of ways to treat barrenness.
Because these spiritual diseases can happen to anybody at any time, and especially small children, it
has become very important to protect everybody. Adults and babies are most of the times protected
from witchcraft and bad spirits with the use of smoke, baths, rubbing medicine on the body or by
planting a magic plant in the yard. Protection needs to be done on the outside of the body. It is very
important to protect small children and my respondents did this by making sure they can crawl or walk
early. Witchcraft can take the bones away from their babies, and by making them walk or crawl early
the parents want to make sure this will not happen.
Many places are sacred because a spirit is believed to live there or just because it is a spiritual place. A
tree can be sacred because the ancestors who founded the village settled under that tree. Some trees are
said to be sacred because of their scent or the shadows they cast or because they provide many
medicines. This is the reason why many people still plant magic plants in their gardens, villages or
beside their farms. It is also the reason why sacred forests still exist. At every shrine we visited, we
saw sacred plants which made the shrine sacred and this is also the reason why people protected this
plant. The most mentioned sacred trees magic plants we have found in southern Ghana are:
Newbouldia laevis, Okoubaka aubrevillei, Dalbergia sp. Daniellia ogea, Distemonanthus
50
benthamianus, Osimum americanum, Croton gratissimus, Momordica charantia, Ageratum
conyzoides, Ceiba pentandra.
Although these magic plants are being protected and seen as very dangerous because of the many
spirits that can reside in them, they are still being harvested. People use these magic plants a lot to
treat spiritual diseases or for protection. A lot of rituals and rules need to be obeyed before a person
can enter a sacred forest, or before a person can cut a sacred plant. It can be very dangerous and you
could get hurt if you do not obey these rules, but people still cut them down. Lumber companies play a
extensive role in the destruction of magic trees. We have also seen that many magic plants are being
sold on the market which we were told to be very dangerous to collect. A lot of money is asked for
these plants, probably because people fear spiritually caused diseases and want to treat them.
Magic plants were used or believed in by all of my respondents, even if they were Christian or
Muslim. We have not heard about much conflict between the Traditional Religion and the Churches.
The majority of the respondents were positive about the way the Church treated the sacred forest or the
shrines. We have seen ways where these two religions were melted into one, for example that a lot of
the Christians we have spoke to still use magic plants for several reasons. Many Christians I spoke
during my research knew a lot about sacred trees or the different magic plants people use.
My first hypothesis was not correct. Traditional healers treat physical problems and spiritual problems.
Some physical problems are treated in a spiritual way, others with physical medicine. However, the
boundary between treatments remains unclear sometimes.
The other hypothesis has been rejected as well, I thought that traditional healers would only collect
magic plants in sacred forests, or gardens. But I have seen that they even collect them on the road side.
These sacred trees also grow in forests which are not sacred and smaller sacred plants grow
everywhere. In the village and around the house, some of them also plant these magic plants in front of
their house, or garden, for protection and usage.
51
Word of Gratitude
I would like to thank dr. Tinde van Andel, for all her hard work and helpful insights during the full
course of this research. I was able to do this research with the help of the Alberta Mennega Stichting
(AMS). As a student I would also like to thank Leiden University, department of Cultural
Anthropology and Development Sociology with a special thanks to dr. Tessa Minter, and the
Nationaal Herbarium Nederland (NHN) for the possibilities they gave me in doing this research. Next
to that I want to thank all the respondents of my research, all the key informants in providing
assistance and help, all the people I have met in Ghana who were willing to tell their story to me, and
of course Sabine van Onselen and Michael Kermah. It was a pleasure to have worked with them.
52
Appendix 1
Literature:
Abbiw, D. (1990) Useful Plants of Ghana London, Intermediate Technology Publications Ltd.
Addai, A. & B.D. Obiri (2007) 'People and Plants: a Survey of Economic Botanicals on the
Kumasi Central Market' Ghana Journal of Forestry 21&22: 50-71.
Adinyira, G.L. & A.D.C. Hyland (1972) 'Conservation Practice in Ghana - A Case Study: The
Fetish House at Asawasi (Ashanti)' Documentation Centre UNESCO - ICOMOS
Volume 8.
Ali, I. & D. Butz (2003) 'Section III: CCAs and CMPAs: a Full Spectrum of Learning &
Struggles' Policy Matters 12: 111-140.
Awuah-Nyamekye, S. (2008) 'Magic: it's Nature and Meaning in Traditional Akan Society in
Ghana' Orita 40-1: 25-46.
Bigelow, J. et al. (2002) 'Attitudes Toward Clinical and Traditional Treatment for the Buruli
Ulcer in the Ga District, Ghana' Annals of African Medicine 1-2: 99-111.
Cocks, M. & V. Møller (2002) 'Use of Indigenous and Indigenised Medicines to Enhance
Personal Well-being: a South African Case Study' Social Science & Medicine 54: 387397.
Collier, G. & U. Fleischmann (2003) A Pepper-Pot of Cultures: Aspects of Creolization in the
Caribbean Amsterdam & New York, Editions Rodopi.
Evans-Pritchard, E.E. (1976) Witchcraft Oracles, and Magic Among the Azande Oxford,
Clarendon Press.
Gottlieb, A. (2004) The Afterlife is Where We Come From- The Culture of Infancy in WestAfrica Chicago, The University of Chicago Press.
Grottanelli, V.L. (1988) The Python Killer - Stories of Nzema Life Chicago, The University of
Chicago Press.
Houghton, P.J. (2003) 'Herbal Practitioners and Pharmacists in Ghana' The Pharmaceutical
Journal 271: 93-94.
Ibrahim, J.A. et al. (2010) 'Medicinal plants and animals sold by the "Yan-Shimfidas" of
Sabo Wuse in Niger State, Nigeria' African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology
4-6: 386-394.
Irvine, F.R. (1961) Woody Plants of Ghana Oxford, Oxford University Press.
Konadu, K. (2008) 'Medicine and Anthropology in Twentieth Century Africa: Akan Medicine
and Encounters with (Medical) Anthropology' African Studies Quarterly 10: 2-3.
I
Appendix 1
Mafimisebi, T.E. & A. E. Oguntada (2010) 'Preparation and Use of Plant Medicines for
Farmers' Health in Southwest Nigeria: Socio-Cultural, Magico-Religious and
Economic Aspects Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 6-1: 1-16.
Martin, G.J. (1995) Ethnobotany: A Methods Manual London, Chapman & Hall.
Müller, E. & U. Ritz-Müller (2000) Soul of Africa - Magical Rites and Traditions Cologne,
Könemann Verlagsgesellschaft mbH.
Obeng, C. (2009) Children's Health in a Traditional Society New York, Nova Biomedical
Books.
Ouinsavi, C. et al. (2005) 'Utilization and Traditional Strategies of In Situ Conservation of
Iroko (Milicia excelsa Welw. C.C. Berg) in Benin' Forest Ecology and Management
207: 341-350.
Ouinsavi C. & N. Sokpon (2008) 'Traditional Agroforestry Sustems as Tools for Conservation
of Genetic Resources of Milicia excelsa Welw. C.C. Berg in Benin' Agroforest
Systems 74: 17-26.
Parrinder, G. (1961) West African Religion - A Study of the Beliefs and Practices of Akan,
Ewe, Yoruba, Ibo, and Kindred Peoples London, the Epworth Press.
Ray, R. & T.V. Ramachandra (2010) 'Small Sacred Groves in Local Landscape: Are They
Really Worthy For Conservation?' Current Science 98-9: 1178-1180.
Tsey, K. (1997) 'Traditional Medicine in Contemporary Ghana: a Public Policy Analysis'
Social, Science & Medicine 45-7: 1065-1074.
Ventevogel, P. (1996) Whiteman's Things - Training and Detraining Healers in Ghana
Amsterdam, Het Spinhuis Publishers.
II
Appendix 1
Internet:
Boevere, de P. (2006) Jenever en Ghana, 27-11-2010,
(http://www.drinkblog.nl/2006/09/jenever_en_ghan.html).
Bureau of Public Affairs (2005) International Religious Freedom Report 2005 - Bureau of
Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, 27-11-2010,
(http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2005/51475.htm).
GhanaWeb (1994-2011) History of the Ashanti Kingdom, Kumasi, 5-3-2011,
(http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/history/ashanti.php).
Net Industries and its Licensors (2010) Sacred and Profane - Durkheim's Definition Of
Religion, Sacred Versus Holy; Profane Versus Secular, Totems, Society, And The
Sacred, 21-11-2010,
(http://science.jrank.org/pages/8062/Sacred-Profane.html).
NIH: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (2010) Uterine fibroids,
03-02-2011, (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/uterinefibroids.html).
WHO Regional Office for Africa (2009) Country Health System Fact Sheet 2006 Ghana,
14-11-2010, (http://www.afro.who.int/en/namibia/namibiapublications/doc_details/37- ghana-country-health-system-fact-sheet-2006.html).
Documentary:
Demons of Ghana (2006)
(http://www.assatashakur.org/forum/spirituality-connect-your-center/31472-demonsghana.html)
Figures:
Figure 3:
Ghana Web (2011) Maps of Ghana, 03-02-2011,
(http://www.yamodak.com/GhanaHomePage/geography/maps.php)
III
Appendix 2
Questionnaire:
Date: .................................................................
NUMBER INTERVIEW
Place: ................................................................
Name: .......Britt Myren......................................
Background information:

Name

Age

gender

place of birth

place of residence

tribe

religion

occupation

education
What type of healer are you? : own interpretation (herbalist (Nnunsinfoↄ) / priest healer (okↄmfoↄ)
/ diviner / midwife).
IV
Appendix 2
1. How did you learn the knowledge of medicinal plants (abibiduro) and rituals you have?
2. What kind of problems do you solve? Physical / spiritual problems?
3. Do certain plants have spiritual power? Could you name a few? Names & uses (ask again when
facing the plant)
4. F.e. 1,2,3,4,5…………………………………………………………………
pum, tete, dudo.?
5. Where do you get them? (sacred forest, garden, not-sacred forest, open vegetation (shrub land))
6. Where do the most important spirits live? In rivers, forest or plants?
7. Are there trees or plants you can never cut because it has a spirit in it?
8. Why is a certain spirit associated with a certain plant? (Bv Mami Wata->( lives mostly in the sea
along the coast.heal tell visions) met een waterplant)
9. How do you contact those spirits? (f.e. through plants?) bath/song/ritual/food/smoke/other
10. Can you chase away bad spirits with plants (herbal baths/smoke/ritual)
11. Are there certain plants that you can use to get more luck in your life? Become rich/ find good
husband or wife/ make you stronger than your enemies / make yourself invisible for police / hunt
more animals
12. Do you still learn new uses and/or new plant varieties?
13. Are there certain herbs that people use to get rid of witchcraft?
14. Yes, - Are there certain herbs that people use for witchcraft?
15. Do you know plants to protect people against witchcraft?
16. Do you have a shrine where you pray/have consultations?
17. Yes, may we see it?
V
Appendix 2
SACRED FORESTS
18. Do you visit sacred forests YES/NO
19. What is the history of this forest? Why is it sacred?
20. Are certain trees/herbs sacred and why? Names and uses
21. Are there certain rituals (show gratitude / ask permission) before you can harvest a plant from
sacred forest?
22. Who is allowed to harvest in this forest? Is everybody welcome? Why (not)?
23. Do church people still use these plants?
24. Do church people destroy or chop down sacred trees / plants?
CHILDREN
25. Do you treat children with spiritual problems?
26. Do you protect children with certain kinds of plants? Names and uses
27. What happens if you don't use those 'protection' plants?
28. Are there plants / treatments that help the baby to become strong, walk early, crawl early? Name
a few (names and uses).
WOMEN
29. Do you treat pregnant women with spiritual problems? Successful pregnancy, healthy child.
30. Is there a spiritual reason why women can't have children? Witchcraft? Bad spirits?
31. Is there a spirit that can help you to get children? Mami wata? Certain plants? Masks / fetish
statues?
32. How do you take care of unborn children's (spirit) during the pregnancy? Do/did you use any
plants?
VI
Appendix 3
Family
Gender and Species
Ghanaian name
Plant part
Preparation method
Magical use
Acanthaceae
Acanthaceae sp. TvA 6044
Dentemma (Ewe)
whole plant
planted in yard
Prevent bad spirits entering.
Acanthaceae
cf. Hygrophila auriculata
Ayéchu, Ayetso (G)
root /stick
put in house,bath
No witch can come,protection against witchcraft.
Achariaceae
Caloncoba sp.
Kpodilera (N)
bark
Enema
Chest problems/pains in spinal cord/lump at back caused by spirits.
Amaranthaceae
Aerva lanata
Asere asere (asire asire)
(T) 'laughing plant'
whole plant
bath,smoke
Get happiness,luck, good marriage,no bad dreams, drive away bad spirits.
Amaranthaceae
Amaranthus spinosus
Alonwoba (N)
leaves
enema
Waste troubles, toilet is with blood, STD's from witchcraft.
Amaranthaceae
Chenopodium ambrosioides
Magbezonemo (G)
whole plant
smoke,bath
Drive away bad spirits, protection (adult&child) against witchcraft.
Amaranthaceae
Chenopodium ambrosioides
Magbezoli (Ga)
whole plant
smoke
Protection, witch will run away.
Amaranthaceae
Cyathula prostrata
Akubaa (N) female
leaves
enema
Pregnant woman has spiritual problems baby will become strong.
Anacardiaceae
Antrocaryon micraster
Bowa (T/G)
seed
bath
Protection against bad spirits/witchcraft.
Annonaceae
Enantia polycarpa
Duasika (T)
root
boil and drink
If you dream (Bad spirits that worry you) it will stop.
Annonaceae
Monodora myristica
Evinleba (N)
seed
enema
Baby will come, female infertility.
Annonaceae
Monodora myristica
Evurumba (N)
seed
bath,enema,put in food
Convulsion, against evil spirits,strong bones(child),
pregnant woman with spiritual problems.
Apocynaceae
Isonema smeathmanni
Bote dua (N) 'rat tail'
leaves
put in nose
Pieces of nose fall off/sore on body/no respond to treatment caused
by spirits/witchcraft.
Apocynaceae
Landolphia owariensis
Ekoko nyema (N)
bark
put in food
Eye blindness/lumps on body caused by witchcraft.
Apocynaceae
Pergularia daemia
Kaaba (G)
whole plant
bath then drink some
For a healthy child when being pregnant.
Apocynaceae
Picralima nitida
Akwama (N)
seed
enema
Female infertility from spiritual source.
VII
Appendix 3
Apocynaceae
Pleioceras barteri
Blofodo (N)
leaves
put in nose
Part of nose can drop off caused by spirits/witchcraft.
Araceae
Caladium bicolor
jesu fevu (E) 'Jezus blood'
whole plant
planted near shrine
Protect the spirit of your shrine against other spirits who want to harm him.
Araceae
Culcasia angolensis
Nrateke (N)
leaves
enema,bath
Child to walk early, convulsion, when being inflicted with evil spirit.
Araceae
Xanthosoma sagittifolium
Kotomire (T)
leaves
enema
Child walk early.
Arecacaeae
Elaeis guineensis
Palmwine flower
piece of
inflorescence
smoke
Spirits will go away.
Asparagaceae
Dracaena arborea
Kochian golo (N)
(female)/ Añati (E)
whole plant
/leaves
bath,planted near shrine
Convulsion,for spiritual protection.
Asparagaceae
Dracaena fragrans
Kochian golo (N)(male)
/Oberri (F)
leaves
bath, planted near
shrine
Protection for witchraft, bath child with convulsion caused by a
spirit by a virgin, spiritual protection(ancestral spirits live in tree).
Asteraceae
Acmella caulirhiza
Dikpekpe afeme niano
nunimi (E)/Akodua (N)
'tail of a parrot'
whole plants
planted near
shrine,smoke
Protection, drive away evil spirits.
Asteraceae
Ageratum conyzoides
Tutsumeka kwoshepo (T)/
Duakankan (T) 'stink
tree'/ Ebolokulo (N)/Teke
avunli (N)
whole plant
put on broom,put in
food,enema,spiritual
consumption
Witches use it to fly to America without visa, convulsion,
child walk early, female infertility, tell leaves what you want.
Asteraceae
Tridax procumbens
Kpakpagekbe (E)
whole plant
tie on body
Spiritual power, when being very ill you will arrive safe at hospital.
Asteraceae
Vernonia cinerea
Nsikon (E)
whole plant
hang juju above door or
window
Ask to find job/good husband/lucky marriage/good sell on market.
Bignoniaceae
Kigelia africana
Etu Abraba (F)
whole plant
planted near shrine
Ancenstral spirits live in this tree.
Bignoniaceae
Kigelia africana
Fufuak pele/chochocho
(G)
fruit
boil and drink
Female infertility.
VIII
Appendix 3
Bignoniaceae
Newbouldia laevis
Nii abaa (G)/Nii Nyaba
(T) 'chief seed'
/Sisiumansa (T)/Kaseku
(F) /Dukpane (N) /Gboti
(E)/Aviaya ti (E)
leaves /bark
bath,smoke,planted in
yard,speak
spiritually,planted near
shrine
Health/luck, drive away bad spirits,protection, witch will fall down
from the sky, spirits in tree, recite what you want, around shrine
to protect the spirit of your shrine.
Bigoniaceae
Spathodea campanulata
Akua akua nisuo (T)/
African tulip tree (Eng)
bark
boil and drink
Female infertility.
Burseraceae
Canarium schweinfurthii
Ehile (N)
bark
enema
Chest problems, pain in spinal cord, lump at back, chest pain all
from spiritual source.
Celtidaceae
Trema africana
lutei (E)
leaves
put in food
Female infertility.
Chrysobalanaceae
Chysobalanaceae sp. TvA
5804
Adumuale (N)
leaves
enema
If you want to have a baby, child to walk early.
Chrysobalanaceae
Parinari excelsa
Nyanvanle
(N)/Ayilenvoanle (N)
'medicine
smell'/Nwomenli nya (N)
'ghost leaf'
leaves
smoke,drink juice
Convulsion caused by spirits, bad spirits/ghosts will go away.
Clusiaceae
Harungana madagascariensis
Kosoa (N)
leaves
enema
Female infertility (womb is closed by spiritual means).
Combretaceae
Combretum comosum
Echilebenle nyema (N)
'yellow fast snake'/Ahoma
chileben (T)
bark
bath,rub on
skin,smoke,enema
Cannot cut for it has a spirit in it, chase/drive away bad spirits,
female infertility.
Combretaceae
Combretum sp.
Ahomaden (T)
wood
boil and drink,bath
If you dream (Bad spirits that worry you) it will stop.
Combretaceae
Terminalia catappa
Abrofo nkate (T) 'white
man's groundnut'/Indian
almond (Eng)
whole plant
planted near shrine,in
village
Witches live on these branches.
Commelinaceae
Commelina diffusa
Agbo nokunoku, Golo (E)
whole plant
bath
Devil chases a person he will be sent away, chase away evil.
Connaraceae
Manotes expansa
Awahanya (N)
leaves
bath
Convulsion, when you are inflicted with evil spirit.
IX
Appendix 3
Convolvulaceae
Evolvulus alsinoides
Shuwoblo (N)
whole plant
smoke,bath
Drive away the bad spirits, luck, good marriage.
Convolvulaceae
Evolvulus alsinoides
Chi oberowo white (G)/
'elephant white'
whole plant
bath
Health in life/luck, protection.
Costaceae
Costus afer
Somè (T)
leaves /branch
/flower
bath,put under pillow,
planted near shrine
Against witchcraft, if person dies early that ghost cannot come,
put on the road and carry coffin over it to make the person reincarnate and
when buried they put the Costes flower in the hand palm, keep away evil.
Costaceae
Costus lucanusianus
Anyane (N)
whole plant
/branch
putten on floor or bath
Step over for spiritual cleansing (somebody dead from family/menstrual
period/child younger than 3 months, spirits don't like it).
Crassulaceae
Bryophyllum pinnatum
Tameawu (T) 'hate me,
you die' / Ekpeleke (N)
whole plant
/leaves
bath,drink liquid
Health in life/ luck, if newborn is inflicted by witchcraft and has
A cough/chest problems.
Crassulaceae
Bryophyllum pinnatum
Tame me enum (A)
leaves
put in mouth,planted in
shrine
Something bad will go back to the one who has sent it, sacred plant.
Cucurbitaceae
Adenia lobata
Konoba (G)
whole plant
put on body/clothes
For the spirits at the Homowa festival of the Ga's.
Cucurbitaceae
Lagenaria siceraria
Akpaki kwobikwobi (G)
(kwobikwobi=pimples)
whole fruit
bath
Spirits will go away, when you bath say things that worry you and
they will go away.
Cucurbitaceae
Lagenaria siceraria
Tsigwi (E)/ Calabash
(Eng)
fruit
hang juju above door or
window
Ask to find job/good husband/lucky marriage/good sell on market.
Cucurbitaceae
Momordica charantia
Nyanya (T)/ Ewole alia
(N) / African cucumbre
(Eng)/ secret name in Ewe
whole plant
bath,under pillow,put
on clothes,on head chief
Health in life/luck, spirit will not come, priest wears around neck
for luck/spiritual protection, protection child, no bullet can harm you.
Cyperaceae
Cyperus
Tekke (N)
leaves
enema
If belly is silent the spirits will awake and the baby becomes strong.
Cyperaceae
Cyperus articulatus
Kagigi (G)
root
smoke
Luck/good marriage/chase away bad spirits.
X
Appendix 3
Dilleniaceae
Tetracera sp. TvA5916
Bovole nyema (N) /
hunters rope (Eng)
sap
drink water from liana
Find way back in forest, you will have the spiritual eye to identify the road.
Dioscoreaceae
Dioscorea
Wild yam Domama rock
shrine
whole plant
planted on sacred shrine
Sacred plant.
Ebenaceae
Diospyros sanzamulika
Sanza mulike (N)
'charcoal'
bark
smoke
Drive away evil spirit, spirits live under it.
Euphorbiaceae
Croton gratissimus
Ayen ahabaye (T)/Anyeba
(G)/Bèlèlè (E)
leaves
bath,smoke
Health/luck, drive away bad spirits, protection against witchcraft,
healthy child as a pregnant woman, convulsion.
Euphorbiaceae
Discoglypremna caloneura
Djidjiria baka (N)
bark
put in oil and drink
Inflicted with spirits, vomiting blood.
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbia hirta
Enoku (N)
root /leaves
rub on body,bath
Luck/husband/employment, to get rid of witchcraft.
Euphorbiaceae
Grossera vignei
Dubrafoo (T)
leaves
put under pillow
Against witchcraft, if person dies early that ghost cannot come.
Euphorbiaceae
Jatropha curcas
Adadi (G)/ Babanti (E)
whole plant
planted near shrine,bath
Spiritual protection, convulsion.
Euphorbiaceae
Jatropha curcas
Adadze (F)
leaves
boil and drink
Convulsion.
Euphorbiaceae
Manihot esculenta
Agbeliti (E)/ Cassava
leaf(Eng)
leaves
bath
Convulsion.
Euphorbiaceae
Phyllanthus muellerianus
Simgbu (N)
leaves
boil and drink
Man is sexually weak due to witchcraft.
Euphorbiaceae
Ricinodendron heudelotti
Kokuedru (T)/Onwama
(T)
bark
boil and drink
Female infertility.
Euphorbiaceae
Ricinus communis
Adekuma (G)
leaves
bath
Your star/light will shine.
Fabaceae
Baphia nitida
Dwen (F), Selenra (N)
leaves
spiritual
consumption,planted in
yard
Tell leaves what you want, witches use this to inflict with bad spirits,
bath
Spirits harming you which will go back to that source - sent harm (juju)
Fabaceae
Dalbergia afzeliana
Done nsia baka (N) 'six
o'clock tree'
leaves
drive away evil spirits.
XI
Appendix 3
back to them.
Fabaceae
Dalbergia saxatilis
Ahomakyem (T)
wood
cut liana,say enemies
name
Enemy will suffer.
Fabaceae
Dalbergia sp. TVA 5663
Ahomabosom (T) 'rope of
spirit'
wood
bath,put in
food,smoke,boil and
drink
Spiritual cleansing before treatment, chase away bad spirits
(dreams that worry you), luck/good marriage,(spiritual) protection
against witchcraft, if a witch has taken your blood you will get it back.
Fabaceae
Dalbergia sp. TVA 5718
Ahomakyem (T)
wood /sap
/bark
talk to liana,put in
food,bath
Epilepsy, person offended you(person will bleed), chase away/protect
against bad spirits/witchcraft, spiritual problems.
Fabaceae
Dalbergia sp. TVA 5917
Kindinginli male (N)
wood
enema,bath
Gonorrhea, protection against spiritual influences.
Fabaceae
Daniellia ogea
Ehye (T)/Ehyele (N)/Gum
Copal Tree (Eng)
resin /bark
smoke,put in Okoubaka
aubrevillei
Drive away the spirit, used in the church as incense, spirit will come,
luck/good marriage.
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Desmodium ramosissimum
Distemonanthus
benthamianus
Dwazomowule (N)
/Famekplipé €,
Asemangama mowule (N)
leaves
Eholonvia (N)/ Ayene
baka (N) 'witchcraft leaf,
ayene nya (N) (small
leaves)
bark /leaves
enema,rub on body,tie
on body
For a child to walk early (6 months), spiritual power,
when being very ill you will arrive safe at hospital.
smoke,say witches
name
Rituals when collecting bark, get rid of witchcraft/bad spirits,
protect children, sacred plant.
Fabaceae
Indigofera sp.
Aguegbwe (G)
whole plant
bath
Spiritual bath.
Fabaceae
Millettia barteri
Ayene nya (N) 'witchcraft
leaf' (=big leaf one)
bark /leaves
smoke
Chase away evil spirits.
Fabaceae
Mimosa pudica
Sonla nwo bon (Nzema)
leaves/ root
use on body,smoke
Luck/husband/employment/good marriage/travel to Europe-USA/
wife will come back, chase spirit away,
XII
Appendix 3
protect pregnant woman against witchcraft.
Fabaceae
Pentaclethra macrophylla
Ateba (Nzema)
whole plant
/bark
bath,enema,smoke,rub
on skin
Female infertility, chase away witchcraft/evil spirit, return to sender.
Fabaceae
Piptadeniastrum africanum
Danhoma (T) / Dabelema
(N)
bark
/fluid/leaves
smoke,rub on
skin,enema,drink liquid
Spirits live there, chase away evil spirits/witchcraft, female infertility,
thief will turn into fish. Witches use leaves as transportation,
to inflict others with bad spirits.
Fabaceae
Senna occidentalis
Kedeba aluba
(N),Children's plantain
(Eng)
leaves /root
smoke,rub on skin
Against bad spirits/witchcraft, use when luck/husband/employment is needed.
Fabaceae
Tetrapleura tetraptera
Ekpolekese (N)
seed
put in food,put in oil
and drink
Heart disease from spiritual source.
Fabaceae
Uraria picta
Akwete akwete (G) 'two
boys'
whole plant
bath
For a twin against bad spirits, used this at festival (Homowa).
Asorlor (N)
seed
used on body
Used at festival Kundum on wrist and enkels to dance.
Fabaceae
Huaceae
Afrostyrax lepidophyllus
Duanjang (T) Onion tree
(Eng)
bark
boil and drink,enema
Convulsion (it will stop and not come again).
Lamiaceae
cf. Vitex sp.
Abisanya (N)
leaves /flower
bath,enema,put in food
Convulsion, against evil spirits, strong bones(child),
pregnant woman with spiritual problems.
Lamiaceae
Lamiaceae
Clerodendron splendens
Hyptis suaveolens
Akanyi nya (N) 'black ant
with big head,smelly
leave'
leaves
Ɛmenle (Nzema)
leaves
tie around bodypart
Treat womb when there is infection of the womb caused by spirits,
repair broken bones.
bath,enema,put in
food,smoke,rub on skin
Get rid of or protect from witchcraft/evil spirits, protect baby,
child walk early.
XIII
Appendix 3
Lamiaceae
Ocimum americanum
Ɛmi (T)/Sisakoa (G)
whole plant
/leaves
bath,put in
food,smoke,on clothes
Luck/health/protection against witchcraft,
drive away bad (haunting) spirits.
Lamiaceae
Ocimum gratissimum
Nunum (T)
leaves
smoke
Drive away the spirit.
Lamiaceae
Ocimum tenuiflorum
Ahamè (E)
whole plant
planted near house
Keep evil away.
Lamiaceae
Platostoma africanum
Sizileke Ezileke ngyinle
(N)
leaves
rub on body (say name
of man/woman)
Luck/husband/employment/health/seek visa to Europe USA,
before having sex with man or woman and he/she will be faithful.
Lamiaceae
Solenostemon latifolius
Sisiwurodu (N)
leaves
mix with water and
drink,enema
Hunted by witchcraft/curse, prevent from abortion,
luck/marriage/employment/travel to Europe-USA/wife will come back.
Lauraceae
Cinnamomum verum
Cinnamon (Eng)
leaves
put in food,bath
Chase away/protect from bad spirits,
treat/protect people with spiritual problems.
Lecythidaceae
Petersianthus macrocarpus
Loganiaceae
Spigelia anthelmia
Lycopodiaceae
Lycopodiella cernua
Malvaceae
Ceiba pentandra
Assia (Nzema)
whole plant
/bark
smoke,bath
Sacred tree, drive away the spirits.
whole plant
In calabash in shrine
Spirit will be active and shrine will work.
Ochebogbomo (G)
whole plant
bath
Against bad spirits.
Onyina (T)/Silk cotton
tree (Eng) /Enrenra (N)
Etufaa (T)
bark / whole
plant
grows in (sacred) forest
Bark for sale on the market, ground bark to get rid of witchcraft,
female infertility.Witches sit on the tree, many gods, do not cut without rituals,
Chase away bad spirits.
Malvaceae
Cola caricifolia
Kindingringa (N)
whole tree
/leaves
enema
Child will walk early (6-7 months).
Malvaceae
Cola nitida
Besè (T) / Cola tree (Eng)
whole plant
/bark
planted in shrine
Sacred tree (ancestral history), female infertility.
XIV
Appendix 3
Malvaceae
Grewia barombiensis
Akolongo (N)
bark
bath,boil and drink,rub
on body
Vomiting blood because of witchcraft, evil spirit is in you
and hands/body are shaking.
Malvaceae
Hibiscus asper
Kponde (G)
leaves
boil and drink
When getting married the man must drink it and he will be faithfull.
Malvaceae
Sida acuta
Obrane atu ata
(T)/Faviema (N)
/Damedame (E)/ Dolièku
(Ewe spiritual name)
leaves
rub on body,tie on
body,put in food
Evil spirits cannot harm you, when being very ill you will
arrive safe at hospital, spiritual plant, cough/sore troat caused by spirits,
health/employment/seek visa Europe-USA.
Malvaceae
Sida linifolia
Oduogbogbↄ (G) 'Lucky
leaves' / Odiogbogbo (E)
leaves /branch
bath,hang juju above
door or window
Health/luck,protect child,ask to find job/good husband/lucky
marriage/good sell on market.
Malvaceae
Thespesia populnea
Edjegua (F)
whole plant
planted near shrine
Sacred plant.
Malvaceae
Waltheria indica
Evonada (E)/ Nsikonu (E)
leaves
hang juju above door or
window,tie on body,
Ask to find job/good husband/lucky marriage/good sell on market,
when being very ill you will arrive safe at hospital.
Malvaceae
(Bombacaceae)
Corchorus aestuans
Ehwia tefema (N)
'Ehwia(=female name)
tongue'
leaves
enema
Gonorrea (STD's) by spiritual source.
Malvaceae
(Bombacaceae)
Pachira insignis
Bolofole ehulie (N) 'white
man's groundnut'
whole plant
planted in yard,cook
and eat
Sacred plant,protection against evil spirits.
Marantaceae
Hypselodelphys poggeana
Nrabafale (N)
branch /leaves
Meliaceae
Khaya senegalensis
Mahogany (Eng)
bark
boil and drink
Protection baby.
Meliaceae
Turraea heterophylla
Ahunyankua (G)
leaves
bath
Protect a child.
Menispermaceae
Tiliacora leonensis
Kindinginli female (N)
liana
enema,put in alcohol
and drink
Gonorrhea caused by spirits,cure sexual weakness on man
Shoot(branch/leaves) add Kochian golo(male), used in unclear recipe
when woman has inflicted it because he was cheating.
XV
Appendix 3
Miristicaceae
Coelocaryon sphaerocarpum
Ebuluma (N)
bark
planted near shrine
Chest problems/stiff chest/spiral cord bents/back with lump
from spiritual source, sacred.
Moraceae
Ficus cyathistipula ssp.
cyathistipula
Duasindua (T)
parasite plant
bath
Protect a child.
Moraceae
Ficus exasperata
Nyanrale (N)
whole tree
/leaves
enema
If witchcraft closes the womb of the woman.
Moraceae
Ficus ovata
Akobnle egyane (N)
'chicken shit fig'
leaves
smoke
Chase away evil spirits.
Moraceae
Ficus polita
Adomba (F)
whole plant
planted near shrine
Sacred plant.
Moraceae
Ficus thonningii
Bo (E), Edzo (E)
leaves
bath
Counteract juju spells.
Moraceae
Milicia excelsa
Odum (T)/ Elunli (N)
bark
bath
Financial problems, chase away bad spirits,
feared by witches/wizards, place where most spirits live,
return to sender of bad spirits/juju.
Myristicaceae
Pycnanthus angolensis
Otie (T)
bark /leaves
boil and drink
Female infertility.
Myrtaceae
Eugenia sp. TvA 5890
Bane nyangvanle (N)
'fence of smelly leave'
branch
smoke
Drive away bad spirits.
Nephrolepidaceae
Nephrolepis biserrata
Mlekaya (N)/Butule nya
(N) 'quirrel(fighting)
leave'
whole plant
smoke
Drive away bad spirits.
Nyctaginaceae
Boerhavia diffusa
Ndelala (N)
leaves
enema
Fibroid caused by witchcraft.
Ochnaceae
Lophira alata
Ezobe (N)
bark
bath
It has spirits in it,wash away evil spirit.
Olacaceae
Heisteria parvifolia
Komu ageli (N)
seed
enema
Female infertility from spiritual source.
Pandaceae
Microdesmis keayana
Fiaba (N)
seed
enema
Female infertility.
XVI
Appendix 3
Passifloraceae
Adenia dinklagei
Nyema taboa (N) 'almost
strong tree wood, liana
which has a wood'/Ahoma
taboa (T)
whole plant
bath,rub on body,smoke
Cannot cut for it has a spirit in it,chase away bad/evil spirits and witchcraft.
Passifloraceae
Adenia sp. TvA 5918
Brazinli nyema (N) 'virgin
rope'
stem (part of
liana)
bath
Bath child with convulsion caused by spirit by virgin.
Phyllanthaceae
Uapaca guineensis
Elokoba (Nzema)
bark of roots
smoke,rub on skin
Case away bad spirits, to get luck,sacred plant.
Piperaceae
Piper guineense
Soro wisa (T)
seed
put in food
Convulsion.
Poaceae
Eleusine indica
Nensain (T)/ Sogbe hlotsu
(E)
whole plant
bath
Attacked by a spirit (act strange, run arount, scream,
see invisible things),chase away evil.
Poaceae
Elionurus muticus
Sikazile (N)
leaves
enema
If woman cannot deliver for bad spirits have tied the baby in the womb
(spiritual cutting).
Rhamnaceae
Gouania longipetala
Ahomabri (T)
stem (part of
liana)
put in food,bath
Chase away bad spirits.
Rubiaceae
Chassalia kolly
Awole nya (N) /Eholie
(N)
leaves
enema,bath
Female infertility by witchcraft,if ancestral spirits/ghosts/bad
spirits are troubling/chasing you.
Rubiaceae
Hallea stipulosa
Beya (N)
whole plant
/bark
planted in sacred forest
Chase away bad spirits,after rituals you can cut it.
Rubiaceae
Morinda lucida
Akyeni ne enwo (T)
/Konkronoma (F)/Sima
(N)/Oil and salt tree (Eng)
root /leaves
boil and drink,enema
Against madness,when witch put fibroid in womb, help get children.
Rubiaceae
Oldenlandia affinis
Wiadjee (E)
whole plant
tie on body
When being very ill you will arrive safe at hospital,spiritual power.
Rubiaceae
Sarcocephalus latifolius
Chofa tsolo (G)
root
boil and drink
Female infertility.
Rubiaceae
Sarcocephalus pobeguini
Adesekangi (F)
leaves /bark
enema
Female infertility.
XVII
Appendix 3
/root
Rutaceae
Citrus aurantifolia
Domunli (N)/ lime (Eng)
leaves
bath
Protect against witchcraft (also a baby).
Rutaceae
Clausena anisata
Sesadua (T)
root
boil and drink
Female infertility.
Rutaceae
Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides
Kantom (T)
root
boil and drink
Female infertility.
Santalaceae
Okoubaka aubrevillei
Odi tree (T)/Dunyi (N)
whole plant/
bark
ash in cuts,chew
bark,put Daniellia ogea
in plant part,enema,put
in food
Sacred tree,protection,nobody will harm you,spirit will come,
put in nose,enema,tie on
bodypart,put in
food,bath,put in house
Give to pregnant woman if child has died several times,broken limp,
Santalaceae
Okoubaka aubrevillei
Odi tree (T) / Dunyi (N)
seed
child have strong bones,chase away bad spirits/witchcraft,
cannot cut bark in your own shadow.
convulsion,get rid of/protect against witchcraft,treat spiritual problems,
bad dreams/luck/good marriage,help child have strong bones,no wizard can come.
Sapindaceae
Paullinia pinnata
Twentini (T) /Tolondi (N)
root /leaves
bath,enema
Protection of child,child to walk early.
Scrophulariaceae
Scoparia dulcis
Nyilanyila (N)
whole plant
put in food
Spiritual plant,cough/sore troat caused by spirits,protect against witchcraft.
Selaginellaceae
Selaginella
Ngohole dobela (N)
leaves
smoke, rub on skin
Drive away spirits and for white caused by witchcraft.
Smilaceae
Smilax anceps
Kloklo nyema (N)
leaves
enema
Baby to become strong if pregnant woman has spiritual problems.
Ahoho gyata (T)
root
boil and drink
Female infertility.
Unidentified
Unidentified
Liana
Anwuma nyema (N)
'above/on top, rope'
bark
bath,rub on skin,smoke
To drive away evil spirits/witchcraft.
Unidentified
liana (Tva 6006)
Ayene nyema (N)
bark
bath,rub on skin,smoke.
To drive away spirits/witchcraft, convulsion caused by spirits.
Unidentified
large tree
Djippin (T)
bark
tie on body,boil and
drink
Asthma,on a broken limp and it will heal.
Unidentified
TVA 5988
Fratue shishi (G)
root
boil and drink
Female infertility.
XVIII
Appendix 3
Unidentified
Akabiew (T)
leaves
put in water
Send something bad to your enemy.
Unidentified
Lowa (G)
root
boil and drink
Female infertility.
Chrituo (G)
root, bark?
rub on body
Nobody can harm you spiritually,if animal leans against plant it will not die.
Kwasin (N)
bark
boil and drink
Vomit out the juju; the vomit contains what is bad.
Unidentified
TvA 5997
Unidentified
Verbenaceae
Lantana camara
Anansi dokono (T)
Leaves
enema
Will make child strong if child cannot walk.
Verbenaceae
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis
Asafo (E)
leaves
tie on body
When being very ill you will arrive safe at hospital.
Verbenaceae
Vitex grandifolia
Nyamenle kyina (N)
'umbrella of God'
bark of roots
rub on body
STD (shingles,first sign of HIV/AIDS,skin comes off)
caused by spiritual source/witchcraft.
Vitaceae
Cissus adenocaulis
Andoma (N)
whole plant
/leaves
put under bed,enema
If a grown up wets his bed because of witchcraft.
Vitaceae
Cissus aralioides
Natingtem (T)/
Twamporowa (T)
/Sisiagboke (N)
stem /bark
/leaves
enema
Child to walk early/become strong.
Zingiberaceae
Afromomum melegueta
Fom wisa(T)
seed
in bottle hung in house
or yard
It can protect you, send bad magic back to enemy
Zingiberaceae
Wild ginger
Sinzimele (N)
roots
enema
Child walk early.
XIX
Appendix 4
Spirits in the South of Ghana
Nyaponpon (Nzema)
The creator, the big God in the traditional religion.
Nyame (Twi)
The God of the Christians./ also African creator God. The word existed before Christianity.
Obosom (Twi)
The elder spirits, this is the most dangerous one. It can kill you, these spirits live in shrines (for
example. in Akoase). If you are a family member of a fetish priest, the spirits can favour you if you do
something bad like taking coins or fruits from the shrine.
Ancestral spirits
Most of the time you have to ask permission for something to the ancestral spirits, or ask the spirits to
guide you, or you have to pay your respect to them. Okomfo deal with them and these spirits are often
in sacred forests or places. A tree can be seen as sacred within a village when an ancestor settled under
that specific tree.
Aprada (Twi/Kwahu)
It is the spirit of war for soldiers, guards, protection, and to use as an aphrodisiac. He makes thunder
and he will help you if people do bad things to you, offend you and you can ask him to do harm to
somebody who did such a bad thing, or who stole something. That person will be struck by lightning,
burn like coal. The plant that belongs to this spirit is Obrane atu ata (Twi) (Malvaceae Sida acuta),
Aprada lives in it. When you use this spirit, no bullet or knife can hurt you. An iron ring can also
protect you with the help of the spirit. With this spirit you can send harm to your enemy, he can also
make a rainbow if you want money, or anything else. A liquid with a red color with a cross in it helps
and we saw a candle with all the colors of the rainbow which was burning for this spirit.
Djippin (Kwahu)
In Twi the name of the tree is the same name as the spirit. This tree helps against asthma (spiritual
disease).
Enuanzane (Nzema)
He lives in swampy areas and he is big, hairy and white. Most of them are friendly. You can call on
them and they will come to help you. He knows everybody around by name, and when you are lost in
the forest he can call you by name and direct you home.
XX
Appendix 4
Kaku Acka (Nzema)
This is the name of the notorious king of Nzema region. It has been said by the people from the
Nzema region that they think he is a spirit. The story about this king (spirit) is that a mother worked in
the forest/ farm, when she laid her baby on the floor on a blacked. The spirit also had a baby, a hairy
human like the spirit of the forest (Enuanzane). The spirit changed the babies, she brought the wrong
one home. The king was very bad and has done awful things.
Mami Wata
Always brings money, good luck, work. She lives in the water, in the sea and in the river. All the
plants in the water belong to her. You can get into contact with this spirit whilst bathing in the sea for
a long time; Mami Wata will protect you there. The grandmother of Michael Kermah was able to
contact Mami Wata and then she would spend many hours, or days in the ocean whilst talking with
her. You have to get the spirit to work with Mami Wata.
Mmotia (Twi)
He is small and his feet are turned in the wrong direction, toes backwards and heal in front (looks like
he is walking back). The dwarf spirit, who lives in the Odi (Twi) tree and in Ahomakyem (Twi). He is
the king of the spirit, it is rain. You need to watch this spirit, it is very strong. Ancient people learned
the knowledge from the dwarf spirit in the forest. Story: the dwarf spirit can switch the road, the
direction, and then you end up in the woods or forest for weeks. Whilst in the forest the knowledge
that the mmotia has is thought to you. These spirits are always in the forest. The mmotia spirit can
also help you find your way back again when you are lost, or when relatives or friends are lost in the
forest. During the Kundum festival in the Nzema region, the Christians are protesting against it, they
are afraid of the dwarfs, because this festival is for the mmotia spirit. During this festival the people
dance with different herbs.
Nyaazu (Nzema)
Name of the shrine in Alabokazo from Blay Tanoe and the name of the head spirit that lives at the
bank of the river. They thought there was a spirit in the river, that is why they started to perform rituals
at the bank of this particular river. This is a lady, a goddess, the king of the spirit, and she will help
you if you are hunted, or chased, by spirits. They will go away. Even in the dry season the river flows
where the goddess is, because of the stream the people settled here. It is the rain goddess, when you
perform a ritual there in drought you will get rain. This is the creek that never dries, there is always
water!
Nyango duvule (Nzema)
Meaning your soul. Before you are born you have a soul, everybody does. When you are born you say
goodbye to that soul you had before you were born. Some carve a small statue that represents that
soul. You can consult this if you need anything. When dealing with spiritual problems, a priestess can
XXI
Appendix 4
consult that statue if there is a problem with the soul. It is carved in a different way for everybody.
Witches use it, they mostly carve it from special trees; for example from the Odum (Milicia excelsa
Moraceae).
Sema (Ashanti)
Warrior god. It is the name of the obosom at Aduko Jackie shrine. In the shrines pistols and canons
were carved in the wall. These are quicker and faster than a cutlass. They explained it in this way:
war=gun, it is not a cutlass. The hunter is the symbol of God. If someone is stronger, God will shoot
the other spirit from far. This spirit protects fighters.
Tanoe (Nzema/Twi)
Name of a Okomfo from Alabokazo, she was named after the river Tanoe. This is also the name of the
Obosom at the Besease shrine near Kumasi. They said that this spirit looks like the statue in the shrine,
the power is in the statue (it was behind a closed door). This is also the Obosom that gave Yaa
Asantewa her power when she fought against the British. She got her power at that particular shrine.
Toumfoum (Fante)
This is a spirit that lives in the sacred shrine and forest in Wassa Saamany. This is probably a spirit
that lives in the river Ancroba. The ancestors fell into this river before they settled in the place where
they live now, in the area of Wassa.
XXII