“Management of Water Resources and Wetland Protection in

Transcription

PROJECT
“Management of Water Resources
and Wetland Protection in Tourism Developing Areas”
W E T L A N D S
THE EXAMPLE
OF SAMOS ISLAND
UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS
Faculty of Geology and Geoenvironment
I N T E RREG III – Stra nd B – A RC H IM E D
PROJECT
“Management of Water Resources
and Wetland Protection in Tourism Developing Areas”
CO-FINANCED BY ΤΗΕ EUROPEAN UNION
1 July 2006 – 30 October 2008
NATIONAL CENTER FOR THE ENVIRONMENT & SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
I N T E RRE G I I I – Stra nd B – A RC H IM E D
PROJECT
“Management of Water Resources and Wetland Protection
in Tourism Developing Areas”
CO-FINANCED BY ΤΗΕ EUROPEAN UNION
1 July 2006 – 30 October 2008
W E T LAND S
THE E XAM PLE OF SAM OS I SLA ND
UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS
WETLANDS
THE EXAMPLE OF SAMOS ISLAND
Vassilopoulos A., Evelpidou N., Tziritis E., Boglis A.
University of Athens
Faculty of Geology and Geoenvironmen
Panepistimioupolis, Zografou, 15784, Athens, Greece
CONTENTS
WETLANDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wetland types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The “typical” Aegean wetland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flora and types of ecosites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Functions of Wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Enrichment of aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Modification of flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Formation of sediments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Absorption of coal dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Storage and release of heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6. Fixation of solar radiation and support of food chains . . . . .
Significant values of wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Biological diversity (biological value) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Storage of potable water (water value) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Storage of irrigation water (irrigation value). . . . . . . . . . .
4. Production of fish catches (piscatorial value) . . . . . . . . . .
5. Pasturage of rural animals (stockbreeding value) . . . . . . . .
6. Protection from floods (flood-preventing value) . . . . . . . .
7. Improvement of water quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8. Recreation (value of recreation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9. Culture (cultural value) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10. Protection from the repercussions of anthropogenic culture .
11. Improvement of microclimate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12. Hunting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13. Scientific research and education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14. The value for human . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Legislation frame for the Greek wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Alterations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The causes of problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
5
5
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
7
7
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
10
11
11
11
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ISLAND OF SAMOS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
A. Geography of Samos . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Physiographic provinces . . . . . . . . .
C. Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Autochthonous metamorphic system
2. Allocthonus non-metamorphic series
3. Neogene Formations . . . . . . . . .
4. Quarternary deposits . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
12
12
13
13
24
25
30
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
Tectonics . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Analysis of fractural deformation
Earthquake potential . . . . . . .
Meteorological - Climatic data .
Hydrology of the region . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
30
32
32
33
36
ENVIRONMENT OF SAMOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1. Flora – Land Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
WETLANDS AND PROTECTED AREAS OF SAMOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1. Wetland in the Salt marsh (Alyki – Psili Ammos) . . .
2. Ampelos Mountain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Kerketeas Mountain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Mesokampos Marsh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Barrages in Glyfades of Pythagoreio and Chora marsh
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
41
42
43
43
43
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
WETLANDS
Wetlands are natural or artificial regions mainly consisted of:
Marshes with bushy vegetation (marsh)
Marshes with turf sublayer (fen)
Turf soils
Water bodies
These regions may be flooded permanently or periodically by stagnant or flowing waters (freshwater,
brackish, saline etc), including regions that are covered by marine waters, with total depth less than six
metres during tidal episodes (Ramsar treaty, 1971). The most common types of wetlands are rivers,
streams, estuaries and river deltas, lakes, lagoons, marshes, springs, riparian regions, salt marshes and
artificial reservoirs of water. In semi-dry insular climates, the importance of wetlands is of high importance for the maintenance of biodiversity, as well as for the anthropogenic environment of the islands,
including social and economical evolution.
In 2004, the Greek WWF indexed systematically the wetlands of Aegean islands (except Crete)
aiming at the documentation of their significance and at the assessment of the potential hazards. The
objective of the program was the documentation of their identification, the study of their basic ecological
parameters, and finally the contribution to their protection and their integrated management.
Three basic concessions constituted the fundamentals of this effort:
i. Preservation is not possible when there is lack of knowledge about the nature, existence and
exact location of wetlands.
ii. A documented wetland has a better prospect of being saved in a legal way, unlike the others that
might be more important, but yet unidentified.
iii. Individual inventorying of wetlands, cannot propose a sufficient factor for their protection. It is
however, a necessary primary step for the comprehension of their importance by the society.
WETLAND TYPES
The majority of the Aegean islands’ include coastal swamps and embrace more than one wetland type.
Nearly every lake, lagoon or marsh is been supplied by streams; each stream leads to an estuary with different physicochemical and ecological characteristics. Close to the estuaries, there is often groundwater
that defines whether marshes have fresh, brackish or saline waters. The most common types of wetlands
include:
Streams and torrents (seasonal or not)
Rivers and torrents estuaries
Marshes of brackish, saline or fresh water
6
W ET LA N D S – T H E EXA M P LE O F S A M O S I S LA N D
These types represent 62.5% of the total swampy regions. The artificial wetlands (artificial lakes of
mines and quarries, barrages and dam lakes) represent an important percentage as well (11.2%). A 57%
of wetlands have permanent presence of water and 43% are seasonal wetlands. Among natural wetlands, half of them are permanent and half are seasonal. A 31% of natural wetlands, has exclusively or
mainly fresh water, an 11,2% exclusively or mainly saline water and in almost half of them (49,2%) there
is a combination of fresh and saline water. Finally, all artificial wetlands contain fresh water.
THE “TYPICAL” AEGEAN WETLAND
The common Aegean wetland type is the coastal marsh. In this type, a stream of permanent or seasonal
flow ends, or fresh groundwater flows onto seawater. Thus, their water is mainly brackish, but depending on season, it varies from fresh to saline. Additionally, they may contain small surface reservoirs with
permanent water existence or seasonal, accompanied by saturated soils.
FLORA AND TYPES OF ECOSITES
Flora in a typical Aegean wetland may include:
Under waterish vegetation: where plants can sprout in the seabed, but their main body is above
water surface, e.g. Phragmites, Typha, etc.
Waterish meadow vegetation: where turf plants grow in shallow waters or saturated soils, e.g.
Juncus, Carex, etc.
Bushy vegetation: e.g. bushes Tamarix, Nerium.
Arborised vegetation: e.g. trees Salix, Platanus.
In addition, many wetlands contain halophytic vegetation (Salicornia, Arthrocnemum, etc) or are
surrounded by flora of sandy coasts and sand dunes, while relatively few are those with underwater flora
(e.g. algae Chara and Nitella, aquatic angiospermous Myriophyllum, Ceratophyllum, etc).
The recorded types of ecosites according to 92/43 Directive are 30 in total concerning the wetlands
of Aegean islands. The following four types receive the highest priority for their protection, since they are
the rarest and the most vulnerable across European Union:
1. Submarine meadows of Posidonia (1120), which are found in the marine part of coastal wetlands
2. Coastal lagoons (1150), recorded in 28 cases.
3. Coastal sand dunes with Juniperus spp. (2250), recorded in three cases in the wetlands of Naxos.
4. Mediterranean Seasonal Swamps (3170), recorded five times in the islands of Alonissos, Rhodes,
Lesvos, Skopelos and Limnos.
FUNCTIONS OF WETLANDS
The significance of an individual wetland, is characterized by its inner functions. As functions are defined
the sum of the natural, chemical and biological processes that take place in the wetland. These processes
result from the combinational interactions among the structural elements of the wetland (soil, water,
vegetation etc) as well as among the wetland and his surrounding environment, especially the wetland
basin. The number of functions and their relative importance differ from one to another. The fundamental factor is hydrological setting. The comprehension of wetland’s hydrology should be of great importance for those who manage, maintain and re-establish them. Wetlands’ functions include:
WE TL AND S – TH E EXA MPLE OF SA MOS ISLA N D
7
1. Enrichment of aquifers
A frequent wetlands’ function is groundwater recharge, in others words the down-gradient movement of
water through soil porous to underground water bodies, known as aquifers. Even when the interconnection between a wetland and an aquifer is well established, further research is essential in order to clarify
this connection in each wetland.
2. Modification of flooding
The wetlands are deposits of water in the hydrologic cycle. The main way in which wetlands can alter
the flooding is the storage of flooding water and gradual output afterwards the flood cease, with direct
outcome the reduction of flood’s peak. Other ways of modification, are the drainage of flooding water to
the underground layers, as well as the evapotranspitation of the aquatic macrofyta.
3. Formation of sediments
The suspended materials of the precipitated water contribute to wetlands’ sediment status. Most of
them are natural, others anthropogenic (e.g. chemical fertilizers, pesticides, heavy metals) emanating
from agricultural, industrial and other activities.
4. Absorption of coal dioxide
The aquatic masses can absorb (provisionally or permanently) large quantities from atmosphere’s coal
dioxide. Part of this quantity can be committed from the aquatic fauna and sediments.
5. Storage and release of heat
The thermal attributes of wetlands’ water temperature are regulated by the factors that control coastal
regions. These regions appear smaller variations of temperature between day & night and summer &
winter than other regions found far from wetlands.
6. Fixation of solar radiation and support of food chains
In wetland areas are developed many categories of aquatic autotrophic organisms, from the most
microscopic ones to tall trees.
The terminology of the prevailing plants that sprout in wetlands is:
Aquatic macrofyta
Aquatic plants or
Aquatic plants along with their vegetation (aquatic vegetation).
The term aquatic macrofyta is used for macroscopic forms of aquatic vegetation and includes macroalgae, few species of moss and ferny and angiosperm. All these organisms bind solar energy and carbon
dioxide, producing in that way organic matter.
Primary productivity is the production of organic matter per unit of time and per unit of surfaces
from the autotrophic organisms after the abstraction of the energy used for breathing, while secondary
productivity is the ecosystem’s productivity in heterotrophic organisms.
Finally, makrofyta aquatic vegetation is considered of great importance for the swampy ecosystem,
since it provides the heterotrophic organisms with food and resources for shelter, growth, nesting and
reproduction.
8
SIGNIFICANT VALUES OF WETLANDS
Values do not have the same significance in all the wetlands. The more important are:
1. Biological diversity (biological value)
It concerns all organisms that are essential for the primary biological processes. The biological value of
a place implies a very important parameter of “biological diversity” and dissociates in genetic diversity,
diversity of types and ecological diversity.
2. Storage of potable water (water value)
The wetlands offer potable water both directly and indirectly. Frequently, natural wetlands are the source
of potable water. There are also wetlands, mainly coastal, that have indirect water value because they
protect aquifer from salinization due to seawater intrusion.
3. Storage of irrigation water (irrigation value)
Nearly all Greek wetlands are used for irrigation purposes. Water is directed through irrigation channels
or pumped from the householders of adjacent fields. Irrigational water is a profound factor for the Greek
rural economy. The inconsiderate use of that value has unfavourable consequences on other values.
4. Production of fish catches (piscatorial value)
Greek wetlands cover part of the country’s needs for fisheries and aquacultures. The essential conditions
for a wetland are:
The sufficiency of reproduction areas
The existence of areas that would offer protection
The freedom of movement all year long
The main types of wetlands that satisfy these conditions are:
Lagoons
Lakes (natural and artificial)
Rivers
5. Pasturage of rural animals (stockbreeding value)
Many wetlands offer rich quantity of pasture matter for the cattle and the bovines for a long period of the
year. The vegetation of the haughs, riparian forests and thickets is particularly valuable if compared with
the vegetation of land meadows. Apart from the food, they offer:
Protection from unfavourable meteorological conditions
Potable water
The pasture regions can be separated in riparian and offshore areas.
6. Protection from floods (flood-preventing value)
Many wetlands offer protection to domestic and agricultural regions from floods, by rebating the floods’
peaks and by storing the flooding water. Riparian regions with dense vegetation slow down the speed of
water flow. The riparian vegetation provides also non-erosive protection because it retains the soil and
diffuses the erosive forces of the flowing waters.
7. Improvement of water quality
The suspended materials that are trapped at wetlands’ sediments frequently are consisted of potential
9
contaminants. Through complicated natural processes, in which aquatic vegetation have a dominant
impact, the wetland can both withhold and remove certain quantities of pollutants.
8. Recreation (value of recreation)
Wetlands offer the chance for both passive and energetic recreation. Passive includes mainly the enjoyment of landscape and the observation of wild animals and plants. Energetic includes hiking and aqua
related sports such like swimming, sailing and fishing.
9. Culture (cultural value)
The cultural value of a wetland derives from mythology, history, archaeology, religion, folklore and literature. Traditional economic activities related with the wetland constitute also part of this value.
10. Protection from the repercussions of anthropogenic culture of atmosphere with carbon dioxide
During the last two centuries, human activities have caused the emission of large quantities of carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere. The smaller part of these quantities remains in the atmosphere and the
bigger one is absorbed by vegetation, rocks and especially hydrosphere, part of which (even small) constitute the wetlands.
11. Improvement of microclimate
The human population of the adjacent region profits directly and indirectly from the climate regulative
operation of a wetland. Directly, because snow and frost during winter and high temperatures during
summer are absent or rare. Indirectly, because the plants’ growing period is extended and the potential
hazards for the cultivated plants deriving from extreme temperatures are diminished.
12. Hunting
Amongst the richly wild fauna supported by the wetlands, there are many species considered as hunting
preys, especially birds.
13. Scientific research and education
The diversity of the biosites, bio-community and landscapes, characterise wetlands as attractive areas for
research and education in many sectors. A few locations offer so many chances of studying the amazing
world of plants, animals and waters and the astonishing complexity of interactions among them.
14. The value for human
The islands’ wetlands offer to inhabitants many services. Some of them are obvious and comprehensible
by all, other ones are little known and despite their importance need special effort in order to be perceived and appreciated, and others are completely ignored and gravely underestimated. Here are some
examples from Greek wetlands:
Water from at least 40 wetlands is directly used for water supply, at least 105 wetlands are used for
irrigation, up to 100 are used for pasturage of rural animals and at least 80 are used for hunting.
Several wetlands provide water flow for the maintaining of the beautiful and islands’ beaches.
Wetlands protect coastal aquifers from salinization
The soil-hydrological conditions of wetlands, allow the precipitated water to infiltrate and enrich
aquifers, which support the islanders’ needs for potable and irrigation water.
10
increase the variety and beauty of landscapes, supporting in that way local communities through
tourism
Many of them are used for salt production, either through industrial or traditional way.
The wetlands of the Aegean have considerable long-term economic importance. Their destruction or
their transformation for other land uses, e.g. building plots, in fact provides short-term financial profits
only for few landowners.
Additionally, the wetlands of Aegean attract a continuously increasing number of visitors that hunt,
fish, observe or simply enjoy the nature. Certain islands, such as Lesvos, already have become touristic
destination for bird watching, mainly in the local wetlands. Another activity in the wetlands that has considerably developed in the past few years is the environmental education of pupils and students.

LEGISLATION FRAME FOR THE GREEK WETLANDS
Protection of wetlands is within the legal frame that is mainly formed by the following legislation:
118/1981
1650/86 about the environment
1739/87 about Water Resources
Piscatorial Code
Forrestal Code
International Conventions Ramsar, Barcelona and Bern, as well as the 79/409 Directive of EEC on
the Maintenance of Wild Birds
41985/85 Common Ministerial Decision contains regulations on hunting related with the application of this Community directive.
In Greece, there is no specific legislation concerning the protection of wetlands and especially the
protection of the Aegean islands’ wetlands. On the contrary, many laws can be used for the protection
and the prudent management of wetlands, but the problems arise from the effective interpretation and
application (Papadimitriou, 1998). Resulting from the institutional deficit or insufficiency, the islands’
wetlands are rapidly downgraded. Particularly, small wetlands are currently the most threatened ecosystems in the Aegean and perhaps some of them will be vanished before the establishment of a legal frame
for their protection.
In total 257 wetlands only 128 come under some state of institutional protection or have some
protection regime based on the decisions of the local management or certain local services (e.g. forest
inspections) mainly for their value and their biodiversity. At least 117 wetlands are in the boundaries of
protected regions. 85 of them belong in some region of Natura 2000, that is to say are included in the
National List of proposed regions of Special Community Interest (pSCI) (Ntafis et.al., 1996). Among the
regions that fall into other arrangements of protection:
3 of them belong to the National Marine Park of Northern Sporades
3 of them are part of archaeological sites
in 6 of them is applied hunting prohibition
4 of them belong to the same Monument of Nature of the Silicified Forest of Lesvos
6 of them are protected from the Barcelona Convention, and one is an Aesthetic Forest
3 of them are protected Areas of Residential Control
34 of them are also Wild Life Shelters
38 of them are included in the Special Areas of Protection (SPA) that means they are protected
according to the EE79/409 Directive on wild birds and their dwellings.
11
POLLUTION
In 249 wetlands, it was certified some form of pollution, either in solid or liquid form (40.6 % of total
number). In 68 (27.6%) pollution was not recorded, but 20 of these are artificial while for 78 (31.7%)
there are no data in order to support any allegation. That is to say, for the natural wetlands for which
data exist, 2 out of 3 are characterised by some form of pollution.
ALTERATIONS
In the past years and particularly after the 60’s, the coastal illuviated wetlands that were used for cultivation were built in an increasing rate, mainly for secondary residences and tourist settlements.
Land reclamations and fillings with rubbles are the first stage for the oncoming interventions, since
they serve to create building sites or traffic axes in order for neighbouring owners to trespass.
Therefore, it is not possible to separate them from the other forms of interventions. Especially the
land reclamations, and more specifically the excavations and removals of big masses of soil, are a form
of intervention that degrades substantially and aesthetically not only the swampy regions but also their
direct neighbourhood.
There is record of building on clean swampy grounds in 103 of the 187 cases of devalorisation, but
this form is considered the most hazardous since unlike the others it is almost irrevocable. The effect of
building does not only concern these 103 cases, because all the wetlands are influenced one way or the
other by building. Even in wetlands that do not have buildings on clean swampy grounds, but in their
nearby neighbourhood, the landscape of the wetland is irreparably degraded.
Illegal hunting is difficult to document for obvious reasons. Overfishing and overpumping are also
difficult to be documented. Over-pasturing even if it is also difficult to document, in many cases is clear,
even if it usually concerns certain areas of the wetland’s region.
The remainder types of alteration mainly concern efforts of drainage, airports and heliports construction, vivaria installations, conduction of military exercises, projects that lead to abrupt changes of the water salinity, motocross racing or driving for amusement, assembly and operation of offhand greenhouses
and removal of soil materials.
THE CAUSES OF PROBLEMS
The main causes that generate problems and threats for the Aegean’s wetlands are the following:
The public’s ignorance for their fundamental importance and their role in achieving improved life
standards for the islander societies.
The narrow sighted but very attractive direct financial profits opposed to the low sensation of
long-term financial and other utilities for the whole society.
The of lack of cadastre in combination to the lack of land-planning, that leads to high land prices
and creates powerful private financial interests.
The increased dependence of the islands from the massive tourism regardless of their bearing
capacity.
The increased land demand in coastal regions, that results from all the above.
The lack of reliable application of central planning for serious matters, such as the islands’ development, the energy problem and the sustainable use of resources.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ISLAND OF SAMOS
A. GEOGRAPHY OF SAMOS
Samos lies in the Eastern Aegean Sea near the coast of Minor Asia, between parallel degrees 37°49΄ and
37°37΄ N and 26°33΄ - 27°04΄ 30΄΄ E.
A 7-level strait, called Dar Boyage, separates Samos form Minor Asia and has a minimum width of
1650 m. Northerly lies the peninsula of Erithrea, to the north-west the island of Chios (35nm), towards
west south-west the island of Ikaria (9,8nm) and the island group of Fournoi (3.4nm). Southern are located the Dodecanese islands among which nearest are Agathonisi (9,3nm), Arkioi and Patmos.
Samos is the eighth biggest Greek island, with a total area coverage of 477,395 Km2, 69,6% of which
(that is 332,267 Km2) are mountainous, 22%, (105,027 Km2) are semi-mountainous and 8,4% (40,101
Km2) are flat. Samos’ shape is wide and short, extending 44.3 Km from west to east from the Katabasis to
Gatos cape, and 19 km north to south, from Avlakia to Samiopoula cape. The total length of the island’s
coasts is 159 km. The island has 43,590 residents (inventory 2001) and is constituted by the four municipalities of Vathy, Karlovasi, Pythagoreio and Marathokampos, with capital the city of Samos.
B. PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROVINCES
Five physiographic units can be identified on Samos: three mountainous massifs - mountain Kerketeas
(1433m) to the west, mountain Karbounis (Ampelos), (1150m) in the middle of the island, and Zoodochos Pigi (433m) to the East. Moreover there are two Neogene basins – the one of Karlovassi (to the
west) and the one of Kokkari- Mytilinioi (to the east) (Papanikolaou, 1979). The Eastern massif is characterised by karstic forms (Riedl, 1989).
The northwestern part of the island is mountainous and characterized by steep cliffs and highly
incised streams, with fluvial terraces mostly at the central part of the island. The coastal topography
gradient is high and coasts are mostly fault-controlled. The gradient of the topography decreases to the
east while the southeastern part of the island is characterized by a low, smooth relief. Many small ports
and islets separate the coastline. Lagoons and extended sandy or sand-gravel beaches developed along
long-coast, especially along the southern coastal swamps.
This contrast in relief is also apparent in the characteristic fauna: the beaches in the northwestern part of
the island are areas of reproduction for the Mediterranean seal Monachus-Monachus, a species protected
from the European Community, while the lagoons of the northeastern coast attract birds (Ciconiformes,
Phoenicopteriformes). This contrast in the morphology of the relief is also reflected in raised Holocene
shorelines and submerged ancient ruins along the northwestern and southeastern coast, respectively.
13
With regard to the bathymetry of the region, a major marine basin, more than 1000m deep is found
north of Samos and Ikaria islands, while the bathymetry is also indicative of major faults controlling the
northwestern and western coasts of the island. With regard to the rest of the coasts, the bathymetric
gradient is slight and depths do not exceed 50-200m.
C. GEOLOGY
Samos Island belongs to the Aegean crystalloschistosive zone which interpolates between the AtticaCycladic complex and the crystalloschistosive massif of Menderes (W. Turkey). The geological structure
of Samos can be distinguished in two main pre-Neogene geotectonical units (with individual sub-units
for each one) and the Neogene and Quarternary formations that fill the island’s basins. In more detail,
the lower stratigraphic units embrace the metamorphic substrate, which consists of 4 different sub-units
of autochthonous formations, above which the allochtonus non-metamorphic tectonic nappe is overthrusted. The sequence continues with Neogene formations and ends with recent Quarternary deposits.
1. Autochthonous metamorphic system
The autochthonous metamorphic system of Samos Island consists of 4 individual sub-units. The stratigraphically lowest sub-unit is Kerketeas, above which are found the sub-units of Aghios Ioannis, Ampelos
and Vorliotes – Zoodohos Pigi, tectonically superimposed. The autochthonous metamorphic sub-units
are described below, in further detail.
1.1 Kerketeas sub-unit
Kerketeas sub-unit consists of 5 sequences, stratigraphically correlated to the metamorphic sequences of
the Gavrovo – Tripoli geotectonic zone. They are characterized by greenschist phase metamorphic paragenesis, with multiple Miocenic intrusions of Granodioritic to Pegmatitic composition. The metamorphic
process probably took place 40 million years ago, and had direct impact in many large segments of the
middle-Aegean crystalloschistosive zone. According to estimations, the metamorphic temperature in
western Samos was higher than on the Eastern part of the island
1.1.1 Kerketeas marbles
They are white - white-grey, locally grey on the upper members, very commonly dolomitic, medium - to
thick – bedded and sometimes unbedded, coarse crystalline, strongly faulted, and mainly without schist
intercalations. Often enclose chert interstratifications. They cover most of Kerketeas Mt., on the western
part of the island, and their total thickness exceeds 1.500 m.
1.1.2 Marathokampos – Kosmadei schists
They overlie conformably the Kerketeas marbles. They are mainly muscovite schists, quartz schists, chlorite and calcareous schists, frequently alternating in vertical and horizontal direction with local intercalations of prasinites, marbles and cipolines of various thicknesses. The thickness of the schists in the area
of Palaeochori (western side of Kerketeas) is about 600 m, and in Marathokampos area (eastern side of
Kerketeas) is more than 1500 m.
1.1.3 Cipolines, cipoline marbles and angerites of Kerketeas piedmonts
They occur as intercalations within the Marathokampos – Kosmadei schists, of the western island’s section. Their colour is grey-brown, sometimes greenish. These intercalations are generally of small thick-
Samos island in the wider area.
Digital elevation model of Samos island.
Geographical distribution of morphological slopes.
Drainage system in Samos island.
Topographical map of Samos island.
19
ness (except one that reaches 150 m), laterally passing into calcareous schists. Within the cipolines of the
ridge south of Kosmadei village, lies limonite in a lenticular intercalation 0,5 m thick and 10 m long.
1.1.4 Marbles of Kerketeas’ foothill
They occur overlying the Marathokampos – Kosmadei schists on the island’s western section. Sometimes
they form a horizon about 200 m thick (Aghia Kyriaki and Karlovassi areas), and occasionally they are
located as intercalations within the schists. They are grey - black-grey and rarely white-grey. They very
commonly appear dolomitic, thin to medium-bedded, fine crystalline and sometimes coarse-crystalline,
karstic and rarely with chert intercalations.
1.1.5 Dyke igneous rocks of Kallithea
They occur on the cliffs of the northern coast of Kallithea village, in the western part of the island. It is
a system of dykes intersecting one another with a thickness from a few centimetres to 2 meters, and
cutting on one side the upper parts of Kerketeas marbles and on the other side the Marathokampos
– Kosmadei schists on top of which they overlie. They are mainly dykes of granitic, granodioritic, dioritic
and aplitic rocks, constituting possibly apophyses of an intrusive, non-outcropping on the surface, mass.
Dyke injection has occurred on already metamorphic rocks and before the overthrust of the area’s nonmetamorphic Mesozoic formations.
1.2 Aghios Ioannis sub-unit
Occurring at the western part of Samos Island and is tectonically overthrusted between the autochthonous sub-unit of Kerketeas which is underlying and Ampelos sub-unit which is overlying. It consists of
metamorphic mafic and ultramafic magmatic formations, which often retain their initial mineralogical
characteristics. Presence of glaucophane is usual and their total thickness reaches approximately 200 m.
1.2.1 Peridotites - Serpentinites
Generally have small sized bodies, frequently appear as sills within the Ampelos schists. Locally, they are
schistose and many times serpentinised. They may sporadically enclose thin asbestos veins that in the
past been subjected to small scale exploitation.
1.2.2 Ophiolites
Ophiolitic masses are frequently found within Ampelos schists, partly schistose and usually of gabbrotype.
1.3 Ampelos sub-unit
Occurring in middle and partly in the western area of Samos Island. Ampelos sub-unit generally overlies
Kerketeas sub-unit or Aghios Ioannis sub-unit and underlies tectonically Vourliotes –Zoodohos Pigi subunit. It is consisted of marbles of various colours and thickness, and schists, mainly muscovitic, as well
as glaucophanitic and epidotic. Locally there are intercalations of metamorphic mafic and ultramafic
magmatic formations. Total thickness exceeds 200 m.
1.3.1 Ampelos schists with many small volcanic bodies
They occur around the great volcanic mass of Ampelos village. Small volcanic bodies existing within the
area’s schists. Frequently within the schists, large garnet crystals occur. There are also many outcrops of
mineral occurrences (mainly of pyrite and galena).
Lithological map of Samos island.
The autochthonous metamorphic unit of Samos island.
The Kerketeas Sub Unit.
The Kerketeas Sub Unit in detail.
24
1.3.2 Ampelos schists
They constitute the larger part of the island’s central section and more or less the upper extension of the
Marathokampos – Kosmadei schists. They have various mineralogical compositions, such as mica schists
(where muscovite in relation to biotite dominates), muscovite schists, quartz-muscovite schists and
quartz schists. Epidote amphibolites, chloritic schists, hematite schists and phyllites, also occur within the
schists. There one may find intercalations of ultramafic igneous rocks, often schistose (Myli village area),
or quartz-schists and quartzites prevail, the thickness of which sometimes exceeds 100 m, (western side
of Ampelos mountainous block). Their total thickness exceeds 2500m.
1.3.3 Ampelos marbles
They occur as intercalations or great banks of various thicknesses, within the schists of Ampelos. They
vary in colour from whitish, light gray or dark gray, are fine and sometimes coarse crystalline, medium
bedded, partly karstic. At Spatharei area, where their thickness exceeds 300 m, they are medium to
coarse bedded, grey-white or grey and at their low sections, black-grey. Frequently they are dolomitic
and sometimes pure crystalline dolostones. In some cases, intercalations of breccia-marbles were observed.
1.4 Vourliotes – Zoodohos Pigi sub-unit
Vourliotes – Zoodohos Pigi sub-unit occurs mostly on the eastern part of the Island and less on the central part. It overlies Ampelos sub-unit and it consists of marbles more than 100 m thick. Also, there are
schists that are mainly muscovitic, quartzitic, chloritic and locally glaucophanitic. Marbles of the eastern
part frequently host emery deposits, that are very much alike those of western Turkey.
1.4.1 Vourliotes – Syrrachos marbles
They take up almost the whole eastern side of the mountainous block that lies in the central part of the
island, where the tectonic horst of Syrrachos occurs. Their thickness varies from 400 to 1000 m and they
are generally light-coloured, well bedded, schistose and frequently with intercalations of cherts and mica
schists.
1.4.2 Kotsika Psili-Ammos Schists
Mainly consisted of chloritic, muscovitic schists and calcareous, alternating vertically and passing laterally to the aforementioned lithologic types. Frequently there are intercalations of marbles, ankerites and
breccia marbles.
1.4.3 Zoodohos Pigi marbles
Occur on the eastern part of the island, mainly medium to well bedded and rarely unbedded, mostly on
the upper members, where they toggle into cipoline marbles. Frequently, they enclose intercalations of
dolomitic marbles and muscovitic schists, while it is notable that their lower members host emery deposits. Total thickness reaches 500 m.
2. Allocthonus non-metamorphic series
Allochtonus non-metamorphic series or otherwise “Kallithea unit” occurs at the western part of Samos
Island and overlies the tectonic Kerketeas sub-unit. Kallithea series also occur at Thymena and Alatsonisi
islands near Fourni, and consist of mainly upper Triassic and maybe lower Jurassic limestones. From a
25
lithologic point of view, it is obvious that the series are correlated with the non-metamorphic formations
of the Pelagoniki geotectonic unit. Apart from limestones, the series include clastic formations of lower
– middle Triassic, with intercalations of cherts and basic igneous rocks.
2.1 Upper Triassic- Jurassic limestones
Commonly they are overlying the horizons of Kallithea – Drakei area basic intrusive formations. They are
both likely overthrusted on the metamorphic system. At lower levels, they are white or rose, unbedded,
fine-crystalline and strongly tectonized. At their upper stratigraphic series, they locally pass to dolomitic,
compact to fine-crystalline, strongly karstified, bituminous and medium to thick bedded. Around the Kallithea village area they enclose Megalodon that determine their upper Triassic age. Their total thickness
reaches up to 150 m.
2.2 Basic intrusive formations
They are great masses of submarine extrusions (pillow lavas), mainly spilites and diabasic rock types,
in greenish or red ruby colour, commonly widely altered and locally schistose. Generally, they show
secondary pseudo-bedding and only in few cases are unbedded. Frequently there are intercalations of
limestones and sandstones. Their estimated thickness reaches 250 m.
2.3 Peridotitic mass
Is of limited size, appears within the clastic sediments of the overthrusted series. Has fairly preserved
peridotites and macroscopically pyroxenes are distinguished.
2.4 Clastic formations
Small outcrops are found at the base of the overthrusted basic intrusive formations of Kallithea – Drakei
area. Sandstones are fine to medium grained, with intercalations of coarse grained ores and grits. Maximum observed thickness is about 50 m.
3. Neogene Formations
These formations fill the major basins of the island and their age is determined in Miocene – Pliocene.
Their thickness is high and the whole system overlies the metamorphic substrate. Their formation is related with the tangential movements of the upper Miocene (Angelier 1976, Stamatakis 1989).
The system of Neogene basins includes:
Paleokastro basin
Mytilinii basin
Karlovassi basin
3.1 Paleokastro basin
Occurs in the narrow, lengthy terrain subsidence of Vathy – Paleokastro – Psili ammos area and includes
the following Neogene formations:
3.1.1 Travertine-like limestones
They appear with intercalations of marls and fine loose materials. They constitute the upper and part of
the lateral transition of the above mentioned marls.
The Ampelos sub-unit.
The Vourliotes-Zoodohos Pigi sub-unit.
28
3.1.2 Marls
They have low cohesion; consist mainly of sandstones, with dispersed pebbles-rubbles, alternating with
tuffs and tuffites. Sometimes there are intercalations of conglomerates. Generally, they constitute the
lower section of the basin’s Neogene formations.
3.1.3 Conglomerates of Neogene base
Their origin is fluvio-terrestrial, commonly with red colours, consisting pebbles of metamorphic substrate mainly of quartzites, marbles and schists. Their maximum thickness is about 75m.
3.1.4 Volcanic rocks
Occurring mainly in he eastern and the western side of Ampelos Mountain. They are mainly consisted of
basalts, rhyolites, trachites and dacitoids.
3.1.5 Volcanic tuffs
Basalts tuffs which are overlying the great basalt mass, that occurs within the lower series of Mytilinii
basin. They are mainly consisted of fine material, unbedded or partly bedded, locally hosting Fe-oxide
veins.
3.2 Mytilinii basin
It constitutes a tectonic subsidence of N-S direction that extends beyond Samos’ broader area. It seems
to be part of the wider subsidence of the east Aegean, concurrent with the large trenches of the Hellenic
region that started to evolve during lower to medium Miocene. Mytilinii basin includes the following
formations:
3.2.1 Lower series of Mytilinii basin
It consists of lacustrine, medium to thick-bedded travertine-like limestones and thin-bedded marls. Frequently there are intercalations with red loam, clays and tuff and tuffite beddings. Their slope is northwestern, but locally they are intensely folded. They extend widely and occupy the westerner part of the
basin, including Pagondas – Pithagorio area, Mavratzei, Mana Kokariou and Avlakia. Their total thickness
is approximately 850 m and their age is probably upper Miocenic.
3.2.2 Clastic series of Mytilinii basin
It consists mainly of fluvial and lacustrine deposits, with alternating beds of medium cohesion, breccias,
conglomerates, grits, red or yellowish loams. Frequently clays and tuffs occur with intercalations of sandy
marls and marly limestones locally, in the upper members of the series.
3.2.3 Upper series of Mytilinii basin
The upper series of Mytilinii basin consist of lacustrine limestones, travertine-like and at places marly,
medium to thick bedded, sometimes pseudoolithic, whitish to grey and sometimes yellowish, with lectincular intercalations of loose marls, loams and tuffic bodies, enclosing dispersed pebbles. At places there
are pure conglomeratic breccia intercalations, generally of small thickness. These formations overlie the
clastic series of Mytilinii basin, which embrace the known Pikermian mammals’ fauna.
29
3.3 Karlovassi basin
It is, like Mytilinii basin, a tectonic subsidence with N-S direction, between Ampelos schists and Marathokampos – Kosmadei schists. It consists of the following formations:
3.3.1 Upper series of Karlovassi basin
They are found mainly in the area between the public road of Karlovassi – Vathy port and the coast, overlying conformably the clastic series of the same basin. They consist mainly of marls and travertine-like
lacustrine limestones, with intercalations of low cohesion marls, sometimes enclosing disperse pebbles.
The above mentioned formations are possibly analogous to the formations of Mytilinii basin. Their thickness reaches approximately 120 m and their age is probably Miocenic.
3.3.2 Clastic series of Karlovassi basin
The typical occurrences appear at Hydrousa village. The series consist of lacustrine-fluvial deposits overlying conformably the lacustrine sediments of Karlovassi lower series, and disconformably the marly limestones of Pyrgos area. Possibly, these deposits are analogous to the clastic ones of Mytilinii series. They
are mainly conglomeratic-breccia, unbedded, of low cohesion, with pebbles and fragments of volcanites,
Neogene marly limestones and metamorphic rocks such as marbles, schists and quartzites. Frequently
the conglomeratic breccia alternate or pass laterally to finer clastic deposits of grit and sandstones with
a marly matrix. Locally, there are also sandy marls and red loam, with disperse grits and pebbles. The
thickness of the series ranges between 50 and 200m.
3.3.3 Lower series of Karlovassi basin
The lower series of Karlovassi basin consist of:
Hard Marls, whitish, grey or yellowish, well and thin bedded, frequently foliated and alternated with
friable marls. Inside them also appear intercalations of clays, sandy marls and breccias with components
of Neogene sediments and conglomerates. Additionally, beddings of fine tuffic materials and tuffites of
brown or greenish colour can be found. The whole sequence is often folded, with axes striking NE. Their
maximum thickness is estimated up to 400m.
Travertine-like limestones that locally appear with tuffic materials. They constitute the lateral transition from the marls of Karlovassi basin lower series. Frequently, they also occur as intercalations within
marls. Their total thickness may exceed 150m and their age is Miocene.
Additionally, the following formations can also be found in Karlovassi basin:
Pyroclastic material, consisting mainly of rubbles deriving from Neogene sediments, volcanics
and from segments of the metamorphic substrate with tuff materials. They are unbedded, of low
cohesion and frequently opalised.
Silicified Neogene sediments of marls and marly limestones of the Karlovassi basin series.
Silicified conglomeretic breccia of the Neogene sediments base, red-coloured, overlying the metamorphic system.
Small Volcanic bodies, not distinguished during geological mapping
Small deposits of saponites (clays), deriving from post volcanic hydrothermal activity.
The maximum sequence’s thickness is about 200m and its age probably Miocenic, as can be concluded from the lower formations’ of the series age that is also Miocenic.
Karlovassi basin is most likely of a different age than Mytilinii basin, since there many lithologic diversities. According to Solounias, the two basins have major differences, which are depicted on the following table I.
30
Table I. Differences between Karlovassi and Mytilinii basins.
Karlovassi basin
1. absence of tuffs
2. absence of volcano-clastic materials
3. few volcanic intrusions
4. few limestones
5. many dark-coloured sediments
6. many fine-grained clay sediments
7. many plant fossils
8. no vertebrate fossils
9. absence of basalts
10. limited folds and faults
Mytilinii basin
1. presence of tuffs
2. presence of volcano-clastic materials
3. many volcanic intrusions
4. many limestones
5. many open-coloured sediments
6. few fine-grained clay sediments
7. few plant fossils
8. vertebrate fossils
9. few basalts
10. many folds and faults
4. Quarternary deposits
Quaternary deposits consist mainly of fluvial-torrential materials, products of the substrate’s erosion and
of the Neogene basins, as well as talus cones. In further detail there are:
Coastal deposits of sand and sand dunes
Alluvial deposits with clayey-sandy material, loam, sand, pebbles, gravels, recent material at torrent beds and torrential terraces.
Small interior basins’ alluvial deposits of fine material, terra rossa with grits and coarse torrential
material
Recent scree and talus cones with angular fragments, unconsolidated or weakly cemented with
clayey-sandy matrix
Old scree and talus cones of strongly cemented agglomerate and red fine-grained material at
places.
Torrential terrace about 10m high
Scree materials usually occur at the base of high inclination slopes, and most of the times are correlated with the presence of a normal fault. Their placement, which is mainly in accordance with the
steep slope, shows the recent tectonic activity after their deposition and subsequently the tectonic deformation after Pliocene, establishing in that way the neotectonic activity of the island. Fluvo-torrential
materials are limited either along the bed of torrents as terraces, or at the lowlands of Marathokampos,
Kokkari, Mesokampos and Karlovassi areas. Their total thickness is small and their age Holocenic. On the
coastal areas, depositions become fine and loamy-clayey. Due to low altitude and limited permeability of
these materials, water overflows and swamps frequently.
D. TECTONICS
The tectonic conditions of the island have been settled by the general tectonic episodes of Aegean, which
concluded three phases (Genc et al., 2001):
1. NW–SE extensional phase
2. N–S extensional phase
3. NE–SW extensional phase
Especially, the tectonic structure of the island is dominated by tangential movements, which are
expressed with the placement of tectonic nappes (Angelier, 1976). Beyond this, the tectonic structure is
characterised by individual neotectonic episodes, of both plastic and fractural deformation. The plastic
31
deformation is expressed by isoclinal folds of various directions (Kammas, 1998) and the fractural one
(non-plastic) by normal faults, mainly of NNW-SSE directions, with Plio-Quarternary age, that had a
profound impact on the transversal partition of Neogene basins.
Analytically, the tectonic conditions of Samos Island remain the same all over her land. They are configured mainly by normal faults of NW-SE direction, creating frequently steep slopes. In general, faults of
this direction (NW-SE) exist in a percentage of 75%, while all the other directions’ faults only in 25%.
Plastic deformation of the metamorphic system and the overlying Mesozoic calcareous sediments
(limestones, dolostones), occurs before and during Tertiary, with axes striking NE-SW, similar to the direction of mountains. Tensile and compressional fields are expressed through the strongly folded structure of flexible schists and through the wide radial folds of stiff limestones. The most profound influence
of those tectonic episodes is clearly shown at the formation of Samos’ major mountains.
Fractural tectonic activity is accompanied with vertical anodic and cathodic movements, which contributed to nowadays morphological features of the area. The main fractural phases that had a great
impact on Samos structural formation are described below:
The first phase embraces two groups of vertical and semi-vertical faults of NE-SW and NW-SE direction correspondingly, that are placed chronologically after the plastic deformation (folds). During the
phase of fracturing, two individual basins were created and were filled with Neogene sediments, while
simultaneous volcanic activity took place. The sediments of these two basins (Karlovassi and Mytilinii)
are found in discomformity with the substrate. The eastern basin (Mytilinii) should have been near an
active volcanic centre, as is made obvious from the presence of tuffs almost along the whole range of the
sequence.
The second phase that followed, took place during Quarternary and was accompanied with a major
fault system of E-W direction. Those episodes have created discontinuities at lithologic formations and
are locally related with strongly fractured and mylonitized zones, along with tectonic breccia.
The study of old coastlines showed that Samos consists of at least 4 individual tectonic segments, of
different tectonic behaviour.
a) The western segment (segment A) has rotated around an axe of E-W direction, causing the uplift
of the northern side and the subsidence of the southern side. Northern side has been uplifted
during three different paroxysmic phases, of different magnitudes and frequencies. On the contrary, the southern side has been submerged in one phase.
b) The southern part of Samos Island represents a second tectonic segment (segment B) that has
been subjected to a swinging movement (uplift and dive) of about 20cm, around an axe of E-W
direction. The northern boundary of this segment seems to define an E-W direction fault zone
that crosses Limnonaki region, while the eastern and western boundaries seem to formulate the
eastern and western fault zones of Karlovassi and Mytilinii basins.
c) The eastern segment (segment C) has been subjected to a total dive of about 50cm, and the
western boundary of this tectonic segment seems to define Vathy – Psili ammos fault zone, with
a NW-SE direction.
Finally, there are no sufficient evidences about the north coast of the central part of Samos Island,
as well as for the north and south coasts of the Neogene basins, in order to classify them in individual
tectonic segments or as parts of other already existing segments.
32
E. ANALYSIS OF FRACTURAL DEFORMATION
Samos’ tectonic structure is dominated by the large detachment faults of the two main Neogene basins
(Karlovassi and Mytilinii). On the eastern part of the island there are fault zones of significant length
(over 15km), the possible reactivation of which may give seismic events of noticeable magnitudes. On
the western part of the island, was discovered that fractural tectonic structure consist of normal, reverse,
and even sometimes strike slip faults, creating thus a complicated tectonic system. Additionally, the various lineations that have been observed on fault surfaces, show movements of different phases, but with a
more profound horizontal component than a vertical one. In further detail, according to their kinematic
characteristics the fault structures can be distinguished as hereunder:

Reverse faults of N-S strike and bisided direction of movement (eastwards and westwards). They
are mainly located in the Neogene formations of Mytilinii basin as well as in the metamorphic
substrate. Strike lineations that have been measured on slickensides, show a horizontal component of movement, apart from the major vertical one, in a way that usually faults tend to have a
side-reverse character.
Strike slip faults of variable directions from NE-SW to ENE-WSW with dextral horizontal component and from NW-SE to NNW-SSE with sinistral horizontal component. Deviations from this
form of horizontal strike slip faults are observed in small scale. Faults belonging to this group tend
to occur mainly to Neogene sediments and their underlying metamorphic substrate.
Normal faults (with horizontal component) that appear as a dense network of tectonic structures
with various directions, affecting the Neogene sediments and metamorphic substrate as well.
However, some of them show complicated kinematics with movements of different ages, which
confirms the multiple actions of tectonic faults through geological time.
F. EARTHQUAKE POTENTIAL
Samos, Ikaria and the other islands of the east-central Aegean, have been affected by seismic episodes.
These past episodes are characterized as some of the strongest and most destructive earthquakes that
have ever hit the Aegean. In the 19th century, Samos was shaken by several moderate earthquakes which
had rather minor effects, but in 1904 and 1955 two big earthquakes with magnitudes of 6.8 and 6.9 respectively on the Richter scale, caused a lot of damage (Stiros, 1995; Papazachos and Papazachou, 1997).
The 1955 event was followed by a small tsunami and caused extensive damage in the Pythagoreio town.
This event probably reflected reactivation of a fault along the Menderes River in Turkey (Saroglu et al.,
1992).
Older earthquakes provoked many casualties so much in Samos as in the wider region. The 1881
earthquake that killed about 4550 people in the island of Chios alone (Papazachos and Papazachou,
1989) was the biggest lethal earthquake recorded in Greece during the last centuries. This earthquake
led a significant portion of the population of Chios to migration (Chios was then dominated by the
Turks) to Samos. Similarly with the abandonment of Samos in 1475, when its residents migrated to
Chios, probably after an earthquake.
In any case, only a few studies of earthquakes have been conducted in these islands, and the seismic
history in the majority remains unknown. For example, during the period from 1500 B.C. to 1800 A.D.
the seismic list of Papazachos and Papazachou (1989) does not include any events for Samos. In the list
of Guidoboni et al. (1994), covering the period before 1000 A.D., as well as the most recent list of Pa-
33
pazachos and Papazachou (1997), only two earthquakes have been recorded (circa 200 B.C. and circa 47
A.D.). It does not constitute by any means surprise that the seismic danger is underestimated.
Archaeologists, usually associate the observed destructions and abandonment of important buildings
with earthquakes. A devastating earthquake or a line of earthquakes in 262 A.D., the epicentre of which
is unknown (Guidoboni et al., 1994), is supposed to be responsible for the abandonment of residences in
Iraion village the period 260-270 A.D. (Kyrielis, 1983). On the other hand, devastating earthquakes have
been reported from the total destruction and reconstruction of the monumental temple of Ira (temple of
Roikou), only a few decades after its completion in 560/570 B.C. In a nearby temple built circa 550 B.C.,
important repairs had taken place during the same period (Kyrielis, 1983).
Following the criteria of Stitou (1996), this inexplicable double destruction can be considered as the
result of one single earthquake.
Table II. Datum for known big (Μ≥6,0) earthquakes that caused damages to Samos
Date
200 B.C.
47 B.C.
1751, June 18th
1831, April 3rd
1846, June 13th
186, October 11th
1868, May 3rd
1873, January 31st
1877, October 14th
1893, March 12th
1904, August 11th
1955, July 16th
φο
37,7
37,84
37,8
37,7
37,6
37,7
37,6
37,8
37,7
37,9
37,66
37,55
λο
26,9
27,16
27,1
26,8
27,0
27,0
26,9
27,1
27,0
26,9
26,93
27,05
Mg
6,3
6,9
6,4
6,0
6,0
6,0
6,0
6,5
6,0
6,6
6,8
6,9
Maximum intensity
Samos (VIII)
Samos (VIII)
Samos (VIII)
Samos (VII)
Samos (VII)
Samos (VII)
Pagondas (VII)
Samos (VII)
Kokkari (VIII)
Samos (VII)
Samos (VIII)
Agathonisi (VIII)
G. METEOROLOGICAL - CLIMATIC DATA
The data used for the examination of individual climatic factors emanate from observations of the Meteorological Station of Samos (HNMS, 1978) and the automatic meteorological station of Vathy (Directorate of Agricultural Development of Prefecture Authorities of Samos) for the years 2006-2007. The
station of the HNMS is installed in the airport area, in 37o42’ latitude, 26o55’ longitude and 3m altitude.
The observations on the daily precipitation cover the period 1950-1997, the ones on temperature cover
the periods 1931-1940 and 1946-1971, the ones on sunlight the period 1959-1976 and the ones on
winds the period 1951-1977.
Conclusively, the following notes can be made about Samos’ climatic conditions:
The average hyper-annual value of the precipitation is 790 mm. The annual course of the average
monthly air temperature presets a simple fluctuation. The lowest temperature is observed in January
(10.9oC) and the highest in July (26.5oC). The differences of the average temperature between the summer and winter months are very small, while bigger fluctuations occur between spring and fall.
The average annual temperature breadth is 15,6oC and the average annual temperature is 18,4oC.
The annual course of the averages of the highest medium and lower temperature are proportional with
the course of the monthly average value of temperature.
Relative humidity follows opposite course to that of temperature. When temperature increases rela-
34
tive humidity decreases and vice versa. A minimum (58%) is observed in July and a maximum (73%) in
December. The average annual value for relative humidity is 67%.
The drought period on the island lasts about 5 months, from the end of May to the end of October
and is due to the northern dry continental winds (meltemia) that prevail this season on the region.
In Samos the yearly prevailing winds are of north-western direction and reach an average of 2.5-3.1
on the Beaufort scale. The aestival northern winds that occur in the region are continental, dry and are
named Etesian (Meltemia), they blow with breaks from the end of May until the end October and are
most frequent in August. The wind’s force is bigger during winter.
The island of Samos is among the regions with the most sunlight. The average annual number of
hours with sunlight is 2884,8. July has the most sunlight (377,6 hours on average), while December the
minimum (122,4 hour on average). The medium number of unclouded days at year [cloud: (0-0.15)/8]
are roughly 153 and cloudy [cloud: (6,5-8) /8] 56. Extreme climatic conditions as frost, hail, snow, dew,
fog and storms occur only few days per year.
Table III. Analytical meteorological elements
J
F
Precipitation (mm) 204,7 137,5
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
100,9 49,8 37,8 4,8
0,2
0,4
9,2
O
N
50,5 112,4
D
M
210,2
918,4
Temperature οC
Mean
10,9
11,2
12,8
16,3 20,4 24,4 26,5 26,4 23,8 19,7 16,1
12,8
18,4
Mean biggest
13,7
14,3
16,1
19,6 24,0 27,8 30,0 30,0 27,0 22,7 19,3
15,6
21,7
Mean least
8,1
8,2
9,3
12,5 16,3 20,1 22,1 22,2 19,6 16,3 13,3
10,1
14,8
Absolute biggest
21,8
21,9
26,8
30,7 35,8 37,1 38,7 38,2 37,0 33,4 30,0
25,9
38,7
Absolute least
-4,3
-3,8
-0,2
4,2
8,2
14,0 16,4 17,6 10,2 5,5
0,4
-2,0
-4,3
Relative mean air
humidity (%)
72
70
66
67
66
61
58
61
64
69
72
73
67
Prevailed direction NW
SE
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
NW
SE
NW
Speed (N)
2,9
3,1
3,1
3,1
2,7
3,1
3,5
3,3
2,9
2,5
2,6
3,0
2,9
Snow (days)
0,3
0,1
0,1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
0,5
Frost <0οC (days) 0,6
0,1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
0,1
0,8
Hail (days)
1,2
1,4
1,0
0,3
0,2
-
-
-
-
-
0,4
0,8
5,3
Dew (days)
1,5
2,0
2,6
2,9
2,1
0,5
0,1
0,8
1,9
4,2
5,6
1,8
26,0
Mist (days)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
0,2
-
-
-
-
0,2
Storm (days)
5,1
4,8
3,7
1,8
1,6
0,7
0,2
0,4
1,0
2,6
4,0
4,4
30,3
Wind
35
AUTOMATIC METEOROLOGICAL STATION (VATHY)
YDROLOGICAL YEAR
2006-07 / ΜΟΝΤΗ
Ta
RH
Rain
WS
WD
Sol_Rad
Tsoil
Patm
SEPTEMBER
22,3
67,1
6,2
2,5
ΔΒΔ
154148,2
25,8
997,5
OCTOBER
18,7
79,1
80,8
1,6
ΔΒΔ
106866,1
19,8
998,2
NOVEMBER
13,4
75,2
85,7
1,9
ΝΑ
78766,8
13,3
1003,0
DECEMBER
10,9
72,8
0,9
2,1
B
64126,1
11,2
1008,4
JANUARY
11,1
69,9
17,3
2,6
ΝΑ
67337,2
10,4
1005,3
FEBRUARY
10,6
74,3
26,7
2,4
ΝΑ
80263,5
10,8
998,1
MARCH
12,7
69,4
40,7
2,9
ΝΑ
130860,2
12,8
998,9
APRIL
15,1
59,8
3,0
2,6
ΔΒΔ
187456,4
15,9
999,5
MAY
19,9
70,4
44,8
1.5
ΝΑ
204729,5
19,9
995,3
JUNE
25,2
57,0
0,0
1,4
ΔΒΔ
216899,8
24,9
994,5
JULY
26,8
52,5
0,0
1,7
ΔΒΔ
229655,5
27,4
992,9
AUGUST
26,6
59,8
0,0
2,0
ΔΒΔ
200308,2
25,6
992,9
°C
hP
1721417,5
306,1
Sum
MEASUREMENT UNIT
°C
%
mm
m/s
°
W/m2
EXPLANATIONS
MEAN VALUE OF AIR TEMPERATURE
Ta
MEAN VALUE OF AIR HUMIDITY
RH
TOTAL PRESIPITATION
Rain
MEAN WIND SPEED
WS
PREVAILING WIND DIRECTION
WD
MEAN VALUE OF SOIL TEMPERATURE
Tsoil
MEAN VALUE OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Patm
LEAF HUMIDITY
LW
SOLAR RADIATION
Sol_Rad
36
H. HYDROLOGY OF THE REGION
Samos does not have any major rivers or lakes, but only creeks that retain water during winters. On the
contrary, there are many springs, with their majority been karstic. Many rainfalls and dense vegetation
contribute to the abundance of underground waters. Most settlements water supply comes from springs
and small depth drillings. Unfortunately, environmental degradation along with the increased needs of
the residents, cultures and growing tourism has negatively influenced the watery potential. In addition,
the percentage of the withheld surface waters has decreased considerably after the current and extended forest fires. The dense drainage pattern, which ensures the run-off of the region is characteristic
for the wider region.
Hydrogeology
The soils in the estuaries of torrents are alluvial and colluvial on the hill slopes, with good penetrability.
The soils on the slopes are formed in terraces with dry walls, fertile and without excessive salt. The hydrolithology of the wide area has the below specific characteristics:
The low regions’ alluvial depositions are consisted of clayey silts, sands and gravel formations. They
form in general shallow aquifers with variable permeability depending on the granulometry of the various
layers. Lateral (mainly limestone) taluses are generally consisted of non-cohesive coarse materials (sand,
gravels, shingles and locally blocks of stone) of small thickness and quite satisfactory permeability.
The depositions from the torrential terraces are consisted of sand, gravel, and breccias, as well as of
finely granular conjunctive components (clay, silt). They generally present a water table that depends on
the depth of the underlying impermeable formation.
Calciferous formations (limestones, marbles, dolomites) are characterised by intense karstic phenomena, mainly in fault-controlled areas. They present favourable conditions for the development of
underground waters, which discharge to karstic springs, or transfuse underground in the alluvial depositions and lateral taluses. On the contrary, marls practically constitute impermeable formations, due to
the fine texture of the clay and tuff material they consist.
ENVIRONMENT OF SAMOS
1. FLORA – LAND USE
Samos has more forestall regions, than it occasionally had in the last two centuries, despite the forest
fires of the last years. This is due to the high reforestation speed that permits the fast coverage of significant agricultural areas abandoned by farmers. Irrefutable witnesses are the enormous terraced regions,
in the mountains, which currently covered by forests.
The prevailing winds in Samos are northwestern, mainly during summer period when rains are rare.
That separates the island in three climatic areas. The northern part is influenced by the winds that come
from sea and are humid and cool. In the southern part, winds descend from the mountains dry and
turbulent (downwards winds). Lastly, there is the mountainous part where lower temperatures and
high humidity prevail. As can be expected, these areas do not have explicit limits and depending on the
climate of each region, the corresponding flora has been adapted.
Samos covers a surface of 478.2 Km2 from which, 69.5% are mountainous, 22% semi-mountainous
and 8.5% flat. According to the datum of the Directorate of Agriculture and the Directorate of Forests of
Samos this extent is distributed:
TYPE
Region (acres)
Percentage
Agricultural regions, Meadows, Pasturage
206.450
43,2%
Forests
136.400
28,6%
Forestall bushy regions
88.700
18,5%
Settlements, Roads
18.150
3,8%
Arid, Rocky
14.050
2,9%
Alpine areas
10.150
2,1%
Lakes, Rivers
4.300
0,9%
The main agricultural product of Samos are the olives; based on facts from the above services,
1.567.000 olive trees are regularly cultivated and according to calculations, they occupy about 90.000
acres. The 77% of olive trees are in the southern part, where they prevail because of being durable in
the drought. Secondly in terms of agricultural productivity are the vines, which are cultivated in 15.000
acres (exclusive variety of Samos’ white “Moschato”). The wine of this variety made the island famous
worldwide. Its cultivation is gathered in the northern and central part (Moschato area zone), while in the
southern part vines are few.
The citrus fruits flourish in low altitudes and in irrigated regions of low winds. Scattered trees exist
Geographical distribution of fire events in Samos island.
39
abundantly; systematic cultures however exist in the region of Myli, in the southern part. All kinds of
fruit-bearing trees prosper in Samos, however systematic cultures do not exist and the sporadic trees
abound, mainly in the northern part of the island and in the mountainous regions.
Systematic horticultural cultivations are held in the northern part, in the villages that round Karlovassi where flat and irrigated regions exist; smaller areas are cultivated in the entire island. In the southern
part, these cultivations present difficulties, because of the winds and the high temperatures. Few cereals
and legumes are cultivated, exclusively in the southern part.
Pine forests in Samos cover 136.400 acres or 28.5% of the island’s surface, the mountainous areas
and large areas of the northern part. In the southern part of the island, these forests are few. Pinus brutia
prevails in the lowlands, and reaches the sea, however from altitudes over 700m Pinus nigra prevails and
shapes extensive forests. This type of Pine is common in the central and meridian Europe and perhaps
the zone of Samos and Peloponnesus is the southerner it can occur. The bigger pinewoods exist on Ampelos, Kerketeas has less and mainly on the eastern and north-western slopes and some small clumps in
other regions. From testimonies, up to the beginning of the 20th century extensive forests of chestnut
and oaks existed, that disappeared by logging and forest fires.
Apart from the Pine forests the so-called forest regions also exist, and are estimated in 88.700 acres.
These are covered by various species of plants, whose height exceeds five metres. Such extensive regions
exist in the southern part, in the eastern, regions of Bathy, Palaiokastro and Samos, in the western part,
regions of Kallithea and Drakaio, and in many regions of the northern part. This type of vegetation covers
usually rocky and barren surfaces, with main characteristics, the small, hard and usually thorny leaves
covered by waxy substances, fat rind and deep radical system.
The main types of these bio-systems are Quercus coccifera, Pistacia lendiscus, Olea oleaster, Ceratonia siligua, Juniperus sp.,Pinus brutia, Spartium sp., Kalycotomus sp., Robus sp., Lonicera sp. and many
other. In great altitudes, where the soil is decalcified, apart from the previously mentioned, that do not
depend on calcium, Arbotus sp., Myrtus, Pistacia terebinthus, Erica verticilata and E.arborea.
These bio-systems, flourish fast after fires, so in a few years the landscape returns to its previous
conditions; the pines however are destroyed and must sprout or new ones should be planted. In rocky,
gravel and barren dry grounds, thorny, usually brushwood semi- bushes, like Poterium spinosum, Satureia thymbra, Origanon sp., Cistus incanus, Sarcopoterium spinosum, Thimus capitatus, Genista acanthoclada, Salbia sp., Sideritis sp. and many others develop. Such regions exist mainly in the southern and
western slopes of Kerketeas, where the soil has developed from gravels.
In streams and regions with springs or high territorial humidity, develop hydric trees, with sovereign
in Samos, the Platanus orientalis, but also the Laurus nobilis, and in certain regions, as in the stream of
Mitilinioi, the Salix cinerea. Bushes met in these regions are the Nerium oleander, in big density, the Vitex
agnus-castus, and many others, and from creepers, the Rubus sanctus, the Hedera helix, and the Smilax
aspera.
One-year-lasting plants abound, with sovereign the Graminae and the Leguminae, which due to the
island’s climate, develop too much. Their biological cycle begins with the first autumn rains and completes by the end of June.
Contrary to the remainder Aegean islands, the bigger part of Samos (23%) is occupied by forest pines
(Pinus brutia and Pinus nigra), while one third of the island’s surface is covered by bushes and olives
trees. Roughly, the half surface of the island is cultivable (areas with olive trees, ranches, horticultural
and vegetables). The following map shows the land uses of the island. Forest fires in the past few years
have decreased the region covered by olive trees and pines.
Geographical distribution of land use in Samos island.
WETLANDS AND PROTECTED AREAS OF SAMOS
1. WETLAND IN THE SALT MARSH (ALYKI – PSILI AMMOS)
The wetland in Alyki is in the eastern part of Samos and very near the coast of Minor Asia. Alyki used to
produce salt, the best one in Greece. In 1965 it ceased its activities. Alyki became a wetland and today,
in addition to its aesthetic value, it has a wide ecological significance, as it is a rare ecosystem for the Aegean islands. The quality and importance of the region is mainly attributed to the great numbers of birds
that visit or even reproduce every year in the swamp. The wetland is tightly associated with the great
wetlands in Asia Minor at the Delta of the Meander River and the Delta of the river Kastro, which are
among those regions in Turkey that are highly significant for birds and are protected within the framework of our neighbouring country’s legislation. For this reason, more birds find shelter in Alyki than in
many other islands and here is a major stop for many migratory species. The region has been recognized
as biotope in the list that has published the NCBW (National Catalogue of Biotopes and Wetlands), is
included in the CORINE and in NATURA 2000 and is characterised with element C1 (protected regions
of natural formations) in Land-planning of the island.
The most important threats within the site are tourism, illegal hunting, establishment of new tourist
shelters, and human waste. The location of the wetland adds aesthetic value to the site, thus attracting
many tourists yearly. At the same time, the growth of tourism has had an unfavourable influence. Unfortunately, because of the ignorance of the importance of the wetland and the inadequacy in applying the
laws for the protection of wetlands, tourist settlements develop, without hydrological or environmental
research. Thereby, in virtue of land reclamations, fillings with rubble and building, the wetland is shrinking. Tourist development also leads to contamination of the wetland through domestic waste, which is
deposited in the wetland since no study has been carried out. Moreover, the tourists increase leads to the
seasonal destruction of vegetation, which is caused by free camping and parking at the wetland site.
The wetland of Alyki, is one of the most threatened ecosystems in the Aegean Sea. The prohibition
of any kind of human activity in or near the wetland should not comprise a conservation policy for the
wetland, because it would be impractical. The maintenance of the wetland’s function and value is not uncompromising with human activity, as long as this activity will be well balanced. Thereby, the citizens, the
tourists and the local conservancy should be informed for the importance of the wetland, not only for the
scenic, but also for the environmental value. Kiosks, where brochures will be available, and signs could
be placed in the wetland. The brochures and the signs will inform the tourists about the wetland’s characteristics and about its environmental and scenic value. Brochures could also be handed out to citizens,
through water or electricity bills, which will inform about the wetland, but also prompt to participate in
the wetland’s protection, or in environmental schools in the course of volunteers groups.
42
Alyki wetland
Moreover, the wetland is an excellent example for environmental schools and education. Through
environmental schools, the students learn to respect and protect nature, but also management policies
that they can apply. This way they will learn to coexist with the physical environment and to use the wetland’s benefits without leading it to extinction. A protection frame, strictly applied, must be instituted,
which will appoint management policies for the wetland. Moreover, the financial development admitted
in the wetland should have sustainable character. With initiative of the Prefecture authorities of Samos,
a Study by the Hellenic Ornithological Society has been conducted in order to appoint and manage the
protected region. The study forecasts restoration of deposits, creation of museum of salt and observatory of birds.
2. AMPELOS MOUNTAIN
Ampelos mountain (or Karvounis) is located in the central part of the island. Its higher top is the Prophet
Ilias (1063 m.). The region is wooded with coniferous forests and schlerofyllous bushes, as well as regions
with limestone rocks. The native vegetation in the mountainous parts of Karvounis, contrary to the majority of the Aegean islands, has not been influenced by agriculture or pasturage. Thus, large areas with
native vegetation are maintained.
In Karvounis, from the altitude of 700 m. and above, occur trees of Pinus nigra, which above the 850
m. constitute the sovereign type. Pinus nigra not only is a rare type of Pine but also has special use in
shipbuilding. It covers 15% of the island’s forest regions. The springs of Kerkis and Karvounis supply the
Karlovasitiko stream, that flows through Middle Karlovasi.
43
3. KERKETEAS MOUNTAIN
It is the taller mountain of Samos, with old enchanting legends about the temples, the caverns and the
complicated paths. From a geographic point of view, Kerkis (1434m) is a mountainous unit that occupies
the western part of Samos and apart from his main mass also includes other smoother mountains with
separate names. Menegaki (892 m), Fteria, Ano Marathokampo (722 m), Kastri in Kosmadaious (661
m) that took his name from the ruins of a castle found there, the Fat Mountain in Kastania (600 m) and
Gioka in the south-western (375 m) that its name in Albanian means “white horse”. Its summit is Vigla
and is the taller in the Aegean after Feggari in Samothrace.
Kerkis has never been a volcano, as was believed because of the caverns and the gulches, which were
considered craters but are instead streambeds for underground torrents of the mountainous unit. Undisputed proof is the fact that there are no evidence of volcanic rocks, but only limestones, marbles and
slates.
The unit also includes parts of mountainous Mediterranean vegetation, humid valleys, coniferous
forests and schlerophyllous bushes. Its coasts are steep and rocky, with few exceptions, as Small and Big
Seitani in the north, which are protected areas of unique beauty and immense ecological value. They
have been characterized as biotopes for both sea turtle Caretta-Caretta and seal Monachus-Monachus.
Kerkis mountain is included in the National List of proposed regions of Special Community Interest
(pSCI) (category C), as well as in the Special Areas of Protection (SPA).
In Kerkis Mountain, one can meet a great number of birds of prey, endemic, very rare plants and invertebrates, due to the adjacency with M. Asia, the big altitude and the amount of ecotopes. Particularly
flora presents huge interest. There are relic plants, as called by the botanists. Here exclusively flourish
the Alissum samium, Centaurea xylobasis, Consolida samia, Moscari kerkis, Anthemis rosea subsp rosea,
Erodium sibthorpianum subsp veteri, Centaurea rechingeri, Galium samothracicum, Tordylium hirtocarpum and Verbascum icaricum.
4. MESOKAMPOS MARSH
Mesokampos marsh or “Balkamia”, is found 4.5 km eastern - northeaster of Pythagoreio. It covers 1400
acres and occupies the eastern part of Mesokampos, approximately half its surface. The 800 acres constitute
a permanent marsh. The remainder area is periodically submerged after intense and long precipitation.
There is a small lake with fish in the biotope such as mules, black eels and turtles. Sand dunes also exist in the beach zone of Mesokampos. The biological value of the wetland is because the bushy vegetation
of stubbles constitutes important shelter for both migratory birds and local fauna. Here geese, ducks and
other birds find shelter. The region constitutes a suitable region for the nesting and breeding of birds as
stubbles offer protection and cover. The above mentioned facts and the fact that Alyki wetland lacks in
nesting areas, as it has no stubbles to protect the animals, shows the great ecological value of Mesokampos marsh.
5. BARRAGES IN GLYFADES OF PYTHAGOREIO AND CHORA MARSH
In the Pythagoreio Municipality region lays the Glyfades wetland, which comprises of the Small Glyfada,
the Big Glyfada and the Chora marsh. Small Glyfada has water all year long and communicates with Big
Glyfada with continuous flow. Its formation is due to the existence of many small springs that supply it
with brackish water. There are no stagnant waters. In the wetland, nest migratory birds such as herons,
ducks and pelicans but endemic as well. Small reptiles live by the banks and the stubbles. Small Glyfada
44
takes a great toll by trespassers as they try to suppress the wetland using rubble. In the Glyfada region
one can find important archaeological monuments such as the walls of Polykratis, the Ancient city, the
sanctuary of Artemis, Iera Odos, Roman baths, old Christian graves and churches etc.
Glyfada wetland is included in the list of hydrobiotopes that has published the EKBY as well as in the
CORINE and is characterized as region with element C2 (region of protection of natural shapings) in
Land-planning. The same pressure put on Glyfada wetland is also put on the Chora marsh (of 1300 acres
extent). It is also included in the NCBW’s list of wetlands and is characterised as C3 region (region of
wetland protection) in Land-planning.
REFERENCES
Angelier J., 1976: ‘Sur l’ alterance plio-quaternaire de mouvements extensifs et compressifs en Egree orientale: l’
ile de Samos, Grece. C.R. Acad.Sc.Paris. 283, 463-466
Guidoboni, E. et al., (1994). Catalogue of ancient earthquakes in the Mediterranean area up to the 10th century.
Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica, 504 pp.
Kammas P., (1998): Hydrogeological study of island Samos, IGME
Kanari D. (2005). Samos’s forests: problems and perspectives. 1st conference of environmental education school
programs (in Greek), Korinthos, Greece, 23-23 September 20005
Katsadorakis G. & K. Paragamian (2006). Wetlands of Aegean. WWF-Greece, Athens. 36 p.
Kyrielis, H. (1983). The Heraion at Samos. Krini, Athens.
Papanikolaou D., 1979: Unites tectoniques and phases de deformation dans l île de Samos. Mer Egee, Grèce. Bull.
Soc. Geol. France. 21, 745-752.
Papanikolaou, D. (1979). Unités tectoniques et phases de déformation dans I’ île de Samos, Mer Egée. Bull. Soc.
Géol. France, 745-752.
Papazachos, B. & Papazachou, C. (1989). The Earthquakes of Greece (in Greek), Zitis, Thessloniki.
Papazachos, B. & Papazachou, C. (1997). The Earthquakes of Greece, Zitis, Thessloniki.
Riedl, H (1989). Beitraege zur Landschaftsstruktur und Morphogenese von Samos und Ikaria (Ostaegaeische Inseln). Salzburger geographische Arbeiten, 143-243.
Saroglu, F. et al., (1992). Active fault map of Turkey, 1:1,000,000 scale, General Directorate of Mineral Research
and Exploration (MTA), Ankara.
Stamatakis M. & Zagouroglou C. (1984): On the occurrence of niter in Samos Island, Greece (in Greek). Mineral
Wealth, no 33, p. 17-26.
Stamatakis M., 1986: Boron distribution in hot springs, volcanic emanations, and sedimentary & volcanic rocks of
Cainozoic age in Greece (in Greek). Ph. D. Thesis,
Stiros, S. (1995). Archaeological evidence of antiseismic constructions in antiquity. Annali di Geofisica, 725-736.
Stiros, S. (1998). Late quaternary coastal changes in Samos Island, Greece. UNESCO-IUGS-367.
Theodoropoulos D., (1979): Geological map 1:50000, Vathi port sheet, IGME
Tsiouris, S.Ε. & P.A. Gerakis (1991). Wetlands of Greece: values, alterations, conservation. WWF, Laboratory
of Ecology and Environmental Protection of Faculty of Agriculture of Aristotelian University of Thessaloniki,
IUCN. Thessaloniki.