Dr. Jeanett Castellanos

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Latina/os
in the US
Religion
and
Motivation
Latina/os’ in the US
Religious
and Spiritual
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Practices and Beliefs
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Latina/o Challenges in the US

Some of the stressors that have
been found to impact Mexican
Americans’ mental health,
specifically undocumented
immigrants, are:
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low educational attainment

low English proficiency
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little or no health insurance
coverage
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poor housing

low employment status, which
usually results in low wages and
often exploitation by employers
(Loeta, 2009; Sullivan & Rehm, 2005; Garcia & Saewyc, 2007).

Other issues that put Mexican
immigrants at risk of
developing mental health
problems are adjusting to
cultural norms of the new
country, establishing new
relationships, discrimination,
fear of being deported if in the
country illegally, and
separation from kinship
networks and community in
Mexico.
Garcia & Saewyc, 2007; Grzywacz, Quandt, Arcury &
Marin, 2005; Sullivan & Rehm, 2005).
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Coping responses or styles refers to one’s
tendency to manage or alter negative
stressful events by thinking and acting in a
particular manner (Struthers, 1995).
Two primary types of coping dominate the
literature: problem-focused coping (PFC)
and emotion-focused coping (EFC).
Problem-focused coping ameliorates the
stressor by using active and strategic
measures and emotion-focused coping
attempts to mitigate the actual emotional
distress caused by the stressor (Struthers,
1995).
Latina/os who demonstrate stresssituational reliance on complementary
spiritual beliefs. These practices can be
evident in any age and acculturation level
(Baez & Hernandez, 2000).
The stress situational reliance of these
belief systems might end with one situation
or continue on for months or years.
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Latina/os and Religious Practices

In a national survey, 70% of Latina/os reported Catholicism as their
religion while 23% reported they were Protestant. A 1% reported
world religion and 6% no preference (2003, Institute for Latino Studies).

Studies conducted in west Texas have found that more than 75% of
Mexican Americans use complementary or alternative therapies to
treat their illnesses and suggest that Mexicans and Mexican Americans
use traditional remedies because they prefer them to allopathic
healthcare and integrate traditional remedies into their daily self-care
routines (Bushy, 1992; Eisenberg et al., 1998; Rivera et al., 2002; Tafur et
al., 2009).

Today, the primary non-Christian spiritual traditions that affect the lives
and world view of many Latina/os include: Santeria and Espiritismo
(Baez & Hernandez, 2001).

Migene Gonzalez-Wipler (1973, 1981, 1990) noted that there are over
one hundred million Santeria practitioners in the Americas.

Conservative estimates for the South Florida area point to about 10 to
15 percent of the Hispanics being either full-fledge practitioners or
"dabblers" in Santeria rituals.
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Multiple Religious and
Spiritual Belief Systems

Latina/os healing views stem
from varying epistemologies
rooted in: (1) Indigenous and
Mestizo (2) African, and (3)
Spanish beliefs. Unique spiritual
practices complementing
Catholicism include but are not
exclusive to:
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Mestizo Practices
 Curanderimo
Espiritismo
Santeria (Ifa)
Shamanism
Macumba
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The material and spiritual
worlds are believed to be
intertwined in a holistic way.

The spirit world, nature, and
the human environment
coexist in the same sphere.

Political theorist Michael
Sandel has argued that
religion is not a choice but a
community that people are
born into to which they feel
bounded and obligated. It is a
community that is a priori to
choice.
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Indigenous/Mestizo Epistemology

Mestizo refers to a dynamic,
synergistic process developed
from the amalgamation of
people, philosophies, and
cultures bridging the
European content and the
Americas.

It is the intermingling of
physical, psychological,
cultural and spiritual ties
between the Spaniard and the
Indian.
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8 Main Characteristics
Earth is a living ecosystem which needs to be cared for
and protected.
People are connected and understood as interdependent
and holistic.
Systematic causality implies the presence of a web of life
where all events rely on one another.
Life is a great mystery with sacred meaning bounded by
ancestral teachings.
Every aspect of nature contains knowingness that will
reveal truth.
Knowledge can be gained through Toltec, Mayan and
Aztec practices as prayers, dance, meditation.
Dreams, synchronic events, intuition, and communication
with the physical and non-human entities offer portals of
meaning, knowledge, and healing.
Recognition of the creative life force, spirits, and cosmic
energies significantly impact life span development.
Cervantes, 2010
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Curanderismo
a term referring to the Spanish word curar, meaning
‘to heal’, and is used to describe the practice of
traditional healing in Latin American (Hispanic)
cultures (Trotter & Chavira, 1997).
a set of folk/medical beliefs, rituals and practices that
address the psychological, social and special need of
Mexican populations through a system of medicine
with its own theoretical, diagnostic, and therapeutic
roots.
indigenous method of cure for many natural folk
illnesses that incorporates the belief that illness is
attracted by a social-interpersonal matrix rather than
just a change-biological event.
•
•routinely
addresses problems of a social,
psychological, and spiritual nature, as well as
physical ailments. Many cases overlap into two or
more categories.
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Curandera/os
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Heterogeneous group distinguished by specialties in
particular disorders or by particular healing powers.
Supernaturally induced illnesses form a significant part of
the curanderos' work; these healers explain that any
particular illness experienced by a patient could be
caused theoretically by either natural or supernatural
processes.
Use a range of treatments: herbal remedies, inhalation,
sweating, massage, incantations, and a variety of ritual
cleansing (raw eggs and palm leaves).
Frequently perform limpias/cleansing rituals
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require branches of various plants, eggs, perfumed waters,
religious images, dissected animals, and candles specific to each
problem.
Some refer clients to health services and use it themselves.
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Folk Illnesses

The majority are collected under
males naturales (natural
illnesses), while a small number
fall under mal puesto (witchcraft)
 Most common natural illnesses
are mal de ojo (evil eye), susto
or espanto (freight), and
empacho (indigestion)

Two other natural syndromes
are very important - nervios
and ataques de nervios

Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-R)

Includes an appendix of a
glossary of culture-bound
syndromes several which are
relevant to specifically to
Latina/os
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Mal Puesto or brujeria provide explanations for
prolonged disorders that
cannot be accounted for and
for which treatments for
natural illnesses have not
worked:
 Unrequited love, quarrels,
and breakups among
lovers, and conflicts
among close family
members
 Used to explain various
forms of mental illnesses
including schizophrenia
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Implications
Given the role and history of
curanderismo, many Latina/os rely
on these practices to heal
physically, mentally, and spiritually.

Practitioners also believe in the
possibility of being bewitched or
cursed by social exchanges and
energies.

Exorcisms are part of the practice
coupled with folk practices
centered in the calling of God and
his helpers.

Believers within this practice
endorse the concept that if one is
possessed by a dark spirit, it can
ultimately effect the individual’s
personality, actions, and response
inhibition.
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Response Inhibition includes:
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Avoiding errors and mistakes
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Resisting temptation
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Impulse control
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Espirtismo
•A
spiritual belief system
•Originated
in 1850 by Allan Kardec who
believed spirits are reincarnated many
times to achieve spiritual progress and that
each individual has a guardian angel to
guide them through life challenges
•Believe
that people encounter untranquil,
unevolved, or evil spirits by happenstance
or because of spells
•Believe
spirits of various types can exert a
profound influence on human life, leading to
good or harm of different types
(Baez & Hernandez, 2001)
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
Mediums (Practitioners) use
special abilities to perceive
spirits and communicate with
them.

Mediums determine what
spiritual actions must be taken
to appease the harmful spirits
and appease the benevolent
spirits.

Methods may consist of

Prayer
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Group healing sessions
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House and personal
cleansings with herbal baths
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These processes are seen to
exorcise, give light to spirits
and resolve the problem.

The material and spiritual
worlds are seen to be
interelated.
Baez, Annecy, and David Hernandez. "Complementary Spiritual Beliefs in the Latino Community: The interface with
Psychotherapy." American Journal of Orthopsychiatry . 71.4 (2001): 408-415. Print.
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Implications
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Individuals consult their
spiritual guides (cuadro
espiritual) for decisions.
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Some hear spirits and see
spirits and are guided by
them.
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When in a trance, some do not
know what they are doing and
when they come out of the
episode, they do not recall the
previous series of activities
they engaged.
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Baez & Hernandez (2000)
suggest that clinicians must be
mindful of these practices to
be effective. Further a
sighting and exchange with
the dead should not
immediately indicate
psychotic decompensation.

Clinicians must also be
respective of the clients’
beliefs
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Latina/os fear that reporting
such practices will be viewed
as psychopathological and
often under-report such
practices and beliefs.
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Santeria
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The way of the saints
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Based on Ifa a West African religion
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Combines elements of Christianity
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Practiced by over 100 million worldwide
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Traditionally based on an oral history
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An ancient covenant between humans and nature
Comprised of extensive rituals aimed at spiritual
healing, progress, divination
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Leaders in the religion are believed to have
special powers
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(Baez & Hernandez, 2001)
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Specific Beliefs
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Creation consists of two
realms: the visible and the
invisible worlds.
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The Yoruba and their spiritual
descendants view the world as
a web of interconnected
beings connected by ashe
(good energy).
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Dysfunctions are believed to
have a spiritual cause, a
material cause, or both.
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Every person is assigned a
deity at birth and one must
attend and please these
gods. These gods help the
disciples navigate life.
• An orisha then becomes the
Santerian’s guardian angel
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More Details on Santeria
 A Santero is a sorcerer
whose work is solving human
problems that seem
unsolvable by ordinary
means. Person is highly
revered and obeyed.
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Rituals can include:
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Cudillo, 2007
Eliminating of Negative
Influences or curses
Curing Illness
Securing employment
Attracting a Partner
Improving Financial
Situation
Subduing or Eliminating
Rivals and Enemies
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Palo involves a specialized cult
(within the religion) of the dead
with emphasis on magic practices
such as pacts with the dead,
typically made in a graveyard
along with the creation of a nganga.
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This nganga is placed in a special
iron cauldron filled with ritual
objects of nature (bones and
sticks) and imbued with magical
powers.
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All of these practices and attributes
of sorcery with the dead (trabajos
con muertos) involve the idea of
evil witchcraft making Palo experts
or leaders very much feared and
regarded as dangerous .
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Specifics to the Practice
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The orishas have lived and died and
are spirits and are now supernatural
forces. The dead depend upon the
living to “keep them strong and
energetic” (Moore, 1993).
If you know the orishas, “you know
everything. The earth teaches you
everything, but you must pay your
respects to her always, do foribale (a
salutation to the saints), so she will give
you all her secrets. And always
remember, the secrets of the earth are
the secrets of the orishas” (GonzálezWippler, 1990).
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Offerings include:
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Glasses of water
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Flowers
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Cologne
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Cigar smoke
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Alters with food
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Animal sacrificing
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Goats, chickens, turkey,
geese, duck
Toques (Drumming Parties)
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Effects of Drumming in Specific Rituals
Possessions/Montado
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Personality traits of the orishas
become manifested
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Shaking and shuddering of the
whole body are followed by
convulsions
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Physical Symptoms
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Voice, mannerisms, and gestures change
completely. Personality of the possessed
person (caballo, horse) ceases to exist.
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Personality of the orisha takes over
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Restore person by blowing into ears and
mouth. Cocoa butter or corojo are rubbed on
hands and feet.
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If trance becomes violent, person may
become injured. Those around are responsible
to ensure well-being of the person possessed.
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The trance can last for a few seconds or the
entire ceremony. Trances ends spontaneously
but others can intervene if the visit is too long.
Individual falls to the floor
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Implications
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Practitioners will make
offerings for favors and to
improve their lives.
A key element is to keep the
orisha pleased and to obey
their requests.
Individuals feel pressured to
follow the directives when they
are provided and to not
disobey their guides.
Obedience will result in good
health, good fortune and other
good gifts.

Leaders of the religion are
provided significant power and
responsibility.
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Practitioners are to consult with
their godparents and follow their
lead when they come for
guidance.
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Followers fall into debt as a result
of the rituals and consults.
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They also incur high
psychological distress when the
orisha shares something negative
or when they feel they cannot
carry out the request.
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Case #1
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A 42-year old Cuban man was a primary
defendant in a celebrated drug conspiracy
trial. He visited his madrina (a Santera
godmother) one evening for a ceremony to
cleanse his spirit. A dice throw indicated the
trial would not go well for him. Shortly after
midnight he was dressed all in white and left
alone in a room as a concluding or transitional
phase of the ritual. He was found dead the
next morning.
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Comment: A postmortem examination was
performed, and his death was attributed to a
cardiac dysrhythmia secondary to
hepertensive [hypertensive] cardiovascular
disease.
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Although the death is regarded as natural,
practitioners of Santeria may well attribute
supernatural powers to the death. Thus, the
ceremony to cleanse the spirit implies
appeasement to a particular Orisha. The
failure to satisfy or appease the Orisha may
result in punishment, such as bad luck (the
trail for drug smuggling) or death.
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Lukumi Babalu Aye, Inc. vs.
the City of Hialeah
Case #2
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Ritual animal sacrifice and the U.S.
Supreme Court, 1993
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The U.S. Supreme Court decided on the
constitutionality of the City of Hialeah
ordinances prohibiting the ritual
sacrifice of animals in the Santeria
Church of the Lukumi Babalu Aye,
headed by Mr. Ernesto Pichardo who is
an initiated high priest of the religion.
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The Supreme Court ruled that the
City of Hialeah ordinances against
the ritual animal sacrifice in the
Santeria church was unconstitutional
and that practitioners of this religion
were entitled to conduct their
ceremonies as prescribed by their
African traditions and customs.

Freedom to Exercise Religion
1st Amendment
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Summary
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Must assess the individual and
his actions in a cultural context
accounting for his beliefs and
practices.
Engage in a Latina/o focused
assessment where you
consider the client’s feelings,
reactions, thoughts, and
assumptions within the
situation.
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Questions to Consider:
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What were the collective
circumstances in the event?
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What was his reality of the event?
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Was the individual cognizant of his
actions?
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Does he report being in a trance or
driven by the power of a spirit?
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Does the individual report feeling
embrujado/possessed or bewitched?
Apply dimensionality
Interview social systems for a
collective understanding of his
values, worldviews, and life
experiences.
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Thank you