- Te Aho o Te Kura Pounamu

Transcription

te hitori o te toi
art history
ah3001
Fifteenth Century Italian Painting
ncea level 3
2013/1
art history
ncea level 3
Expected time to complete work
This work will take you about 10 hours to complete.
You will work towards the following standards:
Achievement Standard 91482 (Version 1) Art History 3.1
Demonstrate understanding of style in art works
Level 3, External
4 credits
Examine how meanings are communicated through art works
Level 3, External
4 credits
Examine the relationship(s) between art and context
Level 3, External
4 credits
In this booklet you will focus on these learning outcomes:
•• studying the background contexts to Italian Renaissance art
•• learning the language of art history
•• examining the paintings of major fifteenth century Italian artists.
You will continue to work towards these standards in all booklets.
Copyright © 2013 Board of Trustees of Te Aho o Te Kura Pounamu, Private Bag 39992, Wellington Mail Centre, Lower Hutt 5045,
New Zealand. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means without
the written permission of Te Aho o Te Kura Pounamu.
© te ah o o te k u ra p ou n am u
contents
1
Introduction: contexts
2
Naturalism and iconography
3
Fra Angelico and Uccello
4
Alberti – naturalism and istoria
5
Formal elements in art
6
Alberti – perspective
7
Appendix: Biblical and religious references
8
Appendix: Classical and mythological references
9
Answer guide
© te ah o o t e k ur a p o un a m u
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how to do the work
When you see:
1
Go to the list of websites for AH3000 in the online learning environment (OTLE) on the Te
Kura website and click on the link assigned to that number.
1A Complete the activity.
Check your answers.
Your teacher will assess this work.
You will need:
•• Internet access.
Resource overview
Many of the images for the course are accessed via the Internet. Some of these websites permit
you to download the images for your private use – so you should be able to build up your own
image collection of key works.
If you are reading the booklet online, you can click on the painting title to make a direct link to
the image.
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© te ah o o te k u ra p ou n a mu
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introduction: contexts
learning intention
In this lesson you will learn to:
•• place Italian art in its contexts.
why study art history?
There is more to art history than simply looking at paintings and deciding whether or not one
likes them.
An artist always has a purpose in creating an art work.
For the art historian, looking at art works is the beginning: from observation we move on to
discovering the artist’s purpose, his/her methods of achieving a desired result and at the effect
and significance of the final work.
The arts are learned by reason and method and they are mastered by practice.
Leon B Alberti, Della Pittura, 1435–36
Alberti’s words were written during the Renaissance period but they are equally true for artists
and art historians today.
a background to the italian renaissance
The period of art you will study is called the Renaissance. It started in Italy but extended across
Western Europe. The term refers to the revival, in the fourteenth to sixteenth centuries, of art and
literature influenced by the Classical art of earlier Greek and Roman civilisations.
It began in Italy because of:
•• the wealth and relative stability of fourteenth century Italy
•• the fact that Italy was geographically central in the Mediterranean and open to influence from
both the West and East
•• the desire to glorify the past – the Roman Empire of 1400 years earlier
•• the availability of Classical models – ruins and sculpture remaining from the Roman Empire
•• the rivalry between Italian rulers, which led to a competitive patronage system
•• the power and authority of the Catholic Church as a wealthy patron of the arts
•• the growth of a new type of patronage – wealthy merchants and bankers.
Patronage = the practice of commissioning art works from artists; the person/group paying
was a patron
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contexts
Art reflects the culture and values of the period in which the artist worked. To understand art we
need to know about its context.
Political
Commercial
Religious
Social
Philosophical
Context = the circumstances affecting the production of a work of art
political context
Italy was not a united country as it is today but rather a series of states, duchies, republics and
kingdoms. Just as the country was divided, so too was the way each area was ruled – differently
by kings and popes, powerful families and military leaders.
Since the decline of the Roman Empire (500 BCE), the inhabitants of Italy had to suffer many
foreigners, either as invading armies or as pilgrims, greedy for the treasures Italy possessed
which the northern countries did not.
Internally, the first half of the fifteenth century saw the gradual crystallisation of the five great
powers in Italy: Milan, Venice, Florence, Naples and the States of the Church, or Papal States. To
maintain power, the rulers of these areas hired highly trained mercenaries, such as Federigo da
Montefeltro, himself the duke of a small state, to maintain authority. The concentration of wealth
and the competing centres of political power also led to an exceptional number of different
artistic centres. Artists were commissioned to create works glorifying and commemorating the
powerful families and rulers of the day. In Florence, the Medici family dominated politics and the
patronage of the arts for many years.
commercial context
During both the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, Italy flourished in commerce and trade
against a chaotic political background. Art depended on the great wealth of Italian patrons and
the stimulation gained from fierce political, commercial and social rivalry. This was most evident
in the rivalries of the great families of Florence.
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Italian merchants were closely associated with the trade of luxury Eastern goods such as spices
and silks, which were eagerly sought after by the rest of Europe. Despite their hostility to foreign
domination, Italians were never able to unite in repelling the outsiders – internal political
divisions grew rapidly, fuelled by commercial rivalry. During the fifteenth century (1400s),
however, Italy had a reprieve from foreign invasion, since the French were occupied in constant
wars with the English and the German emperors were preoccupied with problems at home.
philosophical context: ‘man is the measure of all things’
A renewed interest and enthusiasm in the language, philosophy and literature of antiquity
began a largely academic movement in the fourteenth century. Scholars were devoted to the
recovery of Classical writings and the imitation of ancient Greek and Roman languages and style.
This paved the way for the revival of Classical art. Artists in Italy had the additional stimuli of
Classical monuments and buildings. Classical sources supported interest in the natural sciences,
mathematics, anatomy and astronomy.
It is significant that early fifteenth century artists such as Brunelleschi went to Rome to study and
view classical ruins. The influence taken from the tepidarium of the Baths of Caracalla built circa
215 BCE is quite evident in his design for the Church of Santo Spirito in Florence. You will study a
number of Renaissance buildings that took their inspiration from Classical sources.
1
Brunelleschi (architect), Santo Spirito, built 1444–1487, Florence
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santo_Spirito,_Florence
Fifteenth century = 1400s = Quattrocento – these terms are often used interchangeably
Fourteenth century = 1300s = Trecento
Santo = Saint; can be abbreviated as St or Sta – many churches were named after saints
religious context
For visual artists, the most fundamental influence was based on changes of religious attitude.
From 1100 on, the Church’s relationship with the people was revolutionised by the activities of
the preaching orders of friars who went out into the world to teach Christianity by example. The
Franciscans, followers of St Francis of Assisi, aided the sick and the poor and also emphasised
the human and emotional aspects of Christian narrative.
At different times, the Church has chosen to emphasise different aspects of the Christian
message. In the early days of Christianity the emphasis was on the miracles, but in the
Renaissance this changed. Renewed interest in the Classical past and the birth of Humanism,
the secular philosophy of the Renaissance, led to greater interest in the human aspect of Christ
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as this made his suffering and resurrection more meaningful. Hence the interest of artists in
naturalism.
To express human suffering, anger, fear, joy and other emotions experienced by the participants
in the Gospel stories, artists were moved to explore more naturalistic methods of picture making.
This process was part of an overall demand by Christian worshippers for devotional images that
concentrated on specific details and meanings of Christian stories.
Secular = non-religious
the artistic background
Your study of art in this course covers the late Renaissance to Mannerism, a period ranging from
the late fifteenth century to the mid-sixteenth century. The artists we study include Botticelli,
Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo, Mantegna, Bellini, Pontormo, Bronzino and Titian.
Some of these artists worked mostly in Florence and Rome; others in Northern Italy and Venice.
They were amongst the most significant of hundreds of Italian artists at the time – this was,
artistically, a very productive period in art history. The artificial separation between art and the
masses that exists today was unknown in the Renaissance. Art was part of everyday life – painting
pictures was only part of an artist’s livelihood – he designed costumes, decorations, banners and
sets for plays.
A number of significant earlier artists influenced the styles of the artists we study, so much of this
booklet examines the background to the Late Renaissance period.
2
Look at the excellent timeline and overview of the period on the New York Metropolitan Museum
of Art website: www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/?period=08&region=eustc#/Key-Events
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duccio and giotto
NGA
The most famous artists of the 1300s in Italy were Duccio and Giotto. Like other artists, Duccio in
Siena and Giotto in Florence occupied the social status of craftsmen who were dependent on
commissions, usually from the Church. Their innovations in style had to take place within the
limits of established pictorial conventions – this in itself made their progress towards individual
style and expression even more remarkable.
Duccio, The Calling of the Apostles Peter and Andrew, 1308/1311,
tempera on panel.
Although little is known about Duccio’s life or character, he certainly seems to have loved line
– using the finely drawn strokes of the tempera brush both to describe form and to decorate
it. Line as a compositional technique was central to the Byzantine and International Gothic
styles, but Duccio’s use of it became the signature of his individual mastery. He went beyond
his Byzantine influences in bringing naturalistic elements to his paintings, showing through
expression and gesture human responses within religious scenes. In The Calling of the Apostles
there is a sense of human communication between the figures, even though the flat gold
background typical of panel paintings limits the naturalism of the scene. Duccio influenced many
later artists, amongst them Uccello and Botticelli.
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Giotto, Entry to Jerusalem, c. 1308, fresco, Arena Chapel, Padua
www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/html/g/giotto/padova/3christ/scenes_2/chris10.html
Giotto, who was often referred to as the ‘father’ of the Renaissance, developed a naturalistic
style. His experience with fresco painting gave him a preference for simple, bulky shapes
described in plain colours and tonal variations instead of line. He went further than Duccio in
suggesting the humanity of figures in his works and his work is seen as reflecting the Franciscan
concern for humanity. He had a major influence on Masaccio and later, Leonardo da Vinci and
Michelangelo.
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Tempera = a paint medium in which the pigment is bound with egg yolk – applied with tiny
brushes to a prepared wooden panel; dries quickly and results in fine, detailed work with
brilliant colour
Fresco = wall painting into fresh plaster; used large brushes; often large-sized works with
immediate impact; soft, pastel-like colours
Pictorial conventions = established methods and subjects used in art
1A
Sketch or download a map of Italy. Mark in the following places:
Florence,
Rome,
Siena,
Milan,
Venice,
Padua,
Mantua.
Your teacher will be interested in reading your answer.
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naturalism and iconography
2
learning intentions
•• identify naturalistic features in paintings
•• decipher meanings in paintings.
masaccio
Masaccio (1401–1428) was the most significant artist of the early fifteenth century in Florence
despite his career spanning only a few years in the 1420s.
Masaccio inherited from Giotto, his Trecento Florentine predecessor, an ability to effectively
communicate a narrative through artistic means.
naturalism
Religious images in the Middle Ages, and the Renaissance, served three purposes:
1. To instruct illiterate viewers who could not read the Christian story in the Gospels.
2. Paintings and sculptures were a daily reminder of the relevance of the Gospel narratives.
3. Devotional images focused the mind on prayer and religious meditation.
The aim of painters in the fifteenth century was naturalism, or truthfulness to nature.
The greater naturalism that developed in Quattrocento painting supported all three purposes,
using gestures, facial expressions, settings and groupings of figures to give conviction to their
messages.
Masaccio developed a language of bold, simple human gestures.
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Masaccio, The Expulsion from the Garden of Eden, c. 1425, Brancacci Chapel, Sta Maria del
Carmine, Florence
www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/html/m/masaccio/brancacc/expulsio/expuls.html
The Expulsion from the Garden of Eden, depicting Adam and Eve, is one of the earliest episodes
in the Bible. They were expelled for eating the forbidden fruit. In Christian belief, this sin and
expulsion caused all human suffering and it was thus necessary for a Saviour to come and redeem
humankind. The Saviour who came to earth was Jesus Christ, the Son of God.
The gesture of the angel, directing Adam and Eve away from the gates of Paradise, communicates
the story clearly. The effects on the first man and woman are powerfully shown in very human
terms. The figures of Adam and Eve each express a specific emotional reaction in The Expulsion.
Adam, who hides his face (and facial expression) with his hands and slumps his shoulders,
expresses shame.
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gesture and
direction of
dismissal
grief
shame
grief
shame
movement
Eve’s hand clasped on her chest and her agonised face bared to the sky are signs of her grief. The
way in which these emotions break through the restrained dignity of the Classical models, which
the nude figure poses were based on, is part of the force with which Masaccio tells his story. The
narrative is made convincing because the bodies are modelled in light and shade so that they
seem solid, and cast shadows on the ground behind them.
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iconography – meaning in art works
In The Expulsion, many features contribute towards the overall meaning. These range from
the choice of subject matter (the patron’s decision, for which he had his own motives) to the
significance of the golden rays of light that emanate from the gates (of Heaven) behind the angel.
These represent the voice of God instructing the angel. This use of symbolism is part of the
iconography of the picture.
Iconography = the use of images, symbols, signs, icons, motifs and emblems to convey
meaning in art
Based partly on folklore, the range of signs for episodes of the Gospels and holy figures had
grown into a vast pictorial dictionary during the Middle Ages. Look at an early Masaccio which
uses a range of conventional symbols in its Madonna and Child presentation.
Iconography
The dove symbolises the Holy Spirit
(part of the Trinity of God). Its
presence indicates that the figures
below are blessed by God.
Angels are heavenly creatures often
seen as attendants on holy figures.
Haloes encircle the heads of the
Madonna and her son, Jesus Christ,
symbolising their holiness.
NGA
Precious materials: The pure gold
leaf used for haloes and background
is also symbolic of the importance of
these characters while Mary’s blue
gown (using a pigment made from
lapis lazuli, a semi-precious stone)
represents her heavenly status.
Masaccio, The Madonna of Humility,
c. 1423/1424, tempera on panel, NGA,
Washington DC
The Madonna sits on the ground to
suggest her humility (she is more
often seen on a throne to show her
role as Queen of Heaven).
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At its simplest level in painting, a symbol might be the halo that indicates a holy character.
This becomes more complex when the halo of the Christ child is imprinted with a cross,
foreshadowing the Crucifixion and the full purpose of his mission among human beings. Another
indication of this future might be the figure of the Christ child sleeping in his mother’s lap –
suggesting the figure group of a Lamentation.
Lamentation = scene when Christ is taken down from the Cross, dead, and held by his
mother; also referred to as the Pietà (meaning pity)
Obvious to contemporaries of the time, though they might puzzle us now, were a whole range of
symbols related to the natural world. Plants, animals and parts of the human body were all part
of a complex working out of God’s design for the world. The idea that God was in everything led
to all aspects of life being seen as parts of the Christian narrative or message.
The concept of outward sign and inward meaning was also central to religious discussion and
theological debate.
who were jesus and mary?
Over the course of your study this year you will encounter a range of art works with religious
themes. Some of these are explained briefly later in this booklet (Lesson 7) but it is worthwhile
to focus on the ‘main story’ of the New Testament of the bible. This is the account of the birth,
life, death and resurrection of Christ. In Christian belief, Christ (also known as Jesus, or by
both names used together) was part of the Trinity – the three manifestations of God. The other
manifestations of the Trinity were God the Father and the Holy Spirit.
Mary was a young girl who was informed by an angel (Gabriel) that she would give birth to the
son of God. She was a virgin, so is often called the Virgin Mary. The scene in which Mary is told of
her future is The Annunciation.
The names given to Mary accumulate: in scenes which depict the mother and child she is usually
called the Madonna – an Italian term for ‘my lady’. Over the Renaissance period Mary became a
very popular religious figure – a cult known as Marianism – many prayed to her as a conduit to
God. She was regarded as the epitome of all the virtues of womankind – and thus gathered many
titles – so you’ve seen above Mary as Madonna of Humility but she also had titles as varied as
Mary, Port of Salvation to Queen of Heaven. Catholics believe that after her death her body was
raised to heaven (not just her soul, which is the case for other humans).
The life of Jesus Christ was a quiet one until an intense three years of his mission, in which he
travelled, preached, gained followers, worked miracles and eventually earned the fear and hatred
of the Romans who ruled the Holy Land (present day Israel). His mission was to save people’s
souls by giving them beliefs to live by. Christ’s closest followers were the 12 disciples (or apostles)
led by Peter who became the first Pope of the Catholic Church after Christ had been crucified.
After Christ’s death on the cross he was buried, but rose from the dead (The Resurrection) after
three days and after 40 days was taken up into Heaven (The Ascension).
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naturalism in landscape: masaccio
As part of the Quattrocento move towards naturalism, the settings of paintings became an
integral part of the narratives and meanings.
Early in the Quattrocento, as in the Trecento, landscape mainly consisted of a backdrop to the
main action and intention of a work. Over the century it was increasingly incorporated into
paintings as part of a whole. Observation of nature became the norm for artists and this is
reflected in the use of identifiable locations, accurate botanical detail and scientifically derived
atmospheric effects.
Masaccio was innovative in his use of landscape. His frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel (one of
which is The Expulsion) incorporate landscape typical of the area around Florence and natural
features such as clouds and hills which get lighter in colour in the distance.
naturalism in landscape: piero della francesca
Other mid-century Italian artists further developed landscape painting. Look at:
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Piero della Francesca, The Baptism, c. 1450, panel, National Gallery, London
www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/piero-della-francesca-the-baptism-of-christ
Piero della Francesca, in this early work, records a local landscape, as did Masaccio. Here it is
the countryside around his hometown, Borgo San Sepolcro.
•• Observation of nature is apparent in the depiction of different tree species, the flow of water
and reflections in it, and in the accurate recording of medicinal weeds on the banks of the
river. These are somewhat awkwardly positioned but serve an iconographical link to the
divine healing of baptism.
•• Piero incorporates naturally the dove above Christ’s head, a symbol of the Holy Spirit.
•• There is an attempt to link foreground and background through the winding of the river and
the decreasing scale of the figures placed along it.
•• The background hills are distinct and detailed – not subject to aerial perspective – although
the lightening of the sky towards the horizon indicates that Piero had some understanding of
the principle.
•• The cloud formations are typical of those that build up above the mountains of central Italy.
•• Natural colours.
•• Cool, morning light.
By the end of the century, Leonardo had moved away from a local view of landscape to a
generalised ideal vista.
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2A
The first step to analysing an art work is to describe it, without considering what it is about. A
useful introduction can be seen in:
www.smarthistory.khanacademy.org/skill-of-describing.html
Look at the Fra Angelico painting The Entombment of Christ in the next lesson. Imagine that you
have just stepped through an imaginary glass window and into the ‘world’ of the painting.
Head your answer with the name, artist and date of the art work.
Describe what you see as you ‘walk’ from foreground to background in this ‘world’ – the pictorial
space. You are not looking for meaning here.
Your teacher will be interested in reading your answer.
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fra angelico and uccello
learning intention
•• recognise features of International Gothic style.
introduction
The naturalistic style of painting developed by Masaccio from the influence of Giotto was one
major trend in fifteenth century Italian painting. Another trend was a style derived from French
painting, that of International Gothic. Both styles co-existed in Florence and could even be the
focus of competition between leading families who had family chapels decorated using artists
with differing approaches.
International Gothic = style derived from fourteenth century French painting – emphasis on
lines, elegant swaying figures, elaborate decorative effects
fra angelico
One of Italy’s best loved artists of the fifteenth
century was Fra Angelico, (c. 1395–1455), a
monk whose works adorned many walls and
altars in his Florentine monastery, as well as
commissions completed elsewhere.
The Entombment of Christ incorporates some
of the naturalism of Masaccio, but also the
decorativeness of the International Gothic
style. The subject matter involves the taking
of Christ’s body to his tomb after he died.
The figures are modelled in light and shade
but they do not cast shadows and clothes
tend to hang in elegant folds rather than
conform to the body shapes beneath. The
figures appear to be stacked up in the picture
space rather than placed naturally. Christ’s
body is elongated, with very little modelling.
Compare this to Masaccio’s depiction of
Adam. Haloes are placed as solid discs
behind each head, without regard for the
actual angle of the head. The bed of flowers is
decoratively more than naturally presented,
although a natural sense of distance is
conveyed by the lighter hills and water in the
background.
NGA
3
(attributed to) Fra Angelico, The Entombment of Christ, c. 1450,
tempera on panel, NGA
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Fra Angelico’s graceful style was inherited by his pupil Fra Filippo Lippi, whose son Fra Filippino
Lippi worked with Botticelli. You will study the works of Botticelli in some depth.
uccello
Paolo Uccello (1397–1475), trained as a goldsmith and mosaicist as well as in painting. This
background suggests an ability to use fine detail. It was the mid-1430s before he became
established in Florence, mainly as a painter.
Uccello’s major interest in painting was in perspective, which you will study in greater detail
later. His style of painting, popular in Florence in the 1400s, follows a different stylistic track to
Masaccio. He was not as interested in the move towards naturalism pursued by the other artists
as he was fascinated by perspective. His paintings with their stylised elements and complex
compositions are inherited from the International Gothic tradition.
Look at one of his versions of the traditional tale of St George and the Dragon. He kills the dragon
and saves the maiden.
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Uccello, St George and the Dragon, c. 1470, National Gallery, London
www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/paolo-uccello-saint-george-and-the-dragon
style
Figures are sinuous and graceful rather than naturalistic. The maiden’s neck is elongated. Line
is emphasised through hard-edged contours, for example of the horse, and close attention is
devoted to minute detail – of the twisting dragon’s tail, plants and the horse’s trappings. The rock
forms of the cave are stylised rather than naturalistic.
meaning
Uccello is still using typical narrative devices, however. The killing gesture with the spear is most
apparent and the iconography would be clear to contemporary viewers: the dragon represents
evil and paganism and its death at the hands of a Christian saint would represent the conversion
of a pagan country to Christianity. The white horse represents the purity of St George.
composition
The painting is arranged with a balance between horse and rider on the right and dragon and
maiden on the left. The main diagonal of the spear focuses attention on the killing, a line
reinforced by the lines of the dragon’s wings and the swirling clouds behind St George. Uccello
has angled the patches of plants on the ground inwards to suggest the lines of linear perspective,
leading to a vanishing point in the middle distance.
The International Gothic features you have examined in these paintings demonstrate an emphasis
on line, elegance and decorativeness that you will see later in the works of Botticelli. This
International Gothic background forms part of Botticelli’s artistic context.
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3A
7
Look at:
Fra Angelico, The Annunciation, 1420s, tempera on panel, Prado, Madrid
www.smarthistory.khanacademy.org/fra-angelico-annunciation
Watch the short vidlet (4 minutes).
1. What happens in The Annunciation?
2. The event shown on the left background is the expulsion of Adam and Eve from paradise. How
is it connected to the main scene?
3. Name at least three features which suggest International Gothic influence.
Check your answers.
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4
alberti – naturalism and istoria
learning intention
•• assess the impact of the theory of istoria on painting.
introduction
Leon Battista Alberti was an architect and writer who formulated ideas and theories on what
makes a successful painting into a treatise published in 1435 – On Painting (Della Pittura).
istoria
I define beauty to be a harmony of all the parts ... fitted together with such
proportion and connection, that nothing could be added, diminished, or altered,
but for the worse.
Leon Battista Alberti
The depiction of figure groups was one of the communicative devices in painting. The gestures
(expressive movements), positions and facial expressions of individual characters were supposed
to relate to each other and the whole pictorial design, and to the viewer of the painting. Leon
Battista Alberti described this relationship in his treatise on painting. In an important central
passage of his treatise On Painting, Leon Battista Alberti introduced the term istoria. Modern
expressions like ‘history’, ‘story’ or ‘narrative’ do not fully translate what Alberti meant by the
istoria. He believed that it was the highest achievement of painting – the combination of all
the skills of the painter in a work of dignity that gave intellectual satisfaction as well as visual
stimulation:
An istoria you can justifiably praise and admire will be one that reveals itself to
be so charming and attractive as to hold the eye of the learned and unlearned
spectator for a long while with a certain sense of pleasure and emotion.
The first thing that gives pleasure in istoria is a plentiful variety. Just as with
food and music novel and extraordinary things delight us for various reasons but
especially because they are different from the old ones we are used to, so with
everything the mind takes great pleasure in variety and abundance. So in painting
variety of bodies and colours is pleasing.
I would say a picture was richly varied if it contained a properly arranged mixture
of old men, youths, boys, matrons, maidens, children, domestic animals,
dogs, birds, horses, sheep, buildings and provinces; and I would praise any
great variety, provided it is appropriate to what is going on in the picture. When the
spectators dwell on observing all the details, then the painter’s richness will acquire
favour. But I would have this abundance not only furnished with variety, but
restrained and full of dignity and modesty.
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I disapprove of those painters who, in their desire to appear rich or to leave no
space empty, follow no system of composition, but scatter everything about in
random confusion with the result that their istoria does not appear to be doing
anything but merely to be in a turmoil. Perhaps the artist who seeks dignity above
all in his istoria, ought to represent very few figures ... the presence of only
the strictly necessary numbers of bodies confers dignity on a picture. I do not
like a picture to be virtually empty, but I do not approve of an abundance that lacks
dignity.
In an istoria I strongly approve of the practice I see observed by the tragic and
comic poets, of telling their story with as few characters as possible.
Alberti, Book 2
Thus, Alberti intended the istoria to combine the skills of perspective construction, tonal
modelling, and colour with variety in the use of poses, gestures and expressions. But not too
much variety! Alberti was also always concerned with order and restraint. When he goes on to
list poses and expressions of feeling, the abundance of his suggestions probably reflects a desire
to break away from the restrictions of Medieval painting. The new style was to be relatively
animated, but not with ‘an abundance that lacks dignity’.
Though variety is pleasing in any istoria, a picture in which the attitudes and
movements of the bodies differ very much among themselves, is most pleasing
of all. So let there be some visible full-face, with their hands turned upwards
and fingers raised, and resting on one foot; others should have their faces
turned away, their arms by their sides, and feet together, and each one of
them should have his own particular flexions and movements. Others should be
seated, or resting on bended knee, or almost lying down.
An istoria will move spectators when the men painted in the picture outwardly
demonstrate their own feelings as clearly as possible. Nature provides that we
mourn with the mourners, laugh with those who laugh, and grieve with the griefstricken. Yet these feelings are known from movements of the body.
In discussing the istoria further, Alberti clarifies his meaning to cover the whole appearance and
communication of the painting. He also advocates a unity of all aspects.
First, I believe that all the bodies should move in relation to one another with
a certain harmony in accordance with the action. Then, I like there to be
someone in the istoria who tells the spectators what is going on, and either
beckons them with his hand to look, or with ferocious expression and forbidding
glance challenges them not to come near, as if he wished their business to be
secret, or points to some danger or remarkable thing in the picture, or by
his gestures invites you to laugh or weep with them. Everything the people in the
painting do among themselves, or perform in relation to the spectators, must fit
together to represent and explain the istoria.
Alberti, Book 2
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Alberti was also concerned with the technical aspects of painting. He describes ‘three rudiments’
of the art:
1. circumscription
... which draws the border all around in a painting. One must take great care that
it be done in very thin lines, that almost escape being seen. If it is made with a too
visible line, it will seem not a margin but a cleft.
Alberti is closer here to the subtle contours of Piero della Francesca than to either Uccello’s firm
borders or Masaccio’s tonally modelled edges.
2. composition
The system in painting that puts the parts together in a painted work.
3. reception of lights
This category leads Alberti into the discussion of colour and tone:
There is surely no doubt that abundance and variety of colours are a great help to
the grace and praise of painting. But I would like the instructed to believe that the
entire highest work and art consists in knowing how to use black and white, and it
is wise to give all one’s study and diligence to knowing well how to use the two of
them, because light and shade make things seem to be three-dimensional ... study
about lights and shadows, and notice that the brightest part is the one that the
rays of light hit, and how that same colour becomes dark where the power of light
is absent ... notice that always opposite the light there is corresponding shadow
on the other side, so that there is never in any body a lightened part without there
being another darkened part.
Here are some things we have learned from nature: take care that colour is uniform
over a plane surface as a whole; in concave and convex surfaces the colour will
vary, here bright, there dark, elsewhere a middle tone.
Some of the ideas Alberti wrote down came from established practices in Florentine painting
before and during his time. Others were to be fulfilled by later artists. On Painting, published
in 1435, probably seemed revolutionary in its time because the Gothic-influenced style of the
Trecento was still strong in Florence, running parallel to the exceptional influence of Masaccio
(whose work pre-dated Alberti’s treatise).
As a thinker and an architect who was influenced by the Florentine architect Brunelleschi as well
as remains of classical buildings, Alberti was receptive to the Humanist ideas that circulated
in educated circles in the Italian cities. Alberti’s ideas on istoria influenced most of the major
painters of the Quattrocento, particularly Piero della Francesca and Leonardo da Vinci.
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piero della francesca
Piero della Francesca (c. 1415–1492) was the first major painter outside Florence to reflect and
develop the concerns of the Renaissance. He was an active painter from 1439 to 1478 and died
in 1492 after devoting his later years to the study of mathematics. A pupil of the Florence-based
Venetian painter Domenico Veneziano, Piero was in close contact with Alberti during the late
1440s when the two artists worked together on the restoration of the church of San Francesco
in Rimini. His paintings often reflect Alberti’s theories on istoria and on perspective, which you
study later.
Piero’s mature style, with its clarity of atmosphere, refined simplification of the human form and
ordered use of proportion and perspective, formed the basis of the Umbrian school of painting.
His pupils included Perugino who was the master of Raphael. Raphael is one of the principal
artists you study this year.
the resurrection
8
Piero della Francesca, The Resurrection, 1463, fresco, Museo Civico, Sansepolcro
www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/piero/resurrection.jpg
This fresco of The Resurrection depicts the rising of Christ from his tomb three days after his
crucifixion and burial. In many respects it follows the naturalism of Masaccio as well as many of
Alberti’s instructions from Della Pittura. Overall it conveys a great sense of dignity; contains only
the figures necessary to convey the story; the figures’ poses relate to each other; and one figure,
Christ himself, engages directly with the viewer. Technically, Piero demonstrates superb control
of light and shade in the subtle tonal modelling of Christ’s torso.
4A
9
Look at Piero’s painting of The Baptism of Christ.
Piero della Francesca, The Baptism of Christ, c. 1450, panel, National Gallery, London
www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/piero-della-francesca-the-baptism-of-christ
Identify five features in The Baptism of Christ that reflect Alberti’s ideas on istoria.
Check your answers.
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5
formal elements in art
learning intention
•• use the language of painting analysis.
introduction
In this lesson you will begin to look at the ‘art’ side of Art History. This lesson contains stylistic
and technical information which you will need to refer back to throughout this course. Keep it
handy.
analysing art works
One of the major functions of art history is to study works of art to discover what the work of art
is about, and how it came about.
Subject matter
Why the artist
created the work
How the artist
created the work
Meaning
The circumstances
(context) which led
to it being created
This close study of art means a viewer can go beyond just reacting to or making a personal
response to an artwork. A personal response is important but a deeper appreciation can be
gained with a reasoned approach.
The first external Achievement Standard you will do this year covers this close study of art works.
•• Achievement Standard 94182 v1 3.1: Demonstrate understanding of style in art works
(External)
So how do you analyse an art work?
The first step is to observe the work – looking simply at its subject and what you see. You’ve
already had a go at doing this (lesson 2).
Then you examine the work according to the methods the artist has used in creating it. These
methods (or devices) make up an artist’s particular style.
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devices for achieving depth and naturalism
in painting
composition
The arrangement of the elements of an art work. Composition refers to the way an artist
organises the parts of a painting. This includes the arrangement of shapes and lines leading the
eye to the artist’s intended focus. A composition may be balanced, with the main focus placed in
the centre and other objects or figures symmetrically positioned around it. A composition may
be unbalanced or asymmetrical, with a focus of attention to one side, or have a strong diagonal
movement. An artist will organise the composition of a painting to place the focus on something
important and/or to create a particular mood.
setting
The background to the main action of a two-dimensional work of art. It could be an interior
scene, a landscape, a cityscape.
use of light and tone
Tonal modelling is the variation of light and dark across an object to give it shape. The human eye
perceives the three-dimensional form of objects partly by the variations of light and dark over
their surfaces. The painter convinces the eye of the viewer that what it sees is three-dimensional
by modelling the forms or objects with careful gradations of tone – usually light in the centre and
darker towards the edges (or contours) of an apparently rounded form.
How do you recognise whether an artist’s style is linear or tonal?
Tonal (using tone): awareness of interior forms. Weightier bodies. Typical of Masaccio.
Linear (line): awareness of silhouette, exterior shape of bodies. Often elegant. Although tone is
present, bodies appear weightless. Typical of Fra Angelico and Uccello.
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overlapping
On a flat plane, the painter makes use of the simple idea that an object partially obscuring
another must be in front of it in space.
Shape is flat and two-dimensional – for example, the triangle is two-dimensional.
Overlapping shapes
Form has volume and is three-dimensional – for example, the pyramid is three-dimensional.
Overlapping forms
picture plane
This is an essential concept in
painting. The term refers to that
level of the scene that is closest to
you, the viewer. Remember being
asked to ‘step through’ into the
world of the painting? Imagine a
transparent glass window through
which objects and figures can be
seen in depth or pictorial space. This
imaginary ‘window’ is the picture
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plane – it separates the world of the viewer from the world of the painting. Objects in a painting
may therefore be close to, or distant from the picture plane depending on whether they are in the
foreground or background.
perspective
linear perspective
Linear perspective is a mathematical system
for creating the illusion of depth on a flat
surface. It makes a two-dimensional surface
appear three-dimensional. It is most often
used where lines of architecture structure
the space of a painting, angling inwards and
meeting at a vanishing point. You will look
further at linear perspective.
changes in scale
•• Refers to the relative sizes of figures and
objects within the pictorial depth.
•• An object close to the picture plane will
appear larger.
•• Objects reduce in size according to their
distance from the picture plane.
•• This apparent reduction in size is due to
the visual effects of perspective.
10
The Artsconnected website has a brief video
on overlapping and scale (relative size):
www.artsconnected.org/toolkit/watch_space_overlap.cfm
foreshortening
•• An object that has length appears
shortened when it is turned towards the
viewer.
•• A circle on the floor, for example,
becomes an oval.
•• In figures, this is seen in noses, chins,
shoulders, arms and feet when they
project toward the viewer.
•• This is also an effect of perspective.
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Look at this copy of a famous fifteenth century painting.
You see the body from end-on so all parts of the body appear foreshortened. This is a result
of your viewpoint. Viewpoint refers to the angle from which a viewer ‘sees’ the subject in the
painting. The viewer may feel they’re looking from above, or from below or straight at the
subject.
You can also see from this sketch how outline has been used to define the body form, and how
the main lines of the bed lead the eye to a vanishing point above Christ’s head.
aerial perspective
As a result of the Earth’s atmosphere, distant objects appear to be less detailed and lighter in
tone. Distant hills, for example, are a cool blue.
Look at how linear perspective and aerial perspective are demonstrated on the artsconnected
website:
11
www.artsconnected.org/toolkit/watch_space_perspective.cfm
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colour
Colour is produced when light strikes an object and is reflected back to the eyes. It is essential to
painting. An artist can use colour in many ways, perhaps to form visual links within a painting, to
make a viewer focus on something in particular or even to structure a painting. Colour can have
symbolic importance e.g. white representing innocence or red suggesting passion or drama.
In Renaissance paintings, blues were expensive pigments and represented the holiness of figures
such as Mary and Jesus.
media and processes
You also need to consider the medium (media is the plural) or materials with which an artist
creates an art work. The artists you study in this course used tempera, fresco or oils. One of the
aspects that often distinguish one artist’s style from another is how they applied their paint, used
texture and finished their works. Different ways of applying paint can produce quite different
effects.
So you will also study the media and processes an artist uses, that is, how the art work is
physically made. The choice of medium can create particular effects desired by an artist.
5A
Look at Leonardo da Vinci’s Annunciation.
12
Leonardo da Vinci, Annunciation, c. 1472, oil and tempera on wood, Uffizi, Florence
www.googleartproject.com/collection/uffizi-gallery/artwork/annunciation-leonardo-davinci/324474
Describe, referring to visual details:
1. the composition
2. the setting
3. two features that help to create a sense of space in the painting
4. use of aerial perspective
5. use of colour
How do the features you have described help to ‘tell’ the story of the Annunciation?
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6
alberti: perspective
learning intention
•• examine technical aspects of linear perspective.
introduction
Alberti’s treatises on painting included a focus on linear perspective as well as istoria. In spite
of Donatello’s and Masaccio’s earlier successful uses of Brunelleschi’s perspective system for
picture-making, his theories were not written down and published until 1435. Alberti’s treatise
On Painting gave intellectual respectability to painting by grounding it in the rational laws of
mathematical perspective.
albertian perspective
Alberti (1404–72), a Florentine architect of the second Renaissance generation, had studied
Brunelleschi’s method and the architectural traditions of ancient Rome. His book on painting was
both a technical manual and a discussion of current developments in Florentine art. Apart from
recording Brunelleschi’s rediscovery of perspective, Alberti clarified the process in written and
diagrammatic form.
E
N
C
extrinsic rays ‘measuring’ the dimensions of an object
intrinsic rays bounce back information to the eye
centre ray confirms vision and distance
Before investigating Alberti’s contribution to perspective theory, it is a good idea to have an idea
of the Renaissance understanding of the function of human vision. Alberti shared with the Middle
Ages and Brunelleschi the belief that the eye emitted and received rays of sight, which were
reflected by the viewed object. In a manner similar to modern instrumental methods of seeing
like radar or sonar, extrinsic rays were thought to come from the eye and bounce back from the
object as intrinsic rays bearing information. The grouping of these rays around a central axis
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was referred to as the visual pyramid. As explained in Book I of On Painting, Alberti’s method of
organising imaginary objects in imaginary space was sympathetic to his notion of how eyesight
worked.
alberti’s method of perspective construction
1. The artist was to establish the height of the figure in the foreground of the field of vision. The
field of vision is what you can see from a given standpoint. The horizon line was taken from
the height of the man. The base or ground line of the field was then divided into segments
corresponding to one third of the man’s height = one braccio (or cubit).
The artist then had to set the vanishing point at the height the person was above the ground
line and connect it with the diagonal lines to the divisions on the base line – these lines are
called orthogonals.
orthogonals = lines perpendicular (or at right angles) to the picture plane, which converge
towards the central vanishing point on the horizon line, and appear as diagonal lines
2. With the horizon line established and the
orthogonals plotted, the horizontal or
transversal lines are drawn in at scaled
distances. They appear to get closer
together the further they are from the
viewer. This provided a foreshortened
chequer-board floor.
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Transversals = lines parallel with the picture plane remain horizontal but appear closer
together at a measured rate as they recede into the distance
3. Any object could now be drawn according to its appropriate scale in the depth of the
painting.
The braccia were not units of measurement, but divisions of space one-third the height of the
human figure, which would in turn relate to the height of the artist’s panel.
In The Birth and Rebirth of Pictorial Space, John White comments on Alberti’s method as follows:
The new role of the spectator in relation to the picture, which played such an
important part in the discussion of Brunelleschi’s two panels, is underlined
throughout Alberti’s treatise, and reflects the growing humanism of the period. This
humanist approach is carried into the pictorial world itself when Alberti points out
that all the appearances of things are purely relative, and that it is the human figure
which alone provides the measure of whatever else the artist cares to represent.
Diagrams of Alberti’s method show that the human figure – as so often in Renaissance art theory
– formed the basis of the measurements. This scale remained accurate whatever the size of the
intended painting.
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In establishing a fixed system of measurements for the composition of mathematically exact
imaginary pictorial space, Alberti carried on the disadvantage of such a system in that it required
a single, fixed viewing-point to be seen correctly. One result of this restriction was that the major
artists of the period and later almost always deliberately modified Alberti’s system to suit their
own compositional purposes.
Chequer-board inlaid floors and coffered ceilings became popular in paintings of the
Quattrocento as a means of measuring and displaying interior perspective technique. However,
artists raised and lowered viewing-points depending on the settings of their works.
6A
Download or copy a small image of Piero della Francesca’s painting, Madonna, Child and Saints.
(Black and white is fine for any images used for teacher-marked work).
13
Piero della Francesca, Madonna, Child and Saints, c. 1474, tempera on panel, Brera, Milan
www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/piero/montefeltro.jpg
Draw onto the image labels that show orthogonals, the horizon line, the vanishing point,
transversals and braccia.
What does the artist achieve by using Albertian perspective in this painting?
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7
appendix: biblical and religious
references
learning intention
From this appendix you will:
•• develop an understanding of Biblical events and references.
introduction
The Catholic religion played a fundamental role in society during the Renaissance period. The
year’s cycle was based on events connected with religion; birth, marriage and death were all
noted within church ceremonies. There was little diversity of belief, especially in Italy, before
the sixteenth century when Christian reformers in Northern Europe began the protests that led
to the Reformation, and thus the emergence of other Christian sects. Foreigners of other faiths,
for example, Islam, were regarded with suspicion and often hatred. Jews were often resented as
‘Christ killers’, referring to the crucifixion of Christ in the land of the Jews.
Therefore the citizens of Italian states had a very full understanding of the stories of the Bible
(communicated to them via the pulpit as well as through such means as ‘miracle plays’) and
would have recognised these stories when depicted in art works. It is more difficult for a modern
viewer to pick up the narratives and the symbols and meanings of Renaissance art works, but it is
a fascinating study.
If you are new to understanding the beliefs and stories of Christianity it is strongly recommended
that you read a book of the New Testament (Matthew, Mark, Luke or John) in order to get a sense
of the narrative of Christ’s life.
index of biblical terms, events, people
Adoration of the Magi: is the worshipping of the baby Jesus by the three kings or magi.
Agony in the Garden: after the Last Supper and before his arrest, Christ went to the Mount of
Olives to pray – a struggle between the human side of his nature, which did not want to suffer,
and the spiritual side, which knew that the suffering and death to come were his reason for being
on earth.
Annunciation: is the announcement by the angel Gabriel that Mary was to have a son called
Jesus.
Assumption of the Virgin: the Virgin’s body was taken up into heaven three days after her death.
Baptism of Christ: this was when Christ was initiated into the Christian Church. He was baptised
(immersed) in the river Jordan by John the Baptist.
Cardinal Virtues: Prudence, Justice, Fortitude and Temperance – these virtues were formulated
by the classical philosopher Plato and later adopted by the Catholic Church.
Coronation of the Virgin: crowned by Jesus as the Queen of Heaven after her body has been
taken up to heaven.
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appendix: biblical and religious references
Creation of Adam (Genesis 1:24–31): God created Adam and Eve together with the plants and
animals. He is often shown breathing life into Adam’s nostrils or reaching out to transmit life by
his touch.
Crucifixion: the death of Christ on the cross.
David: was a shepherd boy who became king of Israel. Direct ancestor of Christ.
Death of Ananias: the Apostles convinced people to sell their properties and distribute their
wealth. Ananias kept back half of his wealth. After being told off severely by Peter, Ananias
dropped dead.
Deluge (flood) (Genesis 7, 8): there were 40 days and nights of rain until even the mountains
were covered. Noah was instructed by God to construct an ark and take aboard a pair of every
living thing. The rest of the world was to die in punishment for what God saw as the wickedness
of humankind.
Entombment (Matthew 27:57–61): According to Matthew, Joseph of Arimathea took Christ’s
body, wrapped it in a clean linen cloth and laid him in his own unused tomb.
Expulsion from Paradise: God created Adam and Eve together with the plants and animals
on the sixth day. Because Eve tempted Adam into eating the apple (forbidden fruit) she was
condemned to painful childbearing and to be ruled over by Adam. They were then expelled from
the Garden of Eden.
Flagellation of Christ: Christ’s scourging (flogging and beating), ordered by Pontius Pilate, the
governor of Judaea, before his crucifixion.
Goldfinch: in Classical times this bird signified the soul of man that flew away when he died. The
red spot on its plumage is said to come from when it drew a thorn from Christ’s head on the way
to Calvary and was splashed with his blood.
John the Baptist: a preacher who is regarded as a forerunner of Christ. He recognised Christ as
the Messiah promised in the Old Testament and baptised him in the River Jordan. St John the
Baptist was a patron saint of the city of Florence.
Joseph: husband of Mary and thus acted as father to Jesus during his childhood.
Lamentation: the scene immediately following the descent from the cross, in which the body
of Christ, stretched out on the ground or on an altar block of stone is surrounded by mourners.
Immediately followed by the Pietà, meaning pity, in which Mary is alone with her dead son.
Last Judgement: refers to a series of events outlined in the Book of Revelations in the Bible
where it said that on Last Judgement day the living and resurrected dead will be judged and
consigned to heaven or hell.
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appendix: biblical and religious references
Last Supper: the last meal Christ had with his disciples before his arrest, at which he announced
to the twelve that one of them would betray him.
Madonna, Child and St Anne: the Madonna (Virgin Mary) is mother of Jesus Christ, the child,
and St Anne is Mary’s mother.
Mocking of Christ: after his arrest in Jerusalem and before appearing before the high priest,
Caiaphas, Christ was set upon by the Jews and beaten.
Moses: was leader of the Jewish people, lawgiver and founder of their religion. Exodus (Bible)
tells how Moses led the people out of Egyptian captivity and received the Ten Commandments,
which were basic moral laws from God.
Nativity: the birth of Jesus in a manger in a stable surrounded by Mary, Joseph and the animals.
Noli me Tangere (Touch me not): after the Resurrection, Christ appeared to Mary Magdalene
as she wept by the empty tomb. He told her not to touch him but to take the message of his
resurrection to his disciples.
Pietà: this scene takes place after Christ’s death when he lies on his mother’s lap. Pietà means
pity.
Presentation of Christ in the Temple (Luke 2:22–39): this is when Mary and Joseph took Jesus,
aged about 12, to the Temple in Jerusalem to be ‘consecrated to the Lord’.
Resurrection: Christ rose again on the third day after his death. Through the Resurrection he
returned to earth where he remained for forty days until the Ascension.
St Francis in Ecstasy: Francis of Assisi in 1224 had a vision during which the stigmata appeared
on his body – the wounds of Christ on hands, feet and side.
Transfiguration: forty days after his Resurrection from the dead, Jesus made his divine nature
evident to his disciples Peter, James and John by taking them up to a mountain and becoming
transfigured there – his face shone like the sun and his clothes became dazzling white. The
ancient prophets Moses and Elijah appeared on either side of him and spoke with him.
The Tribute Money: this event takes place at Capernaum. Peter (Jesus’ disciple and appointed by
him as first leader of the Church) was asked by the tax collector whether Jesus contributed to the
tax levied on all Jews for the upkeep of the temple. Although Jesus was legally exempt from this
tax, he told Peter to cast his line into the lake and he would find a silver coin in the mouth of the
first fish he caught, sufficient to pay the tax for both of them.
The Trinity: the Christian doctrine that God is one nature yet three persons: Father, Son and Holy
Spirit.
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8
appendix: classical and mythological
references
learning intention
From this appendix you will learn to:
•• develop an understanding of classical and mythological references in art.
introduction
In the High Renaissance and Mannerist period of art which you will be studying in this course
the majority of art works had a religious theme. However, as humanist ideas developed with the
increased knowledge of Classical texts and the rediscovery of ancient art and sculpture, some
patrons began to commission art works that used Classical and mythological themes.
It is important that you can distinguish between religious and mythological references in painting,
so keep this booklet as a constant guide.
index of classical and mythological terms
Bacchus: the god of wine in Classical mythology.
Danae: a princess in Greek mythology. She was shut away in a bronze tower because of a
prediction that her son would kill the king. But the god Jupiter visited her in the form of a shower
of golden coins and seduced her. The resulting child, Perseus, eventually killed his grandfather
accidentally with a discus.
Death of Actaeon: the young prince Actaeon was hunting in the forest and stumbled accidentally
on a grotto where Diana (goddess of hunting) was bathing with companions. To punish him for
seeing her divine nudity, the goddess turned him into a stag. He was pursued and torn to pieces
by his own hounds.
Feast of the Gods: Peleus was a legendary hero of ancient Greece and Thetis was a sea nymph.
The Gods of Olympus were at their wedding feast. It was here that an uninvited guest, Eris, the
Goddess of Strife, threw down a golden apple, setting off a train of events that led to the Trojan
war.
Galatea: from Classical mythology, she is depicted as a sea-nymph and shown in a cockle–shell
chariot or in the arms of a sea-centaur, surrounded by sea creatures. Small winged cupids
(figures symbolising love) fly above her head aiming their arrows at her.
Origin of the Milky Way: Hercules was the son of a mortal woman, Alcema, who slept with
the god Jupiter. When Hercules was born she abandoned him outside the city for fear of Juno,
Jupiter’s wife. But Minerva (goddess of wisdom) guided Juno, as if by chance, to where the child
lay and persuaded her out of pity to put the child to her breast. Hercules sucked so violently that
Juno’s immortal milk spurted across the heavens, where it became the Milky Way.
Parnassus: a mountain range in Greece. In Classical times, Parnassus was sacred to the god
Apollo and the Muses and so was the traditional location of poetry and music.
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appendix: classical and mythological references
Rape of Europa: the Roman God Jupiter, taking the form of a bull, abducts the Goddess Europa.
This scene is depicted in one of Titian’s late ‘poesie’ paintings – works based on poetic texts.
Sacred and Profane Love: the two female figures represent two aspects of love – the celestial,
heavenly Venus who symbolises divine love and the earthly Venus who represented the beauty
found in the material world.
Sibyl: in Classical times a sibyl was a person endowed with the gift of prophecy. By the end of the
Middle Ages, the Christian Church has accepted 12 of them as prophets of the coming of Christ.
Venus: is the Classical goddess of love and fertility.
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9
answer guide
2. naturalism and iconography
2A
This is an example answer.
Describing a painting:
I step through the ‘window’ onto a field of detailed plants and see a cloth laid out in front of me
with strange instruments on it. A woman on my right sits hunched on the ground while one of
the left holds the feet of a body, which I have to step over – through the gate in the centre I’m
suddenly a great distance from the window – there doesn’t seem to be any intermediate ground
…
3. fra angelico and uccello
3A
1. In The Annunciation the Angel Gabriel tells Mary that she is to be the mother of Christ.
2. The expulsion scene is connected to The Annunciation by the golden rays, containing a dove
(symbol of the Holy Spirit) that lead towards the area of Mary’s womb – indicating that the
child she will have will be the son of God. (In Christian belief, God the Father, God the Son
(Jesus Christ) and the Holy Spirit make up the Trinity – they are all manifestations of one
God).
3. International Gothic features include: richly detailed wings, haloes and embroidery; gowns
that form elegant patterns that don’t conform to bodies; lack of shadows; a field of flowers
that gives the effect of a tapestry; delicate, porcelain-like faces.
4. alberti – naturalism and istoria
4A
The Baptism of Christ
1. individualised poses
2. bodies move in harmony with what is happening
3. one of the angels acts as a ‘guide’ by looking directly out at the viewer
4. consistent use of light and shade on the bodies make them appear three-dimensional
5. clear contours to the bodies but no visible lines around them.
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acknowledgements
Every effort has been made to acknowledge and contact copyright holders. Te Aho o Te Kura Pounamu apologises for any omissions
and welcomes more accurate information.
Bibliography
Leon Battista Alberti, On Painting and On Sculpture (ed. Cecil Grayson) Phaidon, 1972.
Alessandro Angelini, Piero della Francesca, Scala, 1985.
Michael Baxandall, Painting and Experience in Fifteenth Century Italy, Oxford, 1988.
Chris Grace, Topic: Naturalism and Science in 15th Century Italian Painting, Longman.
J R Hale (ed.), A Concise Encyclopaedia of the Italian Renaissance, Thames and Hudson.
Frederick Hartt, A History of Italian Renaissance Art, Thames and Hudson, 4th ed, 1993.
Alain Lemaitre and Erich Lessing, Florence and the Renaissance the Quattrocento, Terrail, 1993.
Peter and Linda Murray, A Dictionary of Art and Artists, Penguin, 1984.
John Paoletti and Gary Radke, Art in Renaissance Italy, Lawrence King, 3rd ed, 2005.
John White, The Birth and Rebirth of Pictorial Space, Faber, 1972.
The Great Artists – 21: Leonardo da Vinci; 34: Uccello; 40: Piero della Francesca; 45: Masaccio, Marshall Cavendish, 1985.
Text: Texts from Della pittura (On Painting), 1435, by Leone Battista Alberti. Public domain.
Images
Duccio, The Calling of the Apostles Peter and Andrew, painting, Samuel H Kress Collection, 1939.1.141, National Gallery of Art,
Washington DC. Used by permission.
Masaccio, The Madonna of Humility, c. 1423/1424, tempera on panel painting, 1937.1.7, National Gallery of Art, Washington DC.
Used by permission.
(attributed to) Fra Angelico, The Entombment of Christ, c. 1450, painting, 1939.1.260, National Gallery of Art, Washington DC.
Used by permission.
All other illustrations © Te Aho o Te Kura Pounamu, Wellington.
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