Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development:

Transcription

Al Buraimi Integrated
Urban Development:
A strategic approach towards resilience
All rights reserved:
Technische Universität Berlin
Urban Management Program
Editors:
Sonja Nebel
Jesús Salcedo V.
Authors:
Jesús Salcedo V.
Pedro Becerra
Panagiotis Achamnos
Florencia Carvajal
Ana Alcántara
Sonja Nebel
Proofreading:
Shane O’Hanlon
Website: www.urbanmanagement.tu-berlin.de
© Al Buraimi, A Strategic Approach towards Integrated Urban Development and Resilient Urban
Management
Layout by Jesus Salcedo V www.js-arquitectos.com
2
Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience
Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development:
A strategic approach towards resilience
Berlin, 2015
Technische Universität Berlin
3
Foreword
The aspirations of communities evolve and change with the requirements and development of
societies. Cities and towns are beautiful places that contribute to the variety of cultures and to
the quality of life of communities in our diverse world. The Buraimi governorate with a history of
intra-regional trade and a meeting ground of trading convoys was indicated as part of Twam, and
the well known Al Buraimi oasis. Out of a desire for further development in the cities of Al Buraimi
governorate, research institutions from Oman and abroad have been involved. The cooperation
between the Municipal Council in Al Buraimi Governorate and the Technical University of Berlin
brings in the Urban Management Master Program to evaluate the current situation and policies in
the sectors covered by the studies of the program.
It is our goal that such cooperation serves as a model for further efforts with academic and research
institutions of urban planning. The results of this cooperation will contribute in the formation of
better government for the civil society and to enriching the knowledge about urban planning, public
transport, tourism and architecture.
4
Advancing the municipal sector in the cities of the world towards innovation, it is important to
localize innovative thoughts within authorities of planning and executive bodies and activate the role
of private sector as well as to encourage creative locals to play an active role in the formation of the
civil character of modern cities. Such an approach will significantly contribute to the development,
the culture and economy of the Sultanate of Oman.
On behalf of the people of Al Buraimi Governorate, myself and all municipal council and government
institutions’ staff, I extend our thanks to the Technical University of Berlin - Urban Management
Program- and all Master students that participated in the studies and co-operation with the
municipal council in the governorate. We appreciate the efforts that they have made for the success
of the co-operation and we are looking forward to further co-operations in the future. Our thanks go
to all my fellow members of the municipal council on their active role.
Ibrahim Said Al Busaidi
Governor of Al Buraimi
Chairman of Al Buraimi Municipal Council
5
Foreword
This report is intended to open a broader discourse on future development in the Governorate
of Al Buraimi, Sultanate of Oman. The country is facing high population growth and a dynamic
urbanization process that has been started about 45 years ago based on the discovery of fossil fuels.
Not only in the capital city of Muscat but as well in smaller towns and former rural areas drastic
transformation took place – and is still ongoing. An increasing need for jobs, social and health
facilities, transport infrastructure as well as for housing is confronted with limited resources such as
oil and gas but as well land and environment.
The Governorate and Municipality of Al Buraimi have started to assess and reflect ongoing processes
and invited five young architects and civil engeneers, students from the Urban Management Master
Programme of TU Berlin, Germany to research on key fields of urban and regional development in
the Governorate.
Five key fields have been selected according to emerging challenges in the Governorate, such as
how to handle the threatening decay of the historic parts of the former oasis Hamasa and Sa’ara,
how to meet the high demand for residential plots, how to get them serviced properly and in time
with fresh water, electricity and sewage systems, how to allow for appropriate transport and mobility
within the city and how to balance expanding urban structures with remaining rural ones in the
region with its particular constraints and potentials.
This report describes the current state of development in the forementioned fields and presents
recommendations towards a comprehensive strategic urban management in Al Buraimi, based
on the overall goal of a sustainable and resilient future development to be managed within crosssector coordination and interdepartemental cooperation. This is summarized in short-, medium,and longterm action plans accompanied by a chapter on further studies needed, on capacity
development and on cross cutting issues related to all five key fileds worked on.
6
We hope to offer forwordlooking and encouraging findings that may foster a vivid dialogue - among
all parties involved- about crucial issues of Al Buraimi future development. This report could
have been elaborated thanks to the highly appreciated support –financial as well as technical and
organizational- from the Governorate and the Municipality of Al Buraimi. The joint efforts taken from
Al Buraimi Governmental Organizations and TU Berlin, Urban Management Programme made
it possible to conduct a field survey in September/October 2014 followed by intensive scientific
elaborations in form of master thesis submitted in February 2015.
We wish to express our sincere gratitude for the opportunity to carry out this report in fruitful
cooperation between Al Buraimi Governorate and Municipality and TU Berlin
Dr. Sonja Nebel / Dr. Bettina Hamann
7
Acknowledgments
The team is most grateful to the Governorate of Al Buraimi, and to the Municipal Council for the
opportunity to do research and field work, besides the generous financial support that made this
possible.
This research would not have been possible without the help and interest of His Excellency Al Sayed
Ibrahim Bin Said Al Busaidi, Governor of Al Buraimi.
The team would also like to thank the following Ministry Branches in Al Buraimi for their kindness
and welcoming during all the interviews: Al Buraimi Governorate Office, Ministry of Agriculture
and Fisheries Al Buraimi Branch, Ministry of Environment & Climate Affairs Al Buraimi Branch,
Ministry of Housing Al Buraimi Branch, Ministry of Regional Municipalities & Water Resources Al
Buraimi Branch, Ministry of Tourism Al Buraimi Branch, Ministry of Transport and Communications
Al Buraimi Branch, Ministry of Transport and Communications in Muscat, Municipal Council of Al
Buraimi, Oman Chamber of Commerce & Industry Al Buraimi Branch, and the Transit Department
of the Royal Oman Police of Al Buraimi.
Many thanks to Dr. Hammad Al Gharibi for his initiative, guidance and welcoming in Al Buraimi.
Likewise, thanks to the members of the Municipal Council of Al Buraimi for fostering this research.
Special thanks to Mohammed Al-Badi, Sheikha Al Naimi and Mohammed bin Hamed bin Miftah Al
Shamsi.
Sinicerely,
Panagiotis Achamnos, Ana Alcántara, Pedro Becerra, Florencia
Carvajal, Bettina Hamann, Sonja Nebel, Jesús Salcedo
8
Table of contents
Foreword �� 6
Acknowledgments ��8
List of figures �� 12
List of boxes ��16
List of abbreviations and acronyms ��18
Executive Summary �� 20
Part 1 Current trends and challenges
Introduction �� 24
Rationale ��27
Urbanization background in Oman and Al Buraimi ��28
History and urbanization in inner Oman settlements ��34
History and urbanization in Al Buraimi ��36
Current trends ��41
Current challenges �� 44
SWOT analysis �� 46
Al Buraimi 2030; a vision for a resilient future ��52
The need for a paradigm shift ��54
Part 2.1 Regional development & growth management
Assesment of the current state ��58
Spatial analysis �� 64
The setting of areas for strategic development and growth management �� 68
The city centre of Al Buraimi ��72
The outskirts of Al Buraimi: ��76
As Sunainah �� 80
Selected instruments for urban growth management ��82
Action plan for regional development through growth management �� 86
Conclusions �� 89
References �� 90
9
Part 2.2 Sustainable transportation
Assessment of the current state of transportation and mobility �� 96
Transportation planning procedure �� 101
Transportation legal framework ��102
Urban space for mobility ��104
Goals.... ��107
Governance / Institutional recommendations ��108
Technical recommendations �� 114
Improvement of regional public transportation ��120
Action / management plan �� 121
Conclusions ��122
Part 2.3 Infrastructure Development
Assesment of the current state of infrastructure ��128
Water management �� 134
Strategies for sustainable development in water management �� 138
Solid waste management �� 141
Strategies for sustainable development in solid waste management �� 143
Wastewater management �� 147
Strategies for sustainable development in wastewater management �� 150
References ��155
Part 2.4 Housing & urban design
Assessment of the current state of housing ��162
Urban planning instruments – structure plans compared ��164
Finding: Dual reality – dual dynamics of develoment ��170
Finding: Change in urban morphology ��176
Recommendations ��182
Guidelines for urban design �� 183
10
Part 2.5 Heritage management and responsible tourism
Assesment of the current state of heritage �� 190
Tourism in Al Buraimi �� 191
Heritage assets inventory for tourism in Al Buraimi �� 195
Hamasa: an example for responsible tourism development ��201
Guidelines and Action plan towards responsible tourism in Hamasa �� 203
References ��212
Part 3 Further recommendations
Cross cutting issues ��216
Capacity Development for sustainable development Al Buraimi ��221
Further Studies recommended ��225
Annex
Methodological remarks ��232
List of Institutions visited �� 233
Glossary. ��234
Most relevant references �� 237
About the authors �� 242
11
List of figures
12
Figure 1.
Main suq in Al Buraimi ��25
Figure 2. Abandoned agricultural plots in the city centre �� 26
Figure 3.
Geographical location of Oman. �� 29
Figure 4.
Hajar mountain range, Oman. ��32
Figure 5. Urbanization process of an inner Oman oasis settlement: Nizwa �� 33
Figure 6.
Geographical location of Al Buraimi Governorate �� 35
Figure 7. Villages in the Buraimi Oasis area. ��36
Figure 8.
View of an aflaj channel �� 37
Figure 9.
Current state of As Sara, �� 40
Figure 10.
Lost oasis and heritage ��43
Figure 11.
A street in Sa ‘ara, Al Buraimi ��43
Figure 12.
View of the scattered neighbourhoods �� 55
Figure 13.
Maximum and minimum temperatures in Al Buraimi Governorate. ��58
Figure 14.
Average rainfall in Al Buraimi Governorate ��59
Figure 15.
Production of desalinated water in different Governorates. ��61
Figure 16.
Omani population pyramid in Al Buraimi Governorate in 2012 �� 62
Figure 17.
Expat population pyramid in Al Buraimi Governorate in 2012 �� 62
Figure 18.
Mens tailoring and readymade clothes. �� 64
Figure 19.
Spatial charachetristics in Al Buraimi ��65
Figure 20.
Satelite view of Al Buraimi’s ��67
Figure 21.
Current land use plan ��67
Figure 22.
Strategic area 1. City centre and 2. Outskirts. �� 69
Figure 23.
Strategic area 2. As Sunainah �� 70
Figure 24.
Strategic area 1. City centre satelite image ��72
Figure 25.
Strategic area 1. City centre: Urban growth management instruments �� 73
Figure 26.
Strategic area 1. City centre: Specialized clothing cluster ��74
Figure 27.
Strategic area 1. City centre: Time allowed for plots to develop �� 75
Figure 28.
Strategic area 1. City centre: Urban design intervention potential �� 75
Figure 29.
Strategic area 2. Outskirts satelite image: ��76
Figure 30.
Strategic area 2. Outskirts: Urban growth management instruments ��77
Figure 31.
Strategic area 2. Outskirts: New typology implementation ��78
Figure 32.
Strategic area 2. Outskirts: Urban design intervention potential: ��78
Figure 33.
Scattered housing in the outskirts of Al Buraimi ��79
Figure 34.
Strategic area 3. As Sunainah: satelite image �� 80
Figure 35.
Strategic area 3. As Sunainah: urban growth management instruments ��81
Figure 36.
Action plan for growth management ��87
Figure 37.
View of Al Buraimi‘s scattered urbanism �� 89
Figure 38.
Built roads in Al Buraimi �� 98
Figure 39.
Carbon dioxide emissions in Oman �� 98
Figure 40.
Mobility creating factors �� 100
Figure 41.
Transportation planning procedure ��102
Figure 42.
Sample area in Al Buraimi �� 105
Figure 43.
Map of roads network in Al Buraimi �� 106
Figure 44.
New road in Al Buraimi �� 112
Figure 45.
Public transportation plan �� 116
Figure 46.
Transit oriented development TOD concept �� 118
Figure 47.
Activity centers �� 119
Figure 48.
Action management plan �� 121
Figure 49.
Technical recommendations �� 121
Figure 50.
Roundabout sign ��122
13
14
Figure 51.
Thaqbah well �� 133
Figure 52.
Production from wells, �� 133
Figure 53.
Total water distribution in Al Buraimi �� 137
Figure 54.
Water saving campaign adds �� 139
Figure 55.
Landfill �� 143
Figure 56.
School children educated in recycling programmes �� 145
Figure 57.
Treatment plant ��149
Figure 58.
Action plan 1984 ��164
Figure 59.
Structure plan 1985 �� 165
Figure 60.
Expansion plan 1986-1996 ��166
Figure 61.
Expansion plan 1987-1990 ��167
Figure 62.
Road hierarchy and town access according to structural plan ��168
Figure 63.
Current Al Buraimi map used for planning ��169
Figure 64.
Constructed Al Buraimi ��170
Figure 65.
Marked plots ��171
Figure 66.
Planned vs granted plots ��171
Figure 67.
Omani and expat population in Al Buraimi Governorate �� 172
Figure 68.
Chronological division scheme �� 173
Figure 69.
Expat on his way home �� 174
Figure 70.
Preffered living areas ��176
Figure 71.
Neighbourhoods in the outskirts �� 177
Figure 72.
Neighbourhoods in the city centre �� 177
Figure 73.
Neighbourhoods in the city centre 2 �� 177
Figure 74.
Built structure change �� 178
Figure 75.
Public space alteration ��179
Figure 76.
Article 58 a)1 �� 181
Figure 77.
Article 58 a)2 �� 181
Figure 78.
Recommendations. �� 183
Figure 79.
Location of heritage sites �� 195
Figure 80.
Decay situation in Sa´ara. ��196
Figure 81.
Decay situation in Hamasa ��196
Figure 82.
Al Khandaq fort ��197
Figure 83.
Pottery in Nizwa ��199
Figure 84.
Basketry in Al Buraimi ��199
Figure 85.
Dry falaj in Sa´ara. ��200
Figure 86.
Interventions in Phase I ��205
Figure 87.
Interventions in Phase II �� 207
Figure 88.
Night tour walking route �� 207
Figure 89.
Interventions in Phase III, �� 209
Figure 90.
Summary of the action plan �� 209
Figure 91.
National Fort Route ��210
Figure 92.
Ruins in Hamasa �� 211
Figure 93.
Capacity development process ��222
Figure 94.
Three levels of capacity development ��222
Figure 95.
Interrelation of levels in capacity development ��223
Figure 96.
Agriculture in As Sunainah �� 229
15
List of boxes
Box 1. Living conditions are changing rapidly ��18
Box 2. Aim of the study �� 20
Box 3. Unique geographical characteristics amongst the Arabian Peninsula ��27
Box 4. Particularities in inner country settlements. �� 29
Box 5. Diverse nature of challenges ��38
Box 6. Land availability ��39
Box 7. Strengths ��41
Box 8. Weaknesses �� 42
Box 9. Opportunities ��43
Box 10.Threats ��45
Box 11.Rising problematic �� 48
Box 12.Basic considerations for the instruments ��65
Box 13.Parking ratio test �� 99
Box 14.Land allocation �� 123
Box 15.Community survey on fresh water �� 134
Box 16.Community survey on solid waste management �� 138
Box 17.Community survey on wastewater management �� 147
Box 18.Additional population �� 160
Box 19.Social aspects of housing ��164
Box 20. Responsible and sustainable tourism �� 187
Box 21.UNESCO World Heritage ��189
Box 22.People perceptions about Al Buraimi’s attractiveness �� 190
Box 23.Tangible assets criteria �� 191
Box 24. The Buraimi Oasis �� 193
16
Box 25.Intangible assets: criteria ��194
Box 26. Further tangible assets examples: Falaj irrigation system ��196
Box 27.Tools for participation
�� 213
17
List of abbreviations and acronyms
AD
Anno Domini, after Christ
APFO Adequate Public Facility Ordinance
BC
Before Christ
B&B
Bed & Breakfast
CDS
City Development Strategy
COC
Chamber of Commerce
ExpatsExpatriate
FYP
Five-Year Development Plan
GCC
Gulf Cooperation Council
GDP
Gross domestic product
HDMS Highway Design Manual Standards
MECA Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs
MENA Middle east and North Africa
MOA
Ministry of Agriculture
MOH Ministry of Housing
MOM Ministry of Municipalities
MOT
Ministry of Tourism
MOTC Ministry of Transport and Communication
18
MRMWR Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources
NCSI
National Centre for Statistics and Information
NGO
Non-Governmental Organization
OCCI
Oman Chamber of Commerce and Industry
OIFC
Omani Investment and Finance Company
ONSS Oman National Spatial Strategy
PAEW Public Authority for Electricity and Water
ROP
Royal Oman Police
SDG Sustainable Development Goals
ST
Sustainable Transportation
STP Sewage Treatment Plant
SWOT Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats analysis
TOD
Transport Oriented Development
UAE
United Arabs Emirates
UDC
Urban Development Charges
UNESCO
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UN-Habitat
United Nations Human Settlement Programme
UNWTO
United Nations World Tourism Organization
WHO
World Health Organization
19
Executive Summary
The “Al Buraimi Integrated Urban Development: A strategic approach towards resilience” report,
is the joint work of five recent graduates from the Master of Science degree in Urban Management
Programme at the Technical University of Berlin, Germany. It is a study that compiles the most
important findings of five theseses successfully submitted during February 2015 in Berlin, and that
represent the academic research done in the Governorate of Al Buraimi during September 2014.
The current state of the Al Buraimi Governorate offers the perfect field for strategies regarding
sustainability, resilience and transformation to be envisioned and formulated. Urban and rural
trends portray an emerging society and issues that start being regarded as unsuitable for longterm development: cities are growing extendedly amongst faraway distances, traffic commuting and
congestion are increasing, pollution and availability of natural resources is being hard to tackle,
economic activities are changing, migration rates escalating, historical assets are being forgotten,
etc.
Albeit these growing concerns, population in the Governorate is young and ready to transform,
to grab the myriad opportunities that are waiting to be profited from: renewable energies are at
Al Buraimi’s doorstep, better water and waste management practices have already started, an
improvement of the transportation network can be achieved, the housing paradigm and curving of
the urban sprawl can be redirected, and the management of heritage assets in the Governorate can
fuel a revival in local identity.
These are the main sectors identified and analysed by the previous studies, and therefore propose
strategic approaches. They are presented in the current report as separated chapters. Part 1 of this
report comprises an overview of the historical context of Oman and Al Buraimi. Within this part, the
current trends and challenges are described and a possible scenario for the year 2030 is presented.
20
Part 2 of the report is made up of five sub-chapters, each one tackling a field of urban management
that together make up a comprehensive analysis: Regional development and growth management;
Sustainable transportation, Infrastructure, Housing and urban design, and finally Heritage
management and responsible tourism.
After these chapters, Part 3 describes the next steps that are recommended for the Governorate to
take action. This third part is made up of a description of the cross-cutting issues identified and
that portray the wide spectrum of areas that need to be worked upon. They include issues such
as inter-sectoral cooperation and participation. Moreover, the topic of capacity needs assessment
and capacity development is explained in light of the recommendations made. This report ends by
mentioning a final set of studies that are still needed for the presented strategies to start.
21
Part 1 Current trends
and challenges
Jesús Salcedo V
Contributors:
Panagiotis Achamnos
Ana Alcántara
Pedro Becerra
Florencia Carvajal
Sonja Nebel
The current chapter introduces the Governorate
of Al Buraimi, Oman with a general historic
overview,
and
the
socio-political
context
that has shaped the region. From a general
perspective within the urban and regional fields,
current trends regarding economic activities,
infrastructure, mobility, natural resources and
heritage, are presented and explained. Likewise,
the current challenges that the region faces are
portrayed and then a SWOT analysis is shown.
This chapter ends by introducing the general
idea behind this report, about a possible and
crucial change in development paradigm, and
illustrates it by proposing a future scenario
under the name „Al Buraimi Vision 2030“.
Part 1. Current Trends and Challenges
Introduction
Rapid urbanization processes have generated
Hand in hand with development, the availability
considerable research interest in the fields
of fossil fuels has facilitated this process.
of urban management, urban sociology, and
For instance, water scarcity has been solved
geography amongst others. These are often
through the desalination of seawater as well as
consequences of transitions in an economy and
its transportation from the coast to the inner
examples around the world portray this.
cities. Likewise, electricity sources are fossil fuel
based and consumer demand for resources is
In the Arabic countries of the Persian Gulf such a
only increasing. Nonetheless, there are signs of
process has been characterized the last 40 years,
improvement; there are important achievements
with particular economic situations and a fast
in the waste water system and the collection of
rate. In Oman, there has been a strong transition
solid waste too.
from rural and nomadic living conditions to a
sedentary and urban environment; this has been
promoted by the Omani government through
a series of measures and policies that rely on
fossil fuel availability, investment in education,
and the diversification of the economy.
Oman has also restructured its administrative
zones and created new Governorates, such
as Al Buraimi; thus promoting urban growth
through the development of its administration,
the creation of employment in the government
sector and the construction of housing. This
has brought about better living conditions to
the Omanis, as well as a distinct scattered and
sparse urban fabric in almost every city in the
Previous page:
country, the consequence of a decade-old land
Wadi landscape in Oman
allocation policy. This is strongly accentuated in
Source: (Salcedo, 2014)
the Governorate of Al Buraimi.
24
Box 1. Living conditions
changing rapidly
are
Al Buraimi, in northwest Oman,
continues to grow and the shift
from economic activities related to
agriculture, toward commerce and
services, has seen improvements in
some aspects of the living conditions
of nationals, but as a consequence
land use is very homogenous.
Besides this, migration rates are
escalating and the scarcity of natural
resources is presenting a major
problem to future development of
the region.
Additionally, large infrastructure projects in the
The current work is focused on a fieldwork
Governorate of Al Buraimi and its surroundings
analysis of the problems that are a direct
are also opening up more opportunities, namely
consequence of the urbanization process.
the new University Campus, the highway to
Problems that affect the Governorate in many
Dubai and the future railway link/line/connection
different sector, include: spatial structures, the
between Sohar and Abu Dhabi. Therefore it is
management of utilities, as well as those from
essential to study the planning strategies that
heritage issues, mobility issues, and finally the
the government undertook, and the theories
regional scale issues that are related to both the
regarding urban economics and regional
villages and the main city. This interrelation of
development,
urban-geography
issues is associated with the spatial composition
umbrella. These have to be contextualized with
of the urban and rural areas; the use and
the environmental, social and political aspects
management of natural resources; the main
of the Governorate.
economical activities that the city is undertaking
under
an
and an analysis of the long-term scenarios.
Figure 1. Main suq in Al
Buraimi
25
Box 2. Aim of the study
This study aims to provide novel strategies for an improved
regional development of Al Buraimi. This includes strategies
related to regional development, tourism, housing, transport,
and waste management. Therefore, obstacles and threats that
the region faces are analysed and the myriad possibilities to
overcome them are carefully selected in order to provide the
local Government with a sound set of strategies related to
each of these areas.
Figure 2. Abandoned
agricultural plots in the
city centre
26
Rationale
Much has been discussed about strategies for
There is the possibility that cities in Oman
cities and their regions; taking into account the
will continue with development as usual, as
latest paradigms on sustainability, resilience,
currently the energy sector is still proceeding
and technological improvements. This has
as normal. But the threshold between adopting
not underlined all of the Arabic cities in the
change early enough, and realizing that regional
Persian Gulf. On the contrary, city branding,
problems are going to be very hard to tackle, is
sustainability marketing, and city marketing
still a thin line that is more and more present
have been used as a mean to increase wealth
in Omani institutions and the general public.
and profit of certain sectors but not as a real
The current need is not necessarily to address
framework or long-term strategy that could
emergency issues in Oman, but to address the
improve the living conditions of many. This
growing concerns, and start to curve them all
is exemplified from Kuwait to Doha and Abu
before they become a real problem for most
Dhabi.
of the society. The issues related to the use of
natural resources and growing concerns about
Urbanization in Oman has fortunately been
pollution, mobility and inequality, are certainly
somehow dissonant to the rest of the Persian
being discussed more and more frequently.
Gulf Arabic states. Even though cities are
Proof of this is the will of the government to
growing very fast, and urbanization issues are
provide a long-term strategy for the country,
on the rise, the Omanis still have a particular
regarding spatial growth, natural resources, and
sense of spatial qualities; in large urban areas
diversification of the economy, which is already
as well as on the small architectural scale. The
underway.
cities in Oman are on the verge of keeping up
with their neighbour’s modernization or falling
Therefore, this study can help as the starting
back and taking another path. This could be a
point of novel strategies that can be applied to
strategy that corresponds truly and uniquely
the context of one Governorate, and if proven
to
successful in the mid-term, could well be
its
geographical,
environmental context.
socio-economic
and
replicated in other areas. The chance to propose,
promote and improve is there, and this study
takes this opportunity to its full potential.
27
Urbanization background in
Oman and Al Buraimi
Historical background of Oman
The socio-economic conditions of the Gulf
areas of the economy. These were laid out in
states are very different to other Middle East
Development Plans that structured the means
and North African Countries (MENA) mainly
for directing oil revenues into productive
because they were free of a direct colonial
investment (Looney, 1990). The strategy was
domination. There is a strong relationship
to develop new sources of national income, to
from the ruling families with traditional values
develop infrastructure and national manpower
and Bedouin tribal traditions and nomadic
resources, and to improve the civil service.
living, and finally the modern development that
Looney (1990) criticizes the fact that the
shaped these countries came at the same time
economy of Oman was very diversified before
as oil revenues were produced and scientific and
the reliance on oil, and that since the 70’s this
practical experience were on the rise.
development of human capital directed many
of the aforementioned diverse activities into
During the 60’s Oman was characterized as
government or oil based industry.
having a series of uprisings against the Sultan’s
28
rule in the region of Dhofar. This episode of
One of the measures that the government
Oman’s history marks the start of a new era
took in order to develop the urban milieu was
as a country, because the former Sultan’s son,
to provide basic infrastructure and jobs in the
Sultan Qaboos deposed his father and changed
government in most of the country (Janzen,
the way in which the country was managed.
1983). For the case of Dhofar this is very relevant,
The former Sultan’s rule was characterized as
as it was important for the government to make
feudalistic and isolated, whereas Qaboos rule
urban living attractive enough for nomadic
was characterized by economic reforms and
tribes to settle down, as the recent revolution
modernization.
was still a major concern.
The 70´s period marks the start of Sultan
During these two decades, there was a decline
Qaboos' rule, and it was branded by a series
in the traditional caravan trade, and an increase
of policies related to development of many
in motorization rates as people settled in urban
areas. There was also an increase in dependence
The relevance of this region is related to the
of imported goods such as food, and a shift
industrialisation and development process that
from traditional dwellings into new “modern”
the nations located here experienced due to the
typologies.
Additionally, Omani nationals
vast amounts of oil sources. This region is the
became more skilled from the 70´s until the
world’s largest source of crude oil. Nations such
90´s, and the economy grew at a rapid pace. A
as Bahrain, Iran, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia,
consequence of this was the increased import of
the UAE and a part of Oman are located here.
low skilled workforce ever since.
The Gulf is also a region where 90% of the
Arabic urbanization processes in the
Persian Gulf
population live in cities, making it the most
The Persian Gulf is a geographical region located
and Sidaway, 2012). This process has been fast;
in Western Asia between the Arabian Peninsula
urbanisation started around the 60’s and 70’s
to the southwest and Iran to the northeast.
for most of these Arab Nations. Around the
Irak
urbanized region in the world (Mohammad
Afghanistan
Iran
Kuwait
rs
Pe
ian
Pakistan
lf
Gu
Saudi Arabia
UAE
India
Oman
Re
dS
ea
Arabian Sea
Eritrea
Yemen
Figure 3. Geographical
location of Oman.
Somalia
Ethiopia
Sri Lanka
The governorate of Al
Buraimi is marked in red
colour.
29
50’s the main cities, located on the coast, were
During the 70’s the process took a faster pace
fortified town centres with an important fishing
and the Gulf countries made better profits
or pearl trade activities, and the population kept
during the Arab-Israeli embargo until the 80’s.
a close relationship with the nomadic groups
During this period, old inner Arabic cities
such as Bedouins in the inner land settlements
and towns, most of them in desert areas,
and oasis (Fox et al., 2006).
experienced decreases in population growth,
suffered the abandonment of town centres and
The region shares more than urban typology and
agricultural activities, and moved to larger cities
commercial characteristics; it also shares Arabic
where employment opportunities were better.
as a common language, as well as traditions,
religion, and ever since the oil economy started,
Modernization process
they also share a similar “oil political economy”
Fox et. al. (2006) claims that the urbanization
(Fox et al., 2006). This political organisation is
period took another rhythm during the 80’s,
characterized by the governance figure of the
where attention was given to other types of
Sheikh or ruler. The Sheikh has traditionally
infrastructure such as universities, better road
been the controller of the natural resource
infrastructure, diversification of the economy,
wealth, the facilitator of the urban realm, of
and tourism. New job opportunities in the
modern welfare as well as better life quality.
service and industrial sector, opened up the
This is also portrayed by the young history of
doors to thousands of migrant workers. Parallel
urbanization illustrated by the construction of
to this, better living conditions that the local
roads, housing, infrastructure such as hospitals,
citizens were experiencing and the wish to
schools, airports, etc.
move to new housing settlements outside of
the old city centres, made it possible for migrant
30
Alongside this process, the fishermen and
workers to move to the city centres and quickly
farmers took positions in the newly created
settle in smaller dwellings and most of the
bureaucratic
families
time in overcrowded and poor conditions. In
engaged in enterprises and trade, ruling sheikhs
time, this process degraded the image of the
took important positions in the governments,
city centres to the eyes of the citizenry, relating
and the oil industry expanded rapidly opening
them to a poorer sector of the population and a
up job opportunities for foreigners as well.
decayed state.
machines,
merchant
Inner city spatial-migration
Around the 90's some of the Gulf States decided
live in housing compounds provided by the
to change the decaying image of the city centres
government. Many of these compounds were
by constructing new housing settlements for the
built by Oman and the UAE during the 80’s.
migrant workers in peripheral locations ; often
by demolishing old structures and making way
As a consequence of migration from rural into
for modern housing projects. These housing
urban areas, economic and industrial growth,
patterns vary a little from country to country.
the Gulf cities are characterized by a distinctive
Fox et al., (2006) has identified the following: in
demographic profile. They have a numerically
the higher classes, rich Sheikhs have built large
small indigenous citizenry and a large number
palace complexes on the coast, with smaller
of low-wage immigrants. In Abu Dhabi for
palaces located within an enclosing wall. This
example, 75% of its inhabitants are foreign
is namely related to the family structure, several
workers, and of these only 1% are highly paid
spouses as well as housing for the children.
(Mohammad and Sidaway, 2012). In the case
This structure can be found in the UAE coastal
of the UAE migrant workers are referred to as
cities as well as the inner cities such as Al Ain,
temporary workers and their salaries are usually
Al Buraimi’s
lower than the requirements they need to meet
neighbouring border city. The
main rich class has a tendency to build villas,
for their families to be permitted to join them.
which can be described as palaces but smaller.
The enclosing wall typology also occurs here.
This
rapid
urbanization
process
mainly
This high and middle class has been able to
illustrated by cities like Dubai or Abu Dhabi, but
build these new typologies because of the land
also present in Doha, Kuwait, or Riyadh; has
allocation policies, subsidized housing, and easy
produced centres for trade, culture, finance and
loans. The necessity for larger plots in order to
tourism. The spatial change has been facilitated
accommodate this typology explains why the
by the revenues from the petrol industry, and
wealthier portion of the population moved into
this diversification of the economy can only be
the peripheries of the town centre.
compared to the urbanization process of cities
such as Las Vegas or Los Angeles (Mohammad
Finally, the lower strata of society, made up of a
and Sidaway, 2012). Cities where segregated
majority of migrant workers as well as nomadic
patterns distinguish the class of the citizenry,
tribes that recently settled in the cities would
fragmentary development occurs along the main
31
Figure 4.Hajar mountain
range, Oman.
32
Figure 5. Urbanization
process of an inner Oman
oasis settlement: Nizwa
Box 3. Unique geographical characteristics amongst the Arabian Peninsula
One of the reasons why Oman has a distinct history and civilization from the
rest of the Arabic Peninsula is due to the countries natural boundaries (Gangler
and Gaube, 2012). Oman is bordered to Saudi Arabia by the Rub al-Khali, or
“Empty Quarter; by the Rimal Bainuna to both Saudi Arabia and UAE; Rimal
al-Ahqaf to Yemen, and the coast line bordered by the Straight of Hormuz, the
Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf. The country is also divided by the Jabal
Akhdar mountain range; marking different regions of desert planes, coastal
planes, mountainous terrain and the more humid south. The arid interior of
the country, where Al Buraimi lies, is divided by this mountain range from the
coastal planes and the capital. In these regions people could only settle near a
natural spring, wadi or by artificial systems such as the falaj.
33
transportation routes, and private transport
Oman, which would differentiate between towns
oriented growth is completely reliant on fossil
or cities. The Supreme Committee for Town
fuels.
Planning would make three distinctions, namely
regional centres;, main city, and tertiary centres.
What distinguishes the Gulf cities rapid
During this decade the biggest settlements in
urbanization
similar
terms of populations were concentrated along
processes is the fact that no other region
the north coastal plains and around the cities
in the world has the same combination of
that now make up the metropolitan Muscat.
process
from
other
architecture, migratory patterns, government
initiatives and city marketing. In conclusion, the
There
is
little
information
about
village
seats of power for ruling families, the increase
settlements of Oman during the 90’s, since
of job opportunities, migration rates from the
many villages in the northern part of Oman were
desert settlements and from poorer emerging
either difficult to consider separate from the
economies into the cities, the inner city migration
cities; or they were nomad Bedouin villages with
to the periphery, and the private transportation
seasonal migration between the coast and the
reliance, are common characteristics of most
interior.
Gulf cities . They are the basis for the new
modernity, culture and identity that the Gulf has
Oman’s capital, Muscat has also experienced
acquired; nonetheless in Oman it has managed
a rapid urbanization process, as well as other
to permeate differently into the cultural and
Omani cities in the coast. A similar oil political
spatial structure of its cities.
economy, migrant workforce, and local citizenry
wealth has shaped the capital, whereas private
History and urbanization in inner
Oman settlements
transport infrastructure has lead the direction
of growth. They are different to other Gulf cities
in the way in which some of the old spatial
structures can still be found in central areas,
34
Oman shares most of the characteristics
where building heights are homogenous,
described earlier but differs to the rest of the
and there are strict architectural rules at play
Gulf States in many ways. During the 90’s there
concerning design, which vows for traditional
was still no definition for urban settlements in
and Islamic historicist architecture (MOM).
Furthermore, in Oman, inner towns can be
subdivided into geographical regions, where
some of them are at the bases or in the
mountain ranges, and some of them are located
in the desert planes farther away from the
mountains. In these inner settlements, all the
development and urbanization characteristics
described above also had consequences. The
lack of a natural topographical boundary as in
mountainous inner settlements has provided
vast amounts of flat space for the described
urbanization processes to occur. This is why
there is a greater contrast between inner
settlements such as Al Buraimi which is located
Box 4. Particularities in inner
country settlements.
The lack of a traditional trade in
fish or pearl did not make inland
towns particularly open to other
cultures (Mohammad and Sidaway,
2012). Economic activities involved
trade between suqs, from camels
and agricultural goods to slaves,
and a semi nomadic culture shaped
the towns such as Al-Jahra and Al
Ahmadi in Kuwait; Al Ain in UAE
and Al Buraimi and Nizwa, amongst
many others in Oman.
on flat territory.
IRAN
Persian Gulf
Dubai
Gulf of Oman
Abu Dhabi
Mahda
Al Ain
UAE
Sohar
Al Buraimi
Al Buraimi Governorate
Muscat
As Sunainah
OMAN
Figure 6.Geographical
location of Al Buraimi
Governorate
35
History and urbanization in Al
Buraimi
The history of the area known as the Buraimi
where water was brought from the nearby Hajar
Oasis is composed of various stages of
mountains with the use of channels. Examples
occupation by small groups that fought over
of this type of oasis towns are frequent in Oman,
the control of the villages in the oasis. This was
where there is the availability of fresh ground
mainly due to its geographical position linking
water and fertile agriculture land.
trading routes between the coasts of the Persian
Gulf and the Gulf of Oman.
There is some evidence that describes the first
settlements of the Buraimi Oasis in pre-Islamic
The Buraimi Oasis covers an area of about 6km
times by tribal migrations from North Africa.
by 9km; where 9 settlements with historical
Authors like Morton (2013) mention that there
associations are found (Petersen, 2009). Life
was the presence of a representative of the
in these settlements was possible because
Prophet Muhammad, who stopped at Tu Am
of the aflaj system developed all over Oman,
(the name given to the area before the name
Hili Oasis
Al Qattara Oasis
Al Buraimi, Oman
Al Jimi Oasis
Hamasa
Al Ain, UAE
As ‘Sara
Al Muwaiqih
Figure 7. Villages in the
Buraimi Oasis area.
Many of the original oasis
are still part of the urban
fabric of both cities. The
blue dotted line shows
the position of the aflaj
system.
36
Al Mataradh Oasis
Al Jimi Oasis
Al Buraimi Oasis
Al Ain Oasis
Al Buraimi) in order to persuade the Sasanian
and Sheikhs in the neighbouring Trucial Oman,
government to convert to Islam. Eventually,
as well as Saudis that started to incurse to this
Sheikhs at Nizwa agreed to convert to Islam
land around 1805. Founded on Wahhabism,
(Petersen, 2009) and the Sasanians were
different groups led by Saudis invaded and took
expelled from the Oasis.
over the control of the oasis. This led to several
fights between them and forces amassed by the
There is more information for the period
Sultans of Oman, in order to regain control of
between the sixth century A.D. and 1700 where
the oasis.
different groups sieged and controlled the area,
expanding the few constructions present in the
Some of the first descriptions of the village and
oasis. The groups were very diverse; Abbasid
its surroundings by western authors appear
Caliphs of Baghdad, Ibadite and Sunni factions,
around that time. Hammerton and S.B, Miles in
Wali’s from neighbouring villages in Oman,
Petersen (2009) described Al Buraimi as a large
Figure 8.View of an aflaj
channel
still ocassionally used for
agriculture purposes in
the centre of Al Buraimi
37
The “Buraimi dispute”
town with a strategic fort. They confirmed that
the surrounding villages had economic activities
At those times, Saudi influence on the area was
that ranged from manufacturing in pottery,
very important, still Wahhabis were prominent
weaving, ironworking, trappings, pottery trade,
merchants and had control over slave-routes,
farming of dates, alfalfa, oranges, mangoes and
which flourished in two of the villages of the
root vegetables.
Oasis. The political situation at those times
remained very delicate. Sheikhs would claim
The Al Buraimi Oasis had twelve aflaj with an
power over its village, and not recognizing
average length of 7km. There were also two
the power that the Sultan of Oman had over
main forts known as Al Illah and Al Khandaq
the area. This meant that power relied on the
that comprise large rectangular structures. The
support of tribe groups that each Sheikh would
construction of this fort is attributed to the
amass by his own means.
Wahhabi’s between 1800 and 1818. The second
fort, recognizable by its moat, is considered to be
Regionally, the Iraq Petroleum company had
older from around 1808 to 1813. Petersen (2009)
already signed agreements with both the Sultan
argues that this moat typology is rather strange
of Oman and the Trucial Sheikhs in order to
in Arabia and in post-medieval fortifications.
explore the region around the Oasis, but without
any clear representation of the Sultan, and with
One of the authors that describes the area
unstable rulings by the Sheikhs because of
around the year 1959, is Wilfred Thessiger in
disputes between the Al bu Falah of Abu Dhabi
his book Arabian Sands (Thesiger and Stewart,
and the bin Maktum of Dubai, the foreign
2008). He was in the Buraimi Oasis several
investment in petrol explorations was not
times making a four-day trip on camel from Abu
accomplished. This feudal system was a chronic
Dhabi. Thessiger mentions the existence of a fort
problem until the Al Buraimi dispute that ended
in Muwaiqih where his host, the Sheikh Zayid
in the clear recognition of borders between, the
resided. From there, he describes the existence
Former UAE and the Sultanate of Oman.
of enclosed spaces by mud walls, palm groves
38
and the stunning landscape of Jebel Hafeet, a
The events that preceded this dispute start with
close by mountain, and the Omani mountains
the Saudi’s last incursion in 1952 when they
range further away.
took over the village of Hamasa with armed
forces, violating territory from Abu Dhabi.
Hamasa was estimated to have around 3,000
This event known as the Buraimi Dispute was
people, supporting the Sheikhs Rashid, Obaid
even discussed on the United Nations Security
and Saqr, who under British pressure and fear
Council because of British and U.S. involvement
from further reprisals coming in from Muscat,
with the three governments in dispute, Oman,
left to Saudi Arabia.
Trucial Oman and Saudi Arabia. The situation
was delicate because the British had influence
It is stated that during this short-term influence
and some support from both Trucial Oman and
of Saudis in Hamasa, the villagers also saw
the Sultan of Oman, and the U.S. from Saudi
better living standards with the investment that
Arabia.
the Saudis brought. They started to neglect their
agricultural activities and thus began the path
Arbitration broke down until 1955 and Britain
towards decadence of the Buraimi Oasis and
encouraged the expulsion of the Saudis from the
its agriculture. During that time, the Sultan in
area (Morton, 2013), ending up with the current
Muscat spared no relief in helping the villages
borders between Oman and UAE being drawn
in the Buraimi Oasis to be redeveloped; the aflaj
right across the Oasis. Ever since then the area
system was left in an abandoned state and even
known as the Buraimi Oasis is comprised of
though the Wali of Buraimi and the British were
nine different villages, Buraimi, As ´Sara and
collaborating to invest in Buraimi, the sultan
Hamasa today on Oman; and Al Ain, Muwaiqih.
refused to cooperate financially with them
Mataradh. Jimi, Qattara and Hilli on UAE.
(Morton, 2013).
The Oasis after the conflict
This is the starting point of the polarisation
Around 1955 after the Saudis had been expelled
in the economy of Al Ain in the UAE and Al
from the Oasis, the situation for the inhabitants
Buraimi in Oman. British investment came to Al
was delicate. During the four years that Hamasa
Ain in support with the Abu Dhabi Sheikh and
was under the influence of the Saudis it had
the aflaj was repaired and the suq became soon
received money and had seen its market activities
a thriving place for the local economy.
develop. With the expulsion of the Saudis, even
though the village itself was not destroyed, the
economy was left shattered (Morton, 2013).
39
Figure 9.Current state of
As Sara,
View of the centre of the
neighbourhood in Al
Buraimi Oasis.
40
Current trends
Car dependancy
Linnear growth and shift in activities
The transportation mode is car dependant due to
The Governorate of Al Buraimi is distinguished
affordability in prices of cars and oil. Moreover,
by being the cross point between Oman and
there is a car-oriented culture embedded in
UAE. AL Buraimi serves as a commercial capital
the society. This situation has led to high
where business thrives with Al Ain, Abu Dhabi
automobile accident rates and considerable
and Dubai. Al Buraimi is also a fast-growing
areas of land dedicated to car infrastructure.
city; new housing areas are being laid out, as
Therefore, walking distances or infrastructure
well as commercial areas and governmental
for non-motorized modes of transportation are
offices. Besides this, recreational areas are being
non-existent.
designed and built too. Nonetheless, there is a
trend in expansion that is affecting the urban
Service provision is challenging
development of the city and its villages.
Al Buraimi is growing horizontally and not
vertically. The people of Oman are used to
Al Buraimi is growing in a linear fashion, mainly
having their own land with their own house, thus
along the highway route that connects the main
growth is happening towards the outskirts of the
city with the UAE and with the rest of Oman.
city, where it is uncontrolled and very scattered,
This is due to a strong car-oriented development
without planned infrastructure for basic services.
and to the current land allocation policy. The
The trend is that these services arrive after the
trend is that the city of Al Buraimi is becoming
construction of houses, which creates a huge
linear, such as Muscat and many others in the
problem to the people trying to inhabit these
country, growing along a transport route, and
areas. For this reason, infrastructure provision
not oriented towards employment, education or
and specifically the key services face a lot of
leisure locations.
challenges.
The other trend analysed by this study is that the
Finally, solid waste management processes
shift from primary activities such as agriculture
cannot cope with the rapid growth of the city in
and stockbreeding, into governmental offices
the absence of sustainable ways of solid waste
and a small percentage of the private sector.
treatment.
41
People are living farther and more
disconnected from each other
Traditional culture is dissapearing
The
corresponding
increase
in
internal
The tendency for housing and land allocation
emigration for work has reduced the rate
policy creates an urban tissue composed of
of family cohabitation with the number of
isolated single dwellings. The plots assigned
inhabitants in a household decreasing. Besides
for housing are always delivered farther away
this, the introduction of novel home designs
from the city centre, allowing houses to be built
and building materials has displaced traditional
disconnected from the city centre, its activities
building techniques and materials; changing the
or infrastructure systems. There is also a trend
traditional aspect of the city towards a modern
in oversized housing plots with unnecessary
appearance.
amounts of space between the designated plots.
Additionaly, Hamasa was once a major market,
The distance between dwellings prevents
but nowadays is deteriorated due to neglect and
people from bonding and cultivating a feeling of
environmental degradation. The settlement is
belonging, therefore restricting social cohesion.
now largely uninhabited, offering little incentive
Physically, housing has taken an expensive and
to potential new residents. There is a tendency
inefficient direction as a consequence of the
toward abandonment of heritage and cultural
city adopting typologies that do not cater to the
assets, and the decay of the sense of identity
local environmental conditions. Consequently,
among the community. Besides this, new
it results in high production, functional, and
administrations in the Ministry of Heritage and
maintenance costs for the city.
the Ministry of Tourism do not propose actions
in order to increase the attachment towards
these assets. Sites as Hamasa are prone to
disappear.
42
Figure 10.
and heritage
Lost oasis
Figure 11. A street in
Sa ‘ara, Al Buraimi
Source: (Carvajal, 2015)
43
Current challenges
Curve and re-direct growth
Review and reformulate mobility
The future challenge is to withstand this linear
The national policy and the legal framework
growth and try to curve it. By this, an effort
need to be reviewed to overcome the challenge
to concentrate growth on specific nodes is
of car dependency. In addition, it is necessary to
necessary. Precise areas in the city centre have
create proximity through higher densities and
to be made attractive for development to occur,
mixed land uses. Thus, the land distribution
as well as some foci in the peripheries have to
policy and building codes might be reviewed.
be detected in order to start a clustering process
Another challenge is to raise public awareness
for neighbourhood creation.
on sustainable transportation to reduce car
use. At the same time, the implementation of
There are two important things that must occur.
facilities for non-motorized transportation plays
Firstly that growth is curved and drawn back
an essential roll to minimize car domination.
to shorter distances for activities to occur, and
Issues such as inaccessibility, pollution, high
with this: better practices and technologies for
noise level, high congestion, among others,
an adequate natural and man-made resource
still do not represent an urgent challenge for
management get implemented. The second is
the city. Nevertheless, if the urban area keeps
to prevent primary activities from disappearing,
growing at the pace of the previous years and
resulting in the Governorate eventually being
the new developments continue with the same
on the verge of resource scarcity.
urban planning system, the city may face the
aforementioned challenges in the short and
medium term.
Box 5. Diverse nature of challenges
In order to accomplish these regional challenges, the Governorate can focus
on improving the following: building codes, natural resource management
regulations, natural resource technologies, promote better land uses in the city
centres and peripheries. Moreover, promote agriculture and livestock activities,
within better water management practices and technologies.
44
Cope with demand
The Municipality will be unable to cope with
the demand of water and basic services, and
the ever growing population and distances
between every new household. The challenge is
to address this as well as to tackle the growing
demands of solid waste management, and the
capacity for wastewater management.
Enhance housing and neighbourhoods
Another
challenge
is
to
enhance
the
constructions performance in order for them
to have better energy saving and bioclimatic
standards. The opportunity lies in utilizing
land and energy for the development of the city
environment as a whole. Housing’s contribution
Box 6. Land availability
The municipality faces the problem
of not possessing vacant land for
further plot allocation despite having
most of its territory not yet built. This
involves the setting of reforms for
land delivery procedures. Therefore
the challenge is to develop reforms
within the land delivery procedures
and to distribute plots in areas
already in an urbanized state.
for the improvement and functioning of urban
growth is achieved when it is not seen as isolated
constructions but as units within a larger
functioning organism; the neighbourhood.
Re-awaken culture
The future challenge is the revival of the
the intangible heritage represents the death of
abandoned settlement of Hamasa. Mud-brick
a part of the community’s identity; therefore
construction is a valuable vernacular technique
there is a great urge to promote the importance
in oasis settlements, and along with the physical
of heritage assets among the young population.
loss of the house structures, the knowledge of
Finally, the challenge is to invest in capacity
such building traditions is also in danger of
building in order for community members to
being lost to future generations. The loss of
have improved future input in decision-making.
45
SWOT analysis
Strengths
After presenting the development of the
Geographical position and young
population
Governorate, its current trends and challenges,
this study presents a SWOT analysis. It is an
easy way to classify preliminary findings into
There are two main strengths on the regional
strengths,
and
scale. One of them is the geographical position;
threats. It therefore identifies the strong and
the Governorate lies on the Crossroads between
weak points of the city and villages and helps to
growing metropolitan areas, Sohar, Nizwa, Abu
quickly show what can be exploited and profited
Dhabi and Dubai. This is already fuelling the
from, or what can harm the region.
economy and business of the city, but it can still
weaknesses,
opportunities
be exploited even more. The second strength
In the case of threats and opportunities, a wider
are the human resources; the Governorate has a
scope for analysis is encountered as these two
big young educated population that need to find
are frequently external or the city may have no
places to work and live in order not to go outside
control over them. Threats can include factors
of the region in search of better opportunities.
related to national urban environment, political
context, trade agreements, infrastructure, etc.
Sustainability awareness
The role of the analysis is to identify if they are
There is an increasing awareness about
contributing to the development or if they are
environmental
exposing the city to problems.
government
sustainability
institutions.
among
the
Additionally,
the
Governorate of Al Buraimi and ministries are
On the other hand, the SWOT analysis serves
seriously considering the improvement of
as a guideline to propose alternative scenarios
citizens’ quality of life. This can be seen in how
for development. The use of scenarios is
the local government is open to new ideas for
helpful in order to present possible outcomes
urban development, protecting the local identity,
to stakeholders (Cities Alliance, 2011). Similarly,
and cultural value, for instance.
the study presents many options out of the
SWOT analysis, in order for local authorities to
work towards a collective decision and to gain
ownership whilst choosing the option that they
find more suitable.
46
Investment in sustainable
infrastructure
The main strength is that the majority of
population is connected to a water system;
Box 7. Strengths
Geographical position and human
resources
wastewater treatment plant is another strong,
Environmental sustainability
awareness
which is very modern even though it still does
Water network connection
not cover the entire city, but marks a big leap
Wastewater improvement
almost the 80 per cent. Besides this, the new
in the improvement of wastewater handling.
Additionally, residents’ eagerness to participate
Equality in tenure possibilities
in recycling and waste separation projects is a
Homogenous cityscape
good strength on which to profit.
Cultural identity
Equality of tenure
Location of heritage assets
One of the main strengths is the intention to
keep land and housing tenure possibilities equal
among citizens. This is the main reason the
lottery method was considered for distributing
land.
Pride through identity
The main quality Hamasa possesses is the
Another beneficial aspect is the propensity
ability to give a sense of pride to the community;
for a more distinctive architectural style or
the mud brick-houses are part of the identity
elements for the city making it consequently
and belong to the cultural heritage assets of the
more homogenous. Additionally, land remnant
area, making the site unique. Its location is also
availability can be used to link residences among
beneficial; near to the Al Ain border in the U.A.E.
each other if given an intentional public open
and within the city. it is also next to the Fort Al
space character.
Hillah and Fort Khandaq.
47
Weaknesses
Natural resource management
The main weaknesses found have to do with
the lack of land and budget designated for the
the management of natural resources, and
establishment of recycling centres.
mainly water. This can be seen in examples in
both the city and villages. This is linked directly
Inadequate housing design
with the scarcity in the Al Buraimi city aflaj, and
The current building regulations do not consider
the depletion of groundwater reserves in many
the surrounding environment. This leads to
areas. Likewise, the availability of desalinated
a lack of identity between neighbourhoods.
water has prevented that a responsible water
Another weakness is how the housing sector
management culture exists.
is addressing the climatic conditions with high
energy consuming systems.
Centralization, lack of participation
and car-dominance
The
centralized
governance
structure,
inadequate coordination, and the lack of
Box 8. Weaknesses
public participation are weaknesses of the
Natural resource management
transportation planning. This is portrayed by
the lack in autonomy at the local level to make
decisions on plans or strategies. Additionally,
car-oriented development and low prices of cars
Car-oriented development
and fuel have lead to automobile dependence,
Low percentage of wastewater reuse
minimizing the chances of non-motorized
Inadequate building regulations
transportation.
High energy consumption at a
household level
Finally,
the
transportation
facilities have absorbed significant areas of land.
Inadequate wastewater reuse
The percentage of wastewater reused is very
low, and there is a lack of recycling processes.
There is a weakness in planning because of
48
Lack in autonomy at the local level for
transportation planning
Few skilled human resources on the
field of responsible tourism
Lack of cooperation between
Ministries
Lack of capacity building and
cooperation
Sunlight
Al Buraimi has unlimited amounts of sunlight
There is a weakness in terms of capacity
that could be used to generate renewable energy
building as there are little human resources that
in many different ways.
are skilled in the field of responsible tourism, as
well as a weak tourism diffusion from both the
Smart growth
Ministry of Tourism and the Ministry of Heritage,
The Sultanate of Oman has enough financial
also portrayed by their lack of cooperation in the
resources
matter. Finally, the lack of interest on a fraction
could be invested in innovative sustainable
of the community is also a weakness for the
transportation. There is still time for smart
development of Hamasa.
growth by reformulating the current planning
from
the
oil
industry,
which
processes and switching into a more sustainable
Opportunities
mode of transportation.
Introspection of the economy
The closing of the border with Al Ain can
Box 9. Opportunities
Buraimi locals have more trouble profiting
Investment in local know-how and
clusters
from the opportunities Al Ain offers in terms of
Investment in education
commerce and education due to congestion at
Investment in solar energy
represents some negative issues, such as Al
the check points and vice-versa. Nonetheless,
this new border has begun a slow but good
Switch into sustainable transportation
process of introspection of economy into Al
Creation of a water saving culture
Buraimi. This is an opportunity to invest in
Creation of a recycling culture
businesses, local know how (i.e.: clusters) and
Solar energy at a household level
education; enhancing spaces inside the city so
that businesses and more types of uses appear
(i.e: worship, education, commerce).
Creation of jobs in the tourism sector
Re-introduction of vernacular building
and art craft techniques
49
Recycling and saving culture
Threats
The residents’ willingness in saving water could
High costs of development and
resource dependancy
be used to foster better water saving plans, as
well as introducing recycling at all levels. The
performance and lifetime of the current landfill
This study claims that the land allocation policy,
can also be improved.
combined with the particular oil-economy in
Oman and governmental strategy, has produced
Learning from abroad
the scattered urbanization process, and this is
There is room for change in housing, as most
the origin of most constraints, weaknesses and
of the land stock remains un-built. There is also
eventually threats. They include the high cost
the possibility of learning from better practices
of infrastructure and service delivery, as well as
elsewhere, and use them as references for better
resource dependency and scarcity. The rise in
planning strategies.
costs exists on two levels. First of all on a utilities
level including water, wastewater, electricity, etc.;
New economic activities
and secondly on a typological level including
By developing the area of Hamasa within
roads, schools, clinics, commerce, etc. The
responsible
job
growing dependency on basic natural or man-
opportunities can be created. Additionally,
made resources such as water or food is
reintroducing vernacular building techniques
increasing; therefore the risk for the Governorate
and with them, a sense of identity amongst Al
of having resource scarcity in the future if ever
Buraimi locals. Finally, art craft production can
the economy changes abruptly is very likely.
tourism
criteria,
new
also be re-introduced, such as basketry and
pottery.
Inequality in mobility and health risks
Inequality and unfair accessibility for vulnerable
groups are threats for community development
and social cohesion. In addition, public health
and security is permanently threatened by
the car-oriented development. This mode
entails ecological threats such as pollution,
contamination, high levels of noise, and
destruction of the local ecosystems.
50
Growing water demand and waste
Box 10. Threats
Issues associated with water demand include
Rise in infrastructure and service costs
the major drought periods caused by climate
Resource scarcity
change, and straining by the population.
Inequality and unfair accessibility to
transport for vulnerable groups
Moreover, there is a general reluctance on behalf
of the community to reuse treated water i.e.: for
the irrigation of the grass in the green spaces.
Costs of externalities attributed to caroriented development
Another threat is that the current landfill is very
Increased water demand
close to the residential area and it does not fulfil
the technical requirements, posing a threat for
the environment and the health provision of the
area.
Scarce land stock
There is a lack of vacant land within Al Buraimi
Reluctance to reuse treated water
Landfill threat to public health and the
environment
Disintegration of the urban structure
because of the land allocation policy
Loss of intangible and cultural assets
to supply the housing demand for the following
lottery applicants. Talks with the neighbouring
wilayat of Mahdah have already begun to
negotiate the use of their land. The further
disintegration of the city and its residential areas
affects social cohesion and enlarges many of the
urban issues aforementioned i.e.: costs.
Loss of intangible assets
The lack of interest from the community, and
the loss of attachment to heritage and cultural
assets. Besides this, political factors affect the
creation of awareness campaigns promoting
the importance of the site. This can lead to a
permanent loss of such assets.
51
Al Buraimi 2030; a vision for a
resilient future
quality and are grown with sustainable practices.
The Governorate of Al Buraimi can be the place
Products that come from neighbouring Mahda
where inner land settlements revive an Omani
and As Sunainah are more valued than products
culture that has stagnated over the last 40
that come from other regions or countries, based
yearsVision 2030
on their responsible and organic production
practices.
New
neighbourhood
units
and
housing
typologies occur on a small but condensed
On a municipal level, Al Buraimi has a strong
level, where small day-to-day activities can occur
control on how to deliver services. This is
within footsteps of each household. People can
done according to urban growth management
walk through cool, shaded pedestrian streets
instruments, where growth is fostered
and head to the mosque, store, school, coffee
clustered units and not in a linear or concentric
shop, etc. without having the need to use their
manner. This means that the Governorate
cars. Neighbourhoods also allow people to
constantly monitors the growth patterns of
interact on a daily basis with their neighbours;
its city and villages and delivers utilities and
social cohesion is constantly increasing.
services to places where more units are built
in
together; likewise, it taxes the development
On a household level, Al Buraimi produces
of land in areas outside of “adequate public
more than half the electricity needed with the
facility ordinances” (APFO) and promotes the
use of solar panels, and the remaining fraction
development of land inside them with the use of
of electricity provided to the Governorate is used
building incentives. This is mainly governed with
for purposes other than housing. People have a
a renewed building code and building permits.
water conservation mind-set and everything is
recycled to the last drop. There is also a growing
Development in Al Buraimi is also encouraged
trend in people growing small amounts of fruit
to occur rapidly in some areas. The city centre
and vegetables in their own households.
and the oasis are places coveted for the
development of housing and commerce, and
52
In the villages, agriculture remains a strong
the living conditions here are preferable for
economy, and the products from local farms are
residents that want to experience the benefits of
sold locally at Al Buraimi as they have the best
shorter commutes and mixed-use typologies.
Al Buraimi works as a hub for business and
city . This system is based on recycling, and a
commerce between cities in Oman as Sohar and
sewage network that has a high percentage of
Nizwa, and cities in the UAE; providing places
reused treated wastewater. Al Buraimi residents
for conferences, meetings, as well as all types
are aware of the importance of adopting more
of leisure and commercial activities surrounding
environmentally friendly practices towards the
the central Oasis and reclaimed heritage zone.
use, reuse and conservation of water, as well as
Al Buraimi and its villages are now proof that the
separating and recycling their solid waste.
Omani way of living is unique and can be in line
Neighbourhoods
with best practices towards the environment.
harmonized
are
recognized
appearance,
which
by
their
reinforces
The city has also adopted smart growth
the community’s identity. They are also
strategies, minimizing land occupation for car
interconnected with thoroughfares, for residents
facilities, and reducing automobile dependency
to access the different vicinities. Moreover,
whilst prioritizing pedestrians. In addition,
neighbourhoods are thriving with pleasant
residents are made aware of the importance
resting squares and areas to pause from the
of adopting environmentally friendly practices.
heat and daily stress. Al Buraimi is a city that is
Furthermore,
is
used as an example in the rest of Oman, due to
implemented and functioning throughout the
its innovations with bioclimatic and high energy
city with the aim of providing a sustainable
savings in buildings.
public
transportation
choice of transport for everyone.
Finally, the revitalization of Hamasa has
Additionally, the city has minimized the use
been accomplished and the involvement of
of non-renewable resources, the impacts on
the community towards the tourism sectors
the natural environment and protects the local
has been acknowledged. Training and skill
biodiversity whilst fostering the use of renewable
development became key elements in order to
resources. Furthermore, the city and region has
revive the oasis settlement of Hamasa, so as to
managed to secure safe access to fresh water for
become a national tourist attraction.
all the residents through an adequate network,.
It has also managed to introduce a solid waste
management network that covers the entire
53
The need for a paradigm shift
Omani development in inner settlements has
and the traditional way of living is now mere
been shaped by a distinctive trade and caravan
history. Omani modern life is also shaped by
commerce; by an amazing water system and
the consequences of the land allocation policy,
agricultural activities related to it, and within
which has allowed equal opportunities of tenure
architectural typologies of great value to
to arise between all Omani nationals.
Omani heritage. This shaped cities such as Al
Buraimi that relied on commercial routes from
This study makes the claim that Al Buraimi has
the Omani coastal towns into the UAE shores.
the opportunity to shift from this paradigm of
Towns developed around the Oasis that were
development that Omani culture has undergone
fed by the aflaj, and in turn fed the inhabitants
during the last 40 years, and start to direct it
with produce and cooler temperatures.
toward long-term strategies. This can be framed
within the well being of the majority, an efficient
This has been distorted during the last 50 years.
use of natural resources and conservation of the
A shift from semi-nomadic activities into a
ecosystem, a shift in household typologies, in
sedentary modernization, facilitated by a rich
better technologies related to service provision,
oil industry and the creation of employment in
in better transportation modes, in better
the governmental sector, has occurred rapidly
economic opportunities in the regional level and
the reconnection to lost heritage and culture.
Box 11. Rising problematic
Many issues that are arising in Al Buraimi are common to other places in the
world. They have to do with rapid growth of urban areas, the shift from primary
activities into the service and governmental sector, a growing migratory profile
as well as a growing young population, a strong car oriented development, a
reliance on external natural and man-made resources, the lost of identity and
heritage, the reliance on non-renewable sources of energy. Finally , an ever
growing distance between housing units that has an overall effect of spreading
all the aforementioned problems into long distances for them to be tackled.
Besides this, rising living costs are a reality: portrayed by electricity, water, fuel,
construction costs; time spent commuting and increasing health problems.
54
Figure 12. View of the
scattered neighbourhoods
55
Part 2.1 Regional
development & growth
management
Jesús Salcedo V.
if
A set of criteria that can improve the spatial
development continues in the current manner,
living conditions is presented. It is theoretically
disparities amongst social groups will grow
framed under the urban growth management
rapidly and the region will be reliant on external
field. Additionally, The study proposes a set of
resources; moving further apart from any
recommendations in the shape of instruments
aspiring resilience thus always having the risk
for urban growth management, as well as maps
of resource scarcity, worse living conditions
that illustrate how can they be applied in the
and disparities, as well as a deteriorating quality
short, medium and long term. The purpose
of life. The following chapter sheds light on
of the recommendations is to redirect the
the process that has resulted in Al Buraimi
Governorate’s development strategy toward
Governorate’s urban and regional state. In
improving and profiting from its assets, to
order to do so, a geographical and socio-
improve its use of natural resources and public
economical analysis is presented, as well as a
space, as well as the policies that will curve
spatial overview of the urbanization process in
the ever growing sprawl, by shifting into a new
the Governorate. The major advantages and
set of criteria regarding urban and regional
disadvantages regarding spatial development
development.
The
following
study
presumes
that
are drawn and with them, a strategy is framed.
Part 2.1 Regional Development and Growth Management
Assesment of the current
state
Taking into account that the problematic of
maximums of 48 C. Likewise rainfall has been
the Governorate has been presented, the
very irregular and scarce during the last five
following study starts with a brief analysis of
years. From 2002 to 2006 the lowest amount
different geographical, economic, social and
recorded was 36mm of rainfall, and from
spatial factors that affect the Governorate as a
2007 to 2012 the lowest recorded was 12mm.
region. Afterwards it explains the strategy and
Moreover, averages for these two periods are
instruments recommended.
67mm and 38.6mm. In terms of weather and
water resources Al Buraimi is one of the hottest
Climate, Temperature and rainfall
and underprivileged in Oman.
According to the statistics, the maximum
Figure 13. Maximum
and minimum
temperatures in Al
Buraimi Governorate.
Source: NCSI, modified by
author
Previous page:
Agriculture in Hafeet, Al
Buraimi Governorate
Source: (NCSI, modified
by author).
58
temperatures recorded for Al Buraimi since
Water Resources
2002 have risen considerably. In other terms,
Historically the Buraimi Oasis was a source of
the last 5 years have been the hottest; reaching
many products that were cultivated thanks to
Figure 14. Average
rainfall in Al Buraimi
Governorate
by author)
the aflaj system, its use being spread all around
if most of the responsibility of drying up the
the country. The aflaj allowed ground water
ground water is due to the extraction by wells.
from nearby mountains to be transported as far
Decline in agricultural activities
as the agricultural lands in the Buraimi Oasis
villages, where mainly date palm was cultivated.
The rapid urbanization and its direct increase on
Nowadays, the two main oases that are still in the
the demand for water is not the only cause of
Omani side are a mere glimpse of the splendour
the abandoned state of Al Buraimi’s agriculture.
that the aflaj system allowed to flourish. Around
The process which the country undertook since
10 years ago, the water flow from the aflaj system
the 1970’s to improve the industry and provide
was almost exhausted do to a rapid increase
better employment for Omanis as well as
in water use in the surroundings. The fast
fostering the sedentariness of many nomads
urbanization of Al Buraimi and Al Ain used most
(Janzen, 1983, p.292) is also the reason why a
of the ground water available until the point of
diversification of employment was introduced.
drying up the source of the aflaj (MOM, MECA).
Later on, activities that resulted more attractive
It is still uncertain to the Al-Buraimi government
in terms of revenues and man labour started
59
to replace agriculture. This is portrayed in
through evaporation and overuse. This could be
contemporary Al Buraimi by the fact that only a
sustained with investment in better engineering
few landowners still use their plots in the Oasis
technologies for irrigation and transportation of
to grow products. Many of them have seen an
water.
opportunity in migrant workers to rent these
lands and allowing the renters to utilize the land
for their own self-production.
Increase in desalinated water
production
The authorities have acknowledged the water
Water scarcity in the agricultural sector
scarcity problem, and the country knows that
One of the reasons for the rapid decline in
there is a lot to do in terms of management,
agricultural activities is the drastic change in
and improvement of agricultural practices.
rainfall seasons (MOA, 2014). Another reason
Desalination plants produce around 77% of the
is the job opportunities that have been created
water used in domestic purposes in Muscat
in other sectors, namely government offices,
(Abdel-Rahman and Abdel-Magid, 1993). In
that have displaced a lot of people from time-
comparison, there has been a decrease of 37%
consuming and less profitable agricultural
in the production of water in Al Buraimi from
activities. These urban activities are more
1,094 M. Gallons in 2010, to 679 Mn. Gallons
secure and profitable: the Omani government
in 2012 (NCSI). This is due to the opening
offers numerous job opportunities in all
of the desalinization plant in Sohar, in the
sectors. Furthermore, land use change was still
Governorate of Al Batinah (North and South),
possible until recently, when the Ministry of
which now covers most of the supply of water to
Agriculture placed a halt on land use changes
Al Buraimi. To understand the water production
from agriculture to other uses. This means that
required for both Governorates, Al Batinah and
agricultural land in the Governorate can no
Al Buraimi, we need to look at this figure closely.
longer be transformed into housing, commercial
In Al Batinah, there is an increase of 22% in the
lots, etc.
production, from 21,480 Mn. Gallons in 2010 to
26,396 Mn. Gallons in 2012. This Governorate
60
Authors such as Abdel Rahmnn and Omezzine
is the one with the biggest production of water,
(1996) describe problems that the traditional
exceeding the production of Muscat (14,937
aflaj system has on contemporary agriculture.
Mn. Gallons in 2012) by far. The supply for Al
During irrigation a lot of water is wasted
Buraimi is included in this numbers.
Figure 15. Production
of desalinated water in
different Governorates.
Sohar produces all the
desalinated water that
gets sent to Al Buraimi
Governorate
by author)
Energy
Oman privatized its energy sector as early as
The household sector consumes more than
1999. This has encouraged a lot of growth in
50 percent of the country’s total electricity (Al-
the sector (Al-Badi et al., 2009). Today 80%
Badi et al., 2009), whereas the industrial sector
of Oman’s GDP is comprised of gas and oil
is growing every year. These are the two main
revenues. The whole country relies on electricity
consuming sectors. Part of the problem related
generated by gas, but meeting the ever-growing
to the energy sector, is that the pricing system
demand from the household and industry
doesn’t reflect the true cost it takes to generate
sectors will be a task hard to deal with. This is
electricity. Energy is heavily subsidized (Al-Badi
the main reason why there is a lot of potential in
et al., 2009), for household, industry and for
studying the energy sector and its future shift to
agriculture, and this does not provide incentives
renewable sources.
to save energy at a household level.
61
Figure 16. Omani
population pyramid in Al
Buraimi Governorate in
2012
Source: NCSI and Author,
2014
Figure 17. Expat
population pyramid in Al
Buraimi Governorate in
2012
Source: NCSI and Author,
2014
62
Population
Population has been increasing during the
part in the coast and activities taking part in
previous years, mainly due to the creation
the inner settlements. Until 1970 the economy
of the Governorate and the increase in
of the country was characterized by this duality,
employment in the government sector. There
where the ports traded dynamically with each
was a population growth of 22.8% from 72,917
other and those of other countries (Speece,
people in 2010 to 89,564 in 2012. If we look at
1989); then with second category ports, and
the data in terms of nationals and expatriates
small settlements; and only then would they
there are some interesting findings. There is
connect through the rough country’s topography
an increase in nationals of 6.93% from 43,026
with established trade routes into the inner
in 2010 to 46,004 in 2012; and an increase of
settlements. These were places where caravan
expatriates of 45.73% from 29,891 in 2010 to
trade occurred, and only if the demand for trade
43,560 in 2012. Most of the expatriates come
and the population were large enough, bazaars
from India, Pakistan, North Africa, Indonesia
and suqs would be established as permanent
and the Philippines. This means that as of 2012
structures.
expatriates make up 48% of the population in
Al Buraimi Governorate. This same growth
Trade in Al Buraimi
has been contrasting in the two villages of the
S.B. Miles in (Speece, 1989) described the
Governorate. Omani growth in As Sunainah has
market activities in Al Buraimi in 1877 as “one
been 7.19%, but expats have decreased by 86%.
of the small markets. It had no proper bazaar;
In Mahda, Omani growth has been 6,92% as in
trade was done almost entirely by barter at an
Al Buraimi; but expats have decreased by 69%.
open-air market”. Today, the Al Buraimi suq is
This means that there are more employment
only a remnant of any splendour that it could
opportunities for expats in the city of Al Buraimi.
have actually had in recent years. The area of
Hamassa at the middle of the 20th century had
Trade and clusters
the main buildings that hosted different types
Oman’s economy can be regarded as a shift
of commerce, (Phillips, 1972) and slave trade
from traditional trade and feudalism into
continued well beyond the 1950s.
oil
industries,
governmental
sector,
and
entrepreneurship. Moreover, the economy in the
Today in there is amongst smaller activities
country can be separated as the activities taking
like the construction sector and the quarries,
63
an interesting economic activity, which this
a spatial link between these same types of
study uses to portray one of the particular
commerce, to foster the exchange of knowledge,
characteristics of the city. In the central parts of
networks, workforce, commercial links, etc.
the city there is a series of business dedicated
exclusively to the selling of ready-made clothing
or the tailoring of clothing, mostly for women.
Spatial analysis
The governorate of Al Buraimi was created in
Figure 18. Mens
tailoring and readymade
clothes.
Clothing cluster in Al
Buraimi.
Source: (Author, 2015)
64
One of the key arguments to promote clusters
2006 from a part of the Ad Dhahirah region.
is that “there is an increasing importance of
This governorate is located in northeast Oman,
knowledge-creating processes for competitive
bordering with the UAE to the west andnorth,
advantage in global economies” (Cumbers
the Al Batinah region to the east, and the Ad
and Mackinnon, 2004, p.962). For the case of
Dhahirah to the south. The governorate is made
Al Buraimi, there is a potential in promoting
up of three Wilayats; Al Buraimi, Mahda and
Sunainah. The city of Al Buraimi is the capital of
and layout new areas where development will
the governorate, and it lies directly on the border
expand and then distribute the land. There is no
with the UAE, adjacent to the city of Al Ain on
obligation to build on the plots, people have the
the other side of this international border.
choice of using these plots to build housing, to
sell, rent or trade them. In consequence, there is
Land allocation policy
a large amount of plots that get distributed but
The main factor that has shaped the spatial
that undergo no development.
structure of cities in Oman is the land allocation
policy that was implemented in 1984. The
Regarding infrastructure, the plots are normally
conditions in which people receive the plots are
serviced with electricity during the first year.
very basic. Most of the time plots are allocated
Road infrastructure is not necessarily provided;
in areas of the city where no development
this decision is made according to the budget
has occurred yet, because the Ministries plan
allocations of the Ministry of Transport and
Figure 19. Spatial
charachetristics in Al
Buraimi
D
A: Minimum development
took place at the sand
dunes
E
B: Oasis
F
B
C: As’ Sara
D: Al Khadra
A
C
Al Buraimi
Al ain
E: New park and sports
complex
F: Main east-west axis
G
G: large extensions of
allocated land
Source: (CNES / Astrium,
CNES/ Spot Image,
Digital Globe, modified by
author., 2014)
65
Communication (MOTC) which are different in
laid out for the city. During that time housing and
time with the expansion plans of the Ministry of
economic activities were mainly concentrated to
Municipalities, from which water, sewage and
the south of the Oasis, still thriving with palm
waste handling is provided. Another secondary
groves. Housing settlements could be found
factor that affects the willingness to build on the
between the Oasis and the southern border
plots or not, is the preference for Omani’s to
with Al Ain. This border was just a political
live close to their relatives. Thus, once land is
one, but there was no control from either of
allocated they also try to buy and sell in order to
the countries, meaning that locals could cross
group themselves and build close to each other.
between Al Buraimi and Al Ain at any time.
Nonetheless, the main roads that used to cross
This policy, along with its consequences in
from each side to another are the same north-
terms of services, gave its spatial characteristics
south axis that still exists and where the border
to the urban growth of cities like Al Buraimi.
checkpoints are now situated.
During the 1990s the policy was modified and
the standard plot size was raised. Ever since,
Another distinctive feature of the space between
the areas distributed vary between 600m² to
Al Ain and Al Buraimi is the sand dunes situated
900m²; with obvious consequences to the
between the Oasis and the western border.
rapid scattered sprawl of the cities in Oman.
Regional Planning Committee laid out housing
Moreover, there was a turn in the events when
plots during the 80’s. In this plan, there is also
the scattered sprawl reached unprecedented
the designation of residential areas around the
scales, because as of 2008 women are also
old city of Hamasa, but fortunately not all the
eligible to a plot (MOH, 2014). This doubled
plots were built upon. Today the former villages
the demand of applications, and thus the
of Buraimi, As ´Sara and Hamasa are now a part
land allocated for housing extended farther
of the urban fabric of the whole city, which still
and farther away from the city centres, around
uses its names to define the neighbourhoods.
10km of linear expansion during the last 8 years
(MOM, 2014; MOH, 2014).
On the city’s land use plans today (MOH), we
can observe that most of the residential areas
66
Big plans, unexpected changes
that were planned around As’ Sarah and Al
The most interesting changes in Al Buraimi’s
Khadra were built upon, in comparison to the
urbanization process are related to housing.
urban scattered patterns that extend from As’
Between 1984 and 1986 expansion plans were
Sarah far into the west of the city limits.
Figure 20. Satelite
view of Al Buraimi’s
CNES/ Spot Image,
author.)
Figure 21. Current
land use plan
Same scattered
development as in satelite
image, showing all the
roads and different type of
buildings foreseen in the
expansion plans. White
solids represent existing
structures
Source: (MOH/ Author,
2015) modified by author.
67
There are two reasons why this happened: the
Strikingly, both Hafeet and As Sunainah have
land allocation policy, and the large amounts of
heritage values that are not being taken care of.
plots destined for governmental offices when
In Hafeet, the Ministry of Heritage has identified
Al Buraimi was made a Governorate in 2006.
many pre-historic graves but they remain
These plots account for a big proportion of land,
unknown to most Omanis, as well as their is
spreading out new residential areas farther into
not a profit being acquired from their historic
the west, where not much has been built yet.
potential.
The villages
Regional and common problematic
The villages such as Mahda, Sunainah or Hafeet
Omani lifestyle is becoming more and more
have similar spatial structures. Many plots
resource dependant; consequence of having
in the villages are larger as many of them are
wealth from the petrol sector and imported
functioning as agricultural lands with houses
labour. This lifestyle is portrayed by the
built inside. This older land pattern is mixed with
simplicity which Omanis can build houses that
the land allocation policy where smaller plots,
are detached from any urban tissue, because
nonetheless between 400-900m2 big, have
there is always the possibility of commuting via
been allocated for the construction of housing.
private vehicles.
These new plots are nearer to the highways that
link the towns and villages to bigger cities e.g..:
Al Buraimi, Ibris, Nizwa.
The setting of areas for strategic
development and growth management
The analysis shows that Al Buraimi has the
One of the striking features of Hafeet or As
means to provide subsidized resources and
Sunainah is the fact that spatial structures are
services on an almost individual basis, such as:
not as scattered as in the city of Al Buraimi. In
water, electricity, etc.; but these living conditions
the villages a better, denser and more compact
are getting farther away from what a city and
structure seems to have prevailed. This is due
region should pursue in terms of resilient
to the fact that most land allocated has been
development.
inside the city of Al Buraimi, and not the villages,
68
and also because population growth in the
The need to supply individual services for
villages has remained either constant or slightly
each
decreasing.
consequences.
household
has
negative
Nonetheless,
the
economic
principal
problem lies in the concept of the land allocation
certain areas of the city that have constraints
policy, because it is not necessarily attaining the
and disadvantages on which to act. They are in
objective that it had at its conception; to provide
turn, linked to some of the opportunities and
Omanis with land for housing and therefore
strengths analysed. Therefore, they enhance,
better living conditions. The policy is only
improve, and turn threats and disadvantages
addressing land tenure issues in a way in which
into opportunities and strengths for the future.
everyone obtains the right to a portion of land,
Within the Governorate, three areas with
a plot that is unattached from the living urban
particular characteristics can be specified:
fabric and that comes with a series of terms
and conditions that make attaining better living
Strategic area 1: City centre
conditions more difficult.
The strategic area comprises the centre of
Al Buraimi along the clothing cluster, with
The conclusions of this analysis, as well as
the old suq and oasis on one end, and the
the SWOT analysis presented on the previous
governmental district and both Hamasa and
chapter, opens up the possibility of combining
Sa’ara on the other. The disadvantages here
Figure 22. Strategic
area 1. City centre and 2.
Outskirts.
69
are related to the abandonment of agricultural
spatial development are the most striking. Most
land, and congestion due to work places and
of the issues analysed in the SWOT are present
car ownership. But it also represents one of the
in this area.
lively areas of the city, with plenty of work places,
combined with commerce and residential areas,
Strategic area 3: As Sunainah
highger density and smaller commuting times.
Land is on the verge of being abandoned for
better opportunities in the city, and the public
Strategic area 2: The outskirts
area 2. As Sunainah
70
facilities such as markets, schools, and places
The outskirts of the city or the area where
of work are scarce. Future scattered housing
scattered development is the least dense. Where
and growth are also a threat to the small rural
housing units are located far away from one
structures of the villages, thus here another
another and the service of public infrastructure
set of criteria towards strategic development
is scarce. Here, the consequences of the type of
can be made. In order to produce a set of
recommendations and finally a set of criteria
for the development of these 3 strategic areas,
a policy and instrument review regarding urban
growth management has to be presented; as
well as the specific instruments and policies
reviewed have to be contextualized.
Instrument and policy analysis for
Al Buraimi Governorate’s regional
growth management
In the following section the main tools and
instruments that are used to manage urban
growth and its pertinence to the context of Al
Buraimi are explained. Also, a conclusion that
will shed light on the establishment of a set of
criteria for further urban growth is presented.
This chapter describes briefly the general
situation of the three strategic areas, taking
into account that all of the urban issues are
already discussed and described in the SWOT
analysis, and then mentions which of the urban
Box 12. Basic considerations for
the instruments
All of the options that are proposed here
are valid instruments for the city of Al
Buraimi and the villages, framed within
three strategic areas. Nonetheless it is
the responsibility of the policy maker
to decide which one of these options
suits the citizens better, and to decide
through consensus, with the municipal
authorities, on which ones to develop
further and finally implement. The
main objectives to have in mind when
choosing these instruments are to know
the direction, quality and pace of growth
that Al Buraimi wants.
growth management instruments are the most
pertinent to each area. Graphic images are
presented for each of the three strategic areas,
that portray an example of how could these
instruments be framed at an urban and rural
scale. In other words, this study identifies all the
potential places where the set of instruments
can be implemented within the strategic areas
and thus presents it in the shape of maps.
71
area 1. City centre satelite
image
Highest density and most
diverse plot use in city
centre
CNES/ Spot Image,
author., 2014)
The city centre of Al Buraimi
The main problems analysed include plots that
this area is attractive for new constructions,
are left unused, development mainly along the
therefore regulatory instruments can play a
highway, lack of quality and quantity of places
big role here, promoting the construction of
for gathering, increasing congestion in the main
projects according to a new set of sustainable
avenues, etc. This is why a set of instruments
criteria. Additionally, the municipality should
can be very rewarding in terms of making plots
offer the opportunity for mixed use buildings to
more attractive for development, improving the
appear along certain areas, as well as for new
quality of urban fabric by starting “punctual”
architectural typologies to be tested.
renewal projects, regulating the sprawl of
72
certain commerce or office space in some areas,
There are many empty plots that need be to be
as well as fostering the growth of it in others.
made more attractive by allowing new typologies
The instrument that identifies “areas with
and uses to exist. This is why the mix-use,
urban potential use” can tackle this. Likewise,
building regulations, district specialization and
area 1. City centre: Urban
growth management
instruments
urban design potential instruments are relevant
Existing building
for this strategic area. In the short term, it is
Un-built plot
expected to see new projects come in the way
Existing street
of the current urban fabric, but slowly a change
Un-built street
in paradigm is expected to occur, when citizens
have the chance to experience the benefits of
New building regulations and typologies
better urban conditions. They are expected
Mixed-use
to occur in many ways: less commuting to
Specialized commercial district
places of leisure, worship, commerce, study;
better building conditions and reduced costs
in electricity for air conditioning; better urban
Plots with urban design potential and connectivity
Adequate Public Facility Ordinances
space after urban interventions occur; and
Specialized agriculture district
lastly a thriving district with commerce, culture,
Short time allowed for plots to develop
habitation and office space condensed in a
better and optimal way.
Medium time allowed for plots to develop
Extenden time allowed for plots to develop
73
area 1. City centre:
Specialized clothing
cluster
The main instrument for this to occur in the long
The real shift in paradigm will occur when land
term will be the time allowed for plots to develop.
in the city centre of Al Buraimi becomes more
If made possible, plot owners that don’t have
attractive for projects to be built.
any intention to develop the land, can be offered
another plot in an area that is not affected by this
The Municipality should always keep in mind
policy. Bids for projects in available plots within
that when making decision over a set of projects
the time frame policy can then be reviewed by
for a given plot, the project that ensures the best
the authorities and then choose the projects that
use of sustainable construction methods, and
fulfil the new development criteria proposed by
that ensures better urban quality for its users
this study. The time frame considered for this
and its surroundings, should always be chosen,
policy is the following: short term developments
are proposed as lasting 2 years; a medium term
Regarding APFOs in the city centre, new projects
5 years, and a longer term 10 years. This is why
that want to be developed here will have to pay a
this instrument will start transforming the city in
higher price than the projects that are developed
the mid- and long-term.
in city areas where the distribution of services is
still not existent.
74
area 1. City centre: Time
allowed for plots to
develop
area 1. City centre: Urban
design intervention
potential
Pedestrian connectivity,
shadowed spaces, etc.
75
area 2. Outskirts satelite
image:
Lowest densities and lack
of services.
Source: CNES / Astrium,
CNES/ Spot Image, Digital
Globe, modified by author.
The outskirts of Al Buraimi:
what is the minimum amount of households
The main need in areas that have a low density
that could be served with this instrument.
and scattered sprawl is to curve this growth and
Interventions such as these can add value to
try to cluster housing units with one another. In
the plots and fostering the clustering of more
the short term, the main instruments that play
housing units. These instruments can only work
role are the land allocation cap and a possible
if they are placed under Adequate Public Facility
land allocation moratorium, explained in detail
Ordinances (APFO) and they can only be made
in the following section.
in the long term. Their goal is to eventually
allow people to be less reliant on door-to-door
76
In the mid-term, this study recommends the
water, sewage and solid waste services, and
need for very small and punctual public urban
thus reducing the costs for the municipality.
space interventions to occur between small
In the long term, and after a thorough survey
housing clusters and places of worship, schools,
that analyses the availability of services per
etc. Basic indicators can be surveyed to see
neighbourhood area, an APFO can take place.
area 2. Outskirts: Urban
growth management
instruments
This instrument can transform the scattered
Existing building
areas of Al Buraimi in the long term, because
Un-built plot
after the APFO are functioning, development
Existing street
that takes place outside the designated areas
will have to pay for the adequate fees necessary
for the provision of services in new areas.
Un-built street
Frequently, extra fees will induce developers and
Mixed-use
construction to occur within the APFOs.
The designation of mixed use areas and the
fostering of new typologies will play a secondary
role in this strategic area.
77
area 2. Outskirts: New
typology implementation
area 2. Outskirts: Urban
design intervention
potential:
pedestrian connectivity,
shadowed spaces, etc.
78
Figure 33. Scattered
housing in the outskirts of
Al Buraimi
79
area 3. As Sunainah:
satelite image
Source: CNES / Astrium,
CNES/ Spot Image, Digital
Globe, modified by author.
As Sunainah
with the cooperation of the MOA and the MOM
The village of As Sunainah is characterized by a
in two ways. One is establishing parameters for
very small demographic growth and a slow shift
agricultural plots to be inside the specialized
of primary activities. The inhabitants face similar
district, this means that they will have to comply
problems as the outskirts of Al Buraimi, namely
to a set of criteria regarding better practices in
being too far away from places to shop, study
terms of produce and use of natural resources.
and work.
Likewise, farmers should never stop receiving aid
in terms of capacity building, the introduction of
80
The difference with the city, is that there are
new technologies. The second is that with the
possibilities to improve the agricultural sector
aid of the Chamber of Commerce, farmers that
and thus allow more people to stay in the village
produce goods in the specialized districts can
and have a good quality of life. This is why the
receive aid for their transportation and be sold
main challenge is to curve the abandonment of
at a specified place and time, on a regular basis
agriculture lands. This activity can be fostered
in the city of Al Buraimi.
area 3. As Sunainah: urban
growth management
instruments
Small scale urban interventions are also
Existing building
reccomended, mainly to promote connectivity
Un-built plot
between plots and places of study, leisure and
Existing street
worship. This can help in promoting a stronger
Un-built street
community, which will always be useful if most
of the inhabitants are dealing with the same
economic activity.
Mixed-use
In the long term, the municipality should focus
on providing adequate services and facilities.
Likewise, the Municipality should prevent the
settling of new scattered neighbourhoods with
the creation of APFO, so that new development
outside of it will also bear the infrastructure
implementation charges.
81
Selected instruments for urban
growth management
Short-term
instrument as it does not solve the issues related
to urban growth in the long term. Nonetheless it
should be maintained, reviewed and monitored
in order to define if the cap should allow more
plots, or constrain more plots in the future.
The following selected instruments can take
place as soon as possible in order to gain time
Middle term
for the mid- and long-term instruments to be
In the mid-term there are many instruments that
defined. They can be implemented during the
can start to be designed. They can be divided
first two years of the implementation of the
into two different categories: incentive type and
whole set.
control type instruments. The mid-term for the
instruments to work is defined by a time frame
Development moratorium and land
allocation cap
starting at 2 years until 10 years.
One of the most drastic approaches available
In the case of the incentive instruments, it is
is a development moratorium. The distribution
important to promote the land market of plots
of plots further away from the centre of Al
that are located in these centres. Additionally,
Buraimi should be paused; likewise for the
control type instruments will prevent bad
villages. A moratorium for this policy is difficult
practices from continuing and gradually shift
to implement, but can buy time, which is much
towards a resilient and sustainable growth
needed for the next instruments to be developed
paradigm.
properly. Parallel to this policy, the Ministry of
82
Housing needs to establish a development cap
New typology implementation
that can decide on the pace that the city wants
Varied uses can be allowed to appear in the city.
to have regarding number of plots allocated
They can combine housing with commercial
within each new period. This development cap
and office space; what typically is a mix-used
can be promoted as a way to give only optimal
typology. Even though this typology exists in
land for development and not to continue giving
some parts of the city, there is a potential in
away land far away from the strategic areas
designing a very novel and contextualised
and infrastructure expansion plans. The land
typology that caters to both the needs of a
allocation cap can be regarded as a short-term
growing population, authorities, and fosters
better urban development. Here is where
of electricity and water heating) should be
the instrument plays a major role in a shift of
supported. Likewise, the surface of windows in
paradigm; as it has to offer the opportunity for
buildings and quality of glass has to be carefully
new typologies to be created. The typologies are
reviewed so that buildings are better insulated.
not going to be defined in this study, as it is not
in the scope. Nonetheless, this study claims
Urban design interventions:
that if mixed uses are promoted via the waiving
There should be small-scale urban public
or exemptions of taxes, or even through low
space interventions, that can create adequate
interest loans for the projects that go along this
shaded spaces in clustered neighbourhoods.
development direction; then slowly but certainly
This is thought in order to promote the use of
the areas around the strategic centres will start
endemic tree species, grey water use for their
to change. The Municipalities role in the matter
maintenance, and the creation of connectivity
is to make sure that this novel typologies are
between neighbourhoods in a small scale. This
promoted and fostered.
instrument is represented in the figures as a
large amount of space with the potential to be
Additionally regarding a new typology, an
transformed. This should be seen as an identifier
increase in heights is important. An average
of such space and not as an urban design tool
height of 5 or 6 storeys should be pursued as is
that directs where and how this intervention
already evident with some of the buildings in the
should occur.
centre . Single storey or two storey projects have
The role of the Municipality is to identify the best
to be discouraged in the city centre.
small plots and spatial remnants between them,
Building standards:
Better
building
materials
to start up a project that generates better public
should
include
urban space, in both Al Buraimi and the villages.
construction materials that are produced
nearby,
insulate better against the extreme
Time allowed for plots to develop:
temperatures and thus allow savings in cooling
There has to be a shift in the way in which
and electricity. Additionally better technologies
land is allocated without any responsibility for
in the construction industry and for building
development. It is understandable that the
installations (e.g.: solar energy production
Municipality cannot impose new regulations
on a household scale for both production
on a national policy, but they can also provide
83
new incentives for the owners who do develop
plot is actually being developed and used, or if it
their plots in a determined time frame. This
is genuinely abandoned.
will give another boost for the people who do
have the means and desire to develop plots, and
Urban design control measures:
will diminish the amounts of plots that remain
New projects should provide some open space
undeveloped and unused. This scarred urban
but always at the backside of the plots; these
tissue should be prevented as much as possible.
areas are the ones that eventually can be used
Likewise, plots that remain undeveloped should
for car parking. They should never be on the
be taxed in a very careful way, meaning that a set
front side of the street as it normally occurs;
of criteria for what a “developed plot” is, should
conditions and specifications for car parking
be established first. Another alternative is that
spaces have to be reviewed and changed. This
taxation for unused plots is implemented, and
also means that alignment regulations have
it can be higher in city centre plots than in
to be carefully reviewed by the corresponding
peripheral plots.
Ministries, namely MOH and MOM.
If the creation of a fee for plots that are not
This instrument is not necessarily a growth
being used is not attractive for the Municipality,
instrument but it is one that this study identifies
this study also proposes that plots only be
as necessary to complement and guide the
allowed to remain unused for a maximum time
previous ones.
period. After which they should be transferred
to other users with proposals for them. In
Tighter building regulations
this scenario, the original owner should get
Urban growth should be encouraged but
another plot allocated in an area of the city
always within a new set of criteria, the following
where this specific instrument is not in play.
instrument is also a counterpart of the incentive
This instrument considers three
type regulations, as it will discourage some
phases: by
short time to develop a plot (up to 2 years),
development to occur, but will foster
medium time (up to 5 years), and a maximum
sustainable projects taking place.
more
of 10 years for extended time. Plots outside the
84
area designated by this instrument will have a
The
gradual
setting
of
regulations
that
standard tenure. It is important to stress the
discourage bad practices in terms of materials
need for a set of criteria that can determine if a
and renewable energy for housing, commerce
and industry, include a more expensive building
issues. Agriculture should also be fostered with
permit for any project that does not consider the
better technologies and practices in order to
new building standards.
have more efficient water management.
This way, the waivers and tax exemptions for
Clusters of commerce should be encouraged
the projects that are built accordingly to the
further. Incentives in certain areas can be
new standards can be financed by the projects
exclusively for commerce dedicated to the
that are not. This type of instrument cannot be
clothing industry for example; or for retail, offices,
applied to the already built projects in the city,
etc. This can also make small neighbourhoods
but the incentives should be available for them in
attractive as well as social capital is encouraged
the case of refurbishment, retrofitting, building
through a public policy.
extensions, etc. Eventually, these standards can
be turned into regulations so that all projects
APFO’s
comply them.
Adequate Public Facilities Ordinances (APFO)
can help in creating an environment for the
Long-term measures
right implementation of development projects.
The following long-term measures can be put
A thorough study that can provide the right
in place after two or three years of the first
indicators for the number of plots of each
implementation of instruments, but they will
type in different areas; namely the strategic
be able to show benefits after the fifth year of
development areas and the outer parts of the
its implementation and can be elongated as
city, has to be made. Demographical surveys
necessary as possible.
need to occur in order to do this properly. Data
needed includes detailed demographical growth
District specialization
per area in the Governorate.
A link between the agriculture producers of
the region and the market vendor could be
Combined with the MOH and the MOM
established, through the promotion of space and
development plans, a set of APFO has to be
financial aid for such market process to occur. It
implemented to direct further growth in the
is important to bear in mind that any investment
long term. This will change the land market in Al
in this type of subsidiarity means that the region
Buraimi drastically, but in the long term, urban
can become more resilient towards certain
growth will be directed towards more specific
85
goals, instead of uncontrolled results derived
A survey will be needed to obtain the necessary
from master planning. APFO can include the
indicators for an APFO to take place; done by
amount of households in areas that are already
MOM, MOH, MOA and MOTC.
served by public sewage and waste-management
networks, as well as areas that are served by the
Building standards in the long-term
water network. This will make it unattractive for
If a new code of building regulations for the
developers to build outside of the areas that are
Governorate of Al Buraimi is done, then in the
not going to be served with adequate public
long term it will be possible to stop projects
facilities yet.
that don’t take advantage of renewable energy
resources, or thermic insulation for example.
This instrument can also be applied to the
Incentives can be paired with fees so that in
areas where urban development is highly
the long term there is always a reason to build
scattered. There can be an APFO that promotes
accordingly to new standards. Rural areas in
the clustering of living units in the same
Al Buraimi could benefit greatly from such
area in order to receive basic infrastructure.
measures, if ever in the long term the capacity
This strategy could foster that plots that are
of ground water is even scarcer, it will be of
scattered and undeveloped acquire different
much help if the urban areas manage their water
values according to the possibility of clustering
consumption in a better way.
together. Also, people can be encouraged to
organize themselves in a community of clusters,
in order to have sets of houses developed in
a certain area. The goal would be to cluster
development as much as possible in order
Action plan for regional
development through growth
management
for the basic services to be provided by the
municipality in the future, and cut costs in water
The
distribution, or wastewater and solid waste
instruments and differentiates them briefly
management.
by type, name, short description, authority in
adjacent
table
shows
the
selected
charge and measures needed for the instrument
to be implemented in the appropriate time
frame.
86
Urban growth management instruments and necessary procedures in time phases for AL Buraimi Governorate
Authority in
charge
Type
Name
Brief description
control
Development
moratorium
Short pause needed to plan
carefully the implementation of the MOM
next instruments
control
Restrict the number of plots that
Land allocation
get laidout and distributed in the
cap
next stages
Short term
incentive
incentive
regulation
Mid term
control
design
incentive
New mixed use typologies,
New typology
increase in heights, setbacks,
implementation
building standards
Better and adequate building
New building
materials, technologies and
standards
practices according to criteria
Regulation of un-built space in
plots; tighter regulations favouring
New building
urban design and pedestrian
standards
friendly setbacks; deprioritize
parking lots, and prioritize mixed
use street level.
Plots allocated in certain areas
have a time frame for a project to
be developed there. Failure to
Time allowed for
comply with a project leads to the
plots to develop
plot being re-allocated. Original
owner gets a new plot in an area
without a time frame.
Foster the creation of shadowed
public spaces that allow
Urban design
connectivity, with the use of
interventions
endemic species and greywater.
District
specialization
control
APFO
regulation
Building
standards
regulation
Resource
management
standards
Long term
Temporary halt in land
allocation process.
Analysis of maximum number
MOM + MOH of appropriate plots that can
be allocated per term.
MOM
Building permit incentives.
MOM+MOH
Building code with new
incentives.
Building code regulations and
MOM+MOH penalties, controlled by
building permits.
MOM
Temporary ownership of
allocated plot until project is
aproved, as well as a new reallocation scheme is needed.
Survey to identify the initial
MOM+MOTC small scale projects, and a call
for proposals.
Foster and facilitate the creation of
certain enterprise and economic
MOA+COC
activities.
Provision of services from
municipality based on a long term
MOT+MOM+
plan according to clustering of
MOH
built units and denser
development
Gradually implement obligatory
building standards in order to stop
incentives for good practices and MOM+MOH
only continue with penalties for unwanted building practices.
Better wastewater reuse, solid
waste management, and
sustainable energy use
Measures needed
Waivers and financial
contributions for startups,
commercialization of goods
from farms into the city, as
well as capacity building and
better technology.
Survey and studies needed in
order to specify which areas
will the APFO cover.
Building permit regulation.
Incentives for projects that
take advantage on sustainable
MOM+MOH+
technology as well as higher
MOA
building permit costs for
projects that do not.
Figure 36. Action plan
for growth management
Source: Author, 2015
87
Flexibility and adaptation of
instruments in the mid and long-term
The main thing to have in mind regarding
development and can leave people without
these sets of instruments, is the fact that they
adequate infrastructure and services, as well
are not permanent and static, but flexible and
as potential bad living conditions in the long
adjustable. This means that in the medium term,
term. The consequences of scattered urbanism
instruments that rely on specific boundaries
explained earlier should always be kept on mind.
have to be small-scale and site specific.
Regarding the mid-term instruments, there is a
With the use of monitoring, the urban
possibility that the citizenry is reluctant to new
management growth instruments can adapt to
typologies. The introduction of this novel type of
the growing conditions of the city and villages,
building regulations will be slow to be adopted
and thus go along development in a periodical
from the demand side. Nonetheless, the policy
and careful way. These instruments should
makers have to make sure that the possibility
never be regarded as master planning or zoning
for this type of development is there, namely
measures, but as directive, preventive and
through the creation and implementation of new
repelling measures for identified urban growth
sets of regulations that allow such a typology to
patterns.
establish.
Alternatives and complications for this
set of instruments
The Municipality has to keep in mind that
First of all, for the short term instruments,
being of the vast majority as well as for the
an allocation cap will be unpopular for the
environment; therefore new enterprises that
future generations that are waiting for plots.
want to be involved in the production of more
The negative implications of this instrument
adequate building materials and solar energy
should be regarded in the following terms: the
technology have to be considered in the further
municipality should not only allocate plots,
development of Al Buraimi.
but also ensure that plots allocated can lead
to better living conditions. This means that
the municipality has the responsibility from
stopping the distribution of plots that hinder
88
long terms measures are intended for the well-
Conclusions
Al Buraimi can lead the way towards a more
In the long-term, the living conditions can be
resilient society in economic, social and
enhanced if the shift in the current development
environmental terms. It is recognized that
paradigm occurs. This implies that management
“governments must implement policies to
of services are improved, better land tenure
ensure that the benefits of urban growth
opportunities as well as housing conditions are
are shared equitably and sustainably” (UN
ensured, reducing living costs for the people
Department of Economic and Social Affairs,
and the municipality. Likewise, better spatial
2014).
development
qualities can be ensured if a typological shift
implies that the city creates better employment
occurs, where the cities condense and provide
opportunities as well as an improved resource
more spaces for encounter, leisure, worship,
and waste management, in addition to
study and employment. This is what is meant by
transportation, equality and governance.
a shift in paradigm in the criteria that drives the
Likewise,
a
resilient
development of Omani cities.
Figure 37. View of
Al Buraimi‘s scattered
urbanism
Growth continues to
extend farther and farther
away into the city limits.
89
References
utilization. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews. 13 (9), 2734–2739.
Abdel-Rahman, H. A. & Abdel-Magid, I. M.
(1993) Water Conservation in Oman. Water
Al-Badi, A. H. et al. (2011) Sustainable energy
International.18 (2), 95–102.
usage in Oman—Opportunities and barriers.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 15
Abdel Rahmnn, H. A. & Omezzine, A. (1996) Aflaj
(8), 3780–3788.
Water Resources Management: Tradable Water
Rights to Improve Irrigation Productivity in Oman.
Baptista e Silva, J. et al. (2012) Paying as the urban
Water International. 21 (2), 70–75.
areas grow – implementing and managing urban
development charges using a GIS application.
Alterman, R. & MacRae, D. (1983) Planning and
International Journal of Geographical Information
Policy Analysis Converging or Diverging Trends?
Science. 26 (9), 1689–1705.
Journal of the American Planning Association. 49
(2), 200–215.
Bengston, D. N. et al. (2004) Public policies for
managing urban growth and protecting open
Anis, U. R. & Ali Fadaak, T. (1991) New towns
space: policy instruments and lessons learned in
in Saudi Arabia. Habitat International. 15 (1/2),
the United States. Landscape and Urban Planning.
167–179.
69 (2-3), 271–286.
Al-Awadhi, T. (2007) ‘Monitoring and modeling
Buerkert, A. et al. (2010) Oases of Oman:
urban expansion using GIS & RS: Case study from
livelihood systems at the crossroads. Muscat: Al
Muscat, Oman’, in Urban Remote Sensing Joint
Roya Press & Pub. House.
Event, 2007. 2007 IEEE. pp. 1–5.. Available from:
Cities Alliance (2011) Guidebook for City
Al-Badi, A. et al. (2009) Power sector of Oman—
Development Strategies in Southern
Today and tomorrow. Renewable and Sustainable
Mediterranean Countries | Cities Alliance.
Energy Reviews. 13 (8), 2192–2196.
Cugurullo, F. (2013) How to Build a Sandcastle:
90
Al-Badi, A. H. et al. (2009) Assessment of
An Analysis of the Genesis and Development of
renewable energy resources potential in Oman
Masdar City. Journal of Urban Technology. 20 (1),
and identification of barrier to their significant
23–37.
Cumbers, A. & Mackinnon, D. (2004)
Fox, J. W. et al. (2006) Globalization and the
Introduction: clusters in urban and regional
Gulf. Auflage: New. London; New York: Routledge
development. Urban Studies. 41 (5-6), 959–969.
Chapman & Hall.
Daghistani, A.-M. (1991) Urban growth
Frenkel, A. & Orenstein, D. E. (2012) Can Urban
management in Jeddah. Journal of Environmental
Growth Management Work in an Era of Political
Planning and Management. 34 (1), 2–9.
and Economic Change? International Lessons
From Israel. Journal of the American Planning
Davoudi, S. et al. (2012) Resilience: A Bridging
Association. 78 (1), 16–33.
Concept or a Dead End? ‘Reframing’ Resilience:
Challenges for Planning Theory and Practice
Gangler, A. (2008) Oases settlements in Oman.
Interacting Traps: Resilience Assessment of
Stuttgart: Edition Esefeld & Traub.
a Pasture Management System in Northern
Afghanistan Urban Resilience: What Does it
Gangler, A. & Gaube, H. (2012) Transformation
Mean in Planning Practice? Resilience as a Useful
Processes in Oasis Settlements of Oman. Al Roya
Concept for Climate Change Adaptation? The
Press.
Politics of Resilience for Planning: A Cautionary
Note: Edited by Simin Davoudi and Libby Porter.
Gani, A. & Al Mawali, N. R. (2013) Oman’s trade
Planning Theory & Practice.
and opportunities of integration with the Asian
economies. Economic Modelling. 31766–774.
Din, M. A. E. (1990) The transport importance of
the Arabian (Persian) Gulf. Transport Reviews. 10
Glaeser, E. L. et al. (2014) Cities, Skills and
(2), 127–148.
Regional Change. Regional Studies. 48 (1), 7–43.
Dutton, R. W. (1983) Handicrafts in Oman and
Halper, E. B. et al. (2015) Effects of irrigated parks
their role in rural community development.
on outdoor residential water use in a semi-arid
Geoforum. 14 (3), 341–352.
city. Landscape and Urban Planning. 134210–220.
Fibiger, T. (2014) Heritage erasure and heritage
Ben-Hamouche, M. (2013) The paradox of
transformation: how heritage is created by
urban preservation: balancing permanence and
destruction in Bahrain. International Journal of
changeability in old Muslim cities. Journal of
Heritage Studies. 1–15.
Urbanism: International Research on Placemaking
91
and Urban Sustainability. 6 (2), 192–212.
Behavioral Sciences. 68637–648.
Janzen, J. (1983) The modern development of
Mohammad, R. & Sidaway, J. D. (2012)
nomadic living space in Southeast Arabia—the
Spectacular Urbanization amidst Variegated
case of Dhofar, Sultanate of Oman, Geoforum. 14
Geographies of Globalization: Learning from
(3), 289–309.
Abu Dhabi’s Trajectory through the Lives of
South Asian Men: Abu Dhabi’s urbanization
Krasnowiecki, J. & Strong, A. L. (1963)
trajectory from the perspective of South Asian
Compensable Regulations for Open Space: A
men. International Journal of Urban and Regional
Means of Controlling Urban Growth. Journal of
Research. 36 (3), 606–627.
the American Institute of Planners. 29 (2), 87–97.
Morton, M. Q. (2013) Buraimi: The Struggle for
Leach, M. (2008) Re-framing resilience:
Power, Influence and Oil in Arabia. London ; New
trans-disciplinarity, reflexivity and progressive
York: I. B. Tauris.
sustainability–a symposium report.
Onsman, A. (2011) It is better to light a candle
Locke, C. M. & Rissman, A. R. (2015) Factors
than to ban the darkness: government led
influencing zoning ordinance adoption in rural
academic development in Saudi Arabian
and exurban townships. Landscape and Urban
universities. Higher Education. 62 (4), 519–532.
Planning. 134167–176.
Petersen, A. (2009) ‘Islamic urbanism in eastern
Looney, R. E. (1990) Reducing dependence
Arabia: the case of the al-ʾAyn-al-Buraymī oasis’,
through investment in human capital: An
in Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian
assessment of Oman’s development strategy.
Studies. Papers from the forty-second meeting of
Socio-Economic Planning Sciences. 24 (1), 65–75.
the Seminar for Arabian Studies held in London.
London: Archaeopress. pp. 307–320.
Mahgoub, Y. (2007) Architecture and the
expression of cultural identity in Kuwait. The
Phillips, W. (1972) Unknown Oman. Intl Book
Journal of Architecture. 12 (2), 165–182.
Centre.
Majid, N. H. A. et al. (2012) Vernacular Wisdom:
Porter, D. R. (1997) Managing Growth in
The Basis of Formulating Compatible Living
America’s Communities. Island Press.
Environment in Oman. Procedia- Social and
92
Porter, M. E. (1994) The Role of Location
Thesiger, W. & Stewart, R. (2008) Arabian Sands.
in Competition. International Journal of the
Revised edition. London: Penguin Classics.
Economics of Business. 1 (1), 35–40.
Ukayli, M. A. & Husain, T. (1988) Comparative
Prathapar, S. A. et al. (2005) Overcoming
Evaluation Of Surface Water Availability,
constraints in treated greywater reuse in Oman.
Wastewater Reuse And Desalination In Saudi
Desalination. 186 (1-3), 177–186.
Arabia. Water International. 13 (4), 218–225.
Royal Oman Police & Ministry of Health (2012a)
UN Habitat (2012) The relevance of street
Oman Statistics Housing.
patterns and public space in urban areas.
Saines, N. (1986) ENHG Committee Abu Dhabi
UNITED NATIONS & Department of Economic
Bulletin: History of the Buraimi Oasis.
and Social Affairs (2014) World urbanization
Prospects 2014. Population Studies. United
Siebert, S. et al. (2005) Agricultural, architectural
Nations Publications.
and archaeological evidence for the role and
ecological adaptation of a scattered mountain
Wiedmann, F. et al. (2014) Sustainable urban
oasis in Oman. Journal of Arid Environments. 62
qualities in the emerging city of Doha. Journal of
(1), 177–197.
Urbanism: International Research on Placemaking
and Urban Sustainability. 7 (1), 62–84.
Singh, S. B. (1996) New Perspectives in Urban
Geography. M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd.
Wiedmann, F. et al. (2012) Urban Evolution
Of The City Of Doha: An Investigation Into
Speece, M. (1989) Aspects of Economic Dualism
The Impact Of Economic Transformations On
in Oman 1830–1930. International Journal of
Urban Structures. Metu Journal of the Faculty of
Middle East Studies. 21 (04), 495–515.
Architecture.
Swanstron, T. (2008) ‘Regional Resilience: A
Yagoub, M. M. (2004) Monitoring of urban
Critical Examination of the Ecological Framework’,
growth of a desert city through remote
in 2008 Baltimore, Maryland, USA: MacArthur
sensing: Al-Ain, UAE, between 1976 and 2000.
Foundation Research Network on Building
International Journal of Remote Sensing. 25 (6),
Resilient Regions.
1063–1076.
93
Part 2.2 Sustainable
transportation
Pedro Becerra Rodríguez
The city of Al Buraimi, located in the northwest
factors; firstly, the national transportation
of the Sultanate of Oman, has experienced
policy and legal framework are focused on
rapid urban growth characterized by patchy
roads development. Secondly, prices of cars
and unsustainable development over the last
and oil are relatively affordable in the Sultanate,
years. As a result of this process, the city is
and there is a car culture based on foreign
facing challenges in different dimensions of
automobile models. Furthermore, the current
the urban structure. One of these problems is
strong top down approach does not facilitate
transportation, which is automobile dependent
the instruments necessary to implement a
and road based. Additionally, Al Buraimi
sustainable mode of transportation. A more
presents segregated land use patterns, low
balanced transportation system, achieved via
densities, reduced travel choices, considerable
a more holistically coordinated and inclusive
occupation of land for car facilities and high
planning
accidents rates, amongst other issues. Thus
benefits to the city. This chapter has the aim
the increasing transportation needs may lead to
of analyzing the current transportation system
social, environmental and economic problems.
in Al Buraimi. Afterwards, this study intends to
Additionally,
planning
provide proposals which are based on criteria
process is characterized by a lack of coordination
and concepts to adapt toward a more balanced/
among institutions and shortage of vision.
sustainable transportation system in Al Buraimi.
the
transportation
Car dependency can be attributed to different
approach
would
provide
many
Part 2.2 Sustainable Transportation
Assessment of the current
state of transportation and
mobility
The affordable prices of oil and cars in addition
workers, who use the service provided by their
to the road based transportation policy of Oman,
schools and companies. Meanwhile, only 2%
has led to automobile dependency in Al Buraimi.
and 1% of the residents commute by walking or
As a result, the vast majority of residents use
biking respectively. The information on choice of
cars to travel. It is estimated that 90% of citizens
transportation in Al Buraimi is illustrated in the
move by private car, whereas 5% travel by taxi,
graph below.
which is the only complementary means of
Choice of transportation
mode in Al Buraimi
Source: (Author, 2014
(based on community
questionnaires)
Previous page:
Main street in Al Buraimi
96
transport available for the citizens. Furthermore,
Low costs for car based mobility
2% of the residents travel by private bus; this
Considering indicators such as residents’
number only includes certain students and
income per month and prices of cars and oil, it is
evident that private transportation in Al Buraimi
According to the National Center for Statistics
is affordable for residents. For instance, in the
and Information (2014), the Oman Government
automobiles’ market, new cars are available
Development Expenditure for roads was 384.9
from 500 Omani Rials. Additionally, prices of
Millions in O.R. in 2011. This expenditure
fuel are very low due to the fact the Sultanate
decreased slightly to 373.3 Millions of O.R. in
of Oman is an oil producing country. The price
2012. Afterwards, it increased again and the cost
for one litre of oil is normally 0.12 O.R. (NCSI,
was 424.3 Millions of O.R. in 2013. Furthermore,
2014). Meanwhile, the average minimum wage
according to the Department of the Ministry of
in Oman is 325 O.R. per month (Zawya, 2013).
Transport and Communications in Al Buraimi
Additionally, the costs of car insurances and
(2014), the budget allocated for maintenance
maintenance are not expensive.
of the highways and regional roads is 100.000
O.R. per year. Thereby, the information on road
High investment into improved road
network
expenditure shows a significant amount of the
Over the last 3 years, there has been a
transportation infrastructure.
development budget invested on car-based
considerable increase in road building in the
to the urban growth of the city and new
Road-related transport services in Al
Buraimi
infrastructure
linkages.
The few available services provided are private
According to the National Center of Statistics
transport such as taxis, school buses, and buses
and Information of Oman (2014), only 15
for workers. The operation of taxis is controlled
kilometers of roads were built in 2011. However,
and regulated by the Royal Oman Police. There
in 2012 the road length increased sharply and 103
are no taxi companies in charge of the service
kilometers of new roads were laid. Afterwards,
and there is no informal transport. Moreover, the
113 kilometers of new roads were laid in 2013
bus service for public schools is managed by the
in Al Buraimi. The total expenditure in roads
local government. In contrast, the bus service
in Oman can provide an overall idea of the
for private schools, Buraimi University, and
economic costs attributed to the infrastructure
workers is managed directly by the educational
for road-based developments in the Sultanate.
institutions or by the companies.
Governorate of Al Buraimi. This is attributed
built
for
regional
97
Environmental impacts
Furthermore, the National Oman Transportation
Figure 38. Built roads
in Al Buraimi
Road executed lengths
in the Governorate of Al
Buraimi per Year
Source: (National
Center of Statistics and
Information, 2014)
Figure 39. Carbon
dioxide emissions in
Oman
Source, (World Bank, 2014
modified by author)
98
Company provides public bus services to travel
According to the World Bank (2014), the
from Al Buraimi to Sohar-Muscat and Ibri-Nizwa.
carbon dioxide emissions in Oman increased
The NOTC is the only transportation company
significantly over a period of only 20 years,
in the Sultanate and operates throughout the
measuring such emissions from 1990 to 2010.
country. However, the service does not match
The number of metric tons in 1990 was 6.3
the demand of regional linkages in Al Buraimi.
per capita, which rose to 20.4 per capita by the
Commercial activities
year of 2010. Furthermore, the total number of
The commercial activities such as shops,
thousand metric tons produced in the Sultanate
restaurants,
of Oman in the year of 1990 was 11386, whereas
generate considerable demand for mobility in Al
in 2010, the production of thousand metric tons
Buraimi. These activities are located in the main
grew up 57202.The increase in carbon emissions
secondary and distributor roads of the city, where
has negative impacts on the environment,
density is higher. It is important to mention that
affects air quality and contributes to global
these commercial points are located close to the
warming.
international border with Al Ain (U.A.E).
Road safety - accidents
Residents from Al Ain frequently cross the
The most urgent problem that transportation
border to go to Al Buraimi where they can find
presents for Al Buraimi is the high rate of
more affordable prices of goods and services,
accidents. According to the Royal Oman Police
increasing the flow of traffic. The crossing points
(2014), in the year 2011 the city had 318 non
of the international border between Al Buraimi
serious accidents, 310 injuries and 27 deaths. In
and Al Ain are critical points of traffic flow. The
2012, Al Buraimi had 315 non serious accidents,
information collected indicates that 27% of
360 injuries and 32 deaths. Furthermore, in
Omani residents in Al Buraimi cross the border
the year 2013 the city recorded 325 non serious
daily, 23% cross the border more than once per
traffic accidents, 381 injuries, and 42 deaths due
week, 13% once per week, 16 % more than once
mostly to high speeds and drivers misbehaviour.
per month, 14% once per month, and 7% never
The situation has not been effectively controlled
cross.
markets,
and
other
services
and the accident rates have increased slightly
over the previous years.
Leisure activities
influence mobility in Al Buraimi as well. The
Mobility creating factors
facilities for sports are the Buraimi Sports
This refers to the aspects which characterize
Club and the Sports Complex, which attracts
mobility in the city of Al Buraimi. It is important
significant numbers of people. Additionally, the
to understand the aspects that influence why,
Buraimi Park, which is the only public green area
where, and how individuals in Al Buraimi
for recreation in the city, is another point where
commute to their destinations.
people commute frequently during the evenings.
99
Figure 40. Mobility
creating factors
Points that create mobility
and concentrate more
demand of accessibility in
Al Buraimi
Source: (Ministry of
Housing, 2014 Modified
by: Author)
Health and education activities:
Mosques:
Facilities such as hospitals, medical centers
Moreover, the mosques in Al Buraimi are
and education facilities such as schools and the
essential points for the residents. The largest
Buraimi University generate high demands of
mosque is the Masjid Sultan Qaboos, which is
mobility.
located in front of the main roundabout of Al
Buraimi. There are many mosques located in
Additionally, there are 27 public schools and 8
different parts of Al Buraimi and easy to reach by
private schools in Al Buraimi. According to the
foot from the residential areas.
National Center for Statistics and Information
(2014), it is estimated that there were 8,918
students in Al Buraimi in 2013. As previously
mentioned, the schools and the Buraimi
University provide bus transportation service for
the students.
100
Transportation planning
procedure
The Supreme Council for Planning produces a
roads reconstruction are usually considered
planning framework for the organization of the
because of poor safety conditions, congestion,
physical development in the Sultanate of Oman.
and
Within this framework, the Ministry of Housing
Furthermore, the development of new areas
develops Regional Plans for all regions of the
requires building more roads and transportation
country (MOTC, 2013). Based on these Regional
facilities. The Department of the Ministry of
Plans, the Supreme Council for Planning
Transportation and Communications in Al
designs Town Structure Plans. Such plans are
Buraimi and the Office of the Technical Affairs
the base for development, which includes the
of the Municipality have to coordinate the new
transportation infrastructure. In the case of Al
road developments, concerning the existing
Buraimi, the implementing agencies are:
and proposed services which could be affected.
infrastructure
failure
(MOTC,
2013).
Therefore, they need the information from the
(1) The Department of the Ministry of
agencies in charge of public services such as the
Transportation and Communications in Al
Public Authority for Electricity and Water, oil and
Buraimi, responsible for the highways and
gas companies, telecommunication companies,
regional roads, and
waste water companies, amongst others. The
Ministry of Housing allocates residential plots
(2) the Buraimi Municipality, which is the branch
of land to the Omani nationals. At the time that
of the Ministry of Regional Municipalities
the land is allocated, there is no transportation
and Water Resources, and has the Office for
or public service infrastructure. Thus, after a
Technical Affairs regarding to the local road
considerable area has been developed then
network.
the roads and service infrastructure are built.
There is no connection between land use and
The Ministry of Transport and Communications
transportation planning because they are the
determines the priorities and schemes, thus
responsibility of separated ministries, which find
works such as roads improvements and
it difficult to coordinate these two components.
101
Transportation legal framework
The Omani legislation contains 4 regulations
have been established by a Technical Committee,
related to transportation:
which had representation from the Ministry of
Transportation and Communications, the Royal
Figure 41. Transportation planning procedure
Source: (Author, 2014
based on the planning
procedure stated in the
Oman Highway Design
Standards)
102
Oman highway design manual
standards
Police, the Supreme Council for Planning, the
This manual provides broad guidelines for
and the Ministry of Regional Municipalities and
the responsibilities of particular authorities
Water Resources (MOTC, 2013). This regulation
and organizations involved in transportation.
has been developed based on previous legal
This
include
frameworks for transportation design and
design standards, but also planning and
implementation. The standards were meant
implementation procedures. These standards
for the design of highways, arterial, secondary,
document
does
not
only
Muscat Municipality, the Municipality of Dhofar,
distributor, and access routes, which in other
and standards for the development in the urban
words, means the hierarchy of national and
and rural areas. They also set standards for
local roads. This regulation establishes some
road networks and accessibility (MoH, 2014).
technical codes that must be followed in the
Furthermore, the guidelines determine the
design and implementation stages. Additionally,
land uses permitted along the highways and
it states the planning procedures for national
the distances between the roads and buildings.
and regional strategies, according to the Oman
Moreover, the master plans must establish
Planning Guidelines (SCTP, 2010).
the limits of the projected areas which will be
urbanized, the projected roads, and protection
Omani environmental regulations
areas. It also complements some of the
This set of laws was created by the Ministry of
standards that have been established by the
Environment and Climate Affairs in order to
Oman Highway Design Manual. The guidelines
prevent pollution, environmental degradation,
are linked to the building codes and state the
chemicals
the
number of required parking lots per project,
ecosystems in the Sultanate of Oman (MOECA,
depending on the built area, land use, and
2013). The law is mainly addressed to the
density. Finally, they determine the minimum
industrial activities which handle hazardous
distances between residential areas and service
chemicals. It includes the control of emissions
facilities.
hazards,
and
damage
to
and noise levels, which indirectly refers to
transportation activities as well. Through
Development control plan framework
this regulation, the Ministry of Environment
The DCPF is a document which contains
and
permissions
guidelines and standards for the development
for all activities that represent a risk to the
of integrated tourism projects. Consequently,
environment. The planning process also states
the framework encompasses standards of
that all new roads projects need a license which
transportation facilities for accessibility to
certifies that they comply with the environmental
tourism complexes. They define the number
requirements.
of parking lots, the type of roads and streets
Climate
Affairs
issues
to access, and traffic impact assessments.
Oman planning guidelines
Additionally,
The guidelines were issued by the Ministry of
implementing facilities such as sidewalks
Housing; they established planning definitions
and bikeways in the tourist areas, and the
the
standards
recommend
preservation of the local landscape.
103
Urban space for mobility
The secondary route to Mahdha functions as a
Roads network
main entrance to the industrial area of the city
According to the Highway Design Manual of the
plant and the dumping site. The facilities for
Ministry of Transport and Communications, the
waste are located approximately 10 kilometers
roads network in Oman is structured in different
away from this route. This road is for trucks
levels depending on the accessibility, speed,
and heavy traffic due to the activities located in
distance, and traffic flows. As a result, it is
this area. Moreover, it is also the access to the
possible to categorize roads in Al Buraimi with
Buraimi Park and the residential areas in the
the national standards hierarchy. Al Buraimi has
west of the city. According to the MOTC (2014),
a national route, which is the only highway in
there is a project plan for the dualization of the
the city, which connects it with Sohar-Muscat
road to Mahdha, which would increase the traffic
and Ibri-Nizwa. This national highway is linked
flow. On the other hand, the secondary roads
to two secondary routes in Al Buraimi, which
that connect the highway with the international
connect it with the wilayat of Mahdha and the
border
two international border crossing points.
commercial areas of the city alongside them.
and other facilities such as the waste treatment
concentrate
the
most
important
Facilities such as restaurants, shops, the souk
The highway in Al Buraimi, which is a national
(market), hotels, retailers, and other businesses
route that connects the city with the highways
are located along the secondary routes. The
to Sohar and Ibri, presents high traffic flows
traffic is usually congested during the peak
and a speed limit of 120km/hour. Moreover,
hours, thus increasing likelihood of accidents.
there are green areas between the highway and
104
the local roads located alongside. These are the
Parking lots
only green spaces provided for pedestrians in
Car dependency in Al Buraimi entails the
Al Buraimi and are designed with the purpose
demand for significant urban areas for parking
of creating a barrier between the highway
lots. The transportation mode has favoured
corridor and sidewalks. The highway fulfils all
cars instead of the pedestrians, thus, it is more
the standards included in the regulation for
common to find parking places than sidewalks
national roads; it has a high quality and good
or green areas. It is possible to find either
performance in regard to traffic flow and low
formal or informal parking lots; the city has built
congestion.
considerable areas for car facilities. However,
Box 13. Parking ratio test
This study considered a specific area of four blocks in Al Buraimi, in order to
measure the area and percentage of land used for parking lots. The analysis
indicated that 15% of the areas were used for parking lots and 25% were empty
plots, which were also occupied by cars. It also showed that densities are very low
and land is not being used efficiently. Only 60% of the selected area is built up.
Figure 42. Sample
area in Al Buraimi
Selected area for analysis
of land occupation for
parking lots
Source: (Wikimapia, 2014
Modified by: Author)
105
Figure 43. Map
of roads network in Al
Buraimi
Road network hierarchy
according to the
Highway Design Manual
criteria of the Ministry
of Transportation and
Communications
Source: (MOH, 2014
Modified by: Author)
it seems that the demand for parking is higher
106
Sidewalks
than the supply of available places to park. It is
Many areas have been developed without
common to find empty plots of land which have
considering pedestrians facilities, others have
not being built on within the city, these places
either poor quality of sidewalks, reduced space
are usually used as parking lots when all the
for walking, or only segments of pavement.
other facilities are occupied. Therefore, there is
Moreover, the city has not built facilities for the
a lack of regulation to avoid the occupation of
mobility of elderly people, children, and people
these plots of land by cars. Areas which could
with special needs. The building codes are not
be used as public spaces with possibilities
enforced to maintain the distance between
for community interaction, enjoyment, and
buildings and roads, there is lack of spatial
cohesion are being wasted to accommodate the
justice in the distribution of urban spaces in the
high number of vehicles. Furthermore, parking
city because there is no equity for accessibility.
in Al Buraimi is free, lacking of regulation and
Additionally,
control which affects traffic congestion.
options for non-motorized transportation.
prioritizing
cars
discourages
Goals
The outcomes of the survey performed within
The
aim
of
this
study
is
to
propose
this study show that approximately 15% of the
recommendations. Its purpose includes the
residents never walk, whereas 65% of them walk
evaluation of the transportation planning
below than 2 hours per week; 15% walk between
structure. Moreover, in order to fulfill the
2 and 4 hours per week, while only 5% walk
above mentioned it is important to include the
more than 4 hours per week.
following sub objectives:
Development of new roads
○○
New internal roads have been developed over
Buraimi by identifying the factors which
the last years in disperse/patchy developed
influence urban and regional transportation.
To analyze the mobility patterns in Al-
areas of Al Buraimi. The city has spent significant
amounts of financial resources on roads located
○○
in the outskirts. The new infrastructure entails
and mobility behavior .
To evaluate the existing transport facilities
high economic costs and it does not compensate
for the low benefits that it represents. The
○○
decision makers are not considering a balanced
regulations, strategies, planning procedures,
development and are sacrificing significant areas
and how they are implemented in practice in Al
of land. This is not sustainable in terms of the
Buraimi
To review the current transportation laws,
environment and economy because it destroys
the local ecosystem, investing high amounts of
○○
money without meeting the needs of the city.
that the current transportation system entails
Therefore, the budget for development could be
and propose ideas on how to switch to a more
invested in a more effective manner.
sustainable mode of transportation.
○○
To identify the problems and challenges
To
establish
transportation
in
criteria
order
on
to
sustainable
address
the
dimensions of rapid uncontrolled growth.
107
Recomendations
for all ministries to keep all the necessary
The analysis has provided a broad panorama
information readily available. The planning
of transportation in Al Buraimi, identifying the
procedure suggests the coordination among
key issues and challenges. Thus, with the aim of
ministries; however, in practice it does not
classifying the proposals, this section is divided
function holistically and it is also necessary to
into governance/institutional and technical
create management tools for a more efficient
recommendations.
implementation stage. Therefore, the Ministry of
Housing in Al Buraimi, which is the responsible
Governance / Institutional
recommendations
for land use administration, should integrate
the land use plan with the responsible for local
Integration and coordination in the
planning procedure
transportation network in Al Buraimi in order to
ensure more compact development.
In order to contribute to a more effective
Additionally, it is not appropriate that the
planning procedure, it is essential to integrate
Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water
and coordinate activities among the ministries
Resources is the responsible for the local road
and government institutions. Thus, the Ministry
network in Al Buraimi. There is a disconnection
of Transportation and Communications, the
with the Ministry of Transportation and
Ministry of Housing, and the Ministry of
Communications at the local level and this
Regional Municipalities and Water Resources
is one of the reasons for the failure in the
should function using a holistic approach. By
implementation of transportation regulations.
coordinating activities, urban development
108
would be implemented in a more balanced
Changing the land distribution system
and sustainable manner. Consequently, it is
The national land distribution policy should be
needed to establish efficient mechanisms and
reformulated with the aim of using the land
instruments for the integration of development
more efficiently and create higher proximity. The
activities. This means that plans and decisions
current system of allocating lands randomly has
on
infrastructure,
led to patchy developments, wasted land, and
public services, and environment should be
urban fragmentation. The process of distribution
taken as an integrative process. Moreover, it
should also enforce the construction on the plot
includes establishing a common database
of land and the simultaneous development
housing,
transportation,
of urban facilities and services for those plots.
○○
This process should encourage a compact
should provide the facilities for non-motorized
urbanization, by ensuring useful occupation of
transportation (biking and walking) which
land. It is important to consider mechanisms
encourage people to adopt a healthier life style.
Walkable
Communities:
Al
Buraimi
that compel people who receive plots by draw
to build on them. Therefore, by refocusing the
Review of laws and regulations
land allocation on people who are genuinely
The overall national policy on transportation
determined and financially able to build, the
should be reviewed and reformulated in order
urban areas would have higher densities, better
to convert to a more transit oriented policy.
access to services, and an improved quality of
Afterwards, the Oman Highway Design Manual
public spaces.
Standards, the building codes, and the Omani
Environmental Regulations should be modified
Integration of land use and
transportation planning
in order to adjust to the needs of sustainable
development.
The integration of land use and transportation
planning is a key recommendation in order
○○
to reduce the need for new roads, and
Manual Standards: As mentioned, the national
build
The
policy on road based transportation should
Ministry of Housing should tie land use
be reconsidered. Therefore the standards
administration policies with transportation
should be developed in more depth for the
planning, coordinating the planning process by
local transportation network, defining codes
establishing strategies addressed to achieving
that minimize car dependency by providing
this holistic approach. In addition to the
facilities for walking and biking. The regulation
integration of planning activities, two strategies
should also establish clear responsibilities for
are proposed:
the implementation of the local network and
infrastructure
more
efficiently.
Review of the Oman Highway Design
more efficient mechanisms for monitoring and
○○
Nodal Development: Al Buraimi should
enforcement.
concentrate high densities and mixed land uses
in strategic points of the city, as mentioned in
○○
part 2.1.
complement to the review of the Oman Highway
Review of the building codes: As a
Design Manual Standards, the building codes
109
should support the allocation of the urban
receive a driving license should be established
spaces for pedestrians. Therefore, the codes
in Al Buraimi. Only people who demonstrate
should consider the minimum distance between
responsibility, ability, and good driving behaviour
buildings and local roads and the obligation
in the tests should be allowed to possess a
to build sidewalks. They should also regulate
driving license.
the number of parking lots and reduce the
○○
occupation of public spaces by cars.
Review of the Omani Environmental
Regulations: This law should encompass
○○
Introduction of parking fee: This proposal
the impacts of roads and transportation
might work with the aim of regulating the use
infrastructure on the environment. It is currently
of public spaces for parking lots. It would also
focused on emissions and the roads building
contribute to reduce car use due to the fact that
process; nevertheless the regulation is not
it is currently free to park anywhere in the city.
relevant in terms of protecting the ecosystems.
This initiative has been implemented in Muscat,
Moreover, the law should limit the range of
where there was a limitation of parking lots
the extensions of lands that are meant to
in the city centre. Thereby, priced parking was
be developed, in order to integrate all the
successfully established to reduce the demand
environmental issues. Additionally, with the aim
of parking lots, discouraging car use, and
of supporting environmental preservation, it is
reducing traffic.
highly recommended to establish a branch of
the Environment Society of Oman in the city.
○○
110
Regulations to reduce car use: The
affordability of cars generates a challenging
Monitoring and enforcement
perspective
automobile
It is essential to establish more efficient
dependency. Therefore, in order to reduce car use
and effective instruments and mechanisms
and accidents rates, other actions beyond speed
to implement at the local level in order to
controls and cameras might be considered. The
comply with the national laws and regulations.
Royal Oman Police is currently doing awareness
Therefore, strict enforcement, controls, and
campaigns to encourage consciousness about
inspections are needed in order to follow the
driving behaviour. Nevertheless, this action
legal framework. By increasing monitoring and
should be complemented by adopting more
inspections, compliance will also increase.
thorough driving tests and procedures to
Thus, the implementation process will follow the
in
minimizing
guidelines, standards and codes stated in the
the responsibilities among the different actors
transportation legislation. The proposal is that
involved.
for all new transportation projects in Al Buraimi,
inspections by the Central Government and the
The first step of decentralization was made in
Governorate should be made during the different
2011 through the creation of the municipalities in
stages of the project execution. Consequently,
the Sultanate of Oman. Therefore, the next step
the transportation implementation agencies
is that the National level considers distributing
are forced to know the legal framework and
additional administrative, political, and fiscal
operate according to it. In the case of inspectors
autonomy to the regional and local levels with a
finding an abnormality or non conformity,
long term projection.
the implementation agency should be made
responsible to take the corrective actions.
The process must be gradual in order to not
disrupt the current governmental structure. For
Decentralization
instance, the Governorate of Al Buraimi should
More autonomy, in the Governorate of Al
have the autonomy to decide on regional new
Buraimi to decide on transportation plans and
roads and linkages according to the priorities in
projects in their city-region, is needed. The local
terms of transportation of goods, tourism and
government has more knowledge regarding
residents mobility.
the actual needs, priorities, problems, and
challenges of its city-region than the Central
The Municipal Council of Al Buraimi should play
Government of Muscat.
an essential role in strengthening the power in
the regional and local level in transportation
The process of decentralization may take a long
planning and decisions. Consequently, when
time, nevertheless, efforts have to be made
the process takes place, the levels of public
and there should be more flexibility for the
engagement and involvement will increase as
governorates and municipalities in decision
well. Decentralization is a key tool to promote
making. In the process of decentralization, it
urban sustainable development by focusing
is essential to have political acceptance from
more closely in the local community.
the Central Government to transfer certain
powers to the different levels. Additionally, the
transportation legal framework should define
111
Public involvement
This is a long process which could be started by
involving the schools and university students,
In order to initiate a more integrative and holistic
with activities such as student proposals and
planning approach in Al Buraimi, it is important
competitions
to increase the level of public engagement in
the efforts to involve all groups of society, the
planning and sustainability. Therefore, residents
Municipal Council of Al Buraimi should play a
in Al Buraimi should get progressively more
key role in attracting the residents to participate.
involved in urban planning procedures. The
As a result, new ideas, concepts, and proposals
residents are a key player in identifying the real
can arise from the citizens according to their
needs and priorities of the community and they
needs.
regarding
transportation.
In
should have the right to express opinions, ideas,
and criticisms on the city’s transportation. Thus,
Furthermore, the process should integrate the
the decisions would be more inclusive, and
expatriate residents, which count for around
effective, in terms of benefiting the public.
50% of the total population in Al Buraimi. The
immigrants are part of the city and need to be
Figure 44. New road
in Al Buraimi
Patchy developed area
with a new road for
the accessibility of only
few housing units. The
urbanization does not
follow a coherent process.
112
included and participate in planning as well.
○○
They also have needs for urban and regional
of reducing car dependency depends on public
mobility
transportation
support. Therefore, the community should be
demand. According to the community surveys,
aware of sustainability and the negative impacts
the non-nationals are the most disadvantaged
of the current car based mode of Al Buraimi.
group in the city. Consequently, the process
Firstly, the concepts of sustainability should
should not marginalize any group and should be
be clearly conveyed to the residents through
fair and equal by providing the same conditions
campaigns and programs. Secondly, creating
for everyone.
awareness,
which
represents
Public and political acceptability: The aim
consciousness,
and
education
through campaigns can encourage people to
Public / political acceptability and
adaptability
adopt more sustainable practices.
It is also necessary to establish a process which
○○
includes the following:
cooperation with the media, schools, the
The campaigns can be carried out in
Buraimi University College, the Royal Police of
Sidewalk in Al Buraimi
There is not space for
pedestrians and there is
an insufficient distance
between the buildings
and the road. There is no
possibility to walk in an
exclusive space.
113
Oman, the Ministry of Environment and Climate
it will be necessary to change institutions,
Affairs, and the Environment Society of Oman.
administration, and governance. This is the
Meanwhile public support for change will lead
most challenging aspect in the adaptation of
to political acceptability because this is the main
sustainable transportation as it does not only
way to influence political thinking (Banister et
depend on the local government of Al Buraimi,
al., 2007).
but also on the Central Government in Muscat,
due to the strong centralized structure of the
Adaptability:
Once
acceptability
has
implementation
of
public
been
a
and
political
achieved,
more
the
sustainable
Sultanate.
Nevertheless,
restructuring
the
institutions and reviewing governance is needed
as part of the process.
transportation mode in Al Buraimi needs a
complementary process of adaptability. This
encompasses both residents and government.
Technical recommendations
On the one hand, the citizens need time and
This part is focused on the technical proposals
guidance to adapt to walking or biking. It is
which would complement the governance
challenging to persuade people to stop using
recommendations. Additionally, in order to
private cars when they offer comfortable
contextualize the technical recommendations
transportation at affordable prices. Nevertheless,
in Al Buraimi, it is necessary to consider the
this process of change of behaviour is based
weather conditions, the local identity, and the
on campaigns and educational programs for
local customs. These features will determine,
raising consciousness. Thus, people need
technically, how to design and implement the
to learn how to use the facilities for non-
facilities and infrastructure.
motorized transportation, and how to respect
the reallocation of sidewalks and public spaces
Facilities for walking and biking
to pedestrians. It is important to emphasize the
Al Buraimi should provide the facilities for non-
benefits that this shift represents for individuals
motorized transportation such as walking and
and the community in terms of health,
biking. This effort aims to improve the local
accessibility, environment, etc.
environment and it is focused on a small scale.
Moreover, it would improve the public health,
114
On the other hand, the government of Al
air quality, security, and overall spatial justice.
Buraimi needs adaptation as well because
Therefore, the following points are proposed:
○○
Pedestrian facilities: It is challenging to
Additionally, a pilot project of renting bikes
propose pedestrianization due to the weather
could be implemented. In many places of the
conditions and car based culture of the society.
world, renting bikes has been successfully
Nevertheless, efforts have to be made in order
adopted. Al Buraimi might set up this mode as
to provide quality public spaces to the residents,
an experiment at first, in the case that it works,
supported by the transportation and building
it can be set up permanently. Al Buraimi would
regulations and guidelines.
become a pioneer as it would be the first city in
the Sultanate of Oman to implement bikeways.
The benefits of the process of pedestrianization
in Al Buraimi is that it would definitely improve
Landscaping
the accessibility conditions of the community,
Landscaping should be considered in order
including the most disadvantage groups such
to provide shade, road noise attenuation,
as people with special needs, children, elderly
separation between the car lanes and pedestrian
people, and immigrants as well. As a result,
paths, improvement of air quality, and better
the city would be more inclusive for all society
urban space aesthetics. Additionally, it would
groups. On the other hand, taking into account
be an opportunity to recover the local identity
that Al Buraimi has high temperatures over
through restoring the native species of plants.
the year and this condition might discourage
Considering that the governorate is a dry place
walking, it is important to provide sidewalks
with scarce water resources, the proposal
and public spaces that are sheltered from direct
focuses on the use of trees requiring less
sunlight. As a result, it is proposed to consider
water which have a significant surface area to
landscaping in planning and urban design.
provide shadows. According to the Environment
Society of Oman (2010), there is a group of
○○
Biking facilities: The network of bike lanes
native trees proposed in order to conserve the
could be distributed along the main routes. It is
traditional cultural landscapes. As a result, the
important to point out that the Omani society
proposed species from this group which meet
is not used to biking. Nevertheless, there is a
the functional needs for sidewalks are: Ghaf
significant number of immigrants who do not
(Proposis cineraria), Sidr (Ziziphus spina-christi)
own a car and require mobility.
and Sherish/Naim (Azadirachta indica).
115
Furthermore, in case there are sidewalks which
Meanwhile, the local government should
are not suitable for trees or plants (i.e. due to
educate the residents on how and why to use
space constrains), another solution to provide
the public transportation system through
shade is through the installation of pergolas.
campaigns
This is a traditional Omani architectural element
considering that Oman has traditionally strict
which could be used for this purpose in addition
rules in the relation between men and women,
to the identity value that it contains.
it is also proposed to provide separated areas in
and
programs.
Furthermore,
the buses for each gender. Thus, people would
Al Buraimi’s own public bus system
The
Figure 45. Public
transportation plan
Source, Author, 2014
116
pilot
experiment
proposed
is
feel more comfortable when using the service.
the
The implementation of the public transport
implementation of buses with a dedicated lane.
system could create conflicts with the current
They should have specific stops strategically
taxi service. As mentioned before taxis are the
located in the places with higher volume of
only available service for local journeys, and
people. Additionally, they should operate on the
drivers would lose revenues in the event of
main distributor routes of the city.
having competition. Consequently, the proposal
is to integrate the public transportation network
Transit oriented development
with the taxi service. Thus, taxis could be
rethought as semi public, sharing the bus stops
The TOD model could be implemented
and lines.
as a model for integration of land use and
transportation.
According
to
experts,
the
The aim of the pilot plan is to integrate the
concept of this model is to concentrate mixed
different modes of transportation without
land uses, dense areas, and pedestrian friendly
excluding or compromising the existing services.
developments around the main roads to provide
In addition, the network could be linked with
walking, biking, and alternatives to the use of
biking by installing bicycle parking racks at the
private cars. Thus, TOD would be potentially
bus stops.
suitable in the case of Al Buraimi, considering
that the city has concentration of activities and
On the other hand, it would be important to
densities at certain points.
coordinate activities between the government
and the public sector through partnerships in
The current activity centers were indicated in the
order to manage the operation of the bus service.
analysis of local mobility creating factors. As a
Thus small and medium enterprises would have
result, if these strategic points are focused on
the opportunity to develop businesses with
creating nuclei by increasing densities and mixed
services that are efficient for the city and support
land use, in addition to the provision of facilities
the local economy. Another important aspect to
for non-motorized and public transportation,
be considered in the implementation stage is the
Al Buraimi could adapt and implement this
service pricing. They make private transportation
concept. Therefore, the development process
very affordable for people. Therefore, efforts
would be more sustainable by creating a more
have to be made in order to provide the public
compact city. It should be seen as a tool to
transportation service with affordable prices as
slow down sprawl and reduce car dependency.
well. The key point is to create awareness in the
Moreover, in these nuclei strategically located
citizens on the importance to reduce car use
in the city, the bus stops proposed in the public
and the benefits of using the public transport
transportation system should be placed.
network in terms of efficiency and cost.
117
Figure 46. Transit
oriented development
TOD concept
Source: (Institute for
Transportation and
Development Policy, 2013
Modified by: Author,
2014)
On the other hand, it is essential to set a
public spaces, and public transportation.
planning strategy to implement TOD model
Consequently, the TOD model implementation
which responds to the local priorities. The
would bring better living conditions to the
strategy contains key principles that must
city residents by creating green corridors and
be fulfilled to guarantee the implementation
more accessibility. The concept of TOD is
success: (1) Make full use of urban land, (2) Plan
schematically visualized in the graph above.
with communities, (3) Encourage public over
private transport, (4) Strengthen local sense of
An area that can be considered to start a TOD is
place, and (5) Develop strategies to create local
where the market (souk) is located and includes
jobs.
commercial corridors, hotels, restaurants and
retailers, in addition to heritage sites which will
Thus, it is also relevant to include the concept
potentially become tourist attractions.
of “complete neighbourhood”, which provides
118
choices for housing and employment, as well
Another site is the area located in the main
as retailers, schools, medical centres, worship,
roundabout which contains the main Mosque,
Figure 47.
centers
Activity
Potential Activity Centers
in Al Buraimi for TOD
Implementation
Source: (Wikimapia, 2014
Modified by: Author, 2014)
bus terminal, Governorate office, commercial
area contains the Buraimi Park, the Buraimi Sport
areas, health care facilities, among others. This
Complex, the Buraimi Hospital, the Buraimi
is a point of the city with density and potential to
Hotel, shops, among others. Therefore, it could
become a node in the TOD model. The proposal
be developed as an activity centre by integrating
is to densify these two areas, providing facilities
more varied land uses and increasing densities,
for walking and biking, integrating residential
as well as linking it with public transportation.
use within the area of influence, as well as
limiting the occupation of public spaces for
Additionally, these three potential activity centres
parking lots, and using the node centres for the
might be connected by the pilot project of public
bus stops.
transportation. The bus routes should operate
in the densest areas of Al Buraimi where there is
Furthermore, there is a third area which has low
more compact development. At the same time,
density, but is strategically located considering
the public service operation should operate
the proximity of different land uses such as
mainly along the main distributor routes and
commercial, residential, and recreational. This
partly on the highway.
119
Improvement of regional public
transportation
The implementation of TOD is envisioned in
The current interregional public transportation
the medium term if the planning structure
system is not operating efficiently and needs
is reformulated and actions are taken in the
urgent updating. Therefore, the proposal is
short term. On the other hand, considering the
to improve the regional linkages by increasing
projected growth of urbanization in Al Buraimi,
coverage, frequencies, and punctuality through
which has been planned by the Ministry of
the operation of new updated buses which also
Housing, it is proposed to include activity
provide better conditions for the passengers.
centres in the new developed areas. The nodes
should be located along the main distributor
The Oman National Transport Company should
route, which according to the master plan, is
improve the quality and quantity of the bus fleet
proposed to be built when the area has been
operating in the region. Moreover, it is advisable
urbanized.
to improve the bus terminal facilities due to its
size not being appropriate for high volume of
passengers. There are no waiting spaces and the
process of tickets purchase is not functional.
120
Action / management plan : proposed governance actions
Figure 48. Action
management plan
Governance/Institutional
Recommendations
Source: (Author 2014)
Proposed technical actions
Figure 49. Technical
recommendations
The action plans for the
implementation of the
governance and technical
proposals are illustrated in
the following page.
121
Figure 50.
bout sign
Rounda-
Source: (Carvajal, 2015)
Conclusions
122
Sustainable transportation is not about radically
and political acceptance for a new mode of
stopping car use, it is about reducing car
planning and transportation. Moreover, political
dependency through the implementation of
will in the different levels of the government
mixed land use, higher densities, proximity,
could make the difference to overcome the lack
accessibility,
non-
of integration, coordination, and inadequate
motorized transportation, and alternative energy
planning. The community needs time to adapt
usage. Thus, Al Buraimi should adopt a holistic
to the new ideas, and the role of the government
transportation approach that provides access to
is essential in guiding the citizens in this process
citizens minimizing the social, environmental,
through campaigns and programs. These ideas
and economic impacts. However, it needs
could be applied to other urban areas of the
reformulation
planning
Sultanate of Oman in the event of successful
procedure, and the legal framework in order
implementation in Al Buraimi, which could
to establish the basis for its implementation.
become the first city in the country to adopt a
In addition, it is necessary to achieve public
new approach to transportation.
public
of
transportation,
governance,
References
Banister, D. (2008). The Sustainable Mobility
Hillman, M. (1993). Children, Transport and the
Quality of Life.
Paradigm. Transport Policy, 15(2), 73–80.
Hutton, B. (2013). Planning Sustainable
Banister, D., Pucher, J., Lee-Gosselin, M. &
Transport.pdf.
Lee, M. (2007). Making Sustainable Transport
Politically and Publicly Acceptable: Lessons
Institute for Transportation and Development
from the EU, USA and Canada. Institutions and
Policy (2013) TOD
Sustainable Transport: Regulatory Reform in
Advanced Economies, Cheltenham, England:
Kenworthy, J. R. & Laube, F. B. (1996).
Edward Elgar Publishing, 17–50.
Automobile Dependence in Cities: An
International Comparison of Urban Transport
Cervero, R., Bertolini, L., Curtis, C., Renne,
and Land Use Patterns with Implications
J. & Newman, P. (2009). Transit Oriented
for Sustainability. Environmental Impact
Development Making It Happen.pdf.
Assessment Review, 16(4), 279–308.
Cohn, M. (2009) Four Attributes of the Ideal
Laing, R., Tait, E. & Gray, D. (2012). Public
Pilot Project. Mountain Goat Software.
Engagement and Participation in Sustainable
Transport Issues.
Environment Society of Oman. (2010). Omani
Native Trees Species
Litman, T. (2000). Reinventing Transportation.
Victoria Transportation Policy Institute.
Fausold, C. J. (1996). The Economic Value of
Retrieved November 6, 2014
Open Space.pdf.
Litman, T. (2002). The Costs of Automobile
Handy, S.L. & Niemeier, D. (1997) Measuring
Dependency. Victoria Transportation Policy
accessibility: an exploration of issues and
Institute
alternatives. Environment and Planning A vol.
29.
Litman, T. (2008). Well Measured. Developing
indicators for comprehensive and sustainable
transport planning. Victoria Transport Policy
Institute.
123
McEldowney, M., Ryley, T., Scott, M. & Smyth,
Scott, M., McEldowney, M. & Ryley, T. (2005).
A. (2005). Integrating Land-Use Planning
Urban Form Reducing Demand of Car Travel.
and Transportation in Belfast: A New Policy
pdf.
Agenda for Sustainable Development? Journal
of Environmental Planning and management,
Statistical Year Book. (2014). 2-Population.pdf.
48(4), 507–526.
UN Habitat. (2013). Planning and Design for
Mega, V., Pedersen, J. & Fondation européenne
Sustainable Urban Mobility. Global Report on
pour l’amélioration des conditions de vie et de
Human Settlements. pdf
travail. (1998). Urban Sustainability Indicators.
Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of
Weerakoon, R. & Kumar, A. (2013).
the European Communities.
Sustainability in Post Disaster Road
Infrastructure Recovery Projects and Asset
Mobility Management Measures. (2013). C05_
Management, in: 4th International Conference
Experience Public Transport.pdf.
on Structural Engineering and Construction
Management.
MOECA. (2013). Omani Environmental
Regulations.pdf.
Newman, P. & Kenworthy, J. (1999).
Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming
Automobile Dependence. Island Press.
Schiller, P. L., Brun, E. C. and Kenworthy, J.
R. (2010), An Introduction to Sustainable
Transport: Policy, Planning and
Implementation, Earthscan, London.pdf.
124
125
Part 2.3 Infrastructure
Development
Panagiotis Achamnos
There are a lot of factors that have contributed
increased vertical urban density, as the city
to the current situation in the city of Al Buraimi,
grew towards the outskirts, the basic services
Oman. Infrastructure provision faces a lot
have not been unable to reach the new areas
of challenges in the area, serving to support
of the city in a reasonable time. This happened
the rationale for this research, which focuses
because of the time needed for planning and the
on the three key services: fresh water supply,
expenses, which are higher due to the scattered
solid waste management, and wastewater
development of the city. As a result, the main
treatment. These play an important role towards
fresh water network covers only around 80
the sustainable growth of a city. The land
percent of the city, the sewage system covers
distribution system in Oman played a major role
only a 30 to 35 percent of the city and is located
in contributing to this scattered development of
basically in the city centre. Regarding the solid
the city, and as a consequence to the challenges
waste management of the city, the rapid growth
and subsequential problems in providing basic
of the city has consequently led to the rapid
services to inhabitants in a timely manner.
growth in the amount of solid waste. Thus, it
Because of the fast growth of the city, which
becomes more and more difficult for the city’s
happened as horizontal urban sprawl and not
solid waste management authorities to cope.
state of infrastructure
Taking into consideration the rapid growth
○○
of the city in the last years and the weather
(RD 81/84 and RD 125/2008)
Increasing demand for plots to allocated
conditions, we can understand the risks that the
basic infrastructure faces, especially the fresh
○○
water supply, solid waste management, and
in charge
Lacking coordination between institutions
wastewater management and treatment. These
An interview with the director of the Ministry of
are:
Regional Municipalities and Water Resources
○○
Services arrive after the inhabitation of
in Al Buraimi complements and adds more
the areas in the outskirts. Because of that rapid
information. The central government wants
growth and the exploitation of the city, the
to preserve the local architecture character
services that are currently available cannot cope
and personality. There is a minor committee
and serve in the same way they used to with a
searching for new ideas to build in a more
much lower population.
environmentally friendly way .
○○
An increase in solid waste that the city
In the last four years, 5000 building permits
produces, and at the same time that the solid
were granted from the municipality, 80 per cent
waste department is not capable of managing.
of them for residential houses and villas, and
The city services lack in personnel and in
almost 170 kilometres were added to the city’s
facilities.
length. In the next five years it is expected that
the whole of Al Buraimi will be full. In 2014
○○
Previous page:
Water delivery in Al
Buraimi
128
The wastewater management of the city
alone, 800 building permits were granted.
faces the same problem, as the amount of daily
Another point is that people working in UAE,
wastewater that has to be treated rises every
in Al-Ain, prefer to live in Al Buraimi because it
year.
has a lower cost of living. There is also the case
that a lot of the population from the country is
○○
The fresh water supply faces the same
challenges, as it has to serve every year more
and more people.
moving to Al Buraimi. It is developing rapidly,
more than any other city in Oman.
Box 14. Land allocation
The land law, Royal Decree No. 81/84, states that every Omani citizen has the
right to be granted a residential plot through a public lottery, a public draw,
which is carried out by the Ministry of Housing. Up until 2008, only men were
granted residential land through that drawing throughout the whole Sultanate.
With Royal Decree No. 125/2008, the previous Royal Decree was amended,
allowing women to also participate in the lottery and receive the rights to a
residential plot. This new Decree also stated that each participant in the public
lottery should not be less than 23 years old, or less than 21 years old if he/she
is married (Al Gharibi, 2013). These plots are between 600 square meters and
1000 square meters and when granted there are no basic services available.
There is not an entire framework where all the departments can take decisions
together and this is the main problem: a fragmentation of responsibilities. After
the people get the plots, they can apply for the basic services, but usually it takes
two to three years for the services to arrive. The distribution of land is so rapid
that at the moment there is a lack of vacant land in Al Buraimi to distribute to
people. But the main problem remains; the basic infrastructure has (yet) to join
the planning (MoH, personal communication, September 22, 2014).
There is a five-year plan for every project-plan
perspective in a long-term plan rather than in
in Oman, including infrastructure projects. The
the short-term. Specifically for infrastructure,
municipality applies for the amount of money
there are short-term plans, for one year, but
they need for basic services in a five-year plan
there are also some five-year plans to apply in
and usually only 20-50 per cent is granted from
the government, like the sewage system plan.
the central government. They are now looking
Only 30-35 per cent of the city is connected to
to clarify what and how many services will be
the sewage system, the rest of the city uses
needed in the future in order to change their
septic tanks.
129
Solid waste management
Currently, there are negotiations with a private
different areas of the city. It does not allow the
company. This was arranged by the central
people to have the facilities and the leisure parks
government and sent to Al Buraimi, to take
they need, but also restrains the promotion
charge of the whole solid waste management of
of the business sector, as investors are not
the city, as the municipality cannot cope with the
attracted to the area (Chambers of Commerce,
growth of the city. The municipality will just focus
personal communication, September 29, 2014).
on the supervision of the whole management.
The Public Authority for Electricity and Water
The attempts of the municipality to inform people
(PAEW) is responsible for the distribution of
through campaigns in schools, universities,
fresh water in the city. After 2008, the city of
worship sites, newspapers, television, and by
Al Buraimi has been supplied with desalinated
the distribution of three different colours of
water coming from the city of Sohar while
plastic bags to the people (in order for them
the water from underground resources and
to recycle), seems to have had no significant
wells is used only in special occasions and
result .There is no recycling taking place in
circumstances. PAEW continues to follow the
the city (MRMWR, personal communication,
Government’s policy of reducing reliance on
September 23, 2014).
groundwater for drinking water, and the plans
continue to envisage increasing reliance on
Moreover, the fresh water supply - arguably the
large-scale desalination as the main source
most important basic service for a city and its
of drinking water in Oman. The authority is
inhabitants - is facing a lot of risks. First of all,
also focusing on the reduction of water losses
there are the weather conditions and the amount
(leakages, theft, etc.) and as a result to reduce
of rainfall, as previously mentioned, which
the subsidy that is needed (Annual Report,
have a negative impact in the water resources
Public Authority for Electricity and Water, 2013).
of the area. Secondly, the rapid growth of the
The fact is that the access to drinking water and
population and the increase on the demand of
sanitation has increased in the whole country in
water make the situation more problematic.
the last 20 years, and the investment in these
facilities played a vital role in the reduction of
130
One of the main issues is the shortage of water
the child mortality rate in Oman, with a decrease
in Al Buraimi. That issue causes problems in
of 37.9 per cent between 1990 and 2010.
In total, the three basic services are facing
waste of water in addition to finding more ways
challenges and inefficiencies that first arise
to maximize the present water resources so as
from the management and the administration.
to increase its availability.
There are some administrative obstacles, the
management is highly centralized and there is a
In the Sultanate of Oman there are different
lack in planning within regions. The authorities
resources of water, but they vary depending on
inside the governorate do not coordinate with a
the region of the country that is being referred
vision and strong urban planning management
to. First of all, there is surface water — water
is absent.
from rain and from the mountains that flows
through the rivers that are called ‘wadis.’ Due
Another side effect of the lack of infrastructure,
to the low precipitation that can be affected by
which was mentioned in our meeting with the
some factors such as storms and low pressures,
Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs,
the availability of surface water is declining
is that there are some industrial activities very
and there is a phenomenon of having more
close to residential areas. Despite the ministry’s
wadis and aflaj throughout the country dry up.
attempts to relocate them into the industrial
Secondly, there is groundwater. The ground
zone, far enough from the residential areas,
aquifers can be characterized as renewable or
this is not possible because of that lack of basic
non-renewable, depending on whether they
services. People are difficult to be convinced to
can be fed through rainfall or not. Due to little
shift somewhere where no basic infrastructure
rainfall, the groundwater resources are declining
is available (MECA, personal communication,
throughout the country and the government
September 28, 2014).
is trying to minimize the use of underground
water as much as possible, as will be analysed
Fresh Water Supply
below. And thirdly, there are the water springs
Water is not only a vital element for our life
where the water flows naturally from the ground
but also a resource and foundation for a lot
to the surface.
of different development fields. Nowadays, all
around the world, countries and people are
From the sources to the people
facing the challenge of water shortages, as well
Besides these sources, there are different water
as its ensuing limitations, and are looking for
systems in order to acquire and transport water.
different means and solutions to reduce the
There is an ancient method, called Al Zajirah,
131
which operates by elevating groundwater. There
provide water for their farms, their products, and
is also the famous Aflaj system, channels that
their animals. That aflaj, which is going through
transfer and transport water, the reservoirs,
the Sa’ara village in Al Buraimi, has been dry for
which are storage systems of rainwater, and
around 30 years. Peoples perception regarding
the different types of dams (recharge, surface
the reasons why the aflaj is dry, are very diverse.
storage, flood protection, etc.). Furthermore,
Religion is common to get mixed with water
there are the water desalination plants where the
issues. In a climate situation as Oman’s, where
salt from the seawater is removed and the water
it is mountainous and arid, the water is received
product can be used as fresh water through
underground or below dry riverbeds, which in
specific processing. The desalination plants
Oman are called “wadis”.
have been exploited over the last few years
in Oman and they are basically providing the
Water in the aflaj was carried in open channels
majority of fresh water. The wastewater stations
and was distributed to the community firstly
are only used to provide treated water for
to the mosque and for drinking, and secondly
irrigation purposes (MRMWR, Water Resources
for washing and irrigation purposes. The
in Sultanate of Oman, 2013).
management was so carefully made, that there
were no epidemics recorded in the whole Arab
Water in Al Buraimi through the years
Region (Ragette F., 2012, Traditional Domestic
Before the connection to the desalination plant
Architecture of the Arab Region, American
from the city of Sohar, which we will analyse at a
University of Sharjah, Third, unrevised edition).
later stage of the study, the city of Al Buraimi was
132
supplied with water from wells, underground
According to Parry (1998), despite the research,
water, and water coming from the aflaj (water
no one can be sure about the origins of the aflaj
canals that are used in the whole region for
in Oman and how old the oldest channels are.
more than 3000 years, for human settlements
However, the aflaj in Yemen may show that those
and irrigation purposes). More than a thousand
in Oman came from necessity and not from
years ago the people of the Sa’ara village in
outside involvement. In addition, the mining
Al Buraimi brought water from more than 30
industry in Oman during the third millennium
kilometres away, from springs in the mountains
BC required a readily available supply of water,
that belong to Oman, making a channel from
which could be achieved by a system such as
the mountains to their settlements in order to
the aflaj.
Figure 51.
well
Thaqbah
Figure 52.
from wells,
Production
Al Buraimi
Source: (Annual report
2013, PAEW)
133
Water management
The water management in Al Buraimi, as
The third and last section of the department
well as in the rest of the country, is divided
deals with the dams and the aflaj, underground
into two sections: The management of the
or on the surface. Regarding the dams, the
water resources, which is overseen by the
studies that the department fulfils serve to
water resources department of the MRMWR,
establish if a new one is needed or not. At the
and the distribution of the water, which is
moment, there are about six dams in the area,
the responsibility of the Public Authority for
five of them are recharging ones and one serves
Electricity and Water (PAEW).
as storage (above the surface).
The department of the water resources has three
The main challenge of the department is to
different sections. The first section handles the
“protect the underground water and save it,
monitoring and the studies that are concerned
as population and demand are growing fast”
with the natural water resources, such as
(Water
the wadis, aflaj, wells, rainfall, etc. There are
personal communication, October 1, 2014).
Resources
Department,
MRMWR,
monthly or quarterly measurements and reports
regarding this monitoring.
Extraction, desalinization and
distribution
The second section deals with the provision of
In the whole governorate of Al Buraimi, there
permits regarding the wells in order to protect
are around 7000 wells, private and public, in
the sources, in accordance with the laws and
farms. There is no allowance to have a well in
regulations of the Sultanate. These permits have
a house, only under specific conditions and
to do with different demands from the people;
circumstances. The department is responsible
such as calls for cleaning a well, making an
to grant any permit only after it has conducted
existing one deeper, or even digging a new one.
a study, as mentioned above, regarding such
For any project of that kind, public or private,
a request. Nevertheless, there are some
a study work is needed from that section of
occasions during which people proceed with
the department in order to proceed and for
the construction of their own well without the
the approval of the request. This section aims
permission of the department, but for these
to investigate whether the project affects the
cases there are fees according to the laws for the
ground and the surface water, and if the project
act of illegally digging a well.
itself is safe from potential floods.
134
Minimum water recharge
The second authority, the PAEW, is responsible
for the distribution of water. PAEW works in
cooperation with the department of water
resources regarding underground and surface
water and its use.
Before 2008, the area of Al Buraimi was served
by groundwater and wells. As the population was
increasing and simultaneously the groundwater
level was declining. The government could not
depend any more on groundwater resources for
the area, and as a result they proceeded with the
connection of the city to the desalination plant of
the city of Sohar, which is the closest coastal city
to Al Buraimi. In the desalination plant in Sohar a
In the last 15 to 20 years there has
been a dry period in the area and
because of this there has not been
adequate recharging of the dams,
ground and underground water,
as the precipitation has been low.
Something that is obvious from the
rain gates and the measurements
of rainfall from the department. In
addition to this situation, there is
also the lack of awareness on the
part of people who do not care about
water resources (Water Resources
Department, MRMWR, personal
communication, October 1, 2014).
process called “Multiple Stage Flash Distillation”
is used. A most recently developed process for
Local water network
reliable and efficient water desalination is called
“reverse osmosis”, or R.O., but that type is not
The network distribution in Al Buraimi increased
yet used in Sohar. From Sohar the desalinated
over the last few years as a result of the
water is transported to Al Buraimi through pipes,
improvement and the extension of the water
pump stations, and transmission connections.
network system, but also due to the growth of the
After the reduction in the use of water from the
population. Another fact that is more important
wells, it can be said that nowadays the level of
is the increase of the production from wells that
the groundwater in Al Buraimi is stable except
was very significant for the last year, as it has
during the dry seasons, when that level drops.
increased by 34 per cent. This demonstrates that
In addition, the groundwater from the wells is
the government’s general policy for reducing
being used nowadays only in emergency cases
reliance on groundwater for the supplies of
and in cases of high demand (PAEW, personal
drinking water and general use, in most cases,
wells that go to support small isolated networks
135
or tanker filling stations in areas that are not yet
(Source: Annual report 2013, Public Authority for
connected to the main networks is working.
Electricity and Water).
Another objective of the Public Authority for
Nowadays, the main water connection covers
Electricity and Water is to ensure the best quality
around 80 per cent of the city, whereas private
of water is provided to the people. PAEW’s water
tankers serve the remaining 20 per cent. The
quality teams are monitoring, controlling, and
price for the water through the main connection
improving the water quality by conducting a
with the pipeline is 0.002 O.R./ litres for up
daily sample program that takes place to check
to 5000 litres, and 0.0025 O.R./ litres for any
the quality of the water. For that purpose there
amount above 5000 litres. The average usage
is a lab in Al Buraimi’s department of PAEW
at the moment in the city of Al Buraimi is
formed from a special team to accomplish this
approximately 150 litres/person.
objective. In 2013, there were 1780 samples
collected in Al Buraimi governorate and they
were
136
checked
through
these
monitoring
Disconnected households and water
storage
controls. By the installation of more sampling
On the other hand, for the houses and the
points and the employment of more personnel,
residential areas that are not being served
the PAEW managed to increase the number of
through the main water connection system,
samples by more than seven per cent between
there are two ways that they can be supplied
2012 and 2013. For Al Buraimi, the water quality
with fresh water. The first way is through the
compliance of the samples was 96 per cent. In
private sector, through private tankers that
addition, the number of employees increased by
take fresh water from the PAEW and sell it to
almost 30 per cent between 2012 and 2013, and
people. There are two levels of pricing for these
in the Al Buraimi branch there are currently 85
tankers: below 650 litres is 0.001 O.R./ litres
Omanis and no non-Omanis. One fact worth
and above 650 litres is 0.003 O.R./ litres. The
mentioning is that in the whole company, there
second way, which is applied for houses that are
are 1340 male and only 166 female employees.
far away from the city centre as well as for the
Another important element is the training
villages around the city of Al Buraimi, is the free
courses that the company delivers in order to
distribution of water with contracted tankers of
recruit more personnel every year. In Al Buraimi,
the PAEW. The PAEW do not supply the whole
around 200 people were trained in 2013
amount of water that people need, but the
agency helps them financially by supporting
houses without a connection to the main system
them with a basic amount of water. Their main
need more capacity and as a result they use roof
source of fresh water is the private tankers.
tanks that hold between 600 and 800 litres. The
PAEW informs people to clean their tanks, but it
Furthermore, people use roof tanks to store
is up to their own volition to observe that advice
fresh water. It is not only the houses that are
and also it is their decision to select the capacity
not connected to the main water network do
and the size of the tank they will have.
this, but also the ones that are being served
from the network. The reason behind that is
Moreover, there is no limitation on the amount
that people, even if they have water through
of water that people can use on a daily basis,
the main connection, store some water for
however the PAEW is trying to inform them not
emergency reasons, in the cases of shortages
to waste water and rather to save it.
of water during the dry season, or even if there
are some problems with the network. Usually
Regarding the areas that are not connected to
the households have a period of 24 hours that
the main water network yet, there is a committee
requires around 300 litres of water reserves. The
and some criteria that should be met in order
Figure 53. Total water
distribution in Al Buraimi
Source: (Annual report
2013, PAEW)
137
to decide which area is going to be connected
the pollution of the water. These campaigns
to the main network. The procedure nowadays
and programs should be carried out through
is that after the completion of construction
every available means in order to target the
on a house, the owner applies for the water
whole population, people of all ages and gender.
service and in a short period of time the water
Programs and activities should be implemented
connection is provided. The houses that are
in schools and universities to inform students,
far away from the main network have to wait
but also outside schools through youth clubs
between one and three years for the urban
or student workshops and camps. In addition,
planning, and ultimately the connection to reach
advertisements, reports, information, and tips
their area. Nevertheless, in the case that there
must be provided on a daily basis via television,
are any illegal connections to the main system
radio, newspapers, and the Internet, means of
after any inspection from the PAEW, there are
information relay that people use every day.
fees, but these happen very rarely (PAEW,
personal communication, October 1, 2014).
Technological improvement
The second step is to inform the population
Strategies for sustainable
development in water management
Education, Awareness, Campaigns
about high efficiency appliances and equipment,
modern techniques and technology, which of
course match the Omani context and have a lot
of positive effects on saving water. In the survey
that was made during the field work in Al Buraimi,
For the development of the city, the protection
as was mentioned in the previous chapter, only
of natural water resources, and in order to
24 per cent of the people that were questioned
cope with the increasing demand of fresh water
already have high efficiency facilities installed
supply as a consequence of the rapidly growing
in their households, 42 per cent have not, and
population, the understanding and cooperation
34 per cent are planning to have such installed.
of the inhabitants of the city is essential.
These results show that half the population is
not familiar with high efficiency facilities but also
138
The first step towards that goal is to carry out
that quite a big portion is planning to install
different campaigns and programs for the
such in the near future. There are different high
inhabitants according to different water issues
efficiency appliances, but only some of them
such as water use, the overuse of water, and
can be applied to the Omani households. There
Figure 54. Water
saving campaign adds
Source: (www.paew.gov.
om)
are high efficiency toilets with “stop buttons,”
household. A suggestion might be to establish
or others called 6/3 l-flush toilets that have two
some initiatives from the government and the
flush buttons in order to use half of the amount
authorities in order to help people to afford to
of the water for liquid waste flushes versus solid
install this equipment.
waste flushes. There are also shower heads
that can reduce water usage by up to 70 per
The last step should be the monitoring and
cent. The instalment of sink faucet aerators
evaluation of all the activities, programs, and
can reduce water consumption from the tap by
initiatives, and to identify if they were successful,
about 30 to 50 per cent. These examples show
their problems, and the ways that they can
the percentages of water that can be saved in
be improved. These activities for the public
every household with the instalment of this
awareness are activities and programs that are
equipment. Despite the fact that this equipment
not made for one time. This process is a long
is more expensive than standard equipment,
and difficult one in order to bring the expected
the cost can be offset in the long-term by the
results in society and to change the inhabitants’
reduction in water service charges in every
behaviour in the long run.
139
Box 15. Community survey on fresh water
Regarding the questions that were targeting the fresh water supply sector the
answers were varied. 63% did not know the amount of water they use daily in
their household. Furthermore, 16% replied that the current availability of water
is more than enough, 76% that it is enough, whereas only 7% responded that
the availability is low or very low. On the other hand, 23% of the respondents
recognise the price of the water supply as very expensive, 56% as expensive,
18% as being a fair price and only 3% as cheap. From these responses it is
clearly observed that the majority (almost 79%) of the people believe that the
price of the water is expensive. Moreover, to the question if they try to save
water, 93% answered yes whereas only 7% answered no. From them, almost
25% are already using high efficiency facilities, such as high efficiency toilets,
in their house whereas 42% are not using such and 33% is planning to install
such systems in the future. These answers show that people try to save water
but some of them are not familiar with more efficient ways to do such or even
that they do not have the means to do it.
Planning-Training
It is very important to establish knowledge
circumstances that affect the water demand
about water demand in a city and how this
and supply, such as the climate change. The city
water demand is going to change in the future.
should be prepared beforehand to deal with any
The planning for a sustainable water supply is
changes and increases in water demand.
needed from the authorities responsible for
140
the water distribution including resources and
Even though there is no limitation in the
studies of the water demand change in the
water supply for households, there should be
future; 5, 10, and 15 years ahead. Studies must
differentiation based on the different amounts
be conducted about the increase or decrease
of water each household consumes. A more
of population and the expected development of
complex pricing system is needed that will
the city, new residential areas, and other relevant
take into consideration the number of people
in every household, and not only the water
Lastly, the Aflaj in Oman represent an important
consumption. In the current system, the first
source of water supply to a major part of the rural
level is capped at 5000 litres but it does not take
population. The losses from the aflaj systems as
into consideration if the household consists of
they dry up include losses in agricultural income,
four or fifteen people. In a situation like this, the
increases in domestic water expenditures
price levels should be based on the litres per
per household, and capital losses related to
person in the household and not per household.
changes in house and land values. Although
It also makes more sense if considered the
aflaj in Oman persisted for hundreds of years,
differentiation of the households, as we can find
the flow measurements in the last few years
households of two persons and households of
show a huge decline. A survey undertaken in
20.
1996 by the Ministry of Regional Municipalities
and Water Resources (MRMWR) reported more
Furthermore, the country should support
than 1000 aflaj have dried up. For that reason,
programs for the training of people for water
the Omani government, through the MRMWR,
management. The Public Authority of Electricity
supported 669 projects of Aflaj reparation and
and Water has such programs with a number of
maintenance (Zekri et al., 2012).
annual participants, but more focus in capacity
building is needed. As an example, a very
successful training program that was carried
Solid waste management
out in Egypt can be applied in the whole MENA
The solid waste management in the city
region, including Oman. It is called Training
of Al Buraimi is under the authority of the
of Trainers Program in Interdisciplinary Water
municipality. There is a special department in
Management (TOTWAT) and it is a European
the municipality that deals with the collection
Union-funded project under the umbrella of
and the disposal of solid waste. At the same
the TEMPUS Programme. Five partners carried
time, people that work in the department of
out this project: the Cairo University (Egypt),
solid waste management mentioned that the
the Alfayounm University (Egypt), the National
department has been waiting for the transfer of
Water Research Centre (Egypt), the RWTH
management to a private company since 2008.
Aachen University (Germany) and the Institute
Despite that fact, they all agreed that this needs
of Advanced Studies (Austria). This project has
to be done as the department does not have
the development of a TOT as a main objective.
adequate personnel and equipment to cope with
141
the growth of the city, and as a result with the
not yet decided, but according to the regulations
management of solid waste. The contradiction
it should be three kilometres away from the
here is that from first glance the city seems
residential areas, or if it is less, it should be a
very clean. The main streets, the sidewalks, the
natural area in between, like a mountain, so that
green spaces with lawns, everything is clean,
the air does not bring the smell to the residential
something that shows not only that the people
area.
are eager to keep the city clean, but also that
the people working on the street cleaning are
The authorities did not consider the future
efficient enough at their job. So the question
development of the city. As a result, the dump
arises about the main problems with this service
nowadays is located less than one kilometre
remain and depend on the actual management
from the residential area (MECA, personal
of the service, as will be analysed below.
communication, September 28, 2014). This
issue causes a lot of problems for the residential
Al Buraimi landfill
areas, such as air pollution and hygiene issues.
There are in total six dumps in the governorate
Strategies for Sustainable Development
of Al Buraimi, five small ones in the villages
around the city and a big one that receives
In the city of Al Buraimi, solid waste management
the solid waste of the city. The small ones are
is inefficient and faces a lot of challenges. The
between 2000 and 12,000 square meters, and
public waste bins are inadequate, there is no
the big one is 248,888 square meters. This
waste separation; there is a total absence of
dump that serves the city of Al Buraimi is in a
recycling or reuse of materials, and the landfill
very bad condition.
is very close to the residential area causing
environmental and hygiene problems. In
The plan in the future for this dump is that it
tackling this issue, there is a need to look into
will be used as a collecting point for solid waste
the options of reduction, reuse, and recycling.
before it reaches its final destination, which
142
will be a new dump further from the city. At
Some early steps are likely to include the
the moment, the Ministry of Environment and
extension of the collection to the whole city and
Climate Affairs, which is responsible for granting
phasing out open dumps. An ISWM approach
the permits for the new dumps, is preparing the
is likely to include a focus on improving the
permission for that new dump. The actual site is
existing recycling rates and on taking measures
to bring waste growth under control. This is
on the importance of reducing and recycling
particularly important, as every ton of waste
waste towards a healthy environment (Coker
reduced, reused, or recycled is a ton of waste for
et al., 2010). As the survey of the current study
which the city does not have to pay for transport
showed, the residents of Al Buraimi are willing to
and safe disposal (UN-Habitat, 2010).
participate in projects regarding the separation
of their household waste and in recycling in
development in solid waste
management
general. As a result, the first attempt made by
the local government should be focused on
campaigns and educational projects in schools,
universities, and public spaces in order to raise
the public awareness about the importance of
Short-term approach: awareness
waste separation and recycling. At this point it
is essential to mention that the role of women
The first and major step towards effective solid
should not be overlooked. According to a survey
waste management is the public awareness
by the United Nation’s Children’s Emergency
Figure 55.
Landfill
143
Box 16. Community survey on solid waste management
A survey was carried out with questions that directly referred to the solid waste
management of the city. Almost 95% of the people said that an improvement in
the solid waste management is needed for their city. 56% responded positively
that they know and understand the meaning of composting. In the next question
regarding recycling, the 80% answered that they know this term. In addition to
that question, people were questioned if they would be willing to separate their
solid waste in order to help a recycling program to work. Almost the 72% said
“yes” whereas the 14% answered negatively. Furthermore, people were asked
if they would be willing to pay for the pickup of these recycling materials from
their houses and the 49% responded positively. Moreover, almost the 60% of
the people would like to participate in a program to compost food. The final
question was if people would participate in a program to return the plastic
bottles to the stores if they were paid for every bottle that they would return.
Almost the 78% answered positively.
Fund (UNICEF), development projects that did
Medium-term approach
not involve women failed to accomplish their
Besides people’s eagerness to accept future
objectives.
plans regarding the improvement of solid waste
management of the city and their participation
144
On the same level, the prevention and the
to it, the adequate equipment and vehicles
minimization of solid waste is the most efficient
must be provided. According to Nilsson (2011),
way of reducing the impacts on the environment,
the collection and the transport of waste from
as even the most efficient recycling of waste uses
the source to the treatment or disposal site
resources and has impacts on the environment
involve a lot of different equipment: bins and
(Salhofer et al., 2010). For that reason, the
containers, collection vehicles, routes, and an
campaigns in raising public awareness should
efficient schedule for collection. Moreover, an
also focus on informing the people about the
adequate numbers of bins should be distributed
importance of reducing the waste they produce.
throughout the whole city, according to the
needs of each specific area. Where the area has
recycling. These spots could be outside or near
higher density, a greater number of bins must
from the supermarkets or the shopping mall or
be provided to cover the residents’ needs. In
even in some central areas in the city.
addition, those bins that will be distributed in
the city must be differentiated. There should be
Moreover, the municipality can provide people
bins only for paper, bins for plastic, and bins for
with different waste bags so that people can
general waste.
be more motivated to separate their waste and
dispose of it in the appropriate bin.
Furthermore, bins or containers for the
collection of glass should be provided. Here,
Secondly, alongside with this equipment,
there is the option that these bins are not
appropriate and adequate waste collection
provided to the whole city, but larger containers
vehicles should be provided in order to collect
can be placed in specific spots so that people
all the waste from the city. These vehicles should
could visit often and dispose of their glass for
be differentiated according to the waste they will
Figure 56. School
children educated in
recycling programmes
(Source: UN-Habitat,
2010)
145
collect, for plastic, paper, glass, and common
In addition, for a new landfill there are planning,
waste. Also, there could be different vehicles
siting, and design procedures that should be
regarding their size, small pick-up trucks,
taken into consideration; these are complex
medium and big, in order to serve different
processes involving environmental issues and
parts of the city. In addition, the important
technical features (Raga and Cossu, 2011).
factors in the whole collection management are
the frequency of collection of solid waste, the
However, except for good siting and design, a
route planning for the vehicles, and the crew
successful landfill requires effective operation
size and truck capacity, as mentioned above.
and monitoring throughout its lifetime in order
The frequency of
collection will be planned
for it to work properly. Technical equipment and
according to the needs of the city and each area.
monitoring of the performance of the landfill are
required in order that a landfill be characterized
146
In order for that system to be successful the
as successful and environmentally safe (Berge
participation of the people is required. Even
et al., 2011). In addition, in the planning and
if this equipment and the vehicles exist and
designing of a landfill it is very important to
operate in a very sufficient way, nothing will
understand the environmental impacts that
change and improve if people do not separate
must be avoided, and that a modern landfill is
their waste and do not use the equipment that is
able to avoid these impacts (Christensen et al.,
provided to do so appropriately.
2011).
Long-term approach
As a result, a new landfill is highly necessary for
As was previously mentioned in the analysis
the planning and the design of the city, and at
above, the existing landfill of the city is facing
the same time the safe termination of the use
problems. It is very close to the residential area
of the current one. The current landfill, after
and the authorities are planning to close it down
the termination of its use, can be used as a
and open a new one that will adhere to all the
collection and storing place for all the recyclable
regulations. It is very important to mention here
waste that the city will produce and dispose of,
that the management of a landfill does not stop
before the planning and the creation of different
after the termination of waste acceptance, but it
recycling facilities that will accept the recyclable
needs some provisions regarding the aftermath
waste and will treat them accordingly. This is the
before it can be retired (Scharff, 2011).
next step for the improvement of solid waste
management. New facilities are required that
be done in more than one step and during the
will receive and process the recyclable materials.
different stages of the new plans. It could also be
It is clear that in order to create these recycling
done after the full operation of the new facilities
centres adequate funding is needed from the
and of the whole network. Anyhow, new laws
government. But this is a necessary step towards
and regulations are essential for the function
the improvement of the solid waste management
of any new system or for any improvement in
for the city. Nilsson and Christensen (2011) give
current state of solid waste management.
the examples of a collection centre in Herning
and one in Copenhagen (both in Denmark),
where the amount of residential waste that
Wastewater management
is being landfilled after treatment, is less than
The wastewater collection in the city of Al
4 percent. As a result, the life of the landfill is
Buraimi is done in two different ways. There
extended and also the monitoring and operating
is the current sewage system network, which
costs are reduced. In which case, funding that is
covers approximately the 30-35 per cent of the
needed here will be covered in the long-term by
city, and the septic tanks that are used in the
the positive effects of the new management and
rest of the city. The sewage system network is
the new facilities.
connected directly to the wastewater treatment
plant, whereas the wastewater from the septic
These examples show how efficient recycling
tanks is collected and carried to the treatment
centres can be and the positive effects that
plant by privately owned trucks. The plans for the
have come from an environmental point of
sewage network and its increase of connections
view, as well as from an economic one and for
throughout the city are considered to be big-
unemployment or creating job opportunities.
scale plans, a five-year plan (MRMWR, personal
communication, September 23, 2014). On the
An additional step for the improvement of
other hand, any plans or proposals to increase
solid waste management concerns the laws
this network, conflicts with the fact that the city
and the regulations. This step falls between a
is very scattered and of very low density. The
medium- and a long-term plan, and the need
government is reluctant to allocate the amount
for the current laws and regulations review,
of money that is needed for this development
reformulation of the policies, as well as their
(MECA, personal communication, September
enforcement is essential. This procedure can
28, 2014).
147
Sewage Treatment Plant
The current sewage network consists of 3000
that delivered it directly to the irrigation sites.
lines that are connected to the main network,
The sites though that receive this treated water
and 5300 household pipes that are connected
are only trees alongside the streets or in the park,
to these lines. This covers 35%of the city. The
but not public spaces with grass that people
new treatment plant, which is not far from the
use. These green spaces with grass are irrigated
city (approximately one kilometre), can receive
with fresh water. There is no clear reason of
up to 3000 cubic meters of wastewater per day.
why this is happening, as the certificates from
Out of this amount of wastewater, the treatment
the laboratories specify that the treated water is
plant is capable of producing around 400 to 500
classified, as mentioned above, as Group A and
cubic meters per day of clean water, which can
is completely safe and odourless. The reason
be used for irrigation purposes. Trucks from the
might be cultural, as
treatment plant distribute this treated water to
sitting on
the irrigation sites. The only direct connection
treated wastewater (Wastewater department of
from the treatment plant through a pipeline goes
MRMWR, personal communication, October 2,
out to the big city park. This sewage treatment
2014).
people do not accept
grass that is being irrigated with
plant (STP) consists of two lift stations, one
pump station, and the actual site of the plant
Furthermore, further away from the city, there is
(Wastewater department of MRMWR, personal
a former treatment plant, which receives daily
around 2000 M3 but delivers only around 50 M3/
day of treated wastewater and not in the same
Inside
148
this
treatment
plant
is
also
a
quality as the new treatment plant does. Hence,
microbiology laboratory where the wastewater
there are plans at the moment to increase the
and the treated water are tested throughout the
capacity of the new treatment plant in order
whole procedure. The laboratory is adequately
to be able to receive also the wastewater that
equipped. The results from the Microbiology
the old plant receives daily. As a result the old
Laboratory and the Water Quality Laboratory
plant that is of lower standards will not be
specify that the samples of treated wastewater
needed anymore and it will be finally closed.
are classified into Group A and therefore the
Nevertheless, there are currently construction
treated wastewater can be used for irrigation
works taking place in the new plant in order to
purposes. For the time being, this treated water
increase its capacity (Wastewater department of
is carried out of the treatment plant with trucks
MRMWR, personal communication, 2014).
Figure 57.
plant
Treatment
Septic Tanks
month, but it depends how often they have to
The areas of the city that are not yet connected
discharge their septic tank. They pay that amount
to the main sewage system are serviced with
to private trucks that collect the wastewater from
soak away pits and septic tanks. There are
their septic tanks and carry it to the wastewater
specific guidelines for the construction of these
treatment plant.
septic tanks in the regulations mentioned below,
including information on:
the dimensions,
For the houses that are connected to the
acceptable
materials,
sewage system the charges are different. For
construction
and
connection with the houses.
the residential areas the fee is 0.154 O.R./m3
and an additional fee of 2 O.R. per month. For
Service Fees
the governmental buildings and the commercial
The amount of money that people pay for this
areas the fees are 0,193 O.R./m3 and 0.231 O.R./
service is different. For the households of the
m3 respectively. Also for the commercial areas
residential areas without connection to the
the standard monthly fee is 5 O.R. These fees
sewage system, the ones that use septic tanks,
are almost equal to 35 percent of the fees for the
the fee is between 12 and 15 Omani Rials per
drinking water supply. People pay their bills in
149
the Omani Investment and Finance Company
Moreover, a strong advantage of the city of Al
(OIFC) as they also do for their water bills
Buraimi is the new wastewater treatment plant.
(Wastewater department of MRMWR, personal
It is considered to be a modern treatment plant
that can treat wastewater and produce clean
water of good quality. The authorities at the
development in wastewater
management
moment are working towards the expansion
of the new treatment plant in order to stop
using the old one, and to eventually close it
down. It is clear that these are long-term goals,
but it is something that has to be planned
Inadequate provision of water and sanitation
and it is important that the procedures for its
affects hundreds of millions of people in small
implementation to begin as soon as possible.
urban centres. It is often assumed that it is
more difficult to support good provision of
Secondly, the issue that must be assessed is
water and sanitation in small urban centres than
the potential reuse of the treated wastewater
in large cities due to weaker local governments,
from the treatment plant. The primary problems
fewer economies of scale for infrastructure
associated with reusing insufficiently treated
and management, and less capacity to pay.
wastewater are the inherent health risks from
Nevertheless, safe access for everyone is needed
wastewater containing bacteria and viruses
to ensure the safe disposal of human excreta and
(Sammis et al., 2001). The regulatory practices
adequate wastewater treatment management.
and the necessary institutional framework
The health and timesaving benefits that come
on both national and local levels need to be
from good provision for water and sanitation
reviewed (Raschid-Sally et al., 2001). In the case
are well known through different examples from
of Al Buraimi, the treated wastewater, even if it
around the world (McGregor, 2005).
is considered to be of good quality according to
laboratories that check it daily, it is being used
It is essential for the government and the local
only for irrigation purposes of urban greenery.
authorities to extend the main network across
150
the city so that every area and every new block of
An action plan from the government must be
houses is capable of connecting to that network
carried out, including regulations and criteria
in the coming years.
for the water reuse and the implementation
of policies so that the treated wastewater can
gardens, and cleaning house. Furthermore, if
be used in more activities. This is happening
we take into consideration the huge amount of
nowadays worldwide because of the scarcity of
fresh water that is being used for agricultural
fresh water and it will be used even more in the
purposes, it is crucial to use treated wastewater
future.
for agriculture. However, as already mentioned,
policies must be established and technologies
In addition, the authorities need to carry out
improved in the treatment plant in order for the
surveys and campaigns in order to inform
treated wastewater to be reused.
the people about the quality of the treated
wastewater and the opportunities to use it
Some suggestions this study makes, is to
for different activities without causing any
consider new technologies. There is an approach
health or environmental problems. The treated
commonly known as EcoSan, an abbreviation for
wastewater can be used for everyday activities
ecological sanitation, which is characterized by a
such as car washing, irrigation of household
desire to "close the loop." The basic philosophy
The sewage network in Al
Buraimi
Housing, Oman)
151
of ecological sanitation is to recycle all the
to install greywater treatment systems in new
nutrients in human excreta. A consequence of
houses, new apartment complexes, and public
this is that the various ‘streams’ of excreta and
buildings, such as mosques and schools, where
wastewater should not be mixed as they differ
existing plumbing may be easily modified to
greatly in their volumes and nutrient loads. For
separate greywater from blackwater.
that reason, the ‘yellow water’ (urine), ‘black
water’ (faeces and toilet flush waters) and ‘grey
Lastly, the government and the authorities must
water’ (wastewater from sinks and showers or
proceed with a plan for the expansion of the
baths) should be kept separated to facilitate
current sewage network for the rest of the city.
nutrient and water treatment and re-use.
A plan that will be for the forthcoming years, it
EcoSan can be either on-site or off-site, and it
will be time -intensive and of high expense, but
can even be partially on-site and partially off-site.
also an achievement that has to be carried out
TThe separation of “yellow” and “brown” water
in the long term , as it will change the whole
minimizes the consumption of valuable drinking
development of the city.
water and treats the separated wastewaters at a
low cost. These can subsequently be used for
soil amelioration, as fertilizer or as service or
Conclusions
irrigation water. There is also the potential for
In this study different aspects and factors
the re-utilization of nutrients, trace elements,
of unsustainable management of the basic
water, and energy, the conservation of resources
services of the city have been analysed. The
and basically having the material-flow cycle
proposals and the recommendations that have
instead of disposal (Werner et al., 2004).
been suggested and explained in this study are
divided into short-, medium-, and long-term
152
Moreover, greywater has been used worldwide in
approaches. By implementing them, either on a
order to promote sustainable development and
technical or management level, the coordination
resource conservation without compromising
of these basic services of the city will move
public health and environmental quality. Despite
towards greater sustainability. There will be an
several environmental and financial benefits
improvement of the health provisions of the city
that can be identified by the use of greywater.
and a decrease in the negative effects on the
However, it would be very beneficial to the
environment. At the same time there would be
Omani context, if society could be persuaded
some positive effects in the financial status of
Box 17. Community survey on wastewater management
In the questions that were focused to the wastewater management sector
almost the 90% of the answers pointed out that an improvement in the whole
system and in the management of the wastewater is needed. Furthermore, in the
question regarding in what way do residents discharge their wastewater, almost
25% answered through the main sewage network, the 21% answered through
a septic tank and the remaining 54% did not give an answer or answered by
“Do not know”. In addition to this and likely related is the response that the
56% of the people questioned did not know how much money they spend on
their wastewater disposal. Less than the half answered with an average of 25
Omani Rials per month. The conclusions that can be made from the survey
is that maybe people are not familiar with the way their households dispose
the wastewater but they have a basic knowledge and an opinion that the whole
system needs to be improved.
the city in the long-term, as well as employment
Environment and Development. It will become a
benefits.
sustainable city as Haughton and Hunter (1994)
described as “one in which its people endeavour
In addition, by investing in further research in
to improve their natural, built, and cultural
order to find more solutions (especially technical
environments.”
ones), the city will manage to reach a point where
it can be considered as a sustainable developing
A report from the Secretary-General’s High-
city. By applying these changes, the city will
Level Panel of Eminent Persons on the Post-
“meet its needs without compromising the
2015 Development Agenda (United Nations,
ability of future generations to meet their own
2013),
needs,” as defined by the World Commission on
development goals, known as MDGs, and the
discussed
the
current
millennium
153
changes that are likely to take place through
and the current landfill causes a lot of problems
2030. The recommendations of the current
in the environment and for the health of the
study are working towards the direction of the
residents. This service is the most challenging of
post-2015 targets regarding the access to water
all in moving towards sustainable development.
and sanitation that are: a) to provide universal
access to safe drinking water at home and in
Finally, the most important tools in a
schools, b) to end open defecation and ensure
development scheme are those employed in
universal access to sanitation at school and
the monitoring of the process, the collection
work, and increase access to sanitation at home,
of data and their evaluation. The need to
c) to bring freshwater withdrawals in line with
improve access to reliable territorial data was
supply, and d) to recycle or treat all municipal
identified during the fieldwork in the city of Al
and industrial wastewater prior to discharge
Buraimi, an improvement that would help in
(United Nations, 2013).
the development of strategies to implement
the recommendations of the current thesis
After the analysis of these three basic services, it
and also of any future research. At the same
was revealed that the most challenging is solid
time, it would help to monitor and evaluate the
waste management. The fresh water supply is at
results and impacts of these implementations.
a very strong level as the scarcity of water in the
Moreover, monitoring of the SWOT analysis is
whole MENA region is a problem from many
valuable in order to identify whether the goals
years ago and the government has focused
are being met or not. For these reasons, the
already on this issue. The sewage network
current mechanism that already exists in the city
already exists, and plans for its extension in
of Al Buraimi, and in the whole country, should
order to cover more parts of the city are already
be improved in order to obtain local and reliable
being discussed. In addition, there is a new
data, and also to monitor and evaluate any
wastewater treatment plant with high technology
future implementation.
but also facing the challenge of not being able to
receive all the wastewater in the near future of a
rapidly growing city. In contrast to this, there is
the solid waste management area that lacks any
sustainable improvements or developments.
Recycling projects and centres are totally absent
154
References
Berge, N. D. et al. (2011) Landfilling: Operation
Abdel-Rahman, H. A. & Abdel-Magid, I. M.
and Monitoring, in Solid Waste Technology &
(1993) Water Conservation in Oman. Water
Management. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. pp.
International Vol. 18 (2), pp. 95–102.
914–931
Al Badi, A. H. et al. (2011) Sustainable energy
Bixio, D. et al. (2006) Wastewater reuse in
usage in Oman-Opportunities and barriers.
Europe. Desalination. Vol. 187 (1-3), pp. 89–101.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews.
Vol. 15 (8), pp. 3780–3788.
Christensen, T. H. et al. (2011) Landfilling:
Environmental Issues, in Solid Waste
Al Gharibi, H. (2013) Urban Growth from
Technology & Management. Blackwell
Patchwork to Sustainability Case Study: Muscat.
Publishing Ltd. pp. 695–708
PhD Dissertation in Technische Universität
Berlin.
Christensen, T. H. (ed.) (2011a) Solid Waste
Technology & Management. Vol. 2, 2 vols.
Angelakis, A. N. et al. (1999) The status of
Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
wastewater reuse practice in the Mediterranean
basin: need for guidelines. Water Research Vol.
Christensen, T. H. (ed.) (2011b) Solid Waste
33 (10), pp. 2201–2217.
Awopetu, M. S. et al. (2012) Residents’
Knowledge Of Waste Reduction, Reusing And
Coker, A. O. et al. (2010) Assessment of
Recycling In Makurdi Metropolis, Nigeria. pp.
residents’ awareness, attitude and participation
1–9.
in Solid Waste Management in Makurdi
Metropolis, Nigeria. International Journal of
Bahri, A. (2009) Managing the Other Side of
Engineering Vol. 4(1). pp. 39–45.
the Water Cycle: Making Wastewater an Asset.
Global Water Partnership Technical Committee,
Davoudi, S et al. (2009) Planning for Climate
TEC Background Papers No. 13, Mölnlycke,
Change: Strategies for Mitigation and
Sweden
Adaptation for Spatial Planners. Earthscan
Publishing, London.
155
DeLoG et al. (2014) How to localize targets
Levine, A. D. & Asano, T. (2004) Peer reviewed:
and indicators of the Post- 2015 agenda. The
recovering sustainable water from wastewater.
Development Partners Working Group on
Environmental science & technology. Vol. 38
Decentralisation & Local Governance.
(11), pp. 201A–208A.
Devuyst, D. (2001), How Green Is The
McGregor, D. F. (2005) The peri-urban
City? : Sustainability Assessment and The
interface: approaches to sustainable natural
Management of Urban Environments,
and human resource use. UN-Habitat.
Columbia University Press.
Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water
FAO-Aquastat (2008) Oman UN-Water Country
Resources (2008) Water Resources in Oman.
Brief. Available: http://www.unwater.org/
publications [accessed 5 Dec 2014]
Moreira, R. J. (2000) Críticas ambientalistas a
Revolução Verde. Revista Estudos Sociedade e
Ghneim, A. (2010) Wastewater Reuse and
Agricultura, pp.39-52
Management in the Middle East and North
Africa: A Case Study of Jordan. Dissertation in
Moughtin, C. & Shirl, P. (2005). Urban Design:
Technische Universität Berlin.
Green Dimension. Architectural Press.
Grobbelaar, S. (2012) Urban Patterns for a
Nilsson, P. (2011) Waste Collection: Equipment
Green Economy: Leveraging density. UN-
and Vehicles, in Solid Waste Technology &
Habitat.
253–276
Haughton, G. & Hunter, C. (1994) Sustainable
Cities. Jessica Kingsley Publishers and Regional
Nilsson, P. & Christensen, T. H. (2011) Waste
Studies Association, London.
Collection: Systems and Organization, in Solid
Waste Technology & Management. Blackwell
Jafari, N. (2008) Water Shortages in The Middle
East. The First International Conference on
156
Water Resources and Climate Change in MENA
Popov, V. et al. (2012) Waste Management and
Region, Muscat, Oman.
the Environment VI. WIT Press.
Prathapar, S. A. et al. (2005) Overcoming
Salhofer, S. et al. (2010) Waste Prevention and
constraints in treated greywater reuse in Oman.
Minimization: Concepts, Strategies and Means,
Desalination. Vol. 186 (1-3), pp.177–186
in Solid Waste Technology & Management.
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 183–192
Public Authority for Electricity and Water (2013)
Annual Report 2013. Available: www.paew.gov.
Samar Damluji, S. (1998) The Architecture of
om. [accessed 4 Dec 2014]
Oman. London: Garnet Publishing
Raga, R. & Cossu, R. (2011) Landfilling:
Sammis, T. et al. (2001) Sewage Effluent
Planning, Siting and Design, in Solid Waste
Discharge Regulations for Irrigation Technology & Management. Blackwell
Development in the Middle East Region,
Middle East Countries Standards Site for
Sewage Treatment and Water Reuse
Ragette, F. (2012) Traditional Domestic
Architecture of the Arab Region. Third,
Scharff, H. (2011) Landfill Closure, Aftercare
unrevised edition. American University of
and Final Use, in Solid Waste Technology &
Sharjah
932–947
Raschid-Sally et al. (2001) Rethinking Urban
Wastewater Re-use: Opportunities and Sewilam, H. & Nacken, H. (2008) TOTWAT: An
Challenges. Proceedings of Frontiers in
Interdisciplinary Water Management Training
Urban Water Management: Program in the MENA Region. The first
Deadlock or
Hope? Symposium of UNESCO International
international conference on water resources
Hydrological Program, 18-20 June 2001
and climate change in the MENA region,
Marseille, France
Muscat, Oman
Richardson, N.H. (1989) Land Use Planning
UN-Habitat (2010) Solid Waste Management
and Sustainable Development in Canada.
in the World’s Cities. Earthscan Publishing,
Canadian Environmental Advisory Council,
London, Washington DC.
Ottawa
United Nations (2013) A New Global
157
Partnership: Eradicate Poverty and Transform
Economies through Sustainable Development.
United Nations Publication
Werner, C. et al. (2004) Ecosan-Introduction
of Closed-Loop Approaches in Wastewater
Management and Sanitation, A Supra-Regional
GTZ-Project, in Water in the Middle East
and in North Africa. Springer. pp. 263–273.
Available: http://link.springer.com/chapt
er/10.1007/978-3-662-10866-6_22 [accessed 10
Dec 2014].
World Commission on Environment and
Development (1987) Our Common Future,
Oxford University Press, New York
Zekri, S. et al. (2012) Damage cost of drying of
Aflaj in the Sultanate of Oman. Sultan Qaboos
University Research Journal-Agricultural and
Marine Sciences.
158
159
Part 2.4 Housing &
urban design
Florencia Carvajal
Housing is a complex process responding
to site and local specific conditions. A
focus is laid on social, cultural, regulatory
and institutional factors framing changes
of the physical structure. In order to give
time and spatial context to these categories,
development has been analysed during
a period of the previous 40-50 years
identifying the transitional social, economic
and regulatory processes that contributed
to the present situation. Dynamics of
growth are reflected in the “structure plans”
prepared to fulfill the increasing demand of
residential land.
The findings point out a mixed typology of
housing schemes and planning processes
overlapping and creating a fragmented
urban space following the dynamics
of growth. The proposed measures to
improve the process of housing will focus
on an open space recovery program that
would allow for more livability within
already consolidated and new emerging
residential areas and on urban design as an
intermediate discipline to be introduced as
new planning instrument between ‘structure
plan’ and ‘krookie’.
Part 2.4 Housing and Urban Design
Assessment of the current
state of housing
Introduction
This chapter summarizes Oman’s structural
The first land law (Royal Decree No. 5/80),
changes, which influenced the housing sector
announced that all land belonged to the state,
during the period of 1970 to 2014. There is a
unless possession was proven as owned or
focus on changes in contextual elements as
inherited (by providing documents stating
on regulatory and social aspects which have
otherwise from the local sheikh or legal courts)
resulted from the mechanisms the Sultanate
prior to the first of January, 1970. The land law
adopted to establish a nation-wide government
Royal Decree No 81/84 announced the right of
to guide and control urban issues in Oman.
every male Omani citizen to have a residential
plot granted from the government to him.
Land regulation and allocation
The discovery of oil and natural gas in the
The strategy of land allotment required the
1960’s marked the economic growth process,
creation of the Department of Lands in 1975.
that went along with infrastructure expansion,
This was to manage the new progressive
mainly improving the road network and it was
urban policies, along with the execution of
the starting point for urbanisation. The year
operations for urban development purposes
of 1970 had set the most crucial turning point
being established in the first Royal Decree, No.
in the history of Oman, considered as the
26/1975. These operations went from planning
beginning of the ‘modern Omani state’. This
to preparing, coordinating, distributing, defining,
implied the intention to establish basic rights
registering and settling all land issues. The Land
and duties in an equitable manner. It required
Affairs Committee was formed to regulate the
adjusting the accustomed tribal management
claiming of lands. Its members were appointed
of the territory to a single centralized national
sheikhs from the Department of Lands for every
government. Since 1970 providing land tenure
province (wilayat).
to the Omanis has been considered crucial to
Previous page:
Housing projects in the
outskirts
162
development policy.
Equal tenure rights for women
The drawing system was proposed to achieve
transparency and fairness between the people,
An important event in Oman, which determined
in relation to the location within the city where
a change of pace for the planned expansion
the plot was granted. To mark out the future
of cities was women being given the right to
allotted plots for development, the MOH must
land in 2008 via Royal Decree No.(125/2008),
first survey, identify, measure, and record with
issued the 16th of November. Considering
a specific nomenclature in the land record
the percentage of population, which women
document. Further steps needed to finish with
represented in the country in 2012, twice as
a physical house were not described as the
much plots were required to accomplish the
responsibility of the MOH. Neither was the
equality decree. In addition, the sites to be
relationship to other infrastructure or basic
granted have increased to a minimum area of
services needed for the plot. During that initial
600sqm; almost double the initial area. The
time of implementation, after the lottery, the
reason for this increase was due to the high
people received a temporary contract which
demand from the citizens requiring larger areas
would be switched to an ownership certificate
to cope with their bigger internal living space,
only after developing the site,
as mentioned by the authority Head of Urban
Planning section in Al Buraimi, MOH.
Priority is only given to the house as a legal unit
for every male Omani to manage the family and
Land allocation procedure
perpetuate the societal system. The haphazard
The process of land distribution began granting
results of the lottery sent the male Omanis to
benefits to a single plot of land (in the vicinity
possess land in remote areas of the city being
of the place of birth or work), to male Omani
separated from their initial family. With the
nationals after they had reached 21 years of
progression of land allocation throughout the
age. The time necessary to wait for the draw to
country during the following years, in 1990
happen could not be determined, hence it was
a strategic development effort with a 2020
strongly related to the number of applications.
planning vision came forward.
163
Urban planning instruments –
structure plans compared
Action plan of 1984
The intention of the action plan was to provide
The zoning distribution which was once
a broad view of the spatial organization of the
traditionally handled by the local tribes in
city's development, without presenting details.
response to its contextual needs is now in the
responsibility of the Supreme Committee for
The initial zoning categories were: residential,
Town Planning based in Muscat. Historical
commerce,
data available from the MOH helps overview
individual projects. Health and education were
the development and planning of designated
established in the five year development plans
housing areas in Al Buraimi during the years of
mentioned earlier. The existing settlements are
1984 to 2014.
encompassed by short, medium and long time
industry,
roads,
services
and
planned roads combined with the electricity
network. Fortunately, there are no plans for road
building within the former villages of Hamasa,
Buraimi or Saara.
Figure 58.
1984
Action plan
Housing 1984)
164
An offset from the border is also set in this
of blocks they will contain, nor how they will be
plan, almost 2km at the furthest point, and the
distributed within the city.
intention is to fill the buffer space with housing.
The scale of this is not aligned with the existing
The first land draw came into force in 1984
settlements, but rather to the scale of the
granting the Omanis plots ranging in size
proposed new highways that will intersect the
from 320 to 350 square meters. According to
city. Commerce is set along the planned road
this year’s plan, the average number of plots
connecting with Al Ain, across almost all Al
designated for future housing in the long term is
Buraimi.
2600, located at the mentioned buffer area. The
short term plan's housing plots were already
In this plan, the intersection of highways is
complete in design but not yet constructed. The
marked as hierarchy points in the city and the
medium term plan proposes 574 housing plots.
classification of blocks in the structure plan
They corresponded mainly to the New Saara
is not set. Areas indicating future residential
neighborhood.
character have not assigned in detail the number
Figure 59.
plan 1985
Structure
Housing 1985)
165
Figure 60. Expansion
plan 1986-1996
Housing 1985)
Structure plan of 1985
repeat Al Buraimi’s main road pattern from the
In relation to the previous map, the structure
previous year's action plan at the immediate
plan
smaller scale, especially for the New Saara area.
of
1985
provides
more
detailed
information on how the city will be structured
166
with its corresponding operations. However,
This structure plan does not intend to design all
specifications are not provided in the plan due
elements until its completion. 8 neighbourhoods
to its focus and purpose. A specific grid can
are identified and 2830 plots will be introduced;
already be recognized dividing the spaces the
totalling 95 hectares of expansion. Most of
main road infrastructure had left. Within those
them are intended for the area between the
areas the streets correspond to a medium road
international border and the main highway.
hierarchy being less wide. Still, the plan does
Several others are intended to settle within the
not manage to establish roads at the dwelling
inner borders of the initial villages of the city,
level, even though ‘Neighbourhood centres’ are
at the north of the Oasis. New consolidated
proposed; 6 in total. Regardless of this, they are
service structures supply the residential needs
not detailed further. There is also a tendency to
of New Saara and Al Khadara. The outline of the
Figure 61. Expansion
plan 1987-1990
Housing 1985)
service areas correspond to the roads, whenever
of the plans show the set development
they are attached to them. When not, the shape
prioritizing
still remains geometrical; however the reference
by motorized vehicles, and not dividing or
they follow are not easily distinguishable. The
distributing the terrain for a pedestrian scale.
layout does not intend to specify inner block
The pattern of further expansion of the grid
space or even neighbourhoods. The priority is
eastwards
to determine the road network. This defines the
designated neighbourhood areas. They continue
limits of the future buildable area needing buffer
appearing disconnected among each other in
zones or open spaces as sidewalks or setbacks.
between areas for other uses, and all together
displacement
establishes
within
the
subdivisions
city
within
disconnected from the main hierarchy of roads.
Expansion plan 1986- 1996 & 19871990
An area of temporary housing is established
The figures shown correspond to the previous
towards the east; two major areas designated
official planning which determines the structure
for residential growth. Yet there is no intention
of Al Buraimi nowadays. The performance
to set a clear network, distributing from the
at the north of Al Khadra and more expansion
167
main roads to the new subdivisions or existing
The management of territory for the Governorate
neighbourhood centres areas.
occurs within the national level. This is organized
by the Supreme Committee for Planning. Within
The
arrangement
of
plots
is
noticeable
this framework the MOH structures regional
however, there is no clarity on whether they
plans for the SCP to draw Town Structure Plans,
are contained in a block or not. Areas to be
which will be implemented in Al Buraimi by two
extensions of the city are shown by surrounding
lateral partners at the local level: the Ministry of
new infrastructure networks. They have started
Transport and Communications and Ministry of
to be occupied with construction works which
Regional Municipalities and Water Resources,
disregard any potential future expansion or
MRMWR.
design of secondary/ internal access roads or
public spaces to serve the area.
Regarding
road
design:
the
main
road
connection and town access strategy prevents
Figure 62. Road
hierarchy and town access
according to structural
plan
Source: (Ministry
of Transport and
Communications, 2014)
Interpretation: Author,
2015.
168
On an individual scale, foreign influence over
direct traffic contact with residential or quiet
the residential buildings is observed on Al
areas. Towns and core areas are connected
Buraimi’s architecture. Also, privacy and security
inside by internal and secondary roads with no
characteristics remain a constant need.
physical link to upper road levels typologies.
Figure 63. Current
Al Buraimi map used for
planning
This map is used by
different Ministry
branches in Al Buraimi
that are responsible
for development and
planning.
Housing, Modified by
author, 2014)
169
Figure 64. Constructed Al Buraimi
Latest built situation
Housing 2014/ Author,
2014)
Finding: Dual reality – dual dynamics
of develoment
The second reality refers to the designed areas
made up of marked plots that have not been
granted yet or have been allocated but not yet
The development of the city, triggered mainly by
developed. This reality is driven by demand and
land policies in Oman and guided by the main
supply policy following the land law.
road network, generated ambitious perspective
170
plans of vast lands, marked with plots and
As it is visible in the figures on the previous
functions even before the need for them had
page and above, there is fragmentation between
appeared.
the pace of development and that of planning.
Al Buraimi city shape is based on two realities.
Zoning planning of the country was designated
The first refers to the current city and its
as responsibility of the Supreme Committee
occupied area, driven by the needs and priorities
for Town Planning. The new land management
of the individual plot owners. It is up to them to
bodies have been under the supervision of
decide about when to built up their lands.
the Consultative Council (Majlis al- Shura)
Figure 65.
plots
Marked
Latest situation of planned
territory
2014)
Figure 66. Planned vs
granted plots
Plots For residential use
only
Source: (National
Center for Statistics and
Information, 2014/ Author,
2015)
171
Emerging socio-spatial disparities
Figure 67. Omani
and expat population in Al
Buraimi Governorate
Source: (National
Center for Statistics and
Information, 2014/ Author,
2014)
172
since 1991, when it was created to serve as a
The border closing in 2014 was a governmental
channel of information between the Omanis
strategy to force Al Buraimi’s own development
and the governmental ministries.
Their role
instead of depending on Al Ain’s. One month
is to review works on social, environmental
before Buraimi obtained its autonomy from the
and economic broad development projects,
Ad Dhahirah Region by becoming a governorate,
with residential land designation being a part
two checkpoints were implemented and the
of this. This council operates centrally from
border was relocated 8 km to the east, around
Muscat. All the established departments and
Hilli, within the new governorate. One of the
ministries are under the authority of the Sultan.
first major shifts this caused was from people
The Department of Lands continued evolving in
interested in acquiring land for dwelling
scope and name until becoming the MOH in
purposes in Al Khadra (next to the border). They
1985.
were now looking at areas like New Saara to
Figure 68. Chronological division scheme
Marked in squares: Al
Khadra and Al Guraifa
the east. The new limitations for movement to
Al Ain created the conditions for the citizens to
start considering relocation to the new planned
schemes of previous years.
Expat population
The expatriates are segregated in the city, living
adjacent to or at the rear of the commerce
areas where they are employed. In Al Buraimi
commercial clusters are located mainly within
the centre. Despite the lack of specific data
that would indicate the provenance of the
expatriates, during the on-site research, it was
noticed that the great majority of the work force
of the city does not come from GCC nationals.
173
Figure 69. Expat on
his way home
174
They mostly come from the Indian subcontinent,
the traditional quarters; hence the areas have
as well as other central Asian countries and
been left by the Omani owners who moved
Middle Eastern. This creates a gap among the
to better-off new constructions with modern
standards of dwelling conditions in the city,
improvements as electricity, water and drainage.
and it is reflected in the immediate areas in
The expatriates split the costs of rent which
which they settle. Besides this, foreigners are
result in overcrowding. This has the potential to
not allowed to buy land freely in Oman. As
lead to slum like conditions, influencing the way
a result of this, the only option for them is to
in which the city operates.
rent; either houses or empty terrain. However,
groups tend to share the accommodation in
Box 18. Social aspects of housing
The MOH also includes a department in charge of social housing. There are four
ways the government addresses the need for the physical housing structure,
besides granting a plot of land to people. The first is by providing capital
for people to build on their own, with supervision of the MOH. Second, the
Department manages the process and dispenses the final product. Third, the
Department purchases the desired dwelling to provide and fourth, an interest
free loan (30,000 Omani Riyals) is awarded to the applicant. All the options
for aid apply for low-income nationals, defined to this day as someone earning
more than 300 but less than 500 Omani Riyals a month. This is verified after the
application is submitted. Information from the local authority of the Department
states in total there are between 200 - 300 applications each year for these
options. The process takes a year and the construction of the dwellings usually
takes 8 months.
175
Finding: Change in urban morphology
The growth of Al Buraimi until 1990 had not
No subdivision of land on a smaller scale is
boosted accordingly to the proposed plans in
found from the plots among each other. Or
order to require such extensive highways for city
from these to blocks, to neighbourhoods and
delimitation causing a morphological turning
to its extensions which would fill the spaces
point. As a consequence of the land allocation
enclosed by roads connecting the city with the
system, the built areas begin to appear unevenly
country. Also gaps in the city morphology began
among the city. The loose scheme of plots
to appear as soon as the first proposed action
generates empty and large spaces whose
plan. Large gaps of unused land contradict the
functions are undefined and interrupt the
initial settlement’s morphological structure.
continuous urban layout. Noticeable contrasts
The notion of periphery is set thoughtlessly
exist between the compactness of the initial
but as a consequence of surrounding the initial
settlements and the loose sprawl setting the
settlements with roads.
norm of the current settlements
Figure 70.
living areas
Preffered
2015)
176
Figure 71. Neighbourhoods in the outskirts
Figure 72. Neighbourhoods in the city centre
Figure 73. Neighbourhoods in the city centre 2
177
When comparing morphological structure in
compactness of the old housing structure
the traditional pre-oil settlements (before 1970)
and the city generated a better relationship of
and the ones from then onwards until today it
social, cultural and physical functions. Despite
becomes obvious that the former city and its
legal instruments to attend the physical growth,
elements derived from traditional, local culture
the legislation did not provide an efficient
and resource availability. Al Buraimi presented a
organization for the use of land. The mentioned
tribal administrative organization as happened
order has grown due to the traffic engineering
in the rest of Oman. Regarding economic
setting, the guide for new planned areas and
performance it presented a thriving landscape
prescribes setbacks, sidewalks and other open
influenced by the productive assets the existing
areas, which were not part of the traditional
falaj provided, tightly related to it’s location at
morphology.
the border of Oman and UAE. This granted
potential growth and diversity to the inhabitants
As the consequence of applying new urban
and contributed to the uniqueness of its scenery.
models, new open area elements have been
established without proper contextualization.
The traditional disposition of circulation space
The initial open areas for residential use were
in the initial phase appeared random or organic
within the dwellings enforcing a private character.
but they contributed to a functional, structural
Currently there are open spaces scattered
and visual integrity that the city followed. The
among the new city neighborhoods to simulate
Figure 74. Built
structure change
Constructions are
appearing further away
from the city core due to
the lottery method used
for designating plots.
178
A
B
these gathering spaces. However they lack the
are mismanaged. From the planning of the city,
privacy of having one clan or family surrounding
public spaces are not thought as beneficial to
it. Also the spaces are in a broader sense,
the surrounding plots. Open spaces considered
open, not being tightly enclosed by dwellings.
public result from a lack of correlation between
Therefore there is no appropriation of space
the plot and the position given in a block. Urban
due to the deprived relation to these spaces
design and a new form of compactness on the
and their surroundings. As consequence of the
neighborhood and city quarter level can bridge
citizens organizing their own open area within
the gap between the ‘endless city ‘ and the
their plot and being able to control its security;
individual family to find a livable place to stay.
these new open areas become redundant. The
current city has lost its own identity and does no
longer respond to local potentials. The dynamic
of growth and the huge number of families to
be settled ask for new ways and instruments of
D
C
guiding the built environment.
A
Initially, open spaces in between the city served
B
as arteries and gathering areas in spite of the
strong need for privacy. Currently public spaces
Figure 75. Public
space alteration
C
D
The figure above shows
the location of all four
maps on these pages.
179
Regulations and building codes
Taking into account the standardized process of
different residential units of width (1.50) meters
plot lottery which began in 1984, there was a gap
to a passage up to (15) meters long, if the length
of 14 years in which no consideration was given
exceeded that, then the width shall increase to a
to build homogeneity in the city. Al Buraimi was
maximum of (2.20) meters. It can be illustrated
accustomed to clustered spaces within the city,
in the adjacent figure.
designated to specific functions with a uniform
character. With the new expansion planning,
This contributes to the second reality in which
directions arranging the operations along road
there is a divergence from the real situation
infrastructure axes needed standards. They
in the city and the utilized plan in which the
intended to preserve the traditional Omani
MOH bases subsequent city planning, “2 A
features while combining modern ones in the
main corridor in front of one row of different
developing city. Nevertheless these permits
residential units of width (1.40) meters for five
and certificates were only for the built elements
units, if the units exceeded this number, then
individually and not seen as a composition to
the width shall be increased by (5%) for every
make up the city. This code is not the extension
additional unit provided that the maximum
of the urban plans linking both urban scales
width shall be (2.0) meters.”
from the city to its final built dwelling elements.
The next, Article (59) displays the car park
Traffic engineering sets the key for new
situation allowed within the legal boundaries
community planning, requiring setbacks and
of the plot specifying at least one car park
other open areas to set large scale limits
for every flat or single family residence for
between the network and the city.
residential areas. On-site research of the current
specifically in New Saara does not establish this
The existing building code from the Municipality
regulation coming into force. Considering this
to regulate the built environment of the city is
neighbourhood being mostly consolidated, we
focused on the house unit Little is established
can infer other areas of the city present more
regarding its relation to the city context
extreme counterexamples to the article.
surrounding it. As Article 58, section a) about
residential buildings establishes: “1 (. . .)
passages and corridors between two rows of
180
Figure 76.
58 a)1
Article
Source: (Explanation
Inspection and
Engineering Affairs
Department, 2008)
Interpretation Author,
2014
Figure 77.
a)2
Article 58
Source: (Explanation
Inspection and
Engineering Affairs
Department, 2008)
Interpretation Author,
2014
181
Recommendations
Urban planning instruments are developed
A missing link between the city planning level
to guide and control physical and spatial
(structure and expansion) and the building
development. In the Omani context the
planning level (individual house) becomes
given land law as well as land allocation and
obvious and has been identified as crucial for
distribution practice together with the high
urban sprawl and low quality of life in Al Buraimi
population growth rates have created a situation
and in other Omani cities as well.
where priority is given to supply the demand
of land, according to the law. Designation of
Thus two strategic approaches are proposed
new residential areas to repond to the ever
that would react on the current challenges:
increasing demand are reflected in the structure
plans, showing more and more a horizontally
First steps to foster quality of life in residential
expanding city. Qualitative physical planning
areas: Open space recovery program in
however, with guidelines on what kind of urban
consolidated areas and areas currently under
qualities are going to be developed, which
construction
density is considered to be appropriate, how
the open space should be integrated and other
○○
qualitative aspects of physical planning were
divided into‚ public open space, meaning that
not met by the structure plans. They focus on
access is free to everybody and ‚private open
the main road network to structure the city and
space’ where access is restricted to a selected
assign areas for expansion within a given time
number of people.
Open or non-built-up urban space is to be
frame.
○○
Public
open
space
includes
space
The second planning instrument in use is the
dedicated to transportation (roads, car parking
so called krookie that translates the building
lots), sidewalks, green space and parks, setback
regulations to any single building to be errected.
(distance space between road and plot, distance
The krookie only looks on one single plot and
between two neighbouring plots (sikkha).
on one single building and prescribes the
182
percentage of plot surface allowed to be built up,
○○
the setbacks, the maximum number of storeys,
non-built-up space within an individual plot,
the maximum height of the building and the use
including roof terraces or balconies that form
of the building.
part of the build-up space itself.
Private open space is limited to the
○○
The open space recovery program would
internal open space for ventilation, shaded
follow a specific process, starting with an
sitting areas, shaded pedestrian walkways,
inventory of public space, physical performance
children's playgrounds, social gathering space
and patterns of use.
for neighbouring families and friends...)
Second steps to foster quality of life in residential
○○
areas: Introducing the discipline of Urban
one designated neighbourhood, to foster a joint
Design to mediate between the “structural
building process within a limited time span and
plan’” and the “krookie”.
to counteract sprawl.
Guidelines for urban design
○○
○○
Compactness and connectivity: Social and
neighbourhoods are interconnected by internal
spatial units of the city are neighbourhoods
roads, internal walkways (shown in figure
instead of single buildings.
below). They may even share car parking areas.
○○
Neighbourhoods
are
organized
and
○○
Priority is given to building permits within
A
certain
number
of
adjacent
A cluster of neighbourhoods share their
designed in size and in shape (a cluster/
mosques, small shopping facilities, a health
block of a limited, but not too small, number
care point, and other required daily services.
of plots (about 40-50) and houses, that allow
Figure 78. Recommendations.
On the left side, open
and un-built space is
highlighted. On the
right hand side, urban
design interventions are
proposed.
183
○○
Within the neighbourhoods traffic speed is
neighbourhood design. Best practice cases from
limited to 30 km/h. Roads are limited in width,
neighbouring countries with similar climatic,
corresponding to the idea of mixed use street
cultural and historic background might be
space (e.g. car, pedestrians, and bikes).
included.
○○
Privacy within the neighbourhood is
Moreover a competition on new housing types
given to the individual family residences
for compact settlements could be launched.
through respective designs and setbacks. A
This would include better building technologies
neighbourhood may show different house types,
and the use of renewable energies.
though the attached twin villa, or row-houses or
other compact building complexes should be
A pilot project could test urban design on
preferred in order to save land and to cope with
the neighbourhood level using new housing
new regulations on proportional density. (FSR/
types. Through this, strengths and weaknesses
FAR)
could be explored and documented within a
comprehensive monitoring process. It would
Further studies are recommended on review
also help to formulate appropriate new building
of planning standards and building codes,
guidelines.
and how to adapt them to the envisaged new
184
References
Edwards, B. et al. (2006) Courtyard Housing:
Akbar, J. (1989) ‘Khatta and the Territorial
Past, Present and Future. Taylor & Francis.
Structure of the Early Muslim Towns’, in
Muqarnas: An Annual on Islamic Art and
Architecture. pp. 6, 22–32.
Technische Universität Berlin.
Batty, M. (2012) Building a science of cities.
Cities. 29S9– S16.
Gordon, P. & Richardson, H. W. (2007) Are
Compact Cities a Desirable Planning Goal?
Burckhardt, T. et al. (2009) Art of Islam:
Journal of the American Planning Association.
language and meaning. Bloomington, Ind.:
[Online] 63 (1), 95–106.
World Wisdom.
Ben-Hamouche, M. (n.d.) Corners-Sell
Burton, E. et al. (1996) The Compact City A
Regulations A Pioneer experience in The
Sustainable Urban Form?. Routledge.
Municipal Work and Sustainability. [online].
(Accessed 8 November 2014).
Cohen, M. (1983) The challenge of replicability.
World Bank Reprint Series. (287), . [online].
Ben-Hamouche, M. (2013) The paradox of
Available from: http://www-wds.worldbank.org/
urban preservation: balancing permanence
external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/
and changeability in old Muslim cities. Journal
IB/2002/11/11/000178830_98101903362316/
of Urbanism: International Research on
Rendered/PDF/multi0page.pdf (Accessed 16
Placemaking and Urban Sustainability. [Online]
January 2015).
6 (2), 192–212.
Ebrahim, M. S. (2009) Can an Islamic model
Inspection and Engineering Affairs Department
of housing finance cooperative elevate the
(2008) Regulations for Organizing Building.
economic status of the underprivileged? Journal
p.33.
of Economic Behavior & Organization. [Online]
72 (3), 864–883.
(2014) Section 3 Housing.pdf.
185
Krier, L. (1984) Urban Components. Vol. 54.
Salingaros, N. A. (2007) Mathematical Theory
Architectural Design.
of the Urban Web. Journal of Urban Design.
[Online] 3 (1), 53–71.
Abu-Lughod, J. L. (1987) The Islamic
city–Historic myth, Islamic essence, and
Soloman, S. (2013) Good Governance
contemporary relevance. International Journal
and Sustainability in Residential Land
of Middle East Studies. 19 (02), 155–176.
Administration in Muscat Oman.
Mortada, H. (2003) Traditional Islamic
Scholz, F., 1978. Sultanate of Oman: A
Principles of the Built Environment. Routledge
geographical introduction of Oman, its natural
Cruzon.
resources, its people, its settlements, its
economy, and its modern development. Part I
Petersen, J. E. (2004) Oman: Three and a Half
ed. Stuttgart: Ernst Klett Printing.
Decades of Change and Development. Middle
East policy. 11 (2), 125–137.
Unwin, R. (1909) Town planning in practice:
an introduction to the art of designing cities
Punter, J. & Carmona, M. (1997) The Design
and suburbs. reprint. London: Princeton
Dimension of Planning: Theory, Content, and
Architectural Press, 1994.
Best Practice for Design Policies. Taylor &
Francis.
Ragette, F. (2003) Traditional domestic
architecture of the Arab Region. [Stuttgart]:
Edition Axel Menges.
Salat, S. & Bourdic, L. (2011) Urban Complexity,
Efficiency and Resilience. Urban Morphology.
[online]. Available from: http://cdn.intechopen.
com/pdfs/31591/InTech-Urban_complexity_
efficiency_and_resilience.pdf (Accessed 16
January 2015).
186
187
Part 2.5 Heritage
management and
responsible tourism
Ana Alcántara
Rapid economic development and social

neglected this far, the remaining heritage in
changes in Oman have led to a neglection of
Al Buraimi might be able to contribute to
heritage. In an effort to carry out the overall
locally responsible tourism development that
“Vision 2020” focusing on diversifying the
can improve the lifestyle of the community,
economy, it has been identified that the tourism
increase the income of the families, preserve
sector is crucial to develop. Tourism in Oman
the natural and cultural heritage, and reinforce
is supposed to be diverse responding to the
local attachment to the heritage area. This study
huge variety of natural and socio-cultural
proposes a set of criteria and management plan
backgrounds of the many tribes. Despite being
for the implementation of responsible tourism.
Part 2.5 Heritage Management and Responsible Tourism
state of heritage
“Over the last fifty years tourism has become
such as (i) achieving an annual average
one of the largest economic sectors globally,
growth rate of at least seven percent, (ii)
accounting for some 9% of the world’s GDP
improvement of employment opportunities
and over 200 million jobs” (United Nations
for Omani nationals, and (iii) to continue with
World Tourism Organization, 2013, p.14). Also
balanced regional development. The MOT’s
in Oman tourism is considered one of the most
strategy also outlines how Oman will achieve
progressive economic activities that can benefit
maximum benefits for local communities,
other economic activities due to its wide scope.
activate domestic tourism, encourage the role of
Different assets give value to the tourist sector
the private sector in tourism development, and
such as culture, heritage and art and enable it to
commit to sustainable tourism development”
become a key sector to the economic growth of
(‘Oman: Focusing on diversification’, 2010).
a country and reduce poverty levels.
Travel and Tourism in Oman generated 37,000
In June 2004, the Omani Ministry of Tourism
jobs directly in 2013 (3.3 percent of total
(MOT) was created (i) to increase the
employment) and this is forecast to grow by
contribution to the GDP by the tourism sector,
11.4 percent in 2014 to 41,000 (3.6 percent of
(ii) to increase the level of employment of
total employment). This includes employment
Omani nationals in the sector, (iii) to increase
by hotels, travel agents, airlines and other
the average annual growth rate for the income
passenger transportation services (excluding
from tourism, and (iv) to be responsible for the
commuter services). It also includes the
promotion and marketing of Oman as a tourist
activities of the restaurant and leisure industries
destination(Ministry of Tourism, Sultanate of
directly supported by tourists (World Travel and
Oman, 2005).
Tourism Council, 2013).
The MOT has the duty to preserve cultural
In order to promote the importance and benefits
integrity and preserve Omani identity; to
of the tourist sector many educational programs
Previous page:
promote the historic, cultural and natural
have been established, such as the annual
The ruins of Hamasa
heritage and ethos of traditional hospitality.
schools’ education program with presentations
Different goals are set for the tourism sector
to around 40 schools and colleges.
190
Tourism in Al Buraimi
The development of Al Buraimi in the tourism
sector has been different than that in the national
context. Part of the national budget goes to
tourism in the Governorate of Al Buraimi, but it
has to be distributed to Al Buraimi, Mahdah and
Al Sunaynah.
The workforce in the hotel sector in Al Buraimi
Municipality totaled 168 in 2011 and decreased
to 137 by 2012. The increase in the number of
expats living in the area can be reflected in the
Omani Ratio of workforce in the tourism sector
which was 25.5 percent in 2012 down from 36.9
percent in 2011 (National Center for Statistics
and Information Sultanate of Oman, 2013).
Even though efforts have been made to improve
the “Omanisation” in the tourism sector, the
amount of foreigners working in this sector is
still higher.
Minor projects run by locals and young people
Box 19. Responsible and
sustainable tourism
According
to
the
UNWTO
sustainable tourism should “(i) use
environmental sources in an optimal
way, keeping a balance with the
natural ecological processes without
threatening nature due to tourism
development, minimizing adverse
impacts on the environment and
preserving heritage and biodiversity,
(ii) maintain the cultural identity of
the host communities, preserving
their heritage and traditional values
and encourage tolerance and
understanding between the host and
visitor, and (iii) to provide long term
economic benefits to all stakeholders
involved in the tourism sector and to
the destination, and to contribute to
poverty reduction” (United Nations
World Tourism Organization, 2005).
are required. The Chamber of Commerce and
Industry in Al Buraimi wants to encourage young
citizens to become entrepreneurs and to enter
announced to be built at Al Buraimi include a
into the private sector, by providing them training
166,991 square meters hotel and shopping and
and financing for facilities. “The Ministry of
entertainment center, an environmental tourism
Tourism...[is] making efforts to support tourism
camp spread over 107,077 square meters, and a
development, encourage entrepreneurship and
four-star hotel and villas project stretching over
provide the Omani youth with opportunities to
50,000 square meters at Hay Al Nafahat. […] The
establish their own projects. [sic] The projects
Oman Development Bank (ODB) is expected to
191
play a big role in turning these opportunities
to places and enable future generations to
into reality by providing the required funding to
have a glance of how the past used to look
the Omani entrepreneurs (Times News Service,
like and to create a sense of continuity that is
2014).
an essential part of cultural identity. Tangible
heritage assets have an advantage over their
Heritage as an asset for responsible
tourism
intangible counterparts, as the preservation
Oman is a country with a long tradition in
be reached by taking proper care to preserve
human settlements, handmade art crafts and
their authenticity, while for intangible assets to
the use of oral traditions and expressions to
be preserved they have to be transferred from
pass on knowledge, cultural and social values
generation to generation.
and conservation of the tangible assets can
and collective memory.
In order for intangible cultural heritage to be
According to UNESCO, heritage is defined as
preserved and conserved, legal measurements
“our legacy from the past, what we live with
have to be taken in order to maintain their
today, and what we pass on to future generations.
cultural property, folklore and traditions relative
Our cultural and natural heritage are both
to the culture.
irreplaceable sources of life and inspiration”
Cultural heritage refers to monuments, groups
Negative effects of tourism and
solutions to them
of buildings and sites with historical, aesthetic,
Even though tourism is considered a means to
archaeological,
or
improve the living conditions of communities,
anthropological value and natural heritage
negative features can be also emphasized such
refers to outstanding physical, biological and
as (i) the increase of local pollution in the air,
geological formations, habitats of threatened
water and land that can be produced by the
species of animals and plants and areas with
tourism facilities, (ii) the use of non-renewable
scientific, conservation or aesthetic value.
resources in a mindless way by hotels and
(UNESCO World Heritage Center, 2008, p.5).
scientific,
ethnological
resorts, (iii) the damage of the flora and fauna
192
The preservation of tangible heritage assets
around a site, (iv) the degradation to the heritage
ensures that the memories of the community of
site, and (v) the poor working conditions some
the past and the qualities that provide identity
of the workers in travel and tourism can face.
Thus worldwide and in Oman much attention
industry, involves local people in decisions that
is given to more sustainable or responsible
affect their lives and life chances, makes positive
forms of tourism, that take “full account of
contributions to the conservation of natural and
its current and future economic, social and
cultural heritage embracing diversity, provides
environmental impacts, addressing the needs of
more enjoyable experiences for tourists through
visitors, the industry, the environment and host
more meaningful connections with local people,
communities” (United Nations World Tourism
and a greater understanding of local cultural,
Organization, 2005).
social and environmental issues, provides
access for physically challenged people, is
Sustainable or responsible tourism is tourism
culturally sensitive, encourages respect between
“which minimizes negative social, economic
tourists and hosts, and builds local pride and
and environmental impacts, generates greater
confidence.” (Responsible Tourism Partnership,
economic benefits for local people and
2002). The interaction between host and visitor
enhances the well-being of host communities,
is promoted to enable a broader understanding
improves working conditions and access to the
of the local cultural and social patterns.
Box 20. UNESCO World Heritage
The formal effort to safeguard intangible cultural heritage through UNESCO
began in 1972 with the Convention for the Protection of World Cultural and
Natural Heritage and the creation of the World Heritage List (Kurin, 2004).
The World Heritage list gives international recognition and national support for
the restoration, conservation, preservation of tangible monuments, sites and
landscapes.
According to UNESCO, “tangible heritage” includes buildings and historic
places, monuments, artifacts, etc., which are considered worthy of preservation
for the future. These include objects significant to the archaeology, architecture,
science or technology of a specific culture”(‘Tangible Cultural Heritage | United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’, n.d.) and “intangible
cultural heritage” was described in the form of a list, as oral traditions and
expressions […] and traditional craftsmanship, as well as the sites and spaces
in which culturally significant activities and events occur” (Kurin, 2004, p.67).
193
Box 21. People perceptions about Al Buraimi’s attractiveness
To understand how the community perceives Al Buraimi, an open question was
posed on the community questionnaires to determine the reasons why people
should go to Al Buraimi. The outcomes were very different, while some of the
survey respondents consider Al Buraimi a place with great commercial activity
and considered it to be a tourist attraction; most of the community prefers to go
to Al Ain for shopping. The ladies tailor shops are very famous in the area with
clients from all around Oman. Also, the repair of cars has become a growing
industry in Al Buraimi.
Even though the community considered the Forts as part of the attractions of Al
Buraimi, only 44 percent of the survey respondents have visited the Al Khandaq
Fort and 37 percent the Al Hillah Fort.
While the living conditions are stated as part of the reasons for visiting Al Buraimi,
since the establishment of the physical border between Al Ain and Al Buraimi in
2009, the free transit between the two cities has become more difficult, and the
advantage of Al Buraimi being cheaper than Al Ain is no longer considered as a
priority because of the long commute.
194
Heritage assets inventory for tourism in Al Buraimi
The following map shows the location of the
tangible and intangible assets described ahead.
Figure 79. Location of
heritage sites
This study identifies the
following inventory of
tangible heritage sites
and intangible heritage
features was identified
during the fieldwork in
autumn 2014.
Box 22. Tangible assets criteria
1. Cultural traditions, the assets have to be part of the cultural traditions and belong to
Al Buraimi´s identity.
2. Ancient traditional human settlement should represent human interaction and the
land-use of Al Buraimi.
3. Example of a type of building or architectural typology specific to Al Buraimi; .
4. Significant natural habitats for conservation of biological diversity, including those
containing threatened species.
5.
Economic value for the future benefit of the community, if the asset is developed as a
tourist attraction and new job opportunities appear.
195
Ancient residential village Saára
Located close to the border with the United Arab
Emirates, and part of the Buraimi Oasis, Saára
was occupied by around four to five thousand
Figure 80. Decay
situation in Saára.
people and used to be a very important site for
farming and leisure in the summer; since it was
Saára is mostly
abandoned and is
occupied by eastern
Asian people who pay
a small amount to the
land owners of the plots
in order to use them as
shelter and as small farms
located in the Buraimi Oasis, the abundance of
shift in economic activities. Few plots are still
palm trees for farming with the use of the aflaj
system around the area provided a very shaded
and comfortable place.
Today, the site is mostly abandoned, due to a
being used for farming.
Ancient residential and market village
Hamasa
It used to be an important market in the area
ruled by the Al Shamsi family. People from
As Sunaynah, Sohar, Dubai and Ibri came to
Hamasa to buy goods, trade animal, fruits,
vegetables, and slaves. There are no existing
written records of the way Hamasa used to look
or how the inhabitants used to live, nor about
the number of inhabitants or market shops. The
use of tents as households was very common;
families used to live all together.
Few structures remain today. It is known that the
Figure 81. Decay
situation in Hamasa
196
market and the houses were separated by the
wadi that crossed through Hamasa.
The forts and watchtower
Currently, Al Buraimi possesses two forts, Fort Al
Hillah and Fort Al Khandaq, and a watchtower.
They were both centers for political, social,
religious
interaction
and
administrative
activities, including markets, houses and
mosques (‘Ministry of Heritage and Culture,
Sultanate of Oman’, n.d.).
Today, both forts and watchtower are well
preserved, Al Khandaq represents the emblem
Figure 82.
fort
Al Khandaq
of the Governorate. Only maintenance work is
needed as part of the facades and interior have
fractures.
Box 23. The Buraimi Oasis
For years, the Al Ain–Buraimi area was known as the ‘Buraimi Oasis’. The
Buraimi Oasis does not apply only to the palm groves in Buraimi, but also to the
wider Al Ain–Buraimi area.
Before development, the Buraimi Oasis comprised nine small villages. Three of
these were inhabited by tribes loyal to the Sultan of Oman: Buraimi, Hamasa
and Saára. The other six villages were inhabited by tribes loyal to the sheikh of
Abu Dhabi: Al Ain, Muwaiqih, Mataradh, Jimi, Qattara and Hilli.
In the nineteenth and early twentieth century, Al Buraimi was consider an urban
settlement considered to be a strategic city due to its economic activities, such
as manufacturing (pottery, weaving and ironworking), trade (camel trappings,
pottery), and agriculture (dates, alfalfa, sweet and sour oranges, mangoes and
root vegetables) as well as its two lines of falaj and its two forts: the Forts Al
Buraimi and Fort Al Hillah Fort.
197
Box 24. Intangible assets: criteria
○○
In order to identify the intangible heritage assets, a set of criteria were established. These assets have to be related to the following categories:
○○
Cultural traditions; the assets have to be part of the cultural traditions.
○○
Ownership of cultural property; should belong to the Al Buraimi´s identity.
○○
Example of a type of building or craft technique; example of a unique building technique as well as part of the ancient craft and arts in Al Buraimi.
○○
Risk of disappearing; due to modernization, part of the knowledge is in risk of being lost.
○○
Economic value for the future benefit of the community; if the asset is developed as part of a tourist attraction and new job opportunities appear.
Intangible assets
Building techniques and materials
used for mortar and plaster. This traditional
Due to the modernization in the 1970s, the
earth architecture of has climatic properties that
ancient building techniques and building
ensure constant temperature within the building
materials have lost their traditional importance.
during the whole year without the existence of
New houses with modern building materials
windows.
and amenities have appeared, such as airconditioning. The cities were left abandoned
The traditional summer houses were usually
and traditional settlements are nowadays in
larger with higher ceilings where small windows
a very precarious condition. The restoration
can be seen for the entrance of light; winter
of the mud-brick houses is crucial, since they
houses were more compact, having lower
are a trace of history that could potentially be
ceilings to preserve the warmth inside. “In
transferred to a younger generation.
the mud-brick houses, the ground floor was
commonly used for storing and the upper floors
previously
for living. Walls were up to 80 centimeters thick
employed in Oman are mud brick, baked brick,
on the ground level (Gaube, Heinz and Gangler,
stone, mangrove poles, palm trees and lime,
Anette, 2012, p.80).
The main building materials
198
Traditional craft and arts
Various traditional crafts are inspired by the
local environment and the local resources.
For instance, Pottery making in the interior of
Oman was a highly commercial practice, the
production got into high volume with the use
of the pottery wheel and the creation of small
factories (Richardson, Neil and Dorr, Marcia,
2003).
As in other areas of the country where dates
Figure 83.
Nizwa
Pottery in
are found, basketry is a widely practiced craft.
Different types of plaited–strip baskets are
needed at different times of the year, for datecollection or storage, or for special occasions
like Eid; the request for the large rectangularstorage basket which also serves as a cooking
bag for shuwa´, the traditional Omani dish of
roasted goat meat (Richardson, Neil and Dorr,
Marcia, 2003).
The conservation of the intangible heritage
assets provides traditions, practices, and forms
of knowledge that help cultural identity survive to
subsequent generations. Due to modernization,
building techniques and everyday appliances
local traditions are devaluated or endangered or
Figure 84.
Basketry in
Al Buraimi
both.
199
Box 25. Further tangible assets examples: Falaj irrigation system
In 2006, the Falaj Daris Falaj Al Khatmeen in Willayat Nizwa, the Falaj Al Malaki in Willayat Izki,
the Falaj al Mayssar in Willayat Al Rustaq and the Falaj Al Jeena in Willayat Sur were inscribed in
the World Heritage List due to their ancient engineering technologies, sustainable use of water
resources for the irrigation of palms and crops, the strengthening of the community values and
the mutual community collaboration.
The conservation of the tangible heritage assets provides the future generation with a
concrete notion of the past. They have the greater potential to provide economic benefit to
the community, providing new job opportunities as a tourism attraction. Proper management,
including information centers and staff, is required in order to increase the tourism value as well
as to preserve the economic, social and environmental responsibility stated previously in this
study.
Figure 87.
Saára.
Dry falaj in
Due to over exploitation
and lack of research
from side of the Omani
authorities on the field, the
falaj stopped supplying
water.
Source: (Salcedo 2014)
200
Hamasa: an example
for responsible tourism
development
The area of Hamasa can exemplify how to
taking place in Hamasa, such as coffee shops,
preserve cultural heritage, and how to put
restaurants and small grocery shops, mostly run
heritage into value for a responsible tourism
by expatriates though owned by Omanis.
concept
that
would
improve
the
entire
community, increase the income of the families,
New markets have absorbed the role of the
and reinforce the local attachment.
Hamasa market, such as the souqs close to the
Al Hillah Fort. These are not only considered as
Hamasa
trade centers but as important meeting points
Watchtower and divided by the wadi into the
for the local community. The new souq is a small
residential area and the market area. The
white building with a watchtower in the center.
remains of two falaj entering into the area can
While inside the market mostly male expatriate
be tracked with the remaining inspections wells,
vendors sell imported products mainly from
one leading north to south across the wadi
China; including earth and clay artifacts, spices,
towards the Hillah Fort and the other directly in
shoes, food and traditional walking sticks that
the middle of the Hamasa area.
can be found outside the stalls. Female vendors
Hamasa
is
overlooked
by
the
sell plaited-strip baskets, traditional goods and
The remaining buildings are precious in value
some pottery. Fresh fish from Sohar and other
due to the building techniques used to construct
ports of Oman can also be bought daily.
them. The actual physical situation of the mudbrick houses however is very critical, shifting
Spatial configuration
sands has covered most of the remaining
Hamasa used to be a very compact village,
buildings.
mainly accessed by donkeys/camels to enable
the transport of goods into and out of the
According to the Ministry of Housing, the land
market. The construction of asphalt roads inside
use of Hamasa still remains as agricultural;
Hamasa was stopped in order to preserve the
reason why some farms are still in use.
traditional identity of the place.
Nowadays, other types of economic activities are
201
Vernacular architecture
Tenure
The remaining mud-brick houses in Hamasa
Since plots in Hamasa have been inherited, the
can be categorized by location, type of
delimitation of some plots can be distinguished
building, (residential, mosques, shops) and by
by stone fences or concrete walls recently built
construction materials such as stones, baked
in order to delimitate property. Even though
bricks, and mud bricks.
abandoned, plots in Hamasa are extremely
valuated because of the long history of
Most of the mud-brick houses used to have
inheritance they posses.
pitched palm-frond (barristi) roofs and the
bigger houses had flat earth roofs supported
Identity at stake
by palm trunks or mangrove poles. They had
In general, the new lifestyle in Hamasa and in
rooms with high ceilings for the hot weather
Al Buraimi has led to the threat of the loss of
season and low ceilings for the cold weather.
the intangible assets mentioned above. The
Few windows can be found on ground level due
oral transmission of knowledge was considered
to the importance of privacy; whereas many
a tradition, covering literature, graphic arts
can be found above. Some renovations can be
and performed arts. Moreover, the knowledge
observed and appreciated where earth roofs
related to building techniques using mud-brick
have been changed to wooden roofs.
is liable to get lost if it is no longer preserved
and transmitted. Hamasa is an extraordinary
The foundations are shallow or have been built
example of how vernacular architecture used
directly on the ground. Only the houses as
to look like, thus if it is not safeguarded it is
well as the shops close to the wadi, had higher
possible that this part of the Al Buraimi identity
foundations made of irregular stones. This was
will become extinct.
to protect them from the high water levels during
the rainy season. The falaj system infrastructure
is still noticeable in some households, although
in a bad condition.
202
Guidelines and Action plan
towards responsible tourism
in Hamasa
For the sake of elaborating guidelines and
recommendations for responsible tourism, a set
of criteria have been taken into consideration:
a. The identification of opportunities and
The purpose of this section is to provide a set
weaknesses
of strategies towards responsible tourism based
b. The recognition of the stakeholders
on the heritage assets in Hamasa, addressing
the issues of management, revitalization
involved and the development of
centered on re-habitation, conservation, training
linkages between them
c. The design of specific projects,
and skill development.
including a trial area
In order to become a tourist attarction based
d. The impact on the local community
on these assets, the guidelines include ancient
e. The creation of new job opportunities
settlements for housing purpose, the agriculture
f.
and animal breeding as economic activity and
g. The raising of awareness
The improvement of capacity building
the reuse of ancient handicraft techniques.
One of the main purposes is to promote active
It is important to tackle the characteristics of
collaboration between the state, the private
responsible tourism, and to cover the aims of
sector and civil society. It is for the sake of the
the Omani “Vision 2020” by increasing the
diversification of the tourist sector, to develop
importance of the tourism sector, fostering the
high qualified and well-trained human resources.
preservation of social, cultural and environmental
resources of the country, including more
The following action plan is developed in three
Omanis in the tourism sector and improving
different phases. The responsibilities and
the lifestyle of the host community.
interactions between the diverse stakeholders
vary.
203
Phase I (short term)
Actions and activities
The creation of man-made attractions is required
Physical planning
such as a small-scale museum, for the display
For Phase I, it is required to select a trail
of local artwork as well as local handicrafts.
area, where the remaining buildings will be
Small restaurants and coffee shops should be
categorized in three degrees of preservation, the
run inside the trial area. These places should
ones that are in an adequate state, those that
provide local food and be run by the community.
can be preserved, and those where only small
New gift shops should be established where
intervention are needed, such as refurbishments.
local handicrafts can be sold and workshops can
The ones that are in an adequate state, that
take place.
needs to be restored, and the ones that are in
ruins. The classification of the buildings has to
Parallel to these actions, awareness programs
be coordinated with the Ministry of Heritage
have to be implemented to encourage local
and Culture in order to have accurate criteria of
communities to participate; capacity building
classification.
is also required to improve the hospitality, and
tourism management skills to provide quality
The trial area, Hamasa I, should be restored,
services. Additionally, training for the community
preserving
is required for the development, management
the
heritage
resources
minimizing further destruction.
204
and
and operation of small businesses.
Figure 88. Interventions in Phase I
Stakeholders involved
businesses. The media, academia and the
In this phase, an active collaboration between
Ministry of Tourism are the bodies responsible
most of the stakeholders is required from the
for awareness programs and campaigns to
beginning of the action plan and for its overall
promote participation in tourism. The media
success. Even though building interventions
in collaboration with the Ministry of Tourism is
are needed in Hamasa; the Ministry of Heritage
also responsible for the marketing of the newly
and Culture is the main entity responsible for
developed pilot project.
the protection and preservation of the ancient
building; the ministry has to provide guidelines
Outputs/Goal
on how intervention should proceed. The
A certain number of jobs will be created with
involvement of the civil society is essential
the new economic activities The promotion
to run the new local activities. The Chamber
of tourism will increase the community
of Commerce and Industry has the ability to
involvement in the sector, giving them the tools
provide trainees with capacity building in the
to have a say in the development of their own
tourist sector and for the creation of small
home area.
205
Phase II (medium term)
Physical planning
In this phase, the labor of the local community,
Phase II will follow the same guidelines as
mainly the ones with agricultural knowledge, is
in Phase I, Hamasa II will be created. The
required. The main responsibility of the Ministry
restoration of the decayed buildings, the
of Heritage and Culture remains the protection
preservation of the heritage resources as well as
and preservation of the ancient buildings. The
the minimization of further destruction remain
creation, promotion and enhancing of cultural
as the main priorities.
events, such as festivals in Hamasa have to be
run and supervised by the Ministry of Tourism,
with the aim to involve the community in
In phase II, linkages are developed to local
cultural events as well as to attract more tourists
agriculture and local products as part of the
to Al Buraimi.
activities. The falaj system should be also
included in order to revive the Oasis’ life, and
The cooperation between the Ministry of Tourism
provide an example of how life used to be. The
and the private sector in this phase is important
breeding of animals should also be integrated
for the promotion of tourism though the private
as part of the activities.
enterprises and for the development of tourism
products, such as maps and brochures.
To develop a structured holistic tourism
experience based on the available heritage
Outputs/Goal
resources,
be
New jobs will be created with the new economic
established to visit the Old souq – the Al
activities and with the integration of agriculture.
Hillah Fort – the New souq – the Al Khandaq
With new tourist activities created, trained people
Fort – and the Hamasa Tower – Hamasa. In
will be required for the delivery of information
every spot, informational brochures as well as
along the different spots of the walking tour,
trained representatives should be available.
as well for running the tourist information
This includes the establishment of a tourist
center.
information centre.
tourism, agriculture and the production of local
walking
night
tours
can
Providing
economic
incentives
in
merchandise, will add value to Hamasa and to
Al Buraimi.
206
Figure 89. Interventions in Phase II
including interventions in
Phase I
Figure 90. Night tour
walking route
The Walking night tours
are intended to provide
and holistic tourism
experience based on
the available heritage
resources. Trained people
will be required for the
delivery of information
along the different spots
of the walking tour.
207
Phase III (long term)
Further actions: festivals
Physical planning
According to the outcomes from the survey
Phase III will follow the same guidelines as in
conducted in Al Buraimi, different actions have
Phase I, Hamasa III will be created. Small-scale
to be taken in consideration of attracting more
accommodation facilities can be established,
tourists to the area. 56% percent of the survey
such as “Bed and Breakfasts” and small scale
respondents have not visited the Al Khandaq
hotels. Large-scale renovation will be required to
Fort and 63 % have also not visited the Al
enable the provision of high quality service.
Hillah Fort. In order to foster more visits, the
Ministry of Tourism in collaboration with the
local authorities, could promote the creation of
With the trial project running in different areas
festivals in the area taking place in both forts.
in Hamasa, the provision of accommodation
As part of the areas to improvement, the lack
can be made in order to extend the visit of the
of information provided on the heritage assets
tourist to more than a day.
in Al Buraimi make it difficult for visits by nonArabic speakers to partake, since information is
The private sector is the main actor in this phase,
for running accommodations that fulfill the need
of the tourist and reach high quality standards.
The engagement of the entire community in
of high importance for the success of phase
III since the aim is to provide an example of
responsible tourism in an Oasis settlement.
Outputs/Goal
The number of new jobs will increase in the
different areas of the accommodation facilities.
The objective is to improve quality standards
in the tourism sector and to extend the stay of
visitors by providing an example of traditional
way of life.
208
only transmitted orally.
Figure 91. Interventions in Phase III,
including interventions in
Phase I and Phase II
Action plan
Figure 92. Summary
of the action plan
209
Figure 93.
Fort Route
National
210
National action plan
Al Buraimi should be promoted more often both
As part of a national action plan, a National Fort
inside and outside Oman. It should be included
Route will be created, where the Al Hillah Fort
in national brochures and national tourist maps.
and the Al Khandaq Fort could be integrated to
The great potential of Al Buraimi has not been
promote the area and to attract more tourists.
fully realized.
Figure 94.
Hamasa
Ruins in
Conclusions
Modernization has played an enormous role in
cultural heritage assets and the reinforcement of
the transformation of lifestyle and economical
the local attachment to the heritage area?
behavior in Al Buraimi. The “Vision 2020” has
been taken on as criteria for the diversification
This study shows that Al Buraimi has substantial
of the economy, and tourism has been selected
tangible and intangible heritage assets thereby
as the main sector for development.
making it an ideal segment of a responsible
tourism development plan. The benefits gained
How might this apply to some heritage assets,
will involve not only the civil society, but the
such as those in Al Buraimi, which have
private sector and the local government. Most
remained in a long state of abandon and decay?
notably the improvements required for the
How can proper heritage management recover
development of the traditional settlement of
and preserve the tangible/intangible assets to
Hamasa must go beyond it and involve the
become part responsible tourism development
oasis as a whole and Al Buraimi as an exemplary
for the sake of the improvement of the lifestyle of
part of it. It is crucial to reinforce the sense
the community, in order to increase the income
of ownership and cultural identity in the new
for the families, to preserve of the natural and
generations.
211
References
Anon (n.d.) Chronicle of the Middle East &
of Oman. Muscat, Oman: Al Royal Press and
Pulishing Hoswe.
North Africa. Available from: http://fanack.
com/en/countries/oman/history/
Gössling, S. (1999) Ecotourism: a means
to safeguard biodiversity and ecosystem
Anon (n.d.) Ministry of Heritage and Culture,
functions? Ecological Economics. 29 (2),
Sultanate of Oman. Available from: http://www.
303–320.
mhc.gov.om/tabid/358/Default.aspx
Kurin, R. (2004) Safeguarding Intangible
Anon (n.d.) Tangible Cultural Heritage | United
Cultural Heritage in the 2003 UNESCO
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Convention: a critical appraisal. Museum
Organization. Available from: http://www.
International. [Online] 56 (1-2), 66–77.
unesco.org.
Ministry of Tourism, Sultanate of Oman (2005)
Bertelsmann Stiftung, BTI 2014 (2014) Oman
Tourism Strategy in Oman. Available from:
Country Report. Available from: http://www.
http://www.omantourism.gov.om
bti-project.org.
Debouchet, Sophie (2012) Oman Migration
Sultanate of Oman (2013) Statistics Tourism.
Profile. Available from: http://cmrsdb.
Available from: http://www.ncsi.gov.om
aucegypt.edu/index.php/eng/content/
download/1900/11324/file/10.%20Oman_2012.
Responsible Tourism Partnership (2002) Cape
pdf.
Town Declaration. Available from: http://www.
responsibletourismpartnership.org/CapeTown.
Ennis, Crystal A. & Al-Jamali, Ra’id Z. (2014)
html.
Development Planning and Labour Market
Trends in Oman. Available from: http://www.
Richardson, Neil & Dorr, Marcia (2003) The
chathamhouse.org
Craft Heritage of Oman. Vol. 1, 2 vols. Dubai,
UAE: Motivate Publishing for the Omani Craft
Gaube, Heinz & Gangler, Anette (eds.) (2012)
Transformation Processes in Oasis Settlements
212
Heritage Documentation Project.
Smith, David & Talwar, Rohit (2007) The Future
of Travel & Tourism in the Middle East - A
Vision to 2020. Available from: http://www.
thegff.com/Publisher/File.aspx?id=14985.
Times News Service (2014) Oman tourism
ministry declares details of 22 locations,
projects development plans. Times of Oman.
Available from: http://www.timesofoman.com
UNESCO World Heritage Center (2008) World
Heritage Information Kit. Available from: http://
whc.unesco.org.
(2005) Definition | Sustainable Development
of Tourism [online]. Available from: http://sdt.
unwto.org.
(2013) Sustainable Tourism for Development
Guidebook. Available from: http://www.ilo.org.
World Travel and Tourism Council (2013) Travel
and Tourism Economic Impact 2014 Oman.
Available from: http://www.wttc.org
WWF International (2001) Guidelines for
community-based ecotourism development.
Available from: http://www.widecast.org
213
Part 3 Further
recommendations
Sonja Nebel
contributors:
Panagiotis Achamnos
Ana Alcántara
Pedro Becerra
Florencia Carvajal
Jesús Salcedo
The key fields of strategic interventions as
We follow hereby this definition of urban
presented in the preceding chapters demand
governance given by UN-Habitat and would
besides the “what to do” also for the “how to
like to focus on a few key aspects that have
do”. Urban governance reffers to “the sum of the
been turned out as cross-sector or cross-cutting
many ways individuals and institutions, public
issues to be mentioned as crucial for a successful
and private, plan and manage the common
process towards a resilient urban development
affairs of the city. It is a continuing process
in Al Buraimi. The following chapter presents the
through which conflicting or diverse interests
issues and also recommends a set of tools that
may be accommodated and cooperative action
can be implemented. Next, the topic of capacity
can be taken. It includes formal institutions as
development is explained and recommendations
well as informal arrangements and the social
are made as well. Finally, a recommended list of
capital of citizens”.
further studies is presented.
Part 3. Further Recommendations
Cross cutting issues
Cross-cutting issue: Inter-sectoral
cooperation and coordination
Cross-cutting issue: Decentralization
All sector-related assessments have mentioned
It has been proved that the strong top-down
the difficulties arising from uncoordinated
decision-making process is (i) a time-consuming
planning
one and (ii) often not responding properly to the
missing interdepartmental coordination and
local needs and potentials. The legal framework
cooperation. When it comes to strategic planning
i.e. physical planning standards, building codes
for a sustainable development, coordination and
or road design manuals, is supposed to allow
cooperation however becomes crucial. As all
equal living conditions nation wide but do not
relevant Ministries are represented with their Al
consider diverse natural-geographic settings
Buraimi branches, we recommend to establish
within the country, diverse micro-cultural
an
background and diverse economic conditions.
council, kind of “task-force resilient Buraimi”.
Any sustainable future development concept
This council representing all governmental
however would rely rather on local needs
bodies involved will discuss and decide about
and potentials than on general regulations.
priorities of action and implementation and will
Interviews with experts from different local
accompany the strategic procedure. The council
governmental institutions in Al Buraimi have
should also decide about further responsibilities.
and
implementation
interdisciplinary
and
and
from
interdepartmental
proved the importance of locally based human
resource and revealed the high expertise and
Cross-cutting issue: Participation
knowledge of the governmental staff.
The many interviews that could have been
conducted with residents during the field
Previous page:
Mountain range in the
south-east border of Al
Buraimi Governorate
216
Locally based decision-making power might
studies in autumn 2014 have proved besides
be able to react faster on dynamics of change,
the citizens’ vital interest in urban issues
might understand better and exploit the local
as well competent attitudes and ideas on
potentials for development. It may also be
what quality of life would mean to them.
better prepared for planning and managing
Furthermore people expressed their willingness
the common affairs of the city. Establishing
and readiness to actively contribute i.e. in new
the Municipal Council in Al Buraimi seems to
forms of waste collecting and recycling, their
be a good precondition for a locally based and
openness towards appropriate forms of public
promising urban governance for sustainability.
transport, and a strong identification towards
Box 26. Tools for participation
the place of residence. Thus one main challenge
regarding governance is enhancing the citizen
○○
participation in a general strategy towards
waste and recycling, renewable energies,
resilient development. The Municipality has to
urban design.
Public urban talks: heritage assets,
keep in mind that the measures proposed in
this study are intended for the well being of the
○○
vast majority as well as for the environment;
competitions: new open spaces, new mixed
therefore the active participation of the citizenry
typologies, etc.
Urban
design
and
planning
is encouraged in order to strengthen the strategy
○○
as well as finding points to be re-formulated.
Pilot projects and campaigns: public
transport, bike rental, environmental and
This study recommends the following activities
heritage awareness campaigns, open space
to take place once the Municipality agrees with
recovery.
the Municipal Council on the steps to be taken
○○
in order to proceed with the strategy.
e-Governance: Al Buraimi’s web portal
Participatory approaches in urban development
Buraimi has started to inform about the ongoing
and
studies on the future development in Al Buraimi
urban
planning
include
phases
of
information, dialogues and consultation for
Municipality and Governorate.
participatory decision-making and long term
involvement of all parties concerned. A few
This important channel of communication
tools are presented below that might foster a
between the Governmental institutions and the
participatory urban management process.
citizens could be fostered and complemented
by series of urban talks to be organized by the
Tool: Public urban talks
Municipal Council and the respective Buraimi
Urban development is a public affair. Thus
branches of the Ministries concerned in
city planning and urban design are topics
cooperation with Buraimi University.
of general public interest. The media in
Oman is continiously reporting on envisaged
Urban talks could cover a variety of topics,
projects in the urban sector and their stage of
emphasizing i.e. on the heritage assets, on
implementation. Also the local media in Al
possibilities of waste recycling, on renewable
217
energies, on public transport, on urban
is close to be finished. An exhibition under the
design and local identity, just to mention a
title “Magestic Muscat –our city our future”
few. Introducing the formate of urban talks as
exposed the results to the public. Similar
an instrument to address local communities,
initiatives adapted to the local context could be
professionals and citizens alike would highlight
realized in Al Buraimi as well. Competitions can
the importance of a public discourse on urban
be launched on an international level, or region
development.
wide (GCC, Arab countries) or on a national and
local level. Also students’ competitions should
Tool: Urban design and planning
competitions
be thought of, to explore young professionals’
Competitions in urban planning, urban design,
through competitions and projects would as
and architectural design have a long standing
well strengthen the private sector for diversifying
tradition worldwide and are highly estimated as
economy
an instrument to create a variety of proposals
professionals to invest in their hometown
and thus show the scope of alternatives. They
creating ownership and responsibility for their
also offer interesting incentives for professionals
city.
creativity. Focussing on the local capacities
and
encourage
young
Omani
to prove their capabilities and expertise.
Tool: Pilot projects and campaigns
Competitions need to be prepared carefully by
A pilot project is a small-scale preliminary project
a committee that clearly defines the tasks to
conducted in order to clarify and test conditions
be fulfilled and the goals to be achieved. A jury
and impacts of the project prior to a full-scale
out of experts will evaluate the contributions
intervention. Whenever new approaches are
and decide about a ranking. The results will
proposed where less or even no experience
be displaced to the interested public in an
has been achieved before, it is recommendable
exhibition.
to go through that kind of test phase before
establishing bigger programs and projects.
Muscat Municipality had started in 2011 a
218
widely recognized initiative for 24 selected
Pilot projects have another useful secondary
locations in Greater Muscat to be developed by
effect that is their potential for creating awareness
international and national companies including
among the public. As they are conducted during
i.e. the Muttrah Fish Market where realization
limited time, and they are carefully evaluated the
results can be discussed within professionals
and governmental institutions but as well
Example: “Save the environment”
campaign
with representatives from citizens, and from
the private economic sector. It is an efficient
Re-launch the national energy and water saving
instrument to foster a broad dialogue and a
campaign (started in 2009) on the local Al
consensus on future ways to go. Pilot projects
Buraimi level
have been suggested in the sector of solid waste
management (see part 2.3.) and in the sector of
heritage management (see part 2.5).
Example: plastic bottles collection
campaign
A pilot project of returning plastic bottles to
Example: Public transport pilot project
specific collection points could be established,
The city of Al Buraimi is growing fast and the
as the residents are willing to participate in
urban area will be much bigger according to
such a project. This initiative will succeed in a
current projections. Therefore, it is important
first attempt of separating the solid waste by
to consider the implementation of alternative
collecting all the plastic bottles for recycling modes of transportation than private cars.
purposes. Moreover, people will be more eager
As a first step, a pilot project is suggested in
to participate if by returning the plastic bottles
order to measure the service performance and
they get back a small refund.
adjust the proper size and scale for the public
transportation system operation.
Example: Smart Car wash campaign
Another pilot project that can be introduced
Example: Bike rental pilot project
and promoted is a facility where the residents
A pilot project in bike rentals could be
can have their cars washed by using treated
established in order to measure the performance
wastewater from the sewage treatment plant
of biking. This initiative is aimed at the foreign
(STP). The residents could be charged a small
residents in the city, which could be included
fee and save potable water from their own
in their transportation mode as it is currently
domestic supply.
challenging for them to own a car. The bike
rental points could be located in strategic points
of the city that concentrate residential areas of
immigrants.
219
Example: Open space recovery
campaign
By
facilitating
better
interaction
between
citizens, businesses and Government, eOman
will take Oman forward to a new age of progress
it is important to reduce car dependency by
and prosperity.
providing facilities for pedestrians. This means
that the improvement of public spaces is a
Following the omanuna /e-oman web page Al
must. Thus, capacity on urban design and
Buraimi Governorate und Municipality may
landscaping is requested in order to minimize
become a strong member of the e-governance
automobile use. There is also a need for a more
movement and establish their regional and local
compact development by increasing densities
e-governance frame. A particular website on Al
and mixed land uses in the urban area, which
Buraimi could be linked to the overall e-oman
would facilitate proximity and accessibility.
web, informing about ongoing activities, services
and about the urban projects undertaken by the
Tool: e-governance/ internet
performance/social media
local government.
During the past years more and more families
Interviews with residents during the field
and individuals use the internet for easier
research in September/October 2014 have
access to information and communication.
proved the willingness of the citizens to play
E-government plays a vital role in Oman as well.
an active role in the development of their
daily living environment. Thus the interest
Oman’s e-Governance initiative has the vision
in communication and dialogue via internet
of transforming Oman into an advanced, world-
and via social media is increasing in particular
class e-Government by seamlessly integrating all
among the younger population that takes over a
Ministries and Government entities to provide
high percentage of the residents.
faster and more effective public services online.
“eOman seeks to empower people and
transform Oman for the better. Be a part of
eOman today, and discover a brighter future”
(http://www.oman.om).
220
Capacity Development for
sustainable development Al
Buraimi
“Problems cannot be solved with the same mind
work with. Both individuals and organisations
set that created them.” will need what is often called an “enabling
Albert Einstein
environment” that is given by the nations
Why capacity development?
political and legal background where institutions
The paradigm shift that has been elaborated
and organizations are embedded in.
and argued for in this report would be followed
as well as changed planning methods and
What is meant by “capacity” and
“capacity development”?
instruments. Thus we suppose an emerging
We follow the definition of UNDP defining
need for additional professional skills and further
capacity as:
capacity that go beyond the current planning and
institutions, and societies to perform functions,
management practice in Al Buraimi in particular
solve problems, and set and achieve objectives
and in the Sultanate of Oman in general.
in a sustainable manner.” (UNDP 2007)
Current challenges have been identified such as
“Capacity development is the process whereby
low experience in participatory and cooperative
individuals, groups, and organisations enhance
planning, lacking skills in best practice methods
their abilities to mobilize and use resources in
and management tools including integrated
order to achieve their objectives on a sustainable
monitoring,
basis”. (UNDP 2007)
by changed overall urban development goals
highly
centralized
and
time
“the ability of individuals,
consuming decision making processes, low
technical skills in up to date GIS an CAD, to
Whenever starting a capacity development
name a few. Long term successful interventions
pogram it has to respond to the specific Al
in the urban sector however rely to a great
Buraimi/Omani context but we would however
extend on the professional qualification of
recommend to follow the well experienced
individuals, their personal skills and abilities
methodological steps within the process of
and their power to trigger down their capacities
capacity development as proposed by UNDP.
to the institutions and organizations they
221
STEP 1
Engage stakeholders in
capacity building
STEP 5
Evaluate capacity
development
STEP 2
Asses capacity assets
and needs
Capacity
development
process
STEP 4
Implement a capacity development
response
Figure 95. Capacity
development process
(Source: Salcedo 2015 /
based on UNFAO)
STEP 3
Formulate a capacity development
program
Enabling environment
•
•
•
•
Policy and legal framework
Policy commintment and accountability framework
Economic framework and national public budget allocations
Governance and power
Organizations
•
•
•
•
•
•
Figure 96. Three levels
of capacity development
based on UNFAO)
222
Motivation
Strategic, organizational and managements functions (strategic leadership, inter/intra
institutional linkages, programme management).
Operational capacity (processes, systems, procedures)
Human and financial resource
Knowledge and information
Infrastructure
Individuals
•
•
Job requirements and skill levels (technical and managerial skills)
Training and competency development
Capacity can be identified and
developed on three levels:
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the
○○
level of individuals (human resource/
human skills/ knowledge/ experience/ values)
United Nations describes the three levels as
the figure on the previous page shows, and
these three levels are interrelated and mutually
○○
level
of
groups
and
organisations
(management systems/ management culture/
influence each other as shown in the graph
below.
work processes
Efforts to strengthen abilities of individuals,
○○
level of society (legal administrative
groups, and organisations can comprise a
framework/ policies/ cooperation between state,
combination of (i) human skills development;
private sector and civil society)
(ii) changes in organisations and networks; and
(iii) changes in governance/institutional context
(ADB 2004)
Enabling environment
•
Policies, legislation, power relations, social norms
Organizational level
•
Internal policies, arrangements, procedures, frameworks
Individual level
•
Experience, knowledge, technical skills
Figure 97. Interrelation of levels in capacity
development
based on UNFAO)
223
Capacity needs assessment
Pilot training program
In order to identify the appropriate interventions
Output of the training needs assessment for
for capacity development in Al Buraimi a
sustainable urban management in Buraimi
systematic
capacity
could lead to a Pilot Training Program to test
needs assesssment is recommended. “Needs
and specify training needs and to answer the
assessment” is a process targeting all parties
crucial questions of:
and
comprehensive
involved in strategic urban development, urban
planning and management.
○○
Who is in need for training?
Without anticipating future results we assume
○○
What kind of training is needed?
○○
Who will do the training?
certain gaps between the academic background
of the professionals (no bachelor nor master
programs run in the Sultanate in the field of
sustainable urban management) and their
Without anticipating a capacity development
qualification needed; there might be a lack
program that has
of methodological competency in meeting
Buraimi/Omani context after a comprehensive
the challenges of rapid growth management,
capacity
infrastructure
management,
recommend in general a capacity development
participatory decision making, planning and
program that would start on the individual level
implementation; there might be out-dated
with a training program comprising:
and
land
needs
to be tailormade for the
assessment
process
we
regulations that don’t cope anymore with
dynamic needs and changes; there might
○○
be highly centralized and top-down decision
international experience with locally acquainted
making procedures that don’t respond to local
know-how
needs and potentials.
international and 1 local expert in order to train
advanced training courses combining
(„tandem
training“
through
1
future trainers as well).
○○
advanced
training
should
combine
external training with on-the-job training carried
out during working hours and closely related to
real life tasks and challenges of the trainees;
224
Further Studies recommended
○○
advanced training should be held for a
The presented studies –which had to be carried
group of interdisciplinary professionals to foster
out within a limited time span and limited man-
cross-sector thinking and problem-solving,
power- revealed further in depth studies to be
and to support inter-departmental and inter-
conducted in order to promote and sustain
institutional cooperation;
the recommended approaches towards a
more resilient development for AL Buraimi
○○
advanced training modules should be
Governorate and Municipality.
developed within a participatory process among
trainers and trainees to better achieve ownership
Of foremost need seems to be a critical review
among the trainees.
of urban planning standards and building
regulations, as they are not in all points of
○○
advanced training should be based on state
view responding to the urban and regional
of the art teaching and learning methods and
development goals aiming at a particular and
techniques including case studies, workshops,
locally relevant sustainable growth management,
self-directed studies, internships, site visits, role
sustainable transport, and sustainable housing
plays, teamwork, et al.
design and construction standards.
These few remarks may emphasize the
A general review of current environmental laws
importance of life-long learning of professionals,
and regulations should be included in order
within flexible and adaptive structures and
to verify if the law is taking into account the
institutions backed by state policies and legal
long-term conservation of natural resources
frames that are a precondition of long term
for the Governorate. This is linked to the
sustainable development based on resource
water management of the Governorate within
efficient and responsible management for a
the Ministry of Municipalities and the Public
high quality of life for all citizens.
authority for Water and Electricity. If a sound
review of the general environmental law is
made, weaknesses in it can be identified, and
opportunities for better practices regarding
water can be made possible.
225
Exploring the possible use of
renewable energies:
interior living comfort, commonly known as
The Sultanate of Oman has the potential to
bioclimatic architecture. It intends to balance
exploit renewable energy resources (wind,
the design and natural environmental elements
sun, tidal power) due to its advantageous
such as rain and vegetation, in addition to the
geographical location and climate. Other
sun and wind for the optimization of resources.
countries in the region -foreseeing the long-term
oil depletion- have already seriously considered
Heritage preservation manual
alternative energies. It is important that Oman
In order to make the most accurate decision on
starts taking into account the consumption of
the classification of the remaining buildings in
non-renewable energies to face the challenges
Hamasa (for the development of responsible
of oil dependency. Though this might be an
tourism), the Ministry of Heritage and Culture
issue on the national level, there are some local
has to develop regulations and codes related to
and regional aspects that should be studied
the preservation and conservation of heritage
more in depth. Related to the hereby presented
buildings in a decaying state. It is important to
urban development strategy we mainly refer to
have a detailed inventory of the current state of
research on the implementation of alternative
the remaining buildings in order to maintain
energy sources in the transportation sector.
records for future studies.
The
availability
of
updated
technologies
and renewable sources of energy provide
Physical planning law review
opportunities
The existing physical planning regulatory
to
reduce
emissions
and
contamination of the environment.
instrument has a traffic fluidity planning criteria
in the projection of several year times which
226
The Municipality of Al Buraimi could also aim
explains today’s scenery of over dimensioned
at adopting clean energies at the household
roadways. Regarding residential areas, a study
level. This shall not be understood as simply
to develop a physical planning instrument to
implementing innovative technologies and
address dwelling areas is necessary. It would
supplying the energy demand harnessing solar
help setting the restrictions and standards for
or wind resources. Urban design, building design
different areas in the city. For example: the speed
principles and construction techniques, as well
limit around neighbourhoods, sidewalk width,
as use of appropriate materials and insulation
etc. It would constitute spatial considerations
favour decreasing the energy demand to achieve
lacking in the current codes.
Highway Design Manual Review
would bring adjustments in several aspects
The road regulations and codes should
as the size of the plot. This is a delicate issue
encompass the standards for transportation
requiring strict modifications in order to
facilities at the local level. At the same time,
manage the current problem of land exhaustion.
the regulation should consider the facilities for
Ways of compensation would be derived from
non-motorized transportation (walking and
decreasing the plot size, which must be at
biking). It is important to regulate the spaces
least being considered for housing purposes.
for parking lots and encourage the reduction of
Eligibility of the applicant related to the time
car use through the legal framework. However
plan/schedule for the development intention.
the transportation manual should establish the
Times should be set apart for housing than
criteria for the implementation of the codes,
for other uses. Specification is also required
by including strict procedures of monitoring
for each land use. The intention of equality
and inspection. Thus, the regulation would be
among citizens is a well-established principle.
enforced in the different transportation projects.
However, new well-researched strategies are
It should also specify clearly the standards for
indispensable to determine a link between
the National, Regional and Local network and
receiving land and developing it, in a systematic
the responsibility of the actors involved.
order without encouraging piecemeal horizontal
growth. That is, the location of plots should only
Land allocation review and monitoring
via data
be within infrastructure-serviced areas, as part
Even though this study is focused on the issues
significance is the calculation of the cost of land
and proposals at the Governorate level, it is
in relation to its maintenance, whether rural or
important to state that a review on the land
urban. As highlighted, there are many topics
allocation policy needs to be done. This has
which derive from the study of the land law with
to take into account the consequences of the
specific applications, that nationals would be
physical planning law, and the land tenure
the best entitled to analyse and organize such
allocation system. A review should take into
information.
of the lottery. Another crucial aspect of high
account the main components of this law and
how can it be transformed in order for a brand
Examination is needed to adopt existing
new paradigm on development and land tenure
indicators in agreement for the evaluation of
to occur progressively and in consideration of
achievements the plan or project has had. The
the population. Revising the current land law
most common for housing is to establish a
227
relationship between housing and the market
○○
in terms of affordability. Quantity and quality
development, regarding: housing, agriculture,
is more subjective and its parameters need
commerce and industry; in order to know where
specific contextualization.
are this activities prosperous. Likewise, similar
Data on where are the fastest poles of
studies are needed for the areas where the same
Finally, in order for this to occur, this study
activities are decreasing or even disappearing.
identifies the need for the following statistics
and information to be produced with the use of
○○
geographical information systems, surveys, etc.
working, studying, spending time, etc.; in order
Data on where people are living and
to portray how this land allocation is fostering or
○○
Geographical data of all land plots
allocated and whether they are developed or not,
in order to obtain a ratio between how much land
is allocated and how much land is developed
within a determinated time span. In addition
information that shows where land is developed
the fastest, with what density (people/km2), and
at what rate (time) are needed.
228
preventing livelihoods to occur.
Conclusions
Mechanisms to structure new criteria for the
regional development of Al Buraimi Governorate
Integrated
strategies
for
recognize three scenarios to empower, first by
sustainable urban development. For the five
small scale actions. The objectives set are for
intersecting topics presented in this report:
the city to lead the way towards a more resilient
regional development, transportation, service
society in economic, social and environmental
infrastructure,
the
terms, for both the major city and its
consideration on the government with its
surrounding town and villages. In the long-
top-down decision-making structure makes
term, improved management of public services
evidence of its key contribution for hindrances
guarantee enhanced delivery of city systems as
in urban management redirection.
living conditions and economic opportunities.
housing
are
and
essential
heritage;
Figure 98. Agriculture
in As Sunainah
Source: (Salcedo 2015)
229
Annex
Annex
Methodological remarks
This report developed from five master
Both empirical and theoretical methodological
degree theseses corresponding to the Urban
approaches were utilized for the analysis in all
Management program from the Technische
topics. Qualitative data from semi structured
Universität Berlin. The research engaged in
interviews with a wide range of Governorate
writing each thesis stemmed from the joint
Ministries and their sub-departments, official
interest between the Governorate of Al Buraimi
institutions, academics, the private sector, local
and the university. The goal, to produce an
population, all contributed to the development
assessment of the urban condition of the city
of the five subjects. Besides this, quantitative
from five specific topics: Regional development,
data obtained from governmental statistics,
Transportation, Infrastructure, Housing and
site visits,
Heritage.
mapping support the qualitative evaluation on
site.
232
photographic documentation and
List of Institutions visited
Al Buraimi Governorate Office
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Al Buraimi Branch
Ministry of Environment & Climate Affairs Al Buraimi Branch
Ministry of Housing Al Buraimi Branch
Ministry of Regional Municipalities & Water Resources Al Buraimi Branch
Ministry of Tourism Al Buraimi Branch
Ministry of Transport and Communications Al Buraimi Branch
Ministry of Transport and Communications in Muscat
Municipal Council of Al Buraimi
Oman Chamber of Commerce & Industry Al Buraimi Branch
Transit Department of the Royal Oman Police of Al Buraimi
233
Annex
Glossary
Connectivity
Accessibility
The state or quality represented by the capacity
It is the ability to reach desired goods, services,
of establishing a direct link to form a closed
activities and destinations (collectively called
network. It is measurable by the density of
opportunities). Access is the ultimate goal of
bonded relationships in a system or between
most transportation, except a small portion of
objects.
travel in which movement is an end in itself
(jogging, pleasure drives), with no destination.
Density
It is the number of people or jobs per unit of
Bioclimatic architecture
land area. It increases the proximity of common
The design of built structures considering the
destinations, and the number of people who
local climatic context to harness thermal and
use each mode, increasing demand for walking,
visual comfort using the natural resources
cycling and transit.
at hand the most as possible while reducing
artificial systems.
Ecotourism
Is environmentally responsible travel and
Compact city
visitation to relatively undisturbed natural areas,
An urban design and planning concept that
in order to enjoy, study and appreciate nature,
considers compactness more sustainable than
that promotes conservation, has low visitor
sprawl by means of high density. It aims for
impact, and provides for beneficially active socio-
closer relations and improved accessibility via
economic involvement of local populations.
mixed land use and preference on short walking
distances. It concentrates on the human scale
Heritage
dictated by community oriented guidance.
Is that which is inherited from past generations,
maintained in the present and bestowed for the
Compactness
benefit of future generation.
A characteristic recognized by the tightness
234
of space between objects or the relations
Inclusive Transportation Planning
in systems. The tight space translates to a
It considers all significant objectives, impacts
proximate fixed distance for all the containing
and options. Moreover, it is integrated (decision-
aspects.
making is coordinated among different sectors,
jurisdictions and agencies), and inclusive (all
the detailed surveys the Ministry of Housing
affected people are able to participate).
performs before land is subdivided into
plots. The term is used specifically in Oman.
Intangible cultural heritage
It is believed to stem from the French term
Consist of the oral traditions and expressions
“croquis”: a presentation of brief description in
[…] and traditional craftsmanship, as well as the
broad strokes of a current situation.
sites and spaces in which culturally significant
activities and events occur for a specific culture.
Land Use Mix
(UNESCO).
It refers to locating different types of activities
close together, such as shops and schools within
Integrated housing
or adjacent to residential neighbourhoods. It
Is as a process so as a product where the
reduces the amount of travel required to reach
house is a cultural and urban product linked
common activities.
to historical, physical (morphological) and
social processes. This builds a morphological
Mobility
structure with character and specific features.
It refers basically to the movement of people or
In this regard, not only a physical form is
goods.
defined but a function and interaction within
the city and housing systems. The resulting
Mode of transport
form and function define the specification of
It is also known as means of transport, types
the urban layout and how it is read and used.
of transport, transport modality or form of
All the imbalances and potentials of residence
transport. It is a term used to distinguish
are related to this process and the physical form
substantially different ways to perform transport.
which it generates.
Non-motorized transportation
Krookie
It is also known as Active Transportation and
It refers to the A4 document which details
Human Powered Transportation and includes
different information from the plot as its
Walking and Bicycling. These modes provide
serial number, dimensions, area, site location,
both recreation (they are an end in themselves)
coordinates and the building restrictions it
and transportation (they provide access to
possess. The krooki’s metadata results from
goods and activities).
235
Annex
Paradigm
Responsible tourism
A theory or a group of ideas about how
Is tourism which minimizes negative social,
something should be done, made, or thought
economic and environmental impacts, generates
about.
greater economic benefits for local people and
enhances the well-being of host communities,
Proximity
improves working conditions and access to the
The concept of urban proximity requires that
industry, involves local people in decisions that
cities should be built with appropriate population
affect their lives and life chances, makes positive
and landmark density so that destinations
contributions to the conservation of natural and
are reached with reduced time. This reduced
cultural heritage embracing diversity, provides
commuting allows for reduced fuel expenditure
more enjoyable experiences for tourists through
and also opens the door to alternative means of
more meaningful connections with local people,
transportation such as bike riding and walking
and a greater understanding of local cultural,
social and environmental issues, provides
Replicability
access for physically challenged people, is
A literal and conceptual approach on the ability
culturally sensitive, encourages respect between
of replicating or reproducing in other location
tourists and hosts, and builds local pride and
and also in a different scale. The approach can
confidence.
be literal or conceptual.
Resilience
An ability to recover from or adjust easily to
misfortune or change. In the planning field
the term resilience studies human actions as
cycles that are adaptive, just as in ecology. The
interest in resilience, in acquiring this capacity
to regain the original state or form, to withstand
change or to recover quickly from a problematic;
lies in the fact that resilient planning strategies
acknowledge that this natural adaptive cycles
can be modified with planning intervention.
236
Most relevant references
Christensen, T. H. (ed.) (2011b) Solid Waste
PhD Dissertation in Technische Universität
Berlin.
Cities Alliance (2011) Guidebook for City
Anis, U. R. & Ali Fadaak, T. (1991) New towns
Development Strategies in Southern
in Saudi Arabia. Habitat International. 15 (1/2),
Mediterranean Countries | Cities Alliance.
167–179.
Davoudi, S. et al. (2012) Resilience: A Bridging
Anon (n.d.) Tangible Cultural Heritage | United
Concept or a Dead End? ‘Reframing’ Resilience:
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Challenges for Planning Theory and Practice
Organization [online]. Available from: http://
Interacting Traps: Resilience Assessment of
www.unesco.org/new/en/cairo/culture/
a Pasture Management System in Northern
tangible-cultural-heritage.
Afghanistan Urban Resilience: What Does it
Mean in Planning Practice? Resilience as a
Banister, D., Pucher, J., Lee-Gosselin, M. &
Useful Concept for Climate Change Adaptation?
Lee, M. (2007). Making Sustainable Transport
The Politics of Resilience for Planning: A
Politically and Publicly Acceptable: Lessons
Cautionary Note: Edited by Simin Davoudi and
from the EU, USA and Canada.
Libby Porter. Planning Theory & Practice. 13 (2),
299–333.
Banister, D. (2008). The Sustainable Mobility
Paradigm. Transport Policy, 15(2), 73–80.
DeLoG et al. (2014) How to localize targets
and indicators of the Post- 2015 agenda. The
Buerkert, A. et al. (2010) Oases of Oman:
Development Partners Working Group on
livelihood systems at the crossroads. Muscat:
Decentralisation & Local Governance.
Al Roya Press & Pub. House.
Firley, E. & Stahl, C. (2011) The Urban Housing
Bürkert, A. et al. (2007) Times of change in
Handbook. 1st edition. Hoboken, N.J: Wiley.
Omani oases. German Research. 29 (3), 4–9.
237
Annex
Fox, J. W. et al. (2006) Globalization and
Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar Publishing,
the Gulf. Auflage: New. London; New York:
17–50.
Routledge Chapman & Hall.
Kenworthy, J. R. & Laube, F. B. (1996).
Gangler, A. (2008) Oases settlements in Oman.
Automobile Dependence in Cities: An
Stuttgart: Edition Esefeld & Traub.
International Comparison of Urban Transport
and Land Use Patterns with Implications
Golubchikov, O. et al. (2012) Sustainable
for Sustainability. Environmental Impact
housing for sustainable cities: a policy
Assessment Review, 16(4), 279–308.
framework for developing countries. Nairobi,
Kenya: UN-HABITAT.
Lamprakos, M. (2005) Rethinking Cultural
Heritage: Lessons from Sana’a, Yemen.
Gössling, S. (1999) Ecotourism: a means
Traditional Dwellings and Settlements Review.
to safeguard biodiversity and ecosystem
17–37.
functions? Ecological Economics. 29 (2),
303–320.
Larice, M. & Macdonald, E. (2012) The Urban
Design Reader. Urban Reader. 2nd edition.
Hakim, B. S. (2007) Generative processes for
Routledge.
revitalizing historic towns or heritage districts.
Urban Design International. [Online] 12 (2-3),
Leriche, F. & Daviet, S. (2010) Cultural
87–99.
Economy: An Opportunity to Boost
Employment and Regional Development?
Haughton, G. & Hunter, C. (1994) Sustainable
Regional Studies. 44 (7), 807–811.
Cities. Jessica Kingsley Publishers and Regional
Studies Association, London.
Litman, T. (2002). The Costs of Automobile
Dependency. Victoria Transportation Policy
Hutton, B. (2013). Planning Sustainable
Institute. Retrieved November 4, 2014,
Transport.pdf.
Litman, T. (2008). Well Measured. Developing
Institutions and Sustainable Transport:
indicators for comprehensive and sustainable
Regulatory Reform in Advanced Economies,
transport planning. Victoria Transport Policy
Institute.
238
Liu, Z. (2003) Sustainable tourism
beyond environmental protection’, in Natural
development: A critique. Journal of sustainable
Resources Forum. 2003 Wiley Online Library.
tourism. 11 (6), 459–475.
pp. 212–222.
Markandya, A. et al. (2003) ‘Tourism and
Newman, P. & Kenworthy, J. (1999).
sustainable development: Lessons from
Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming
recent World Bank experience’, in International
Automobile Dependence. Island Press.
Conference On Tourism and Sustainable
Retrieved November 4, 2014.Program
Economic Development. 2003 pp.1–22.
Development and Evaluation. (1998).
Questionnaires Design.pdf.
McEldowney, M., Ryley, T., Scott, M. & Smyth,
A. (2005). Integrating Land-Use Planning
Owtram, F. (2004) A Modern History of Oman:
and Transportation in Belfast: A New Policy
Formation of the State Since 1920. I.B.Tauris.
Agenda for Sustainable Development? Journal
of Environmental Planning and management,
Petersen, A. (2009) ‘Islamic urbanism in
2014,
eastern Arabia: the case of the al-ʾAyn-alBuraymī oasis’, in Proceedings of the Seminar
McGregor, D. F. (2005) The peri-urban
for Arabian Studies. Papers from the forty-
interface: approaches to sustainable natural
second meeting of the Seminar for Arabian
and human resource use. UN-Habitat.
Studies held in London. London: Archaeopress.
pp. 307–320.
Morton, M. Q. (2013) Buraimi: The Struggle for
Power, Influence and Oil in Arabia. London ;
Petersen, T. T. (2014) Review – Buraimi: The
New York: I. B. Tauris.
Struggle for Power, Influence and Oil in Arabia
[online].
Nations, U. (2012) The State of Arab Cities
2012: Challenges of Urban Transition. Nairobi,
Phillips, W. (1972) Unknown Oman. Intl Book
Kenya: United Nations Pubn.
Centre.
Neto, F. (2003) ‘A new approach to
Public Authority for Electricity and Water (2013)
sustainable tourism development: Moving
Annual Report 2013. Available: www.paew.gov.
om.
239
Annex
Responsible Tourism Partnership (2002) Cape
Singh, S. B. (1996) New Perspectives in Urban
Town Declaration.
Geography. M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd.
Salat, S. et al. (2011) Cities and Forms on
Speece, M. (1989) Aspects of Economic
Sustainable Urbanism. Hermann Editeurs des
Dualism in Oman 1830–1930. International
Sciences et des Arts.
Journal of Middle East Studies. 21 (04), 495–
515.
Saleh, M. A. E. (2004) Planning issues in
the Middle East, an introduction. Habitat
UN-Habitat (2010) Solid Waste Management
International. [Online] 28 (4), 501–503.
in the World’s Cities. Earthscan Publishing,
London, Washington DC.
Samar Damluji, S. (1998) The Architecture of
Oman. London: Garnet Publishing.
(2005) Definition | Sustainable Development of
Saoud, R. (2002) Introduction to the Islamic
City.
Schiller, P. L., Brun, E. C. and Kenworthy, J.
R. (2010), An Introduction to Sustainable
Transport: Policy, Planning and
Implementation, Earthscan, London.pdf.
UN Habitat. (2013). Planning and Design for
Sustainable Urban Mobility. Global Report on
Human Settlements. Pdf
Serageldin, Ismail et al. (n.d.) In Historic Cities
and Sacred Sites: Cultural Roots for Urban
Futures
240
Tourism
241
Annex
About the authors
Dr. Sonja Nebel
Jesús Salcedo Villanueva
graduated in architecture and urban planning
from RWTH Aachen-Germany. She earned her
PhD at the same university. Sonja has been
teaching for more than 25 years at different
universities in Europe and in Arab Countries in
the field of urban design, urban planning and
urban conservation.
graduated in architecture at the National
Autonomous University Mexico, at the Max
Cetto School and has experience on social
development projects in Mexico’s rural areas
with NGO “Natura y Ecosistemas Mexicanos
A.C.”. He is also a DAAD scholar who recently
obtained a Master of Science degree in Urban
Management at the Technische Universität Berlin
with a thesis on Omani Regional Development.
Further work includes an internship with the
Institute for Transport Research at the German
Air-Space Centre and research on the fields of
resilience and regional development.
She is currently lecturer at the Urban
Management Masters Programme of Berlin
University of Technology (TU Berlin) where
she has been teaching since 2000. From 20082014 she was Professor for Urban Planning
and Urban Design at GUtech Oman - German
University of Technology and principal
investigator of an interdisciplinary research
project on “Sustainable Urbanization Patterns
in Oman“. Sonja has focused for many years
on cross cultural and interdisciplinary scientific
research i.e. in Zambia, Bolivia, Thailand, China,
Syria, Oman and other Arab countries.
242
Furthermore, she works as a consultant within
the international development cooperation
in the field of urban development and urban
management, sustainable urban conservation,
strategic and participatory planning.
Pedro Becerra Rodriguez
Panagiotis Achamnos
is an architect from Colombia. He has worked in
projects related to landscape architecture, design
and construction in Bogota. He has recently
Management at the Technische Universität
Berlin. During the last stage of his studies he
was selected to conduct an investigation on
sustainable transportation in Al Buraimi for the
Government of Oman.
is a civil engineer from Greece. He studied at
the National and Technical University of Athens.
He started his career in civil engineering as an
assistant civil engineer in construction sites in
Athens. He has recently obtained a Master of
Science degree in Urban Management at the
Technische Universität Berlin. He was selected
to conduct his master thesis on infrastructure
provision in Al Buraimi for the government of
Oman.
243
Annex
244
Florencia Carvajal S.
Ana Alcántara
is an architect from Ecuador. She studied
at the Pontificia Universidad Católica in
Quito. She has built her professional career
in urban design with architecture firms in
China in addition to having independent work
experience in design-related projects. She
has recently graduated as an urban manager.
During her preparation time she participated
in the Knowledge and Innovation Community
of the European Institute of Innovation and
Technology and was selected to conduct her
master thesis on housing in Al Buraimi for the
government of Oman.
is an architect from the Instituto Tecnológico
y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey,
Mexico. She has been working in a CanadianMexican Architecture Firm and gained
experience in the development of urban and
architectural plans. During her studies she
was CONACYT scholarship holder given by
the Mexican government. She has recently
Management at the Technische Universität
Berlin. She was selected to conduct her master
thesis on heritage sites and responsible
tourism in Al Buraimi for the government of
Oman.
Panagiotis Achamnos, Pedro Becerra, Mohammed Al-Bhadi, Dr. Hammad Al Gharibi, Florencia
Carvajal, Ana Alcántara, Jesús Salcedo, Dr. Johannes Kuechler, HE Al Sayed Ibrahim Bin Said Al
Busaidi, Dr. Sonja Nebel, Dr. Bettina Hamann.
245