Broken Mirror/1 Karl R. Kegler (Cologne / Aachen) The "exotic

Broken Mirror/1
Karl R. Kegler (Cologne / Aachen)
The "exotic" Europe and the buildings of the Nawabs of Oudh
http://www.archimaera.de/search?SearchableText=Zerbrochene+Spiegel+
Part 1: The Self and Other
In March 1858 William Howard Russell arrived as a correspondent of the London Times the city of Lucknow in northern India, as a war
correspondent to report on the campaign of the Army of the East India Company against the former capital and residence of the kings of
Oudh. [1] The army struck their headquarters south on enemy fortifications in the country seat Dilkusha. From the roof of this castle-building,
Russell gave an overview of the city.
"When I think of it now, it seems to me like a daydream, like a mirage of palaces, minarets, azure blue and golden domes, colonnades, long,
beautiful facades of pillars and columns and flat roofs - a fairy tale city, which is a peaceful sea most luxuriant vegetation rises. As far as the
eye, nothing but [that] the sea, and in the middle shining minarets, golden roofs, glittering in the sun, sternengleich glittering towers and gold
balls. We see nothing shabby or pathetic. A city that is greater and magnificent as Paris, seems to lie before us. Oudh If this here? Is this the
capital of a semi-barbarous race, built by a ruthless, weak and degenerate dynasty? I must confess that I would have liked me again and
again rubbed her eyes. " [2] (Fig. 1)
Figure 01 View from the Martinière at Lucknow. The castle-building Martinière is little further north of the country castle Dilkusha, where
William Russell recorded his first observations. The view is rendered more or less a fantasy picture. The large dome on the right side of this is
to represent possibly the Shah Najaf Imambara, but has little resemblance to the building (see here ). Undated engraving (ca. 1858), the source
may The Illustrated London News.
Russell's report does not stand alone. The Swiss businessman Ruutz Rees, of Lucknow in the year before was overlooking the residence of the
British governor, paints a similar picture:
On the Statthalterschaftsterrasse we had the whole delightful panorama of the city ahead. The gilded minarets, ranging domes gleaming
mosques and palaces, the ranks of regular and tightly stuffed houses were broken and replaced by gardens, parks and trees that stood around
the middle of the city and scattered along the banks. " [3] (Fig.2)
Both reports create the image of a rich, beautiful and fabulous Orient. There are pictures from a distance, pictures, which can give strange
buildings, not people, the main role. A picture of India without the Indians.
1
Figure 02 Engraving from the Illustrated Times 23 January 1858. This picture is a free interpretation of the city. The two minarets on the right
side to possibly represent the Asafi Mosque, part of the complex of the Bara Imambara (see Figure 8). With a view to the west of the capital
they need but on the left-hand side lie.
The history of Lucknow in 1857 and 1858 can be less than idyllic guess the quotations of Russell and Rees. Lucknow at the time was one of
the hotspots of the Indian uprising, which covered large parts of northern India and the British rule in the subcontinent fundamentally
vulnerable. In northern India a colonial war was raging. 1856, Wajid Ali Shah, the last of the kings of Oudh, who governed the province
officially called "Nawab" (as deputy) of the Mughal emperor in Delhi by the British because of "poor administration deposed and his state of
the East India Company (EIC ) have been annexed. This approach was one of several reasons for the survey, which erupted in May 1857
under the Indian troops of the EIC as a mutiny and rapidly expanded into a general anti-British uprising in northern India. [4] The mutinous
troops united followers of the former ruling family and wide circle of people.
These events provide a historical framework for a strange piece of architectural history: in the northern Indian city met the Europeans an
architecture that was influenced for decades by European forms, and their clients were Indian rulers, who were set up under a specific
constellation of reasons buildings in European style and elements of European architecture was modified according to their needs. After the
victory of the British learned this European-Indian architecture, a fate that was similar to that of the insurgents: the British architectural
criticism handed down a ruling style-criticism destruction, which influences to this day contemplation and evaluation of this historic
architecture. Security architecture of
Lucknow is a harsh and negative reaction to the adoption of European forms of architecture in a non-European culture. The interpretation of
"own" European-style forms by an Indian dynasty appeared - after the Indian uprising - as a challenge. The European observers responded
with a fundamental criticism that the cultural distance to the Company, which had taken over the European models, not only restored, but
even larger.
2
Figure 03 Oudh in 1848, surrounded by the territory of the EIC. Processed card from Charles jackets: Historical Atlas of India. London
1915th
This negative value of the architecture of Lucknow can not be detached from the events of the years 1857 and 1858, which made known at a
stroke the scenes of fighting and the buildings of Lucknow a European audience, which looked spellbound at the events in India. The military
action by the British against the Indian insurgents, which coincided with a wave of European superiority feelings generated, the context for
the subsequent reception of the architecture of Lucknow. The buildings of the city were subsequently no longer seen as creations of an
Oriental court, the forms had been embraced in the Western tradition, but interpreted as a sign of the demise of a culture survived. The
perceived decadence of the rulers of Oudh, who saw the British confirmed their "degenerate" buildings, became a posteriori argument for the
annexation of the state. This special reception history mirrort an environment of violence and confrontation, which was given by the fighting
of 1858 and in many ways represents an escalation of colonial exercise of power, it can be when looking at the buildings to be discussed here
is not so hidden. The British reaction, decided immediately after the military victory in a criminal court over life and death of suspects
involved or even extended, but years after the events to an assessment of worth and worthlessness of architectural creations of Lucknow, that
was less bloody, but by a similar feeling of European superiority [5] was taken.
An examination of the buildings of Lucknow may also not own Conditions overlooked, which before 1856 was in Lucknow a remarkable
synthesis of Indo-European style emerged. The two parts of this study therefore describes a double MirrorHungarian: In a first phase, the
Prince of Oudh-received before the events of the Indian uprising of European styles and used them with specific adaptations for their
buildings. In a second phase of this MirrorFine European culture by European observers as a alienating Zerrmirror perceived, which was
deformed by the interpretation of the Indian uprising and dyed. This caricature has until the second half of the 20th Century, the perception of
the architecture of Lucknow dominates. It is one reason that the "European"-classical buildings have been destroyed the Nawabs of Oudh for
decades and neglected. - Today few remnants and ruins remain: Broken Mirror.
3
Lucknow and the self-image of the British in India
If they had in 1900 a British colonial official or officer asked to name the places in India, which are of particular symbolic importance to the
British rule, it would have taken Lucknow undoubtedly one of the first places. This special significance for the self-Lucknow of the colonial
regime is explained by the military events during the Indian uprising and its political interpretation. While soon to start the survey in 1857 in
Delhi, the hand of the insurgents fell and the bases of the British in northern India have been taken in great numbers, kept the British
Residence in Lucknow, defended by 1500 British soldiers, loyal Indian supporters and armed civilians, [6] about five months from early July
until the end of November 1857 was a siege by tens of thousands of Indian soldiers. An attempt by the British, the ring around the residence
in September 1857 failed to explode. The hurrying from the outside to free the besieged army units had to retreat after heavy losses even in
the residence and were now under siege as well. When, in November, finally another British army freikämpfte the way to Lucknow, the
besieged departed unnoticed at night from the residence to the troops on the outskirts, which then retreated again.
In March 1858 the British troops returned reinforced by allied contingents of Sikhs and Nepalese back. Now, 58 000 soldiers were under
British command against 36 000 Indian fighters. [7] The city was once again a battleground and this time won the British, has been on both
sides fought fiercely and brutally. A recent Indian study estimates that were killed during the fighting at Lucknow in 1857 and 1858, about
20,000 Indian fighter, and there were no prisoners. [8]
After the military victory against the insurgents, the British demonstrated their claim to power (Fig. 4) with exemplary punishments against
real and imagined opponents. [9] The extent of this reaction is demonstrated by the fact that the victorious army units "in part, the men of
entire villages summarily executed because they were detected supporting the rebels or assumed." [10] (Fig. 5) The British retaliation was
directed against buildings and city structures. Large parts of the most densely built-up district Lucknow were demolished systematically after
the British had regained control in order to create a pre-and field of fire for the quarters of the garrison, the palaces of former kings, but also
the great mosques of the city occupied. [11]
Fig 04th "The British Lion's Vengeance on the Bengal Tiger" engraving Punch, Or The London Charivari 22nd August 1857th The drawing
expresses the mood in Britain after the outbreak of the Indian uprising. See note [9].
4
Fig 05th "Outlying pickets of the Highland Brigade." Illustration from William Forbes-Mitchell: Reminiscences of the Great Mutiny 1857-59.
As in note [16]. The picture that without further comment, an "outpost" of the 93rd Highland Regiment shows illustrates the casualness of
draconian punishments against real insurgents or suspects.
For the whole of India was the suppression of the uprising, finally reaching political implications. In 1858 the regime of the EIC by direct
British rule was replaced, India became the British Crown Colony. 1876 Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India, a conscious
staging, which was to legitimize the British colonial rule as a continuation of the Mughal dynasty.
In the context of these historical events were the events in Lucknow almost immediately an almost paradigmatic significance for the identity
of the British in India. In the military victory on the numerical superiority of the rebellious Indians saw the British as their civilizational
superiority of character confirmed as colonial masters. The traumatic and costly siege, the successful resistance, and finally the recapture of
Lucknow advanced to become a central part of the colonial culture of memory. The fighting in India attracted the then imperialist spirit but
also according to the minds in Europe. Among many others, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels reported on the events. [12] Illustrated
magazines such as the Illustrated Times the Illustrated London News informed with stitches, which were based partly on sketches, partly on
photographic plates, some on invention, on every detail (Fig. 6). The interest that was met with the fighting in Lucknow in Europe, led also to
the fact that arose immediately after the events of 1858 photographic images of the destroyed city and the buildings of Lucknow. Still in April
1858 traveled Felice Beato, a pioneer of photo coverage, to Lucknow and documented the partially destroyed city in recordings, [13] issued
only a little later in London. [14] Other photographers followed. These photographs are now a first-class building history source, dar. are
more valuable because the densely built-up city center around the residence and was by the British leveled later as a garrison occupied palaces
in the wake of the uprising - a measure of both the military security needs of the colonial rulers as the punishment of the population was
involved in the rebellion. [15] The public interest manifested itself in the same way in the demand for autobiographical reports, which
sometimes immediately following the events of 1857, some were published decades later. [16] But the report quoted the Swiss Ruutz Rees
1858 saw three English editions and was in the same year as Own experiences during the siege of Lucknow into German. In Lucknow, the
scene of the fighting, were the shattered buildings of the residence not consciously built up again, but left as a monument to the siege as a ruin.
Guide to these sites described the various stages of the siege and the British victory again and again in every detail. The ruins of the residence
are still one of the most famous sights of the city. [17]
5
Fig 06th Page The Illustrated London News 29 April 1859. The picture above shows the enclosure of the Sikander Bagh, where heavy
fighting took place. The lower image shows the damaged Bailey Guard Gate of the governorship. Both images were engraved from
photographs of Felice Beatus (see here: Sikander Bagh , Bailey Guard Gate ).
Other locations of the battles of 1857/58 were first primarily as monuments of British fortitude understood. In contrast to the later style
architecture criticism of the buildings of the Nawabs of Oudh, the fictional accounts of eyewitnesses to the siege of the emphasis placed on
their suffering, to hardships, determination and heroism of the trapped Britons, they have little say about the architecture of the city, still less
about the assailants or the peaceful inhabitants. The chroniclers focused on himself, George Harris A Lady's Diary of the Siege of Lucknow
acknowledged as the Indian opponents or the surrounding city at any point a more accurate description. The same goes for the
autobiographical account of Julia Selina Inglis, who witnessed the wife of a British officer as the siege at the residence. Only once reported
the chronicler of focus of the expedition of a British division, which is before the entrance to the siege " beautiful gardens of the Kaisar
Bagh"The deposed ruler forced,"probably the first Europeans who had ever done so " [18]. Martin Richard Gubbins, who knew exactly as
financial agent of the British Resident (Sir Henry Lawrence) the conditions in the city and the province was, on the architecture of the city in
its comprehensive report in a single passage not as a general but positive verdict "seen the city of Lucknow is beyond doubt very beautiful and
surpasses every city in India that I have." [19]
The list can be supplemented: Edward Hilton, who as a 17-year-old witnessed the siege of the capital, reported some of the looting of a house
of the royal family. Its European architecture seemed so obvious here that he did not respond to them. [20] Even William Forbes-Mitchell, a
soldier involved in the capture of the royal palace, but described the looting and destruction of the plant, its European architectural forms are
to him but not a single reference value. [21]
The fact that these witnesses of the siege, the European-influenced architecture of Lucknow either so obvious or her picture appeared in the
East corresponded so little that they do not specifically pointed out is remarkable. The familiar in the foreign culture was not perceived in the
situation of immediate risk, highlighted the strange even stronger. As the contemporary prints, illustrated in European newspapers, which, if
they were not working for photographic templates that distorted views of Lucknow to the Oriental fantasy cities (Fig. 1, 2, 10), Emphasized
the eyewitnesses of the events of the Eastern, not the European character of the city.
6
Fig 07th "General View of Lucknow. Engraving from the Illustrated Times 01/02/1858. The dominant building in the middle of the Rumi
Darwaza (Gate of Constantinople) is. To the right of the towers of the Asafi Mosque, part of the complex of the Bara Imambara. On the left
side of the medieval stone bridge can be seen on the Gomti. Besides the mosque in the fort Macchi Bawan. In the foreground parts of the park
of the Daulat Khana Palace complex.
Another is the perception of William Howard Russell. The correspondent of the Times, Known for his critical reports from the battlefields of
the 19th Century was known, went on several occasions, the buildings of Lucknow and drew from them his own conclusions. The doubts
about the representation of the kings of Oudh as a decadent and barbaric dynasty, the Russell fabulous view of the above-cited "vision" of the
city felt speaks for a critical and thoughtful opinion. Russell's illustrations follow a narrative composition principle, which he used repeatedly
as an experienced Rapporteur: careful descriptions of cities, locations and observed details are images of peace to be broken by the
appearance of a gruesome war events. At the end of that architecture descriptions is often a picture of violence, the hervorscheint by the
contrast more intense.
As the Rapporteur of the Times accompanied ten days after his arrival in Lucknow, the taking of Kaisarbagh Palace by British troops, he took
the midst of fighting a not oriental, but decidedly European face true of the city: the image of the landscaped gardens, equipped with lanterns
and classical statues amidst Italianate buildings :
[...] We all arrived, breathless and laughing, the shelter of the doorway, behind which was another courtyard full of statues, orange trees and
bushes, surrounded by Italian-style mansions [...]
Imagine a yard as big as Temple Gardens, or at least surrounded by various palaces richly decorated with wall paintings on buildings and
windows to the blind with green shutters and blinds on the arranged double wall openings. In the courtyard you can see the actual statues,
lamp posts, fountains, orange gardens, water pipes and pavilions with shimmering metallic dome roofs. [...] Under the orange trees are dying
sepoys. The white statues are red with blood. At a smiling Venus leans heavily panting and slowly bleed to death, a British soldier [...] [22]
Each of the farms is like oil paintings from the hands of Lewis [23] and David Roberts. [24] All is full of dust, and explosions are common. If
one of the Tuileries, the Louvre, Versailles, Scutari, [25] the Winter Palace with an entourage of Asian small huts [26] and a pleasure garden
of the rank of Kew Gardens would mix, this could give an idea about the Kaisarbagh palace and gardens in the interior. The whole thing is
obviously Italian, and only the Hindu statues, which imitated Italian models, disgusting, ridiculous and absurd. [...] In the northwest corner
in one of these courts are the batteries of our mortars in action. [27]
Lucknow Nawabs of Oudh and the
Lucknow is one of the youngest king in the cities of historic cities rich river plain between the Ganges and Yamuna. The town lies on a bend
of the Gomti River, a tributary of the Ganges, which flows three hundred kilometers further east in the great river. 1775 Lucknow is the
capital of the province of Oudh, Asaf ud Daula as (reigned 1775-1798), relocated his residence from Faizabad. Lucknow is at that same time
an economic and cultural center, whose population is majority (then as now) consists of Hindus. The history as capital of Lucknow de facto
independent kingdom is therefore limited to some eighty years between 1775 and 1856. During this relatively short period of time realized the
Nawabs of Oudh the massive building program, which challenged the European architecture criticism for annexation of the state to a sharp
criticism.
The dynasty of the Nawabs of Oudh is to Saadat Khan (reigned 1722-1739), a Persian immigrants back at the court of the Mughals, the
beginning of the 18th Century, rising to high office and the weakness of the central government in Delhi uses to justify the hereditary rule of
his family in the province acquired by him in 1722 [28]. Oudh advanced during the decay of the Mughal state to a major power in northern
India. In the direct confrontation with the EIC, a coalition fails under the leadership of the Nawabs of Oudh, however, in 1764 at the Battle of
Baksar. Nawab Shuja ud After the defeat Daula (reigned from 1754 to 1775 found) nevertheless a political settlement with the EIC and he
even manages to increase his province in alliance with the British at the expense of its northern and western neighbors. Under the reign of his
successor, Asaf ud Daula (reigned 1775-1797) is ever more clearly the political reorientation of the province of Oudh from Delhi, the former
government and cultural center, the way to Calcutta, the center of British rule in India. [29] Also, direct political intervention by the British
are noticeable. 1798 EIC forces the withdrawal of the nominee, but hostile to the English throne opposing heirs Vazier Ali and replaced him
by the Anglophile Saadat Ali Khan (reigned 1798-1814). [30] As a result, the British needed the new ruler in 1801 to cede half its territory to
the EIC. [31] As military Oudh size separates it from final. The province will guarantee a state under British protection with no foreign policy
ambitions. The EIC is also what 1818 Nawab Din Ghazi Haider (reg. ud 1818-1827) urges to declare himself an independent king, the (only
formal) subordination of the province of Oudh to foil under the Mughals in Delhi. "This took place with British support a highly eclectic
enthronement, in which the Nawab-Wazir Padshah as a future European and Indian rule symbols mixed." [32] On ruler portraits posing the
King of Oudh with crown and ermine cloak over a saffron-colored Indian garb.
7
Despite the continuous weakening of the state by the influences of the East India Company and its Governor in Lucknow [33] become the
capital of the kingdom of Oudh after 1800's most important center of Islamic poetry and court culture in northern India. This cultural
flowering is accompanied by a number of large and ambitious construction projects. The courtly splendor compensated to some extent
dictated by the British lack of policy development opportunities.
With the relocation of the capital to Lucknow emerging that 1775-1852 four palace complexes that follow different concepts. The first of the
palaces will be built from 1775 to the existing medieval fort "Macchi Bawan," which protects a stone bridge over the Gomti. Asaf ud Daula
(reigned 1775-1797), this fortress residence in favor of a new north residential complex, which is an irregular composition of free-standing
villas and European-style pavilions, grouped around gardens and pools are. To design the buildings of this so-called 'Daulat-Khana "complex
(See Fig.8) Asaf ud Daula takes the services of European experts to complete. One of several consultants, the engineer and interim court
architect Antoine polishing, a Frenchman who was also in the service of the EIC. [34] Another important figure for the mediation of
Fig 08th Plan of Lucknow with the buildings mentioned in the text. Source map taken from: Frederick Sleigh Roberts: Forty-one Years in
India. From Subaltern To Commander-In-Chief. London 1914th P. 198
European architectural forms in Oudh, Claude Martin (1735-1800) is. [35] As a soldier of the French army in 1760 in India, Martin changes
the service of the EIC and get over the decades as a soldier, commercial agent of the Nawabs, as well as land, credit and commercial
transactions for großemReichtum. In Lucknow Martin built for themselves in a highly individual style, the baroque-eclectic sumptuously
furnished mansion Farhad Baksh (Fig. 15, 25) and in the south of the city before the castle-like residence La Martinière (aka Constantia). [36]
While the Residenzbauten and gardens of Daulat Khana-still in proximity to the densely built "unhealthy" [37] Old City will be built in focus,
the Nawabs after its construction in 1800 on an open area bordered on the east by the closely built-up center. Here is a second city of the court
and palaces set in extensive gardens and groves. Saadat Ali Khan (reigned 1798-1814) built after the purchase of Martin's mansion Farhad
Baksh immediately adjacent to a terraced Palace (Bara Chattar Manzil). The facility is complemented by his successors into a building
complex of several large buildings, grouped around a central water pool in garden (Part 2, Figure 17, 18). From this "Chattar Manzil" said
complex has a broad street, called Hazratganj, south to the country estate Dilkusha. Along this road, which is used in parties, or at major
8
Inthronisationsfeiern visits for ceremonial processions of the court, more prestigious houses will be created for the ruler, his wives, the royal
family and the dignitaries of the court.
Reign
buildings mentioned in the text in Lucknow
in "Islamic" style
Shuja ud Daula (1754-1775)
in the "European" style
Macchi Bawan Palace
Asaf ud Daula (1775-1797)
Great (Asafi) Imambara
Asafi Mosque
Rumi Darwaza
Daulat Khana Complex
Begum Kothi
Vazier Ali (1797-1798)a
-
-
Saadat Ali Khan (1798-1814)
Lal Baradari
b
Chattar Manzil Bara b
Dilkusha
Musa Bagh (Barow)
Moti Mahal
Khurshid Manzil
Ghazi ud Din Haidar (1814-1827) Saadat Ali Khan's Mausoleum Chattar Manzil Chota b
Khurshid Zadi - Mausoleum
Shah Najaf - Mausoleum
Nasir ud Din Haidar (1827-1837)
Chaurukhi Kothi b
[Also: Darshan Bilas]
Gulistam-i-Iram b
Roshan-ud-Daula-Kothi
[Also: Kaisar Pasind]
Muhammad Ali Shah (1837-1842) Husseinabad Imambara
Sat Khand ("seven steps")
Ahmad Ali Shah (1837-1842)
Wajid Ali Shah (1847-1856)
Kaisarbagh Imambara
Kaisarbagh (1848-1852)
Sikander Bagh
Moti Mahal (gatehouse)
Overview of the reigns of the Nawabs of Oudh and major construction projects in Lucknow.
a
deposed by the British
b
Part of Chattar Manzil complex
The last of the residential complexes, which reads, completed between 1848-1852 Kaisarbagh, again a completely different concept. A huge,
as Lustgarten unused courtyard of 200 to 400 meters is taken by a single storey perimeter in which the courtiers, servants, and especially the
numerous wives of the ruler are placed (Part 2, Figure 26). In the center of the garden courtyard is a large hall (Kaisarbagh Imambara). On
three sides, west, east and north, the central courtyard is again surrounded by smaller, architecturally similarly furnished houses, which are
now lost. These smaller farms two tie in the construction of palatial buildings Kaisarbagh already existing one: in the west, the castle-like
building of Roshan-ud-Daula-Kothi [38] (Also: "Kaisar Pasind" etc.), the preferred place for a woman of the Nawabs was (Part 2, Fig 20-22);
The east by the so-called "Chaulakkhi Kothi", which were housed in other high-ranking ladies of the court.
The listed buildings were built like the rest of the city of brick, which was plastered and ornamented with stucco and ornamental forms of
high-quality colored. Sandstone or marble, which were used in Delhi and Agra as building materials for the buildings of the Mughals were in
Lucknow not available. But in particular, their stylistic feature distinguishes the buildings of Lucknow by the earlier rulers of architecture in
Delhi and Agra. While the mosques, tombs, Imambaras [39] or the halls for the traditional ceremonial throne (Baradari), which establish the
Nawabs in Lucknow, consistently follow a style that developed the architectural language of the Mughals, [40] are the buildings of the royal
residences, almost all built in a style that is based on English and European models.
The interpretation of the self in the unknown
It is these European-influenced architectural forms, which are after the annexation of Oudh prompted a sharp attack of European viewers.
Banmali Tandam, [41] But above all, Rosie Llewellyn-Jones in their landmark study of 1985 [42] have the testimony of this architecture
reception meticulously collected. But even before the Indian rebellion of 1857/58, there are a number of European products to the architecture
of Lucknow. In these recurring themes are the narrowness and lack of hygiene of the oriental city, the poverty of the population and their
contrast to the splendor of the ruling Nawabs. [43] However, it is clear that before 1858 are not to take only negative judgments. The
expansion of the city in European style and especially the new, wide highway leading from the south to the center, will be thoroughly
assessed positively. [44] A colorful depiction of the artist illustrated Ezekial Barton in 1810, this positive perception. It shows in the view "of
the modern (European-built) city"The view of the unfinished Chattar Manzil complex (Fig. 9). The quoted inscription is the adoption of
European designs, which are embedded in a park-like landscape, with modernity same. A similar positive perception mirrort is in January
1858, as Ballou's Pictorial Drawing-Room Companion [45] at the residence of the British evacuation happy prints a cursory description of
the city, dating back apparently to lexical knowledge or previous travelogues. Although the anonymous editor of one "want of taste"States in
the interior, the author takes off Lucknow European buildings clearly positive from the eastern town:
the traveller is struck by the broad streets, handsome houses built in European style, with beautiful and splendid mosques ornamented
minarets and Cupolas of true copper. It has, upon the whole, the appearance of an European city. (Fig. 10)
9
Fig 09th View from the house to the west at Dilkusha Lucknow. Watercolor picture of Ezekial Barton, at 1800-1820. In the green water
meadows between the city and the Nawabs Dilkusha built after 1800 a series of residences and palaces in European style. The inscription
reads: "View of the modern (European-built) city of Lucknow taken from the Park of the Vizier's new Palace of Castle Cool [= Dilkusha]. ©
British Library, Asia, Pacific and Africa Collections .
10
Figure 10 View from Lucknow Ballou's Pictorial Drawing Room Companion 30.1. 1858th The picture looks like a fantasy view and
emphasizes the oriental nature. The enthroned on the steep slope mosque has, however, similarity with a later recording by Felice Beato (here
), Which also provides a similar type of boat, but without seeing the Chinese ornaments, is. Perhaps the artist was there an earlier
presentation, which he then expanded and interpreted freely.
Four years later, the British architectural historian James Fergusson and India expert then proposes a radically different tone. In his History of
the Modern Styles of Architecture Fergusson in 1862 formulated an aesthetic assessment of the destruction of European-influenced
architecture of Lucknow. Political Constitution and artistic expression for Fergusson two sides of the same coin. According to blend in and
reinforce estimation architekturkritische Fergusson, political and racist opinions. On, Fergusson representation, with life, corrupt and
extravagant government by the grace of the English, a culture that abandons the uncomprehending copy of Western patterns of their own
architectural traditions without the formal rules neo-classical architecture, Fergusson primarily as a regular term use of the orders is
understood to understand, to can, can only create architectural monstrosities. The imputed to artistic impotence is Fergusson to a subsequent
justification of the British annexation:
The kingdom of Oude was one of our next creations. From the importance of their relative position its sovereigns were from the earliest date
protected by us, which means that they were relieved, if not from all the cares, at least from all the responsibilities of government, and with
the indolence natural to the Indian character , and the temptations incident to an Eastern Court, left to spend in the debauchery and
corruption placed at their disposal enormous ravenous. The result might easily be foreseen. Things went on from bad to worse, till the
nuisance became intolerable, and was summarily put to an end [...]. [46]
Of course no native of India can well understand either the origin or motive of the various parts of our orders - why the entablature should be
divided into architrave, frieze and cornice - Why the pillars should be a certain number of diameters in height, and so on. It is, in fact, like a
man trying to copy with inscription in a language he does not understand alphabet and of which he does not even know the. With the most
correct eye and the greatest pains he can not do it accurately. In India, besides this ignorance of grammar of the art, the native can not help
feeling that [...] brick pillars ought to be thicker than the Italian orders generally are, and that wooden architrave are the worst possible
construction in a climate where wood decays Sun rapidly, even if spared by the white ants. The consequence is, that, between this ignorance
of the principles of Classic Art on the one hand, and his knowledge of what is suited to his wants and his climate on the other, he makes a sad
jumble of the Orders. But the Indian fashion supplies with those incentives to copying which we derive from association and education, and in
the vain attempt to imitate his superiors, he has abandoned his own beautiful art to produce the strange jumble of vulgarity and bad taste in
Lucknow and we find elsewhere. [47]
Fergusson assessment is now not the sole reason a key milestone in the reception of European construction is the Nawabs, as they recreate
correctly in sharp form a compound of political and ethno-cultural reasons for the apparent inability of indigenous architects, classical
European buildings produced. With Fergusson statement shifted the negative perceptions of architectures at the same time criticized by the
subjective reporting level of European travel writers and professional journalists to the level of architectural criticism. As doyen of the
architectural history of India, in 1876 a monumental History of Indian and Eastern Architecture [48] presented, the author of a
comprehensive four-volume History of Architecture and many other writings on the history of architecture is one of Ferguson's most
influential architectural historians of the 19th Century. [49] His far-reaching impact on employment with the Indian architectural history may
be gauged by the fact that the architectural historian Jan Pieper still in 1977 devoted his dissertation to the memory of Fergusson. [50]
11
Figure 11 Fergusson intervened to illustrate his criticism back at photos of Felice Beato, which arose in 1858 after the conquest of Lucknow.
Beatus template and the sting from Fergusson book showing you damaged by the fighting Begum Kothi, in front of the house are British
soldiers to be seen. The context of the British-Indian confrontation is thus indirectly also apparent in Fergusson illustrations. Links Felice
Beatus photography, engraving from right Fergusson 1873 (see note [46]), P. 481, Fig 276th
Fergusson assessment is leitbildgebend for future viewing. 1891 is Alois Anton is leader of the German-born director of the Provincial
Museum in Lucknow, the supposedly decadent style of the royal buildings in a completely analogous manner:
Lucknow, viewed from a distance, and not too closely Scrutinized, is one of the most beautiful and picturesque cities of India. [...] But
nowhere can we see more markedly the influence of a depraved court and its politics upon oriental art and architecture than in
Lucknow. [51]
The large structure of the Nawabs who follow the Islamic-style North Indian architectural form to assess leaders declined more severely. Even
if they, as leaders, can close in on the models rather than pure Mughal style in Delhi and Agra, the German-born scholar, the houses of
worship and mausoleums honors as buildings [which] though detestable in detail, are still grand in outline." [52]
The great Imambara can not, it is true, compare with the pure examples of Moghal architecture which adorn Agra and Delhi, but taken along
with the adjoining masjid [53], The Husainâbâd Imambara, and the Rûmi Darwaza, it forms a group of buildings Whose dimensions and
picturesque splendor to render it the most imposing in India. [54]
It is the Indian classical buildings in the garment, which focuses on leader criticism.
The remaining buildings of a later period, whose style was avowedly and openly copied from debased European models, are unfit to be
spoken of in the same chapter as the earlier buildings. All the mongrel vulgarities which were applied in Vauxhall, Rosherville, and the
Surrey Gardens, took refuge in the Qaisar Bagh and when expelled from thence Chhatar Manzil, as, for instance, Corinthian pilasters under
Muslim domes, false venetian blinds, imitation marbles, pea -green mermaids sprawling over a blue sky above a yellow entablature, etc. [55]
Leader assessment is more than a taste verdict. It represents the official opinion of the Archeological Survey of India is "the leader for the
North West Provinces and Oudh formulated. The classification made classifying the European influenced buildings of the Nawabs of Oudh as
monuments, "which, from their advanced stage of decay or comparative unimportance, it is impossible or unnecessary to preserve." [56] In
short, as buildings without historical value. Moreover, the assessment officer to European-influenced buildings of the later Nawabs Nasir ud
Din Haidar (1827-1837) and Wajid Ali Shah (1847-1856) "the most debased examples of architecture to be found in India". The stylepolitical evaluation of the architecture of the Nawabs in the opinion of the Archeological Survey wins a quasi-official legal anchorage.
That in this view one's own interpretation of history miteinfließt is evident when leaders classed contrast, the British capital, scene of the siege
of 1857, as a monument of great importance in the category Ia: as a building that is "in respect of which [The] Government must undertake the
cost of all measures of conservation". [57] What is the real architectural history historical value of these buildings that were erected by the
kings of Oudh to the British in India in Civil Engineering and European forms [58] (Ie in exactly the same way and in a similar style as the
buildings criticized the royal court), leaders are not made explicit, but appeals to a general pre-understanding "It is, however, far too famous
and too a place generally known to require a detailed description." [59]
In later publications - guides, encyclopedias and scientific works - is given by Fergusson and leaders to assess communis opinio. The topos of
the distance from the impressive, up close but cheap-looking and disappointing staffage architecture is repeatedly reproduced. The French
Grande Encyclopédie describes the city in 1886 in the following manner:
De loin elle, féerique parait, mais, malgré la beauté et les monuments of the larges rues Percee par les Anglais, l'interieur est beaucoup
d'édifice malpropre et sont de valeur esthétique placages de médiocre. [60]
1890 we read in the fourth edition of Meyers:
L. [akhnau] grants a surprising sight in the distance, seen near splendor and glory but appear mostly as miserable patchwork and
whitewash. [61]
As late as 1959 stressed Chambers's Encyclopaedia:
12
The taste of the Nawabs was as degraded as their morals and administration, most of their buildings serving Merely to exhibit the final
debasement of the magnificent Mughal tradition; [62]
Speaking from the last quote - as in Fergusson - a political influence perspective, which is diagnosed in taste alleged inability of the kings of
Oudh, the decline of a state and thus indirectly its occupation by the British colonial power justifies illustrates a guide which appeared in 1911
another attack:
The city, which extends for several miles along the river bank, seemed one mass of majestic buildings of dazzling whiteness, crowned with
domes of burnished gold, scores of seminars, white, many of them very high, lent to the scene that very grace for which they are so famous.
The whole picture was like a dream of fairyland. [...] A nearer view of these buildings, however, destroys all the illusions. The 'lamp of truth'
burnt but, dimly, for the architects of Lucknow.You find on examination, that the white color of the buildings, which presented in the sunlight
the effect of the purest marble, is simply white wash. The material of the buildings themselves is stuccoed brick, and your taste is shocked by
the discovery that the gilded domes, of perfect shape and apparently massive construction, which attracted so much rotten your admirations,
are mere shells of wood, in many places. [63]
The disapproving verdict is based not on a stylistic criticism, but the use of base materials, where the viewer had suspected from the distance
of gold and marble. Similarly, Henry George Keene remarked in 1896 "it is not so much the design as the material that is so disappointing
and so pregnant with premature decay." [64] This disappointment corresponds to a fabulously inflated image of the Orient, which raised the
exquisite marble and pietra dura work of the Taj Mahal notwithstanding the different local traditions and designs for the sole standard for all
Indian architecture. An American travelers described in the 1870s, Lucknow, said in a corresponding way disappointed that a garden pavilion
was of the Kaisarbagh with colored glass melt and not with real carnelian, agates and emeralds (! Mosaiziert):
There are many things in Lucknow that will not bear too close scrutinity. The mosaic of this little pavilion where we rest, is made of painted
bits of gloss instead of real Cornelian, agate and emeralds. [65]
The echo of this critical topoi is continued in recent work. The American architectural historian Henry Giles Tillotson notes, 1989:
In the Hands of Lucknow's architects, classical architecture became not a grammar but a box of novelties with which to trick out a building.
They picked up its forms without comprehending their intrinsic significance or historical development. [66]
Likewise, gains in 2001, published otherwise critical and reflective work of Banmali Tandam, the first time compiled a comprehensive
inventory of buildings of the Nawabs of Oudh, a pejorative undertone, when the author turns to the adoption of European architectural motifs.
A variety of classic shapes, Pillaged from European pattern-books", And"nameless oddment from the treasury of English and Continental
architecture too countless to enumerate"Were so Tandam, indigenous by the architects too readily accepted but without a deeper
understanding has been -"all these were to be sedulously aped [!]" [67]. The criticisms, indirectly, the very same as the one hundred years
earlier intuition Fergusson, is reduced with the words Tillotson to the accusation:
The Lucknow architects aimed to copy classical forms faithfully and got them wrong [...] their parody of classicism was unintentional. [68]
Tillotson designates this thesis and a central weakness of his argument: in order in the wake of a Negativurteil Fergusson in the manner of a
"deliberate and not been able to formulate," is the master builders of Lucknow to impute the intention to European models exactly want to
copy. If this condition but at all true? - About the intentions of the Indian builder has experience in Tillotsen little. Sources that corroborate
the thesis of a conscious imitation of European models are not presented. The European buildings of Lucknow, neither Ferguson nor Tillotson
analyzed in detail, yet exhibited the supposed role models. The key issues what, as and for what purpose was copied remain so unanswered.
In short, the discriminatory classification relies solely on one style-criticism, ultimately ruling that use of contexts and conditions of reception
of Europeanizing architectural forms in Lucknow disregard.
Photo Credits:
Figure 1-7, 10, 11b: Collection of the author.
Figure 9: British Library, Asia, Pacific and Africa Collections .
Figure 11a: Photo Album Dr. T. Goldie-Scot of Craigmuie , Moniave, Surgeon 79th Cameron Highlanders (photo album with photographs by
Felice Beato, 1858).
[1] Lucknow, capital of the province of Oudh, lies on the banks of the Gomti River, a tributary of the Ganges (See Figure 3). vary the spelling
of "Lucknow" and "Oudh", and in German literature are often also the spellings 'Lucknow' and 'Awadh'. That here the naturalized English
spelling is used, has the pragmatic reason that most of the literature and important archives are accessible in English. This is particularly true
for searches on the Internet. Lucknow is today the capital of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh.
[2] William Howard Russell: My seven wars. The first reports from the battlefields of the nineteenth century. [Abridged German translation]
Frankfurt aM 2000th P. 162 The full English text trans.: My Indian Mutinity Diary. Reprint ed by Michael Edwardes. London 1970. P. 57-58.
[3] L.E. Ruutz Rees: Own experiences during the siege of Lucknow. Leipzig 1858th P. 207
[4] The real reasons for the uprising, or misjudging a veil characterized the British colonial masters the term "Indian mutinity"; they reduced
to one worn by large sectors of the population survey on the insubordination of their Indian colonial troops. To summarize recent research
Michael Mann: History of India. From 18 to 21 Century. Paderborn e.g. 2005th P. 100-104.
[5] Mike Davis describes as indirect consequences of this feeling of superiority the devastating famine that - haunted contributed to and
reinforced by the British colonial policy - after the Indian uprising Oudh and other large areas of India repeated. Mike Davis: The birth of the
Third World. Famine and mass in the imperialist era. Berlin 2004 (1London 2001; Late Victorian Holocuausts). P. 35-68.
[6] In those civilians there was the Swiss Ruutz Rees, of the above quote is. In the residence were also about 500 European women and
children.
[7] Archeological Survey of India: The Residency, Lucknow. Janpath, New Delhi 2003rd P. 68
[8] Ibid. P. 75
[9] After had been murdered in July 1857 300 European women and children in the city of Cawnpore from rebels, who felt the British troops
were no longer bound by the rules of civilized warfare. depicts the brutality of the British approach Michael Edwardes, the modern editor of
Indian Russell's travel reports in plain words: "The English threw aside the mask of civilization and engaged in a war of such ferocity that a
13
reasonable parallel can be seen in our time with the Nazi Occupation of Europe and, in the past, with the light of the Thirty Years
War."Michael Edwardes:" The Mutinity and its consequences. "In: Russell 1970th p. xiii-xxvii, here p. xiv. The inhuman exemplary
punishment of the British Howard Russell met with significant criticism: sew all these cruel and un-Christian methods of torture in India (for
example, Mohammedans in pig skins and einzuschmieren before her execution with pig fat and burn their bodies, or to force Hindus to
contaminate themselves) are extremely shameful and are ultimately returned to us. There are tortures of mind and soul, to which we have no
right to fall back and we in Europe do not dare to practice. Russell 2000 (see note [2]). P. 183 The English text of Russell 1970th P. 161-162.
[10] Men, 2005 (see note [4]). P. 102
[11] Veena Talwar Oldenburg. The Making of Colonial Lucknow. 1856-1877. Princeton 1984th In: The Lucknow Omnibus. P. 36-37.
[12] Karl Marx. "The uprising in India." New-York Daily Tribune No. 5170, 14 November 1857th In: Karl Marx / Friedrich Engels: Works.
12th Bd Berlin (East) 1961. P. 308-313. Friedrich Engels: "The uprising in India." New-York Daily Tribune No. 5443, 1st October 1858. In:
ibid, p. 574-578.
[13] In the photo campaign Beatus is macabre way, the first known photograph of war dead back in the history of photography (Frances
Fralin: The Indelible Image. Photographs of War. 1846 to the Present. New York, Washington 1985, 34, and Figure 7, 8). In an era in which
the representation of the fallen was a photographic Tabu (there are no recordings of the dead of the Crimean War), illustrate the recordings
Beatus changing moral standards in a colonial war, which considers the opponents of the Europeans no longer equivalent were.
[14] David Harris: "Topography and Memory: Felice Beato's Photographs of India, 1858-1859.". In: Vidya Pahejia (eds): India Through the
Lens. Photography 1840-1911. Munich, New York 2006. P. 119.
[15] Oldenburg 1984 (see Note. [11]). 31-42.
[16] By a Staff Officer [Thomas Wilson Fourness]: A diary recording the daily events during the siege of the United States residency, from
31st May to 25th Sept., 1857. London 1858 (reprint: London 2007). Adelaide Case: Day by Day at Lucknow: A Journal of the Siege of
Lucknow. London 1858 (reprint: Adamant Media, 2005). Martin Richard Gubbins: An Account of the Mutinies in Oudh, and of the Siege of
the Lucknow Residency. London, 1858. George Harris: A Lady's diary of the siege of Lucknow: written for the perusal of friends at home.
London 1858 (reprint: Aldershot, 1997). L. E. Ruutz Rees: A Personal Narrative of the Siege of Lucknow: from its commencement to its relief
by Sir Colin Campbell. London, 1858. Julia Selina Inglis: The siege of Lucknow: a diary. Leipzig 1892nd William Forbes-Mitchell:
Reminiscences of the Great Mutiny 1857-59 - Including the Relief, Siege, and Capture of Lucknow, and the Campaigns in Rohilcund and
Oude. London, New York 1893 (reprint: Delhi 1989).
The autobiographical reports to the events in Lucknow were only part of the literary production in the context of the Indian uprising. P.J.O.
Taylor (ed.): A Companion to the "Indian Mutinity" of 1857th Delhi in 1996 lists for the year 1857 fifteen and for the year 1958 fifty-one
published memoirs, by: David Harris: "Topography and Memory." As in note [14]. There, n. 4
[17] The manifestation of the events of 1857/58, derived claim to power up the independence of India in 1947 in a symbolic detail: while
everywhere in the Empire of the Union Jack was caught at sunset, remained in memory of the heroic defense of the flag over the capital
Lucknow also at night, raised to illustrate that nothing could drive the British presence from its current location. Rosie Llewellyn-Jones:
Engaging Scoundrels. True Tales of Old Lucknow. Oxford 2000. P. 152
[18] Inglis: The siege of Lucknow (See note [16]). P. 53
[19] Gubbins: An Account of the Mutinies in Oudh (See note [16]). P. 392
[20] Edward H. Hilton: The Tourists' Guide to Lucknow. Lucknow 61907th P. 108-109.
[21] William Forbes-Mitchell: The Relief of Lucknow. Reprint: London 1962. P. 132-141.
[22] Russell 2000 (see note [2]). P. 172-173. The English text of Russell 1970th P. 100-101.
[23] Probably meant the genre painter John Frederick Lewis (1805-1876) is. Lewis was known for his oriental image issues.
[24] David Roberts (1796-1864). Roberts painted oriental, antique and contemporary views of the city in the romantic style.
[25] Ancient name for the Asian side of Istanbul.
[26] Literally: "Hovel worthy of Gallipoli".
[27] My translation. The English text in: Russell 1970 (see note [2]) P. 104
[28] For this purpose the outstanding presentation by Richard B. Barnett North India Between Empires. Awadh, the Mughals and the British
1720-1801. Berkeley e.g. 1980th P. 23-41.
[29] Ibid. P. 96-163.
[30] Ibid. P. 233-236. Saadat Ali Khan was the brother Asaf ud Daulas.
[31] The cession of the territory (of those areas, Shuja ud Daula of Oudh, the won), took place in 1801 as compensation for troops of the EIC,
the Oudh had to converse through taxes.
[32] Men, 2005 (see note [4]). P. 76
[33] The governor ("resident") of the EIC in Lucknow acted in a role between the ambassador and governor. The second force next to the
king and commander of the British troops he had about the role of Pontius Pilate, King Herod in Rome filled next.
[34] Polishing was previously employed as a military architect in the EIC. Rosie Llewellyn-Jones: A Fatal Friendship. The Nawabs, the
British and the City of Lucknow. Oxford 1985th P. 160-161. In: The Lucknow Omnibus. Oxford 2001.
[35] To Martin: Rosie Llewellyn-Jones: A Very Ingenious Man: Claude Martin in Early Colonial India. New Delhi 1992nd
[36] See the photograph of this plant by Felice Beato: here .
[37] Llewellyn-Jones 1985 (see note [34]). P. 182
[38] The name goes back to the builder of Roshan-ud Daula, who built the building as the Nawab Wazir.
[39] Imambaras are warehouses, to the memory of Imam Hussein are dedicated. Hussein, the third Imam is, according to Shiite notion of the
only legitimate successor of the family of the Prophet Muhammad. Thus he was the sole secular leadership to the Muslim community.
Hussein, however, in 680 defeated at the Battle of Karbala and killed, bringing the continuity of the secular ruler was interrupted. Literally
means Imambara "House of the Imam".
[40] See Hermann Goetz: "The Genesis of Indo-Muslim Civilization - Some Archeological Notes." In: Ars Islamica 1 (1934). P. 46-50. Goetz
holds that development in the late 18 and early 19 Century, which he described as "Real Indian " features together in the following way (p.
50):
[…] Cupolas become gigantic lotus buds, capitals and consoles are turned into flowers, lintels into friezes adorned with leaves, the forms of
furniture and other objects are broken up into shapeless masses of floral ornament, even men themselves become unrecognizable through
excess of finery, jewels and make up
[41] Banmali Tandam: The Architecture of Lucknow and its dependencies from 1722 to 1856. A Descriptive Analysis of inventory and an
Nawabi Types. Delhi 2,001th P. 187-192.
[42] Llewellyn-Jones 1985 (see note [37].) Esp. P. 226-242.
[43] Ibid. P. 227
[44] Ibid. P. 185
14
[45] The magazine is an American parallel to the Illustrated London News dar.
[46] James Fergusson: History of the Modern Styles of Architecture. London 1862nd Here quoted from the second edition London 1873rd P.
479
[47] Ibid. P. 481f.
[48] James Fergusson: History of Indian and Eastern Architecture. London 1876th There, too, Fergusson expresses negative to the European
architectural forms Oudh. Ibid. P. 604-605.
[49] Hanno-Walter Kruft: History of architectural theory. Munich 2004 (11985). P. 383-385.
[50] Jan Pieper: The Anglo-Indian station, or the colonization of the gods of the mountain. Hindu city of culture and nature of colonial city in
the 19th Century as the confrontation of Eastern and Western mindsets. Bonn 1977th
[51] A. [Anton lois] Guide: The Monumental Antiquities and Inscriptions in the North-Western Provinces and Oudh. Described and
Arranged. Allahabad 1891st Reprint: Delhi 1970th P. 265 f.
[52] Ibid. P. 266
[53] = masjid mosque.
[54] Guide 1891 (see note [51]). P. 266
[55] Ibid. P. 267
[56] Ibid. S. I.
[57] Ibid.
[58] Llewellyn-Jones 1985 (see note [37]). P. 114 Among the buildings used by Europeans in Lucknow cf also: Sten Nilsson: European
Architecture in India 1750-1850. London 1968. P. 111-115 (Residency), 130-132 (La Martine).
[59] Guide 1891 (see note [51]) P. 267
[60] La Grande Encyclopédie. Inventaire raisonné des sciences, des lettres et des arts. Vol 22nd Paris 1886th P. 739
[61] Encyclopædia Britannica. An encyclopedia of general knowledge. Fourth edition. 10th Bd Berlin, Leipzig 1890th
[62] Chambers's Encyclopaedia. New Edition. Vol VIII, London 1959. P. 716
[63] M. [irza] A. I [] Beg: The Guide to Lucknow, Containing Popular Places and Buildings Worthy of a Visit. Lucknow 61911 (11891).
Reprint: New Delhi, Madras 2000th P. 6-7. Beg writes the quoted representation by a Lucknow "intelligent American writer, who visited it in
1856"(Ibid.), this source is not identified.
[64] Henry George Keene Keene's handbook for visitors: Allhabad, Cawnpore and Lucknow, to which is added a chapter on Benares.
Calcutta ² 1896th P. 59
[65] Julia A. Stone: Illustrated India Its Princes and People. Upper Central and Farther India, the Ganges Up and Down the Indus. Hartford
1877th Reprint: New Delhi, Madras 2003rd P. 293
[66] G [iles] H [enry] R [upert] Tillotson: The Tradition of Indian Architecture. Continuity, Controversy and Change since 1850th New
Haven, London 1989. P. 12
[67] Tandam 2001 (see note [41]). P. 211
[68] Tillotson 1989 (see note [66]). P. 17
Broken Mirror / 2
Karl R. Kegler (Cologne / Aachen)
The "exotic" Europe and the buildings of the Nawabs of Oudh
Part 2: Copy and synthesis
Will you be the adoption of European forms in the architecture of the Nawabs of Oudh just, it is necessary to derive at source becomes active
understanding of copy and imitation from the perspective of Indian builders, but not from that of the European observers and critics. To
criticize the construction of Lucknow to be fair, they are first to understand from their conditions of origin and intentions out. With Tillotson
(who is himself not adhere to this principle) is to be stated: "Considered as dogs, most cats are deficient regrettable, but rational people,
when considering cats, feline not invoke canine criteria, however much they love dogs." [1] As architectural statements as cultural creations,
in contrast to species of the animal kingdom but do not have to adhere to certain hereditary characteristics, even more room for interpretation
are open to those as a "species purity" or "species-specific" approach, which Tillotson with his biological comparison suggests. "It is very
unfair to judge of a foreign country by the standard of one's own ", The Indian historian Poorno Chunder Mookherji wrote already in 1883,
"and to criticize Lucknow architecture by the rules of Palladian type, shows the partial and defective knowledge of the critic. It betrays
narrow-mindedness, nothing else." [2]
An interpretation of the buildings Lucknows must therefore focus initially on the intentions of their creators. Statements of the architect of the
European architecture Lucknows you will search in vain in the literature, however, they were from a history of architecture in the 19th
Century was written by European standards, not included. The modern architectural history, the paradigms have changed radically since the
Colonial era are missing, for the refurbishment of these relationships today, however important sources, because the archives have been lost to
the kings of Oudh in the looting of their residences. The intentions of the architects of European-influenced architecture Lucknows can be
raised only in the contexts of their buildings.
The view of the adoption of European forms of architecture in Lucknow must also not hide that, in the building program of the Nawabs
repeated copies of Islamic role models are to be found. Originally from Persia royal family of Oudh was a member of the Shiite version of
Islam and cultured according to a special connection to Iraq's Karbala, the mosque in the grave of the revered Imam Hussein as a martyr has
the most important memorial of the Shiites. Repeatedly found in Lucknow architectural copies, or abbreviations of this building, which by
their significant, borrowed from the original double-domes are visible. [3] Even in the Lucknow building type, frequently found the Imambara
serves the Shiite Passion rituals in memory of Imam Hussein. In the same way can call the buildings, pointing to other sites of the Islamic
world. So shall the mighty gate of the Rumi Darwaza, near the monumental mosque and the Bara Imambara, Asaf ud Daula which was built
from 1784 to present a copy of a city gate of Constantinople. [4] Also in the Bara Imambara, there are allusions that have Lucknow point out.
The great hall of the cantilever Bara Imambara "is called Persian hall. In the west and the east connects to the elongated main hall ever a
15
central space. Because of the ceiling decoration is the western known as "Indian", the eastern as "Chinese" (!) Hall. [5] Although it may be
from these references to subsequent revaluation is clearly in them the desire to represent the entirety of the (Muslim) world, in the complex of
the great mosque and its Asaf ud Daulas Bara Imambara. Similarly, in later Islamic architecture building complexes citations found. In the
build Husseinabad Imambara, the Nawab Muhammad Ali Shah during his short reign (1837-1842), had found as a mausoleum for his
daughter as a smaller copy of the Taj Mahal. [6]
This practice of architecture copy is in considering the European-influenced architecture Lucknows to keep in mind. Before and during the
adoption of European forms were copied for the buildings of the city in the same way Islamic or Indo-Islamic role models or adapted. The
culture of citation and adaptation of architectural models were the kings of Oudh and their advisers can select depending on the purpose of the
planned construction of an appropriate model of either Europe or the Islamic tradition - a phenomenon with the simultaneous rise of neo-style
in Europe can compare. Islamic religious buildings in Lucknow continuously built in Indo-Islamic styles, the residences of the royal family
and functional buildings in a classical European-style. Also this phenomenon can be with the style choices for sacred or profane building
projects in Europe in the 19th Century compare. That the order to constative, conscious use of architectural models and copies a better
understanding of European structures Lucknows opened, shows an analysis of selected buildings.
Dilkusha
An exemplary and relatively early example of the adoption of European forms of land located within the southeast Dilkusha Lucknows is (Fig.
13, 14). He is also one of the few buildings of the Nawabs, which is processed by an advanced study in more detail. [7] Dilkusha is built for
Nawab Saadat Ali Khan in 1800, following the example of an English manor.
Saadat Ali Khan's The rule is characterized by a special interest in culture and lifestyle of Europe. [8] The great interest of the new ruler in
European culture has a lot to do with his biography. Before his (on British intervention took place) succession Saadat Ali Khan had received a
European education in Benares, and knew firsthand the broad European streets and architecture in contemporary Calcutta. [9] These
experiences become the model for its own construction projects. Saadat Ali Khan can Chattar Manzil Palace from the new city wide street to
his house Dilkusha create, which is the backbone of the urban development of a whole series of residences in this area.
As an architect to design a European Dilkushas acts: Major Gore Ouseley, officer and civil servant employed by the EIC. Ouseley is not only
a 'gentleman', who like others of his time is devoted to the architecture as an amateur, he is also Orientalist with excellent knowledge of
Persian and Indian culture. [10] The ruling Nawab Saadat Ali Khan is Ouseley, who until 1802 also as governor of the EIC in Lucknow acts
as his aide and a personal friendship [11] connected. Dilkusha is so in the coming together of client as an architect for a project of two crosscultural educated personalities.
The result of this constellation is outwardly no original architectural creation. Ouseley chose for his principal an existing design that was
copied and adapted for Dilkusha. Submission of the completed building is the country seat Seaton Delaval in Northumberland, which had
been built by the architect John Vanbrugh 1717-1729 (Fig. 12). [12] Ouseley knew this draft for Colin Campbell in 1725 published book
Vitrivius Britannicus, A compilation of British architecture projects neopalladianischen tradition. The choice of precisely this, in 1800 three
generations past prototype, which did not correspond to the latest architectural fashion in Europe, is remarkable. For the Anglophile Nawab
and the educated in oriental culture amateur architects should the attractiveness of the model have been that Seaton Delaval exhibited in
European clothing items that were known to them also from the Islamic and Indian architecture: central-oriented plan, over-center, axial
routing polygonal towers - elements so that vaguely reminiscent of the mausoleums of the Mughals and in Lucknow were used in various
forms. Ouseley changed his design to the model, however, by the building that stood in Vanbrugh's design in the axis of a three-winged, one
designed accessible from all four sides of detached buildings and two freestanding buildings added, which served as living quarters. The court
turned away the garden facade of Seaton Delaval formed with a portico of four columns was the main entrance at Dilkusha. [13] A
representation (Fig. 13), Which was made around 1815, shows "The Nawab Vizier's country retreat at Dilkusha within a deer park" as a
building that is very closely modeled on the English model.
Figure 12 South facade of the manor Seaton Delaval in Northumberland. The original, designed by Sir John Vanbrugh was built in 1722-1724.
Figure from Colen Campbell Vitruvius Britannicus 3rd Bd London 1725th Plate 21st Campbell widespread pattern book would also have
been Gore Ouseley, the architect of the Dilkusha known.
16
Figure 13 Villa and wildlife Dilkusha. Watercolor picture of Seeta Ram 1814/ 15 From: Views by Seeta Ram from Cawnpore to Mohumdy Vol
IV. British Library, Asia, Pacific and Africa Collections. It is not entirely clear if the artist has depicted a Idealansicht. The outbuildings
(rotated by 90 °) are idealized in any case. © British Library, Asia, Pacific and Africa Collections .
The internal organization of the European role model, however, could not be incorporated in the same way. In the house and palace
architecture of Islamic India are the apartments of the women who "Zenana ', spaces that can be viewed or accessed from any stranger. They
are organized in the traditional architecture to a closed courtyard, a design which in the model of free-standing villa could not be integrated.
The women's quarters were in Dilkusha therefore moved to the first floor. As a replacement for the missing courtyard was probably the roof
terrace. The ground floor was an audience hall, a ballroom, accommodating guests and the Nawab reserved, it is the public part of the house
dar. The Nawab, his wives, servants and guests entered the building each time by another of the four inputs. [14]
This was despite the adoption of the Dilkusha English Baroque exemplar clearly a different use pattern that has been adapted to the needs of
an Oriental court. In addition, Dilkusha provides a copy of the European role model in Indian Construction As a gentleman-architect dar.
Ouseley was indeed awarded the knowledge of European models, the construction of Indian craftsmen to set up but his statements in the
traditional architecture of the region as masonry, which was decorated with stucco and ceramic elements according to the template.
Finally, subverted the concept of the "country house" a reinterpretation. In England in the 18th Century country houses of the gentry were far
from the residence on their estates of London. Dilkusha was against it as a country seat of the Nawabs only two miles from the city palace. It
served as gardening and hunting lodge for the reception of guests or for occasional trips - to supplement and enrich a diverse court life, not far
away to live on an estate in the city.
17
Figure 14 Felice Beato, Dilkusha Kothi ". 1858th Withdrawal from the photo album of Dr. Goldie-Scot of Craigmuie, 79th Cameron
Highlanders.
Photographs that were taken immediately after the events of 1858, [15] documented that in the Dilkusha over the stitches of the Vitrivius
Britannicus known model has been adopted with great accuracy (Fig. 14). The fact that proportions of components or pillars by the related
technique of stuccoed masonry building were changed, as Fergusson says, may, in this example, not the question. Compared with the above
illustration of 1815 are the photographs of 1858, however, noted some significant differences: the excessive central component is now
complete with a flat terrace, not by a triangular gable with gable roof, and the octagonal corner towers are to a floor raised and crowned with a
tent roof which are formed as a stylized leaf canopy, and the openings in the second floor, allowing some of the outlet on the terraces, are not
taken by round arches, but by subjects arches. These elements can be seen as "Indianisation" of the building indicate. [16] To be dated but is
ultimately dependent on whether it is referred to an illustration of 1815 Idealansicht or a representation of nature which may reflect a real
condition. If it is a Idealansicht, could Indianisation elements have been already added in the construction of the villa of Gore Ouseley. If this
is not the case, it must be for subsequent changes. Regardless, however, which of these alternatives, the addition of the elements described an
conscious Decision is that has been taken either by Ouseley and his client or by subsequent users. Since the copy of the model was otherwise
exactly the above elements Indianisation certainly not result from failure in imitation of the template, as Fergusson says.
Hybrid facades
However, where the elements have been added at Dikusha compared to Seaton Delaval to subsequent changes, these must be done through
the mid-1830s. Interestingly, there is the main facade of the Dilkusha with the mentioned additives namely a copy to a second building in
LucknowThat as part of the Chattar Manzil complex is formed until 1837. This building, known Chaurukhi Kothi (also Darshan Bilas), was
built during the reign of Nasir ud Din Haidar (reigned 1827-1837) built. The design of the Chaurukhi Kothi (literally, house of the four faces)
is one of the most unusual examples of architecture in Lucknow and provides an important insight into the understanding with which
processed the Nawabs and their architect architectural models. In the facades of Chaurukhi Kothi are the show houses in three European sites
Lucknow cited. The facade copies are not exact, but as such, clearly visible (Fig. 15). The West Front of the Chaurukhi Kothi is a copy of the
main facade of the Dilkusha, the east side copied to the river-facing facade of Claude Martin's Townhouse Farhad Baksh, the two sides copies
of another building from the time of Saadat Ali Khan, the so-called Musa Bagh in western city. [17] In the additive use of this architecture
quotes a very specific approach to architecture reveals copies. The legacy of local, European-inspired buildings is used as material for free,
but intentional recombinations. And the salaries reach even further: the source as the end point of the road that was used for ceremonial
processions of the State of Nawabs, the viewer encounters the same facade, at the end point of the main facade of the Dilkusha, the gateway
for their copy. The production of original and copy creates an urban correspondence. Such mirror-oriented architectures (so-called Jawab "" literally "answer") are a fundamental theme of Islamic architecture in India. However, in this example, the physical distance between the
original and the "answering" facade copy is so large that their correspondence is not in a direct view of relationship can be detected, but only
18
when walking through the main Hazratganj obviously is - is a modified use of the basic principle in an urban scale. In the Chaurukhi Kothi is
also found the facade of the villa copy Musa Bagh on the opposite Dikusha western side of town. The third façade motif, which is quoted in
the Chaurukhi Kothi attacks, with the facade of the Farhad Baksh finally to a building located in the center of the city center (Farhad Baksh),
Eastern (Dilkusha) and western terminus (Musa Bagh) of " Palace Geography " Lucknows can be found in one building (Fig. 16).
The game with facades and with the combination of architectural elements, however, serves not only from a modular European models, it also
involves elements of Indian traditions with one. A British traveler in 1828 describes the new districts created in the South mentioned, there
created a bazaar "With a lofty gateway at each extremity, which presents a Grecian front on one side and a Moorish one on the other. " [18]
This has not been identified so far gateways staged twice the architectural tradition of the city aware of a Euro-classical and an "Indian"
facade. A similar conscious use of the two architectural traditions, there is yet a further, much more important building of the larger Chattar
Manzil Palace (Bara Chattar Manzil). The face side facing the river follows in window shapes, stuccoed leaf garlands, pediments, pilasters
and a classical pilasters, as in Europe in the second half of the 18th Century fashion was (Fig. 17). [19] In contrast, the side facing the
courtyard in Indo-Islamic forms is designed. The full-length windows are taken by subjects arches, which are typical for the late Mughal
architecture. European forms appear again in the neo-classical pavilions, as roof structures with CHATRIS [20] the Indian tradition, the
building crowned (Fig. 18). From the Dome of the highest and central Chatri grew a stylized crown above the shield was a sonnenbekrönter
appropriate. This sign is symbolic namesake: Chattar Manzil means "shield-palace". [21] The shield is a symbol of royalty, which was placed
symbolically on the throne of the Nawab. [22]
Figure 15 The facades of the Chaurukhi Kothi (Darshan Bilas quote) the record pages of three prominent buildings in Lucknow. Large photo
Chaurukhi: Kothi. Photo postcard to a recording of Samuel Bourne around 1865. Top right: Felice Beato, Dilkusha Kothi ". 1858 (as in Fig
14). Bottom right: Felice Beato, "Land-based facade of Musa Bagh. 1 858 (Figure mirrored to allow for better comparison). Withdrawal from
the photo album of Dr. Goldie-Scot of Craigmuie, 79th Cameron Highlanders.
19
Figure 16 Urban covers the facade of copies of the Chattar Manzil Palace in Chaurukhi Kothi. Source map taken from: Frederick Sleigh
Roberts: Forty-one Years in India. From Subaltern To Commander-In-Chief. London 1914th P. 198
20
Figure 17 & 18 The Chattar Manzil Palace, the British demolition work, which flattens the whole environment. The front side is decorated in
the Gomti-European classical forms. The (former) court side - difficult to recognize as part of the neoclassical building Farhad Baksh
concealed in the front is decorated with fan-sheets Indo-Islamic tradition. Above: Photo v. John Burke 1860's, below: Admission of Samuel
Bourne 1864th © British Library, Asia, Pacific and Africa Collections .
Again, it is hard to imagine that the "inability" of the architect or a misunderstanding copy to the completely unequal treatment of the facades
should have had. On the contrary, they complement each other to combine a symbolic political statement: Under the rulership of the Nawab is
an Indian and a European facade to the impressive public buildings. [23] Saadat Ali Khan, the palace is built in the manifest of a pro-British
Indian ruler, who was in Europe as in the Indian tradition at home and designed his new residence with forms from both traditions. [24]
Indian and European decorative Chattar Manzil Palace systems are finally applied to a building of clear in his typology and cubature none
European submission follows (Fig. 19). Phased cubature of the "disk-like" building is more reminiscent of buildings such as the "Palace of
Winds in Jaipur. [25] More striking is that the Indo-Islamic forms found in the private courtyard of the building, their place, the classical
forms of architecture on the other hand, the face side, which was built over the river Gomti away at a distance. The neo-classical style
elements act as a representative garment, while the "private" life of the court of Nawab surrounded by court officials, poets and an extensive
harem took place according to traditional patterns. This theme continued in the former Chattar Manzil Palace opposite smaller (Chota Chattar
Manzil away), which offered a classical look to the south facade, the courtyard to the north but in traditional Indo-Islamic architecture was
designed motifs. [26]
21
Figure 19 "Chattur Manzil, Lucknow, On the Gomtee. (From a Photograph) - Prints and from the Illustrated Times17 April 1858. The picture
shows the narrow abgestaffelte cubature of the palace.
The different treatment of facades of the same building is a basic motif in the architecture of Lucknow found in other varieties of application.
An example of the uneven show pages not created by the juxtaposition of European and Indian styles, but a formal contrast, represents the
Roshan-ud-Daula-Kothi, the ud as the house of the prime minister of Nawab Nasir Din Haidar (reigned 1827 - 1837) was created and was
later integrated into the complex Kaisarbagh (Fig. 20, 21). The Building of the House, which is still in the nucleus, but was greatly changed,
is now only to be reconstructed from historical photographs. The north facade of the palatial house was consistently in a rectangular cubic
abgestaffelten developed, which was arranged by columns, half columns and pilasters of the Kompositordnung. In contrast, the south side and
the corners were broken polygonal by black-white-striped pilasters stressed that the polygonal shape again emphasized visually. These
opposing principles of composition of the north and south sides were compared with each other in a peculiar roof landscape that made the
composer's intention clear: a sliced metal dome crowned the polygonal south side, a narrow rectangular tower with a triangular pediment
temple of the north side (Fig.22). Both structures were like Theater staffage at the top level back to back. [27] Not stylistic unity or simplicity,
but effective, surprising diversity was the goal of the composition.
22
Figure 20 & 21 Front and back of Roshan-ud-Daula-Kothi. Above: undated postcard (after 1870), The Bombay Company phototype. Below:
undated postcard (ca. 1860). The two images show the increasing alteration of the building. In the earlier, lower view of roof structures are
still visible, are missing from the upper intake.
The overall effect was enhanced by additional elements. On the east and west side were lower square towers, crowned by ribbed domes. The
facade between the towers filled out a two-story portico. On the northeast corner was finally to meet the needs of the owner a private aligned
23
to Mecca mosque in Indo-Islamic architectural forms as superimposed small. For reasons of symmetry, this miniature mosque was also
repeated at the northwest corner, was there not as a prayer room. [28] The totality of the elements showed a dense variety of architectural
decorations, which unfolded in the superimposition of the elements from each perspective a different effect, strictly in the whole system but
followed the rules of the axial symmetry.
Figure 22 Roofscape of Roshan-ud-Daula-Kothi. Inclusion of Robert and Harriet Tytler in the 1858. A note explains that inclusion "The
Palace, about six storeys high, the dome on the left purposely cut in two, has the royal arms engraved in gold on it". The dome was then cut
in half deliberately to achieve a theatrical effect. © British Library, Asia, Pacific and Africa Collections .
Chinoiserie
One of the most interesting and surprising elements in the adoption of European models in Lucknow shall form the consummate chinoiserie
earliest reference to this element of style is a pencil drawing of the artist and officer Robert Smith, Between 1814 and 1830, multiple views of
Lucknow draws. Shown on the drawing of Saadat Ali Khan Musa Bagh built house (also Baronne). The house stands like a gatehouse in the
front of the perimeter of the garden, and the octagonal corner towers of the garden wall is topped with Chinese pavilions (Fig.23). Forty years
later, a panoramic image of the destroyed city center, the Felice Beato from the minaret of the mosque Asafi recorded, documented in 1858
very similar, Chinese-looking corner pavilions in a large courtyard to the south of Husseinabad Imambara. [29] Opposite is still the
characteristic fragment of an unfinished four-story ziggurat from the reign of Muhammad Ali Shah (1837-1842). The name of this building "Sat Khand" = "seven steps" - indicates that the exported octagonal storeys, rising above a square base, should be added initially to a kind of
seven-story pagoda. [30]
Chinoiserie in the context of the adoption of European architecture models only at first sight astonishing, for chinoiserie are in the 18 and 19
Century, a fixture of European garden art; [31] they should therefore have been included in the collections of messages from which the
Nawabs their knowledge based European architecture. The acquisition of this motif shows the same time, which Asaf ud Daula appeared
contexts and his successors to European models are particularly attractive. Examples of Western garden design had to impose on the
architecture of European rulers really interested, since an important part of court life in Oudh the Islamic-Indian tradition took place in the
following gardens. According to the residences included extensive gardens. While the European garden architecture but in the later 18th
Century more and more developed into extensive landscaped gardens, remained in Lucknow the model of the fenced formal garden paradise
Persian-Islamic tradition of the governing type. [32] The detached house Dilkusha with its surrounding "landscape garden" (See Fig.13)
proves to be an exception. The most common of garden was enclosed by a wall of the geometric garden. The advantage of these facilities,
which often were built for the ladies of the royal family or the favorites of the Nawab, was to that afforded to their female users a high level of
foreclosure. The gardens were unfolding in these plants around a house on the European model, but were in turn hedged in by a wall, so that it
could not come to unwanted encounters or insight, a synthesis of free standing country house and walled courtyard. Controlled access to these
gardens elaborate gate houses.
24
Figure 23 Pencil drawing of the river Gomti facing front of Musa Bagh (Baronne) by Captain Robert Smith, November 1814. Smith 18151833 military engineer was employed by the EIC. His duties included the repair of the Kutub Minar and Delhi. © British Library, Asia,
Pacific and Africa Collections .
25
Figure 24 & 25 Gatehouse of Sikander Bagh. The upper picture shows the city side. Postcard for a recording Murray & Co. Lucknow. The
lower image shows the garden view. Inclusion of an unknown photographer from the 1870s. © British Library, Asia, Pacific and Africa
Collections .
This gate-houses are a separate type of building, in the Lucknow found in many game species. In some gates that are built during the reign of
the last Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, are compared with European, Indian and Chinoiserie elements not as different surfaces or components to each
other, but united in a single facade of a collage of styles. These compositions represent the final stage of the processing elements, creating a
European style while meeting previously but the names of European architects for buildings with European forms, for these later buildings
first handed down to the authorship of Indian architects. [33] A significant example of this eclectic approach is the three-storey gatehouse of
Sikander Bagh (Fig.24, 25). Here also, following the unequal treatment of facades, the interior and exterior very different impressions. While
on the road more prominent view, the classical-European forms, connect to the garden classical-European, Indian, and - in the roof design chinoiserie motifs. About classic swing windows with triangular pediments elegant Indian bay from the square corner towers, which are
crowned with extravagant Chinese tile roofs. The by this mixture of styles recruiting impression of a fairytale "World Architecture" may well
have been the target of the builders. The garden becomes a metaphor for paradise in which the beauties of the world is gathered in precious
plants and the pervasiveness of architectural forms.
The Kaisarbagh
This combination of classical and oriental elements is also characteristic of parts of the Kaisarbagh (Fig. 25, 27, 28). illustrates how the
above-reproduced voices, there is also this very building, which challenged after 1858, the European criticism of particular focus. In European
travel guides in 1900, the construction of the last king of Oudh is simply as "the largest, Grandi and most debased of all Lucknow
palaces". [34] Even P. C Mookherji, the committed defenders of the Nawabs against European critics found fault with the "debased style"And
the"Anglomania"The kings of Oudh, and focused his criticism on this ensemble:
Wajid Ali Shah, who fell still deeper into the bad style, produced the Kaisarbagh, a range of palaces having a mixture of all possible kinds of
style, without judgment shown as to its symmetry, or skill displayed as to the arrangement of its minor parts . [35]
A consideration of this palace, however, must not the type that can still the urban structure of this complex in mind, which is doing an
unprecedented synthesis of Indian-Oriental and Western traditions. The grouping of buildings around courtyards, is a fundamental theme of
Indo-Islamic palace architecture, the extension of Kaisarbagh whose central courtyard "Jilau Khana" a size of 200 to 400 meters, but had the
usual scale of palace architecture and transferred the plant explodes in an urban magnitude. The central garden was taken by a continuous
two-story frame building in European style, which may well recall Victorian terraced houses or London Squares - again, a stand-alone
solution without comparison in India. The perimeter of the ladies of the royal harem was housed where the king had not built them their own
residences elsewhere. Each of the ladies had a house with several rooms and servants. To avoid any monotony, the long rectangular or
polygonal bay fronts by were divided, who complied with a strict symmetry of all variety. Neoclassical facades and arcades alternated with
arcature. The width of the window axes varied rhythmically. Striking is the least important, which is the adoption of European forms for the
private sector of the ruler. Chattar Manzil Palace while in a Euro-classical front facade faced in an Indo-Islamic forms designed interior, were
now used for domestic use of European forms Zenana (Fig. 26).
In the huge courtyard were small buildings, the distractions of a diversified farm life were dedicated pavilions and in the Indian classical style,
bird houses and aviaries. Two in the northern part of the garden toward each other T-shaped basin were covered by marble pavilions and a
26
curved bridge. In the southern part of the garden was a strange mix of a viewing platform and reception buildings, the so-called "Lanka",
which was flanked by eight polygonal towers. The axis of this construction, which is rather one of the world fairs of the 19th century would
suggest, a pyramid, led by eleven steps to a marble pavilion. About the Pavilion in turn led across an arched bridge that connected the two
flanking reception building in European forms with one another (Fig. 27). Right and left of this building were raised square platforms that
were on each side by a pergola pillars of Kompositordnung taken. Octagonal Pavilion formed the corners of the theater architecture. Shady
bungalows were dance and music performances. The garden was strictly axial symmetry. Every building on the east side had its reflection on
the west side of the garden, including a miniature aligned to Mecca Mosque, which was her only formal counterpart on the opposite side of
the garden. In the center of the garden is a large white building was in Indo-Islamic forms, as well Imambara, [36] such as an audience hall as
(Baradari) was used for the ceremonial throne. [37]
Figure 26 View of the central courtyard of the Kaisarbagh. Admission of John Edward Saché from the 1870s. The white building in the
middle is the Kaisarbagh Imambara or Baradari. Behind the so-called "Lanka can be seen." © British Library, Asia, Pacific and Africa
Collections .
27
Figure 27 Vine covered pergola in the courtyard of the Kaisar Bagh. The building with the eight flanking towers, the so-called "Lanka", a
reception and gallery building. In the right background you can see the roofs of Roshan-ud-Daula-Kothi in an adjacent yard. Reception of
Baker & Burke in the 1860s. © British Library, Asia, Pacific and Africa Collections .
The enumeration of small buildings and the original equipment leaves no doubt about the determination of the complex: the Kaisarbagh was a
pleasure garden, which was the setting for court ceremonies, festivals, performances and refined pleasures. This "Leisure World", which
unfolded at the nawab as a main character, was complemented by other attractions in other areas of Kaisarbagh. Thus, for the east of the
Khana Jilau a "Chini Bagh" called court, which was decorated with Chinese ceramics. Another court, Bagh Hazrat barg, a house whose roof
and walls were covered with a thin sheet of silver. [38] Various architectural styles, materials, or other valuable features constituted such an
own topography, and referred to from his own traditions and in some ways the whole world represented in architectural miniatures. [39]
It is important to emphasize that the described architectures alone Framework constitute an elaborate court. Their scope is clear when one
realizes that the deposed king, who was in exile in Calcutta by the English as a compensation pension, which was significantly less than its
income in LucknowAfter Sharar 40,000 people employed in his household, and - among other attractions - talking 25 000 birds that were kept
in aviaries and in thousands of brass cages. 300 staff took care of just about the pigeons of the exiled king. There were exotic animals such as
giraffes, tigers and other predators, which were kept in special enclosures. [40] The effort in LucknowWhere Wajid Ali Shah substantially
greater resources were available, one must imagine correspondingly larger. Following Rosie Llewellyn-Jones 1856 for the lining of the royal
menagerie in Lucknow only 1000 rupees per day output. [41] This was the main interest of Wajid Ali's not even exotic birds and animals, but
music and song, [42] for which he is far greater resources at our disposal. Still greater expenses must be for the nightly Illuminations
fireworks and think of holidays, the Oudh was particularly praised (Fig.28). [43]
28
Figure 28 Fireworks in the garden of the mansion Farhad Baksh. Watercolor picture of Seeta Ram 1814/ 15 From: Views by Seeta Ram from
Cawnpore to Mohumdy Vol IV. (More information: here ). For the court life in the Khana Jilau Kaisarbagh may be thought of an appropriate
cost. © British Library, Asia, Pacific and Africa Collections .
The entrance to this "fairy tale town" of Kaisarbagh formed two opposing, elaborate gate houses. Indian, European and other style elements in
their design come together, but it clearly outweigh Indian motifs. The hybrid architecture of these gateways differs significantly from the
framework development of the central garden courtyard, although the classical forms in Indian takes over implementation, but not as the
gateways style combines elements of different architectural traditions. As with the Sikander Bagh, the architecture of the so-called "Lakhigates" [44]Which resulted in the Jilau Khana, a symbolic meaning. And they offered by the court and outside of significantly different views.
On the courtyard side (Fig.29) was in the manner of a triumphal arch motif, a high arch flanked by two smaller ones. Of the three rounds,
however, led only the middle to the outside, the other two in adjoining rooms. The exterior of the gate on the other hand, showed only a single
large sheet, in place of the side gates were projecting risalits.
On this side of the gate by a two-story projecting straight cornice was completed on the roof rose a rich landscape of pinnacles, lanterns and
figures. On the courtyard side of the cornice had a curved shape in the form of a shoulder sheet - a form-finding without precedent in the
Indo-Islamic architecture, it refers rather to bow oriental motifs, as in Chinoiserie of the 18th European Century were found. [45] The
projecting cornice resting on consoles again, partly as a elephant heads partly as mermaids (See Figure 33) worked and were reminiscent of
the figural consoles Hindu temple. This motif is found nowhere else in the buildings Lucknows. was crowned the structure by four corner
towers, which on the outside of an Indian-Muslim on the courtyard were a more European-style classical dress. The central arched gatehouse
an open ribbed dome of two intersecting arcs. This element is also a citation and architecture is borrowed from Claude Martins Residence La
Martinière, a European building in Lucknow, Which was created in 1800. [46]
29
Figure 29 View from one of the Lakhi-gates, which are the access to the central courtyard (Jilau Khana) of Kaisarbagh. The inclusion of
Felice Beato in the spring of 1858 shows the courtyard side of the gate. Withdrawal from the photo album of Dr. Goldie-Scot of Craigmuie,
79th Cameron Highlanders.
In addition to these elements found in different style traditions in their place the gateways decorations, which were directly read in its
symbolic sense, meaning (See Figure 29). In the spandrels on the right and left of the fan-shaped arches, stylized fish were attached, which
are a kind of emblem regularly found on the gates of the Nawabs of Oudh. [47] Accompanies this presentation was flanked by one thing
behind the royal coat of arms from the crown, shield and swords, the mermaids as a heraldic shield. This fable figures appear not only at this
point, they were visible on the wrought-iron grilles, the awnings on the facade protruding balconies and (on the outside) on the base of the
arch. More mermaids with fish tails rotated based on the four feet of the ribs open dome oversized crowns. The corner towers were
exaggerated, with stylized crowns, which are collected through stylized umbrella, which expired in sun symbols. The saffron color in which
the gatehouse were removed, [48] can also be understood as referring to the king, who was wearing under his coronation a saffron-colored
robes. The density of heraldic symbols and symbolic king in this architecture, illustrated abundantly clear that the private sector through the
gate of the king was entered.
The attractiveness of the form Kaisarbagh related repertoire may have existed for Wajid Ali Shah and his predecessor not only in the way of
expressing the adaptation of European models of modernity and proximity to the politically dominant and more clearly British. The
European-influenced residences of Nawabs presented also represents a neutral foil for a court life, which in the mixed society of Muslims and
Hindus Lucknow no longer primarily Muslim was marked. [49] Beyond the great mosques and Imambaras that were created in the IndoIslamic style for the Shiite rituals, especially the last reigning prince celebrated in its European-influenced Residenzbauten a syncretic court
life. Reports on festivals and performances of the court, after which Wajid Ali Shah rubbed in a saffron robe, and with ashes or revere as Yogi
had occurred in the midst of court ladies as Krishna [50] - Both for a Muslim ruler most unusual spectacles - show the court-tolerant lifestyle
of Hindu-Muslim mixed culture. The memories of a lady who edited William Knighton in 1864, give a very clear idea of these productions,
which included the entire palace complex for several days as a stage. [51] Nevertheless remained in the center of the pleasure garden in the
bright white Imambara the Shiite-Islamic identity of the ruler always present. [52] The adoption of European architectural elements has
proved in this context not as a botched copy, but as a complex, evocative and playful use of different architectural traditions that are not found
to represent, but as a structural framework for the pleasures of courtly life garden use.
30
The context of European criticism
When Alois leader in the service of the Archeological Survey of India 1891, the architectural elements of the Kaisarbagh asmongrel
vulgarities which were applied in Vauxhall, Rosherville, and the Surrey Gardens" [53] convicted, he met in a way, quite one of the intentions
of this complex. Vauxhall, Rosherville and Surrey Gardens are early examples of an entertainment industry that opened up a princely and
aristocratic bourgeois Freizeitideal a mass audience. From the middle of the 18th Century were among these plants, which presented the midst
of carefully cultivated plantations musical performances, fireworks, exotic pavilions and spectacular shows, London's most popular
destinations. At the time at which its leaders wrote derogatory criticism, but they were already mostly history and been replaced by other
forms of mass entertainment. [54] But instead, the model of royal pleasure gardens and its oriental architecture understood as a parallel to the
buildings of Oudh, convicted leader of both the one and the others. It showed the assessor of the Archeological Survey also a remarkable
degree of ignorance, if he "Corinthian pilasters under Muslim domes, false venetian blinds, imitation marbles, pea-green mermaids"As a
deterrent details cited. For in Lucknow was, as noted Banmali Tandam 2001, at nowhere the Corinthian order of columns used. [55] The
resulting photographs or on documented examples show, at most columns of Kompositordnung. Leader finding is inaccurate even in the
description! And apparently thought leaders and the mermaids that accompanied the royal coat of arms as a heraldic element of Oudh, a
brightly colored but meaningless gimmick. For a more accurate assessment of the lion and unicorn of German experts only would have had to
use as supporters of the British royal coat of arms in their heraldic color as a parallel. [56]
The assessment officer and thus of the Archeological Survey of India had expressed a strong academic use historic architectural style
concepts that made for transcultural phenomena, influences and parallels no space. It is a concept of style, especially as it was characteristic of
James Fergusson, who in his History of Indian and Eastern Architecture a scheme of eleven "Indo-Saracenic" styles developed, which he
distilled from the architectural traditions of regions and Islamic dynasties. [57] Each of these traditions have style, so Fergusson, experienced
its decline, as soon as the first "pure" forms mixed with other elements. [58] The main impetus was the Indian architecture over the placement
of Persia, so Fergusson, already received from the West. The exceptional marble of the Taj Mahal were in his opinion, did the work of Italian
adventurers who had the pietra dura 'technology from the Florence of the Renaissance in India, the exports of the Mughals, [59] an idea that
makes it clear that Ferguson did not have excessive confidence in the craftsmanship and design skills of the Indian builder. - May have been
As fundamental Fergusson pioneering study in 1876 for an understanding of Indian architecture in Europe, for phenomena such as the
adoption of European forms by the Indians themselves, they had no space. Fergusson designed a heroic image of India, which idealized the
militarily aggressive Mughal emperors and their buildings, the "effeminate" court culture of the Nawabs but faced with a lack of
understanding and the adoption of European forms represented only deterioration. The buildings were Oudh Fergusson as worthless "bastard"
style. Neither room had Fergusson system architecture for an Indian-style pluralism, as it was constituted in his time in the rise of the NeoGothic Revival and other styles of Europe now.
In Fergusson ruling it flowed a basic attitude that the combination of different architectural traditions - even in Europe faced - and it should
not be the architectural achievements of an epoch closely associated with an overall assessment of the respective people. "The Prussians [..]
are not a church building race", One could in some Fergusson History of the Modern style settings in Architecture read about the "Prussian
race" (a manner of speaking, the nations or states equated with race, was widespread in the 19th century) before the author in length to the
existing deficits in his view of Schinkel Friedrichswerdersche church and the (only after Schinkel's death exported) Nikolai Church in
Potsdam was received. [60] Rastrelli Smolny Convent in St. Petersburg, the traditional Russian and French Baroque elements together,
Fergusson was for this reason as a monster - "if their ornamentation is characteristic of Russian civilization of that day, 'tant pis pour elle! " It
would be difficult to find anything in Europe as bad as this." [61] Similarly, Fergusson critically evaluated the work of John Vanbrugh, who
had delivered in Seaton Delaval the template for the country Dilkusha. Vanbrugh's Blenheim Palace major work he produced from a vast
monster, "The palace looks as if it had been designed by some Brobdingnagian [62] architect for the residence of their little Gulliver." "He
[Vanbrugh] was much less successful in his smaller designs, such as Seaton Delaval […]". [63] Other examples of Campbell's compilation
Vitruvius BritannicusThat a formative influence on the perception of European models in Oudh exercised Fergusson looked convincing as
little, "they all have missed the effect intended to be produced, and not one of them can now be looked upon as an entirely satisfactory
specimen of Architectural Art" [64] Little wonder if Fergusson in this basic setting, the buildings, inspired by role models in the criticized
Lucknow were not particularly valued.
Fergusson was a racist aspects padded ideal of rigorous purity of style two generations earlier, when the reception in European architecture
Lucknow began, by no means the generally accepted idea. John Nash directed the Royal Pavilion, completed in 1822 the Prince Regent, later
King George IV at Brighton about a fantastic combination of oriental styles. designed from the outside like an Indian fairytale united interiors
Muslim, Indian and Chinese decorations. On the west side of Nash pointed windows ordered from a mixture of neo-Gothic and Oriental
elements in under the Indian-inspired domes and Chartis. Nash's Royal Pavilion is an example of a not-too-common, but at several examples
in India tangible fashion 1820th [65] Even in the literary avant-garde advanced oriental motifs on a topic. William Beckford [66] and Edgar
Allan Poe, [67] later, Joris-Karl Huysmans [68] or Oscar Wilde [69] imagined eclectic interiors in their narratives, which were equipped with
exquisite oriental works. The radius of the architect John Soane speculated at the same time on the genesis of world architecture and the
development of styles. [70] George Wightwick, one of the students presented Soanes, 1840 in his work The Palace of Architecture: A
Romance of Art and History [71] a fictional garden that gathered the architectural styles of all times and spaces as small buildings and
ordered according to a didactic approach. The Palace of Architecture drew a perfect style story of Hindu India on the ancient world, the
Christian Middle Ages, the architectural styles of the Orient and Islamic India led to the Italian Gothic and Palladian style, and ultimately
resulted in an "Anglo-Italian Villa" as the center of the garden. The transition between the sections of the imaginary garden, each individual
styles are given, formed as a programmatic gatehouses incarnations of their respective architectural styles which are illustrated at the same
time that the represented cultures had mastered the same basic construction tasks in different ways (Fig.30). Wightwick also saw quite
connecting lines between these style systems, such as between the Christian and Islamic "pointed arch style" in its various varieties. The fact
that this imaginary museum of architecture found its place in a garden is no accident. The student Soanes sat down in the tradition of allusive
gardens, cited in Klein architectures different times and places, a practice that has experienced the landscape gardens of England in pavilions,
artificial ruins and architectural follies just one highlight. As the main entrance of the garden world architecture designed Wightwick a gate,
the collage together all styles of architecture in itself (Fig.31).
31
Figure 30 Series of archways George Wightwick The Palace of Architecture 1840th Wightwick treatise should illustrated the
correspondences between the different styles that he ordered a didactic intention behind the other. Figure in Wightwick P. 113, 151, 167, 171,
178
Figure 31 European and Indian fancy architectures. Both gatehouses combine European and Oriental styles. Left: "The Palace Gate" from
George Wightwick architectural treatise The Palace of Architecture 1840th P. 7 Right: gatehouse of Moti Mahal. Photographs by Felice
Beato 1958th Withdrawal from the photo album of Dr. Goldie-Scot of Craigmuie, 79th Cameron Highlanders.
Comparing this with the fantastic fiction Wightwick gatehouses Wajid Ali Shah's parallels are to be stated, but it was in Lucknow of course
not the exotic, but the European element that gave these buildings their fabulous alienation, and it occurs in the gatehouse of Sikander Bagh
as contrary as in the European-looking towers on the gate that led to the house Moti Mahal. While George IV as Prince Regent by Nash at the
32
Royal Pavilion was built by a built dream of India, realized the Nawabs of Oudh European illusory, as they build - were among other things tower and zinnenbewährte country houses in the style of romantic castles with moat and drawbridge so how about the villa Khurshid Manzil,
which was created during the reign of Saadat Ali Shah and later the very latest fashion romantic medieval Europe was rebuilt following a
crenellated castle (Fig.32). [72]
Figure 32 Khurshid Munzil. The country house is like a fortified European mansion. In the foreground, the earthworks of the insurgents are
seen, which were raided in March 1858 by a British-Indian Army. Recording of Felice Beato 1858th Withdrawal from the photo album of Dr.
Goldie-Scot of Craigmuie, 79th Cameron Highlanders.
The partly learned, partly playful speculation about the origin and development of architectural styles that emanated in the spirit of romance
with the conviction that cultural diversity can be found in the same way, in the second half of the 19th Century against the background of a
colonial expansive Europe end it. Architectural history, as conducted Fergusson is also an expression of a new type of science that is
happening less speculative, but collecting, ordering and classifying architectural styles and their supposedly "best" and "purest" examples
evaluated. Behind this was a development of construction and development of style that signals in the concepts of evolution and hybridization
quite a close race on the biology and teaching. Unquestioned assumption in the underlying model of evolution was the fact that the
construction and stylistic development of the European nations where non-European cultures is far superior. From the self-ascribed place at
the top of a pyramid of civilization progress, the imperialist nations mustered with their own sense of mission, the architectural and cultural
creations of other continents, which were now the object of their access. [73] The Indian uprising, was convicted as a result, the East India
Company in a privately organized direct colonial rule is, here dar. a crucial turning point is a telling coincidence that two years after the
conquest Lucknows another example of Asian-European-style synthesis, the Summer Palace in Beijing earlier his agency was at the Jesuit
buildings erected in the style of a European-Chinese rococo, looted in 1860 by a Franco-British punitive expedition and burned. [74]
Along the changed attitude goes to the history of architecture in the second half of the 19th Century with a Christian-moralistic sense of
mission, as especially John Ruskin The Seven Lamps of Architecture (1849) advocated. Ruskin's seven lamps - seven principles - the
architecture, read more like a catalog of Christian virtue: the value of a structure is expressed by Ruskin into sacrifice, truth, strength, beauty,
life, memory and obedience. "Untrue" elements such as columns superimposed without structural function or fake materials Ruskin were
independent of local building traditions and materials available as "architectural lies," the sinning against the principle of truth. [75] Based on
these principles had the plastered brick Lucknows, whose fine, impersonated with pearl-enriched stucco marble, or covered with only thin
sheets domes not only as a stylistically questionable, but also appear to be morally reprehensible, especially as a moralistic Victorian viewer
little understanding of the magnificence and the harem being the kings of Oudh raise knew.
seen from the principle of purity of style here, again seemed to be a blending of elements of style, as in Lucknow practice, was just such a
monstrosity as a cross between dogs and cats, to Tillotson biologistic misleading comparison again pick up. But the transfer of a building
style in a different culture was questionable before the consideration that designs are the pure expression of a people or racial character. The
adoption of European styles for Indians, or, as in the first half of the 19th Century is still common practice, was not an option from this
perspective could be more.
33
End
These considerations were important, finally, the question should be found in the style of the well-established after the uprising of 1857/58
British rule in India, the architectural style. After 1876, the proclamation of Queen Victoria as Empress of India, the vast number of public
large buildings of the colony in an Indo-Saracenic style was built, who staged the British rule as successors of the Mughal rule. This
development was an indirect result of the architectural debate in the wake of the Indian uprising. The Anglo-Indian elite of officers and
administration officials built their colonial large buildings until the late 1920s in a style which she believed he was capable of the mass of the
Indian population at the same time appeal to and impress, as he Indian viewing habits and traditions in point. [76] More or less explicitly
these systems while also competed with the monuments of the Mughals. For its own residential buildings, churches and neighborhoods, which
already emerged in the Indian cities spatially separated Cantonment, [77] were the colonial masters, however, concerned about their British
identity firmly in European forms. After the First World War finally evolved under the influence of Lutyens designs for the new seat of
government in New Delhi a new, deliberately accomplished a synthesis of classical, Indian, Islamic and Hindu elements in the form of an
imperial sense of form Art Deco. [78]
In Lucknow document the buildings erected after the suppression of the rebellion, this programmatic decision in favor of an Indo-Islamic
style until about 1930 the influence of the synthesis completed by Lutyens was also felt here. [79] The "European" buildings of the Nawabs,
however, was met with less respect, even if it partly to the seat of the new elite of the city advanced. Part of the royal residences served the
British garrison and administration. Chattar Manzil Palace was the Bara as the seat of the United Service Club, the Lal Baradari the seat of the
provincial museum. The great courtyard of the palace was opened by Kaisarbagh streets, the northern wing broken off and divided the
remainder of the perimeter to serve as town residences for a new layer of land owning landlords (Taluqars). [80] The British colonialists
formed the manorial system, up to a pattern of the English gentry was familiar from the mother country: the city as residence row. The
pleasure garden of the last Nawab was reinterpreted as an urban square.
Figure 33 & 34th State of the gates of the Lakhi Kaisarbagh in 2005. Images courtesy of Professor Bret Wallach ©. More images from the
photo series Wallach: here .
34
Demolitions and decades of neglect have since been condemned by the European architecture criticism largely destroyed buildings, the
Residual is threatened by decay. [81] (Fig.34) The mirror image of European architecture, which could buy the Nawabs of Oudh in a unique
synthesis of their own tradition, has gone into a sequence of intentional or thoughtless destruction largely lost, a process to that described by
William Russell plundering of the royal buildings in 1858 only kicked off with:
What image of destruction offers to the eye, as we enter the great hall. It is no exaggeration when I say that the marble floor is two or three
inches high, covered with fragments of broken mirrors and chandeliers, which once hung from the ceiling. And still the men are going to beat
all to pieces. [82]
Photo Credits:
Figure 12, 15, 16, 19-21, 24, 30, 31a: Collection of the author.
Figure 13, 17, 18, 22, 23, 25-28: British Library, Asia, Pacific and Africa Collections .
Figure 14, 29, 31b, 32: Photo Album Dr. T. Goldie-Scot of Craigmuie , Moniave, Surgeon 79th Cameron Highlanders (photo album with
photographs by Felice Beato, 1858). http://www.flickr.com/photos/djgold/sets/16897/
Figure 33, 34: Bret Wallach .
[1] G [iles] H [enry] R [upert] Tillotson: The Tradition of Indian Architecture. Continuity, Controversy and Change since 1850th New Haven,
London 1989. P. 14
[2] P [oorno] C [dog] Mookherji: Pictorial Lucknow. Lucknow 1883. Reprint: New Delhi 2003rd P. 211
[3] The corresponding building type is in Lucknow according to the Iraqi model "Karbala". These Neeta Das: "Lucknow'S Imambaras and
Karbalas. "In: Rosie Llewellyn-Jones (eds): Lucknow then and now. Mumbai: 2003. P. 90-102. A series of 10 smaller directly threatened by
decay "Karbalas and Imambaras in Lucknow lists Saiyed Abbas. Saiyed Anwer Abbas: Wailing Beauty. The Perishing Art of Nawabi
Lucknow. Lucknow 2002.
[4] This is a "fictitious" copy. A similar construction in Constantinople is not known. References to the reference to Constantinople / Istanbul
are more common in the literature, but without reliable source, such as in older guidebooks Beg M. 1911 [irza] A. I [] Beg: The Guide to
Lucknow, Containing Popular Places and Buildings Worthy of a Visit. Lucknow 61911 (11891). Reprint: New Delhi, Madras 2000th P. 73-74.
Etiam: Yogesh Praveen: Lucknow Monuments. Lucknow 1989th P. 45-46. Peter Chelkowski indicates the name of the monumental gate, a
reference to Byzantium "I believe that 'Rum' here indicates not only Byzantium (Rum in Arabic means the Eastern Roman Empire), but the
Roman Empire as well, and that the Rumi Darwaza is the equivalent of a Roman triumphal arch."Peter Chelkowski," Monumental Grief: The
Bara Imambara. "In: Rosie Llewellyn-Jones: Lucknow. City of Illusion. Munich, Berlin, New York 2006. P. 101-133. Here: p. 108
[5] Chelkowski, "Monumental Grief." As in note [4]. P. 111, 127
[6] This architecture quote from the indo-Islamic region is even more important as an example because it is the architect of Husseinabad
Imambara, Ahmed Ali Khan (Chota Miyan) to be the same architect who built later for Wajid Ali Shah the Kaisarbagh; see Mookherji 1883
35
(see note [2]). P. 183 Ahmed Ali Khan used, therefore, be to show how the section on the Kaisarbagh is a similar method in his architectural
quoting secular as in its religious buildings.
[7] Neeta Das: Indian Architecture: Problems in the interpretation of 18th and 19th Century Architecture - A Study of Dilkusha Palace
Lucknow. Delhi 1998th
[8] Saadat Ali, however, can not build the first Nawab of buildings in the style of European classicism, Asaf ud Daula and his predecessor
several European houses in the palace complex Daulat Khana had built by European engineers. Saadat Ali Khan shifted the focus of its
construction activity in contrast to the south.
[9] In 1998 (see note [7]). P. 19
[10] Ouseley in 1809 was appointed ambassador to the court of the Shah of Persia, 1823, he is a founding member of the Asiatic Society in
London.
[11] In 1998 (see note [7]). P. 24
[12] Images of today's state of Seaton Delaval: here .
[13] In the watercolor picture of the artist Seeta Ram annexe to their actual situation, however, has turned 90 degrees. In this respect, is not
completely exclude that there is a Idealansicht.
[14] The 1998 (see note [7]). P. 46-48.
[15] Dilkusha was in March 1858 the headquarters of the British army, led by Colin Campbell.
[16] Rosie Llewellyn-Jones looks at the tower helmets Dilkusha contrast asvery un-Indian". Rosie Llewellyn-Jones: A Fatal Friendship. The
Nawabs, the British and the City of Lucknow. Oxford 1985th P. 43 I would disagree with that. I know of no comparable examples of the
ornamentation of a tower helmet as leaves foliage. On the other hand, this leaves ornament Lucknow several times in the design of domes, or
about the completion of the minarets of the mosque to take Asafi.
[17] At first this finding Rosie Llewellyn-Jones pointed out. Llewellyn-Jones 1985 (see note [16].) P. 152-153. Etiam: Sophie Gordon: "The
Royal Palaces". In: Llewellyn-Jones (ed.) 2003 (see note [4]). P. 30-87. Here: p. 42-43.
[18] Walter Hamilton: The East-India Gazetteer containing descriptions of Hindostan. London 1828th II, p. 131 Quoted in Llewellyn-Jones
1985 (see note [16]). P. 185
[19] "Copf" in Germany, "Louis Seize" in France or "Late Georgian" in England.
[20] CHATRIS are detached or serving as a roof top pavilion.
[21] Banmali Tandam: The Architecture of Lucknow and its dependencies from 1722 to 1856. A Descriptive Analysis of inventory and an
Nawabi Types. Delhi 2,001th P. 89
[22] See J.P. Losty: "Painting at Lucknow. In: Llewellyn-Jones (ed.) 2003 (see note [3]). P. 131, 132
[23] This striking finding was apparently overlooked in the interpretation of the building in the recent literature.
[24] Also a further allusion is conceivable: the European facade of the Chattar Manzil Chota pointing north to the origin of the European
forms, the Indian south. This may indicate a learned game with the architecture used architectural styles and their origins.
[25] Ulterior motive in choosing this form may have been the intention of the women of the Nawabs (similar to Jaipur to allow) a view of the
boat processions and fireworks, which took place on and around the river Gomti. This ship moves were elaborate and magnificent productions.
The nawab had for this purpose its own ship of state in the form of a fish, as a kind of emblem on a regular basis in gates Lucknow is found.
This ship of state is documented with the half-sunken royal yacht on a photograph by Felice Beato. Cf. Clark Worswick, Ainslie Embree (ed.):
The Last Empire. Photography in British India 1855-1911. New York 1990. P. 63 Also Mookherji reports of moves by "fancy boats"During
the Hindu festival Basant. Mookherji 1883 (see note [2]). P. 158.In a smaller scale were cruises on Gomti but also simply to the usual
pleasures of court life. A drawing of Robert Smith from 1832 shows about a number of ships, which are accompanied by a barge with
musicians and dancers. Llewellyn-Jones (ed.), 2006 (see note [4]). P. 38-39.
[26] Tandam 2001 (see note [21]). P. 90
[27] In fact, the building is vaguely reminiscent of contemporary European opera houses, although he had an entirely different function.
[28] See Waqarul H. Siddiqi: Lucknow, The Historic City. New Delhi 2000th P. 72
[29] See the panorama assist in Beatus: Llewellyn-Jones (ed.), 2006 (see note [4]). Figure 48 (Part 1 and 2) p. 92-93, plate p. 71136-137. The
building, which still exists in the substance is not specifically identified.
[30] Sharar speaks of a building "similar to Babylon's minaret or floating garden"But gives no reasons for this interpretation. Since the
motive of the Babel Tower in Islamic art is unknown, likely the tower when Sharars correct interpretation should also be inspired by
European models. Abdul Halim Sharar: Lucknow. The Last Phase of an Oriental Culture. London 1975 (original edition 11920). P. 59 In: The
Lucknow Bus. Check the condition of the tower around 1870 shows a photograph of Edward Saché: here . The present condition shows a
Recording from 2005 . In the adjacent Daulat Khana Palace was also one more, lean, six-storey building, Rosie Llewellyn-Jones suspects it a
pagoda, which is occupied by a literary source. Llewellyn-Jones 1985 (see note [16]). P. 181
[31] This requires about the many examples: Eleanor DeLorme: Garden Pavilions and the 18th Century French Court Woodbridge 1996th
[32] The abundance of plants, which the syllable "bagh" - means "bagh" "Garden" - in their name, illustrated the dominance of this concept:
Important plants are the Musa Bagh, Badschah Bag, Charbagh, Sikandar Bagh, Alambagh, Kaisarbagh. Even Moti Mahal was a garden of this
type.
[33] See note 72nd
[34] Beg 1911 (see note [4]). P. 65 Almost identical terms: Edward H. Hilton: The Tourists' Guide to Lucknow. Lucknow 61907th P. 174
[35] Mookherji 1883 (see note [2]). P. 205
[36] Gordon, 2006 (see note [17]). P. 60
[37] Siddiqi, 2001 (see note [28]). P. 84 The literature says this building mostly as Baradari. So also Tandam 2001 (see note [21]). P. 116
[38] Sharar 1920 (see note [30]). P. 64
[39] The best overview of the architectural form of the Jilau Khana offers a six-part panorama of Felice Beato, created immediately after the
end of fighting 1858th On this recording can be seen in addition to the above-mentioned architectures, two small wooden framework: there
are gallows for the execution of the Indian insurgents. In the north of the court documents the photograph two looted and devastated buildings,
where the Nawab had housed a collection of European arts and crafts and furniture. The panorama is reproduced in: Llewellyn-Jones (ed.)
2003 (see note [4]). P. 64-69.
[40] Ibid. P. 73
[41] Rosie Llwellyn-Jones: "Reflections from Lucknow on the Great Uprising of 1857 ".
http://www.usiofindia.org/article_Oct_Dec05_10.htm. Call: October 2007. In comparison, earned a master mason in Lucknow 0.25 rupees a
day. Llewellyn-Jones 1985 (see note [16]) P. 51
[42] "dancers and singers became the pillars of the state and favorites of the Realm". Sharar 1920 (see note [30]). P. 63
[43] Mookherji 1883 (see note [2]). P. 159, 165
36
[44] Tandam 2001 (see note [21]). P. 131 For the construction of the gates were 100 000 rupees (one lakh) was spent, hence the name. 100
000 rupees corresponded £ 10,000 Stirling.
[45] See, for example the design for a Chinese pavilion of Michel-Bartélémy Hazon 1770s. DeLorme 1998 (see note [31]). P. 153
[46] See: here .
[47] See note [25].
[48] Praveen 1989 (see note [4]). P. 181
[49] Barnett reports that in 1780 the court of the 12 favorite from the immediate vicinity Asaf ud Daulas only one was from a Muslim family,
"This shows how far had removed himself from Asaf Islamic high culture and the religious establishment, as well as how easily he related to
ordinary soldiers even though they were almost all Hindus."Richard B. Barnett North India Between Empires. Awadh, the Mughals and the
British 1720-1801. Berkeley e.g. 1980th P. 177 This process was continued by his successor appears to Wajid Ali Shah.
[50] Sharar 1920 (see note [30]). P. 64-65, 74 Etiam: Praveen: Lucknow Monuments. As in note [4]. P. 180-181. Praveen representation is to
be regarded with reservations, it is narrative, anecdotal and does not give any sources. But it offers several hints that are not otherwise find in
the literature.
[51] William Knighton Elihu Jan's Story or The Private Life of an Eastern Queen. (11864) In: Ders.: The Private Life of an Eastern King.
Together with Elihu Jan's Story or The Private Life of an Eastern Queen. London inter alia 1921st 14th C. P. 306-311.
[52] Sharar reported that Wajid ud Daula his religious obligations very seriously, but also to enjoy the tolerant aspects of his religion did. To
sanction his many contacts with ladies and servants, he joined "temporary marriages", which, so Sharar, is possible after the Shiite view.
Sharar 1920 (see note [30]). P. 71
[53] A. [Anton lois] Guide: The Monumental Antiquities and Inscriptions in the North-Western Provinces and Oudh. Described and Arranged.
Allahabad 1891st Reprint: Delhi 1970th P. 265 f. Russell felt in contrast to the Kaisarbagh Temple Gardens, the distinguished jurist district of
London, recalls. See William Howard Russell: My seven wars. The first reports from the battlefields of the nineteenth century. [Abridged
German translation] Frankfurt aM 2000th P. 172-173. The English text trans.: My Indian Mutinity Diary. Reprint ed by Michael Edwardes.
London 1970. P. 100-101.
[54] Vauxhall Gardens finally closed in 1859, Surrey Gardens 1862nd Rosherville Gardens closed, however only 1910th This includes:
Walter Sidney Scott: Green retreats, the story of Vauxhall Gardens, 1661-1859. London, 1955.
[55] Tandam 2001 (see note [21]). P. 213
[56] The significance of these figures seems to have escaped Tandam when they see them as "work of a shocking vitality"Classified, but not
its function as a heraldic symbol quotes. Ibid. P. 214
[57] James Fergusson: History of Indian and Eastern Architecture. London 1876th P. 490-492, 497th These Thomas R. Metcalf: An Imperial
Vision. Indian's Architecture and Britain's Raj. Berkeley, Los Angeles 1989th P. 37-38.
[58] Implicitly, this view may be in the fear of the Europeans to express in front of a disappearance in the numerically overwhelming majority
of the indigenous Indian population.
[59] Fergusson, ibid p. 588
37
[60] James Fergusson: History of the Modern Styles of Architecture. London 1862nd Here quoted from the second edition London 1873rd P.
402-403.
[61] Ibid. P. 437 f.
[62] Brobdingnag - land of giants in Swift's Gulliver's Travels.
[63] Fergusson 1873 (see note [60]). P. 315-316.
[64] Ibid. 329th
[65] Roderick feet: "A Note on the Royal Pavilion in Brighton." In: Daidalos 19 (1986). P. 74-80. Current Recordings: here . Etiam: Jan
Pieper: "Sezincote. A East-West Divan". In: Daidalos 19 (1986). 54-73.
[66] Vathek. Conte arabe. Lausanne 11786th English edition: Anonymous [William Beckford]: The History of the Caliph Vathek. London
1786th
[67] Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque. 1Philadelphia 1840th
[68] À rebours. 1Paris 1884th
[69] The Picture of Dorian Gray. 1London 1891st
[70] Brian Lukacher: Joseph Gandy. An Architectural Visionary in Geogian England. New York 2006. P. 168-197.
[71] George Wightwick: The Palace of Architecture: A Romance of Art and History. London 1840th
[72] Llewellyn-Jones 1985 (see note [16]). P. 152-153.
[73] The superiority of European architecture is already in Wightwick garden fantasy and other presentations at the beginning of the 19th
Century city. Solid, in which denotes the contemporary architecture of Europe end and culmination of the development. This theoretical
concept is combined in the era of imperialism with the direct rule over other regions of the world.
[74] To destroy the Summer Palace and the documents obtained Photo: Régine Thiriez: Barbarian Lens: Western Photographers of the
Qianlong Emperors European Palaces. Amsterdam 1998th
[75] These Hanno-Walter Kruft: History of architectural theory. Munich 2004 (11985). P. 380-383.
[76] For this purpose the outstanding study: Metcalf 1989 (see note [57]). P. 55-90.
[77] Cf. Jan Pieper: The Anglo-Indian station, or the colonization of the gods of the mountain. Hindu city of culture and nature of colonial
city in the 19th Century as the confrontation of Eastern and Western mindsets. Bonn 1977th
[78] Tillotson 1989 (see note [1]). P. 56-59, 117-126. Metcalf 1989 (see note [57]). P. .219-239
[79] Christopher W. London: "Building on Past Traditions: The Victorian, Edwardian, and Modernist Architecture of Lucknow. In:
Llewellyn-Jones (ed.) 2003 (see note [3]). P. 77-89.
[80] The promotion of this Taluqars was a political move that superseded the earlier of the kings of Oudh Hofelite by a landowning class,
which the British to thank for her rise was required. Veena Talwar Oldenburg. The Making of Colonial Lucknow. 1856-1877. Princeton
1984th In: The Lucknow Bus. P. 221-224.
[81] An overview of the decline of endangered buildings tries: Abbas: Wailing Beauty. As in note [3].
[82] . Russell 2000 (see note [53]). P. 170
38
Constantia from Dhil Coushah Park. Luknow. Novr. 1814
Pencil drawing of Lucknow by Robert Smith (1787-1873) dated November 1814. This is one of 27 drawings (29 folios) of views made during
a march from Benares (Varanasi) to Bareilly in Uttar Pradesh, probably en route for Almora in 1814. Inscribed on the original cover is: 'No.
XIII. Ganges & Luknow'. Captain Robert Smith was a military engineer with the East India Company and was in India from 1805 to 1833. He
designed a number of buildings in India and also repaired various Indian monuments including the Kutb Minar and the Jami Masjid at Delhi.
Lucknow, situated on the banks of the Gomti River is the state capital of Uttar Pradesh, northern India. The city came to prominence under
the Mughal Emperor Akbar in the 16th century. In the 18th century it developed into a flourishing centre for the arts under the patronage of
Nawab Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk, a Persian courtier who founded the Oudh Dynasty. In 1775 Nawab Asaf-ud-Daula moved his capital
here from Faizabad. Supported by the wealth of the royal court many fine palaces, tombs, mosques and monuments were erected such as the
great Imambara and the Rumi Darwaza, two of the most famous monuments in India and the Kaisarbagh and the Chattar Manzil palaces.
Lucknow is regarded as one of the finest cities in India with a rich architectural heritage
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Pencil drawing of Constantia at Lucknow by Robert Smith (1787-1873) dated November 1814. This is one of 27 drawings (29 folios) of
views made during a march from Benares (Varanasi) to Bareilly in Uttar Pradesh, probably en route for Almora in 1814. Inscribed on the
original cover is: 'No. XIII. Ganges & Luknow'. Captain Robert Smith was a military engineer with the East India Company and was in India
from 1805 to 1833. He designed a number of buildings in India and also repaired various Indian monuments including the Kutb Minar and the
Jami Masjid at Delhi.
Constantia is a huge building comprising a symmetrical block with curved semicircular wings, adorned with corner pavilions and statuary all
situated on an immense podium. It was constructed by the successful businessman and benefactor Major-General Claude Martin (1735-1800)
as a palace-tomb and country retreat. The huge fluted column by the lake in front of the house was designed by J.P. Parker. Claude died
before the building was finished and is interred underneath it. Constantia subsequently became La Martiniere College as Claude left a left ‘an
enormous fortune’ to create a college here and to establish schools for orphans in Calcutta.
Entertainment, probably in Constantia Park, with fireworks, balloons and artificial elephants.
Pencil drawing of entertainment, probably in Constantia Park, Lucknow by Robert Smith (1787-1873), c. 1814. This is one of 27 drawings
(29 folios) of views made during a march from Benares (Varanasi) to Bareilly in Uttar Pradesh, probably en route for Almora in 1814.
Inscribed on the original cover is: 'No. XIII. Ganges & Luknow'. Captain Robert Smith was a military engineer with the East India Company
and was in India from 1805 to 1833. He designed a number of buildings in India and also repaired various Indian monuments including the
Kutb Minar and the Jami Masjid at Delhi.
Constantia is a huge building comprising a symmetrical block with curved semicircular wings, adorned with corner pavilions and statuary all
situated on an immense podium. It was constructed by the successful businessman and benefactor Major-General Claude Martin (1735-1800)
as a palace-tomb and country retreat. The huge fluted column by the lake in front of the house was designed by J.P. Parker. Claude died
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before the building was finished and is interred underneath it. Constantia subsequently became La Martiniere College as Claude left a left ‘an
enormous fortune’ to create a college here and to establish schools for orphans in Calcutta.
Watercolour of Constantia in Lucknow from 'Views by Seeta Ram from Cawnpore to Mohumdy Vol. IV' produced for Lord Moira,
afterwards the Marquess of Hastings, by Sita Ram between 1814-15. Marquess of Hastings, the Governor-General of Bengal and the
Commander-in-Chief (r. 1813-23), was accompanied by artist Sita Ram (flourished c.1810-22) to illustrate his journey from Calcutta to Delhi
between 1814-15.
La Martiniere (Constantia) was built by Frenchman Claude Martin (1735-1800) in 1795, though he died before its completion in 1802. This
example of European architecture later influenced the developement of hybrid Indo-European architecture in Lucknow in the 19th century.
Initially designed as a country house, it is used as a school for boys. A closer view of Constantia from the north side of the lake, with General
Martin's monument on the left. Inscribed below: 'View of Constantia from the west.' 375 by 527 mm.
View looking across the artificial lake towards the main building and the column, photographed by Reymond Hervey De Montmorency in
1867. La Martiniere (also known as Constantia) was built by the frenchman, Claude Martin (1735-1800) in 1795, though he died before its
completion in 1802. This example of European architecture later influenced the developement of hybrid Indo-European architecture in
Lucknow in the 19th century. Initially designed as a country house, it is used as a school for boys. The column designed by J.P. Parker is seen
to the right.
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Watercolour of Constantia in Lucknow from 'Views by Seeta Ram from Cawnpore to Mohumdy Vol. IV' produced for Lord Moira,
afterwards the Marquess of Hastings, by Sita Ram between 1814-15. Marquess of Hastings, the Governor-General of Bengal and the
Commander-in-Chief (r. 1813-23), was accompanied by artist Sita Ram (flourished c.1810-22) to illustrate his journey from Calcutta to Delhi
between 1814-15.
La Martiniere (Constantia) was built by Frenchman Claude Martin (1735-1800) in 1795, though he died before its completion in 1802. This
example of European architecture later influenced the developement of hybrid Indo-European architecture in Lucknow in the 19th century.
Initially designed as a country house, it is used as a school for boys. View of Claude Martin's house set in its park at Lucknow, with its
column in the lake still in scaffolding. Inscribed below: 'House of Constantia and Tank with general Martin's monument in an unfinished
State.'
Photograph of La Martinière taken by Major Robert Christopher Tytler and his wife, Harriet, in the aftermath of the Uprising of 1857.
General view of the main facade of La Martiniere or Constantia, taken from beside the lake, with Parker's column in the foreground. La
Martiniere was built by Frenchman Claude Martin (1735-1800) in 1795, though he died before the completion in 1802. This example of
European architecture later influenced the development of hybrid Indo-European architecture in Lucknow in the 19th century. Initially
designed as a country house, it was converted into a school for boys.
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At the start of the Uprising of 1857 La Martiniere was occupied by the insurgents but evacuated in November 1857 with the news of Sir Colin
Campbell's march towards it. During the second attack in 1858 Martiniere was deserted thus being one of the few monuments in Lucknow to
escape damage. The students of the School helped in the defence of the Residency along with the British troops. After the Uprising the
masters and boys of the school were provided with the mutiny medal for their services.
Photograph of La Martiniere, Lucknow, from the Album of Miscellaneous views in India, taken by Felice Beato in 1858. La Martiniere (also
known as Constantia) was built by Frenchman Claude Martin (1735-1800) in 1795, though he died before its completion in 1802. This
example of European architecture later influenced the development of hybrid Indo-European architecture in Lucknow in the 19th century.
Initially designed as a country house, it is used as a school for boys. This is a view from the lake looking towards the building. The tall fluted
column standing in the lake in the foreground was a later addition, designed by J.P. Parker.
Asia, Pacific & Africa Collections
Begun by the East India Company in 1801, this fascinating survey of the landscape and
architectural heritage of South Asia spans the late-18th to mid-20th centuries.
In the “search box type in “Constantia” and try “Robert Smith” too.
http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/index.html
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