Report - Naturskyddsföreningen

Report
Everything you (don’t)
want to know about plastics
Everything you (don’t) want to know about plastics
2014
Authors: Markus Klar, David Gunnarsson, Andreas Prevodnik, Cecilia Hedfors, Ulrika Dahl
Layout: Cecilia Hedfors och Ulrika Dahl
ISBN:
Produced w ith economic support from Sida. Sida has not participated in the production of the publication and has not evaluated
the facts or opinions that are expressed.
1
Foreword
Few environmental problems are as prominent as that of plastic litter. Almost everywhere you travel
you can see traces of human presence in the form of plastic debris. This type of pollution also
involves a more subtle but clear problematic aspect – the chemicals hiding in the so often handy
material. In a global collaboration funded by the Swedish International Development Cooperation
Agency (Sida) and the following environmental organisations: Swedish Society for Nature
Conservation (SSNC), EcoWaste Coalition from the Philippines, ESDO from Bangladesh, groundWork
from South Africa and ToxicsLink from India, described the plastic's presence and influence at all
levels of society, based on each individual organization perspective. In the European Union, the
plastic-related problems in general are mostly related to chemical safety and the migration of
chemicals from all of the plastic products in our immediate environment, whereas in the Global
South, problems with blocked waterways due to the unabated and unconscious use of plastic bags
and inadequate waste disposal are higher on the agenda. All five organisations have been designated
one chapter each, in which they give their independent point of view about the plastics issue in their
society. The content and opinions expressed in theses chapters (annex 1-5), are on the responsibility
of each organization, and therefore not necessarily the opinion of any of the other organisations.
In this report, you can read about plastic’s many benefits – without plastic, modern society would
indeed look very different. However, plastics also have numerous disadvantages, such as toxic
substances that may leak out and adversely affect humans and other organisms. Plastic degradation
in nature is very slow – a piece of plastic may last for several hundred years. This means that almost
all plastic ever produced, still exists in some form in our environment. Around the globe, we find
plastic in the form of road-side litter, around dumps, in the ocean, and in the starving bellies of birds.
Moreover, when a piece of plastic is torn, small plastic fragments are released, known as
microplastics. Environmental pollutants may stick to the microplastics and can thereby be led into
aquatic organisms mistaken the plastic particle for food.
In spite of some legal improvements regarding management of solid waste, civil society organisations
in India, South Africa, the Philippines and Bangladesh witness that the plastic litter related problems
persist. One pressing contributory to the problematic wastes are plastic bags, commonly and
carelessly disposed by its consumers adding to the increasing volume of waste dumped or burned in
dumpsites and landfills, killing of marine animals, clogging of drainage systems worsening already
catastrophic flooding situations. A major shortcoming is that existing plastic bag regulations usually is
restricted to certain regions and that they are inadequately implemented. In order to gain the full
potential positive effects of a ban, EcoWaste Coalition of the Philippines recommends a national
plastic bag ban that will phase-out all kinds of plastic bags and promotes the use of locally produced
reusable bags using natural fibers. This would help in reducing the country’s over-all waste
generation and at the same time boost the local economy. Bangladesh has a similar situation and the
environmental organization Environmental and Social Development Organization (ESDO) talks about
the three R n, "reduce", "reuse" and "recycle", i.e. advocated reduced use of plastics in general and
instead use natural materials, while the plastic used should be reused many times and then recycled.
2
Plastic waste is also revealed as a dirty, even downright toxic, source of income prominent in the
poorest countries in the Global South. Human health issues, especially children’s health, in
developing countries are complex due to absence of knowledge about the effects of chemicals used
in plastics. Toxicity and environmental health issues are further compromised by use of recycled
plastics for households and children’s product with no or low chemicals safety standards and norms
in products. In India for example, approximately 60% of its plastic waste is recycled in the informal
sector. However, these people work in very difficult conditions and have no information of the
potential hazards of plastics. The Indian NGO ToxicsLink claim there is a critical and urgent need for
addressing issues of chemicals in products and demands a higher level of product safety, especially
for children. The control over what the plastic industry produces is also a problem. Both in India and
South Africa there are many plastic manufacturers, both large and small. At the same time, there is
no independent organisation or authority checking that what produced to the market is safe for the
consumer. Therefore, groundWork in South Africa advocates a continued increasing legal protection
for both workers at plastic factories as well as for consumers.
The great variety in the different types of plastics that exist renders it diff icult to make an
unambiguously statement which types of plastic should be avoided at home – additives alone, which
give different types of plastic their different properties, and which are also prone to leakage, number
in the hundreds. It is our opinion that plastic materials, so complex and very common in our homes,
should be assessed based on the hazards and inherent properties of the plastic constituents. Parents
today are unable to ensure that their children are not exposed to plastic chemicals suspected of
being related to for example allergies, asthma, diabetes, obesity or disordered reproductive capacity
- that is not acceptable. These are expensive prices to pay, not only at the level of the individual, but
also for society.
Sweden and the EU are often considered to be at the forefront of environmental protection
initiatives, but even so, children living there are not sufficiently protected. Environmental policy must
always take as its starting point the protection of children and the unborn – indeed the most
vulnerable individuals in society, who are unable to choose to protect themselves against
environmental pollutants.
SSNC therefore believes there is a need for a strengthened legislation, which restricts the use of the
most problematic plastics and plastic chemicals. In this report, we present suggestions for which
plastics and plastic chemicals that need to be phased out, primarily from consumer products. We are
also putting up proposals on how plastic debris may be reduced. Just because plastics are important
materials, it is particularly important to work actively to control and reduce their negative impact on
health and environment.
Johanna Sandahl
President, Swedish Society for Nature Conservation
3
Delilah Lithner
PhD in Environmental science
Environmental consultant at COWI, Sweden.
PhD-thesis: Environmental and health hazards of chemicals in plastic polymers and products, 2011.
University of Gothenburg http://hdl.handle.net/2077/24978
In many ways plastics are fantastic materials which can be used in all kinds of applications, and in
several cases they promote human health and the environment. However, the present use of plastics
is not sustainable. There are many factors contributing to this, but there are also many possible
measures that can be taken to obtain a more sustainable use of plastics.
Several plastics are made from hazardous substances, some of which may be released during the life
cycle of a plastic product. This diffuse release of hazardous plastic additives, monomers and/or
degradation products can cause harm to human health and the environment and needs to be
reduced. As a first step, at least the most hazardous substances should be replaced or phased out on
a global basis if there is a risk for release and exposure.
There are many different types of plastic polymers and more than a thousand plastic additives which
result in an enormous chemical diversity. In order to have enough knowledge for safe use of chemical
substances, and to facilitate regulation, enforcement and recycling, the chemical diversity needs to
decrease.
Plastic pollution occurs in different forms and sizes, ranging from large objects to microscopic
particles (called microplastics), and is found almost everywhere in the environment, even in the most
remote places where it has been transported by wind, water or organisms. Significant amounts of
microplastics can for instance be excreted through bird droppings from seabirds who mistake plastic
for food. According to Dutch scientists the seabird Cape petrel can break down 75 % of the ingested
plastic within a month into smaller, excretable pieces. Extensive littering, in combination with a
continuous increase in plastic consumption and a very low biodegradability of plastic materials, is
causing large-scale accumulation of plastics in our environment. Plastic pollution is well-known to
affect organisms by entanglement or blocking of organs which leads to injuries or death, but the
extent to which they are also affected by toxic substances from the plastic material is not known
today. Immediate global action and measures to reduce littering are essential to protect our oceans,
coastlines, fresh water ecosystems and terrestrial environment from plastic pollution.
Many plastics are extremely persistent in the environment and have a very low biodegradability. One
example is polyethylene which is commonly used as a packaging material. For short term and singleuse applications there is a need to strengthen development of biodegradable plastic materials that
are completely degradable in the environment. This, however, requires measures that prevent
biodegradable plastics from entering the recycling routes intended for recyclable plastics.
4
Mechanical recycling is possible for many plastics, but globally only occurs to a very limited extent.
The profitability is in many cases low since extensive sorting is required to obtain an acceptable
quality of the recycled material. Recycling can be problematic because
1) there are so many different types of plastics and a large chemical diversity,
2) many products consist of several different materials, and
3) some plastic products may contain hazardous substances.
Recycling can be facilitated by designing products that can be easily recycled, improving systems for
collecting and separating recyclable fractions, and banning certain hazardo us substances. In order to
save resources, limit global warming, and decrease areas needed for landfill recycling of plastic waste
needs to increase.
Most plastics are almost exclusively made from fossil raw materials derived from crude oil. More bio based plastics made from renewable feedstock needs to be developed in order to decrease the
contribution to global warming, as well as the environmental consequences caused by crude oil
extraction and refining.
The global annual production of plastics is continuously increasing. In the last 15 years it has doubled,
reaching 288 million tonnes in 2012. To decrease the extent of negative effects caused by plastic
consumption, the consumption needs to decrease, especially in the industrialised countries. This ca n
be achieved for instance by eliminating excessive packaging materials, reducing the production and
use of low quality and single-use articles, and changing consumption habits.
5
Magnus Breitholtz
Professor, Ecotoxicology
Institution for applied environmental science
Stockholm University
Sweden
”Plastic boasts countless valuable areas of application, not least of which is within medical services. A
large part of the world’s plastic production (several hundred million tonnes annually) is, however,
used for mass consumption single or short term use products. A considerable percentage of the
world’s oil production is used to produce plastic, which means that the use of plastic in society entails
considerable climatically stress. Despite developed strategies to recycle or incinerate plastic, as to
recuperate some of the energy used in its production, the amount of plastic pollutants in the
environment is considerable. Given that it takes a very long time for plastic to break down in nature,
we can only speculate as to the long-term effects of plastic pollution.
Beyond its impact on the climate and the great prominence of plastic litter, plastic can also contain
hazardous chemicals. These chemicals can leak and thereby affect both humans and the environment.
In certain cases, the use of hazardous chemicals is justifiable, but in many cases, this is not at all so.
Unfortunately, controls on the chemicals found in imported plastics are nearly non -existent. The
tightened-up monitoring under European law represented by REACH and other regulations is of very
limited significance given that a large percentage of the plastic products found in Europe are
imported. Chemicals whose use is limited or even banned, therefore find their way into Europe
anyway. This is neither reasonable nor sustainable. A more comprehensive approach to chemicals
inspection and monitoring must be employed in order to effectively deal with the problem, even if it
will be necessary to accept that considerable amendments of our current rules and regulations could
take some time.
The European Community Regulation on Chemicals and their Safe Use has not been fully
implemented, and we must remain optimistic that necessary amendments will be made. Indeed,
Europe needs, and can get, a chemical regulation that effectively deals with the leakage of chemicals
from imported products. Hopefully, such legislation will also entail improved working conditions in
those countries where these items are produced. I would like to conclude with the same point with
which I started: hazardous chemicals aside, the use of plastic involves a climate impact and a
considerable litter problem. A decrease in the total production of plastic as well as a decrease in the
use of plastic will prove a step in the right direction.”
6
Table of Contents
Foreword...................................................................................................................................... 2
Introduction ................................................................................................................................10
Aim .........................................................................................................................................10
Plastic in Society.......................................................................................................................11
History .................................................................................................................................11
Manufacturing and use .........................................................................................................11
The regulatory framework .....................................................................................................12
The chemistry behind plastic and rubber ...................................................................................15
Types of plastic.....................................................................................................................17
Human health ..........................................................................................................................18
Exposure to chemicals in plastic products...............................................................................23
The effects of substances found in plastic products.................................................................26
The environment......................................................................................................................29
Plastic as waste.....................................................................................................................34
Discussion....................................................................................................................................38
Recommendations ...................................................................................................................41
Polymers and monomers.......................................................................................................41
Additive................................................................................................................................41
Plastic litter ..........................................................................................................................42
Annex 1 .......................................................................................................................................44
The Swedish Society for Nature Conservation ................................................................................45
Plastics in the every-day life of children .........................................................................................45
Introduction.............................................................................................................................46
So, why aren’t we protected?....................................................................................................47
Hazardous substances in plastics ...............................................................................................48
Plastic products in general.....................................................................................................48
Food packaging.....................................................................................................................52
Plastic in the daily life of a child – what to do? ...........................................................................54
Discussion................................................................................................................................66
Annex 2 .......................................................................................................................................68
EcoWaste Coalition ......................................................................................................................68
The Philippine plastic waste problem: Environmental, social, and economic dimensions ..................68
7
Introduction.............................................................................................................................69
The plastic industry in the Philippines ........................................................................................71
The role of other key players.....................................................................................................74
Current waste disposal methods and proposed technologies ......................................................76
Alternatives to plastic bag use...................................................................................................79
Industry promoted ‘alternatives’ ...........................................................................................81
Local ordinances and enforcement ............................................................................................82
National Legislation..................................................................................................................86
Conclusion and recommendations.............................................................................................87
Annex 3 .......................................................................................................................................89
Ground Work...............................................................................................................................90
Taking responsibility for plastics in South Africa .............................................................................90
A picture of plastics ..................................................................................................................91
Regulation ...............................................................................................................................92
The plastics industry in South Africa ..........................................................................................94
Upstream: SASOL and DOW Chemicals...................................................................................95
Sasol’s environmental impacts ..................................................................................................97
Midstream: 100s of plastics companies and imports ...............................................................98
Midstream: Plastics in the workplace .....................................................................................99
Using plastics........................................................................................................................99
Removing plastics from the waste stream: a levy on plastic bags ........................................... 101
Downstream: Recycling....................................................................................................... 101
Recycling and reclaimers......................................................................................................... 102
Cleaning up litter.................................................................................................................... 103
Incineration of plastics............................................................................................................ 105
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 107
Annex 4 ..................................................................................................................................... 108
Environmental and Social Development Organization .................................................................. 109
The impacts of plastic pollution in Bangladesh ............................................................................. 109
Introduction........................................................................................................................... 110
Use of Plastics in Bangladesh................................................................................................... 110
Domestic Plastic use in Bangladesh ...................................................................................... 110
Plastic Bags......................................................................................................................... 111
Waste and Disposal of Plastics in Bangladesh ........................................................................... 115
8
Current situation of Plastic waste in Bangladesh ................................................................... 116
Insufficient waste management systems .............................................................................. 117
Climate Change................................................................................................................... 119
Substitution ........................................................................................................................... 119
Biodegradable Plastic.......................................................................................................... 119
Conclusions and Recommendations ........................................................................................ 120
Strategies for reduction of Environmental Impact of Plastics ................................................. 120
Recommendations.............................................................................................................. 121
Annex 5 ..................................................................................................................................... 122
Toxics Link ................................................................................................................................. 123
Plastic menace - a short report on Plastic waste Management in India .......................................... 123
Plastic usage in India............................................................................................................... 124
Growth of plastic use in India .............................................................................................. 124
Plastic waste in India .............................................................................................................. 125
PET Bottles ......................................................................................................................... 126
Polythene Bags ................................................................................................................... 126
Recycling ............................................................................................................................... 127
Recycled Pellets.................................................................................................................. 128
Other Technologies............................................................................................................. 139
Waste to Energy ................................................................................................................. 140
Disposal ............................................................................................................................. 140
Regulatory Framework ........................................................................................................... 140
Laws on Plastic Waste ......................................................................................................... 140
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 142
Annexure ............................................................................................................................... 143
Annex 6 ..................................................................................................................................... 145
Characterization of hazardous chemicals contained in plastics ...................................................... 146
Types of plastic ...................................................................................................................... 148
Rubber .................................................................................................................................. 157
Problematic plastics and rubbers: ........................................................................................ 159
Other plastics and rubbers: ................................................................................................. 159
Additives................................................................................................................................ 160
References................................................................................................................................. 176
9
Introduction
Plastic materials make life easier for most people living on the planet. Plastics have fantastic
properties, for instance being durable, strong, flexible, lightweight, cheap and corrosion resistant,
while also effective at isolating heat and electricity. Therefore, plastics are suitable for creating
almost any item, something that can be noticed just by looking around in the everyday life. Spending
a day trying to avoid touching anything plastic is almost impossible in a modern society. Plastics are
present in a myriad of applications of which many are very close to the user, such as the mattress in
your bed, the fibers in many of your clothes, food packages, the PVC tubes in medical devices, or the
children’s toys of many which they suck upon, just to mention a few. Plastic products are so central
in modern society, that a life without plastics is unthinkable.
The plastic story, however, contains a paradox – many of the fantastic properties that make plastics
suitable to construct almost anything, also give rise to a number of negative effects. In order to
obtain the desired characteristics of the plastic item, i.e. soft, flexible, strong, fire resistant, water
repelling, etc., different types of chemicals are used, some of which have harmful effects on human
health1,2 and the environment3. Moreover, a cheap and ubiquitous material that to around 50 % of its
total production volume is used in disposable items 4, and at the same time has a very poor
degradability, is not a good combination. This is for example experienced by many seabirds, marine
mammals and turtles suffering from suffocation and starvation due to entanglement or ingestion of
disposed plastic items 5. Spreading of invasive, alien species is also associated with floating plastic
debris5. Furthermore, the effects of so-called microplasticsa have been discussed for more than 30
years, but have attracted an ever-increasing attention in the scientific community during the l ast
decade. Regarding the negative effects of plastics, microplastics can be positioned in between the
“litter” and “toxic effects” issues. Due to the small size of microplastics, they are found within the
circulatory system of, e.g. aquatic life, and thus, both plastic additives as well as POPs b adsorbed to
the surface of microplastic debris can interact inside the exposed organism 3.
Moreover, the vast majority of the plastics produced today are made from fossil oil or gas, and thus,
using plastics adds to global warming. At the same time, the use of plastics may not always lead to
higher CO2 emissions as, for example, plastic packages have less weight than most other materials,
leading to less fuel consumption during transport.
Aim
In this report, we want to present an accessible review of the use of plastics in modern society and its
consequences on human health and environment in Sweden, India, the Philippines, Bangladesh and
South Africa. We ask if today’s use of plastics is sustainable, and if not, what can be done to promote
sustainability. Another ambition is to highlight the huge complexity of the plastics issue in terms of
both the complexity of the material and the diversity of the problems associated with plastic
materials in use. This complexity makes it difficult to quantify the problem, for example, that of
potential toxic stress due to chemicals leaching out from plastic products.
a
Microplastics refers to small plastic particles ranging in size from a few millimetres down to micrometres,
originating from various indirect erosion processes during the use of plastic items, as well as direct releases,
e.g. as plastic abrasive beads used at ship cleaning or as constituents in cosmetic products. See also box 6 by
Daniel Hansson.
b
Persistent Organic Pollutant.
10
Plastic materials and products are thus a good example of how diffi cult it is to establish traditional
assessments of risks associated with chemicals used in every-day products, which in turn illustrates
how current risk-based policies fall short in terms of the objective of a non-toxic environment. This
finding leads to our recommendation to give due weight to the precautionary principle in chemical
risk assessment and management in order not to jeopardise human health and the environment.
As far as possible, we are discussing the general principles, as well as the poten tial solutions to the
most crucial problems associated with the use of plastics, namely its toxic effects, and the negative
impact of littering. The climatic aspects associated with plastic production, use and waste , falls
outside the scope of this report and will only be touched upon briefly.
Since the report represents a collaborative effort between the SSNC (Sweden), ESDO (Bangladesh),
groundWork (South Africa), EcoWaste (Philippines) and Toxics Link (India), the report focuses on a
description of the plastics issue, followed by an independent annex submitted by each organization,
in which the most pressing issues related to plastic are described from their respective point -of-view.
Plastic in Society
History
Natural polymersc, such as rubber, have been used by man for thousands of years, but it was not
until the 1800’s that vulcanized rubber was discovered (1839). Additionally, at the same century it
became possible to synthesize polystyrene (1839) and polyvinyl chloride (1872). During the first half
of the 1900’s, Bakelite was invented (1907), as well as polyethylene (1933) and polyethylene
terephthalate (1941). During the 1920’s and 30’s, the first commercial manufacture of plastics began,
however, large-scale production did not start before the end of World War II, at which time
polycarbonate (1953) and polypropylene (1954) were also discovered 6.
Manufacturing and use
When plastic use really became popular, during the 1950’s, the annual global production was still less
than 1 ton per year. Since then, use has steadily increased each year and in 2011, it reached 280
million tons per year7 . By way of an estimate, approximately 50% of all plastic is produced in Asia, of
which about half is produced in China. Production in Europe and North America are approximately on
par, making up around 40% of world production. The remaining production is split between South
America and Africa7. In 2005, the annual consumption in the industrial world was 100 kg per person
per year. This is five times more than in Asia d and ten times more than in Africa. The future annual
increase in the consumption of plastic in the wealthiest parts of the world is estimated to be around
4%6. Globally, it is therefore possible to expect a hefty increase in plastic consumption, keeping in
time with increasing standards of living as well as rising consumption. There are literally hundreds of
different types of plastics, depending on how different polymers and plastic additivese are combined.
c
A polymer is a macromolecule made from smaller units called monomers, which are polymerised (interlinked)
into a long chain.
d
Exclusive Japan
e
Additives are chemicals necessary for the polymerisation process, for example catalysts and solvents, or to
make the finished product its special properties, for example plasticisers, flame retardents or biocides.
11
Above all, due to their low cost, the following types of plastic are predominant: polypropylene (PP),
low- and high-density polyethylene (L/HD-PE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polyethylene
terephthalate (PET), polystyrene (PS) and polyurethane (PU), which together make up 80% of world
production8 (fig. 1).
In Europe in 2011, more than half of all plastics were used in packaging or building materials, 39%
and 21%, respectively 7. Moreover, a large portion of plastic packaging is disposable and is therefore
not used for very long. Another very large area of usage is within electronics and the motor vehicle
industries. Plastic polymers are also used to produce glues, paints and synthetic fibers for use in
textiles. The last-named are not included in the above statistics on plastic products.
Textile is a product that is in close contact with consumers, and is therefore an important product
category from a health perspective 9. During the past 30 years, the use of, foremost, synthetic fibre
has exploded and, in particular, synthetic fibers made using fossil oil as a raw material. In 2011, the
global production of synthetic fibre was almost five times that of in 1980, at around 50 million tons
per year, of which the largest percentage was polyester (91%) 10, 11. Synthetic fibers constitutes 60%
of the total production of fibers, with other synthetic fibers comprising viscose (made from
cellulose), in addition to natural fibers such as wool and cotton. Today there are also bio-based fibers
such as PLA (Poly Lactic Acid or polylactide). See also Box 1.
Plastic fulfils numerous important functions in society and we would be unable to live as we do today
without plastic materials. In medical equipment, from blood bags to prostheses, the specific
properties of a given plastic determine its application. Plastic can also be advantageous from a health
and environmental perspective. Decreased energy use is one such example, where plastic mate rials
in various applications have led to great technical improvements. Aside from the use of fossil oil as a
natural resource to produce plastic, plastic in many applications entails reduced energy usage and
lends to decreased carbon dioxide emissions 6. Plastic’s low weight (in relation to strength) also yields
decreased emissions in the transport sector given that plastic replaced glass as a common packaging
material, and also replaced metal, formerly used to build vehicles. Certain types of plastic have an
inability to conduct heat and/or electricity, thus making them essential isolation materials that help
reduce energy loss and enhance product safety. Plastic film increases the shelf life of food, in
applications where other packaging material is less appropriate, thus saving on resources and
decreasing climate impact. Since plastic does not rust and many of the most common plastics are
virtually immune to biodegradation, plastic contributes to the increased durability of certain
constructions and, as such, a decreased use of materials, such as trees or metal. Plastic is moreover
indispensable in the construction of certain solar cells and in other alternative energy source
applications6 .
The regulatory framework
Regarding plastics, human kind is dealing with a paradoxical situation whereby there are both risks
for health and environment as well as major social, economic and environmental benefits related to
the use of plastics, factors that are rarely affected with the same economical and regulatory
instruments12 . Legislation on plastic should balance between these perspectives and are as in many
other areas objected to assessments and trade-offs between different interests 13 .
12
Fact box 1
Synthetic fibers
Synthetic textile materials can consist of fibers that are very long, so-called filaments, or of staple
fibers, where the filament is cut down to short fibers. Today, new types of fibers are still being
developed, known as microfibers and nanofibers, allowing for new areas of use. Most people think of
clothes and home textiles when they hear ’textile material’, but there are many other areas of
application, a fact that has contributed to the increased production of synthetic fibers. Flexible and
strong yet lightweight structures can be created with textile materials, sometimes visible to the
naked eye, but sometimes not. A thin fabric made of synthetic can function as a carrier of additional
layers of plastic such as, for example, in tarpaulins, conveyor belts, hanging walls, floors, gymnastics
mats, bags, shoes, furniture cloth/coverings, blackout curtains, etc.
The microfiber cleaning cloth is a daily use product that is a good example of the possibilities created
by the customization of the properties of synthetic fibers. Another example is different types of
machine filters and air filters for use in the home or office. At present, textiles made of syn thetic
materials are also used within architecture to create aesthetically pleasing buildings, in geotextiles to
strengthen, for example, walls, textile fabrics used in the cultivation of agriculture or ground
coverings, and in various types of packaging. We also find fibers and textile structures in various
types of composite materials used in cars and airplanes, where, for example, low weight and
moldability are desired characteristics. The sport and leisure sector is another area in which synthetic
fibers are commonly used, and not only in clothes and shoes, but also in napsacks, footballs, tents,
parachute, etc. Considering the use of plastic within textiles, it is not only in the form of fibers that it
can be seen, but also as linings/coatings and membranes. Sometimes, different plastic polymers are
blended.
Provisions dealing with the management, monitoring and regulation of plastics vary depending on
the political and administrative environment in which they were generated, and the international
agreements applicable to them14. Thereby, there are also major differences between countries and
regions.
A complete description of all legal regulations dealing with the entire life cycle of plastic materials
would be beyond the scope of this report. Instead, the EU law on chemicals, REACH, has been
described in brief in fact box 2. REACH is probably the piece of legislation that can be considered the
best current attempt to manage the risks associated with industrial chemicals throughout their entire
life cycle. There are a number of important elements within REACH that can be adopted by countries
and regions in the process of developing their own chemicals legislation.
13
Fact box 2
REACH in brief
Regulation 1907/2006 (REACH) entered into force in 2007, with full implementation envisaged for
2022. REACH covers all chemicals that are not covered by other legislations, for example, the
Regulation on plant protection products. Until 2022, chemical companies are required to generate
information regarding the most commonly used chemicals and through the authorisation process
provided for under the regulation, the most hazardous may be restricted. Depending on the quantity
put on the market, various data requirements have been laid down with respect to mandatory
registration, forming the basis for evaluation, authorisation and restriction.
The acronym REACH stands for Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and restriction of CHemicals.
Registration All chemicals that are manufactured or imported in quantities of 1 ton or more per
company shall be registered and the chemicals industry shall be required to generate basic
information. The industry has pre-registered around 145,000 chemicals that may be fully registered
by 2018.
Evaluation It is the chemicals industry, not tax payers via authorities, which are required to provide
data detailing the health and environmental properties of the chemicals they put on the market. The
authorities are charged with evaluating the assessments of the industry for the chemicals
manufactured or imported in quantities above than 100 tons per company and year. This also applies
to those chemicals deemed of very high concern. A decision must then be made as to whether a
given chemical needs authorisation (approval) in order to be manufactured or imported.
Authorisation Chemicals considered of very high concern must be approved, that is to say, they must
be authorized before use. The industry must apply for approval in order to use these chemicals and
an approval applies to a specific area of use. The registrant is then required to prove that the
chemical can be handled and used safely. Any use other than that it was granted permission for is
prohibited. Chemicals of a very high concern are mostly chemicals that are persistent, bio
accumulative, carcinogenic, mutagenic or toxic for reproduction, as well as chemicals that disrupt the
hormone system. The first step in the authorization process is to decide whether to list such
substances at a special so-called candidate list.
Restriction Restrictions limit or ban the manufacture, placing on the market or use of certain
substances that pose an unacceptable risk to human health and the environment. A Member State,
or ECHA on request of the European Commission, can propose restrictions.
14
Worth mentioning are the precautionary f and substitution principles g; the consumer’s right to
information as to whether a product contains substances of high concern h; as well as that any party
that places a chemical or product on the market is responsible for i t being safe to human health and
the environment and shall therefore also provide the information necessary to be able to make this
judgment. See also fact box 2 on REACH.
There are a number of exemptions (regarding waste management i, for example) and other
shortcomings in the regulation. For example, chemical groups such as poly-fluorinated chemicals,
nanomaterial and endocrine disruptors have intrinsic properties that fall outside the scope of REACH.
Nor are chemicals that are produced, used, or imported as individual chemicals or included in
products required to be registered, as long as the annual volume is less than one ton per
manufacturer/importer, so-called low-volume chemicals. Also REACH’s ability to chemicals between
1 and 10 tons per producer and year are highly questionable as the data requirement for this
category is not extensive enough to perform a proper risk assessment.
The chemistry behind plastic and rubber
Plastics and rubber are formed by polymers consisting of smaller units known as monomers, which
link up (polymerise) in long chains. Polymers can be constructed by one or several different types of
monomers15, and different types of polymers can also be blended with one another, in order to
obtain the desired material properties 16, for example HIPS (High Impact Polystyrene), a mix of
polystyrene and rubber.
At present, the vast majority of monomers is produced from petroleum (crude oil/mineral oil) and is
therefore non-renewable. Around 4% of the world’s oil consumption is used as raw material in plastic
production17, and a similar amount is used as energy manufacturing process 4,12. At refineries, the
different hydrocarbons in crude oil are separated out to fractions of different molecular weig hts
using distillation18. For plastic and rubber production, the so-called naphtha-fraction is important19 –
larger hydrocarbons are “cracked” to create smaller compounds, such as ethene, propene, as well as
aromatic compounds such as benzene, toluene and xylene20,21 , which are chemicals used to produce
monomers16 . A few years ago, a Dutch research group discovered that ethane also can be produced
from natural gas22,23.
Also biomass can be used as raw material to form chemicals used to make monomers 21 . However, in
terms of volumes of produced plastics and rubber, this alternative is still of limited importance. Socalled ”green” ethene is made from renewable resources in a relatively energy-demanding two-step
process, however, a one-step process is under development 24.
f
The precautionary principle makes it possible to act in order to avoid potential harm to humans or the
environment, without having the complete facts at hand allowing for a full assessment of the risks of a given
substance/chemical.
g
The substitution principle means that a hazardous chemical is replaced by a less the least hazardous
alternative.
h
Substances of Very High Concern (SVHC) is a concept from the EU Chemicals Law, REACH. The definition
covers chemicals that are classified as being carcinogenic, mutagenic, toxic for reproduction, toxic,
environmentally persistent and that accumulate in organisms, or chemicals of equal level concern.
i
See Annex V in REACH at the webpage of the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA).
http://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/13632/annex_v_en.pdf
15
Moreover, there are a number of biopolymers that can be used to produce plastic and rubber in
limited quantities, for example natural rubber j, cellulose, starch, proteins and polyhydroxyalkonates
(PHA) k, and also synthetic polymers made from biological material, for example, polylactic acid (PLA) l,
1
Fel! Bokmärket är inte definierat. , 25, 26, 27.
Except monomers, various additives are added to the manufacturing process of plastics and rubber.
Additives are chemicals that are necessary for the actual polymerisation process, or to give the final
product its specific desired properties, for example, plasticisers, flame re tardants, heat and UV
stabilisers, biocides, pigments, extenders, etc.28. Strictly speaking, solvents and catalysts are not
additives, but in practice, they can be included into this group since they fill an important function in
the manufacturing process. On the contrary to polymers, that are not particularly reactive and also
large in size, which means that they do not penetrate biological membranes and are therefore not
considered toxic29, can unreacted monomers or solvents and additives, or degradation products
generated by these additives, leak and expose both humans and the environment during the whole
life cycle of a product28,30.
Several common additives are classified as hazardous according to the EU regulation on
Classification, Labelling and Packaging of substances and mixtures (CLP) m, for example, carcinogenic,
mutagenic, toxic for reproduction, harmful to aquatic life, or having persistent negative
environmental impacts 31. A specific additives chemical and physical properties; the surrounding
environment; if the additive is unbound; its molecular size in relation to the cavities between the
polymers; etc., will determine how prone an additive is to leak from a product32,33 . Since thousands
of potential additives can be used in plastics and rubber16,34,35 ; the fact that different monomers can
be combined in one and the same product; and depending on the polymerisation technique the
amount of remaining monomers varies36, it is difficult to make generalised statements about the
health and environmental effects of plastics and rubber.
Annex 6 presents an overview of common types of plastics and rubber, as well as a selection of
monomers and additives that have hazardous properties with respect to the environment and
human health. The monomers and additives is mainly identified with the aid of ChemSecs SIN n 2.037 ,
the Swedish Environmental Management Council’s report on chemicals in plastics 16, and Lithner’s
doctoral thesis on plasticFel! Bokmärket är inte definierat..
j
Natural rubber (also known as latex) is rubber based on cis -polyisoprene created by certain plants, foremost
the rubber tree Hevea brasiliensis.
k
Polyhydroxyalcanoates are formed by microorganisms in a fermentation process and is used to produce
compostable plastic bags.
l
A polymer produced by lactic acid such as bacteria produced through the fermentation of starch -rich products
such as grains.
m
CLP (Classification, Labeling and Packaging) is the EU system for hazard labeling of chemi cal substances and
mixtures, founded on the UN System - GHS (Globally Harmonized System).
n
The SIN-list from ChemSec (The International Chemicals Secretariat, an non-governmental organisation)
contains chemicals that are deemed to meet the requirements for classification according to the EU Chemicals
Regulation REACH, i.e. meets the requirements to be included in the so-called ’candidate list’.
16
In this report, ”hazardous” chemicals are defined as chemicals that are officially classified (in the EU
regulation on Classification, Labelling and Packaging of substances and mixtures (CLP) o) according to
the danger codes presented in Table 1 in Annex 6, or according to other sources are defined as:
-
SVHC (substance of very high concern) p;
an endocrine disrupting chemical;
allergenic (sensitising);
toxic to aquatic organisms with long-lasting effects.
SVHC stands for Substances of Very High Concern, i.e. substances that have properties that can cause
serious and lasting effects on human health and the environment. A Substances of Very High Concern
is a substance that 1) meets the criteria for classification as carcinogenic, mutagenic, or toxic for
reproduction category 1 or 2 in accordance with Directive 67/548/EEC on the classification and
labelling or category 1a or 1b of the CLP Regulation (Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008), or 2) meet the
criteria for being considered as persistent, bioaccumlative and toxic or very persistent and very
bioaccumulative, according to the criteria in Annex XIII of the REACH Regulation, or 3) have other
principle equally serious features, such as endocrine disruption.
We have chosen to not report on chemicals classified as acutely toxic. This decision was made in
order to limit the scope of the report. Acute toxicity is foremost a problem f or the working
environment and at large accidental/illegal emissions around factories. Focus in the report is
chemicals, which are hazardous to the external environment and the health of consumers, because
they are present in products.
Types of plastic
Plastics are usually categorized into thermoplastics, which can be reshaped as they soften up without
damaging the polymers when heated, and thermosetting plastics (thermosets), which do not soften
and cannot be remoulded when heated 38. The basic structural difference between the two types is
that thermosetting plastics have cross-linked polymers, via strong so-called covalent bindings,
whereas the polymers of thermoplastic are held together by weaker molecular bonds 16. The weak
molecular bonds make thermoplastics recyclable, but at the same time less stable when exposed to
heat, oxygen and UV light. The effects of UV light, however, can be counteracted by the addition of
various additives. Annex 6 presents an overview of a number of thermoplastic and thermosetting
plastics, their monomers and some of the common additives.
Use of various types of plastics within the EU in 2010, is presented in the circle diagram in Figure 18 .
The consumption of the various types of plastic varies somewhat in different parts of the world, but
global consumption largely resembles the distribution in the European Union.
o
CLP (Classification, Labeling and Packaging) is the EU system for hazard labeling of chemical substances and
mixtures, founded on the UN System - GHS (Globally Harmonized System).
p
According to Reach Article 57 and references therein.
17
e
Figure 1: The proportion of different plastics in the EU's plasti c consumption 2010 . Polyethylene terephthalate
(PET) 6%, polyurethane (PUR) 7%, polystyrene (PS) and expanded polystyrene (EPS) 8%, polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) of 12%, high density polyethylene (PE-HD) 12 %, low density polyethylene (PE-LD) and linear low density
polyethylene (LLDPE) 17%, polypropylene (PP) 19%, and other types of plastics 19%.
Human health
To handle the effects caused by the diversity and omnipresence of chemical exposure to humans and
the environment, and fully benefit from the advantages of chemical use, is a great challenge to
society39,40. Many of the problems that may be related to chemicals is correlated with the increasing
trend of consumptionFel! Bokmärket är inte definierat. that mirrors the trends of used amounts of
chemicals as well as amounts of produced plastics. Furthermore, many of the chemicals that can be
released during the life-cycle of plastic products are hazardous, which in combinati on with the
longevity and ubiquity of plastic materials, warrants them further investigation from both health and
environmental perspectives. However, as experimental studies exposing humans to environmental
contaminants (of course) are not allowed, it is difficult to establish undisputable causal relationships
between exposure to the suspected chemicals and adverse effects in humans. Moreover, many of
the effects involving hormone related modes of action (see box 5 about endocrine disrupting
chemicals), are suspected to be manifested later in life, years or even generations after the occasion
of exposure, which makes it difficult to pinpoint the culprit chemical. There are however already
overwhelming evidence that exposures to anthropogenic chemicals contribute to adverse effects in
animals, such as disorders on reproduction immune system in seals, imposex in gastropods, thinned
eggshells in raptors just to mention a few (se 41 and references therein). Although not entirely
straightforward, the weight of evidence is building up, indicating that the increasing trend of
different types of negative effects among human populations, such as certain types of hormonal
cancers; neurological, reproductive and immunological disorders; asthma and allergy; diabetes and
obesity, may be attributed to the increasing trend of chemical use 42, 43 44, 45 (see also 46, 47, 48 and
references therein).
18
Fact box 3
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
PVC is an example of how plastics may create problems, since risks are found at all stages of its life
cycle. In this report, the main problems linked to the three significant phases in a product’s life cycle
are discussed.
History and use
The development of PVC started already in the 1860s, but it was not until 1912 that Fritz Klatte was
able to present a complete production process 49 . In the early the 1930s, the industrial production of
PVC was already underway in Germany and the U.S., and from the 1940’s to the 1960’s, PVC
products were commercialised on the global market 50. While the European market is close to
saturation, it is still experiencing considerable growth in North America, and also rapidly expanding in
Asia (in China for example, the rate is more than 10% per year) 50. PVC can be found in everything
from building material, such as flooring, window frames, cable insulation and water and waste pipes,
to shoes and clothing, interior fittings, car components, blood bags and other medical equipment,
etc. PVC is widely used in modern society.
Risks involved in the manufacturing of PVC
The process chemicals used in the manufacture of PVC can pose problems related to health and
safety at the workplace. The monomer in PVC, i.e. vinyl chloride, is officially classified as
carcinogenic. The classification is based on animal testing and epidemiological q studies51 . The studies
have shown, inter alia, a heightened risk of tumours in the liver, lungs, lymphatic and blood systems,
as well as a slightly increased risk of tumours in the stomach-gastrointestinal system. Many of the
epidemiological studies have looked at workers engaged in vinyl chloride and PVC production q, 52 .
One study included references for various psychological problems that could be caused by exposure
to vinyl chloride among workers in the PVC industry 53.
By far, PVC is the type of plastic that requires the most additives 38. In 2004, 30 million tons PVC was
produced and the global consumption of additives in the PVC industry was 2 million tons54 . In 2017,
the annual production of PVC is expected to be 49 million tons, according to a study by Global
Industry Analysts Inc55 . A few examples of hazardous additives and associated risks are of relevance
in this context. In 2004, stabilising agents constituted the largest category of additives in terms of
volume, and is often lead based. Even if the use of lead stabilisers has decreased due to substitution
with less hazardous metal-based or organic alternatives, lead stabilisers (according to the PVC
industry) makes up nearly 50% of the total amount of stabilisers used in PVC 56. Lead is classified as
carcinogenic and toxic to reproduction.
Other heavy metals are used to produce PVC such as, for example, mercury. In the pro duction of one
type of monomer, vinyl chloride, mercury chloride is used as the catalyst. The use of mercury
q
Epidemiological studies are important in risk assessments, since they are trying to find a statistically
satisfactory evidence to prove or reject the risk associated with exposure to a chemical, based on a sample of
the population.
19
chloride to make vinyl chloride is still common in China, even if certain measures have been taken to
decrease the distribution of mercury during the manufacture of PVC57, 58 .
Mercury is an acutely nerve-toxic substance which can harm the development of the fetal nervous
system and also accumulates in the food web of the ecosystem 59,60,61. Due to high environmental and
health hazard posed by mercury, a global convention to limit the use of mercury was finalized in
January 2013 (The Minamata Convention), which is now subject to signing and ratification 62 . Several
organic additives hazardous to both the environment and human health are also used in PVC, such as
plasticisers, phthalates, brominated flame retardants and chlorinated paraffins. Several of these are
officially classified as, or are suspected of being, carcinogenic and endocrine disrupting 63,64,65,66,67,68 .
For some of the process chemicals, there is a clear relationship between workplace exposure and
negative health impacts, for example, reproductive health, whereas for others this type of a
relationship is less evident 69.
Risks to the consumer posed by PVC
The risks associated with products containing PVC are, among other things, related to semi-volatile
and volatiler additives, which over time spread to indoor environments. Plasticisers, solvents, flame
retardants, residual monomers, as well as degradation products from these chemicals that are
related to various health effects have been detected in the air in compartments containing PVC
floors, PVC rugs and electronics with PVC components70,71 . One example is that degradation products
in certain solvents are believed to contribute to irritation of mucous membranes and foul
smell 72,73,74,75 . The additives can also end up in household dust. Indoors, organic chemicals that bind
to dust run the risk of becoming persistent and in high concentrations, due to the limited biotic
(bacterial) and abiotic (UV light) degradation, as well as a low dilution effect due to limited air
volume 76 . Exposure to the additive and residual monomers can occur through inhalation, unintended
swallowing of dust (in terms of exposure, the most significant source for dust 77 ), and absorption
through the skin, for example, from dust that has landed there 71. PVC is not the only source of some
of the chemicals found in dust, for example plasticisers and flame retardants, but PVC does
contribute to the overall exposure. In light of the hazardous properties of several of these chemicals
and that it is difficult to perform risk assessments, given that domestic environments are not
monitored by authorities, PVC can entail large problems. The release of semi -volatile and volatile
chemicals can, however, be controlled through regulations applicable to certain products 71 . One for
many people unexpected source of exposure to additives from PVC products is that of hosp ital
environments, where certain patient groups can be exposed to high levels of plasticisers via tubes
and bags used in, for example, intravenous treatments and dialysis 78,79 . In Sweden for example, many
hospitals have relatively recently undertaken voluntary programs to phase out such PVC products.
Risks related to PVC in the waste cycle
Plastic chemicals can enter into the environment through leachate from landfills, as well as in the
form of heavy metals and volatile and acidic carcinogenic combustion products when burning PVC.
Several studies point to increasing levels of plastic additives, such as flame retardants and
plasticisers, in the environment and in organisms 80,81,82,83. The additives can, in varying degree, be
traced to PVC. In China, increasing levels of plasticisers have been observed in regions surrounding
r
Volatility describes how prone a chemical is to transform into gas.
20
hot-spots for electronic products recycling 83 . The plasticisers are found, for example, in PVC
components in electronics.
The risks associated with the additives and their degradation products in the environment are poorly
assessed, and several scientific studies have not been able to associate an increased exposure and
risk, with carcinogenic dioxins and dibenzofurans (effluents from incomplete combustion of PVC) in
populations nearby incineration facilities for mixed waste 84,85,86. It should be mentioned, however,
that these studies were performed in wealthy countries, where incineration facilities have the
technology to control and minimise the emission of such residual products. In the Global South,
waste is often incinerated under much less controlled conditions, and therefore, the likelihood of
dispersal of dioxins and other chloroorganic pollutants increases.
Given the strong indications that chemical exposures are a global threat to human health 87, it may
seem strange that the chemicals issue is not higher on the political agenda. At least within the EU,
the manufacturer is obliged to prove that a chemical is safe to human health and environment
before putting it on the market. It is obvious; so far the legislation is proven ineffective.
The weight of evidence targeting our use of chemicals as having adverse effects on human health,
consist of three main parts presented below.
1) An increased and uncontrolled exposure to chemicals: During the second half of the last century,
the global chemical production reached about 400 million tons per year in the year 200088 . Within
the same time frame, plastics production increased about 100 times to 200 million tons 20117 , and
the prognosis is roughly yet another doubling just beyond 2020 (calculated from 89 ). About 145
000 chemicals were pre-registered on the European market in 200890. The numbers on the global
market are likely in the same order of magnitude. Tens of thousands of these chemicals are used in
the production of consumer articles, many of which are made from plastics, such as toys, TV -sets,
furniture and food packaging materials, chemicals that could be emitted and expose humans and
environment. Even though it is clear that the amount and number of chemicals circulating in our
close environment has increased dramatically over the last 60 years, the effects on health and the
environment are unknown for the vast majority of them, and regarding their combined effects
virtually nothing is known, except that the combined toxicity of mixture of chemicals is suspected to
be greater than the toxicity of the individual components of the mixture 91, the so-called cocktail
effect (see box 4). It is difficult to deal with the entire complexity and diffuse exposure of the myriad
of chemicals emitted from consumer products, pesticide residues in food, and various combustion
processes, etc., both from a legal and scientific perspective 92. An improvement is of utmost
importance as the number of circulating chemicals increases, and bio-monitoring programs
worldwide provide data showing that we have several hundreds of environmental contaminants in
our bodies already before we are born 93, 94 .
2) Studies correlating human disease with chemical exposure are strong indicators of a possible
causal relationship between increasing trends of, for example, reproductive tract disorders, heart
disease, obesity, and neurological disorders, and the increased use of environmental contaminants,
among them plastic additives, such as poly-fluorinated chemicals43, 95, polybrominated
diphenylethers96 , phthalates97,98,99 and bisphenol A 100 . A fundamental problem with epidemiological
studies, however, is that the chemical exposure in question is usually so thoroughly confounded with
other factors like lifestyle choices, private economy, genetics, other chemicals, etc., that it is very
21
difficult to fully prove associations. Moreover, the scaring fact that it is difficult to find a control
group is yet another problem.
3) Animals in controlled laboratory studies display similar disorders as those observed in human
populations, when exposed to suspected causative agents of human disease. For example, the so
called testicular dysgenesis syndrome (TDS) in humans, i.e. reduced sperm counts, testicular germ
cell tumours, hypospadiass and cryptorchismt – in humans, resemble the “phthalate syndrome” in
rats, for example. The phthalate syndrome is caused by a reduction in the foetal rat testosterone
level, and can be induced by phthalate exposure101. Thus, animal testing can establish mechanisms of
action, and is another important indirect piece of evidence for a causal relatio nship between
chemicals and human disease.
Fact box 4
The cocktail effect
Monitoring studies in water, as well as in soil, urine and breast milk102,103,104 have unequivocally
shown that humans and animals are constantly exposed to various mixtures of chemicals. A review of
existing scientific literature on the effects of chemical mixtures, carried out on behalf of the
European Commission, unambiguously shows that the negative effects of a given mixture is often
greater than that of a single chemical 91, 105.
Another remarkable conclusion in this same report is that chemicals at concentrations, so low that
they do not exert any effect, nonetheless have a considerable impact when combined in a mixture.
Sometimes 0 + 0 + 0 = 3, which is referred to as, ”Something from Nothing”106. The alarming
conclusion to be drawn here is that the cut-off value for individual chemicals laid down to protect
humans and the environment, probably do not offer sufficient protection. A cut -off value is the
estimated concentration that is considered safe with respect to individual chemicals, missing the
almost inconceivable complexity of chemical mixtures that humans and the environment are
exposed to in real life. Moreover, it is well-known that cut-off values normally get lowered over time,
becoming more stringent as the knowledge about the effects increase. Cut-off values should
therefore be considered as a rough guide only, and a preliminary measure of safety.
At present, the possibilities for making quantitative assessments of unintentional mixtures using
existing methods are limited. Current laws and regulations in the EU on chemicals actually limit –
with few exceptions – the possibility of assessing the combination effect of chemicals when making
decisions on for example restrictions of a given substance. Chemical risk assessments are at present
limited to assessing the use of single chemicals, and in the best case scenario, constituting mere
exceptions, do they look at the actual product. For example, the highly realistic situation involving
the concurrent antiandrogen exposure to phthalates from a PVC floor, PCB in dust and pesticides in
food, should not/cannot be assess holistically in combination standpoint. In order to be able to
assess and, not to say the least, reduce the effects of all of the types of chemicals that humans and
the environment are exposed to at the same time, far-reaching changes will be necessary, at a
scientific level as well as within and among existing chemical laws.
s
t
Penis developmental defect where the urethral meatus is dislocated to the under side of the penile shaft.
A developmental defect marked by the failure of the testes to descend into the scrotum.
22
Exposure to chemicals in plastic products
In order for a chemical to harm an organism, the organism must be exposed to that chemical. Uptake
of the chemical can occur through the skin, lungs or digestive system. Few people actually stop to
think about the fact that this happens all the time, even though their home is full of chemicals – not
just household chemicals, cosmetics and medicines – but also in products and fixtures/fittings such
as building materials, paints and lacquers, rugs and carpets, furniture, toys, electronic equipment,
food and more 9, 107 . The diffusion of, and exposure to, chemicals – many of them considered as toxic from consumer products made from plastic is ubiquitous in specific indoor environments that
contain a great deal of plastics and electronics (electronics are to a great part plastic-based), for
example, in preschools 108,109,110,111, cars109,110 and offices109,110. This constitutes a considerable part of
the chemical load that humans and the environment are subjected to, and is an acknowledged
problem112, 113 . Since human beings form part of the ecosystem, we are even indirectly exposed to
plastic-related chemicals, for example, through the food we eat.
There are a large number of hazardous chemicals in plastic materials found in consumer products
and other applications that may be the source of human exposure, through diffusion of loosely
bound additives or worn off plastic particles 28,29,Fel! Bokmärket är inte definierat.. There are
relatively little data for the majority of these chemicals, but as regards to some phthalates, bisphenol
A, some brominated flame retardants and highly fluorinated chemicals, these have been relatively
well-investigated and are therefore also the chemicals that this report focuses on. This is due to the
fact that not only do these chemicals have various properties with a negative impact on humans and
the environment, but also because investigations have shown that a large proportion of the
populations are constantly exposed to them 114, 115.
The decomposition of organic chemicals in indoor environments is usually limited, due to the low air
humidity, the absence of UV light and fewer microorganisms. Air circulation in today’s well-insulated
buildings in cool climates is also limited, which contributes to chemicals not being broken down or
being aired out as quickly 116 . On the whole, this means that the levels of chemicals in indoor
environments are often many times higher than outdoors. More and more, we are coming to grips
with the fact that our indoor environments are a significant source of exposure to chemicals 117 .
When chemicals are released from gadgets, fittings/fixtures or construction materials in a home, dust
functions as a chemical sink that reflects all of the chemicals that one can be exposed to at
home 118,119. Polluted dust will be inhaled, or eaten given that it ends up on food, or otherwise
consumed since it accumulates in the mucous membranes in the mouth, or when children put dusty
fingers and objects in their mouths. It can moreover be deposited on the skin, by means of which
lipophilic chemicals from the dust can be absorbed. In the EU, there are restrictions on the use of
certain chemicals in certain types of products. The most hazardous phthalates, for example , may not
be used in toys, and bisphenol A may not be used to make baby bottles. And yet, since these
substances are used in other products, children are often exposed anyway, including, for example,
through dust.
23
Exposure to chemicals at home is also affected by the amount of time that a person spends indoors.
In industrialised countries, people spend up to 90% of their time indoors 120 . The situation in
developing countries and countries with transitional economies is however unclear. Age is another
factor that determines the time spent indoors. Small children spend much more time at home than
adults121 . Other significant factors include physiology and behaviour. Children spend more time near
the floor and in contact with other surfaces where dust is present, and young children also exhibit
frequent ”hand to mouth contact”, which means that they are more li kely to ingest dust than
adults122 . The skin of children is thinner, and also the surface to body volume ratio is larger than in
adults123 . This means that the potential skin uptake of chemicals is larger in children as compared to
adults. Dust exposure is more prevalent through consumption than via inhalation 124.
As such, plastic chemicals enter our bodies when we breathe, eat or even touch plastic materials 125 .
Given direct contact with, for example, textiles, toys or plastic shoes, lipophilic chemicals such as
brominated flame retardants and phthalates are absorbed through the skin 119. When eating, humans
may be exposed to chemicals that are absorbed from the packaging material into the food. These
include for example, phthalates, which may be present in PVC-containing crimping on jar lids or in
plastic film, or bisphenol A that is often found in epoxy lacquer, forming the lining of metal-based
food packages, such as cans 126 and other food and drink containers like tubes, foil on yoghurt
containers and in soda/beer cans127 . It is also possible to consume bisphenol A through food or drink
containers made of polycarbonate plastic128 . In addition to food, the dominant source to bisphenol
A128 , exposure to bisphenol A occurs through ingestion and inhalation of household du st129. Exposure
through inhalation foremost concerns volatile u and semi-volatile chemicals, or via contaminated
household dust. Brominated flame retardants can be released from, for example, electronics or
furniture and accumulated in dust to which we are then exposed108,119 . Brominated flame retardants
are usually present in much higher quantities in indoor air than outside, but for the gr oup
polybrominated diphenylethers (PBDEv), contaminated food and swallowed dust probably constitute
more significant sources of exposure, as inhalation constitutes less than 5 % of daily intake 130. There
are also more volatile variants of brominated flame retardants, for which inhalation likely is a more
significant110 .
Plastic surfaces that have been impregnated with poly-fluorinated compounds repel dirt and water
and are therefore used, among other applications, in all -weather jackets, rugs, fabrics and frying
pans111,131 . Several analyses on consumer products detected even banned variants w of polyfluorinated compounds131,132. As poly-fluorinated compounds, just like brominated flame retardants,
are persistent and have the potential to accumulate in organisms, contaminated food is the main
source of exposure. However, exposure through the air, and swallowing and breathing polluted dust,
are also significant sources108,111 . Several phthalates are semi-volatile and are more readily inhaled
both in their gas form and via dust, than the less volatile variants.
u
A relatively large proportion of the chemical is in gaseous form.
Certain PBDEs are either completely or partially banned in, for example, the EU, but are still used in other
parts of the world. In the EU and Sweden, the levels are decreasing, but exposure is still a problem there since
the substances are persistent, and they are still introduced via the import of products treated with flame
retardants, or after being transformed from PBDEs (deca-BDE) still permitted within the EU.
w
Perfluorooctan sulfonate (PFOS) is listed on the Stockholm Convention's list of banned Persistent organic
pollutants (POPs), and is included in the EU restriction Annex, Annex XVII.
v
24
The dominant pathway of phthalates exposure seems to be through consumption of fatty food such
as cheese, milk, butter and meat, but depending on whether the chemical is volatile or not, other
sources of exposure are significant 133,134. For young children, the consumption of phthalates from
dust is even more significant. For certain phthalates, it represents 95% of the intake, which depends
on the fact that young children exhibit different behavioural patterns from adults133,135 .
Fact box 5
Environmental pollutants and the endocrine system
Hormones constitute a vital part of the body’s internal signalling system, and are also referred to as
endocrine substances. The endocrine system plays an important role in the developmen t of the
foetus136, 137, in reproduction 138 , behaviour139 and metabolism140, 141. In simple terms, hormones send
signals (messages) between cells in different parts of the body, for example in the brain and
reproductive organs. An endocrine system involves several stages, including synthesis, secretion,
transport, absorption and decomposition/deactivation of the hormone. Different parts of the
endocrine system simultaneously affect a process, in a complex and coordinated way, where all of
the individual parts are necessary for a perfect resultx. Complexity increases further as the activity
and effect of a given hormone varies over time. Sex hormones, for example, are vital for the
development of sex characteristics during a narrow time window at the early stages of foet al
development142,143 . Any disruption during this process may not be noticeable before puberty, or even
later in life. Hormones are functional at extremely low concentrations. For example, the hormone
estradiol affects breast cancer cells at 10-13 My, 144. These are levels that are often much lower than
those used in standardized testing protocol for chemical risk assessment. In addition, many
hormones do not comply with Paracelsus’ old hypothesis that the effect is proportional to the dose.
According to Paracelsus, the higher the dose, the greater the effect and the so-called dose-response
curve is monotonous. This paradigm is a fundamental assumption within regulatory toxicology and is
therefore a huge problem in the risk assessment of endocrine disrupting chemicals. Hormones often
demonstrate a non-monotonous dose-response curve, for example as regards the effect (response)
at both low and high concentrations (U-shaped dose-response curve) or even turned upside-down,
with the greatest impact (response) at intermediate concentrations (inverted U-shaped doseresponse curve) 145, 146 . Among the very large quantity of chemicals that organisms are exposed to,
there are many that can interact with the endocrine system to disrupt its normal functioning 147 .
Chemical substances that unintentionally and negatively affect the endocrine system are known as
endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDC), and are found in a number of products, among them
medicines148 , pesticides149 , plastics150, and textiles151 , but also occurs naturally for example in some
plants152 . As described above, the endocrine system is a complex, which also means that it is
sensitive to external stimuli, and endocrine disrupting chemicals may interfere in many different
ways. Many of the specific properties of these substances are not considered in current testing
systems, such that human health and the environment are not afforded sufficient protection against
chemicals toxic to the endocrine system.
x
Report issued by the SSNC,”Save the Men”.
M = Molar. Molar is a measure of the concentration expressed in mol per liter, that is to say, how many
molecules are found in a liter of liquid.
y
25
The exposure level from products is often so low that immediate (acute) effects rarely are observed.
However, low level exposure is highly relevant when it comes to endocrine disruptors since the
endocrine system can be affected at extremely low concentrations (see fact box 5). Such so -called
’low dose’ exposure is often considerably lower than the dosages traditionally used in chemicals
testing. This data constitutes the foundation in the regulation of chemicals, which raises concerns
regarding the chemicals legislation and its ability to protect human health and the environment.
Another important factor regarding safety at low doses is the simultaneous exposure of all the
chemicals from all the products surrounding us. Even if exposure to one single chemical from one
product is limited, and might not cause any negative impacts per se, the total exposure may do so,
especially when the chemicals in a mixture are similar and are affecting the same endpoint.
Monitoring studies, unambiguously show that humans (and animals) are continually exposed to
mixtures of chemicals, and this, of course, applies to all chemicals, not only those found in plastics
(see also the fact box 4 on the cocktail effect). Since for example bisphenol A and phthalates, are
metabolised and excreted relatively quickly (hours-days), regulatory measures stopping the exposure
of these chemicals, would have a relatively fast-acting effect. For the more persistent ones, such as
poly-fluorinated compounds and flame retardants, it would take much longer.
The effects of substances found in plastic products
Of the great number of chemicals found in plastic, we have chosen to describe a handful of them
more in detail, namely phthalates, bisphenol A, brominated flame retardants and poly-fluorinated
chemicals. These specific chemicals were chosen since they are found in many consumer products
and that humans therefore are exposed to them. Additionally, their negative impacts on human
health and the environment have been studied relatively well. And yet we would like to be clear in
saying that the problem with plastic chemicals cannot be limited to these four chemical groups;
available information is simply much more limited for most of the other problematical chemicals.
Phthalates
Phthalates comprise a large class of substances, and all of them (at least at present) are not
considered equally hazardous. The length of the side chain varies among phthalates, thus giving them
their different technical properties, whereby toxicity also varies within the overall group. Common to
many phthalates is that they are disruptive to the endocrine system, having antiandrogen effects z ,
given that these chemicals have indeed shown to decrease the production of testosterone in rat
foetuses153. For the two most hazardous phthalates, dietylhexylphthalate (DEHP) and di-nbutylphthalate (DBP), decreased AGD (Anogenital Distance aa) and nipple retention 154, as well as
changes in testicular development and breast tissue 155, was observed among male rats exposed in
the womb and during lactation. Several other phthalates exert similar effects of vary ing degrees (see
107
and the references therein). DEHP and di-n-octylphthalate (DNOP) also affect the thyroid in
rats156 , and relatively recently, certain phthalates were linked to metabolic disruptions 157. Effects in
humans have also been observed – boys of mothers with high levels of certain phthalates in their
urine had a smaller AGD107 , and several studies on men have indicated a relationship between high
levels of phthalates in urine and low sperm quality, as well as altered thyroid hormone levels (see 1
and references therein).
z
Anti-androgen substances inhibit the effects of male hormones (androgens).
Anogenital Distance. The distance between the genitals and anus. A short distance is a sign of an
antiandrogen effect.
aa
26
Bisphenol A
Bisphenol A is an endocrine disrupting chemical that can bind to the estrogen receptor and is
therefore primarily considered to have an estrogenic mechanism of action bb. A recently completed
study of the effects of Bisphenol A evidenced strong relationships between Bisphenol A and effects
on animals: disruption on the development of the nervous system (47 studies), changes in mammary
gland tissue and increased sensitivity to breast cancer (13 studies), impact on female reproductive
organs including disrupted hormonal cycles, premature puberty and deformed genitals (30 studies),
as well as effects on fat metabolism and increased body weight (3 studies) 158 . In monkeys, indeed
physiologically very similar to humans, researchers have determined a relationship between
Bisphenol A and chromosomal anomalies in babies whose mothers were exposed to Bisphenol A
during pregnancy, as well as reproductive problems in several generations 159 .
Only a few epidemiological studies link exposure to Bisphenol A with negative effects. However,
indicative connections can be drawn between exposure to Bisphenol A and behavioural anomalies of
various forms in children, increased rates of miscarriage and obesity 158 . In a newly published study,
researchers observed a decreased secretion of testosterone in human embryonal testicle tissue that
was exposed to only very low levels (10-8 M) of bisphenol A. The same effect could not, however, be
reproduced in rats and mice 100 . The test animals seemed less sensitive, which is remarkable since
studies on these species are often used in health risk assessment of Bisphenol A, and most other
chemicals for that matter.
Poly-fluorinated substances
Poly-fluorinated chemicals is a complex group of chemicals of which PFOScc and PFOAdd are the most
commonly known due to their negative impact on health and the e nvironment, even if the
knowledge about the health and environmental impacts still is limited for the group in general. Polyfluorinated chemicals have one property in common: they are extremely persistent. Some of these
chemicals do not appear to degrade at all in natural conditions 160 , which mean that it will take a long
time before exposure stops despite a total ban. Another hazardous property is that several of them
accumulate in living organisms. Both of these properties, together with the fact that many chemicals
in this group are toxic and endocrine disrupting, make them particularly problematical.
Antiandrogen properties linked to reproductive abnormalities, such as lowered sperm count,
decreased testosterone levels, delayed onset of puberty, testicul ar cancer as well as decreased
genital weight in male laboratory test animals have been demonstrated (see 107 and references
therein). PFOS and PFOA have a negative impact on the thyroid glandee in laboratory animals (see 46
and references therein). Also in epidemiological studies on humans, a relationship between the
prevalence of these chemicals in the body and thyroid disease 161 has been observed. Poly-fluorinated
chemicals are also considered to have an effect on human metabolism 157 . Due to their persistence,
exposure can occur far away from the source.
bb
Estrogenous substances stimulate the effects of female hormones (estrogen).
Perfluorooctane sulfonate.
dd
Perfluorooctanoic acid.
ee
The thyroid determines the body’s metabolism and development of the nervous system, amongst other
functions.
cc
27
Flame retardants
Flame retardants are a heterogeneous group of chemicals, of which the brominated alternatives are
studied the most in terms of their health effects. Many brominated flame retardants are persistent,
accumulate in living organisms, and toxic. The group polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) have
properties classified as of very high concern, so-called PBT substances ff. There are clear indications
that PBDEs affect the thyroid gland in animals, for example inducing learning dysfunction and
behavioural abnormalities in animals (see 46 and references therein), which strengthens the
hypothesis that they can disrupt the development of the nervous system in humans. PBDE is also
suspected to play a role in the development of autism 162 and low IQ levels96. Additionally, there is a
relationship between testicular changes that increase the risk for testicular cancer in men whose
mothers were exposed to PBDE during pregnancy 163 . Main et al. demonstrated that cryptorchidismgg
was more common among sons whose mothers had high levels of PBDE in their breast milk 164 , which
indicates that PBDEs also have antiandrogen properties 165.
TBBPAhh is a brominated flame retardant common in electronic products. TBBPA has been proved to
affect thyroid hormone levels in rats166 , and increased womb weight in mice, which indicates that
TBBPA has estrogenic activity 167 . Today, there are no restrictions on TBBPA, however.
HBCDDii is another type of brominated flame retardant, foremost used in insulation materials
(styrofoam, EPS-cellular plastic) in buildings and, to a certain extent, in electronics and certain
textiles such as protective gear168 ; it is classified as very hazardous within the EU for its PBT
properties; it is also found on the REACH ’candidate list’, and i s therefore being evaluated to
determine if there is a safe use. HBCDD has not been as extensively investigated as PBDE and few
effects on humans are documented. However, HBCDD does exhibit endocrine-disruptive properties
and can affect the development of foetuses in rats. Even the immune system and the thyroid gland
are affected, with osteoporosis as a potential secondary effect 169,170 .
Conclusion
It is becoming more and more evident that plastic chemicals may have negative effects on humans
even if it is difficult to fully interpret the results. There are strong indications that, for example,
phthalates have negative effects on humans at background levels, but studies that demonstrate
effects on humans are still relatively few. As was previously stated, experiments on humans are,
fortunately, not allowed. Researchers have instead made reference to investigations performed on
volunteers that had been unintentionally exposed to chemicals, in order to establish any links
between exposure to these chemicals and any negative effects. Since humans have a relatively long
lifespan, problems can develop long after exposure, something that also complicates this issue.
Furthermore, normal environmental conditions are, in contrast to the lab environment, uncontrolled
and complex, with a number of factors that make it difficult to discern what causes what. Many of
the negative impacts that have been demonstrated on lab animals are induced using higher
concentrations than those that humans normally are exposed to. On the othe r hand, the vast
majority of the studies have been carried out using one chemical at a time exposed during a short
ff
PBT = Persistent, Bioaccumulating , Toxic
The testicles do not migrate down into the sac
hh
TetrabromBisphenol A
ii
Hexabromocyclododecane
gg
28
time period, and not the realistic constant exposure to a mixture of chemicalsFel! Bokmärket är inte
definierat..
The effects observed in animal tests are often acute, i.e. appears quickly and are noticeable, as
compared to what can be expected in humans that have been exposed to low background levels
throughout their lives on a daily basis. However, since effects are observed in humans despite the
low level of exposure, humans may potentially be more sensitive than laboratory animals.
Animal testing can never be referenced as a definitive reason or explanation, but should be seen as a
piece in the weight of evidence, that may link the increasing chemical load to the increasing trend of
certain disease. Despite some limitations, one can certainly hope that society does not wait for the
full understanding and all the links between environmental pollutants and negative effects on
humans. Serious negative effects on animals should be enough in order for the precautionary
principle to be applied.
As described, exposure to chemicals during manufacturing, use and waste disposal in the l ife cycle of
plastic material can be a direct health problem. There are, however, also indirect health problems,
linked to the inappropriate large-scale use of plastics. As described in the chapters on plastic coming
from the Philippines, Bangladesh and India (annexes 2, 4 and 5), there is a strong link between the
existence of plastic litter in urban waterways and flooding in connection to regular monsoon rains in
the region. Beyond the obvious material costs and acute dangers, flooding is positively associated
with a number of water-borne diseases such as cholera, malaria and typhoid fever 171.
The environment
The large-scale production and consumption of plastics has existed for around 60 years, but has
already caused widespread and long-term changes with respect to the aggregations of materials in
various environments 172 . Plastics are generally, as previously mentioned, very persistent to
degradation. No one knows how persistent a given plastic will be, but they might be around for a few
hundred, even a few thousand years, depending on the environment where they finally end upFel!
Bokmärket är inte definierat.. With the exception of materials that have been incinerated, the
current assessment is that all plastic that has been disseminated in the environment still remain in
some form, either as complete objects, or parts thereof: microplastic or pellets that constitutes
waste from plastic production 173,174,175,176.
Aside from the collection of plastic waste in the environment being unsightly, it also poses a hazard
to animals that can get caught in it or accidentally swallow it 177,178,179,180 . Plastic waste can spread
chemicals far and wide in the environment 181,182 ; and finally, it can also function as a carrier for alien
species in aquatic environments 183 . Despite nearly 80 % of all plastic litter originating from landbased sources184, in comparison to the marine environment, there are relatively few studies about
the effects of plastic litter in land environments, and therefore this is not further discussed in this
report.
The effects of plastic waste pollution in the environment are further described in fact box 6, Plastic in
the sea.
29
In this section, we present an overview of five considerably prominent potential sources for the
spread of plastic chemicals in the environment, as well as environmental pollutants that plastics
circulating in the environment absorb.
Potential sources of distribution of plastic chemicals to the environment include the following:
waste water,
sludge from sewage treatment plants
leakage from landfills,
incineration fumes, and
local, regional and global transport of chemicals from plastic waste.
It is widely known that waste water is a main source of the spread of many chemicals into the
environment. Not only industrial production, but also chemicals from households (see below) and
plastic materials in water and sewage infrastructure, contribute to the spread of plastic monomers,
additives and small plastic particles or pellets to the waste water 185,186,187,188 . The indoor environment
is filled with plastic materials that can release residual monomers and additives. A number of
investigations, among them some carried out by the SSNC124 and Greenpeace 189,190 , have shown that
chemicals that could originate in plastic can also be found in indoor dust. When floor surfaces are
cleaned with water, this dust ends up, along with its constituent chemicals, in the water that is
flushed into the sewer system. How much this contributes is to the chemical load of waste water is
unclear. A Swedish sewage treatment plant, Käppala, purifies waste water from Stockholm and
surrounding municipalities, encourage citizens not to empty their scrubbing water in the sink in order
to help protect the environment – the purification facility is unable to handle all of the hazardous
chemicals in water that has been generated by, for example, electronics, furniture and plastic
releasing particles which collect in dust and ends up in dirty water. To the extent possible, they
recommend to vacuum clean and then throw the vacuum cleaner bag in the waste fraction for
incineration191 .
As indicated above, unintentional consumption constitutes the quantitatively largest source of
exposure to chemicals from dust 192 and, together with other consumed chemicals (via food,
medicines and drinks that have come into contact with plastic and become contaminated), inhalation
and skin absorption constitute the source of the body’s total chemical load from plastics. Chemicals
alien to the body are eliminated via urine and excrement, directly, degradedjj, or conjugatedkk. Urine
and excrement are therefore another source of the plastic chemicals found in sewer systems 193,194,195 .
A very large amount of these chemicals are not properly broken down in waste water facilities, and
instead pass through the facility and on into the environment. Included in this category, we have
phthalates, nonylphenols and BPA, all of which are commonly found in water that arrives at sewage
treatment plants196,197 .
jj
Degradation in this case means that the body metabolise alien chemicals into other chemicals that can be
more easily degraded and eliminated via urine or excrement.
kk
Conjugation in this context means that a molecule is bound to the alien chemical to increase its water
solubility, so that it can be eliminated via urine and excrement.
30
The insufficient chemical purification for certain plastic-related chemicals means that the chemicals
also make their way into sewage sludge during the purification processes 198,199. In many countries,
sewage sludge is used as plant fertilizers and soil conditioners on arable land, bu t the risks involved
with the spread of sewage sludge in the environment is an issue of rising concern in the public
debate. In addition to hazardous chemicals that might be found in sludge, there are also plastic and
rubber particles200 .
As a rough estimate, plastic constitutes around 10% of the total weight of municipal waste, based on
estimates provided by a large number of countriesFel! Bokmärket är inte definierat.. Plastics that
cannot be recycled or incinerated, is usually sent to a landfill, but where proper waste collection and
management systems do not exist, such as in many countries in the Global South, there is a risk of
uncontrolled spreading of plastic waste in the environment. A well -managed landfill is refilled with
new top material on a daily basis in order to prevent wind and animals spreading the deposited
material, and also have systems for the collection and purification of landfill leachate. Leachate is
created when rain infiltrates the landfill, percolatesll through the landfill materials and drains the
landfill from particles and chemicals. The environment in a landfill is characterised by the absence of
UV rays and low acidic levels, which make the degradation of plastics in landfills particul arly slow.
This was demonstrated in a laboratory trial where the degradation of PVC in simulated landfill
conditions was studied over a period of several years without it being able to observe any
measurable changes to PVC polymers 201 . Additives, however, may leak out and break down (partially
or completely). A given landfill undergoes various phases during its life -cycle, from acidogen mm to
metanogennn, whereby various additives can selectively leach out. Metal compounds, for example,
such as certain stabilisers, leach during the acidogen phase 202. Examples of organic additives that
have been detected in the leachate from landfills include bisphenol A 203 , flame retardants204 and
phthalates205 . Without necessary purification of leachate, the pollutants therein indeed may spread
to surface and groundwater.
Complete combustion of plastic (polymers and additives) yields carbon dioxide and water, thereby
contributing to the greenhouse effect. With the burning of mixed waste, such as household waste, it
is nonetheless difficult to reach optimal incineration temperatures for all organic compounds, and
metals in the waste may catalyse the formation of a number of various products from incomplete
combustion, many of which can be toxic. The scope of this section does not allow a complete review;
we have instead opted to discuss a few prominent examples. The incineration of PVC, especially if
copper is present, may yield carcinogenic chlorine dioxides and dibenzofurans 206,207. In the Global
South, private (household) and open burning of waste is common, even including the burning of PVCcoated electric cables in order to extract the valuable copper thread inside. The low temperature
used for burning products in an open fire promotes the creation of dioxins and furans 207 . The burning
of PVC, amino plastics and polyurethane (the final two are rich in nitrogen), as well as other nitrogen
and sulphur additives also acidifies the flue gases208,209,210 , through the creation of hydrochloric, nitric
and sulphuric acid. Acidic flue gases cause acid rain and the nitrogen contributes to the
eutrophication of land and water211 . Flue gases from the incineration of plastic can thus be a source
ll
’Percolate’ means that a liquid is filtered through a porous material.
Acidogen phase is a phase where bacterial decomposition of organic material creates an acidic envi ronment
(decreased pH-value).
nn
Metanogen phase is a phase where the acid in a landfill has been used -up and bacteria that produces
methane gas is created. Methane is one of the main components in so-called landfill gas.
mm
31
of long-range spread of metals and other toxic pollutants as well as bri ng about acid rain. In order to
minimize these impacts, costly technology for purification of the flue gases is necessary.
UV exposure often makes plastic hard and brittle, and in combination with mechanical abrasion,
plastic litter erodes into fine particles in the environment. This has received special attention in the
aquatic environment, where the so called microplastic (particles <5 mm) pollution is a potential
problemFel! Bokmärket är inte definierat. ,Fel! Bokmärket är inte definierat.,212.
Several studies have shown that microplastic absorb metals and organic compounds, several are
known as POPsoo, and which can be found in concentrations up to one million times higher in
microplastic than in the surrounding 3,212,213,214,215,216,217,218 and which is transported over large
geographical areas212 . Additionally, additives sometimes remain in the microplastic. There are
indications that animals found at low trophicpp levels, for example worms that live in sediments, are
able to absorb chemicals from microplastic 3. And yet, a lot remains unclear regarding the
bioavailability of chemicals stuck to microplastic, as well as how this source of exposure compares to
chemical exposure via natural particulate material 219 .
Sea birds often mistake plastic litter for food. Beyond the fact that the birds themselves may be
harmed, they break down the plastic litter to microplastic in their stomachs. By way of estim ate, each
year hundreds of tons of microplastic are transported to far away environments, via the excrement
of birds; for example Antarctica, which would otherwise have been unaffected by microplastic and
the chemicals bound to it220.
The plastic pollution/littering of our oceans are a serious problem. Certain beaches show an almost
absurd litter problem, for example, there are beaches in Hawaii that by 1/3 by weight consist of
plastic litter.
A rule of thumb is that approximately 15% of all marine plastic garbage washes ashore, an additional
15% floats to the surface and the remaining 70% sinks. This puts the seri ousness of the harm suffered
by marine life, foremost in ”hot-spots” such as Hawaii into perspective. Another problem of
potentially devastating magnitude is that of the so-called microplastic, that is small plastic particles
diffusely distributed in our environments. Researchers are still in the early stages of getting a grasp
on the effects of the plastic chemicals contained in microplastic, but it is possible that microplastics
may work as a vector of environmental pollutants into living organisms. Microplastics may in other
words constitute an additional pathway for pollutants to travel up-wards the food web. Since the
chemical exchange between an object (for example a piece of microplastic with a large capacity to
collect environmental pollutants) and a given environment (the body, if the particle has been
swallowed) increases in an inverse relationship to the size of the object – as such, it is indeed
important to understand the role of the microplastics with respect to the fate and distribution of
environmental pollutants.
In conclusion, the knowledge about how plastic chemicals affect organisms in the environment is
relatively limited. According to Oehlmann et al., the majority of this knowledge comes from
laboratory tests on a few species, which do not correctly reflect the exposure situations relevant to
oo
Persistent Organic Pollutant.
Trophic level describes an organism’s position in the food chain in an ecosystem. Plants hasve a low trophic
level and predators have a high level.
pp
32
our actual environments. There is moreover, data missing regarding many relevant organism
groups221 . Endocrine disrupting effects and effects deleterious to the genome are probably
particularly important to study, as this type of impacts effectively would change the population
structure over time. Microplastics can potentially change the flow of chemicals in our ecosystems’
food webs.
For example, alkyl phenols and bisphenol A are metabolised relatively easily, and will normally
therefore not biomagnify qq,222 . However, via consumption of microplastic these chemicals may make
their way to higher trophicrr levels in the food web of the aquatic ecosystem – for example, ending up
in fish. More can be read about the various problems related to plastic litter, for example in Plastic
Waste: Ecological and Human Health Impacts, published by the European Commission 223.
Fact box 7
Plastic in the sea
by
Daniel Hansson
Ph.D. Oceanography. Employed at the Swedish Institute for the Marine Environment.
Co-founder of #plastriot. Debater specialised in the marine environment.
Sweden
Litter has always been found in the ocean, in the form of tree trunks, coconuts, seeds, dead
macroalgae or other organisms, pumice from volcanic eruptions, just to name a few. But with the
introduction of plastic into society, this scenario has changed. Wind and water transport plastic that
we throw away on land into the ocean. It does not really matter where the plastic is thrown away, it
can always end up in the ocean since the ocean is the final destination for all of the world’s rivers.
Plastic in the ocean is hands-down the most prominent of all possible sources of contamination,
containing around 60-90% of all garbage172,224 . According to a rough estimate, there is at least 100200 million tonnes of plastic in the ocean 225 . Ocean currents transport plastic, for which reason the
accumulative process occurs in sync with the ocean’s giant gyres, ”trash vorticies”. The most famous
of these is found in the northern Pacific, but similar scenarios are found in all of the world’s oceans.
Smaller marginal oceans, such as the Mexican Gulf, Mediterranean Sea and Baltic Sea also have large
collections of garbage. Plastic has washed up along all coastlines, even around the Antarctic and in
the most remote reaches of the Arctic. Plastic fragments have been found at a depth of 6000 meters
in the Fram Strait, located between Svalbard and Greenland. On all of the islands that were studied,
plastic has been discovered. Affected worst of all is perhaps Kamilo Beach, a beach in Hawaii, where
plastic makes up around 30% of the weight of the beach substrate 226. Beyond the most obvious
ecological impacts, tourism, fishing and shipping are also negatively affected by the problem.
qq
Biomagnification means that persistent chemicals are transferred from the prey to its predator, and
therefore increase in concentration up the ecosystem’s food chain (the higher trophic level, the higher
concentration).
rr
Trophic level describes an organism’s position in the food chain in an ecosystem. Plants hasve a low trophic
level and predators have a high level.
33
Few biological processes can break down conventional plastic, and when this process occurs, it is very
slow. UV light, heat and oxygen can chemically interact to disintegrate plastic into smaller pieces, but
some form of plastic still remains. When plastic ends up in the ocean, this process is essentially
stopped. The water prevents UV light from penetrating into the water column and the ocean is often
colder; oxygen also exists in decreased concentrations and is lesser reactive than in the air, all of
which prevents degradation.
A thin biological film of microscopic organisms also tends to form around objects in the water. The
film absorbs a lot of the light that does manage to penetrate the water. Over time, the film is
replaced by larger organisms, such as mussels, crustaceans or algae that increase the weight of the
plastic and thus increase the risk of it sinking to the bottom. The plastic that sinks to the bottom
becomes stored in the sediment of the ocean, where there is no light, and where it is even colder than
near the surface, and where oxygen is in short supply.
Marine flora and fauna are harmed by all of the plastic in the ocean. Animals can get caught in it,
which entails increased risk of drowning or other injury. Animals even risk eatin g the plastic, which
can lead to dehydration, starvation, constipation or death. Many animals do not perceive the
difference between a piece of plastic and regular food which is why plastic bottle caps, disposable
lighters and plastic bags are very common objects found in the stomachs of dead birds, seals and fish.
Studies on Northern Fulmars in the North Sea and in Sotenäs on the Swedish west coast have shown
that 98 and 94% respectively, have plastic in their stomachs 227 .
Beyond the largely visible plastic problem, there is also so-called microplastic, small plastic particles,
which poses a big challenge. There are many sources of microplastic: large bits of plastic that
disintegrate into smaller pieces, industrial waste-water, waste from raw plastic released during
transport and private waste water. Polar fleece garments, which are washed in washing machines,
have been shown to lose over 1000 plastic particles during each wash cycle throughout their
lifetime228 . These make their way, essentially unhindered, directly to the ocean.
The problem with microplastic is that it absorbs environmental pollutants such as DDT, PCB, flame
retardants, BPA, dioxins, etc. from the ambient water. Research has shown that concentrations of
certain environmental pollutants are several thousand times higher in microplastic than in the actual
water column. Animals, foremost fish, mussels and other filterers, easily mistake plastic particles for
food. When the microplastic enters the body of that organism, there is a risk of environm ental
pollutants leaving the plastic and being directly stored in the animal’s fatty tissue. From there, there is
a risk of the pollutant making its way further along in the food chain.
Plastic as waste
Within the EU, any substance or object that its user discards, or intends to discard, or is required to
discard, is considered waste 229. The definition of waste, however, varies. Studies indicate that
disposable items constitute around half of all plastics consumed, for example, packaging material,
plastic film used in agriculture and disposable mugs/cups, etc. About a quarter is used for more
sustainable (>3 years) consumer articles such as electronic apparatuses and furniture, and the
remaining portion is used in relatively durable infrastructure, such as p ipes, cables and building
material with a relatively long service life (decades) 4. Since the consumption of products, including
34
plastic products, is constantly on the rise, and is expected to continue to grow f or a definite period of
time 230, plastic already constitutes a large portion of waste. Since the 1960’s, the amount of plastic in
household waste has increased 70 times in the U.S., whereas the portion of glass, metal and paper
has only doubled 231. In many areas in the world, plastic waste is handled/processed inappropriately,
or is not disposed of at all.
The proportion of plastics varies among the different types of waste, for example from household,
construction, the industry, mining, etc. and in general, it is difficult to make comparisons between
countries and regions since measurement methods and definitions of waste flows vary 172 . For
example, it is often unclear whether the indicated plastic content of a given waste product refers to
before or after recycling. Plastics has often been made the symbol of our consumer society, and from
this perspective, household waste takes on a certain prominence, since it directs attention to the
consumption patterns of the individual. The majority of the plastic waste component of household
waste consists of packaging4, the majority of which is designed for one-time or short term use. Plastic
packaging is constantly gaining market shares from other packaging alternatives and the relative
dominance of plastic packaging is expected to increase 232, placing an increased burden on waste
management. Globally, plastics constitute approximately 10 percent by mass of household wasteFel!
Bokmärket är inte definierat.. In the EU, this share is around 7 % 233 , whereas in Japan and the U.S., it
is – 11234 and 12 %235, respectively. In terms of volume, plastic waste constitutes a considerably large
share, around 50% according to some studies 236 . Even the composition of the plastic component in a
given item varies considerably among different types of waste. For example, the plastic component
of household waste constitutes a smaller share of PVC ss compared to the plastic component in
building waste. This is one aspect that must be taken into account when it comes to waste
management, since PVC creates organochlorine pollutants, such as dioxins and furans derivatives
when incinerated237.
Plastic waste management
Within the OECD, each person produced an average of around 550 kg of waste each year in 2005. By
2030, this amount is expected to have increased by more than 30%, which can be compared to the
expected increase globally of 20% until year 2050231 . Today there are four main ways of handling
waste globally; recycling and reuse, incineration, disposal in landfills, and dumping231 . Dumping of
waste is more common in the poorest countries, but is not defined as waste treatmen t, and is
therefore not discussed here. For more information about dumping, see Appendixes written by
Toxics Link, ESDO and EcoWaste Coalition. Within Europe alone tt, 25 million tons of plastic waste was
produced in 2010. Of this amount, 41% was sent to landfills, 34% was incinerated and 25% was
recycled7. The waste management, and the problems that arise with its different parts, are discussed
in more detail in the following sections.
Reduce
The most simple and the best way to avoid the problems with plastic waste is, of course, to reduce
the use of plastics, especially for disposable items and for products where there are alternatives. For
example, reduction of food packaging and the ban of plastic bags.
ss
PVC – polyvinylchloride. PVC is particularly common within the construction sector, for example in pipes,
6
since it burns relatively poorly due to its high chloride content – around 57 % by weight .
tt
Here, correspnding to EU-27 plus Swizerland and Norway.
35
Recycle
Theoretically, it is possible to reach an almost entirely closed cycle for nearly all types of
thermoplasticuu materials4. However, production and infrastructural changes in society will be
necessary for the recycled share to grow from present levels.
Plastic products, for example packaging, often consist of a blend of different polymers, paper, metal,
colourings and other additives that make recovery difficult.
Therefore, the entire life cycle of a product must be taken into account already at the design stage.
This is sometimes referred to as redesign, with the purpose to prevent waste. At present, the waste,
or post-use, stage is almost without exception not considered until landfill mounds and
environmental problems already exist4.
One necessary condition for the effective recovery of plastics is the existence of a comprehensive
infrastructure allowing for the separation and transport of recoverable plastic fractions, including a
series of industrial processes in which collected plastic is processed in various ways to ultimately
reunite it with the down-stream user in the form of a new product. In rough terms, recovery can be
divided into three categories:
1) mechanical processing of the recovered plastic to create a product with properties similar to
the original product (for example, recovery of PET bottles);
2) mechanical processing to create a product with less strict requirements in terms of
performance than the original product (for example, to produce plastic ties);
3) by chemical means recover the original monomer in order to produce new plastic.
The portion of recovered plastics is increasing in various sectors around the world . Within the EU
specific directives238 are in place, aimed at decreasing the negative impact of for example plastic
packaging material, and which also lay down requirements vv on recovery levels adjusted to the given
Member State’s economic capacity. In the EU 15ww around 30% of all plastic packaging was recovered
in 2008233 , which can be compared to 7% for the U.S. 239 and 20% for Japan234 during the same year.
Incineration
In more wealthy countries, there is often a clear trend towards recycling in favour of dumping waste
in landfills, but foremost, the trend points towards incineration. The demand of energy makes
incineration profitable. One example from Europe is Switzerland, where a large portion of waste is
incinerated and the rest is recycled, and practically no plastic at all ends up in landfills, whereas in
Cyprus and Malta, around 90% still goes to landfills7,240.
Incineration competes with recycling and thus, rather than saving resources, incineration encourages
endless extraction of virgin materials for the production of new plastic products . Furthermore,
incineration of waste places considerable requirements on the incineration industry and their facility
uu
Thermoplastics are held together by intramolecular bonds and can thus be melted without destroying the
plastic structure, which is a prerequisite for recycling to occur, unlike thermosetting resins whose s tructure is
destroyed when they are melted.
vv
The requirements cover both material and energy recycling.
ww
EU 15 consists of Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxemburg,
Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden and the UK.
36
standards, since organic waste and plastics may contain hazardous chemicals. A review by
Greenpeace International shows links between waste incinerators and mortality due to various
cancers, as well as a higher incidence of lung disease, congenital malformations and immune system
depression368 . Since the vast majority of plastic waste still is of fossil origin, incineration also adds to
the carbon footprint.
Hence, there are several reasons why society should strive to abstain from this waste management
option:
1) Incineration is a waste of resources and competes with recycling. Most of the waste including
plastics that are burned in incinerators are produced from our finite resources.
2) Incineration of waste transforms the garbage problem into an air pollution problem which
would be more difficult and costlier to deal with. Though modern incinerators are equipped
with more advanced pollution detection and control devices, the fact remains that these
devices do not adequately prevent the formation of toxic emmissions514 . Burning of discards
will liberate heavy metals and other toxic substances present in the waste stream.
3) It still creates a need for landfills. Incineration produces toxic ash that still need s appropriate
areas for storage.
Landfill
Even if the share of waste that ends up in landfills is decreasing in certain countries and regions, for
example, Japan, the U.S. and Europe, traditional landfilling, from a global perspective, is still the most
common way to process plastic waste 4. Since the total amount of consumed plastic is expected to
increase, it is no foolhardy guess that the total amount of plastic that ends up in landfills also will
increase. Like incineration, there are several reasons for which society should strive to abstain from
this waste management option:
1) It is not resource-effective or sustainable in the long term for several reasons. For example,
valuable natural resources are literally buried instead of being reused and it is also cos tly to
transport large amounts of waste from cities to landfills.
2) Environmental pollutants in the form of various types of plastic additives, monomers and
decomposition products risk polluting surrounding land and water. Particularly in areas with
extreme weather conditions, landfills and the infrastructure around these can be a
considerable source of the spread of plastic waste.
3) Densely populated areas are starting to experience land scarcity issues, thus creating a run
on landfill space.
The above sections describe methods to manage waste, which is sort of a way to alleviate symptoms,
but offering no particular impact on the reasons for the problem: that is to say, there is little attempt
to prevent the creation of plastic waste in the first place. This sort of an approach would require that
the entire life cycle for a product is taken into account, both in regarding technical solutions, such as
reducing the amount of plastic material in a package, but also through the reduction of consumption
in the first place, perhaps the greatest challenge of all 231 .
37
Conclusion
The persistence of plastic materials, in combination with its extensive use and inadequate handling,
are the cause of long-reaching negative environmental impacts, both locally and globally. The current
situation involves considerable challenges for our future society, which will involve both decreasing
plastic consumption and reducing the variety of plastic types, as well as phasing out our current
unsustainable linear from cradle-to-grave flow of products.
The aim should be to mimic the logic of our natural never-ending cycles containing only products.
That is, a transition from today’s system, which deems products as waste some stage, to a system
where waste is a valuable product, for example as raw material to build new products.
Discussion
Clearly, the level of technological development in society can largely be ascribed to plastics and its
unique properties. The computer with which this report was written would apparently not have been
able to be produced without plastics. At least not with the normal performance requirements of a
modern PC – light yet durable, it should not burn or give the user electric shocks, and last but not
least, it should be reasonably cheap. A conclusion to be drawn is that it would be unreasonable to
take a categorical stance against all use of plastics. On the other hand, it is important to reali ze that a
great deal of our use of plastic is unnecessary and in many cases may constitute a health risk.
A major goal with this report was to highlight the enormous complexity surrounding the plastic issue.
We wanted to describe the social, economic and, last but not least, environmental and health related problems associated with our current trends in the use of plastic. The report also looks at the
complexity of the actual material. Regarding the latter, the conclusion to be drawn is that the
chemistry behind plastic and rubber materials, and the associated additives, is so complex that these
materials are impossible to classify according to hazard from a consumer and environmental
perspective.
Our review has indicated that a number of hazardous chemicals are used to produce plastics and still
to exist in the final product (see Annex 6), and furthermore, it is also very difficult to quantify the
consumer exposure to these hazardous substances. For example, the use of plastics containing
hazardous monomers is potentially harmful, since unreacted monomers may remain in the final
product. Unfortunately, it is impossible for the average consumer to know if and how much of such
monomers can be found in a given plastic item. One way to limit the risk is to decrease the use of
plastics containing the substances of high concern (SVHC), in particular if the material is in contact
with food, skin, and the mouth or if it is used as a medical implant.
What ultimately determines how hazardous a plastic material is, will largely depend on the additives
contained in it, which will vary enormously among products. A plastic material composed of nonhazardous monomers can therefore, because of the additives, be more hazardous than a plastic
material made from hazardous monomers. As a common consumer, it is not possible to know the
quantity or type of additive within a plastic material. At least within the EUxx, however, the consumer
has the right to ask, and demand an answer within 45 days, in the store, if a product contains any of
xx
Chemical regulations within the European Union (EU) is mainly used as the point of departure in this
discussion since it is considered to be one of the most developed of its kind in the world.
38
the substances found on the candidate list. All substances of highest concern are not included on the
list, however, so this is only a start. The complexity of plastics has an impact on how chemicals and
their application in products are assessed in terms of risk, and the great uncertainties related to that.
It is complicated enough to assess the risks just for one chemical, but could be considered relatively
uncomplicated in comparison to the nearly impossible task to quantify the risks of a complex
product/item, in a scientific and credible way. Plastic materials constitute a good example this
problem.
Within the EU, chemicals are assessed one by one despite the fact that humans and the environment
are exposed to a mixture of chemicals, such as pesticides, industrial chemicals yy, biocides and
chemicals in cosmetic products. In recent years, both researchers and authorities have perceived
how unreasonable it is to ignore the fact that chemicals do interact with one another, and thereby,
also may exert a greater negative impact on biological life than one chemical would.
The European Chemicals Agency, ECHA, has compiled a long list of around 145,000 chemicals – and
of these, tens of thousands are believed to exist on the market today, which in theory, yields an
immense number of combinations difficult to comprehend.
As a consequence, it becomes more and more evident that the traditional way of assessing chemical
risks is increasingly becoming more averted from the complex exposure situations that constitute
reality. This is certainly the case regarding plastic products in particular, consisting of many different
components, for which we in many cases are lacking sufficient information. To deal with the
problems related to assessment of chemical mixtures, a parallel development of several different
methods is currently ongoing, each with its respective advantages and disadvantages.
For substances that affect the same physiological function, there are models that seem promising in
terms of allowing for an assessment of the total effect, as well as the identification of those
substances that are the most problematical when occurring in mixtures241 .
In these models, researchers have tested, for example, known plastic chemicals such as bisphenol A
and the phthalates DBP and DEHP. In order for this model to work as a reliable tool, how ever, it is
necessary to know all the substances in the mixture, or at least the majority of them, and also their
respective concentration. In addition, relatively comprehensive knowledge of the toxicological profile
for each individual substance will be needed, for example target organs and dose-response
relationships.
Another alternative is to test the actual chemical mixture, for example a beverage as it is presented
in reality/nature, in a simplified biological system. The advantage of this approach is that it does not
require a detailed analysis of the chemicals in the mixture. This method also captures any
synergisticzz effects between different chemicals. The biological ”response” becomes indicative. An
example being that of cell cultures, where the cells react if the mixture is somewhat similar to a sex
hormone for example aaa. Biological testing using cell cultures could for example be applicable to the
classification of hazardous waste 242 . One difficulty, however, with these simplified models is the
yy
Chemicals that are used, for example, to create daily use products
Synergism in this context means that the effect of a mixture is greater than if the effect of each single,
individual chemical contained in the mixture were added up.
aaa
The content of plastic and glass bottles, as named earlier in the text, was analyzed this way.
zz
39
extrapolation from effects in a cell culture to potential risks to human health, as well as determining
which tests are relevant to perform. If the constitution of the mixture is unknown, a series of
different tests may be necessary to test for specific properties (endocrine disrupting, carcinogenic,
allergen, etc.). Moreover, when testing for effects in the environment, the chemical mixture that
eventually exposes the organisms in reality will often be different from that in the product. However,
as a complement to current methodologies, based on chemical analysis, they can prove valuable.
Already today, there are companies that use cell cultivations in their product development in order
to screen out plastic materials that leak endocrine disrupting chemicals 243 .
There are several reasons for which the study of leakage of endocrine disruptors from plastic
packaging is the most practical in terms of methodology, including the following:
1) Plastic contains a number of different chemical substances, along with a pote ntial for leakage
to surrounding media.
2) Current legislation does not deal with the risks involved with endocrine disrupting chemicals.
3) It is well-known that endocrine disrupting chemicals may act synergistically 244 .
As indicated above, legislation (within the EU) does not satisfactorily deal with endocrine disruptors,
which further complicates the situation regarding the risk assessment of plastic, since several plastic
chemicals are known endocrine disruptors, for example phthalates, bisphenol A, flame retardants
and poly-fluorinated chemicals.
Current risk assessments are based on the supposition that cut-off values can be established, below
which exposure is deemed safe. Endocrine disrupting chemicals is however often argued in the
scientific debate: since effects are observed at such low dose ranges, it is inapplicable to define a cutoff value, also referred to as threshold. Thereby the fundament for risk assessment is flawed for this
type of chemicals. Within the EU, efforts are currently underway to generate criteria for endocrinedisrupting chemicals. Promising proposals for credible and scientifically robust criteria exist, both
within political and scientific circles, as well as by independent non-governmental organisations.
The outcome of the criteria proposals, hopefully finalized by the end of 2013, will be decisive of how
endocrine disrupting chemicals will be dealt with in the future, and will likely influence the work on
endocrine disrupting chemicals also beyond EU borders. Moreover, endocrine disruptors have been
identified as an ”emerging issue” within the SAICMbbb. WHO and UNEP released a report about
endocrine disrupting chemicals, which helped to put the issue even higher on the agenda and
hopefully moved things in the right direction.
Given the considerable uncertainties with respect to current risk assessment, and awaiting improved
methodological circumstances, a rapid phasing out of the most hazardous chemicals through
substitution is the most credible approach to handle the undesired risks associated with chemicals.
Though, substitution must be made with well-studied chemicals that are known to exhibit less
hazardous properties.
bbb
SAICM - Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management. The overarching aim of SAICM is to
decrease the difference as regards chemicals management in different parts of the world through the creation
of a global chemical strategy, in order to, by the year 2020, minimize significant adverse impacts of chemical
use and production on the environment and human health.
40
There is a risk that a chemical identified as hazardous is exchanged by a similar chemical in the same
group, obtaining same technical product properties as the original chemical. However, and this is
indeed unfortunate, toxicity profiles are often similar for substances in the same group. One way to
avoid unnecessary and demanding (in terms of required resources) substitution where a given
alternative has similar properties to the original chemical, is to handle all substances from the same
chemical group, in which one or more chemicals have proven to be problematical. For example,
there are at least 15 different bisphenols, among which bisphenol A and bisphenol S are perhaps the
most commonly known. The remaining bisphenols have been poorly studied and it would be
inappropriate to replace bisphenol A with another bisphenol without knowing the consequences.
Another example is that of flame retardants in the group polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE), of
which all more or less meet the PBT criteria in REACH.
Recommendations
This report tries to answer the somewhat theoretical question: ”Is the current use of plastic
sustainable, and if not, what can be done to make it sustainable?” Obviously, the answer to the first
part of this question is no: the current use – rather, misuse – of plastics is not sustainable, but there
is great potential to improve the current situation.
Two main problems that have been identified and been made the focus of our report are: toxic
effects of plastic chemicals and plastic litter. In addition, today’s large-scale manufacturing of plastic
from fossil fuels and the associated production of chemicals, entails major impacts on the climate
and on resources. These aspects, however, are beyond the scope of the primary focus of the report
and have therefore not been covered to any greater extent.
Polymers and monomers
Plastic is a polymer, which is built up of monomers. If the monomers are classified as hazardous
under the CLP ccc Regulation or according to SIN 2.1ddd, the plastic becomes potentially problematic
throughout its life cycle and should be substituted, i.e. either to be built up of harml ess monomers or
substituted for another type of polymer.
Some problematic plastics made up of hazardous monomers are acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene
(ABS), amino resins, epoxy resins, phenolic resins, polycarbonate (PC) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). A
more complete list, with hazard statement codes of the monomers, is given in Annex 6.
Additive
Additives classified as hazards according to CLP or SIN 2.1, are problematically and needs to be
substituted. Since the additives are usually not bound to the polymer, they can migrate to the
surface and be released to the surroundings. Therefore, it is often more problematic, at least for the
health, if the plastic contains hazard additives then hazard monomers. The most hazardous additives
known today are phthalates, bisphenols, brominated flame retardants and poly-fluorinated
chemicals. Representatives from each of these four groups of endocrine disrupting substances are in
all likelihood found in every home, airborne and bound to dust. A good start for consumers is to, as
far as possible; avoid products that contain these substances. Annex 1, Plastics in the every-day life of
ccc
CLP (Classification, Labeling and Packaging ) is the EUs harmonization system for labeling of chemical
substances and mixtures, based on the UN’s GHS (Globally Harmonized System).
ddd
SIN stands for ”Substitute It Now” and is a database where ChemSec (The International Chemical
Secretariat) has listed substances prone to be regulated according to REACH.
41
children, provides some guidance as to what to consider. A calculation made by Chemitecs shows
that about two percent of the additives in all the plastic around us are emitted (released) each
year245. A majority of the additives emitted in large quantities belong to the groups of plasticizers and
flame retardants, which is because these often make up about 30 percent of the plastic weight. A
more complete list, with hazard statement codes of additives found in Append ix 6.
The PVC case: PVC plastic is created from the carcinogenic monomer vinyl chloride. Moreover, the
manufacture of PVC is chemicals intense, and it is the plastic material requiring the most additives of
all plastics, to the best of our knowledge.
PVC plastic is also problematical from a waste perspective, for example, because it may form
carcinogenic dioxins and furans when inappropriately incinerated. It is therefore not advisable to use
PVC, which essentially is the only general recommendation regarding plastic we are able to provide,
given the current base of knowledge. See box 3 about PVC.
More and more scientists are becoming concerned at the negative effects on humans and the
environment as a result of exposure to toxic chemicals used in the production of plastics. In light of
that, the SSNC (Sweden), ESDO (Bangladesh), groundWork (South Africa), EcoWaste (the Philippines)
and Toxics Link (India) have made the following conclusions:
-
-
-
-
the precautionary principle should be applied. This means that adequate knowledge of
hazard is a precondition for plastics use and that the burden of proof is moved to the
proposer/manufacturer,
substitution and phasing-out of hazardous additives and monomers used in the production
of plastic must occur, in favour of safer and more sustainable alternatives from a health and
environmental standpoint,
all chemicals in a group with similar properties should be regulated, even if only one of the
substances in the group is defined as hazardous of high concern,
chemicals listed in Annex 6 to this report should be phased out as soon as possible, in
accordance with the substitution principles,
a ban on phthalates of high concern should be implemented, primary in consumer products
or product in contact with children,
bisphenols should be banned from use in materials that come into contact with food and
beverages and children, and in the long term in other consumer products like recipes’,
companies must accept their responsibility in terms of the reduction of unnecessary plastic
consumption, since this can reduce exposure to potentially hazardous chemicals. Above all,
there is a potential to decrease the consumption of disposable packaging material,
the recycling of plastics must be made more effective. The recyclable component of plastics
would increase if plastics did not contain hazardous chemicals,
full information about all existing chemicals in consumer products must be required.
Plastic litter
The plastic problem is multi-faceted, ranging from sea birds dying of starvation because they have
mistaken plastic garbage for food, to the diffuse spread of endocrine disrupting chemicals from
consumer products. In countries like the Philippines (see Annex 2), Bangladesh (Annex 4) and India
(see Annex 5) the plastic problem is foremost in terms of the situation of litter, which are indeed
different from countries in the EU (Annex 1). The problem is mainly due to unconscious use, and
42
insufficient waste management systems of plastic bags and other types of single -use plastic
packaging. Compared to countries like Bangladesh and the Philippines, South Africa (see Annex 3)
does not describe the littering situation in as equally acute. An effective tax on plastic bags reduced
the use by 44% and the regulated recycling of plastic is about 30%. But it is not just the visible plastic
litter that is the problem. Micro plastics – coming from such diverse things as the fleece sweater or
the facial scrub, to degradation products from all types of plastic gadgets we use – are also a complex
problem. Firstly, smaller aquatic organisms can mistake micro plastic to plankton and secondly,
pollutants accumulate on micro plastic. Together, this means that the plastic particles and pollutants
accumulate up the food chain.
Apart from the aesthetic aspects related to the problem of plastic litter, plastic waste is also a
problem in the nature on a global scale, from the individual level to the level of populations.
The SSNC (Sweden), ESDO (Bangladesh), groundWork (South Africa), EcoWaste (the Phili ppines) and
Toxics Link (India) have made the following conclusions:
-
-
-
-
plastic consumption must decrease, foremost as regards disposable plastic packaging. This
will save resources as it would decrease the use of raw materials and the load on waste
management systems, and can be stimulated through legal regulation,
recycling systems must be further developed so that the reuse of plastics is favoured before
landfilling and incineration, something which would decrease waste amounts and, as such,
have an impact on the litter problem. In order for this to be possible, comprehensive
substitution plans must be drawn up for a large number of hazardous substances frequently
present in plastic. Our waste management systems need further development, for example,
there must be increased labelling of plastic products to facilitate sorting, as well as improved
technology for material recycling. These measures can be stimulated both through legislative
and market-oriented instruments,
a reduction in the number of mixed materials used in plastic would increase the volume of
recyclable plastic. Clean fractions of the various polymers are necessary for effective
recycling without any negative impact on the quality of the material. This can be stimulated
through legislative instruments,
finally, research within the area of microplastics must be stimulated. It is of particular
importance to determine the significance of microplastics as a carrier of environmental
pollutants into the food chain, and also to investigate its main sources, in order to be able to
undertake the most effective measures.
A third current major problem with plastics is that the main resource used in its fabrication is fossil
crude oil. Therefore:
-
is it necessary to increase the proportion of plastic made from renewable resources, since
this would reduce the climate impact of plastic materials, given that a large portion of plastic
waste is currently incinerated. The potential health impacts of chemicals contained therein
are, however, the same as for conventionally produced plastic.
43
Annex
1
44
The Swedish Society for Nature Conservation
Plastics in the every-day life of children
45
Introduction
Plastic materials are very important building blocks in the modern society, and in many different
ways, it facilitates everyday life. Plastic is found in everything from refrigerators to computers,
clothes and furniture. In many applications, we literally need plastic to survive, such as in plasticbased hospital equipment. Thanks to plastic’s many fantastic properties – it is durable, strong,
flexible, light-weight, cheap, insulating and can be produced for basically anything – it is easy to
understand why there is a myriad of plastic objects found throughout society, in our daily lives, both
at home, in the workplace, and at schools.
Not all plastic materials pose problems, but many of them leak hazardous chemicals that may be
absorbed by the body. They may thereby yield a negative impact on adults and children. Even the
unborn child exposed to anthropogenic and potentially hazardous chemicals. The large variety in
plastic materials makes it hard to assess exactly which types of plastic should be avoided at home – if
we just consider the additives, we are looking at thousands of chemicals, that give the different types
of plastics their specific characteristics. Many people in the society probably reason that “someone
must have controlled that the products that can be purchased in a store are safe and not hazardous”.
This, however, is not at all the case, and a series of changes is therefore necessary, such as an
increased responsibility among companies, improved consumer information and, above all, a more
stringent chemicals policy.
A number of Swedish decision-makers have acknowledged the problem of toxic chemicals in
products. One example is the new strategy for a non-toxic environment, proposed by a
parliamentary committee representing seven parties from the Swedish Parliament. Among other
things, the proposal contains a new objective to protect children from toxic chemicals. If the strategy
becomes real policy or not will depend on how the Swedish Government deals with the proposal.
The focus of the proposal from committee is important since children are exposed to higher levels of
chemicals compared to adults, and they are at the same time more sensitive as child development
involves several highly sensitive phases. This means that the timing of the chemical exposure may be
more critical than the level (concentration) of the exposure. And yet nonetheless, current
methodologies for risk assessment do not take sufficient account of the specific vulnerability of
children to chemical exposures. Children are more exposed than adults, since the indoor
environments in which they spend much of their time are often full of toys made of plastic and
electronics potentially containing loosely bound hazardous chemicals, which means that the indoor
environment in children’s rooms and at preschools are polluted 108, 109, 246,. The top U.S. EPA estimates
that the level of air pollution indoors is 2-5 times higher than outdoors 247 . This is due factors
important for the decomposition of chemicals, such as UV light, microbial activity and humidity, all of
which are reduced indoors248, but also lower indoor air circulation.
The proposal from the committee of the Swedish environmental objectives, as well as the Swedish
Chemicals Agency’s action plan for a toxic-free everyday life, highlight the importance of decreasing
children’s exposure to chemicals. Even if these proposals are reflected in a more stringent chemicals
policy, it could take several years before laws on the phasing out of hazardous substances or up to
date risk assessments come into force. The time for evident effects due to the improvements is even
longer. During this time, children continue to be exposed to hazardous chemicals.
46
Manufacturers, importers and users of toxic chemicals, on the other hand, have the possibility of
voluntary improvements that eliminate the chemicals that are already known to be hazardous, which
can be replaced by less toxic alternatives. Indeed, this applies to the importers of products as well.
Similarly, municipalities and county councils can take the lead and decide to undertake construction
initiatives without the use of environmental toxicants and to detoxify public environments, for
example schools and preschools.
So, why aren’t we protected?
There is a clear relationship between increased consumption of products (of which many either
entirely or partially are made of plastic) and the use of chemicals. Products of both natural and manmade origin are by definition, made of chemicals. Depending on how tightly the chemicals are bound
to the object/goods, the chemicals are able to leak out in varying amounts before being absorbed by
humans or other organisms in the surrounding environment. The impact will depend on the
properties of the given chemical(s), including, toxicity and capacity for bioaccumulation, the amount
(quantity/dose) of the chemical, who (type of organism) is exposed, and the stage in life at which this
exposure occurs.
In Sweden, chemicals legislation has been around for a long time and the regulations have varied
over the years, but the requirements on testing new substances before they are placed on the
market have always been low. At the same time, high burdens of proof have been placed on
decision-makers, before being able to take retroactive actions to regulate already introduced
substances, which’s use, was shown to be risky and hazardous. Since 2007, most industrial chemicals
are regulated by the EU regulation on chemicals, known as REACH, which regulates Registration,
Evaluation, Authorisation and restriction of CHemicals. Importers and manufacturers are supposed to
submit information for registration of substances on the market, but in general, the required data is
very limited and new substances are assessed one at a time. Subsequent the evaluation, substances
with very hazardous properties can eventually become the object of listing on the candidate list, and
thereafter authorised and potentially phased-out, a process that takes many years.
Under certain conditions a substance may be restricted, but particularly compelling evidence of
associated risks is usually needed. Generally, both strong and comprehensive data of risks must exist,
as well as clear political majorities in order for a substance to become the object of effective
controls. There are currently 138 substances on the candidate li st, which can be compared to the
almost 145,000 that were pre-registered according to REACH and the several hundred that, with due
reason, were deemed as being of high concern eee (the number of hazardous substances in need of
restriction is probably even greater). This shows how ineffective these laws are. As regard to
products, REACH is even weaker, in particular, with respect to imported products, the requirements
are very low and controls inadequate, despite the fact that a quick survey of a Swedish average home
would reveal numerous imported products, often from countries with even less stringent regulation.
The fact that plastic materials is found in an apparently endless number of applications, many of
which are in close contact to consumers in indoor environments, makes it the material category that
probably best illustrates one additional weakness in chemicals legislation, namely, the lack of control
of the combined exposure (read more about this in fact box 4, ’The cocktail effect’).
eee
According to the Swedish NGO ChemSec using REACH criteria 626 substances are deemed to be of very high
concern
47
Due to blatant shortcomings and a slow and weak implementation of regulations, there are many
hazardous substances that continue to exist in great quantities, and which are included in entirely
common daily products in close contact with consumers. Several of these chemical s, for example
phthalates108,249, brominated flame retardants 250 , biocides251 , poly-fluorinated hydrocarbons 252 and
bisphenol A 253 which have been shown to be prevalent indoors – in dust, air and food – are found,
among other things, to originate in various plastic materials. It is worrisome that many of these
plastic chemicals are linked to, for example, the development of certain forms of cancer, disruptions
to the reproductive, immune and nervous systems, asthma and al lergies; diabetes and
obesity42,43,44,45 (see also 46,47,48 and references therein) and that they are very common in human
environments114,115. A specific example is that in France, a 30% decrease in sperm counts has been
observed in between 1989 and 2005, and the researchers indicate that chemicals of high concern
could be a reason for this 254.
Hazardous substances in plastics
There are a large number of hazardous chemicals in the veritable sea of plastic materials in products
in close contact with consumers, and other applications that may be sources of human exposure to
chemicals. We have chosen to focus on phthalates, bisphenol A, brominated flame retardants and
poly-fluorinated chemicals, since these have well-documented deleterious effects on the
environment and/or human health. Additionally, all of the aforementioned are endocrine disrupting
chemicals. Read more about potential effects of these chemicals in the section on Health, and about
the endocrine system and environmental toxicants in fact box 5 above. Below, we describe how
these chemicals may expose children. We moreover describe in relative detail food packaging
materials as well as toys and child-care articles, since these products categories have their own
regulatory system due to the obvious exposure problems.
Plastic products in general
Phthalates
Of the chemical substances found in plastic, phthalates are among the most well-known. Phthalates
are produced in large quantities and are used, not only as plasticisers, but also as fragrance carriers
in cosmetic products and chemical products such as detergents. Phthalates are not chemically bound
to the plastic polymer, which mean that they can easily ”leak” into the surrounding environment, to
the air in a child’s playroom or into the food on your table. It is therefore not surprising that children
with PVC carpets in their bedrooms have shown to have higher levels of degradation products from
the phthalate BBP in their urine, than other children 255. There are many different types of phthalates,
but some of the ones that are suspected to be most toxic –are often found in an average household –
and are classified as May impair fertility, May cause harm to the unborn child.
Following a decade-long debate, some initiatives have been taken to reduce the amount of certain
phthalates to which children are exposed on a daily basis. Since 2007, for example, the use of the
phthalates BBP, DBP and DEHP was banned fff in toys for children younger than three years old within
the EU. Three other phthalates, DINP, DIDP and DNOP are also banned ggg in toys and child care
articles, which could be placed into the mouth hhh.
fff
The product must not contain these chemicals at concentrations above 0.1% by weight
The product must not contain these chemicals at concentrati ons above 0.1% by weight
hhh
According to EU’s restrictions directive (76/769/EEC).
ggg
48
These provisions are good but do not come near what would be enough to really protect children. It
is difficult to make a 1-year old understand which toys she/he can chew on and which ones that
should be avoided. The protection children is limited insofar as children are exposed to phthalates,
via air and dust, emitted from, for example, a shower curtain, a fake leather bag, a plastic shoe, etc.
Two studies utilizing models for combined exposure show that 15-25% of children in Germany and
Denmark were exposed to phthalate levels exceeding the recommended maximum level 256,257 . An
example from Sweden is found in the investigation by the Swedish Chemicals Agency from the fall of
2012, in which shoes made of soft plastic were analysed for the presence of hazardous substances.
The investigation found some of the most toxic phthalates, such as DEHP, at levels as high as 70% by
weight in the examined products 258. The study indeed shows that daily items found in an entirely
normal home may contain and that these items usually are purchased with the belief that a product
found in a store must have been controlled for toxic substances and therefore is safe. It is
remarkable that in this case, the Chemicals Agency only advised sellers to inform consumers that the
shoes contained high level of hazardous phthalates – if the consumer were to ask 258 . A
recommendation was not even made to sellers to remove the shoes from their shelves, and, what’s
more – there are not even legal remedies in place to address the fact that it is currently legal to sell
such products – even to children!
Phthalates are also a common component in the interior of many cars. Consumers can reduce their
chemical load originating in their cars by avoiding parking their car in the sun, where heat from the
sun increases the release of volatile substances such as phthalates from the plastic parts in the
passenger compartment. Hence, ventilate the compartment for a few minutes, prior using a car
parked in the sun. The release of plastic additives increases with rising temperatures, and it is a
generally valid assumption based on migration studies that have looked at, for example, phthalates
in linoleum floors. The release of phthalates from PVC floors is almost 10 times higher at 35 °C than
at 23 °C259 .
Brominated flame retardants
There are initiatives to reduce the exposure of certain types of brominated flame retardants within
the EU. For example, penta- and octa-BDE over a certain concentrations have been banned in
chemical products and products within the EU since 2004. A ban on deca-BDE was introduced in
Sweden in 2007, but after the Government’s decision, the ban was unfortunately repealed in 2008.
Polybrominated biphenyls (PBB) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers ( PBDE) including penta-, octaand deca-BDE are banned for use in electrical and electronic products via the RoHS Directive. DecaBDE may, however, still be used in furniture, textiles and cars. There are many different types of
brominated flame retardants, but some of the hazard classifications read May cause harm to
breastfed children, May cause harm to the unborn child, May impair fertility.
Brominated flame retardants are spread to the environment through leakage from various types of
industrial applications and from products such as electronics, textiles and furniture 260. Analyses show
that despite bans, human beings and the environment are still exposed to brominated flame
retardants261 in several different environments, from the home to the preschool to our cars109 .
49
There can be several different reasons for this: 1) brominated flame retardants are persistent and
continue to leak from old products that were manufactured before exposure limits were laid down in
law109 ; 2) analyses of consumer products show that banned brominated flame retardants can still be
found in, for example, toys and electronics 9; 3) recycled material can also contain banned flame
retardants262 ; 4) the degradation of deca-BDE to less brominated and more toxic BDEs may occur
both in the environment and in the body 263, 264 . It should be mentioned though, that thanks to a
decreased use PBDE, as a result of various bans, there is a general trend towards a decrease in breast
milk in Swedish women for most types of PBDE265.
In a doctoral thesis from 2011, at Stockholm University, the levels of, for example, PBDE in air and in
dust from various indoor Swedish environments was studied. The researchers found that the levels
of penta-BDE and HBCDD in indoor dust were higher in preschools than in homes 109 . In
supplementary analyses to this thesis, a relationship between the levels of certain PBDEs and a given
room’s content of electronic equipment, upholstered furniture and foam mattresses 266.
Air and dust in car compartments may contain high levels of chemicals, which the ”new car odour”
reminds us of. This is due, in part, to the fact that the interior of cars often consists of many plastic
components that leak chemicals into the compartment environment, but also due to the fact that the
air volume and circulation is low. Studies show that the indoor environment in new cars has the
highest decaBDE levels in comparison to other indoor environments 109,110. In an investigation carried
out by the Swedish magazine Råd och Röniii from 2012, flame retardants and phthalates were found
to exist in very high levels in car seats for children and in baby protective devices 267.
Poly-fluorinated chemicals
Poly-fluorinated chemicals are used for surface treatment in order to make surfaces repel grease,
water and dirt. These chemicals may be used in many different applications, such as impregnated
papers and in electronics equipment. However, mostly associated with plastics, is probably their use
in synthetic fibers, which are often found in products in close contact to the consumer, such as allweather jackets, furniture fabrics and rugs. According to the products register of the Swedish
Chemicals Agency, around 20 tonnes of poly-fluorinated chemicals are used in chemical products in
Sweden each year, which is probably an underestimation of total use. Poly-fluorinated chemicals are
often used in such small quantities (<100 kg) that they are not required to be registered, and the
largest quantity is probably found in imported products, which are ready to be used by the
consumer268 . One of the poly-fluorinated chemicals, PFOS, was banned in a large number of
countriesjjj in 2009, due to its PBT properties. PFOS is classified as: May cause harm to the unborn
child; May cause harm to breastfed babies.
iii
Råd och Rön is an independent magazine free of commercials, reviewing consumer products based on
different types of tests (including chemical analysis of products), examin ing technical performance as well
consumer safety aspects.
jjj
Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) is found included in the Stockholm convention’s list on banned Persistent
organic
pollutants
(POP),
and
the
EU’s
limit
values
annex,
Annex
XVII.
http://www.kemi.se/sv/Innehall/Internationellt/Konventioner-ochoverenskommelser/Stockholmskonventionen-POPs/
50
In many respects, the problems associated with poly-fluorinated chemicals are similar to that of
brominated flame retardants: 1) poly-fluorinated substances are persistent and some of them are
prone to bioaccumulation, which means that the problem can continue to persist long after a ban is
instituted; 2) analyses of consumer products show that PFOS and PFOA are found, for example, in all weather jackets and mattresses 9, 131, 269, 270 ; 3) the poly-fluorinated alternatives to PFOS and PFOA,
used as impregnation agents, for example in the textile industry, can degrade into the more toxic
PFOS and PFOA 271, 272. At purification facilities, processed water has been shown to actually contain
higher levels of PFOS and PFOA than pre-treated water273.
The research group from Stockholm University investigating flame retardants in various indoor
environments, also found poly-fluorinated chemicals contained in the dust in all of the indoor
environments that were studied108 . However, in this case, there were no observable differences
between the different environments examined.
Thanks to decreased use – the result of various bans – we are now witnessing a general trend
towards decreasing serum levels of PFOS and PFOA in first-time mothers. And yet, for a number of
other poly-fluorinated chemicals, the levels have increased, most likely as a result of PFOS and PFOA
having been replaced 274.
Bisphenol A
Bisphenol A is commonly seen in thermosetting plastics. It was synthesized for the first time in 1891.
Today, humans are under constant exposure to bisphenol A at low levels, likely foremost through
food that has been stored in packages containing bisphenol A, for example food cans made of metal.
The chemical is found in more than 95 % of the population 275. For example, four reporters from a
Swedish daily newspaper, through a simple non-scientific experiment consisting of a 2-day strict, yet
not by means of amounts exaggerated, tin can diet, were able to increase the level of Bisphenol A in
their urine up to 30 times 276. This relationship not only applies to reporters, but of course children
are also exposed to and consume bisphenol A through canned food. This means that even if
bisphenol A has a relatively fast rate of decomposition and elimination, the effects on human is
similar to if it was a more persistent chemical. It should also be mentioned that not even the Swedish
Chemicals Agency currently can claim knowledge of all sources of human exposure in respect of
bisphenol A 277, indicating the complexity of chemical exposures in our daily lives. Nonetheless,
exposure studies have been performed on individual products, such as baby bottles, CDs, toys and
metal cans used to preserve food products. Within the EU, Bisphenol A has been given a hazard
classification of: Suspected of damaging fertility.
There are many different types of bisphenols, but all of them are even less well-known within the
scientific community. Nonetheless, a very recent study has shown a serious trend of the industry
exchanging bisphenol A for bisphenol S, another endocrine disrupting substance 278 . Urine from
humans from eight different countries showed the presence of bisphenol S in 81 % of the
population279 . It is very unfortunate when one endocrine disrupting substance simply is being
replaced with another. This shows the importance of the regulation of toxic substances via groups of
substances of similar properties, which is much more efficient than ad hoc actions as the problems
arise.
51
Toys and products used in childcare
Within the EU, the legislation on toy safety has recently been made to be more stringent and
chemical requirements in a new directive on toys will enter into force in July 2013. This m eans that
CMR substances (carcinogenic, mutagenic and toxic to reproduction) will be more regulated in terms
of their presence in toys. Even if it is absurd that it has been permissible to use such hazardous
chemicals in toys for children up to that date, this development is obviously a positive one, and
should be applied in regulations applicable also to other product groups.
Unfortunately, the scope of the ban being introduced for toys is not fully comprehensive, as it only
applies to toys and parts of toys that are deemed accessible to children, which is not, of course, a
clear-cut limit. Regarding components that are in fact covered by the ban, CMR substances are still
allowed at a relatively high level. This means, for example, that a substance classif ied as ”Possible risk
of impaired fertility” may be included in up to 3% of toy parts available to children 280. According to
an investigation of EU’s warning system for hazardous products, RAPEX (does not include food), it is
clear that imported toys, foremost from China, dominate the category of chemical risk associated
with toys281.
Another example is bisphenol A, which is banned in baby bottles within the EU, but may still be used
in toys and products aimed at the care of children including pacifiers, toothbrushes and children’s
mugs. During 2012, the Swedish Chemicals Agency completed a study of bisphenol A in toys and
articles used in the care of children made of polycarbonate, concluding that bisphenol A does not
need to be particularly regulated in this product category282 . One positive thing is that in their risk
assessment, the Chemicals Agency used a lower cut-off value than the one officially implemented in
the EU. Even if the concentrations of bisphenol A released from the products were low enough to not
be deemed hazardous, the SSNC deems that the precautionary principle should be taken into
account and, insofar as possible, the substance should be phased-out since bisphenol A is a
endocrine disruptor, and negative effects can arise at very low concen trations. In addition, it is
necessary to ensure that total exposure is used to assess exposure levels and not single sources of
exposure one at a time, as is currently the case. Nor did the Swedish Chemicals Agency perform,
according to our assessment, so-called migration studies in a satisfactory manner; that is to say, they
failed to perform tests to determine the amount of bisphenol A that is released from polycarbonate
plastics aimed at being in contact with warm food or drink, or saliva.
Food packaging
The focus on toxic chemicals found in food has for a long time been on pesticides and the hazardous
substances that are absorbed by crops and animals, such as dioxins, methyl mercury and cadmium.
For some of these substances, foremost pesticides, there are specific threshold limits in place as
regards children’s food (that is to say food for children up to 36 months of age kkk).
More recently, also food packages have been shown to be an important source of a number of
harmful chemicals, for example bisphenol A. It has also been showed that the total human exposure
to bisphenol A radically decreases if the food in a given package containing bisphenol A is removed
from the diet283, which shows that the introduction of regulations would lead to instant results.
kkk
http://www.slv.se/upload/dokument/lagstiftning/1996-1999/1997_27.pdf
52
As recently as last year (2012), bisphenol A was banned from use in food packaging intended for
children under 3 years of age, but the substance is still allowed in the majority of all other food
packaging. Many parents prepare food for children under the age of 3, using ingredients from for
example tin cans containing bisphenol A, and thereby, these children are not protected by current
regulations. It is also extremely improbable that children over 3 years of age, and even adults for that
matter would not be negatively affected by the same substance.
The amounts of chemicals that diffuse from the packaging into the food are determined by their
properties, and a number of other factors, such as food fat-content, storage time and temperature.
One illustrative example is the transfer of the plasticiser DEHA (which has been shown to disrupt the
development of the foetus in animal trials 284 ) from PVC film to cheese with various fat contents 285 ,
see Table 1. The same study also demonstrated a clear link between storage time and increased
DEHA levels in the various types of cheese, see Table 1.
Table 1. Leakage of the plasticiser DEHA from PVC film to cheese with various fat content levels.
Type of cheese
Fat content
DEHA leakage (mg/dm2
plastic film)
Feta
19%
7.3
Edamer
23%
12.2
Kefalotyri
30%
18.9
Source: Goulas et al., 2000 285 .
Legal regulations within the area of food packages do not provide sufficient protection against
endocrine disrupting substances and the cocktail effect. A report from 2009 showed that at least 50
endocrine disruptors are allowed in food packages in the EU and USA 286. Among these, substances
with well-known endocrine disrupting effects (for example bisphenol A and DEHP) , as well as
considerably lesser studied substances were included. Hence, it is not surprising that the content in
nearly all tested plastic products (in this case, bottles, even bisphenol A-free bottles) demonstrated
an impact on human hormone system, when studied by an American research group 287 . Analogous to
this, another study that investigated the water contained in PET bottles demonstrated a three times
greater endocrine disrupting effect than water bottled in glass 288 . The fact that also the content in
bisphenol A-free products displayed endocrine disrupting properties indeed demonstrates the
complexity and necessity of reacting to the problem in a way that is more effective than the
approach of ”one substance at a time”. Having this said, bisphenol A still points out as a very bad
idea, which should have been realized already at the time of its initial use, since it has been known as
an endocrine disruptor since the 1930’s289.
Since children have a higher consumption of food in relation to their body weight than adults,
hazardous substances in food (for example from packaging) are more of a problem for children than
it is for adults. Moreover, the model used in the EU to assess the consumption of food in contact
with food packaging, is adapted to adults. It has therefore been demonstrated as presenting serious
under-estimations for children. This model assumes that average daily food consumption
corresponds to an exposure of 0.1 dm2 packaging surface area/kg body weight.
53
However, when British researchers took a closer look at the specific reality for children, they
demonstrated an underestimation of 6-8 times by the model, depending on the child’s age 290 . In
conclusion, this means that children may be experience a considerably higher consumption of
chemicals released from plastic food packages, in relation to their body weight. For young children,
exposure limits are therefore expressed as the maximum concentration in a given food
(10/2011/EG). However, this rule applies only to packaging for food intended for chil dren less than 3
years of age.
Plastic in the daily life of a child – what to do?
With the examples presented below, we intend to draw attention to the amount of plastic products
involved in every-day situations, where contact with a cocktail of hazardous chemicals is possible.
Examples do not necessarily describe the typical situation for all children but nor are they ”worst
case” scenarios – the problem is that no one really knows what the “true” exposure situation is like,
not even the scientists. This is why it is difficult to convey generalized and correct information on
chemicals contained in products. The examples should be seen as rough guidelines, based on
precautionary thinkinglll, and demonstrate how it is possible to reduce children’s exposure to
chemicals in their daily lives.
The product categories mentioned below are, or are in some way associated with, known to release
toxic chemicals into the environment. The selection basis of the product categories and hazardous
chemicals is based on the selection basis used in the Swedish Chemicals Agency’s strategy for
effective inspection of chemicals in products 9, the Danish Environmental Protection Agency’s
evaluation of the risks to pregnant women when exposed to endocrine disrupting chemicals in
products107, and also from recent research in the area. In some cases, it relates to products where
hazardous substances are used in daily manufacturing, where the consumer must activel y look for a
safe product, for example an eco-labelled one, if possible. In other cases, the chemicals are by large
regulated at the national or European level, and hence, old or imported products constitute the
problem (that is to say where the majority of new products are otherwise safer, insofar as we know).
The focus lies on plastic products and endocrine disruptors, but in addition to these, there are
numerous hazardous substances and products that do not contain plastic, but that nonetheless
contain hazardous chemicals, as well as hazardous chemicals that affect us in ways other than an
effect on the endocrine system. On the other hand, it is not at all sure that all products in the
respective category necessarily contain hazardous substances that constitute a significant health risk.
lll
This means that the examples are intended to not err on the safe side – meaning, it is preferable to choose to
eliminate a potentially problematic product than the contrary.
54
A day in the life of a child
Morning – the bedroom
Furniture: A bed can contain and release hazardous chemicals. The mattress, for example, can
contain flame retardants, and a mattress cover that is made of plastic-coated terry may contain
hazardous phthalates. Foam rubber can contain the remnants of solvents generated during
manufacturing. This can usually be perceived through smell.
Interior fittings: Plastic flooring and wall paper made of PVC may contain phthalates and other
plasticisers.
Toys: Swedish children have on average 500 toys. Soft plastic figures often contain PVC and can
therefore leak plasticisers. Jumping balls made of plasticised PVC can leak plasticisers as well. Heavy
metals such as lead can be found in PVC, but also, for example in the chip boards in electronic toys.
Volatile and semi-volatile substances, such as phthalates, are released into the air and can then be
inhaled in common household dust. When products are used and worn, small particles are chafed
away and end up in the dust. Vaporised chemicals and contaminated dust expose the respiratory
tract and the stomach/digestive system when the dust is swallowed.
55
What you can do…
There is a risk of old furniture containing banned flame re tardants. Certain hazardous brominated
flame retardants were banned in the EU in 2004, and during the 1980’s, flame retardants were more
commonly used than they are today. New products can, however, contain other flame retardants
that we do not yet know a lot about. Ask in stores for furniture that does not contain halogenated
flame retardants.
Avoid, whenever possible, interior items (floors, carpets, etc.) and furniture containing PVC, which
most often contains phthalates or other types of plasticisers. The most hazardous phthalates are
currently being phased out in the production of plastic flooring, but have been replaced by other
types of less problematical (it is currently believed) plasticizers, for example DINP, DIDP and DINCH.
Air-out mattresses before they are used.
Since many chemicals accumulate in dust, it is important to vacuum and mop regularly.
Air-out on a regular basis.
Be a curious and inquisitive consumer. Use your right to know whether or not the products you are
buying contain hazardous substances. Within REACH, manufacturers and suppliers have the
obligation to provide information on contents of a concentration more than 0.1% of the weight of a
substance on the candidate list mmm. In this way, you can avoid such substances, but you also help to
send a signal through the distributor chain that there are smart and conscious consumers which they
could risk losing.
mmm
Lists some of the most hazardous chemicals
56
A day in the life of a child
Morning – on the way to preschool
Clothing: Rainwear and shoes are often made of various types of plastics, for example, nylon,
polyester, polyurethane, and PVC. In order for the textile/clothing to be functional, it is combined
with plastic polymers containing various types of chemicals. Rain gear made of ”gal lon” can be made
of plasticised PVC. The material in the majority of all-weather jackets that are dirt and water
repellent and breathable, consist partially of a Teflon-like plastic material where poly-fluorinated
chemicals can remain as remnants in the products. Soft plastic shoes can contain phthalates. Shoes
made of imitation leather and shirts containing PVC-prints can contain phthalates.
The wearer of a shoe, for example, or a raincoat or a shirt containing PVC-print, can of course be
exposed to a chemical through direct skin contact. A child might even suck or chew on details found
on jackets or shirts. Volatile and semi-volatile substances, such as phthalates, are released into the
air and can then be inhaled in common household dust. When things are ripped, small particles are
chafed away and end up in the dust. Vaporised chemicals and contaminated dust expose the
respiratory tract and the stomach/digestive system when the dust is swallowed.
Car interiors: The instrument panel is often made of polyurethane foam coated in PVC and can
contain phthalates and flame retardants. The polyurethane contained in car seats and cushions may
be treated with flame retardants. The chemicals can be transmitted via the air and dust. Car interior
can also be treated with poly-fluorinated chemicals.
57
What you can do…
Avoid buying shoes, clothes, bags, etc. made of PVC. In order to be able to use PVC in these items,
they need to have been treated with a plasticiser. The most hazardous plasticizing agents are still
used even if alternatives are up and coming. Often, however, these new alternatives have been
poorly investigated, for example, with respect to their endocrine disrupting properties. Avoid using
shoes made of soft plastic, if you are unsure of their content. Fluorine-free all-weather gear made of
polyester (for example SympaTex®) and polyurethane can be found on the market.
Insofar as possible, use eco-labelled or ÖkoTex nnn -labelled clothes/products. This will help to reduce
the risk of being exposed to hazardous chemicals as a user/consumer.
Be a curious and inquisitive consumer. Use your right to know whether what you are buying contains
hazardous substances. Within REACH, manufacturers and suppliers have the obligation to provide
information on contents of a concentration more than 0.1% of the weight of a substance on the
candidate list. In this way, you can avoid such substances, but you also help to send a signal through
the distributor chain that there are smart and conscious consumers which they could risk losing.
The car industry is making progress when it comes to chemicals safety and there are presently some
PVC and halogen-free ooo alternatives among the most progressive manufacturers on the market. Use
your power as a consumer – ask! The type of flame retardant that is used depends from
manufacturer to manufacturer but also according to the age of a given vehicle and where it was
produced.
Avoid parking your car in direct sunlight. Vaporisation of loosely bound chemicals increases with
temperature. Ventilate the car by driving the first minute with the windows down.
Either walk or bike to school if possible… this is good for your health in many different ways !
Since many chemicals collect in dust, it is important to clean the home/car regularly.
Air-out regularly.
nnn
Öko-tex is a voluntary label affixed to textile products that do not contain any substances that are deemed
hazardous to skin or health.
ooo
Without fluorine, chlorine or bromine.
58
A day in the life of a child
Lunch – the cafeteria
The dominant exposure route of most chemicals is via through food. This applies not only to
pesticides but also to chemicals associated with plastics. The food may have been contaminated
indirectly if the production area of, for example the cereal or the livestock, is contaminated, or
directly via different types of plastic materials that came into contact with the food.
Food – indirectly: Plastic-related chemicals are found in foods, such as fish. This is due to the fact
that chemicals such as brominated flame retardants and poly-fluorinated chemicals are distributed in
the environment through the production of plastic materials (distribution from a point source), and
the use of plastic products (diffuse distribution). As mentioned earlier, these chemicals degrade
slowly and have the property to accumulate in animals.
Food – directly: One of the most obvious cases in which children (and adults) are exposed to plastic
chemicals via food, is probably that of bisphenol A from metal packaging for preserved food such as
tin and aluminium cans. In Sweden and some other EU countries, the use of bisphenol A in baby
bottles and food packaging aimed at children under three is banned. However, many children still
consume food from metal packages not specifically targeting children less than three years of age:
crushed tomatoes, canned corn and caviar, to name a few examples. What’s more, children that are
3 years and 1 day old are no longer protected under current appli cable legislation. Additionally, much
of the kitchen-ware is made from plastics. It is generally a good idea to avoid the combination of
food, plastics and heat, as additives in the plastic material are released at a higher rate the warmer
the plastics get.
Interiors: Waxed tablecloths can be made with PVC and contains plasticisers. PVC flooring can also
be found in dining rooms and in the kitchen. Plasticisers that are released into the air and aggregate
in dust may expose the respiratory tract and the stomach/digestive system when the dust is
swallowed.
59
What you can do…
According to the dietary guidelines of the Swedish National Food Agency, children and women of
childbearing age should not eat herring or salmon from the Baltic Sea, or salmon from the Swedish
Lake Vänern and Lake Vättern, more than 2-3 times per year. The advice has been laid down in light
of exposure to dioxin and PCB. The levels of different types of restricted brominated flame retardants
and poly-fluorinated chemicals are decreasing, but are increasing for their substitutes. According to
the SSNC, dietary guidelines should also be drawn up to take account of halogenated flame
retardants and poly-fluorinated chemicals.
Avoid eating food packaged in PVC. Even if there are restrictions on how much (0.05-0.1 weight-% in
the EU) of the most hazardous phthalates a food package made of PVC may contain, other types of
plasticisers, such as DEHA are allowed. Fatty foods such as cheese generally absorb more of
plasticisers.
Use frying pans made of cast iron and utensils made of tree or rust-free stainless steel when
preparing foods.
Avoid warming foods when still in their plastic packaging – more chemicals are released during
heating.
Eat and drink on porcelain, stainless steel and glass.
Avoid canned food from metal packaging.
Since many chemicals collect in dust, it is important to clean on a regular basis.
Air-out regularly.
60
A day in the life of a child
Daytime - preschool
Research has shown that the preschool environment often is worse than the home environment, in
terms of the presence of plasticisers and flame retardants. This can be due to the fact that the
preschool environment contains many products made of materials that release these chemicals, for
example, foam rubber and plasticised PVC. This is particularly worrisome as many children spend a
lot of time at preschool.
Furniture: The fabrics covering stuffed furniture or full-floor rugs are often dirt and water-resistant.
This can be due to the fact that the polymers in the fabric are made of polyester or nylon, which have
been impregnated with some form of a poly-fluorinated chemical. See also paragraph about
furniture in the box above, Morning – the bedroom.
Interior fittings: See paragraph about interior fittings in the box above, Morning – the bedroom.
Clothing: See paragraph about clothing in the box above, Morning – on the way to preschool.
Toys: See paragraph about toys in the box above, Morning – the bedroom.
Electronics: The plastic covering (for example, ABS-plastic) and the printed circuit board in electronic
devices such as TV games, and stereo equipment can contain flame retardants. Old apparatuses may
contain the most hazardous kinds. Some of these were banned in the EU in 2006, but other types of
brominated flame retardants are still used. Lead may be found in electronic chip boards. Electric
cables often contain phthalates.
Most children spend a lot of time in their rooms while playing and when they sleep. In addition to the
obvious exposure via their skin and stomach/digestive system when children suck and bite on for
example toys, chemicals are also released from all of the toys and products in a room exposing them
via air and dust.
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What you can do…
Contact your municipality and demand that the procurement of new products, school food, cleaning
services, etc. is done in the best possible way, as to avoid the use of products containing hazardous
chemicals at our preschools.
Using this guide as your reference, you can help the personnel to take the first steps towards
ensuring a non-toxic preschool.
62
A day in the life of a child
Afternoon – the playroom
Most children spend a lot of time in their rooms while playing and when they sleep. In addition to the
obvious exposure via their skin and stomach/digestive system when children suck and bite on for
example toys, chemicals are also released from all of the toys and products in a room exposing them
via air and dust.
Toys: See paragraph about toys in the box above, Morning – the bedroom.
Furniture: See paragraph about furniture in the boxes above, Morning – the bedroom and Daytime preschool
Electronics: See paragraph about electronics in the box above, Daytime - preschool
Interior fittings: See paragraph about interior fittings in the box above, Morning – the bedroom.
63
What you can do…
Buy eco-labelled products, such as toys, furniture and electronics. In addition to decreasing the
chemicals you and your children are exposed to, you help support companies that are taking
responsibility in terms of the environment and the human health.
There is a greater risk that toys produced outside of the EU contain hazardous chemicals. Especially
Chinese products have shown to be over-represented in this category.
If you choose toys made of wood, check that they are produced within the EU – in this way, the risk
of paints and lacquers containing lead or other heavy metals are reduced.
Recycle defunct electronics such as mobile telephones instead of letting children play with them.
If possible, toy chests can be stored somewhere other than the playroom or bedroom.
Avoid electronics in a child’s room and in bed rooms in general
Since many chemicals stick to dust, it is important to clean regularly.
Air-out regularly.
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A day in the life of a child
Evening – TV-sofa
Furniture: See paragraph about furniture in the boxes above, Morning – the bedroom and Daytime preschool
Electronics: See paragraph about electronics in the box above, Daytime - preschool
What you can do…
There is a risk of old furniture containing banned flame retardants. Certain hazardous brominated
flame retardants were banned in the EU in 2004, and during the 1980’s, flame retardants were more
commonly used than they are today. New products can, however, contain other flame retardants
that we do not yet know a lot about. Ask in stores for furniture that does not contain halogenated
flame retardants.
Avoid buying furniture that has been impregnated with poly-fluorinated chemicals – ask the retailer.
Natural materials such as wool offer water and dirt repelling properties without being impregnated.
Since many chemicals accumulate in dust, it is important to clean on a regular basis.
Air-out on a regular basis.
Be a curious and inquisitive consumer. Use your right to know whether or not the products you are
buying contain hazardous substances. Within REACH, manufacturers and suppliers have the
obligation to provide information on contents of a concentration more than 0.1% of the weight of a
substance on the candidate list. In this way, you can avoid such substances, but you also help to send
a signal through the distributor chain that there are smart and conscious consumers which they
could risk losing.
65
Discussion
Plastic is an important material used in modern society, and will continue to be so in the future. This
is why much more stringent considerations must be taken with respect to the unacceptable health
and environmental effects of plastic chemicals. Hazardous substances contained in plastic materials
must immediately be phased out from the consumer market and new similar chemicals should not
be allowed as substitutes. To allow very hazardous chemicals to be used in daily products can prove
to be very expensive both to the individual as well as to society.
The SSNC deems that the use of plastic products constitutes a true problem for children’s health, but
that considerable gains in terms of improved indoor environment can quickly be achieved by stricter
legislation, and if public actors such as municipalities and municipal councils take responsibility for a
parallel voluntary initiative, working in collaboration with schools, preschools and hospitals.
The SSNC would like to make decision-makers and consumers aware of existing problems, and what
can be done to address them in the daily as well as professional life and in policy. Politicians and
other decision-makers needs to make stricter laws, and also put their foot down to make the plastics
and chemicals industry to take voluntary actions in order to gear up in the process towards a nontoxic environment.
Free trade and competitiveness are common objections against the regulation of hazardous
chemicals. To the best of our knowledge, however, no convincing theoretical or empirical evidence
exists to the effect that environmental policy has a negative impact on competitiveness; on the
contrary, progressive requirements on the chemicals industry functions to promote a more
environmentally-conscious market. In addition, the costs to society risk becoming sky-high in the
absence of such measures. Even if it is very difficult to calculate the costs of health problems related
to chemicals exposure, since many health problems are also linked to other factors, such as lifestyle
as well as social and genetic heritage, the Swedish Chemicals Agency in 2012 was able to calculate
the societal costs of fractures related to ingestion of cadmium via food – 4 billion kronor per year291 .
This represents only one hazardous substance , one health effect and one country with a population
of approximately 9.5 million inhabitants (2012). Another example to consider is that the removal of
PCB in Swedish buildings is of the same range – namely, 4 billion kronor292 . The UNEP, Costs of
Inaction Initiative parallels the effects due to chemical exposures to pandemics like Malaria and
HIV/AIDS87.
In reality, there are numerous hazardous chemicals with potential deleterious effects on health and
the total cost to society for these, while truly unknown, is very high if we believe all indications. It is
foremost the health and well-being of our children that is being jeopardized by the existence of
hazardous substances in for example plastic. Without a detoxification of plastics in our daily life,
these plastics are more difficult to use, which also decreases the possibil ities to use the good
qualities of plastics, for example, in sustainable applications.
The SSNC is of the opinion that companies should take on the responsibility of not marketing any
products containing hazardous chemicals. Politicians are responsible of the existence of due
legislation and are the ones that lay down the framework stipulating what is allowed, and what is
not, so that companies and other stakeholders know what they are supposed to comply with. The
chemicals policy of the SSNC expands on these legislative requirements further, but regarding
plastics in particular, the SSNC, considers among other things, the following:
66
-
-
-
-
-
-
children and the unborn are not sufficiently protecte d from hazardous plastic chemicals
today. Classification, risk assessment and risk management of chemicals contained in plastics
should take account of the particular sensitivity of children and their exposure situation,
the substitution and phasing out of hazardous chemicals from plastic products in the daily
life of a child should be an immediate priority,
chemicals with similar properties should be coordinated in terms of their regulation, such
that if one substance is considered hazardous, the whole group of similar compounds should
be as well; Sweden should pursue this policy at the EU-level and also implement it nationally,
Sweden should as soon as possible, follow the lead of Denmark ppp, and ban four particularly
hazardous phthalates: DEHP, BBP, DBP and DIBP; a low hanging fruit, which would yield
positive effects throughout the EU,
Sweden and the EU should ban any and all use of hazardous phthalates in food contact
material and toys, even at very low concentrations,
brominated flame retardants and poly-fluorinated chemicals should be phased-out in stages,
starting with children’s daily environments,
Sweden should take a proactive lead and immediately ban the use of the bisphenol group in
food contact materials, for example, starting with metal-based cans. Alternative packages are
already available, for example Tetra Pak®,
As soon as possible, Sweden should pursue an investigation mapping endocrine disruptors
food contact material on the Swedish market, the types of packaging in which these are
found, and immediately start with an initiative to phase them out.
Sweden should, as soon as possible, draw up a national action plan to decontaminate
preschools and schools from chemicals,
municipalities should, at their own initiative, avoid the use of hazardous (plastic) chemicals
when building new schools and preschools, and also phase -out such existing substances on a
stage-by-stage basis.
ppp
In 2012, Denmark introduced a ban on four hazardous phthalates. History shows that if only a few Member
States in the EU take the lead, it can influence the other Member States to do the same (Bi sphenol A in baby
bottles is one such example).
67
Annex 2
EcoWaste Coalition
The Philippine plastic waste problem: Environmental, social, and
economic dimensions
68
Introduction
The production, use, and disposal of plastic bags have raised significant issues with regards to the
environment and policy making. In the Philippines, there is an increasing participation among local
government units to ban the use of plastic bags because of its environmental hazards. At present, at
least 59 cities and municipalities have passed local ordinances to regulate or totally ban plastic bags
in their areas. These ordinances are now at various stages of enforcement 293
At the national government level, lawmakers are also looking into the possibility of regulating the
production and use of plastic bags throughout the country. The Plastic Bag Regulation Act of 2011
(House Bill 4840) was approved by the House of Representatives. This bill compels plastic
manufacturers to phase-out non-biodegradable plastic bags within three years. All business
establishments will also be required to initiate in-house recovery programs to receive used plastic
bags from customers.
One of the Senate’s version of legislation proposes a total ban on the use of plastic bags under
Senate Bill 3233 or the Total Ban on Single-Use Carryout Bags Act of 2011. In this bill, all stores will be
prohibited to provide single-use, throw-away bags regardless of material (i.e. plastic, paper, corn
starch). As an alternative, stores will be allowed to provide their customers with reusable bags for a
reasonable price. The senate bill mentioned is still pending deliberations and approval. Both versions,
House Bill 4840 and Senate Bill 3233, will be consolidated into proposed national law and will be
calendared for deliberations.
The Office of the President of the Philippines has similarly provided the impetus to eliminate the use
of plastic bags with a statement to the media supporting use of recyclable bags. While major
business groups have expressed a strong opposition to the plastic bag ban, the President has
officially given his support to the use of recyclable bags in place of plastic bags 294
For years, environmental groups have been incessantly calling for the banning of plastic bags. Since
2002, a national coalition of community and environmental groups working for sustainable solutions
to waste and wasting called the EcoWaste Coalition (EWC) has been promoting reusable bags made
from natural fibers. The group believes that there is a serious need for a national plastic bag ban that
will phase-out all kinds of plastic bags and will develop mechanisms to take -back, collect and
“recycle” plastic bag waste. While implementation of local laws on plastic ban are being fine-tuned,
EWC recommends levies or taxes on plastic bags and proper labeling of so-called “oxo-degradable”qqq
plastic bags identifying the name of the manufacturers, the manufacturing date, and the supposed
degradation period of the bags.
qqq
The term “oxo-degradable” is used in this paper to describe plastic bags that are made from traditional raw
materials (i.e. polyethylene film) mixed with metal salt additives to initiate degradation or fragmentation when
exposed to environmental conditions such as heat from UV rays. Biodegradable plastic bags, such as those
made from starch-based materials, are not yet available in the Philippine market. The term “oxo biodegradable” plastic bags as used by the plastic industry is misleading because the ability of this product to
degrade or break down into small pieces does not imply that the product is truly biodegradable.
69
Among a host of reasons, all these efforts to ban the use of plastic bags in the Philippines are
intended to address the issue of the perennial garbage disposal that adversely affect the public
health, the economy and the environment.
Available plastic bags in the Philippines are primarily made from high density polyethylene and
polypropylene “flexibles” or mono-component soft plastic. Most single-use carrier plastic bags are
produced from high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and low-density polyethylene (LDPE). Widely used
plastic bag products include sandorrr bags, pouch, and thin plastic film bags. The Philippine plastic
industry has a niche production of thin film plastic bags that ranges f rom six to twenty micron
levels295 . As consumers shifted to convenient and disposable product packaging, the amount of postconsumer waste increased. Data from the National Statistics Office shows that the annual
consumption of Polyethylene in 1992 was 135,983 metric tons. After a decade, consu mption has
increased by almost 200% or 279,602 metric tons in 2002296. Figure 1 below shows the steady
increase of plastic waste.
Figure 1.Increasing Composition of Plastic in Municipal Waste. Source: “Comparison of
Results of Composition of Municipal Solid Wastes Generated (Composition, % wet weight)”
in National State of the Brown Environment Report, 2007.
Incessant consumption of single-use, carrier plastic bags aggravate garbage disposal problems
nationwide. The light weight and parachute-like design of these bags allow them to travel very easily
through waterways and in the air. These bags eventually end up as litter that accumulates on land
and blocks sewers and drainage systems. Plastic bags that are carelessly thrown away also pose
health hazards. Aside from pollution, they can also act as breeding grounds for disease -carrying
mosquitoes. Marine animals also get killed by plastic when they accidentally ingest or get trapped by
plastic materials discarded to the ocean 297. Plastic bags that are disposed and collected as municipal
solid waste cause detrimental effects to the environment as well. These plastic bags are mixed with
other unsegregated waste that end up being dumped or burned in landfills and other waste disposal
facilities. Such facilities give off hazardous and toxic pollutants that contaminate the air, soil, and
water sources of nearby communities.
rrr
Sando bags are thin film plastic bags with handles.
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The problems associated with plastic bags use have been anticipated by various civil society
organizations. Over time it has been observed that waste plastic bags account for a huge percentage
of pollutants being discarded to the environment. Discard surveys conducted by EcoWaste Coalition,
Global Alliance for Incinerator Alternatives (GAIA), and Greenpeace Southeast Asia revealed that the
plastic bag composition of the floatsam in Manila bay is 51.4% in 2006. In a follow-up survey in 2010,
it has been found out that 75.55% of the collected debris is composed of plastic materials, mostly
plastic bags and polystyrene packaging. In Laguna de Bay, the 2011 discard survey showed that
plastic bags compose 23% of the floatsam 298 . Plastic bags are the top marine debris collected in the
Philippines according to the 2009 Marine Index released by Ocean Conservancy. International clean up volunteers reported that they were able to collect a total of 679, 957 pounds of plastic bags debris
in just one day 299 .
The overwhelming effects of climate change on the environment calls for disaster preparedness and
mitigation. The Philippines is vulnerable to the devastating effects of increasing precipitation and
tropical cyclone intensity. The plastic bag problem magnifies the damage caused by these natural
calamities. In both cases of massive flooding brought by typhoon “Ondoy” in 2009 and the “Habagat”
monsoon rains in 2012, it was found out that one of the major causes for the flooding is the huge
amounts of garbage that blocked storm water drainages. Discarded plastic wastes, due to their
indestructibility and non-biodegradability, are the most visible components of garbage that pollute
the environment.
This research on the plastic situation in the Philippines seeks to describe and analyse the plastic
wastes problem in the country, particularly the issues associated with single -use, carry-out plastic
bags. It aims to strengthen knowledge and understanding about the adverse effects of plastic bags
on public health and the environment. It also aims to inform the public about environment - friendly
alternatives to plastic bags. Lastly, this research intends to highlight its importance in local and
national policy-making, most especially in pushing for an effective nationwide plastic ban.
The method used in this study is content analysis of relevant documents, previous studies, and other
related literature. Personal interviews are also used to obtain perceptions and insights of various
stakeholders, which include the plastic manufacturers, business establishments, local government
units, lawmakers and consumers.
The plastic industry in the Philippines
The upstream sector of the plastic industry provides raw materials for making plastic products. Crude
oil is extracted from the ground and goes through a distillation process in a naphtha cracker plant.
This process refines feedstock or monomers in the form of petrochemicals. Around 2.4% to 4% of all
distillation products in upstream production are further refined for producing monomers to be used
in all types of plastics and packaging 300. The local players in the upstream sector are JG Summit
Petrochemical Corporation based in Batangas City and Petrocorp in Bataan, both found in Luzon.
The mid-stream sector is responsible for converting these monomers to polymers. Oil by -products,
whether in gas or liquid form, are transformed into plastic pellets. Upstream and mid -stream sectors
are both highly capital-intensive industries amounting to US$1 Billion, while downstream sectors are
labor intensive 300 . Figure 2 shows the material flow of plastics in the country as of 2004.
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Figure 2: Estimated Material Flow of Plastics (in metric tons). As cited in Gapuz, E. “Workshop on Waste Plastics
Management in Developing Countries”, 2011. RM = raw material. RP = reinforced plastics.
The Philippine Plastics Industry Association (PPIA) is the organi zation of downstream plastic
manufacturers. This sector transforms plastic resins into finished plastic products for both consumer
and industrial uses. Plastic products include packaging, household products, construction, fibers and
textiles, electronics, transportation, and medical applications. PPIA also claims to represent the
plastic recycling sector. There are 300 manufacturers and distributors of plastic bags affiliated with
the association. Big manufacturers supply plastic bags to supermarket chains, while small players
cater to the wetsss and dry products of the public market. Employment in the plastic bag sector is
composed of 175,000 direct and indirect workers according to PPIA301 However, data from the
National Statistics Office shows that employment in plastic bag manufacturing only reaches 37,000 to
73,000 (2008 and 2009) 302 . Plastic manufacturing businesses are based in the National Capital Region
(cities of Caloocan, Malabon, and Navotas) and Region IV-A.
In a position paper released in 2011 by the PPIA titled PPIA Position Paper on Proposed Legislation on
Plastics, the industry stated that there are no viable alternatives that can replace plastic bags with
equivalent benefits in sanitation and convenience. The PPIA claims that there are no actual “scientific
fact-based studies” conducted about their products prior to implementing plastic bans. Deliberations
to declare plastic bags and expanded polystyrene packaging as Non-Environmentally Acceptable
Product (NEAP) ttt have been deferred since the life cycle analysis (LCA) of these products are yet to
be conducted.
sss
Wet refers to products that need to be refrigerated or frozen in order to maintain its quality. Products
include meat, fish, poultry, dairy, beverages, and the like.
ttt
Under Article 29, Section 4 of Republic Act 9003 (The Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000), the
NSWMC (National Solid Waste Management Commission) is tasked to evaluate products that are NEAP –
unsafe in production, use, by-products, and post-consumer effects in the environment.
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The PPIA is now appealing to lawmakers to wait for the results of the LCAs before making judgments
in enacting a national law on plastic bans 303 .The PPIA insists that the real problem is not the material
or the product itself but the attitude and improper waste disposal practices of people that need to be
addressed by any legislation. The group believes that the government failed to strictly enforce the
existing laws on anti-littering, waste segregation, and sanitary landfill disposal. Instead of
implementing prohibition on the use of plastic bags, the group suggests that there should be a
regulated use of thin single-use plastic bags below 15 microns, and that a phase out period be
allowed to extend from two to five years. The PPIA also recommends substitution of conventional
plastic bags with “biodegradable”uuu plastic bags. Additionally, they request to still allow the use of
plastic bags that are 15 microns thick, provided that there is mandatory scheme of recovery for
recycling. Also, there should be a reward system for consumers who re turn plastic bags for
recycling303.
Effect on the Plastic Industry of Plastic Bag Regulation
The plastic industry claims that the Philippine plastic bag sector is able to compete with imports due
to the capability to produce thin bags. Local manufacturers have a niche market for plastic bags with
six to ten micron levels. Since the implementation of a plastic ban, local manufacturers now find it
difficult to shift their production to other plastic bag products because their machines are not easily
convertible 303 .
As more cities in the National Capital Region implement bans, the PPIA say that the plastic industry
will be forced to downsize by 50%, with about 500 players (including non-PPIA members) composed
of mostly small and medium enterprises to be affected. PPIA asserts that this would mean job losses
for over 175,000 workers in the industry. In a media statement, former PPIA President Crispian Lao
stated that the production of plastic products is currently down by 20-30%304 .
The PPIA cited data from the National Statistics Office showing a large drop of demand for
domestically produced high density polyethylene (HDPE) and polystyrene (PS) that is used for most
plastic bags and expanded polystyrene. In a direct quote, Lao stated that “HDPE showed a drop of 29
% from 153,627 metric tons in 2010 to 108,880 MT in 2011, while PS saw a 26% decrease from
28,959MT in 2010 to 21,395M/T in 2011.” PPIA claims that if the banning on their products
continues, more plastic manufacturing companies are threatened to either downscale or close down
their businesses304 .
Nonetheless, the economic downturn of the plastic industry cannot be blamed on the
implementation of plastic bans alone. The plastic manufacturers face unfair competition with
smuggled plastic resins and cheap imports of finished plastic products from China and Malaysia.
There had also been cases of distortions to tariff rates imposed by the government. Another factor is
the absence of a local petrochemical industry. Plastic manufacturers are then left with no choice but
to depend on capital-intensive imports for raw materials. Finally, the high cost of production,
specifically power and labor costs, slows down investment and revenues for plastic manufacturers 304.
uuu
Again, the term “biodegradable” is crudely used by the PPIA when they refer to oxo -degredable plastic bags.
Please refer to previous footnote aaa.
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The role of other key players
National Government Agencies
The Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) is the main government agency
responsible for the protection and conservation of the country’s natural resources. Through the
Environmental Management Bureau (EMB), the DENR formulates policies and recommendations to
assist local government units to comply with Republic Act 9003 (RA 9003) or the Ecological Solid
Waste Management Act of 2000.
In a media statement, DENR Secretary Ramon Paje has lauded local gove rnment units in Metro
Manila for implementing plastic bans in their localities. The secretary believes that banning the use
of plastic bags will help clean up Manila Bay and other bodies of water in cities. The DENR also
entered into an agreement with various supermarkets and mall owners that seek to promote
reusable bags to consumers. Secretary Paje also stated that about six million plastic bags in a week
will be eliminated as potential pollutants when people start using reusable bags once a week 305.
The National Solid Waste Management Commission (NSWMC) was created as a special committee
under the Office of the President of the Philippines. It is mandated by RA 9003 to oversee the
implementation of solid waste management plans and prescribe policies. The N SWMC is also tasked
to formulate a National Solid Waste Management Framework and manage a Solid Waste
Management Fund. This agency is also responsible for approving and monitoring solid waste
management plans of local government units.
The Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) is mandated by law to create a viable Recycling Program
scheme. The agency is also tasked to study project standards for recyclable and recycled materials,
expand markets for the processing and purchasing of recyclable materials. The Bureau of Product
Standards (BPS) of the DTI shall implement an Eco-labeling Programvvv to promote reuse and
recycling. This consists of a coding system for packaging materials and products.
The Department of Science and Technology (DOST) shall promote the development of an industrial
clean technology/production program. This agency is also tasked to explore studies about the
alternative usage of non-recyclable and non-reusable materials. These studies include utilization of
organic materials as fertilizer and biofuels, energy recovery from solid wastes, and discovery of
recovered resources and its uses.
Non-Government Organizations (NGOs)
As mentioned previously, various advocacy groups have been lobbying for many years for a national
law that will ban the use of plastic bags. These groups include Greenpeace Southeast Asia, Mother
Earth Foundation, Global Alliance for Incinerator Alternatives, EcoWaste Coalition and many
others. They sustain mass campaigns to urge both local and national governments to adopt
environmentally friendly measures.
vvv
The eco-labeling program in the Philippines is an application of ISO 14024 more particularly, Type I
Environmental Labeling or Ecolabelling. This ISO series awards environmental label to pro ducts and services
that meet a set of predetermined requirements or based on criteria set for a particular product or service.
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Public awareness and understanding on the plastic bag ban continues to grow through information
drives and activities conducted by these groups. NGOs play a vital role in advancing the
environmental agenda to address the plastic waste problems. One of their main goals is for people to
take the initiative in reducing waste. The International Plastic-Free Day is annually celebrated by
NGOs and public interest groups to remind the public about the detrimental effects of using plastics
and put pressure on policy-makers to take the next step of passing a national plastic ban.
The immediate phase-out of all types of plastic bags is the solution to reduce plastic waste according
to NGOs. Both conventional and degradable bags are still made from the same plastic material and
can release harmful chemicals to the environment. NGOs also pose a challenge for plastic
manufacturers to put labels in the plastic bags they produce indicating the degradation period of the
product. They also urge manufactures to be more accountable by taking back plastic discards for
“recycling.” As a solution, NGOs claim that the best ecological alternative to plastic bags is to
promote the use of reusable carrier bags made from native raw materials. This will not only help the
environment, but will also help workers in small cottage industries to earn a living. In terms of
helping people adjust to and comply with eliminating their dependency on plastic bags, these groups
believe that the government should give more incentives to encourage people to use cloth and
bayongwww bags. Consequently, disincentives are to be given to discourage those who still use plastic
bags.
Non-government organizations continue to address pressing issues and concerns on the plastic
problem through campaigns, lobbying, community organizing, and in some instances assisting to
raise funds for tangible community-based projects that will equally benefit people and the
environment.
Informal Waste Sector
The informal waste sector includes “individuals, families, groups, or small enterprises engaged in the
recovery of waste materials, either on a full-time or part-time basis with revenue generation as
motivation306 .” Additionally, they are working but are not formally recognized or accredited by any
government entity. At present, it is estimated that about 20% of the waste deposited to landfills are
recovered by waste pickers 307 . Out of recyclable plastic wastes being retrieved, HDPE and LDPE
thermosetting plastics (i.e. shampoo bottles and food crates) are more likely to be collected because
of its high selling value to junkshops.
In random interviews, waste pickers at Pier 18 in Tondo, Manila, said that only two types of plastic
bags are being retrieved for recycling. They pick up “white plastic” which refers to clear LDPE plastic
bags used for packaging bread and frozen food. The other type is “black plastic” which was described
as black and glossy materials for sheeting purposes. The selling price of these particular types of bags
ranges from PHP 2.00 to PHP 5.00 per kilo (US$0.05-0.12). When these materials are cleaned or
washed and dried, the selling price increases to PHP 7.00-10.00 per kilo (US$0.17-0.24).
www
A “bayong” is any reusable carry bag made out woven dried leaves of different plants. In many parts of the
Philippines, bayong bags are
made from various materials depending on which plants are abundant in the environment. The common plant
fibers used for bayong are pandan, buri, abaca, and water hyacinth leaves.
75
Other single use plastic bags made of thin film are not utilized for recycling. These bags remain in the
waste stream as a huge part of the non-recyclable waste that accumulates in dump sites over time.
Figure 3 shows amount of recyclable materials recovered by primary collectors. Disposal site
scavengers retrieve the highest rate of plastic recyclables. This shows that a considerable amount of
recyclable materials still end up going to dumps rather than being recovered at source as proposed
by materials recovery facilities and door-to-door eco-aides (waste collectors).
Figure 3: Collection of Recyclable Materials by Primary Collectors (kg/person/day). As cited in “National Framework Plan for
the Informal Sector in Solid Waste Management, May 2010”.
The Technical Skills Development Authority (TESDA) recognizes the potential of informal waste
workers in improving the waste sector industry. TESDA recently established a partnership with the
NSWMC to develop accredited skills and training courses for sanitary landfill personnel. This is done
to ensure proper maintenance and operation of landfill technologies, and to minimize ill effects to
health and environment. It also aims to provide additional livelihood and employment opportunities.
The target audience of this program also includes informal waste workers who will be given
preference to be employed as sanitary landfill personnel upon completion of training for
accreditation. While the training modules for waste workers are still in the works, this project gives
prospects for significantly increasing the recovery rate of recyclable materials and diverting solid
waste from disposal facilities.
Current waste disposal methods and proposed technologies
Open dumpsites and landfills are the most common waste disposal facilities in the country.
Unsegregated solid waste are disposed indiscriminately without careful planning and attention to
environmental and health impacts. In time, many of these disposal sites have reached full capacity,
driving many local government units (LGUs) to find new dumping sites. Rapid changes in population
density and consumer behavior have also contributed much to the increasing volume of garbage.
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Leachate percolated the land and hazardous fumes from decomposing garbage pose serious health
and environmental problems. In many areas without dumpsites, dumping garbage in vacant lots and
open burning of uncollected wastes are still practiced by the public. A study conducted by the Asian
Development Bank (ADB) reports that an estimated 6,700 tons of garbage are generated per day in
Metro Manila. Of these, only about 720 tons are recycled or composted, while the remaining 6,000
tons are hauled to dumpsites, dumped illegally on land and bodies of water, or openly burned to
pollute the air308 .
Republic Act 9003 or the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act was enacted in 2000 in order to
address the worsening garbage situation. It aims to utilize environmentally -sound methods that
maximize the use of valuable resources and encourage resource conservation and recovery. It also
aims to reduce the volume of solid waste (by composting, recycling, re -use, recovery, and other
waste reduction processes) before these waste are collected, undergo treatment, or disposed of
properly. Local government units are mandated by law to close down open dumpsites and designate
areas for sanitary landfills as sites for final waste disposal. These landfills are expected to exert
engineering control over possible environmental impacts during their operations.
At present, many LGUs continue to violate RA 9003 as they continue to operate open dumpsites
illegally. While RA 9003 specifically gave a time-bound order for the closure and rehabilitation of
open dumpsites by year 2006, many LGUs are not capable of closing and rehabilitating their
dumpsites due to budget constraints and the absence of alternate appropriate disposal sites 309
.
The provisions of RA 9003 also designate the barangay xxx the task to develop an ecological solid
waste management program. Through the establishment of Materials Recovery Facilities (MRFs), the
barangay initiates formal waste recovery by enforcing waste segregation and collection at source. As
of the 3rd Quarter of 2011, the National Solid Waste Commission reports that out of 40,000
barangays, only 7,327 MRFs are serving 8,323 barangays in the country310 .
The lack of collection and storage facilities and the disregard to practice proper waste segregation
are part of the reasons why only a small percentage of solid waste goes to recycling. Even with the
long existence of recycling factories in the country, the market demand for recyclable materials
seems to be unmatched by its local supply. The majority of recyclable materials are not recovered; it
remains in the waste stream because of excessive contamination when mixed and dumped with
other types of garbage 311.
Other Proposed Technologies for Treating Plastic Waste
The plastic industry claims that all types of plastics are 100% recyclable. However, there are
limitations whereby “recycling” plastic is possible. Rather than recycling, a more suitable term is
downcycling because plastics, unlike glass or aluminum, do not get converted back to similar objects
once they are ‘recycled’. Recovered plastics are converted to lower forms of plastics up to a certain
extent that these materials cannot be recycled anymore yyy.
xxx
yyy
A barangay is the smallest political unit in the Philippines.
Please also refer to the section about recycling in the introduction of the report.
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This means that the more plastics undergo chemical processes, the more complex their chemical
structures get, and in turn the less recyclable the plastic materials will be. It can also be noted only a
small percentage of post-consumer plastic wastes are being recovered for “recycling.” Discarded
plastic wastes that end up as pollutants when burned or dumped in landfills and bodies of water are
highly contaminated. Cleaning and sorting out plastic bags are too costly and labor-intensive.
The Department of Science and Technology, through its Industrial Technology Development Institute
(ITDI), has been proposing processes and product innovations on “recycling" plastic wastes. These
technologies are being developed in support of LGUs that are tasked to implement RA 9003. The
following are some of the ways being developed to convert post-consumer waste plastics into
products and energy:
1. Processing Waste Styropor (expanded polystyrene) Using a Densifier or “Styro Oven”
Waste polystyrene and plastic bags undergo the process of densification. Waste is melted in
cooking oil at a certain controlled heating temperature. The melted materials are then
moulded into densified products for functional and novelty use. Examples of final products
are table tops, planters, and tiles or paving blocks. In terms of economic viability, densified
products can operate at small scale operations. However, the end products have limited
markets. Other challenges are the relatively high operating cost and health risks associated
with gas emissions during the said process 312 .
2. Waste Plastic Bags in Asphalt Concrete and Cement Tiles
Shredded plastic bags are incorporated with aggregates and cement in order to improve
binding strength and durability of the asphalt mix. Including plastics also improves asphalt
application performance. This proven technology is also used in other countries. One
disadvantage, however, is it prolongs the processing of asphalt mix. Adding shredded plastic
aggregates to asphalt binders may cause delay in achieving the right temperature at which
the asphalt mix will be applied. The final product mixture is used in constructing new road
pavements and resurfacing or repairing pot holes 312 .
3. Thermal Processing of Industrial Waste by Pyrolysis
This involves a thermal processing equipment that utilize industrial wastes such as plastic
laminates for heat and oil recovery. For industrial purposes, waste plastics to energy is
claimed to be first technology in the country to process non-recyclable waste plastics to
liquid fuel. It produces liquid hydrocarbon that was “proven to exhibit Poly Technology and
all the properties of a regular diesel fuel, but with lowered sulfur contents.”
The process is done inside a vacuum and proponents claim that this does not produce any
resultant chemicals that can be released to the atmosphere. The claimed conversion
efficiency rate is around 75-80%. At present, the machine is being developed to reach a 5-ton
daily production capacity312 .
According to the DOST, utilizing solid waste is primary aim of these plastic waste technologies. This
agency does not have the means to produce the machines or units that use these technologies that
are just incinerators in disguise labeled as pyrolysis, gasification, plasma arc among others.
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These technologies are classified as “incinerator” by European Union and United States
Environmental Protection Agency and thereby banned under the Phili ppine Clean Air Act of 1999 or
RA 8749. Incinerators produce more toxic waste in the form of ash and air pollutants which create
more problems in health, environment and waste management. A recent public health impacts
report313 , states that modern incinerators in the EU are a major source of ultra-fine (<0.1 μm)
particulate emissions. Even modern pollution control devices such as air filters do not prevent the
escape of these hazardous emissions. Ultra-fine particles are particles produced from burning
materials (including PCBs and dioxins), which are smaller in size than what is currently regulated or
monitored by the U.S. EPA. These particles can be lethal, causing cancer, heart attacks, strokes,
asthma, and pulmonary disease. In addition, incinerators are very expensive facilities to generate
energy and to handle waste, while also creating significant economic burdens for host cities or
municipalities.
The DOST has not initiated supplementary tests to evaluate smoke emissions and other harmful by products that may be released to the environment while operating these machines. Hence, there are
no existing standards to prove that technologies are safe to operate.
Alternatives to plastic bag use
The growing awareness about the environmental effects of post-consumer plastic wastes have
prompted local governments and the public to look for ways to significantly reduce solid waste being
generated in their areas. Alternative materials that are similarly convenient, practical, and cost effective are now being sought to decrease the demand for single use carrier plastic bags and change
consumer preferences towards environmentally friendly options. In effect, efforts to find alternatives
are encouraging people to be more conscious about how much waste they generate. It empowers
people to directly participate in giving solutions to various environmental waste -related problems.
Also, people are being made aware of opportunities to gain more economic benefits by promoting
conservative and wise use of resources.
Reusable Carrier Bags
Reusable bagszzz are designed to last for multiple uses. Unlike single use plastic bags, these bags are
not thrown out after use. These bags can be kept, washed, and can be reused for long periods of
time.
Although the initial cost of purchasing a reusable bag seems to be more expensive than buying one
piece of plastic bag, its durability and long-term availability can make up for the cost of buying
numerous plastic bags every time a bag is needed.
zzz
Reusable bags are broadly defined as any type of bag designed for multiple uses. These bags are made from
various materials such as natural fibers (i.e. bayong), cloth, non-woven polypropylene (PP) bags, and also thick
plastic bags. For the purpose of discussing alternatives to plastic bags, the term ‘reusable bags’ will only refer to
those bags with materials that are made of natural fibers . Non-woven PP bags are discussed in another part of
this paper.
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An article from the United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) states that using cloth bags can
save 6 plastic bags in a week, which translates to 288 plastic bags in a year and 22,176 bags in an
average life time 314. The most common reusable bags being promoted by environmental groups are
bayongaaaa and cloth bags. Using cloth bags out of woven cotton and canvas (also known as kits cloth)
is also practical and convenient. Unlike bulky bayong bags, cloth bags can be easily folded and stored
when not in use. As a stop-gap solution to residual plastic waste problem, other materials such as foil
packs from juices, wrappers, laminates and other types of plastic packaging can be recycled and used
as raw materials in making carrier bags.
Among the identified alternatives for using plastic bags, environmental groups recommend the
bayong bag for its social and environmental benefits. While plastic bags depend on non -renewable
resources for its production, alternative resources for producing reusable bags are proven to be
more environmentally-friendly and sustainable. Plant fibers such as pandan leaves, palm leaves, jute,
abaca, and water hyacinth are abundant, accessible, and inexpensive. These materials can be grown
from a household backyard and bayong weaving can be started as a home business. Since the
production of bayong bags requires intensive labor to produce, this industry can create more
business and job opportunities for people. In 2009, the DTI Regional Operations and Development
Group (DTI-RODG) initiated efforts to strengthen the campaign on the “Balik Bayong”bbbb
Development Project. Region IV A, which includes the provinces of Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, Rizal,
and Quezon, participated in the project. The launching activities happened in the weaving centers of
Cavinti, Laguna and Mauban, Quezon. The DTI-RODG gave special trainings for weavers about
scientific dyeing methods 315. This training was set in order to boost weavers to upgrade their
products aesthetically. Since weaving bayong bags is labor intensive, the DTI expects this industry to
generate more employment. Bayong bags are also viable alternatives to synthetic fabric bags that
are being imported from China. In turn, producing and expanding market demands for bayong bags
can also benefit the domestic economy 315 . The DTI further explains that “if every family above the
poverty threshold buys a bayong at P100 per year, the domestic demand shall reach P1.3 billion
annually. It is further estimated that 40% of the total or P520 million will redound to the labor sector,
numbering 16,000 nationwide 315.”
Paper Bags
The sudden shift of business establishments to paper bags in place of plastic bags is one of the
unintended consequences of imposing plastic bans. Single-use paper bags may be made from wood,
yet another declining natural resource. They still contribute to waste by careless disposal and
“throw-away” attitude. Another disadvantage is that paper is not a durable material for carrying
heavy loads and packaging wet products. It tears easily and is not water resistant.
The absence of handles also makes it difficult to transport products in paper bags. While paper bags
are biodegradable and are more rapidly degraded in the environment than plastics, these are n ot
necessarily good alternatives in terms of function.
aaaa
A bayong is a reusable carry bag made out woven leaves of different plants.
The term balik means “to bring back” the use of bayong bags
bbbb
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Industry promoted ‘alternatives’
Non-Woven PP Bags (“Eco-Bags”)
Shopping malls have introduced the use of “eco-bags” to its customers. These reusable shopping
bags have texture similar to cloth bags but the material used is non-woven polypropylene (PP),
another type of plastic. Most eco-bags are imported at a cheaper cost from China and other
countries from South East Asia. Although these bags prove to be more durable than paper, these
bags still encourage the mass production of plastic materials which is not really sustainable and
environmentally friendly.
“Oxo-degradable” Plastic Bags
“Oxo-degradable” bags are made from the same raw materials of conventional plastic bags such as
polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polystyrene (PS). These plastic materials will be infused
with additives that are based from chemical catalysts from transition metals like cobalt, manganese,
iron, etc. The additives will enable degradation or fragmentation of the bag. Physical evidence shows
that “oxo-degradable” plastic bags are capable of breaking down into small fragments when exposed
to the elements such as air, heat, UV light, and friction 316. Aside from additives that are used to
trigger the breaking down process, “oxo-degradable” are also infused with chemical stabilizers to
stop unnecessary degradation while the plastic bags are still in use. Since the effect of these
stabilizers is for a limited time, these plastic bags may immediately lose their mechanical properties
(i.e. elasticity and durability) when not stored under proper conditions 316 .
The degradation of “oxo-degradable” plastics is the result of a chemical reaction. The visible plastic
waste will break down into invisible plastic fragments that may still pose risks of pollution.
Degradation is not the same as biodegradation because plastic fragments do not cease to be plastic
so these will never be absorbed back into the environment. Thus, “oxo-degradable” plastic bags may
be degradable, but not truly biodegradable 316.
Discarded “oxo-degradable” bags may also disrupt both the composting and recycling processes of
post-consumer wastes. The European Plastics Recyclers Association (EuPR) and the Association of
Postconsumer Plastic Recyclers (APR) stated that the chemical additives may destabilize the chemical
structure of other recyclable plastic materials and reduce their recycling value 316 . Also, since “oxodegradable” are not biodegradable in reality, these discarded materials are not acceptable for
composting.
The use of “oxo-degradable” plastic bags as an alternative to conventional plastic bags is strongly
endorsed by the plastic industry and some lawmakers. On the other hand, environmental groups
argue that the shift from conventional plastic bags to “oxo-degradable” plastic bags is not the
solution to plastic waste. It does not change the consumption behaviors of people who rely on singleuse, disposable plastic bags.
Using “oxo-degradable” bags is no different from using conventional plastic bags because these
materials are still made from petroleum derivatives. It continues to adding to carbon footprint, and
the degraded plastic fragments can still pollute the environment.
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In effect, using “oxo-degradable” plastic bags gives out the false impression that using plastic bags
are not harmful to the environment. While it takes relatively shorter time for these to be visually
gone, improper disposal of these bags still leads to littering, drain blockage, and threaten public
health and wildlife.
While some “oxo-degradable” plastic manufacturers claim they were issued a certificate by the
DOST, a top engineercccc employed in the DOST explained that there must be three testing levels to
be completed before they can finally validate their claims on the benefits of their products. The first
level for testing is degradability. The samples of “oxo-degradable” plastic bags submitted by the PPIA
to the DOST-ITDI qualified for this stage. There was physical evidence that the plastic bag was broke
down after exposing the product samples to sunlight. There were also no visible residues left behind
by the bag. However, the product in question did not yet undergo the second and third levels for
testing. The second level for testing is biodegradability. The engineer admitted that as of now, the
DOST-ITDI is not equipped to conduct the appropriate test methods to determine if the prod uct is
truly biodegradable. The DOST cannot determine whether the by-products of post-degradation can
be assimilated and absorbed back in the environment without any harmful effects. The third level for
testing is toxicity. It would take a longer time and more advance test methods in order to prove that
there are no hazardous residues that are left behind by this type of product. Furthermore, the
engineer also said that there is no existing national law or directive from the government to compel
their agency to perform additional tests and experiments to prove the claims of those who are
endorsing “oxo-degradable” plastic bags.
Figure 4: List of Cities and Municipalities with Plastic Bag Ban Source: Google Maps http://maps.google.com.ph
Local ordinances and enforcement
Over the years, there is an increasing participation among local governments to ban the use of plastic
bags. Local ordinances on plastic ban were enacted in the following cities and municipalities where
there had been previous experiences of adversity from heavy floods and other environmental waste
problems:
cccc
Personal Interview. Informant requested his/her name to be withheld.
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In order to gauge the perceptions of the public who seem to be unprepared with the legislation of
plastic ban ordinances, face-to-face interviews were conducted in six cities in Metro Manila where
these local ordinances are enforced. These cities are Muntinlupa, Makati, Quezon, Las Pinas, Pasay,
and Pasig. The interview respondents are composed of consumers, street sweepers, enforcers of the
ban, and store operators. They were randomly selected in areas where there are active spending
activities such as public markets, groceries, and malls. Direct observation of the mentioned areas was
also used to assess if there is a correlation between plastic bag bans and littering incidence. The
respondents were informed that the interviews will be used for research purposes. The standard
interview questions that were asked from each respondent are the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Are you aware of the plastic bag ban implemented in your city?
What is your opinion about this ban?
How are you being affected by the existing ban?
What do you use as alternatives for plastic bags?
Most of the respondents where the plastic bans have been implemented for over six months to one
year gave positive responses about the ordinances on plastic bag bans. In Muntinlupa City, people
said that they are already used to bringing their own reusable bags when shopping. More
importantly, these people were able to understand the reasons why there is a need to impose a
plastic bag ban in their city. They were also able to associate the ban with positive effects such as less
flood occurrence and a decrease in visible street litter.
Enforcers of the plastic bag ban (either police or members designated enforcing bodies) said that
there were many complaints at the early stages of the enforcing the ban, but in time people came to
understand and comply because of continuous information drives by the local government.
On the other hand, in cities where the plastic ban has been recently implemented, people are still
adjusting to change their shopping habits. Many of them have negative opinions about the plastic
ban mentioning the inconveniences such as transport and handling of wet products.
On the part of the store operators, some of respondents said that they are worried that they will lose
customers if they do not provide them with plastic bags for their purchases. Other store operators
said that they benefited from the plastic ban because they saved extra costs by not buying plastic
bags. Overall, there are still customers who complain while there are also those who have adapted to
the situation by adjusting to their shopping behaviors.
Retailers of plastic bags have also been interviewed. According to small retailers, their sales dropped
since the implementation of the plastic ban. Since most of their customers are market vendors or
store operators, they lost the demand for plastic bags. Meanwhile, big retailers of plastic bags were
able to shift their products according to consumer demands. Instead of selling plastic bags, they are
now selling paper bags and alternative packaging products. They are also able to replace their
products with reusable bags such as non-woven PP bags. All retailers are not allowed to sell their
stock products to customers unless it will be purchased wholesale. They also mentioned that there
are still those who buy plastic bags for household consumption.
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In summary, the perceptions of the respondents reflected factors affecting public compliance to the
plastic bans being enforced. It is important to note that strict implementation of the ban must always
be accompanied with an effective information drive to make the public understand the reasons for
implementing such ordinances.
Muntinlupa City
City Ordinance No.10-109 which prohibits the use of plastic bags for dry products and regulated for
wet products is a landmark ordinance as Muntinlupa is the first city in Metro Manila to fully
implement a ban against the use of plastic bags. The ordinance also prohibits the use of polystyrene
for food packaging. The said ordinance has been in effect since January 1, 2011. One of the major
motivations for imposing a plastic ban is the tragedy of typhoon Ondoy in 2009. Over 3,500 families
in Muntinlupa were forced to flee their homes, as heavy floods brought about numerous casualties
and severe damage to infrastructures and properties. This experience prompted Muntinlupa Mayor
Aldrin San Pedro to take action on disaster mitigation. He then asked the city council to come up with
a law to ban the use of plastics and styrofoam (a brand of expanded polystyrene).
Five months after the ban took effect, Mayor San Pedro announced in a press statement that the
plastic ban saved the city from flooding during tropical storm Falcon. No flooding occurred in low and
previously-flooded areas of Barangays Tunasan and Putatan, and the area near Muntinlupa City Hall.
Huge volumes of rain water were able to flow continuously, since there was significantly less garbage
in waterways. While the mayor acknowledged that the plastic ban is not the main solution to the
flooding problem, it has relieved the garbage problem of the city.
In 2010, the Waste Analysis and Characterization Survey (WACS) showed that the volume of garbage
collected per day was composed of 29.30% plastic waste, and out of the total volume of plastic
waste, 13.58 % are film plastic (LDPE) and foam polystyrene.
The Environment Sanitation Center (ESC) is tasked by the city to ensure effective implementation the
ordinance. Two teams of the ESC conduct regular rounds in the city to ensure adherence of
establishments and residents. According to ESC Chief Al Cosio, it was not easy to change the mindset
of people about using plastic bags. Small businesses were among those not complying with the ban.
Market vendors and sari-sari store (small convenience stores in residential areas) owners insisted on
using plastic bags, while claiming that they are not aware of the law. Since the implementation of the
plastic ban, 1,400 establishments have been issued tickets for committing violations. There were also
seven establishments that faced closure of their businesses for violating the law four times.
Violators are fined PHP 500.00 for the first offense, PHP 1,000.00 for the second offense, and PHP
2,500.00 third offense. It is the discretion of the court to enforce either imprisonment or suspension
or cancellation of business permits for repeat offenders.
Las Piñas City
The city implemented Ordinance No. 1036-11, which bans all business establishment from using thin
film, single use, carry out plastic bags and polystyrene (Styrofoam) as packaging materials for
purchased products. Such establishments are also not allowed to offer or sell plastic bags. This
ordinance took effect on January 1, 2012. Since the plastic ban was implemented with defined waste
disposal plan, the volume of solid waste collected from the city has decreased by 37%.
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The City Environmental Sanitation Office reported that plastic bag and polystyrene wastes collected
also declined by 4%. Mayor Vergel Aguilar declared that the continuing compliance with the existing
will result in 70% reduction of solid waste for the next five years. To support the plastic bag
regulation, the city had initially distributed 100,000 pieces of cloth bags to households as substitute
to plastic bags.
The respondents who were randomly interviewed in Las Pi ñas generally showed understanding of
the need to reduce plastic wastes and the rationale behind it. They reasoned that this action will lead
to fewer occurrences of flooding in their area. However, both the public and the vendors were
confused about the use of thin cellophane bags or the so-called “plastic labo” in Philippine dialect.
Some vendors also noticed that customers bring re-sealable food containers for purchasing wet
products such as meat and fish. People are also receptive to the idea of bringing reusable bags.
Pasig City
The local plastic ban in Pasig City also known as City Ordinance No. 09-2010 was approved on June
17, 2010. Since the approval of the ordinance, the city has been tentative in implementing the law.
The ordinance took effect on January 1, 2012. The said ordinance prohibits use of all forms of plastic
bags for dry products, while regulating use for wet products. Polystyrene or S tyrofoam food
containers are also not allowed in the city.
On July 2011, owners and operators of “quick service restaurants “in Pasig City have agreed with the
city government to minimize plastic bag consumption. About 320 restaurants have shifted to usi ng
paper bags for ready-to-go food orders. According to Raquel Naciongayo, head of the City
Environment and Natural Resources Office (CENRO), these restaurants showed strong resistant
against the city ordinance. After several meetings and consultations, however, business proprietors
and city officials were able to reach a compromise, regarding the gradual phase -out of plastics. Pasig
City is also implementing the “straw-less day” done every Friday in order to reduce plastic straw
wastes. While the city ordinance has specified the ban of any form of plastic bags for dry products
and polystyrene food packaging, the city government and CENRO are giving at least two years for
business establishments and residents to reconsider their buying and shopping behavior by
complying with the provisions of the law.
The general response of interviewees from Pasig revealed doubts about the enforcement of the
plastic ban and branded the initiative as “ningas cogon” (a Filipino wisdom that compares an action
to a burning cogon grass, i.e. short-lived). Vendors in the public market are worried that replacing
plastic bags with paper bags would entail additional costs.
Quezon City
The local government of Quezon City enacted two environment protection ordinances, SP -2140 and
SP-2103. These ordinances took effect on September 1, 2012. The Plastic Bag Reduction Ordinance
(SP-2140) regulates plastic bags use and imposed an environmental fee for its use. The public is
charged a Plastic Recovery System Fee with a fixed amount of P2.00 (US$ 0.05) for every plastic bag
regardless of size. The collected fees will then be used as “green fund” for the city’s environmental
programs. In addition, the SP-2103 ordinance is a directive for all business establishments to put
visible notices in their stores to remind customers to bring recyclable or reusable bags for shopping.
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Incentives are given to customers who bring reusable bags. Using a point system, customers earn
points that can be converted as discounts every time they do shopping. Customers are also enticed
to certain privileges like using special counters or designated green lanes in stores for convenient
shopping.
Establishments that do not comply with the ordinance are fined PHP 1,000.00 for the first offense,
PHP 3,000.00 for the second offense, and PHP 5,000.00 or revocation of their business permits for
the third offense.
The ordinance does not promote a total plastic ban in the city. People are still allowed to use
conventional plastic bags that are above 15 microns in thickness. Since these plastic bags are durable,
the city is encouraging people to reuse a plastic bag instead of throwing it away after a single use.
Also exempted from the ordinance are plastic bags with no handles, holes, or strings such as those
bags used for wrapping fresh and cooked foods. These particular types of plastic bags are commonly
referred to as “plastic labo” as mentioned above.
Random face-to-face interviews with Quezon City residents showed that people get confused on
which products are exempted from the plastic ban. Some of them do not understand why the city is
still promoting plastic use when such material is being banned city-wide. Majority of the respondents
answered that they are getting used to bring reusable bags for shopping. They also no tice a decrease
of visible litter on the streets and waterways.
Pasay City
The Pasay City Government has implemented City Ordinance No. 4647 which bans use of non compostable plastic carryout bags in stores and wet markets. It took effect on September 1, 2012. All
business establishments in the city are allowed to provide their customers recyclable paper bags,
reusable bags, or compostable plastic bags as containers for purchased products. This ordinance also
allows business owners to charge a reasonable fee for recyclable or reusable bags. Violators of this
ordinance will be given a warning for their first offense.
There will be a fine of PHP 1, 000.00 to PHP 3,000.00 for the next offenses. Further offense will lead
to business closure or cancellation of business permit.
Most of the vendors from the public market are not in favor of the plastic ban. According to them,
using paper bags in place of plastic bags are giving them the burden of added cost since paper is
more expensive than plastic. Vendors also worry about displeasing their customers since they are not
allowed to wrap their purchases in plastic bags with handles. Most of the consumers interviewed
also perceive paper bags as the alternative packaging. Only a minority showed awareness and
willingness to bring reusable bags when shopping.
National Legislation
The legal debate on whether or not plastic bags should be phased-out has been going on for a long
time. Lawmakers have proposed numerous bills over the years, in an attempt to regulate or to tally
eliminate the use of plastic bags in the country.
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Several versions have been drafted and deliberated on but until now there is no existing national law
that will serve as blanket policy that will stop the production and consumption of plastic bags.
Lawmakers still have reservations as to the specific materials that they should endorse to the public
in place of plastic bags. They are also debating on the welfare of the people who are working with
the plastic industry. In a formal letter addressed to Senator Miriam Defensor Santiago and other
policy-makers, the Task Force Plastics of the EcoWaste Coalition presented specific
recommendations about the consolidated bill on plastic bags.
First, the Task Force recommended “the removal of distinguishing qualifiers ‘non-biodegradable’ or
‘biodegradable’ to plastic bags throughout the text.” Degradable plastics must not be treated any
differently from non-biodegradable plastic bags. Since degradable plastics are made from
Polyethylene, the same material being used in the production of the conventional plastic, these bags
do not totally disintegrate. They just remain as small plastic particles which can still harm the
environment, animals, marine resources and the people. More importantly, single -use degradable
plastic bags do not correct the “throw-away” mentality of people towards disposable carrier bags.
Waste reduction is impossible to achieve when degradable bags are made to substitute the
conventional plastic bags.
Second, the Task Force recommended that the national ban on plastics should “complement the
initiatives of LGUs that have already phased-out plastic bags in their jurisdiction.” Any national law
on plastics should not hinder the local government from implementing more stringent ordinances.
Third, incentives should be given to people and businesses that comply with the plastic ban, while
disincentives should discourage them from making violations.
Fourth and finally, the provision on Citizens Suits and “Suits Strategic Legal Action Against Public
Participation” (SLAPP) should also be included in the proposed Consolidated Bill.
Conclusion and recommendations
The absence of a national law on regulating, banning, and imposing taxes on the use of plastic bags
has limited current policy making efforts at the local and regional levels. Hence, legal intervention on
plastic use has mainly become selective and not mandatory. At present, not all LGUs see the pressing
public health and environment needs to impose a plastic ban due to pressures from t he plastic
industry sector, business entities, and other consumers who remained unaffected by the
environmental situation in the country.
The existing duties and responsibilities of national government agencies do not ensure effective
implementation of an ecological solid waste management system. While the DENR and the NSWMC
are tasked to monitor and evaluate the best practices in managing municipal solid waste, these
agencies and the Department of Interior and Local Government (DILG) do not necessarily s ummon
LGUs for not complying with RA 9003.
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Non-compliance by LGUs is often justified by lack of funding and space to operate huge disposal
facilities. Most of them do not see the alternatives for waste management, which would not require
such facilities that entail large expenditures and environmental hazards. Community efforts and
partnerships with schools and non-government organization for effective waste management
initiatives have remained unexplored in some LGU territories. Partnerships with private companies
for the purchase of lands to develop new landfills, haul wastes and establish technologies that treat
wastes (e.g. waste-to-energy technologies) are now the emerging issues at the LGU level, and are the
same contentious issues that the environmental groups are facing.
In view of assessing the need for a law or ordinance on plastic bag ban and creating the supportive
policy environment, the EcoWaste Coalition recommends the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
A national plastic bag ban that will phase-out all kinds of plastic bags;
Promote reusable bags and other alternative bags using natural fibers;
Promote and develop the market for recycled products, including reusable
bags, to improve demands for alternative and eco-friendly products;
Espouse take-back/collection mechanisms and recycling;
Support LGUs in their waste management initiatives; and
Impose environmental levy on plastic bags to support environmental education
initiatives and activities.
Phasing-out plastic bags seeks to prevent and eliminate rather than just manage waste after it has
been created. It conserves our natural resource and reduces the need for expensive recycling
technologies and the cost of waste management. Our choice is not limited to recycling or wasting
rather source reduction is the key 317.
Conducting a social acceptability survey will also be very helpful in generating citizens’ feedback
concerning the advantages and disadvantages of plastic ban at the LGU level. It will also aid in
determining which forms of incentives and disincentives are actually feasible to encourage residents
to comply with the existing plastic ban laws.
Local governments are also encouraged to initiate Waste Analysis and Characterization Survey
(WACS) annually, in order to monitor the different classifications and volumes of wastes generated
within their area.
Additional feasibility and market studies must also be conducted to further examine the economic
potentials of industries that can provide alternatives to plastics.
88
Annex
3
89
Ground Work
Taking responsibility for plastics in South Africa
90
A picture of plastics
In this case study, we ask whether it is possible for ordinary citizens to deal with plastics responsibly.
At the heart of this question is what we know about plastics, and who creates and distributes that
knowledge.
The South Africa plastics chain starts with one of the world’s biggest carbon dioxide emitters,
SASOL318 . SASOL creates raw plastic from natural gas and the coal-to-gas process. Historically, Dow
Chemicals, internationally known for a string of public and secret disasters 319 , was at the core of a
second cluster of upstream producers, but it has since sold off its interests in plastics.
Between 800 and 1800 different companies manufacture plastics items. A large amount of plastics –
an estimated 50% - are imported. Some plastics have toxic production processes that impact on the
health of workers and neighboring communities.
Plastics have also been identified as a source of pollutants for humans and wildlife. This includes
carcinogenics and endocrine disruptors from plastics such as PVC, polycarbonates as well as additives
such as plasticizers (see text box 6 on Bisphenol A).
Plastic litter has been recognized as a big problem in South Africa, and a range of organisations,
including business, citizens, government and thousands of waste pickers have engaged with it. But,
as the text below will show, only about 20% of plastics are recycled, while the rest are destined for
incineration, landfill or remain in the environment, including the oceans. These are all problematic.
Is it possible for ordinary citizens to use plastics responsibly? Is it possible to understand what the
dangers are, and where one should be cautious? What one should do? And whose responsibility is it
to guide and support citizens to use plastics responsibly?
In South Africa, this guiding role has overwhelmingly been taken on by the plastics industry itself. It
takes responsibility for recycling, but it also attacks claims from environmentalists and concerned
scientists when we claim that there are dangers in plastics. In this it follows the lead and consistently
refers to the work of the international plastics industry. It continues to aggressively market the use of
plastics for all sorts of applications, which often displace older and more sustainable alternatives.
The environmental impact of plastics is a contested terrain. It has been difficult to verify – or in some
cases to reconcile – claims made by people and organisations interviewed for this piece of work. It
has also been difficult to balance out different perspectives, made by people in positions with vested
interests. This work, like others, provides evidence of the contestation of plastics knowledge, in the
workplace, in the media, in scientific research, and argues that as a result, our view of plastics is not
clear, and that consumers and citizens are well advised to educate themselves and to regard various
claims and counterclaims with caution.
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Regulation
The plastics industry is regulated at many points in South Africa, but many plastics fall through this
web.
Only retail plastics bags are regulated by the National Regulator for Compulsory Specifications (NRCS)
as a result of the 2002 agreement on plastics shopping bags instituted by then envi ronment minister
Valli Moosa320 .
Workplaces where plastics are handled, fall under the Occupational Health and Safety Act (OHSA) of
1993. In factories, plastics are required to be accompanied by a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)
and workers can demand to see these.
Effluent emissions are regulated through water use licenses with conditions on the chemicals
contained in the effluent. However, tests for endocrine disrupting substances, which arise from some
plastics and additives, are not currently part of the system. These are under investigation by the
South African Water Research Commission, funded by the government of South Africa, which has
embarked on a study of endocrine disruptors in South African waters. The study has so far found
that321:
“It was proved that EDCs are present in our water systems and that agricultural chemicals,
industrial chemicals, pharmaceuticals and natural hormones are responsible for the ED
activity. The need for a national policy to manage the problem has now been expressed by all
stakeholders.”
Air quality monitoring has been instituted for chemical industry complexes in South Durban, Secunda
and Sasolburg as they have become part of air priority areas in recent years, as a result of
deteriorating air quality and campaigning. Campaigning for better waste management since the early
1990s has also led to higher requirements for waste management.
The plastics industry, together with the chemicals industry, also regulates itself, by ascribing to ISO
systems, or adopting international standards where they sell into developed country markets 322.
I have not been able to establish any regulation of consumer plastic products in retail, and like many
other South Africans, I have not encountered it in my daily life – except for plastic shopping bags.
The main challenge with regulation lies in the implementation, monitoring and enforcement of these
regulations. The water use licensing system is overloaded and licenses can be delayed for long
periods. Processes of licensing – including the setting of conditions – are in practice not accessible to
the public. Waste management requirements are often not adhered to by companies as well as the
municipalities that carry responsibility for dumps and landfills 323 .
In the workplace, the problem arises not with the legislation but the enforcement of it through
regular inspections. Often the problem is recognition of the hazard. Workers have the right to see
the Material Safety Data Sheets, but may not ask for it, or the factory itself may not be using it 324.
For consumers, plastics are confusing. Plastics products do not carry warning against dangers they
may pose, although some products – like baby feed bottles – now proclaim that they are bisphenol A
free 325.
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A later section will deal in detail with these challenges. Although there is a rising awareness of the
dangers of plastics in South Africa, the public in general is not well educated about plastics, and
neither are workers. South African citizens are in a situation in which it is difficult to know what the
dangers of producing, using and discarding plastics are, and how best to respond to these challenges.
The South African plastics industry has succeeded in normalizing plastics as “good for families, safe
for the environment”, as the South African Polystyrene Packaging Council puts it on its website 326 .
Fig 1: According to this advertisement, plastics make the outdoor life possible.
The Plastics Federation of South Africa (now Plastics SA) 327 , in fact actively campaigns against the
concerns that the public may have about plastics. On their website they say:
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“Several myths about plastics have emerged over the last decade that may alarm the public
without just cause and potentially harm consumer-friendly companies producing needed
products. Urban myths spring from any number of sources, including:

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Environmental activists and non-government organizations promoting a specific agenda,
journalists failing to do basic research,
businesses with an alternative product, or
retailers too quick to give in to the outcries of alarmist special interest groups.”
This statement tells the public not to pay any attention to people and organisations warning them
about dangers in plastics. But there are dangers in plastics, and without knowing what they are,
citizens have no way of protecting themselves or their environments. Instead, Plastics SA promotes
plastics as part of the wonderful outdoors, as can be seen in recent full page advertisement 328 . This
advertisement (Figure 1) shows that it was plastic that made the great outdoors life possible. The
advertisement shows a fishing boat, fishing rod and tackle, sunglasses, boots, outdoors shirt – all
made from plastics.
The 10 plastics that are mentioned in the Plastics SA advertisement (Fig 1) are: PVC, Polycarbonate
(bisphenol A is used in the manufacture of polycarbonate), ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene;
controversial), Nylon, Carbon Fiber, PP (polypropylene), HD EVA (High Density Ethylene Vinyl
Acetate), PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate), LLD PE (Linear Low Density Polyethylene). Let us also
imagine that our outdoors man in the advertisement also uses a black plastic bag for rubbish
generated in the trip, and that, to save time, he had brightened his day with some hot coffee and
burgers in polystyrene foam packaging. All these plastics, whether local or imported





have contributed in their feedstock creation to climate change, as part of the fossil fuel
industry, may have poisoned workers and neighboring communities during the
manufacturing process,
will eventually be recycled (or reused) in a recycling market where reclaimers perform dirty,
unhealthy and poorly paid work,
or be incinerated in poorly regulated incinerators, creating air pollution for surrounding
communities,
or landfilled in largely poorly regulated landfills,
or be left to litter the landscape and creating huge gyres of rubbish in the oceans.
The next section follows the origins and eventual fate of these plastics, along the plastics production
chain in South Africa.
The plastics industry in South Africa
According to Plastics SA, the plastics industry has a turnover of around R35bn (US$3,96bn) a year,
and employs around 40 000 people (others estimate 63 000) in more than 1 800 companies
throughout the plastics supply chain (other estimates say 1000) 329, 330 . It estimates consumption of
about 1.5 million tons of polymers, from both local production and imports. The annual per capita
consumption of plastics in South Africa is 20kg, against European and US consumption of over 100kg
per person331 .
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Packaging accounts for 55% of total sales while the next, building, accounts for 7%. Polyethylene is
the biggest plastic in terms of raw material, at around 40% of total input, with polypropylene at 25%,
PVC at 17% and PET at 6% 331 . There is a current overproduction of polypropylene and
polyvinylchloride, which is exported. In 2010 (latest figures available), South Africa exported plastic
products to the value of R2.4 billion (mostly polymers), while imports amounted to R7 billion including polymer intermediaries, such as polystyrene, which is not made locally, resulting in a trade
deficit of R4.6 billion332
These figures may not be reliable, and Plastics SA has announced that it is planning to undertake a
comprehensive study of the industry in South Africa.
Upstream: SASOL and DOW Chemicals
The South African plastics industry is based in the chemicals industry, which is in turn largely based
on fossil fuels: South Africa’s coal.
The biggest player, SASOL, is based on coal-to-liquid-fuel technology of the Fischer-Tropsch process.
Sasol’s complex in Secunda, South Africa, is the largest single source of greenhouse gas emissions in
the world333.
Up to late 2006, there were two important upstream conglomerations in South Africa: Sasol, and a
grouping around AECI and Sentrachem. For long, the second biggest player was Dow Chemicals, the
world’s largest chemical corporation334 , as it bought into AECI and Sentrachem, long associated with
explosives for the mining industry and fertilizer for agriculture. Dow’s history of environmental
abuses is well described in Jack Doyle’s (2004) Trespass Against Us. In its plastics chapter, the book
sounds a warning about the plastics production process, especially when working with the vinyl
chloride monomers (VCMs). A further danger is in the plasticisers, or phthalates, leaking from plastics
during use, and then the build-up of other toxic, carcinogenic and endocrine disrupting materials in
the environment, water, people and wildlife 335 . In the mid-2000s, Dow Chemicals bought out the
second cluster, but proceeded to dismantle it, keeping only the agricultural chemicals. The
remainder, Safripol, was taken over in a leveraged management buy-out, and now receives its
polyethylene inputs from Sasol 336 .
Sasol pays extensive attention to environmental issues and publishes an annual sustainable
development report, conforming to the Global Reporting Initiative Guidelines. Sasol is part of the
United Nationals Global Compact CEO Water Mandate, the Global Product Strategy (GPS) initiative of
the International Council of Chemical Associations (ICCA), and the Carbon Disclosure Project, as well
as the Responsible Care initiatives of the chemical industry. It has phased out mercury from its
production processes 337. Sasol relies on the ISO 14001 and Occupational Health and Safety
Assessment Series OHSAS 18001338 . It is a sophisticated multinational company that also plays an
important role in national policy development. It has been a member of the South African
government delegation in climate change talks, including COP 17, which has been criticized by civil
society as role confusion because it is a large carbon emitter (75 317 000 tonnes of total greenhouse
gasses according to its sustainable development report of 2011).
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Sasol Polymers, a business unit within Sasol, dominates the upstream part of the business. Sasol
Polymers exports to over 30 countries, mainly in the Asia Pacific region and East and West Africa.
Sasol Polymers produces ethylene, propylene, low-density polyethylene (LDPE), linear low-density
polyethylene (LLDPE), polypropylene, vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
Their plants are located at Sasolburg and Secunda 339. Sasol Polymers’ feedstock comes from the
Fischer-Tropfsch process, which converts coal to synthetic gas, as well as natural gas from
Mozambique. Worldwide, the plastics industry uses around 5% of oil and natural gas for the
manufacture of plastics. In an interview with Sasol personnel it was indicated that it is difficult to
single out the carbon footprint of plastics from the overall footprint. On the other hand Sasol, with
the rest of the plastics and chemicals industry, argues that the use of plastics products themselves
lead to carbon emission savings, and wants these to be taken into account, for example in calculating
its carbon tax 340, 341 .
Polyethylene
Sasol Polymers Polyolefins Business produces Linear Low Density Polyethylene (LLDPE) and Low
Density Polyethylene (LDPE) at its two production facilities in Sasolburg. The LLDPE plant is a gasphase plant based on Union Carbide technology. This plant has a capacity of 150 000 tonnes per
annum and uses hexene as the comonomer feedstock for the LLDPE grades. The LDPE plant uses high
pressure tubular technology licensed from ExxonMobil and has a design capacity of 220 000tpa342.
According to SASOL, LLDPE and LDPE polymers are designed for applications and conversion
technologies in moulding, extrusion and film. In film applications, the two polymers are often
blended together. “LLDPE provides stretch, toughness and drawdown performance characteristics,
while LDPE grades provide good processing, optical and shrinkage properties.”
Polypropylene
Sasol’s two polypropylene (PP) plants are located in Secunda. The PP1 plant has been in operatio n
since February 1990 and has a nameplate capacity of 220 000tpa. The plant uses Novolen® Gas Phase PP technology under license and is capable of producing PP homopolymers, impact
copolymers, and random copolymer grades. A second PP plant (PP2), utilising INEOS Technologies
Innovene™ PP Polypropylene Technology, was commissioned in December 2007 and has a nameplate
capacity of 300 000 tons per annum (tpa). This plant is also designed to produce the full range of
different grades342 .
Currently the two PP plants produce in the order of 26 different grades of polypropylene for various
end use applications. These include but are not limited to, woven cloth and bags, carpets, spun
bonded non-woven fabrics, buckets, house wares, film, twin-wall extrusion sheeting, toys, chairs and
furniture, fibers, packaging crates, thin wall food packaging containers, and various other moulded
products342.
With a combined PP production capacity of over half a million tons, Sasol Polymers is able to supply a
large proportion of the local Southern African PP market requirements. With the plants operating at
full production output, the surplus PP volumes are exported to a number of locations around the
world where PP is in strong demand 342 .
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Vinyls (PVC)
At Sasolburg, Sasol manufactures both vinyl chloride monomer and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) resins,
but sells only the PVC resin. Sasol PVC are typically used in cable sheathing and insulation, stretch
and shrink-wrap film, protective clothing, luggage, stationery, continuous flooring, hose, ducting,
conduit and window profiles, complex rigid profiles, flooring, pipe, rigid sheet calendared products,
fittings and bottles342 .
In documentation on DOW chemicals, a number of adverse impacts are associated with PVC
throughout their lifetimes 343.
PVC accounts for 17% of their polymers production, but attracts the most criticism. Sasol Polymers
PVC product manager Rishi Madho is well aware of these debates. He argues that these are scare
stories that circulate, that they are out of date, that now the VC-monomer production (a gas) is
completely safe because the gas never escapes, that the PVC Sasol manufactures, goes through
stringent cleaning processes, and that the amount of VCM that may remain is so small that it would
take “seven months of eating your cling wrapped lunch with the cling wrap” to be affected by it at
all 344 .
Sasol takes extended producer responsibility for its products, says Fred Goede, head of Sasol’s Safety,
Health, Environment and Quality (SHEQ). As a toxicologist with many years’ experience he has
studied plastics additives closely. According to Goede, Sasol has stopped selling to downstream
plastics manufacturers that they are not sure handle their products responsibly 345 .
An important logic for the plastics production in Sasol, as in the rest of the chemicals industry, is the
principle of maximising production from all their product streams. Sasol plastics “competes” with the
production of fuel from the molecules in the Sasol pipelines. The plastics create a value 2 to 3 times
higher than the liquid fuel, but is limited by the market for plastics. The PVC production is also driven
by the need to make good on the high electricity input that is required to create chlorine – which is
also sold as an industrial chemical and used, for example, in disinfecting water at large scale 346 .
Sasol’s environmental impacts
The two chemicals industry complexes in Sasolburg and Secunda are associated with serious air
pollution impacts on local neighbouring communities Zamdela in Sasolburg, eMbalenhle in Secunda.
The Sasolburg Air Quality Monitoring Committee has been keeping a close eye on the Sasolburg
industry complex, of which the plastics business (Sasol polymers) is a part. To these community
members, the plastics business is experienced as an integral part of the complex – and the pollution
from it347 .
Environmental activist Caroline Ntaopane moved to Sasolburg in 1999, after growing up in Heilbron,
57 km from Sasolburg. From that far away they could smell “a rotten egg smell” and as kids they
joked that the people of Sasolburg certainly farted a lot, says Caroli ne. In Sasolburg she joined the
South African Communist party and local government ward committees, serving on their health and
environmental desks, where she heard about the pollution challenges. In 2002, groundWork invited
her and others to an exchange programme in the United States, where she learnt about other
communities living next to polluting industries.
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They were trained in using a bucket technique to take air samples (the bucket takes an air sample
equivalent to a lung-full, and is then marked and sent to a laboratory for analysis). She was shocked
to learn, in the first sample she had taken, that there were 15 harmful chemicals, in particular
benzene that exceeded World Health Organisation (WHO) standards. When these results were
presented to Sasol, says Caroline, they established their own community structure, run by Sasol
employees. “They were teaching people about butterflies while we wanted to know what was
coming out of the stacks”. Sasol called the bucket samples “unscientific”, but when the y were
challenged to take similar samples, “their results were worse”, recalls Caroline. Caroline and others
established their own organisation, the Sasolburg Air Quality Monitoring Committee.
The SAQMC gained the support of the Sasolburg mayor and his councilors in campaigning for a new
Air Quality Act. “Now we have many people supporting us, new groups joining us, and inviting us to
do presentations on air quality, including schools and local government”. They have been active in
achieving the declaration of Sasolburg as part of an Air Quality Priority area by the Department of
Environmental Affairs. They participate in the local catchment forum, where water quality issues and
water use licenses are discussed. But the participation is frustrating, as the monitoring information is
presented in complicated ways, in a forum dominated by industry. They have had to use legal
support to access information under the Public Access to Information Act (PAIA), forcing some
industries to reveal their monitoring information.
In Secunda, the township is eMbalenhle. Here, the eMbalenhle Youth Environmental Club (EYEC) and
the Highveld East Community Environmental Monitoring Alliance (HECEMA) were formed in 2002
raise awareness amongst community groups of the importance of protecting the environment and to
expose environmental injustices like pollution in an area with coal mines and a Sasol chemical
industry complex. A large number of young people in eMbalenhle suffer from respiratory illnesses
like sinus problems, asthma, tuberculosis, burning sensations in the throat and chest, as well as from
skin irritations and burning eyes. HECEMA members have also been trained to use the Bucket
Brigade sampling technique, and has protested against the effects of Sasol’s pollution on the
neighbouring communities 348 .
Midstream: 100s of plastics companies and imports
Estimates for South African plastics manufacturers range between 800 and 1000 of varying size. The
plastix portal 349 has the biggest 80 companies listed on their site. Some, such as the more than 40
polystyrene manufacturers, are organised into the PSPC, Polystyrene Packaging Council. There is also
a South African Vinyls Association (SAVA) 350 .
Both councils are aware of – and actively countering – the concerns of environmentalists on plastics.
The Polystyrene Packaging Council was formed in February 2007, in response to the “need for the
polystyrene industry to actively demonstrate its commitment to the environment (through collection
and recycling) and the safety and health of polystyrene food packaging users”350 . The website has an
extensive section on safety and environmental aspects, which mentions some threats, but suggests
they can be dismissed 350. The SAVA is the representative body of the Southern African vinyl industry.
“SAVA’s main purpose is representing our members’ interests in the Southern Africa region to create
consumer confidence within the industry and to develop and sustain markets for the PVC
business.”351
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The SAVA has 32 recyclers on their list. They have set their sights on:
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
responsible and sustainable use of additives.
responsible and sustainable vinyl recycling programme, and
effective communication when the public and media have questions about PVC.
There are also substantial imports. It is estimated that some of the retail chains could be importing as
much as 50% of some plastic product, as a result of price differences 352.
Midstream: Plastics in the workplace
Clement Chitja, administrator for collective bargaining in the Chemical, Energy, Paper, Printing, Wood
& Allied Workers Union (CEPPWAWU) is concerned about the content of the fumes that workers in
the workplaces complain about, but says that “our workers are told that plastics are safe”, and that
there is no need for protective clothes and masks 353 .
He is aware of a lack of extractive fans in some workplaces, but his main concern is that there is no
discussion about whether the plastics are hazardous to work with or not – workers are simply told
that it is safe. In his experience it is only in recycling business, where the argument is that the plastics
may be contaminated, that protection is consistently provided.
Plastics can indeed be hazardous in the workplace, according to senior medical occupational medical
specialist Dr Murray Coombs 354 . For example, phthalates in PVC can lead to asthma in workers. In
occupational health circles, the phenomenon of meat wrapper’s asthma is well known. A lot depends
on the properties of the specific plastic. HDPE, would need to be heated to 1000 C to release the
carcinogen acrolyn, while usually plastic manufacturing processes take place at around 400 or 500 C.
If workers complain of fumes, these need to be analysed immediately. One problem is that there are
few extraction units, and instead staff are given masks. These are often dust masks, that do not stop
the fumes. There are more dangers in the plastic recycling, according to Dr Coombs, because higher
temperatures are used, the plastics are mixed and dioxins can be produced.
Using plastics
In the whole chain, it is at consumer level that there is least knowledge about the dangers of plastics.
This is made worse by the large and growing volume of plastic products imports into South A frica.
In 2009, groundWork in partnership with the Swedish Society for Nature Conservation (SSNC) and
other global environmental justice partners, undertook a study into plastic shoes, produced and sold
all over the world355.
Shoes were purchased in South Africa from The Hub, Woolworths, PEP Stores and Selfast Da Fashion
Fibre Zone. These shoes were then shipped to Sweden where they were tested for a variety of
chemicals according to the most recent EU standards. The analyses found high levels of
environmental pollutants in plastic shoes.
Of particular concern in South African purchased shoes were elevated levels of the phthalate DEHP
(diethyl-hexyl phthalate). In one shoe tested that was purchased from Woolworths (Ipanema flip
flops imported from Brazil) the concentration of DEHP was the highest found of all the shoes tested
and 23% of the total weight of the shoe tested.
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DEHP is one of 22 prioritised substances for authorization, coming from the EU’s candidate list for
particularly harmful substances, known as SVHC (Substances of Very High Concern). DEHP does not
occur naturally.
Phthalates are not chemically bound to PVC plastic to which they are added to soften, which
intimately means that over time as the product they have been added to degrades e.g. in a landfill
site, the pthalates leach out into the soil and water over time, or evaporate from the plastic into the
air.
Additionally the Selfast children’s shoe (manufactured in South Africa) tested positive for the toxic
metals, cadmium, chromium, mercury, lead and arsenic. Of particular concern is the fact that the
mercury and lead levels were the highest globally among all the shoes tested. These heavy metals are
known to be toxic, especially to children. Lead affects the nervous system and can result in impaired
intelligence. Lead compounds are officially classified as being able to harm the unborn child.
The aim of this research was to demonstrate that many everyday consumer products like shoes
which appear inert can potentially contain hazardous chemicals that may cause problems from an
environmental and health perspective. Shoes purchased from all over the world contained
substances such as softeners that are harmful to the reproductive system, toxic tin organic
compounds, as well as the heavy metals cadmium and lead.
This study also clearly demonstrates that in South Africa and globally too few controls exist to protect
the consumer from potentially toxic substances. Alarmingly these shoes are affordable to all South
Africans and they are generally purchased and discarded on short fashion cycles. It is therefore
critical that the South African government and retail sector take an urgent look at chemicals in
everyday consumer products and start a process of evaluation and monitoring towards phase out of
toxics in everyday consumer products that are often discarded over short horizons – these invariably
pollute the natural environment and through environmental exposure ultimately us!
groundWork’s head of research Rico Euripodou argues that the study shows that in South Africa and
many other countries in the global South we need a chemicals management framework for
regulating and restricting the use of hazardous substances in products. The consumer or retailer,
must have the right to know if a hazardous substance is present in a product. To date, the industrial,
manufacturing and retail sectors have not shown themselves able to assume responsibility for the
health of consumers and the best interest of the environment.
In October 2011, South African health minister banned the manufacture, importation, exportation
and sale of infant bottles containing BPA, joining countries like Canada, France, China, Malaysia and
the European Union, The Cancer Association of South Africa (CANSA) immediately invited members
of the public to trade in their baby bottles containing BPA for BPA-free baby bottles, in the light of
medical research that linked BPA to the development of breast and prostate cancer 356 .
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Removing plastics from the waste stream: a levy on plastic bags
Responding to the visible and growing litter problem of thick retail plastic bags, in September 2002,
government, business and labour signed an agreement to regulate the minimum thickness of
disposable polyethylene plastic bags (no thicker than 24 microns, to be increased to 30 microns
within 5 years), to disclose the cost of plastic bags, to promote a market for recycling the bags,
impose a levy to fund this and to prevent import of plastic bags 357 . This applied to food but not
clothing retailers.
According to a 2010 study in environmental economics at the University of Cape Town The
imposition of these restrictions led to a 44% fall in plastic bag use, but the use started creeping up
again (but under the 2003 level)358 . A newly constituted organisation, Buyisa-e-Bag, collected around
R150 million per year. But it had little success in promoting recycling. It also could not explain where
large proportions of the money had gone. While politicians bickered about whether the cause had
been incompetence or corruption, the organisation was closed down in 2011. In August 2012
consumer journalist Wendy Knowler concluded that the levy did not reduce plastic ending up in
landfills – because the thicker bags used more plastic359! Moreover, plastic bags are difficult to
recycle because they are easily contaminated while carrying groceries.
Downstream: Recycling
Recycling has become an important area of activity for the South African plastics industry. In 2011,
South Africa had 196 plastic recyclers, who together recycled 245 696 tons of plastics, according to
Plastics SA’s third annual survey of the plastics recycling industry in South Africa. This represented
around 20% of all plastic being recycled. 76.7% of the recycled waste came from packaging. A total of
1.3 million PET bottles, the survey found, were diverted from landfills through recycling 360 .
According to the survey, formal employment in the plastics recycling industry had increased by 5.2 %
to 5 062 jobs in 2011. It is also estimated that 40 950 informal jobs were created in the collection
industry (based on 60kg/person/day). There are two companies set up within the industry specifically
to encourage recycling.
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Petco PET plastics recycling South Africa, and
Polyco, Polyolefin recycling company for Plastics SA
In the Petco website it is claimed that recycling of PET bottles increased from 9840 tons to 42 651
tons in just seven years. PETCO argues that “Plastic bottles are valuable and create income
opportunities on the collection side. If one person collects 200 bottles fo r 240 days of the year, it
amounts to 1,600 kg per year. This means that the 23 000 tons of post-consumer PET collected in
2008 translates into the creation of an estimated 14 000 income opportunities for collectors. The
collectors then sell to the recyclers of whom there are approximately 1675. Direct jobs in the PET
recycling industry are estimated around 350 with capital investment to date of R130 million.
Increasing plastic bottle recycling leads to job creation in the waste management, product
development, manufacturing and marketing sectors”361 .
There are some hard questions to be asked on recycling. The recycling market is notoriously fickle, so
that prices fluctuate wildly. This makes it difficult for reclaimers who simply have to accept these
prices. Reclaimers have difficult, dirty and low paying jobs. Their work can be undignified, and their
earnings are low. Does the SA Plastics industry clean up after itself?
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The Plastics industry in South Africa would certainly like to argue that they are taking responsibility
for plastic – seen as litter. As the next section will show, they do so in many ways. They make a big
and well-publicised effort to deal with plastic litter. They deal with litter not only on South Africa’s
beaches, but also by supporting the Sea Dragon, a group that sails on the oceans and “deals” with
the “5 gyres” of rubbish, mainly plastic, on the planet’s five oceans 362 . In this they enlist the help of
members of the public and some environmental organisations. The contribution of these gro ups can
be argued to be an activist subsidy to the plastics industry.
The plastics industry also uses the opportunity to inform members of the public about plastic. In this
role, they also advocate for the role – an expanding role – of plastics, while they comment on the
criticisms raised against plastics. It is here that their role becomes murky. Salesmen giving guidance
to the public on whether their products are safe for people and the environment - or not - are bound
to be caught in a double role.
There is another subsidy for recycling, from the thousands of waste pickers or reclaimers that
remove plastic items from the streets, suburban rubbish bins and landfills, and make them available
for recycling.
Recycling and reclaimers
What are the realities of recycling on the ground? Simon Mbata is the spokesperson of the South
African waste pickers association. His members are busy eking out a living on the streets, dumps and
landfills of South Africa.
According to Mbata363 , plastics are important for waste pickers, particularly PET and pure HD. (high
density polyethylene) as a source of income. These plastics pay better than paper, glass and tins.
However, says Mbata, there is no market for PVC recyclables, although it comes on to the landfill for
example plastic covering copper wires, or in building rubble. The pickers do not collect it, and it is the
PVC that gets burnt for heat on the landfills or dumps.
The waste pickers have extensive problems with the way the plastic recyclables is bought from them.
“The prices set by the middle men can chop and change without any notice”. During the festive
season, prices drop as more PET becomes available. “Sometimes we work so hard,” says Mr Mbata,
“to get a big number of plastics together, but then we will just be told: OK, the prices have been
dropped today.”
Conditions for recycling hold health risks for the pickers. “We are dealing with a mix of waste, which
is dirty. We are not medically insured, so no one is there for us. We don’t have facilities like taps and
toilets, or a place to shelter when it is raining.”
Mbata says “we have tried to engage the municipalities, since we know the conditions we work
under are not good for human beings, but we do it because we need to earn a living. He argues that
manufacturers should take more responsibility for recycling by monitoring the recycling process,
especially the pricing, as it is their responsibility.” Mr Mbata’s experiences are common to many
waste pickers in South Africa364 .
102
Cleaning up litter
September 2012 was clean-up and recycling South Africa month. And who was at the forefront of the
clean-up? The plastics industry!
The inflight magazine (free distribution to passengers of low-cost airline Khulula), showed this very
clearly. In its conservation section, it had a 3 page article about the work of SA Plastics sustainability
manager, John Kieser, cleaning up South Africa’s beaches of plastic and other litter (80 to 90% of
which is plastic) – with help of members of the public and environmental organisations.
Plastic clean-ups have been ongoing since 1996, since environmentalists have targeted the plastics
industry, says Kieser in an interview with Kuluma magazine. Kieser argues that people in the plastics
industry are also involved in environmental issues: “during their holidays they go into the bush and
perform environmental studies. People must stop thinking that those corporations are soulless; most
of them are the driving force behind protecting the environment.”
Kieser, who worked as an ecologist on South African offshore islands (Dassen, Marion, Dyer, Robben
and other islands), blames littering of plastics for the problem.
Fig 2: Citizens help the plastics industry clean up plastic litter on South Af rican beaches.
103
Table 1: Plastics recycled in 2010 and 2011 according to Plastics SA
Tons recycled in 2010
Tons recycled in 2011
Material
PE-LD/LLD
Packaging
Non-Packaging
Packaging
Non-Packaging
90 149
11 305
89 493
6 359
PET
39 855
PE-HD
27 907
11 825
27 108
11 871
PP
20 869
17 744
21 549
18 734
PVC
798
15 032
587
16 117
PS & PS-E
2 038
1 218
1 636
1 578
ABS
376
805
550
605
Other
40
1 891
1 267
1 967
Total tons recycled
182 032
59 820
188 466
57 231
Total plastics packaging
605 000
629 570
Packaging recycling rate
30,1 %
29,9 %
Total tons recycled
46 276
241 852
245 697
The clean-up initiative was sponsored by






Plastics SA,
Polyco, Polyolefin recycling company for Plastics SA
SASOL
PSPC, Polystyrene Packaging Council
SAVA, South African Vinyls Association
Petco PET plastics recycling South Africa
Also involved were organisations concerned about the environment – and plastic litter in it – WESSA
and Ezemvelo KZN wildlife (provincial conservation body for Kwazulu Natal).
In October, Plastics SA released the results of their third annual survey of the plastics recycling
industry in South Africa365 . The results included that in 2011 South Africa had 196 plastic recyclers
who collectively recycled 245 696 tons of plastics. This was 1,6 % more than in 2010, whereas the
virgin consumption decreased by 3,0 % in the same period, from 1 340 to 1 300 thousand tons.
104
A large percentage (76.7 %) of the plastic that was recycled in South Africa came from packaging. In
addition, 1.3 million PET bottles were recycled. An overall plastics recycling rate of 18.9 % was
achieved in 2011 (for detail, see table below). The largest growth in plastics recycling for the year
2010-2011 came from post-consumer recyclables. More plastics were collected from households and
landfills than in previous years. Almost 70% of all recyclables were sourced from post -consumer
sources versus the 46,8% in 2010.
The survey also found that



The formal employment figure in the plastics recycling industry increased with 5.2 % to 5 062
jobs in 2011.
It is also estimated that 40 950 informal jobs were created in the collection industry (based
on 60kg/person/day).
Contract workers are mainly employed as sorters at the recyclers and were only 7.2% of the
total formal jobs in 2011.
Incineration of plastics
This emphasis on recycling distracts from what really happens to most plastic waste in South Africa;
the largest percentage goes to landfills, while a small percentage is burnt dddd. According to Plastics
SA, up to 80% of plastics should be incinerated, to draw energy from plastic waste 366 . The website
www.plasticisgreen.com of the British Polyethylene Industries PLC (BPI), presents the argument for
incineration:
“Plastics have an extremely high calorific value and are effectively ‘frozen fuels’, which can
be released into energy when burnt. In fact, mixed plastics have an energy content of 9585
kWh/tonne which is 37% higher than coal and only 11-18% lower than natural gas and oil
respectively. It is also four times as high as that for municipal solid waste (MSW) and twice as
high as paper and newspaper.”
The website also argues that incineration is a better environmental solution than disposal to landfill
for mixed and contaminated plastics that cannot be recycled.
South African environmental justice NGO groundWork 367 campaigns actively against incineration in
South Africa. Research by Greenpeace International has shown links between waste incinerators and
mortality due to various cancers, as well as a higher incidence of lung disease, sarcoma, congenital
malformations and immune system depression 368 . The report, ”Incineration and Human Health State of knowledge of the Impacts of Waste Incinerators on Human Health”, consolidating over 300
studies and research papers have focused on the impacts of incineration on human health. It looked
both at studies conducted on incinerator workers, as well as on population living adjacent to
incinerators. The evidence is shocking.
dddd
Figures could not establish for incineration but it was generally agreed in interviews that it is low. Logically,
the difference between the recycled materials and incinerated materials either end up in the environment, or
goes to landfill.
105
According to the report, incinerator workers are more likely to die from lung cancer, gastric cancer,
oesophageal cancer and heart disease than average members of the population. In addition they are
more likely to suffer from chloracne, decreased liver function and increased allergy. People living in
the vicinity of incinerators have an increased chance of dying from lung cancer and liver cancer. In
addition they are more likely to suffer from soft tissue sarcoma, respiratory problems, lung disease,
bronchitis, cancer of the larynx, spina bifida, congenital malformations among newborns and altered
sex ratio of newborns. The report identifies more than 190 chemicals that are released from
incinerators. The most toxic of these are dioxins, furans, mercury and lead. Dioxins and furans are
two of the “dirty dozen” chemicals targeted in the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic
Pollutants.
The South African government estimates that there over 300 incinerators in South Africa, although
only about 50% of these are registered with the government. The majority of incinerators in South
Africa are medical waste incinerators, and the remainders are industrial incinerators for hazardous
and veterinary waste 369.
While emission limits for incinerators have now been established by the Department of Environment
Affairs, some operators have a window period up to 2015 to meet these limits because they cannot
meet those limits presently 370 .
While many of these incinerators are located in industrial areas or poorer communities, several are
located in upper income areas. For example, the Hillcrest Hospital near Durban operates their own
incinerators on site. However, according to government records, this incinerator is not registered.
A large number of incinerators are also located in rural areas and/or adjacent to farms. For example
the largest incinerator in KwaZulu-Natal was located in Ixopo, which is the heart of dairy country.
There have been several scares internationally about dairy products and beef being contaminated by
dioxins from incinerators. There is every reason to believe that dairy products originating from the
Ixopo area are contaminated with potentially cancer-causing dioxins. GroundWork and its allies
managed to shut down the Ixopo incinerator in 2006371.
The report also addresses the misconception that incinerators reduce waste volumes. It argues that
the combined outputs of all air emissions, ash, and wastewater exceed the initial waste inputs. More
importantly, these outputs are more often far more toxic then the original waste fed into the
incinerator.
Incineration of growing amounts of plastics? Not a good idea.
106
Conclusion
Are South Africans currently in a position to be responsible in their use of plastics?
In South Africa, as elsewhere in the world, the plastics industry is strong in pushing out messages that
plastics are safe and that the plastics industry is taking responsible care. There is evidence that it is
promoting recycling, and paying attention to its extended reducer responsibilities. Since the South
African democratisation in 1994, legislation to protect workers in the chemical industry has improved
dramatically, along with legislation that protects the environment, that requires improved waste
management, as well as specific but narrow interventions by the state on shopping bags and BPA in
baby bottles. That these interventions take place and are taken up by citizens is a sign of a growing
knowledge and concern by citizens.
But there is also evidence that much of this legislation is not properly implemented, and that the
flow of litter and pollutants from the plastic industry into the environment, and into people’s bodies,
is continuing. There is an uncontrolled use of plastics in many applications, there is no independent
verification of the claims of the plastics industry, and there is no South African testing of plastic
products. Many plastic products, including packaging, are still not clearly labeled. And industry still
makes outrageous but revealing claims, such as this statement from the Plastics Convertors
Association of South Africa (PCA), “Plastics manufacturing in South Africa is regulated by Plastics SA
(previously known as the Plastics Federation of South Africa) an association not for gain. The Plastics
SA Board comprises of: Safripol, Sasol Polymers, Hosaf - raw material suppliers and importers, PCA
(Plastics Converters Association of SA), ARMSA (Association of Rotational Moulders of South Africa),
PISA (Plastics Institute of Southern Africa), EPSASA (Expanded Polystyrene Association of South
Africa) and SAPPMA (South African Plastic Pipe Manufacture rs Association)”372 .
Even if only partly true, it means that the plastics manufacturers think that they are policing
themselves – and in the process, protecting people and the environment from themselves,
themselves!
107
Annex 4
108
Environmental and Social Development Organization
The impacts of plastic pollution in Bangladesh
109
Introduction
In this study we will look at the use of plastic in Bangladesh, and the infrastructure and governance
barriers faced in managing plastics in Bangladesh. Due to rapid population and economic growth,
plastic use and disposal problems are growing in Bangladesh. Governance presents a major challenge
for the proper management of plastics in Bangladesh. Bangladesh was one of the first countries in
the world to implement a nation wide ban on plastic shopping bags in 2002, however due to
insufficient enforcement plastic bags remain in the market and the waste stream. Similarly,
regulations to control the pollution from the shipbreaking industry have been ineffective in
controlling PCB and dioxin pollution, which partly is related to plastics.
Use of Plastics in Bangladesh
Polyethylene was first used in Asia in 1962 and the production and use of polythene shopping bags
began in South Asia in 1974. Many plastic products were not avail able in Bangladesh until after
independence in 1971 and it was not until the early eighties that many common plastic products
became widely available 373. Particularly, it was not until 1982 that plastic bags were introduced to
Bangladesh, however within five years of time plastic bags had become a threat to everyday life and
environment in Bangladesh 374 .
Plastics are used throughout the world for many reasons and provide the things consumers want and
need at reasonable costs. Plastics have the unique capability to be manufactured to meet very
specific functional needs for consumers in a wide variety of applications, see Table 1 below.
375
Table 1: Applications of Plastic
APPLICATIONS
Packaging
Accessories for raw material of
garments
Household & kitchenware
Furniture ware
Healthcare
Building and construction
Electrical
and
electronic
equipment
Agricultural products
PRODUCTS
All kinds of food and non-food packaging
Packaging material, bags, hangers, buttons etc.
Bucket, jug, plate, container etc.
Chair, table
Toiletries (soap case, tooth brush), diaper, sanitary napkin,
medical accessories (tubes, blood bag, saline bag, etc)
Plastic pipe, door, etc.
Electrical cables and wires, switches, regulators, computer
accessories, telecommunication equipment, etc.
Plastic pipes for irrigation, plastic films for shedding crops, etc
Domestic Plastic use in Bangladesh
Packaging
Modern packaging such as heat-sealed plastic pouches and wraps help to keep food fresh and free of
contamination, which means the resources that went into producing that food are not wasted.
Plastics make packaging more efficient, which ultimately conserves resources. In recognition of the
role plastic packaging can play in food storage and transport, the Government of Bangladesh has
created an exemption from the current plastic ban to allow polyethylene for food packaging and the
packaging of some medical equipment 376.
110
However most plastic packaging is single use and people in Bangladesh are littering the plastic
packaging recklessly, unaware of the impacts of plastic on the environment 373 . The plastic bag case
and the plastic bag ban is discussed in detail in the following text below.
Household products
A variety of household things such as jugs, plates, containers, boxes etc. are made out of plastic in
Bangladesh. Plastic is lightweight, stable and has the ability to be molded into complex shapes. Thus,
more and more products are added to the list each year. From the economic perspective, it is the
material of choice for mass production and it reduces our dependence on natural resources.
Plastic Bags
Plastic bags are used in shopping, and help to make thing portable. They last longer and are of lighter
weight than many alternative bags. Therefore, the plastic bag as a carrier is very convenient and
popular in shopping. But after the Government of Bangladesh introduced a prohibition of plastic
shopping bags in 2002377, their use has gradually gone down. However the country faces challenges
to comprehensively enforce the legislation.
Although plastic bags make up only a small percentage of all litter, the impact of these bags is
significant. Plastic bags create visual pollution problems and can have harmful effects on aquatic and
terrestrial animals. Plastic bags are particularly noticeable components of the litter stream due to
their size and can take a long time to fully break down.
One of the major impacts of plastic bags in Bangladesh is their impact on the storm water drainage
system. Bangladesh has an annual rainfall of up to 5 meters and holds the world record for the
highest rainfall in a single day 378 . Providing a sufficient drainage infrastructure is a major challenge
for the Government of Bangladesh and urban flooding is common. Plastic bags clog drains and
waterways, threatening urban environments and creating severe safety hazards 379 . Drainage systems
blocked by plastic bags have been identified as a major cause of flooding in Bangla desh during
monsoon season. Following the 1998 flood it was estimated that up to 80% of the city’s waterlogging
was caused by polyethylene blocking drains 380. Floods, exacerbated by plastic bags, destroy homes;
derail trains; disrupt traffic and cause mudslides. In addition, plastics take many years (20 to 1000
years381) to degrade and hence pose a long-term challenge for managing drainage infrastructure in
Bangladesh376 .
The improper disposal of plastic bags is a public health threat in Bangladesh as they increase the
incidence of mosquito borne diseases such as dengue and malaria 382. The blockage of drains by
plastic waste increases the amount of standing water, which acts as a breeding ground for
mosquitos. Furthermore, when filled with rainwater, also plastic bags become micro breeding
grounds for mosquitoes 382 . Blockage of the sewage system by plastic bags also creates a public
health threat as improperly disposed off bags end up in the sewer creating blockages and water
logging. The resultant ponds contain raw sewage and a variety of other materials disposed off via the
sewer383 .
In the 1990’s plastic bags of all sizes and colors spotted the city‘s landscape due to the problems of
misuse and overuse and littering in Bangladesh. In the year 1990, 9.3 million plastic bags were
dumped in the city every day, with only 10-15% put in dustbins 373. The rest goes into drainage and
sewage lines, causing blockages.
111
In the floods of 1988 and 1998 this prevented drainage, prolonging the flooding. In 1998 two thirds
of the country, including a large part of the Dhaka City, was under knee deep water for nearly two
months382 .
In 1990, Environment and Social Development Organization-ESDO began an initiative to draw public
attention to the issue of plastic bags, through writing articles in the newspaper and conduct
community awareness campaign. The campaign drew the attention of the press as well as of the
Government. A number of non-governmental organizations and public leaders came forward to
support the campaign, with some organizations demanded banning of production and use of
polythene shopping bags. Based on the popular demand, in 1993, Ministry of Environment and
Forest (MOEF) took an initiative to ban the production and trade of polythene bags . However the
legislation was not passed by the parliament and did not come into effect 376 .
Photo 1: Plastic bag litter on streets of Dhaka 1992
Photo 4: Plastic bag alternatives are promoted at the 1
Environment Friendly Bag Exhibition 1998
Photo 2: 1993 rally in support of plastic bag
ban organized by ESDO
st
Photo 3: ESDO works with local media to
draw attention to plastic waste disposal
112
(Dhaka 1999 )
Photo 5: The Minister of Environment (man in the grey vest on
the truck) participates in an awareness campaign, following
plastic bag ban in January 2002.
In 1999, following the 1998 flood, the MOEF again started campaign against polyethylene bags
through its Sustainable Environment Management Programme (SEMP) that led to the formation of a
Task Force to work towards framing a Strategy for phasing out of polythene shopping bags. The Task
Force’ recommended the MOEF to undertake a detailed study on the production, marketing and use
of polythene shopping bags including socio-economic analysis before making the final decision 382.
With overwhelming support from user to manufacturers and exporters, the MOEF placed a proposal
before the Cabinet to ban the production and use of polyethylene shopping bags in Dhaka city from
January 1, 2002. The Cabinet agreed with the MOEF proposal.
MOEF then started a vigorous campaign from market to market for sensitization and motivation and
announced that January 1, 2002 shall be the cut-off date for production and use of 20 micron thick
polyethylene shopping bags (see photo 5).
Table 2: Milestones in the ESDO campaign to ban plastic bags in Bangladesh
Time
Early 1990s
May 1993
June 1993
October 1993
July & August
1995
Event
ESDO launches a comprehensive campaign against the use of polythene/ plastic
shopping bags.
Approximately 500 people take part in a protest supporting the ban of
plastic/polythene bag production and use, see Photo 2.
ESDO hosted an Open Discussion Seminar in Dhaka as a comprehensive assessment
of stakeholder and decision maker opinions regarding the campaign.
Inspired by our anti-plastic/polythene campaign, 500 plastic/polythene bag factories
were shut down in Shind Province in Pakistan by the local government.
ESDO formally launched its anti polythene/ Plastic campaign in America & Europe
with the collaboration of University of New Mexico, Albuquerque and Green peace
USA, Advocacy Institute of Washington D.C., Ashoka USA, and Friends of the earth
U.K.
113
1998
The first Environment Friendly Bag Exhibition is held in Dhaka, (see Photo 4):
- Manufacturers of paper, cloth, jute and cane bags from all over the
country participated in the event.
- Winners were chosen from different categories of manufactures
and given accolades.
- Exhibition becomes an annual ESDO event, held as part of the
organization’s anti-polythene/plastic campaign.
December
ESDO undertook a project, the Study on and Dissemination of Environment Friendly
1999
Alternatives: Jute, Biodegradable Polythene and Plastic Bags sponsored by the
Sustainable Environment Management Program of the UNDP and Ministry of
Environment and Forestry.
January
& ESDO disseminates information regarding the viability of polythene alternatives and
February 2000 the consequences of plastic/polythene pollution through open discussions held in
Dhaka and surrounding regions.
April 2000
ESDO uses Earth Day 2000 and the Bengali New Year as platforms to voice its
message on a large scale.
November
Bangladesh’s Ministry of Environment and Forest commit to banning polythene use
2001
in Dhaka as of January 1, 2002.
December
- ESDO takes the opportunity to strongly advertise and educate the public about
2001
the dangers of polythene and increase awareness about the upcoming ban.
- ESDO produces posters, leaflets, television commercials, and voice
announcements, to prepare the public for the ban on polythene.
- Government of West Bengal of India imposed a ban on the use and production of
polythene shopping bags from January 1, 2002.
January 2002
Plastic/polythene shopping bag is banned as of January 1, 2002 in Dhaka city and
banning the production and use of polythene countrywide by March 1, 2002.
Regulation of plastic shopping bag in Bangladesh
In Bangladesh, the Environment Conservation Act was formulated in 1995. The law of section 1 under
this act was revised in 2002. According to Rule 6ka of Clause-5 under Section-9, restriction has been
imposed in the production and uses of polythene shopping bag.
According to the rule, there is restriction on the production and sale of environmentally harmful
products. If it is proven that any kind of plastic bags or products made of polyethylene or poly propylene is detrimental for environment then government could control/ban the use of these
products to any selected area or all over the country.
According to rule 6ka, the penalty and punishment will be


for production, import and marketing – 10 years sentence of vigorous prison, or 1 million
taka fine, or both punishment together.
for sale, exhibition for sale, store, distribution, transportation or use for commercial purpose
– 6 months sentence of vigorous prison or 10 thousand taka fine, or both punishments
together377.
114
Current Situation
Since the introduction of the legislation Bangladesh has continually struggled to achieve effectiv e
enforcement. In their 2011 survey of plastic usage, ESDO identified that many people believed
polythene bags have become more widely available after a long period of discontinuation of
production384 . In 2011, Bangladeshi plastic industries produced 195 mi llion pieces of
HDPE/LDPE/LLDPE shopping bags 385 . The rate of plastic production and consumption is increasing day
by day and at the same time unregulated, harmful and hazardous manufacturing facilities are the big
threat to environment and human health.
The MOEF is responsible for the enforcement of the polythene ban, with the police delegated to
conduct frontline monitoring and enforcement, however this does not occur on a regular or
systematic basis. The Bangladesh government runs a number of mobile courts, which a few times per
year is set up at markets to target those breaking the ban by using plastic shopping bags 386. However
enforcement has been lacking and only a small number of fines have been enforced since 2006 387 .
Development is a priority for the Bangladeshi Government and Bangladesh’s rapid industrial growth
has included the plastics sector. In 2009 the Government of Bangladesh made the plastic industry
one of twelve special priority areas for export growth, including a range of incentives and benefi ts for
these industries388 . As a result there has been little enforcement of the ban on the manufacturer of
polythene bags.
Bangladesh has struggled with corruption being named Transparency Internationals most corrupt
country in 2005 and improving from 158th to 144th in 2012389 . This has effected the enforcement of
the plastic bag ban in Bangladesh, where accusations of bribes and threats regarding the
enforcement of the polythene ban are common 390.
The result of insufficient enforcement and governance barriers is that each year more and more
plastic bags are ending up littering the environment. Once they become litter, plastic bags find their
way into our waterways, parks, beaches, streets and agricultural land. To stop illegal
polythene/plastic shopping bag trade and dumping, laws of environment should be enforced
effectively. The MOEF needs support in developing a strong governance program and systematic
enforcement of existing laws without fear or favor. In this regard national and international
organizations are able to play a role in supporting the Government of Bangladesh and working for
plastic pollution free world.
Waste and Disposal of Plastics in Bangladesh
Bangladesh, a developing country with increasing population, is currently facing growing challenges
due to plastic pollution. Present population in Bangladesh has passed 150 million and the population
growth rate is 1.3% 391 . One of the direct consequences of population growth is the increase in waste
generation. A 2005 study by NGO Waste Concern, found that the urban area of Bangladesh currently
generates approximately 17,000 tonnes of waste per day, which adds up to over 6.2 million tonnes
annually and the waste generation from plastic is approximately 2,500 tonnes per day 392. According
to the Dhaka City Corporation in 2005 total urban waste generated 13,500 tonnes per day, and
plastic waste ratio was 5.1%. General growth of waste generation has increased to 5.2% per year, but
the plastic waste increased into 7.5% per year 393 .
115
It is projected that this amount will grow up to 48,000 tonnes/day and close to 17.3 million tonnes
per year by 2025, due to increase both in population and in per capita waste generation 392 .
Current situation of Plastic waste in Bangladesh
Every year, Bangladesh alone discards 1.1 million tonnes of plastic waste from different categories of
discarded plastic products. The vast majority (>80 %) of the 1.1 million tonnes of plastic waste per
year originates from domestic use, which is made up by a variety of products, such as plastic utensils,
plastic bottles, polyethylene bags, food wrappings, diapers and sanitary napkins 394. In their 2011
study of plastic waste ESDO found, that the amount of total discarded domestic plastic waste is 2,500
tonnes per day 373 , thus verifying the estimates from 2005392 .
Plastics in the Garment & Food Manufacturing Industry
The rapidly growing garments & food manufacturing industry is the second the major sources of
plastic waste in Bangladesh. An estimate of 97,200 tonnes of plastic waste are disposed off each year
in this sector373. At present there are approximately 4,500 garment businesses in Bangladesh and the
sector is growing rapidly, with Bangladesh becoming the world’s second largest apparel exporter in
2011395. According to the 2011 survey by ESDO, these industries discard 30% of the total generated
waste 373 . Table 3 below summarizes the results.
Table 3: Total volume of plastic waste discarded by the garment industry
Types
garments
industry
of
Number
garments
industry
Large garments
Medium + small
garments
of
Total
plastic
waste generation
(Metric
Ton
/year/ company)
1350
30.5
3150
15.2
Total
plastic Total plastic waste
waste discarded
discarded
(Metric
Ton (Metric Ton /year)
/year/ company)
9.14
12300
4.57
14400
The number of total food manufacturing businesses in Bangladesh is over 5,000 and based on the
survey completed by ESDO in 2011 each year they discard an estimated 70,400 tonnes of plastic
waste 373 . The results are summarized in Table 4 below.
Table 4: Total volume of plastic waste discarded by the food manufacturing industry
Types
of
food Number
of
manufacturing
food industry
industry
Total plastic waste
generation
(Metric Ton /year/
unit/company)
Total
plastic Total
plastic
waste recycled waste discarded
(Metric
Ton (Metric Ton /year)
/year/ company)
Large food company
1090
81.7
65.3 (80%)
17700
Large
beverage
company
7
45.1
11.3 (25%)
237
(medium + small)
food/snacks
company
3980
32.9
19.8 (60%)
52500
116
Insufficient waste management systems
Bangladesh does not currently have sufficient waste collection and management infrastructure
sufficient for the countries growing and increasingly urban population 373 . Once plastic products are
used, most of them are disposed of rather than reused or recycled. Due to inadequacy of proper
waste management in Bangladesh, tonnes of plastic garbage from domestic use are dumped without
treatment in both urban and rural areas 373.
In Bangladesh, inappropriate dumping of plastic garbage and waste has resulted in significant
pollution of the country’s water resources376 . Bangladesh is a country with an extensive network of
rivers and watercourses, therefore physical trash, like plastic bottles or plastic packaging commonly
accumulate in bodies of water through littering382. Additionally, natural processes such as flooding,
run-off, winds, etc. disperse the plastic waste in the aquatic environment. As most of the collection,
recycling, and decomposition of plastic in Bangladesh is unplanned and unmanaged (see next
chapter), it results in toxic chemicals being emitted which contaminate the air, water and soil.
Additionally, the waste management authorities in Bangladesh regularly incinerate waste without
prior separation of different types of waste 373, which is a source of chloroorganic pollutants, such as
dioxins, and other plastic pollutants being released into the air, water and soil 237 . Open burning of
plastic waste is common practice in Bangladesh, and is also a source to chloroorganic pollutants.
Environmental exposure to plastics and plastic bi-products can cause cancer379 , skin disease 396 , and
other health problems 374. Consequently there is pressing need for proper waste management as well
as a commitment to reduce and phase out of plastic products to protect nature and human health.
Bangladesh requires environmentally safe and sustainable waste management practices that comply
with policy guidelines and enforcement of current regulations.
Informal Waste Collection and Recycling
Less that 50% of the waste in Dhaka is collected 380, with estimates as low as 10-15% of plastic waste
being managed as part of a formal waste management system 373 . The Clean Dhaka Master plan has
estimated that as much as 6% of the cities workforce is involved in the informal waste collection and
recycling sector393 .
Figure 1: Informal waste collection and recycling in Dhaka (Clean Dhaka Master Plan, 2 005)
Poor people in Bangladesh conduct informal recycling, by collecting valuable or recyclable materials
from waste stream. Plastic products are collected by the poorer groups (tokais) and sold to buyers
117
who separate them for recycling, see Figure 1. In Dhaka, used plastic products are collected in bulk
quantities in the Lalbagh area for recycling 373 . The water bodies in old Dhaka, particularly those near
Lalbagh, Hazaribagh and the Buriganga River are highly contaminated (see Photo 7) in part due to
used polyethylene bags being washed in the open waters 382. Plastic that cannot be sold to recyclers is
burnt in open drums 380, , see Photo 9.
Photo 6: A young girl gathers plastic waste for
recycling
Photo 7: Plastic waste is washed on the edge of
waterways in Dhaka
Photo 8: Plastic is sorted for recycling in Dhaka
Photo 9: Plastic is burnt in open drums
These plastic collectors, particularly the children, are vulnerable to infection disease contamination
because they do not wear any protective clothing during collection ( see Photo 6). Different types of
wastes end up at dumpsites, hospital waste for example, are mixed with polyethylene bags 397. Apart
from hazardous chemicals including heavy metals, hospital waste may contain pathogens of various
infectious diseases, such as tuberculosis, cholera and typhoid. These diseases are transmitted further
by waste collectors when they work in other places without properly washing their hands, for
example women working part-time in the service sector397.
Ship Breaking Industry
The workers of ship breaking industries and other related industries are one example of the victims
of plastic pollution. The ship breaking industry handles significant amounts of plastic products of
which, for example cable insulation may contain PCB (Polychlorinated Biphenyls). Significant
amounts of Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) are found on ships. Electric cables, coated with PVC and
sometimes even insulated with PCB, are often burnt in open fires, in order to refine the copper
inside. When chlorine containing material like PVC is burnt under sub-optimal conditions, i.e. an open
fire, dioxins are formed 398. Both dioxins and PCB are listed on the Stockholm Convention on
Persistent Organic Pollutants, due to their hazardous properties, such as potency to cause cancer 399 .
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The shipbreaking industry grew rapidly in Bangladesh in the 1980s and 1990s in a largely regulation
free environment, and by 1999 Bangladesh accounted for 52% of global ship breaking 398 . In 2009 the
government acted to enforce existing obligations under the Basel convention that ban the import of
hazardous chemicals, and banned the import of ships containing for example PCB. However, these
requirements were soon relaxed and the ship breaking industry continues to import hazardous
plastic products to Bangladesh400. Shipbreaking is an important industry in Bangladesh, providing
significant amounts in tax revenue for the government, employing over 150,000 people and
providing up to 50% of the steel produced in Bangladesh 401. These benefits present a serious barrier
to strong governance and enforcement of obligations under existing laws and international
conventions.
Climate Change
Plastics are made using fossil fuels, thus the burning of plastics releases greenhouse gases. As the
climate change poses a major threat to the population and environment not the least in Bangladesh,
the use of plastics is questionable. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has found
that Bangladesh is on of the nations most vulnerable to climate change 402 . The rising level of
greenhouse gases contributes to global warming, which will result in sea level rise and seawater
inundation of agricultural land, and the increased threat of natural disaster such as floods, cyclones
and droughts all of which are common in Bangladesh.
As a durable lightweight packaging material the use of plastic can reduce the energy and greenhouse
gases used in transport compared to alternatives such as paper and glass 403 . However, the single use
nature of many plastic products and the low portion that are recycled in today’s society means that
high amounts of embodied greenhouse gases in plastic ite ms will be released if burned. The use of
plastics can be greenhouse friendly as part of the reduce, reuse, recycle strategy (3R; see
introduction) 404.
Substitution
Biodegradable Plastic
Biodegradable plastics have been around for over twenty years. Sometimes plastics are engineered
with other chemicals that causing the plastic polymer to degrade over time. Degradation of some of
these products is dependent on sunlight. An apparent downside of these types of plastic is that they
end up in nature as litter for a while, until degraded into smaller pieces of plastics. Plastics buried in
landfills will not receive the sun they need to degrade and, the refore, can still last for decades 405 .
Another type is obtained by mixing starch with the plastic, making it degrade more easily 406 . It does
not, however, cause the plastic to break down completely. BASF manufactures a biodegradable
polyester called Ecoflex that is used for food packaging applications 407 . Unfortunately, fossil oil is still
the raw material and therefore biodegradable plastics add to the carbon footprint as carbon dioxide
is released during the degradation/combustion process.
While there are still many questions left unanswered when it comes to the environment and plastics,
it is clear that plastics are here to stay for a very long time 405 .
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Conclusions and Recommendations
In summary, Bangladesh is a country where plastic consumption is rapidly growing as incomes
increase and the garment and food manufacturing sectors grow. The need for strong governance
and enforcement of regulations are the biggest barrier to managing plastics in Bangladesh. The
Government of Bangladesh has shown its commitment to minimizing the impacts of plastic, through
a plastic bag ban introduced in 2002 and regulating the shipbreaking industry. However both these
regulations have not been enforced or have been relaxed to aid development. Given Bangladesh’s
current poor waste management infrastructure, this has resulted in extensive plastic pollution.
Recycling is one strategy for end-of-life waste management of plastic products in Bangladesh. It
makes increasing sense economically as well as environmentally and recent trends demonstrate a
substantial increase in the rate of recovery and recycling of plastic wastes. These trends are likely to
continue, but some significant challenges still exist from both technological factors and from
economic or social behavior issues relating to the collection of recyclable wastes, and substitution for
virgin material.
Increasing public awareness of recycled plastic and to think Recycling is required and should be
encouraged at a formal level where all institutions shall ensure that waste is collected and delivered
to the designated collection centers. Waste recycling is expensive and the costs are not necessarily
covered by the resale of recovered materials. Therefore an integrated waste re cycling facility opting
the Best Available Technologies (BAT) that provide facilities complying with all the environmental
laws in the terms of emissions, effluents, noise, waste treatment and disposal, is vital. Adopting this
nation wide would increase building activity and give job opportunities. This would conserve nature
for the next generation and make Bangladesh habitable for all living beings.
Strategies for reduction of Environmental Impact of Plastics
To reduce the environmental impact of plastics in Bangladesh, the national 3R-goal for plastic waste
management should be to achieve higher levels of waste reduction, reuse and recycling and
minimize waste disposal on open dumps, rivers, flood plains and landfills by the year 2015.
Reduce the use: we should reduce the use of plastic source by selecting the products that use little
or no packaging. Products with reusable and recycled packaging materials should be selected rather
than those using virgin material. If people refuse plastic as a packaging material, the industry will
decrease production for that purpose, and the associated problems such as energy use, pollution,
and adverse health effects will diminish.
Reuse the plastic products: Since refillable plastic containers can be reused for many ti mes,
container reuse can lead to a substantial reduction in the demand for disposable plastic and reduced
use of materials and energy, with the consequent reduced environmental impacts. Container
designers should take into account the fate of the container beyond the point of sale and consider
the service the container provides.
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Recycle plastics: Effective recycling of mixed plastics waste is the next major challenge for the
plastics recycling sector. All types of plastic waste could be collected and sorted to make recycled
plastic with minimal contamination. Improvements in separation within recycling plants give further
potential for both higher recycling volumes and better eco-efficiency by decreasing waste fractions,
energy and water use. The goals should be to maximize both the volume and quality of recycled
plastic408 .
Recommendations
The possible solutions to the most crucial problems associated with the use of plastics are 







Enforcement of existing policy, framework and laws, i.e. restriction in the p roduction and
uses of polythene shopping bag containing polyethylene or poly-propylene
Encourage and promote production and use of biodegradable alternatives such as products
of jute, cotton, cane, paddy straw and recyclable papers
Raise public awareness through information, education and demonstration projects for
promotion of 3R – Reduce, Reuse, Recycle
Encourage the implementation of Environmental Management Systems (EMS), which can
result in better resource efficiency and increase awareness of waste prevention and recycling
practices.
Adoption of safe and environmentally sound disposal for the waste that cannot be recycled
or reused.
Media need to inform people about the risks with an irresponsible use of plastic on the
environment and human health.
Regular inspection of different sectors to decrease the illegal dumping of plastic waste in
landfill and water bodies.
Above all, an increased individually responsibility to decrease the use of plastic products.
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Annex 5
122
Toxics Link
Plastic menace - a short report on Plastic waste Management in India
123
Plastic usage in India
Plastic is one of the most versatile materials known to mankind today and due to its diverse
properties it has occupied a very important place in our lives. Products made of plastics occupy our
everyday life in many ways and production and consumption of this material and products continue
to grow manifold. Global production of plastics has crossed 230 million tonnes annually 2009409. Asia
has been world’s largest plastics consumer for several years, accounting for about 30% of the global
consumption excluding Japan, which has share of about 6.5%. The two most significant growing
consumers are India and China. India, with 12.5m tonnes per annum (TPA), was expected to become
the third largest consumer of polymers in the world after the USA (39m TPA) and China (37.5m TPA)
by 2012.
While plastics continue to fascinate us as a material it also poses another set of challenge in its
lifecycle management. The quantum of waste generated from post consumer plastic poses serious
challenge in most countries. There has been growing effort in managing this waste through recycling
and bringing back this material in the supply chain process.
Growth of plastic use in India
In India approximately 8 million tons of plastic products are produced every year (2008) 410. Its broad
range of application includes films, wrapping materials, shopping and garbage bags, fluid containers,
clothing, toys, household and industrial products, and building materials.
Table 5: Plastic consumption in India411
Year
Consumption
(ton per year)
1996
61,000
2001
4,000,000
2006
7,000,000
2011
135,000,000
Plastic usage has grown rapidly in India, increasing from 61,000 tonnes per annum in 1960 to 4
million tonnes in 2001-02 (Central Pollution Control Board 1998) 412. Consumption of polymers in the
country during 2010-2011 stood at 10 million tons against the global level of 220 million tons413.
While the growth rate in its demand has been very high, the low starting point means that annual per
capita amounts remain well below the other countries, especially the developed countries. Per capita
plastic consumption in India stood at 8 kg/person in 2010 and is expected to reach around 27 kg by
2015414, which is the world average. In comparison, it is around 46 kg/ person in China, 100 kg per
capita in North America and Western Europe 414, 415. Packaging is the major plastics consuming sector,
with 42% of the total consumption, followed by consumer products and the construction industry.
Plastic consumption is expected to grow substantially in the next couple of years, with the
consumption set to rise to 18.9 million tonnes by 2015.
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Table 6: Vision 2015 – Indian Plastics Industry416
Consumption of Polymers at 15% *
Turnover of plastics Industries
Additional Employment Generation
Requirement of Additional Plastics Processing Machines
(in numbers)
Additional Capital Investment in machines (2004-2015)
18.9 Million tonnes
INR 1,332 billion
7 million
68,113
INR 450 billion
*CAGR – Compound Annual Growt Rate
Plastic waste in India
Plastics waste is a significant portion of the total municipal solid waste (MSW) in India. But there are
no accurate figures for the total amount of plastic waste currently being generated in the country.
The only way to estimate is to assess it from the total municipal waste generated. According to a
report, the share of plastic waste in total solid waste has risen from 0.6% in 1996 to 9.2% in 2005 417.
According to CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board), approximately 10 000 tonnes per day (TPD) of
plastics waste was generated i.e., 9% of 120 000 TPD of MSW in the country couple of years back 418.
Since the current MSW generation is at 136 000 tonnes, the plastic waste would be around 12 000
TPD. According to another estimate, in India per capita generation of plastic wastes in various cities
varies from 0.035 - 0.21 kg/person/day. Thermoplastics, constitutes 80% and thermoset constitutes
approximately 20% of total post-consumer plastics waste generated in India419.
Figure 2: Plastic contaminated waste in a landfill
According to a study done by Central Pollution Control Board in India to assess the plastic waste and
its management at airports and railway stations in Delhi, the quantity of plastic waste generated per
day at H. Nizamuddin, Old Delhi and New Delhi railway station (Three big railways stations in the city)
is 972 kg, 1,428 kg and 4,358 kg respectively. The total quantity of plastic waste generated at airport
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(domestic and International) is 4,130kg per day. Out of which, 2,666 kg/day is generated at domestic
airport and 1,523 kg/day at International airport. The contribution of plastic bottles alone is 80% i.e.
3,370 kg.
The quantum of plastic waste in municipal solid waste (MSW) is increasing due to increase in
population, urbanization, development activities and changes in lifestyle. It is also leading to
widespread littering of this kind of waste, with disposal of waste plastic proving to be a menace.
Plastic disposal has become a serious problem due to their non-biodegradability.
Lot of the plastic waste lands up in the landfill sites in India. Due to its non biodegradable property of
the material, it stays in its original form for years thereby filling up landfill spaces and leaching of
pollutants into environment. The increasing quantities of plastics waste and their effective and safe
disposal has become a matter of public concern. The increasingly visible consequences of
indiscriminate littering of plastic wastes (in particular plastic packaging wastes and discarded bags)
has stimulated public outcry and shaped policy.
PET Bottles
Worldwide, PET-bottles have replaced glass bottles in the beverage and food sector. The negative
impacts of PET-bottles in recent years result from their use as non returnable beverage containers,
leading to a dramatic increase of PET bottle waste. PET bottles contribute increasingly to the
generation of waste and litter especially in developing countries like India. As per the estimates, India
produces 500,000 tonnes of pet waste every year and due to increasing use of pet bottles in daily
consumption, the amount of waste is going to grow by leaps and bounds. According to a study there
are more than 200 bottled water brands in India and out of them approximately 80 per cent are local
brands.
Polythene Bags
Plastic bags are one of the most common items in everyday life and are being increasingly used by all
sections of society globally. Each year the world goes through some 500 Billion plastic bags. They are
also at the heart of a battle raging in municipalities world-wide due to the environmental damage
caused, polluting waterways and other natural areas.
Plastic shopping or carrier bags are considered to be one of the main sources of plastic waste in
India. Over 50% of the plastic waste comprises used plastic bags and packaging 420. Plastic bags of all
sizes and colours dot the city‘s landscape due to the problems of misuse and overuse and littering in
India. Besides this visual pollution, plastic bag wastes contribute to blockage of drains and gutters,
are a threat to aquatic life when they find their way to water bodies. Furthermore, when filled with
rainwater, plastic bags become breeding grounds for mosquitoes, which cause malaria 421.
Though there have been some bans on plastic bags, especially in cities, hill stations and tourists
places, used plastic bags can be found almost everywhere.
Excessive use of plastic bags and their unregulated disposal has been choking lakes, ponds and urban
sewerage systems, the Supreme Court, the highest judiciary body in India, commented while warning
that it posed a threat more serious than the atom bomb for the next generation. This observation
came on a response to Public Interest Litigation filed by two Andhra Pradesh-based NGOs drawing
the court's attention to 30-60 kg of plastic bags recovered from the stomachs of cows.
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The plastic bags end-up in the stomachs of animals, especially cows and bulls, which are ingesting
plastic from garbage dumps and roadsides. Owing to their complex digestive systems, these bags,
which they consume for the food they contain, get trapped inside their stomachs forever, and
eventually, lead to constipation and painful death.
Figure 3: Animals and plastic
Although different factors have contributed to the increased incidence of flooding in India, lately, the
significant cause of flooding in cities in India is linked to the tremendous deterioration in urban
drainage systems, most of which is attributable to plastic waste bags blocking the drainage systems.
In 2005 Mumbai, India’s commercial capital, faced one of the worst floods in its history. The single
largest problem identified with the flooding in Mumbai was the drains being choked with plastic
bags. According to a report, around 3 billion polythene bags are discarded every year in the city of
Mumbai 422.
According to a report, currently, around 4000 plastic bag manufacturing units are operating in Delhi,
though only few hundred are legal. The total yearly turnover of these units is in the range of INR 8
billion to INR 10 billion423. By the Indian government's own estimates, over 10 million plastic bags are
used and discarded daily by 16 million residents in New Delhi and its suburbs 424.
Recycling
Recycling and disposal of plastic waste is a serious concern in India. New technologies have been
developed to minimize their adverse effect on the environment. But in India, plastic is primarily
recycled by the unorganized sector with low cost technology, thereby raising concerns related to
health and environmental risks. There is no accurate data available on nature and number of plastic
recycling units in India. One estimate is that about 20,000 micro enterprises are engaged in
reprocessing and recovery of plastic waste in addition to 180,000 of various sorting and washing
units, 60% of which are unregistered 425.
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Recycled Pellets
Approximately 60-80 % of post consumer use plastic waste generated within India is collected,
segregated, and mechanically recycled, mainly by the informal sector426. The informal sector uses
basic technology for recycling plastic waste. The entire process of recycling is largely manual and
done on the basis of experience and know-how gathered over the years. Most of these recycling
units have very low fixed capital (for machinery, etc.) and are generally run as small family
businesses. Informal enterprises are usually not registered and thus evade rules and regulati ons, e.g.
tax laws, minimum wage laws, accounting and workplace safety. Consequently, not only child labour
is come across, but dismal working conditions are also encountered.
The National Plastics Waste Management Taskforce Report 427 values the informal scrap sector’s
annual turnover at INR 25000 million, while a different source estimated it to be INR 39000 million
per annum.
Of the types of plastics recycled in India, PVC (polyvinyl chloride) accounts for 45 percent, LDPE (low
density polyethylene) for 25 percent, HDPE (high density polyethylene)for 20 percent, PP
(polypropylene) for 7.6 percent and other polymers such asPS (polystyrene) for 2.4 percent.
According to the units, almost all these types of waste can be recycled up to four or five times.
However, the quality of the recycled deteriorates as additives and virgin material are added to give it
strength.
Recycling usually results in the down cycling of plastics into lower-quality products that have higher
and more leachable levels of toxic additives. In addition, the incomplete combustion process during
recycling increases the risk of toxic emissions. A recycling plant also generates large amounts of
effluents during washing and cleaning. During recycling, the plastic scrap is cleaned to remove the
dirt and foreign matter adhering to it. It is usually soap solution that is used for this purpose, and it is
reused several times before it is finally disposed of into open drains. The quantity and the
characteristics of wastewater generated cannot be generalized, and depends to a large extent on the
contents of the plastic scrap. Nevertheless, this wastewater has high pollution load in terms of BOD,
COD, and TSSeeee. This water needs treatment before proper disposal into the drains. Most recycling
units in the informal sector release the wastewater into open drains without prior treatment.
Informal sector- players
The informal sector of the plastic reprocessing business constitutes different players at different
stages of waste management. This is similar to any waste stream hierarchy and may also include
several traders or middle men at the higher levels (Big Kabaddiwala and onwards).
Ragpickers (locally also called ‘Kachrawala’ or ‘Binnewallahs’) –Ragpickers or Waste pickers
constitute the bottom layer of waste recycling in Delhi and form the base of the large informal
recycling pyramid. Delhi is estimated to have around 100,000 Ragpickers428 , constituting of men,
women and children. Pickers collect waste just by picking it up from public places such as garbage
dumps, streets or landfills and earn their livelihood by selling collected and sorted waste to higher
levels. Among the recyclables, plastic is a relatively significant material for waste picking. Typically
plastic accounts for 47.8 % (by weight; Shyamala, 1994) and constitute 36% of his/her total income.
Generally a waste picker sells his/her waste every day.
eeee
BOD = Biological oxygen demand, COD = Chemical oxygen demand, TSS = Total suspended solids
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However, not all plastic is collected by waste pickers. Only the plastic which has direct salable value is
picked up. Small bits of plastic, contaminated with food material or dust and mud are not collected.
Waste Collectors (locally also called ‘Kabaddiwalas’) – The collectors are also at the bottom of the
waste pyramid, but their operations are different from the Ragpickers. The collector goes around t he
generators of waste, for example households, small offices, shops etc, and purchases their waste by
paying cash. In contrast to Ragpickers, they need to have some operating capital to buy material and
earn profit by selling it to others at the higher level in the pyramid. Only males are known to be in
this occupation in India.
Small traders (locally also called as ‘Thiawalas’) - The Thiawalas usually pick up waste from
Ragpickers and have some space to carry out sorting and cleaning operations. They, in turn sell these
sorted materials to large dealers or large kabaddi shops.
Figure 4: Waste Hierarchy in the informal sector for Plastic
Kabaddi or Junk shops - There are two different levels of Scrap shops or Kabaddi shops, small and
large. The small Kabaddi shops are spread across the city and have presence in almost all localities.
They buy materials from many local ‘Kabaddiwalas’ and then sell them further to a larger ‘Kabaddi
shop. The owner may employ couple of people to help him in this.
The larger Kabaddi shops are limited in number and in addition to small Kabaddi shops, also receive
sorted waste from Thiawalas. They also pick up waste directly from offices or establishments. Plastic
is collected and segregated at both the levels. There are usually around 4-5 workers in these kind of
junk shops.
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Trader/Dealer/Wholesaler - Up till the level of Kabaddi shops, all players deal with all kinds of
recyclables. At the trader or dealer level it becomes specialized. A plastic waste dealer purchases
waste from junk shops, institutions, shops and industries. The trader also has direct linkages and can
pick up material from imports or buy from auctions. A plastic dealer will directly put the plastic in the
material chain which includes sorting, cleaning, grinding and pellet making.
Dismantler - Plastic parts of equipments like EEEffff are separated at this level and plastic scraps are
usually collected and sold in the plastic chain. Most dismantlers separate different plastic resins
before selling them, as they fetch a better price.
Figure 5: Plastic from wires being ferried to a recycler
Recyclers - The recycling chain of plastic consists of several traders, waste sorters, grinders and
pellet makers. After material trading at a commission basis (most times more than once), plastic
usually ends up with waste sorters who separate different types of plastic, based on their experience
and some indigenous methods. After sorting, these are sold to grinders who do a further segregation
and cleaning before the cutting and grinding process. These are then channelized to pellet makers.
The pellet makers receive waste from dismantlers and traders directly they also have linkages in
other cities and receive waste from there. The sorted and grinded pellets then go through the
extrusion process for making pellets. The recycled pellets are either sold directly to the moulding
units in the city or are sold to traders in the city dealing in plastic.
ffff
Electric and Electronic Equipment
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The recycled pellets are also sold to plastic traders in the other cities. Women are employed in the
sector mainly for cleaning, sorting and washing of raw material. They are generally not employed to
work on the machine.
Plastic Recycling process in the informal sector
The different steps in recycling of plastics in the informal sector are melting, shredding, and
granulation of largely post use plastic waste.
Stage I: The starting point is the sorting of plastic waste. This is done on the basis of colour, resin
type, transparency, hardness, density and opacity of the scrap. Waste sorters, who primarily source
plastic waste from small and large traders, specialize in classifying and segregating tons of
undifferentiated plastic into more than 40 different categories that sell from 2 IN R/kg to 200 INR/kg
(0.04- 4.25 USD). It is important to note that there are different lines of processes for different types
of resins. The reason is mainly economical, as the segregated plastic fetches a better price.
Figure 6: Segregated Plastic
The workers have different ways of recognizing resins, for example, chemical testing, sound, and
smell or through burning. Generally, visual methods and judgments are employed to differentiate
between the types of plastics. When these methods are proven insufficient, the plastic is broken and
smelted or burnt and the nature of the smell or fire decides the type. The mixed plastic is then
categorized with the main resin categories based on their concentration, for example if there is a
plastic with 80% ABS and 20% PC, it is put along with ABS, whereas if there is plastic with 20% ABS
and 80% PC, it joins PC . At times, these are additionally segregated color wise. This helps to achieve
a uniform color of the recycled but more importantl y it ensures uniformity of the scrap being
recycled. The sorters also separate plastics which are recycled earlier.
Stage 2- The sorted waste is then sent to the grinding units. The technology employed is mechanical
with the traditional grinding and extrusion to obtain granules. A majority of the units in the informal
sector are the granulators that utilize their storage shed in the houses to carry out the grinding. Such
units are often located in slums, and function with unauthorized power and small space s. Scrap
storage is done in the backyards, and washing is done in open drums.
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Most grinders specialize in few resin types and also do a final round of segregation before the plastic
part is subjected to cutting or reduction in size process. This cut plastic is then put into a grinding
machine for further reduction in size.
Just prior to the grinding process, some of the units separate the plastic with additives like Flame
Retardants and (FR) non FR plastic. This largely depends on the volume of FR plastic available with
them and their hands on experience on identifying it. These grinded plastic pieces are then sun dried
and sold to pellet manufacturing units. While efforts are made to separate the FR and non FR plastics
and recycle them independently to preserve material integrity in many cases these are mixed thus
final product containing Flame retardants. This issue of material contamination was separately
researched by Toxics Link in its reports ‘Brominated Flame Retardants: Spreading the Fire’ and
‘Improving Plastic Management in Delhi’.
Stage 3: At the pellet making units, the plastic granules are washed and cleaned to remove
impurities like dust, through manual or mechanical processes. The cleaned pieces are dried in a dryer
or in the open, after which they treated in a mixer. The friction and the heat generated, in the
mixture machine makes the material soft and pliable for further processing. Chemicals are also
added to enhance the sheen or the gloss of the material. Black color is usually added to thi s mixture
unless there is a specific requirement for the pellets to be produced in a particular color.
After preliminary processing, the recycling of plastics involves extrusion to make new pellets. There
were different ways used for heating, some units used LPG cylinder (gas) and some use electrical
heating. Most units (especially the ones using LPG cylinder) rely on experience to control the
temperature as the heating devices have no temperature recording devices. Few units which have
temperature recording devices attached achieve around 250-300°C, depending on the plastic type.
Figure 7: Extrusion process
The output from this is passed over a cooling tank, and flows out in the form of strings, which are
finally cut into granules or danas or pellets by the use of a cutter attached at the output end. These
pellets are then packed and either shipped directly to the plastic product manufacturers or to
marketplaces where they are sold as pellets.
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Wires and Cables- Areas like Behta Hazipur and New Silampur in Delhi specialize in
dealing with wires and cables. The traders in these areas buy these in bulk (50-200
tonnes), mainly through auctions, from Delhi as well as other parts of the country. These
are then given to local people on job work (paid depe nding on the quantity done) for
separating plastic and metal. The rates vary from 1-7 INR/kg, depending on the variety
of the waste. The locals pick up these to take to their homes and the whole family is
engaged in the process of separation. Around 500-600 families are involved in this, in
these areas. The process includes scraping off the plastic with a blade or burning the
wire (if the wire is very thin).
Figure 8: Remains from the Printed circuit board (Epoxy resin)
Waste Plastic - Materials like Bakelite and rubber usually having no value are either burned to
recover energy or are dumped.
Moulding: The pellets from secondary plastic are put into a mixer to soften them. At this stage virgin
plastic pellets may be added depending on the requirement of the product to be molded. Color is
also added at this point in the mixing machine, depending on the product. Though there are no
prescribed quality standards, these units go by experience and on requirement from the buyer.
The plasticised pellets are then put through a moulding machine, injection moulding in most units, to
get new products. The product finishing and coloring is done before the products are ready to be
packed and dispatched.
Impacts of Recycling
In India, there has been too little work done to study the health risks on workers in various
occupations, especially in the informal sector. Since recycling is mainly carried out in the unorganized
or informal sector, its risks are mainly unknown.
Physical conditions - The informal recycling units visited during the research were of varying sizes,
depending mainly on the kind and magnitude of operations. The sorting units for plasti c waste are
spread across in large areas, being shared by a number of operators, with small sections having
temporary roofs. All sorts of plastic waste are strewn around in these units, with a large number of
women, sitting on the ground and carrying out segregation and sorting processes mostly with their
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bare hands. The grinding operations also take place in open areas, with only a small roofed portion
provided. The grinding machine is placed in this covered part, with no provision for any exhaust to
throw out the dust particles generated during the process.
Figure 9: A typical grinding unit in Delhi
The pellet making and moulding units are mostly in enclosed areas. These operative units generate
heat due to the mixing and extrusion processes, and the mixing process also generates a lot of dust
particles. The units have no ventilation system, resulting in high temperature and dust within the
unit. The noise levels in these units, especially in the grinding and mixing operations is also quite
high.The layouts of the units are unplanned and hence most units have hardly any space to move
around swiftly.
Working conditions- Inadequate safety and health standards and environmental hazards are
particularly evident in the case of the informal sector recycling operations. Some of the most
prevalent problems are: poor lighting, lack of ventilation, excessive heat, poor housekeeping,
inadequate work space and working tools, lack of protective equipment, exposure to hazardous
chemicals and dust and long hours of work.
Since dyes and chemicals are used as additives during the recycling, the workers are constantly
exposed to them and the exposure levels may be very high given the fact that most of the units are
poorly ventilated. Caustic soda and other cheap detergents are used for cleaning.
Before rinsing they are washed with bare hands. This operation would require a worker to keep
her/his hands in soap solution for long hours and may result in skin problems.
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Addition of color pigment is also a point of concern, as the pigments used are of low quality.
Constant exposure to toxic dyes and chemicals in a non-ventilated environment may increase the
exposure risks. Carbon black is usually added to make the material black in color. Carbon black
usually tends to deposit everywhere, and can also be inhaled and deposited in the lungs.
Figure 10: Dust particles flying in a pellet making unit
Poor working environment include inadequate premises and often very unsatisfactory sani tation
facilities, as well as practically non-existent occupational health practices. There are no personal
protective equipments used by the workers. During grinding, at times, the workers cover their nose
and mouth with a piece of ordinary cloth.
The major source of generation of effluents is the washing and cleaning process. Wastewater is
generated during the recycling process when the plastic scrap is cleaned to remove the dirt and
foreign matter adhering to it. The quantity and characteristics of waste water generated cannot be
generalized, and depends to a large extent on the contents of the plastic scrap. Soap solution is used
to clean the scrap, and it is reused several times before it is finally disposed of into open drains. This
water needs treatment before proper disposal into the drains but is released into open drains
without prior treatment.
Awareness of the adverse long-term effects of poor and hazardous working conditions is very low
among the informal sector workers.
The units are usually very small in size. Lack of space for easy movement makes it congested and may
lead to accidents.
135
Adequately designed ventilation to quickly remove the gaseous products and heat is generally not
present.





There are no personal protection equipments used during most of the operations, increasing
the risk of exposure to the workers.
Grinding scrap is a noisy operation. Sometimes noise level may go really high and impact the
hearing power.
Both the grinding process as well as the mixing process, before the final pellet making,
release particles. The particles flowing in these small congested units can cause respiratory
ailments.
When thermosetting plastic components containing brominated flame retardants are
shredded, workers can be exposed to dust containing the se chemicals.
After preliminary processing, the recycling of plastics involves extrusion to make new
products. The use of heat in the extrusion of plastics containing brominated flame retardants
can cause the formation of brominated furans and dioxins.
Economics in the informal sector
The plastic recycling business in Delhi is big, as this is the largest, both in terms of volume and
economics, in the country. The National Plastics Waste Management Taskforce Report 427 valued the
informal scrap sector’s annual turnover at INR 25, 000 million (approx. 500 Million USD). Since the
plastic usage and consequent disposal has increased many times in the last two decades, we can
safely assume that this amount must have also increased substantially.
Plastic recycling in Delhi
Delhi is the largest recycling hub in India, may be one of the largest in the world as well, with waste
flowing in from all parts of the country and also from outside the country. With availability o f
abundant cheap labour, migrants from poorer states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar coming to the
capital city in search of livelihood, the recycling sector has grown substantially in the last few
decades, especially in the unorganized sector.
Delhi is one of the largest plastic recycling hubs. The existence of an economically viable recovery
and recycling trade in plastics waste has triggered major growth in this sector. The following factors
have contributed largely to this



Existence of sufficient quantity of plastic waste, due to growing consumption and discard.
Low labour and operation costs.
Existence of a market for recycled raw material and products made from it, largely due to a
demand for cheaper products from low income groups
There are around 180 registered plastic recycling units in Delhi, given licenses by the Pollution
Control Board. In spite of the presence of a large number of registered units in the city, plastic waste
is mainly recycled by the informal sector here. Increasing waste volumes coupled with the growing
‘urban poor’ population, which is desperate for livelihood and some sort of entrepreneurship
opportunities, has fuelled the mushrooming of informal recycling operations. Plastic recycling is seen
as a good business in the informal economy because of the nature of the operations which are labour
intensive and require relatively unskilled workers. Also the start-up capital requirements are low.
136
Due to the informal nature of this sector, secondary data on the volumes recycled the annua l
turnover of the industry and the numbers of recycling units in operation in Delhi are unavailable. It is
difficult to estimate the number of plastic recycling units in the city as these are spread across the
city. But estimates suggest around 7000 plastic processing units, with around 3300 units engaging in
grinding, moulding and pellet making and the rest mainly into sorting of plastic waste. Out of the
3300 such units, close to 2500 units deal with scrap plastic or are engaged in plastic recycling.
Informal sector- markets and hotspots
The plastic waste trade and processing units are widely spread across Delhi. The plastic processing
units are spread geographically, with units in the northern, eastern and western part of Delhi.
Mundka is one of largest plastic scrap hubs in the city, with estimated more than 4000 units in the
area, engaged in sorting, cleaning, trading and processing of plastic waste. This includes registered
and unregistered units. There are no units engaged in moulding or making new pl astic products in
this area. These 4000 units, spread across a 4 km stretch, are dealing with all kinds of plastic scrap.
Among these around 3800 units are mainly engaged in sorting and cleaning operations. These sorting
operations are mainly in open plots, each plot shared by multiple units. These plots or units have
hardly any concrete structures, usually only protected on top by temporary cloth or plastic coverings.
Figure 11: Plastic recycling hotspots in Delhi
Bawana is a new industrial area on the outskirts of Delhi which houses many clusters of units
engaged in reprocessing plastic waste. Though this is a newly developed industrial cluster, it has large
areas with provision for around 16000 units. Currently only 3500 industrial units are operating, out of
which around 1000 units are plastic processing units. Among these 90% deal with plastic scrap, the
rest work on fresh resins.
137
Figure 12: A typical unit in Mundka
Another major plastic re processing hub in Delhi is Narela, which is around 4-5 km from Bawana.
According to the President of the Narela Industrial complex welfare association, an association
looking after the interests of the units in the area, around 2800 plots is occupied and functio nal.
Around 850 units process plastic, among which 480 deal with plastic scrap.
Shahdra and its adjoining areas of Vishwas Nagar, Jhilmil Industrial Area, Friends Colony Industrial
Area and Damodar Park are also major hubs for plastic processing. This large area comprises of some
industrial clusters as well as residential colonies. The units in this hotspot mainly deal with PVC resin,
with lots of plastic remains from wires flowing to this part of the city. There are around 800 plastic
processing units in this area, 500 units are engaged in re-processing.
Some key locations in Delhi where plastic scrap pre-processing and processing operations take place,
are Kirti Nagar, Mayapuri Industrial Area, Inderlok, Karawal Nagar, Patpargunj, Udyog Nagar, Okhla,
Anand Parvat, Mandoli, Joharipur, Najafgarh and Poot Kalan. There are around 500 units in these
areas, mainly into pellet making and moulding. Some of these areas are notified as industrial areas,
whereas some of them are residential.
Another important area in the plastic recycling business is Sadar Bazaar, being one of the largest
wholesale markets in the city, dealing mainly with household items. This market is subdivided into
various sub markets, specializing in various products or items. Bahadurgarh Road i s a lane in this busy
crowded market which is dedicated to plastic with more than 100 shops. All kinds of fresh and
recycled pellets, different resins, colors and quality, can be bought here in huge quantities. Many
moulding units situated in areas like Bawana, Narela, etc buy pellets from this market.
138
Figure 13: Plastic Market in Delhi
Other Technologies
Plastic in Roads
To address the plastics waste disposal issue, an attempt has been made to describe the possibilities
of reusing the plastics waste (post-consumer plastics waste) in road construction. Central Pollution
Control Board (CPCB) Delhi has published “Indicative Operational Guidelines on Construction of
Polymer – Bitumen Roads for reuse of waste plastics (PROBES/101/2005-06). The document explains
the method of collection, cleaning process, shredding, sieving and then mixing with bitumen for road
laying.
By using this technology (plastics waste coated aggregate bitumen mix), several roads have been laid
in the States of Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Puducherry, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Goa.
PET Bottle Recyling
In India there are companies, which have put up PET phase capacities. At present, the total recycling
capacity in India is around 145,000 TPA, out of which Reliance Industries Ltd has a capacity of 42,000
TPA and Kanpur-based Ganesh Polytex Ltd (GPL) has a capacity of around 39,600 TPA and rest is with
other small local players.
The PET bottle recycling chain begins at the lowest level where ragpickers collect all ki nds of
processable waste. The used plastic or PET bottles they collect go through an elaborate process of
aggregation, up a supply chain of bigger and bigger traders and eventually land up at one of the PET
bottle recycling plant.
139
Presently GPL, one of the large players, is recycling about 1.4 billion PET bottles annually at its
Rudrapur plant where the bottles are first cleaned and then sent to shredders and grinders to reduce
them to flakes. The flakes are forwarded to the cleaning section for a series of sorting and washing
process performed with chemicals to remove any residual. Once the flakes are dried up, they pass
through a process called electrostatic separator, which produces magnetic field to separate PET
flakes from metal, besides different kinds of plastic particles and other contaminations. The cleaned
flakes of reclaimed PET are then forwarded to production section to produce fibre. The yarn
produced out of the recycled fibre is being exported as well as being sold in the domestic mark et.
Waste to Energy
Incineration is a process in which plastic and other wastes are burnt and the energy produced, as a
result, is tapped. In India, recently there have been some attempts towards this. Several big cities like
Delhi have waste to energy plants.
Disposal
Around 40% of the plastic waste in India remains uncollected. The pollution that occurs in the
disposal stage is largely during burning and when plastic wastes reach landfills. Given the limited
recyclability of plastics, a large amount of plastic wastes is burnt in incinerators. Even in the villages
in India, plastic and other portions of the waste stream are frequently burned in "back -yard" fires.
But the burning of these chlorine-containing materials releases toxic heavy metals and emits noxious
gasses like dioxins and furans.
Regulatory Framework
Laws on Plastic Waste
The Plastic Manufacture, Sale and Usage Rules, 1999, as amended in 2003 under the Environment
(Protection) Act of 1986, regulated plastic bag use in India. The Rules prohibited the manufacture,
stocking, distribution, or sale of carry bags made of virgin or recycled plastic less than 20 x 30
centimeters in size and 20 microns in thickness. The Rules also disallowed the use of recycled plastic
bags and containers for storing, carrying, dispensing or packaging of food items. Further, the Rules
required units manufacturing plastic bags to register with the respective State Pollution Control
Board (SPCB) or Pollution Control Committee (PCC) prior to the commencement of production.
Plastic Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011
India's Ministry of Environment adopted new rules governing the management and disposal of
plastic waste in 2011. The new rules include an extended producer responsibility system, which the
country's plastics industry was opposing.
Some of the salient features of the new Rules are: ban on the use of plastic materials in sachets for
storing, packing or selling gutkha, tobacco and pan masala; no food stuffs will be allowed to be
packed in recycled plastics or compostable plastics; recycled carry bags to have specific BIS (Bureau
of Indian Standards) standards, such as color, uniform thickness shall not be less than 40 microns in
carry bags, etc.
140
One of the major provisions under the new rules is the explicit recogn ition of the rule of waste
pickers. The new rules require the municipal authority to constructively engage agencies or groups
working in waste management including these waste pickers. This is the very first time that such a
special dispensation has been made.
The Municipal authority shall be responsible for enforcement of the provisions of these rules related
to the use, collection, segregation, transportation and disposal of post consumer plastic.
Guidelines on recycling of plastic waste
The Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi (BIS) has issued guidelines on recycling of plastics waste,
including code of practices for collection. However, while formulating Indian standard specifications
for various plastic products, used for critical applications like pl astic piping system, water-storage
tanks, packaging for food articles, a clause is included which reads “no recycled plastics waste shall
be used”. An exercise has also been carried out by the Ministry of Environment and Forest, in
association with the Bureau of Indian Standards, to include recycled plastic waste wherever
appropriate in the manufacture of plastic products; and this shall be specified accordingly in the
relevant Indian Specifications.
Ban on Plastic bags
As per the notification dated October 23, 2012 of Govt. of NCT of Delhi, no person shall manufacture,
import, store, sell or transport any kind of plastic carry bags (including that of polypropylene non woven fabric type carry bags) in the whole of National Capital Territory of Delhi. The notification had
banned use of most forms of plastics and trading in them. The use of plastic cover/pouch to pack
magazines, greeting cards and invitation cards has also been banned. However, plastic bags used for
packing food stuffs like milk, cooking oil, flour and plastic cups have been excluded from its purview.
Similarly plastic bags for use, as specified under the Bio Medical Waste (Management and Handling)
Rules, 1998, are not covered under the ban.
As per the information provided by Central Pollution Control Board, use of plastic carry bags has
been completely banned in the States of Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Nagaland,
Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tripura, and Union Territories of Andaman & Nicobar, Chandigarh, Delhi and
Lakshadweep Islands. Use of plastic carry bags has also been banned in some pilgrimage centres,
tourist, historical places and eco-sensitive areas located in the States of Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal
Pradesh, Odhisa, Gujarat, Kerala, Mizoram, Goa, Karnataka, West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh.
Though several states have announced material bans especially for polythene bags implementation
of such state laws have met with various degrees of challenges. Most states continue to struggle with
compliance of these laws and plastic littering continues to pose serious challenge.
141
Conclusion
Plastic usage has gone up tremendously in last few decades in India. With the consumption patterns
changing and the purchase power of middle class Indians on the rise, the amount of waste generated
is also on the rise.
Plastic waste forms one of the largest shares of the total municipal waste generated in the country.
In absence of proper regulations and proper management system, the waste has been cause for
concern. Though the recycling activity in the informal sector does prevent a large part of this waste
from going to landfills, the technology and the processes in the ‘backyard operation’ do have their
downside. While most recycling of plastics is in the informal sector there is a very interesting synergy
and smooth material flows from informal to formal sectors. The clear demarcation of the two sectors
in plastics recycling gets blurred.
It is also an important fact that almost 60 to 80 % of post consumer plastics is being recycled and put
back to use thus reducing the load on virgin material which perhaps is not so i n many countries in the
global North.
The recycling processes in the informal sector contribute to the risks of occupational safely as well as
environmental concerns, as there are no safeguards in place. The formal sector might be hardly any
better as there are no monitoring mechanisms in place. Issues like cross-contamination of recycled
plastics are still at a nascent stage and may need more research.
Public perception of plastics is of a material which is responsible for littering in both urban and rural
settings. Dumping and final disposal of plastic waste also remains a grave issue, as landfills in most
cities and town are filling up fast. The littering of plastic waste, especially of the used bags, has been
a great nuisance and there have been lot of uproar on that.
Efforts are being made through regulatory frameworks to reduce consumption of packaging
materials and improve end of life management of post consumer plastics. Implementation of such
regulations has been difficult. More efficient collection and recycling coupled with improved material
with biodegradability could be solution for plastics management.
142
Annexure
S.
No.
1.
Items
Description
Total Population 2008
1.14 billion
(As per World Bank).
2.
Estimated Plastic Production in 2008.
3.
Plastic
Waste
Generation
(Considering: 70% as waste)*
4.
Plastic waste Generation per capita.
5.
8 million tons
5.6 Million tons/Year
15 000 tons/day
4.9 kg/Year
13 g/day
Plastic Waste Collection (Estimated:
60% by weight)
3.4 Million tons /Year
9200 tons/day
6.
Uncollected Plastic Waste (Estimated:
40% by weight)
2.2 Million tons /Year
6100 tons/day
7.
CPCB study on MSW generation in 60
major cities (2010-11)
1.8 Million tons/Year
51 000 tons/day
CPCB study
on Plastic
waste
generation in 60 major cities (2010-11)
0.13 Million tons/Year
3500 tons/day
8.
No. of Plastic Manufacturer
Recycling Unit in Industrial area
and
9.
No. of Registration Granted
10.
No of States and UT Issued Separate
Act/Notification
15 [Goa, Haryana , Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka,
Kerala Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Nagaland,
Punjab,
Meghalaya,
Chandigarh,
Lakshadweep
Puducherry, Delhi, Rajasthan]
11.
Names of States and UTs Ban Plastics
Carry bags
Details given as below
12.
(i) Complete Ban
(Through Notification/Act)
(ii) Partial Ban
(Through Executive Order)
13.
Names of States and UTs
5511 (30 States and UTs)
2108
11 [Chandigarh, Sikkim, Nagaland, Delhi, Haryana,
Himachal
Pradesh,
Tripura,
Rajasthan,
J&K,
Andaman & Nicobar Island & Lakshadweep]
10 [Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,
Goa, Karnataka, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal,
Mizoram, Uttar Pradesh]
3 [ Maharashtra:50
Puducherry: 51 μ]
μ,
Tamil
Nadu:60
μ
and
Increased the thickness of plastic carry
bags i.e. >40 μ
143
14.
Plastic Waste Utilization
(i) Plastic Waste can be utilized in road construction
such as in the States of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,
Maharashtra, Puducherry and Himachal Pradesh etc.
(ii) Plastic Waste can be co-processed in Cement
kilns such as in the States of Madhya Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh etc.
15.
Use of carry bags made
compostable plastic or material
from
As per Plastic Waste (Management & Handling)
(Amendment) Rules, 2011, carry bags can be made
from compostable plastic or material confirming
IS/ISO:17088:2008
Abbreviation: kg= Kilogram, g = Gram, μ = micron, UT = Union Territories
* CPCB report on “Report of the Committee to Evolve Rode Map on Management of Wastes in
India”.
144
Annex 6
145
Characterization of hazardous chemicals contained in plastics
This Annex presents a number of commonly used types of plastic and rubber, and the monomers
used to manufacture the respective polymer. Several of these monomers are hazardous to human
health and the environment. The monomers combine (polymerize) into chains to synthesise a
polymer, often with entirely different properties than the original monomers. The important thing to
notice in this context is that the polymers per se are usually not considered hazardous, for example
due to their large molecular structure.
Nonetheless, from a life cycle perspective, it is also important to consider the main components of
the polymers (i.e., the monomers) because:
1) emissions during the manufacturing phase may expose the external environment or the work
environment,
2) when used, they can leak from the product as residual impurities (that is to say monomers that
have not been polymerized and are therefore not chemically bound to the polymers) and
3) some polymers may degrade to the original monomers, while and other polymers may degrade
into degradation products during the waste phase.
As described in the section ”The chemistry behind plastic and rubber”, different types of chemical
additives, such as catalysts, stabilizers, fillers, flame retardants and plasticisers are used to produce
plastic polymers and plastic products. These are described later on in this Annex.
In this annex, an assessment has been performed to estimate whether different types of plastic are
synthesised with monomers that can be considered hazardous. The monomers and additives hav e
largely been identified using ChemSecs SIN-list37 , Lithner’s doctoral dissertation on plasticFel!
Bokmärket är inte definierat. and the Swedish Environmental Management Council’s report on
chemicals in plastic16 .
In this report, the term hazardous chemicals, refers to chemicals that are officially classified (that is
to say, are listed in the regulation on classification, labeling and packaging of substances and
mixtures (CLP) gggg) according to the hazard statement codes indicated in Table 1, or according to
another source are considered to be:
-
SVHC (Substances of Very High Concern)
endocrine disrupting,
allergen,
toxic to aquatic organisms with longlasting effects.
SVHC stands for Substances of Very High Concern, i.e. substances that have properties that can cause
serious and lasting effects on human health and the environment. A Substances of Very High Concern
is a substance that 1) meets the criteria for classification as carcinogenic, mutagenic, or toxic for
reproduction category 1 or 2 in accordance with Directive 67/548/EEC on the classification and
gggg
CLP (Classification, Labeling and Packaging ) is the EUs harmonization system for labeling of chemical
substances and mixtures, based on the UN’s GHS (Globally Harmonized System).
146
labeling or category 1a or 1b of the CLP Regulation (Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008), or 2) meet the
criteria for being considered as persistent, bioaccumlative and toxic or very persistent and very
bioaccumulative, according to the criteria in Annex XIII of the REACH Regulation, or 3) have other
principle equally serious features, such as endocrine disruption.
We have chosen to not report on chemicals classified as acutely toxic. This decision was made in
order to limit the scope of the report. Acute toxicity is foremost a problem for the working
environment and at large accidental/illegal emissions around factories. Focus in the report is
chemicals, which are hazardous to the external environment and the health of consumers, because
they are present in products.
Table 1: CLP hazard codes and definitions that are included in our criteria for selection of
hazardous chemicals.
Hazard statement code
Definition
EUH208 (Code
concentrations).
used
for
very
low
May produce an allergic reaction.
H317
May cause allergic skin reaction.
H334
May cause allergy or asthma symptoms or
breathing difficulties if inhaled.
H340
May cause genetic defects.
H341
Suspected of causing genetic defects.
H350
May cause cancer.
H351
Suspected of causing cancer.
H360
May damage fertility or the unborn child.
H360D
May damage the unborn child.
H360Df
May damage the unborn child. Suspected of
damaging fertility.
H360F
May damage fertility.
H360FD
May damage fertility. May damage the unborn
child.
H360Fd
May damage fertility. Suspected of damaging
the unborn child.
H361
Suspected of damaging fertility or the unborn
child.
147
H361d
Suspected of damaging fertility.
H361f
Suspected of damaging the unborn child.
H361fd
Suspected of damaging fertility. Suspected of
damaging the unborn child.
H362
May cause harm to breast-fed children.
H372
Causes organ damage through prolonged or
repeated exposure.
H373
May cause damage to organs through
prolonged or repeated exposure.
H410
Very toxic to aquatic life with long lasting
effects.
H411
Toxic to aquatic life with long lasting effects.
H412
Harmful to aquatic life with long lasting
effects.
H413
May cause long lasting harmful effects to aquatic
life.
The chemicals have been described based on their hazard classifications in their pure state (that is to
say, 100% concentration). The hazard statement codes for products are, however, dependent on
concentration of the chemical. For example, the hazard statement codes indicating toxicity to the
aquatic environment can change from H412, via H411 to H410 with rising concentrations of chemical
in the product. It is important to note that no opinions or guidance that have been laid down in this
report are based on risk assessment. This would be impossible given the information we have at our
disposal. Additionally, the chemical composition of plastic products is so complex, that it is difficult to
generalize regarding types of plastic or complex exposure situations in the environment or in the
home. For this reason, and because of the lack of information and knowledge about potential
environmental and health effects of almost all chemical substances and their mixtures, it is important
to focus on hazardous intrinsic properties, such as substances capable of causing reproductive
disorders, cancer or allergies, or in which degree they are bioaccumulative and persistent in the
environment. Such a focus on intrinsic properties is also supported by the Swedish Chemicals Policy.
When a substance is said to be dangerous it should be understood as it is problematic and probably
undesirable in products from the perspective of a non-toxic environment. In such a case, it falls to
manufacturers or importers to show that consumer exposure is not likely to occur.
Types of plastic
Below we present a number of common plastic types, as well as the chemicals they may contain
which can be potentially hazardous. Plastics containing hazardous monomers, are handeled as if they
are problematic and something that should be phased out of consumer products, unless a producer
148
can do it likely that problem does not exist. Monomers that are classified as hazardous according to
our criteria are presented in Table 2 and 3.
Acrylic plastic
Acrylic plastics are found both as thermoplastic and thermosetting plastics, and is the shared name
for a series of chemical compounds based on esters hhhh and made of acrylic acid or methacrylic
acid16. The most common acrylic plastic is polymethyl methacrylate, PMMA.
Acrylic plastics in thermoplastic form are transparent, weather-resistant and easy to dye 19. Whereas
polymers made of methacrylates are resistant to wear-and-tear and are hard, polymers made of
acrylates are much softer16; and mixtures of the two are both strong and flexible. Acrylate plastics
have come into widespread use in the building and vehicle industries, where lightweight, transparent
materials with major durability are required16. Dental material and orthopedic prostheses, as well as
binding substances in paint, glues surface treatment substances are other large areas of use 429 . A
well-known brand name is Plexiglas 19.
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
ABS is a thermoplastic made up of the monomers acrylonitrile (CAS 107-13-1), 1,3-butadiene (CAS
106-99-0) and styrene (CAS 100-42-5) 16, 430 and fulfill the criteria for hazardous chemicals stated
above. Acrylonitrile is, among other things, classified as an allergen, carcinogen and toxic to aquatic
life, with long-lasting effects in the aquatic environment. These chemicals are included on the SIN list
2.137 . 1,3-Butadiene is also classified as, for example, carcinogenic and may cause genetic defects.
Styrene is not classified according to the CLP system, but is nonetheless included on the SIN -list 2.1,
given that it has shown to have an effect on estrogen iiii ,431,432 in animal trials.
ABS is resistant to wear and tear, thermostable, durable and resistant to being broken down by acids
and bases, at the same time that it is easy to mold and coat and works well in mixtures/alloys with
other plastics, in order to get new, desirable properties 430. ABS plastic therefore has a large area of
application, for example in household apparatuses, such as telephones, TVs and coffee machines,
monitors/screens, headsets, protective helmets, grass clipper covers, suitcases and Lego. Also plastic
details for cars and vehicles are often made of ABS plastic 16,430.
Amino resins/plastics
These polymer materials represent one form of thermosetting plastic that is made from
formaldehyde (CAS 50-00-0) and amines or amides, usually urea (CAS 57-13-6) (yields UFresin/plastic) or melamine (CAS108-78-1) (yields MF-resin/plastic) 433. Formaldehyde fulfills the
selection criteria for hazardous chemicals stated above, given that it is classified as a skin allergen
and is suspected of causing cancer (see table 3). The chemical is found on the SIN list 2.1 37. In animal
trials, melamine has caused certain types of tumors but necessary data for classification as a human
carcinogen is incomplete (IARC-classification group IIIjjjj).
hhhh
Esters are reaction products made of acids and alcohols.
Estrogen is usually foremost regarded as a female hormone, even if it is naturally present in both sexes. It
plays an important role for the development of femini ne gender characteristics.
jjjj
IARC stands for International Agency for Cancer Research and group III -chemicals are considered to not be
carcinogenic for humans.
iiii
149
MF and UF are half-transparent soft (resin-based) to hard (plastic) material, offering good resistance
to scratches and other chemicals430 . They are used as glues and lacquers to impregnate paper and
textiles, such as binders in particle board or as material used in kitchen utensils, electronic
components and toilet seat covers 16,430,433.
Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA)
EVA is an ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymer and a thermoplastic16,430. None of these monomers
(ethylene (CAS 74-85-1) and vinyl acetate (CAS 108-05-4)) fulfill the selection criteria for hazardous
chemicals stated above.
EVA is a transparent, flexible and bendable (almost as soft as rubber without additives) plastic at
even very low temperatures (as low as -70 °C) with good durability against other chemicals and is
used, inter alia, in pacifiers, handles, bendable/soft cables (for example, for coffee machines and
vacuum machines), in protective gloves, and in electronic installations 430 .
Epoxy
Epoxy resins/epoxy plastics are thermosetting plastic made up of the monomers bisphenol A (CAS
80-05-7) and epichlorhydrin (CAS 158570-99-1). As a curing agent, perfunctional amines, acids,
phenols or alcohol of some sort is commonly used 16,38. A common epoxy resin is the diglycidyl ether
of bisphenol A (DGEBA). Both of the monomers and DGEBA fulfill the criteria for a hazardous
chemical stated above. Bisphenol A has been classified as a skin allergen and is suspected of causing
damage to the unborn if there is exposure during pregnancy. The chemical is found on the SIN list
2.137 . Epichlorohydrin is classified as a skin allergen, may cause cancer and is also found on the SIN
list 2.137 . The epoxy resin DGEBA is a classified skin allergen.
These resins offer a good adhesive quality, moldability and short curing time, whereas the plastics
are transparent and wear-resistant materials430. These are used in glue, paints and lacquers, surface
coatings och cutter resins for the enrobing of electronic details, pacemakers, form tools and airplane
parts433, 434.
Phenolic resins and plastics
This group of thermosetting plastics is polymers made of formaldehyde (CAS 50-00-0) and phenol
(CAS 108-95-2) and can be cured using amines, anhydrides and amides. A common curing agent is
hexamethylenetetramine (CAS 100-97-0) 16,38. Both the monomers and hexamethylenetetramine
fulfill the selection criteria for hazardous chemicals for classification stated abouve, but only
formaldehyde is found on the SIN list 2.137 (see table 3). For a description of formaldehyde’s
classification, see amino resins/amino plastics above. Phenol can, according to the classification,
cause genetic defects and organ damage through prolonged or repeated exposure.
Phenolic resins are adhesive and moldable; phenol plastics are hard, semi -transparent, dielectric
materials that insulate from heat and demonstrate good durability to acids, but are quite fragile 430 .
The resins and plastics are used as glues, binders in particle board, grinding wheels and brake linings,
cast resins, ash cups, plastic capsules and corks, lamp parts, etc 429, 430 .
Fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP)
FEP is a thermoplastic polymer of hexafluoropropene (CAS 116-15-4) and 1,1,2,2 tetrafluoroethene
(CA 116-14-3) 16,430 . None of these monomers fulfil the selection criteria for hazardous chemicals
stated above. However, both monomers are highly fluorinated. Highly fluorinated substances are
150
very or extremely persistent. They can bind to proteins in the blood and accumulate in organs like
liver, kidney and brain 435 and are therefore potentially problematic.
FEP is used in electrical installations, for example, telecommunication cables, due to their good
dielectric propertieskkkk, resistance to heat and inherent flame retardant properties16. This plastic is
also often found as a coating on kitchen utensils, where the FEP is durable to wear-and-tear and
heat. It is also demonstrates good weather durable (resistant to ozone and UV light) 436 .
Unsaturated polyester (UP)
UP is a cured plastic polymer of the monomers maleic anhydride (CAS 108-31-6) and phthalic
anhydride (CAS 85-44-9), together with, for example, styrene (CAS 202-851-5) as a curing agent38,434 .
None of these monomers fulfill the selection criteria for hazardous chemicals stated above. However,
styrene is listed on SIN 2.1 as a suspected endocrine disrupter.
It is a sturdy, clear plastic with a considerable resistance to wear-and-tear, thermostability (can
handle low temperatures well) and it is dielectric. As a composite material, UP is used, among other
things, in building material, roof panels, sanitary articles, boat hulls and driving compart ments in
lorries430 .
Polyamide (nylon) (PA)
PA is a thermoplastic polymer in which the amide binding is formed by reacting amines with acids,
for example, hexamethylendiamine (CAS 124-09-4) and adipic acid (CAS 124-04-9). PA can also be
synthesised from cyclic amides, for example ε-caprolactame (CAS 34876-18-1) 38. None of the
monomers fulfill the criteria for a hazardous chemical stated above. Nylon is a known varian t of PA.
Polyamides are used as synthetic textiles in clothes, for fishing line and filter material, but also as
packaging material in the food industry, where its good resistance to temperatures and low
permeability to gases are properties that ensure good stockage of packaged food materials 16,19 .
Polybutylene terephthalate (PBT)
PBT plastic consists of polymers from the monomeres butene (CAS 106-98-9) and terephthalic acid
(CAS 100-21-0) and is a thermoplastic. None of these monomers fulfill the selection criteria for
hazardous chemicals stated above.
PBT plastic is resistant to wear-and-tear and sturdy, has a low water absorption and good resistance
to acids, bases and organic chemicals 19,430 . It is commonly used in the car industry for parts such as
lights, windshield wipers, airbags and in general applications such as window frames or fiberoptic
cables19.
Polycarbonate plastic (PC)
PC is a Bisphenol A (CAS 80-05-7)-based polymer and a thermoplastic. For classification of Bisphenol
A, see the text under epoxy resins/epoxy plastics above. The chemical is found on the SIN lis t 2.137 .
PC plastic is resistant to wear-and-tear, transparent, thermostable (-20 °C to 140 °C) and has good
dielectric properties. It has many applications, for example in CDs, printed circuit boards, mobile
kkkk
Dielectric means that it has a current-isolating property.
151
telephones, optical lenses, food packaging and bottles 16,19,430. The global demand for this form of
plastic is on the rise 19 .
Polyethylene (PE)
The thermoplastic PE is synthesised through the polymerization of ethylene (CAS 74-85-1) 16 . The
monomer does not fulfill the selection criteria for hazardous chemicals stated above.
PE is a multi-faceted plastic material, transparent, or semi-transparent, with good thermostability
(can handle temperatures down to -60 °C), dielectric properties, resistant to acids, bases and
alcohols, and can be made into both soft and hard products. Depending on the density of the
material llll , PE is divided into different groups. In terms of volume on the market, the three most
significant are the following16,19,430 :
-
-
PE-LD (low density-PE), which is used in, for example, plastic film for food products,
agricultural protective cloth/tarp, bags, the lining of milk packaging, electric cable coverings,
gas and water pipes,
PE-LLD (linear low-density -PE) for, for example, industrial packaging film, bags that need to
be thinner than PE-LD, bags, electric cable coverings,
and PE-HD (high density-PE) that is used in storage containers for food and chemicals,
clothing hangers, handles for dish brushes, etc.
Globally, PE is that plastic that has the largest annual production and processing volumes 19 .
Polyether ether kethon (PEEK)
The PEEK-polymer is a thermoplastic built of 4,4-difluorobensophenon (CAS 345-92-6) and
hydroquinone (CAS 123-31-9) 437. The latter monomer fulfills the selection criteria for hazardous
chemicals stated above. According to the CLP classification, hydroquinone is a skin allergen, is
believed to cause genetic defects and may cause cancer.
The plastic is a semi-transparent material, sturdy, resistant to wear-and-tear, with very good
durability against acids, bases and hydrocarbons, very thermostable (can handle heating to 250 °C)
and exhibits dielectric properties 19 . PEEK is primarily used in car parts, aeroplanes, pumps, printed
circuit boards, surgical instruments, and medical implants 19 . It should be pointed out that PEEK is a
relatively small product in terms of volume, with a global annual production of a few thousand
tonnes per year.
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET; polyester)
PET is a thermoplastic polymer made of ethylene glycol (CAS 107-21-1) and terephthalic acid (CAS
100-21-0) 16. None of the monomers fulfill the selection criteria for hazardous chemicals stated above.
The plastic has similar properties to PBT, that is to say, it is resistant to wear-and-tear and sturdy,
with low absorption of water and good acid, base and organic chemicals resistance as well as dye
fastness19. PET is used for making drinking bottles, bottles for house hold chemicals, for example,
liquid soaps, food packaging where the food is intended to be heated in its packaging, for example in
the microwave or in boiling water16,19,430. In 2008 the majority (79%) of PET production went to the
llll
Density is the material’s är weight/volume unit.
152
textile industry 438 . PET is one of the top five most important types of plastic polymers in terms of
volume in Europe 16.
Polypropene (PP)
PP is a thermoplastic produced through polymerization of propylene16. The monomer does not fulfill
the selection criteria for hazardous chemicals stated above.
PP is transparent and flexible with high resistance to wear-and-tear and good thermostability (up to
160°C) and durability against other chemicals 19. PP is used for example in food packaging, plastic film
for food products, household items such as toys, water pipes, within the vehicle industry and in
medical implants16,19. PP is one of the top five most important types of plastic in terms of volume in
Europe 16 .
Polypropylene carbonate (PPC)
The PPC polymer is a thermoplastic produced from propenoxide (CAS 16088-62-3) and carbon
dioxide (CAS 124-38-9) 16. The monomer propenoxide fulfills the selection criteria for a hazardous
substance and has been classified as a potential cause of genetic defects and cancer. Propenoxide
should, however, foremost be considered a workplace environment-hazard since it is a volatile liquid
that boils at only 34 °C and is therefore not prone to remaining in a given material. Nor does it
reconstitute once it has been degraded.
PPC has a number of unusual properties, for example, that it softens at body temperature (there are,
however, variants that can withstand up to 200°C) and can be composted 439 . It is used, for example,
in food packaging and in electronics 16.
Polystyrene (PS)
This thermoplastic is a polymer of styrene (CAS 100-42-5) 16. The monomer has been included in the
SIN list 2.137. See the text under ABS-plastic above for the classification assigned styrene.
PS demonstrates low absorption of water, low thermostability (soften at 60-80 °C and can be
molded, and hence, is appropriate for semi-finished products), considerable resistance to chemicals,
and is easy to paint19,430. Areas of use include coverings for household apparatuses, components in
appliances (washing machines, etc.) and electronics, food packaging, laboratory plastics, for example
petri dishes, building and construction materials, such as insulation material and panels 19, 440. PS is
also found in a form known as expandable PS (EPS; also known as styrofoam). PS is one of the top
five most important types of plastic in terms of volume in Europe 16.
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
PTFE is a thermoplastic polymer made of tetrafluoroethylene (CAS 116-14-3) 16 . Many manufacturers
still use PFOA in the manufacture of PTFE, which contributes to the spread and exposure to this
chemical. PFOA is on the SIN List 2.1 due to its reproductive effects. Highly fluorinated substances are
very or extremely persistent. They can bind to proteins in the blood and accumulate in organs like
liver, kidney and brain 435 and are therefore potentially problematic.
PTFE plastics are extremely durable to chemicals, weather-hardy, dielectric and thermostable (up to
260 °C) 430 . These properties are used in coatings/surfaces, for example, kitchen utensils, cable
153
coverings and medical implants 16 . Teflon is one of the most commonly known labels. Many
manufacturers still use PFOA (Perfluorooctanoic acid) in the production of PTFE. PFOA is included on
the SIN list 2.1 for its negative effects on reproduction (see also the section about perfluorinated
substances in the main report).
Polyurethane (PUR)
PUR is a large group of plastic material that is either thermosetting plastic or thermoplastic.
Urethanes are synthesised through an isocyanate reacting with an alcohol. The most common
isocyanantes in PUR are diphenylmethane diisocyanate MDI (CAS 101-68-8) and toluene
diisocyanate, TDI (CAS-584-84-9). The alcohol part is mostly made up of polyester polyoles, polyether
polyoles or different types of perfunctional alcohols. Isocyanates have a questionable environmental
and health profile and do fulfill the selection criteria for hazardous chemicals stated above.
Polyurethane is used in many diverse ways. It can be spun into a fiber (spandex), or used as a
membrane for functional clothing or as a coating or film on the fabric and creating a water resistant /
waterproof material. Polyurethane is also used to make fake-leather as well as water-based
adhesives. PUR plastics have good heat isolation properties, can be synthesised using foam of varying
tensity through the addition of various cross-binding and branching additives, PUR is used, for
example, for splices, shoe soles, matrasses and furniture stuffing, insulation in heating pipes,
refrigerators and cables 433, 434.
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
PVC is a thermoplastic vinyl chloride polymer16. The monomer vinyl chloride (CAS 75-01-4) is
classified as a carcinogen and therefore fulfillsthe criteria for a hazardous chemical. It has been
included on the SIN list 2.137.
The plastic offers good resistance to acids, bases and the majority of hydrocarbons. PVC has low
permeabilitymmmm, inherent flame retardant properties due to the high chloride content, and can
also be adapted for specific applications with desired properties, flexibility, transparency or dye 19,430 .
On the other hand, PVC has a relatively low tolerance to heat (60 °C). Due to the variable properties
of PVC, it has a wide range of uses from windows/window frames, electric cables, flooring, electrical
outlets, sealant strips in refrigerator doors, packages and plastic films for food, blood bags, dialysis
tubes, toys, bags and shoes, car parts, among other applications 16,19,430 . It is one of the top five most
important types of plastic in terms of volume in Europe 16.
mmmm
Permeability means the capacity to let foreign elements pass through the material/substance.
154
Table 2: Thermoplastic polymers and their monomers, as well as if the monomer is considered
hazardous according to the criteria of the SSNC (source: Prevent, Chemical Substances 441).
Thermoplastics
Polymer
Monomer
hazardous
chemical
SIN-list 2.1
Hazard statement
code*
ABS
Acrylonitrile (CAS 107-13-1)
1,3-butadiene (CAS 106-99-0)
Styrene (CAS 100-42-5)
Acrylic acid (CAS 79-10-7)
or
Methacrylic acid (CAS 79-41-4)
X
X
X
X
nnnn
X
H317, H350, H411
H340, H350
Acrylic
plastics
EVA
Ethylene (CAS 74-85-1)
Vinyl acetate (CAS 108-05-4)
FEP
Hexafluoropropene (CAS 116-15-4)
or
1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethylene
(CAS 116-14-3)
Hexamethylenediamine
(CAS 124-09-4)
and
Adipic acid (CAS 124-04-9)
or
ε-caprolactame (CAS 105-60-2)
Butene (CAS 106-98-9)
Terephthalic acid (CAS 100-21-0)
Bisphenol A (CAS 80-05-7)
PA
PBT
PC
PE
PEEK
PET
PP
Ethylene (CAS 74-85-1)
4,4-difluorobenzophenone
(CAS 345-92-6)
Hydroquinone (CAS 123-31-9)
Ethylene glycol (CAS 107-21-1)
Terephthalic acid (CAS 100-21-0)
Propylene (CAS 115-07-01)
PPC
Propenoxide (CAS 16088-62-3)
Carbon dioxide (CAS 124-38-9)
PS
PTFE
PVC
Styrene (CAS 100-42-5)
Tetrafluoroethylene (CAS 116-14-3)
Vinyl chloride (CAS 75-01-4)
X
Polyfluorinated
X
X
H317, H361f
X
H317, H341, H350
X
H340, H350
X
X
X
nnnn
H350
* For a complete list of hazard codes for each chemical, see Prevent
nnnn
Suspected endocrine disrupting, but not officially classified.
155
Table 3: Thermosetting plastic, and monomers considered hazardous according to the criteria of the
SSNC (source: Prevent441, database: Chemical Substances).
Thermosetting plastic (thermosets)
Polymer
Monomer
hazardous
SIN-list 2.1
Hazard codes*
chemical
Amino
resins
Amino
plastic
Formaldehyde (CAS 50-00-0)
and
Urea (CAS 57-13-6)
or
Melamine (CAS 108-78-1)
X
X
H317, H351
Epoxy resin/
Epoxy
plastic
Bisphenol A (CAS 80-05-7)
and
Epichlorhydrine (CAS 106-89-8)
Example of curing agent:
4,4’-metylendianline (CAS 101-77-9)
or
4,4’- diaminodiphenylsulfone (CAS 80-08-8)
X
X
H317, H361f
X
X
H317, H350
X
X
H317, H350, H373
Formaldehyde (CAS 50-00-0)
and
Phenol (CAS 108-95-2)
May contain
Hexamethylenetetramine (CAS 100-97-0)
Toulene-diisocyanate (CAS 584-84-9)
X
X
H317, H351
Maleic acid anhydride (CAS 108-31-6)
or
Phthalic acid anhydride (CAS 85-44-9)
May contain:
Styrene (CAS 100-42-5)
Phenol
resin/
Phenol
plastic
PUR
UP
X
H341, H373
X
X
H317
H317, H351, H412
X
H317, H334
X
H317, H334
X
nnnn
*For a complete list of hazard codes for each chemical, see Prevent, http://kemi.prevent.se/
156
Rubber
Rubbers are polymer materials foremost defined due to the material’s physical properties 442; and,
secondly, according to their chemical composition. Several of the above plastics des cribed can also
exist in rubber form, for example PP, PS, EPDMoooo and HIPSpppp, 16, but in this section, the focus has
been made to describe the chemistry in several common material that is usually associated with the
term ”rubber”. Only rubbers from non-renewable raw materials are mentioned here. As regards
potential health effects, it is not clear whether monomers that are found in rubbers made from
renewable raw materials are safer. For example, several natural rubbers are allergens 443.
Butyl rubber
Butyl rubber is an isoprene polymer16. Isoprene (CAS 78-79-5) according to the CLP believed to cause
genetic defects, may cause cancer and be responsible for damage to aquatic life given prolonged
exposure (see table 4). The chemical is therefore a hazardous chemical according to the selection
criteria and is included in the SIN list 2.137.
This synthetic rubber is used for material with technical requirements on low gas permeability, for
example the inner linings of tires 444 .
Nitrile rubber and acrylonitrile butadiene rubber
Nitrile rubber is a polymer made of acrylonitrile (CAS 107-13-1) and 1,3-butadiene (CAS 106-99-0),
both fulfilling the selection criteria for consideration as hazardous chemicals and are included in the
SIN list 2.137 (see table 4). Acrylonitrile is classified as a skin allergen, is carcinogenic and toxic to
aquatic life, with long lasting effects in aquatic environments. 1,3-butadien may cause genetic
defects and cancer, according to the CLP classification.
Acrylonitrile butadiene rubber is a polymer made from the acrylonitrile (CAS 107-13-1) and 1,2butadiene (CAS 590-19-2) or 1,3-butadien (CAS 106-99-0) 16. All of these monomers fulfill the
requirements for hazardous chemicals and are included on the SIN list 2.1 37 (see table 4).
Acrylonitrile is a skin allergen, carcinogenic and toxic to aquatic life, with long lasting effects in the
aquatic environment. 1,2-butadiene, like 1,3-butadiene, is classified as a carcinogen.
Both butyl- and nitrile rubber demonstrate good durability against degradation from oil and is used
in protective gloves and packaging 16.
Fluor polymer rubber
These rubbers are polymers made of hexafluoropropene (CAS 116-15-4) and vinylidene fluoride (CAS
75-38-7), or perfluoromethylvinylether (CAS 3823-94-7), tetrafluoroethylene (CAS 116-14-3) and
vinylidene fluoride (CAS 75-38-7). Vinylidene fluoride is the only one of these monomers that fulfills
the requirements of a hazardous chemical (see table 4). According to the CLP classification,
vinylidene fluoride is a skin allergen and can cause allergies or asthma symptoms or difficulties
breathing when inhaled. Prevent also points out that all monomers (with the exception of
tetrafluoroethylene, for which this information is missing) are greenhouse gases and
tetrafluoroethylene is also believed to damage the ozone.
oooo
pppp
Ethylene-propylene rubber
High impact polystyrene
157
Highly fluorinated substances are very or extremely persistent. They can bind to proteins in the blood
and accumulate in organs like liver, kidney and brain 435 and are therefore potentially problematic.
Fluor polymer rubber is used in protective gloves and packaging/packages.
Table 4: Rubber and their monomers, and monomers considered hazardous according to the criteria
of the SSNC (source: Prevent 441 , database: Chemical Substances).
Rubber
Polymer
Monomer
hazardous
chemical
SIN-list
2.1
Hazard codes
Butylrubber
Nitrile
rubber
Isoprene (CAS 78-79-5)
X
X
H341, H350, H412
Acrylonitrile (CAS 107-13-1)
X
X
H317, H350, H411
1,3-butadiene (CAS 106-99-0)
X
X
H340, H350
Acrylonitrile (CAS 107-13-1)
and
1,2-butadiene (CAS 590-19-2)
or
1,3-butadiene (CAS 106-99-0)
X
X
H317, H350, H411
Nitrile
butadiene
rubber
X
X
H350
X
H340, H350
Fluoropolymer rubber
Hexafluoropropene (CAS 116-15-4)
and
Vinylidenfluoride (CAS 75-38-7)
X
H317, H334
or
Perfluoromethylvinylether
(CAS 3823-94-7)**
and
Tetrafluorethylene
(CAS 116-14-3)
and
Vinylidene fluoride (CAS 75-38-7)
X
H317, H334
*For a full list of hazard codes for each chemical, see Prevent, http://kemi.prevent.se/
qqqq
** Missing information about this chemical in Prevent and ECHAs
C&L Inventory Database
qqqq
ECHA stands for European Chemicals Agency and corresponds to the EU’s version of Swedish Chemicals
Agency.
158
Problematic plastics and rubbers:
As problematic plastics, SSNC count those which monomers are classified as hazards according to
SVHC or CLP (selected hazard statement codes are found in Table 1 of this Annex), or included in the
SIN List 2.1.
• Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)
• Acrylonitrile-Butadiene rubber
• Amino plastics and amino resins (eg, melamine, UF and MF plastic resin)
• Butyl rubber
• Epoxy platics and epoxy resins (eg DGEBA with BPA as a monomer)
• Phenolic plastics and phenolic resins
• Fluorinated ethylene plastic (FEP)
• Fluoro-polymer rubber
• Nitrile rubber
• Unsaturated polyester - if styrene is used
• Polycarbonate (PC)
• Polyether ether ketone (PEEK)
• Polypropencarbonat (PPC)
• Polystyrene (PS)
• Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
• Polyurethane (PUR)
• Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Other plastics and rubbers:
As other plastics and rubbers, SSNC count those whose monomers are not classified as hazards.
• Acrylate platics
• Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA)
• Polyamide (PA)
• polybutylene terephthalate (PBT)
• Polyethylene (PE)
• Polyethylene terephthalate (PET; polyester)
• Polypropylene (PP)
The classification above is made with respect to constituent monomers. If hazards additive are
included, the plastic immediately becomes problematic, according to the SSNC’s perception.
159
Additives
Within the framework of this report, it is not possible to cover the myriad of different additives used
in plastics and rubbers. In order to handle this task, we briefly describe a few important functional
categories of additives in the text below, whereas a selection of specific addi tives identified as
hazardous chemicals, based on the sources named in the introduction of the annex, are presented in
Table 5. The selection includes additive types that are needed during the manufacturing process
and/or to give the final products its desired properties. Most of the substances listed there belong to
one of the three groups; antioxidants, flame retardants and plasticizers. Of these three groups of
additives, flame retardants and plasticizers make up the largest share of total plastic weight, often
around 30%.
One of the reasons additives often are problematic, is that they usually are not bound to the polymer
/ plastic, and thus can migrate to the surface and be released. Another reason is that the additives
often comprise a large part of the plastic - average is about 15% but it can be up to half the weight of
the plastic. That should be compared with unreacted monomers or polymer degradation products,
which usually make up less than one percent by weight. Of all the additives s tored in the plastic
products in our surrounding, two percent, or about 100 000 tons, leak into the environment each
year247. Additive from power lines and lamp fittings make up a quarter of all emitted additives per
year247. The ten additives that leak most in Sweden each year is - in descending order - melamine,
2,4-dibromophenol, 2,4,6-tribromophenol, amide of oleic acid, triphenyl phosphate, dibutyl
phthalate, pentabromotoluen, benzyl butyl phthalate, di(ethylhexyl) phthalate and di (n-hexyl, noctyl, n-decyl) ftalat247 .
Several additives that have been identified while reviewing existing literature do not have a sufficient
knowledge base, in order to classify them as hazardous chemicals according to CLP, and is therefore
unfortunately not included in Table 4, although these are potentially problematic. Therefore, Table 4
should only be seen as the tip of the iceberg when it comes to problematic additives. Many more
additives will certainly be classed as dangerous when a full risk assessment has been made. Prevent’s
chemical database and ECHA’s database C&L have been used during this work.
Accelerators/catalysts
Accelerators and catalysts speed up the polymerization and vulcanization processes rrrr used during
manufacturing of plastics and rubbers 16, 430. Polymerization catalysts are often metal
compounds/complexes 445 . A known example is the carcinogenic substance antimony trioxide (CAS
1309-64-4) that is the most important catalysts used to produce PET446 . Thiurams and
dithiocarbamates are used as catalysts for the vulcanization of rubber and within these groups of
chemicals there are some that are known skin sensitising 447 .
rrrr
Vulcanization entails the use of chemicals that can cross -bind among polymers in additives used to increase
the elasticity of rubber.
160
Antioxidants
Oxidative processes in plastics and rubbers occurs when free radicals ssss are formed, either when the
material is exposed to energy (heating or exposure to UV light) or a strong oxidant, such as ozone for
example. Oxidative processes break down plastics and rubber, which can be limited by antioxidant
additives430.
An important type of antioxidant in this context is heat stabilizers. Plastics and rubbers are usually
processed at very high temperatures (>180° C) 430. Without stabilizing additives, many polymers
would fall apart during manufacturing. Heat stabilizers can work as metal chelating agents tttt, which
capture and separate metal ions uuuu that would generate free radicals otherwise. So called thermo
oxidative additives prevent the break-down of polymers, for example, by interfering with the
mechanism by which the metal ions catalyze the formation of hydrogen peroxide that generates free
radicals448 . Pigments and paints might also need protection during the heating process.
The antioxidants are a very heterogeneous group that comprises organic fosfites, phenol
compounds, tiphenol compounds, PAH, aromatic aminos, triazines, hydroxybenzophenones,
hydroxyphenylbenzotriazoles, esters made of thiopropionic acid, sebacates, organotin compounds
(in PVC), etc. 16, 449 . Many of these are, or are suspected to be, canerogenic, endocrine disruptors ,
organotixic or very toxic to aquatic life with long lasting effects.
Antistatic additives
These additives hinder the formation of static charges on plastics or rubbers.
Biocides
Bacteria and fungi may damage, discolor or make plastic materials smell bad. A broad spectrum of
different antiseptic additives can be used in polymer materials, for example, silver450 and triclosan451 ,
both toxic to aquatic life.
Flame retardants
As plastics and rubbers are organic materials and often petroleum-based, they burn very easily, even
though there are examples of polymers with naturally intrinsic flame retardant properties (especially
those with fluoride, chloride and bromine)16. In certain countries, there are legislative requirements
that for example building material and electronics made of plastic, are treated with fl ame retardants
16, 430
.
Flame retardants belong to several different chemical groups. Diphenyl ethers containing bromide,
floride and chloride are commonly used group. These compounds are particularly persistent (for
fluorinated compounds, very little data exists, however) 452, 453 , and may have endocrine disrupting
effects454 . Therefore, the world leading environmental experts drafted the San Antonio Statement in
2010, which calls for a restriction of the use of brominated and chlorinated diphenyl ethers 455 .
ssss
Free radicals are atoms, or mol ecules, that often occur as intermediate products in chemical reactions, and
that have unpaired electrons. The unpaired electrons make them very reactive and the free radicals oxidize
other material when they get rid of the unpaired electrons.
tttt
Chelates are a chemical that picks up metals.
uuuu
Ions are atoms or molecules that have an overcharge or undercharge of an electrical charge.
161
Other types of flame retardants are based on phosphorous containing compounds, for example,
phosphines, phosphinoxides, phosphonium compounds, phosphonates, red phosphor (CAS 7723-140), phosphites and phosphates; or silicon, for example silanes and siloxanes; or boron, such as
borates; or compounds containing antimone, barium, nitrium or magnesium 456 . Melamin is the
additive released in largest quantaties in Sweden, 17 000 ton per year247 . Since many flame
retardants has shown to be long lasting, bioacummulative, endocrine disruptors and suspected to
causing cancer, these has to be substituted for better alternatives, or, even better, be fased out
through redesign to products not needing addition of flame retardants.
Fillers
In order to strengthen a material or bring down the manufacturing cost, fillers can be added to
plastics or rubbers. For example, the rubber in car tires may contain 25% filler 457. Silicon oxide
(group-CAS 7631-86-9), chalk (CAS 1317-65-3) and N,N’-ditio-o-phenylendibenxamide (CAS 135-57-9)
are examples of fillers used in rubbers and plastics.
Dyes and pigments
Several different types of paint and pigments may be found in plastics and rubbers, including le ad
chromate, molybdate and azo-dyes, of which some may degrade to carcinogenic aromatic amines458 .
In the EU, the use of azo-dyes in textiles is restricted under REACH459. However, plastic products
produced outside of the EU may contain azo-dyes.
Plasticisers
Plasticisers make hard plastic softer and more flexible. High flexibility is important during the
production and processing of plastic. The attraction between the polymers is weakened by the
plasticiser460 , reducing vitrification temperature vvvv and the material becomes flexible at
temperatures of normal use. Most of these substances are so called external plasticisers. This means
that they are not chemically bound to the polymer chain but are dissolved into the cavities between
the polymer chains and may therefore leak out from the material 461 . Internal plasticisers on the
other hand, are bound to the polymer chain and yields alternating non -separable soft and hard
segments461.
PVC is the plastic type consuming the largest amounts of plasticisers 461 , but also in polyacrylates and
polyamides16 , as well as a lot of other plastic types not discussed in this report, do require a lot of
plasticisers.
Chemically, plasticisers are a heterogeneous group that comprises phthalates, bisphenol A, adipates,
citrates, trimellitates, chlorinated paraffins, organic phosphates/phosphate esters, azelates,
benzoates, sorbitol-based plasticisers, DINCH (CAS 166412-78-8), DEHT (CAS 6422-86-2), 2,2,4trimethyl-1,3-pentandioldiisobutyrate (CAS 6846-50-0), epoxyized soy bean oil (CAS 8013-07-07),
1,2,3-propantriylacetate (CAS 102-76-1), etc. Many of these plasticisers are cancerogenic, endocrine
disruptors, toxic for reproduction and/or toxic to aquatic life.
vvvv
Glass conversion temperature is the temperature at which large-scale segment movements can occur in the
polymer chains. In other words, the material softens when heated above this temperature.
162
Danish Ministy of Environment recommend following plasticiers: COMGHA - glycerides, castor-oilmono-, hydrogenated, acetates (CAS No 736150-63-3); DEHT - bis(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate (CAS
No 6422-86-2); DINCH - Diisononyl cyclohexanedicarboxylate (CAS No 166412-78-8) 462 , eventhough
DINCH is suspected to affect the thyroid and the reproduction/development.
Impact modifiers
In order to improve the mechanical strength in plastics, not least of which i ncludes PP, PS and PVC,
impact modifiers are used 430. This is a variable group, which may be the actual polymers 463, 464 .
163
Table 4: Summary of some hazardous additives.
Additives
Functional
Chemical
category
Hazardous
chemical
SINlist
Hazard
Material
Comment
codes*
2.1
Accelerator/
catalyst
Antimonetrioxide
(1309-64-4)
X
X
H351
PET,PS,
rubber
Accelerator/
Chromyl dichloride
X
X
catalyst
(CAS 14977-61-8)
H317,
H340,
H350i,
EPR, PE,
PB, PIB,
PMP, POE,
H410
PP
X
H317, H410
Rubber
X
H410
Rubber
X
H317,
Rubber
Accelerator/
Merkaptobenzotiazol
catalyst
(CAS 149-30-4)
Accelerator/
Pentachlorophenol
catalyst
(CAS 133-49-3)
Accelerator/
Tetramethylthiuram
disulfide (Thiram)
(CAS 137-26-8)
catalyst
Accelerator/
Propylparabene
catalyst
(CAS 94-13-3)
Antioxidant/
Aniline (CAS 62-53-3)
H373, H410
Endocrine
465,
disrupting
466,467.
X
Plastics
Endocrine
468, 469
disrupting
X
X
catalyst
H317,
H341,
.
Rubber
H351, H372
Antioxidant
Antioxidant
Anthracene
(CAS 120-12-7)
Bensophenone
X
X
X
H410
X
(CAS 119-61-9)
Antioxidant
Bis(tripropyltin)oxide
(CAS 1067-29-4)
X
Antioxidant
Bumetrizole (UV 326)
X
(CAS 3896-11-5)
wwww
X
H410
Thermoplastic,
thermosetting
plastic
On the SVHC-list,
given that it can
be carcinogenic
Transpare
Can be cancer-
nt plastics
ogenic
PUR
Endocrine
37
disrupting
Plastic
Found in the
wwww
and is a PBT
470,471
472
environment
PBT: Persistent in the environment, absorbed by organisms (bioaccumulates) and is toxic .
164
Antioxidant
Dibutyltin (DBT)
PVC, PUR,
X
(CAS 1002-53-5)
Antioxidant
silicones
Dibutyltin dichloride
PVC, PUR,
X
(CAS 1067-29-4)
Antioxidant
Dibutyltin dilaurate
silicones
X
X
H410
(CAS 77-58-7)
PVC, PUR,
silicones
Found in the
473
environment ,
endocrine
474
disrupting
475
Reproduction
and
476
embryotoxic
Possible
endocrine
disrupting
Antioxidant
Distearyltiodipropionate
X
H411
(CAS 693-36-7)
37
PE, PET,
rubber
Antioxidant
Phosphoric triamide
(CAS 680-31-9)
X
Antioxidant
Hindered amine
X
X
H340, H350
PVC, PS
H413
PET
H340,
H350,
H360FD,
All types
of plastic,
but
foremost
PVC
(CAS 70624-18-9)
Antioxidant
Cadmiumchloride
(CAS 10108-64-2)
X
X
H371, H410
Antioxidant
Cadmiumoxide
X
X
(CAS 1306-19-0)
H341,
H350,
H361fd,
H372, H410
Nitril
rubber,
teflon and
other
plastics
Antioxidant
Cadmiumsulfate
X
X
(CAS 10124-36-4)
H340,
H350,
H360FD,
H371, H410
All types
of plastic,
but
foremost
PVC
Antioxidant
Cadmiumsulfide
X
(CAS 1306-23-6)
X
H341,
H350,
HDPE,
rubber
H373, H413
Antioxidant
N, N’, N’’, N’’’tetrakis(4,6bis(butyl-(Nmethyl-2,2,6,6tetramethylpiperidin-4yl)amino)triazin-2-yl)-4,7diazadekan-1,10-diamine
X
H411
PC, PE, PP
(CAS 106990-43-6)
165
Antioxidant
Nonylphenol (CAS 25154-
X
X
52-3)
H361fd,
H410
Thermosetting
Endocrine
disrupting
477
plastic
Antioxidant
Octadecyl-3(3',5'-di-tbutyl-4'-hydroxyphenyl)
propionate
(CAS 2082-79-3)
X
Antioxidant
p-nonylphenol
X
X
H413
PC
H410
Thermoset
Endocrine
ting plastic
disrupting
Plastics
Endocrine
479
disrupting
ABS, PC,
PE, PET,
Found in the
(CAS 104-40-5)
Anitoxidant
2-hydroxy-4metoxybenzophenon-5sulfonic acid
(Bensophenone 4)
(CAS 4065-45-6)
X
Anitoxidant
2-(2'-hydroxy-3'-t-butyl-5'methyl phenyl)-5chlorobenzotriazole (UV
327) (CAS 3864-99-1)
X
Tert-butyl-4metoxyphenol
(CAS 25013-16-5)
X
Hydrocinnamic acid
X
Antioxidant
Antioxidant
H411
Tioacetamide
(CAS 62-55-5)
472
environment
PVC, UP
X
H317, H351
Rubber
Endocrine
disrupting
H411
(CAS 6683-19-8)
Antioxidant
478
480
Thermoplastic
X
X
H350, H412
Rubber
Probable
mutagen och
cancerogen
Antioxidant
Tributyltin (TBT)
X
PVC
(CAS 56573-85-4)
Found in the
482,
environment
483
, endocrine
disrupting
Antioxidant
Tributyltin hydride
(CAS 688-73-3)
X
PVC
Tributyltin chloride
(CAS 1461-22-9)
X
X
H373, H410
PVC
484, 485
Found in the
environment,
endocrine
disrupting
Antioxidant
481
486
Found in the
37
environment ,
endocrine
disrupting
486
166
Antioxidant
Tripropyltine hydride
X
PUR
(CAS 761-44-4)
Found in the
environment
and may be
endocrine
disrupting
Antioxidant
Triphenyltin chloride (CAS
2279-76-7)
X
X
H410
PUR
Found in the
environment
and may be
endocrine
disrupting
Antioxidant
Tri-nonylphenylphosphite
X
H410
(CAS 26523-78-4)
37
ABS, PC,
PE, PET,
PVC
Antioxidant
1-hydroxy-4-tertbutylbenzole
X
X
H317
(CAS 98-54-4)
Antioxidant
1,3,5-trimethyl-2,4,6,tris(3,5-di-t-4hydroxybenzyl)benzene
Thermostatic,
Bioaccumulate
487
, endocrine
rubber
disrupting
X
H413
Plastic
X
H411
Plastics
488, 489
(CAS 1709-70-2)
Antioxidant
2-hydroxy-4-n-octyloxy
benzophenone
(CAS 1843-05-6)
Antioxidant
2-(2'-hydroxy-3', 5'-di-tamylphenol)benzotriazole
Akrylatplastics,
ABS, PC,
X
(UV 328) (CAS 25973-55-1)
Found in the
37
environment
UP, PUR
Antioxidant
2-(2-hydroxy-3,5-di(1,1dimetylbenzyl))-2Hbenzotriazole
PA, PC,
PET, PPS,
X
Found in the
490
environment
PUR
(CAS 70321-86-7)
Antioxidant
2,2',4,4'tetrahydroxybenzophenon
e (2-benzophenone)
X
Plastics
Endocrine
491,492
disrupting
,
as with the
cured versions of
this chemical
X
Plastics
Found in the
environmentand
bioaccumulates
493
, endocrine
(CAS 131-55-5)
Antioxidant
2,4dihydroxybenzophenone
(Benzophenon-1)
(CAS 131-56-6)
disrupting
494
167
Antioxidant
2,4,6-tris(N-1,4,dimethylpentyl-pphenylendiamnio)-1,3,5triazine (CAS 121246-28-4)
Antioxidant
3-benzophenone
X
H410
X
Plastics
Plastics
(CAS 131-57-7)
Antioxidant
Antioxidant
3,5-bis(1-dimethyletyl)-4hydroxy
benzenepropanoic acid
(CAS 171090-93-0)
X
H413
May be
endocrine
495
disrupting
ABS, PE,
PVC
4,4'dihydroxybenzophenone
(CAS 611-99-4)
X
Plastic
Found in the
environment
and
4
bioaccumulates
93
, endocrine
disrupting
Antioxidant/
Branched nonylphenols
other
(CAS 90481-04-2)
X
X
H361fd,
H410
Thermosetting
496
Endocrine
disrupting
37
plastic
Antioxidant/
Hydrazine (CAS 302-01-2)
X
X
other
Biocide
H317,
H350, H410
Triclosan (CAS 3380-34-5)
X
X
H410
Thermoplastic,
thermosetting
plastic
Possible
Plastics
Possible
endocrine
carcinogen
disrupting
Flame
retardant
Bis(pentabromophenyl)et
her (deca-BDE)
X
X
H410
(CAS 1163-19-5)
Flame
retardant
Bis(tribromophenoxy)ethane (BTBPE)
X
497
498, 499
Epoxy, PA,
PC PE, PP,
PS,
rubbers
Bioaccumulates
and endocrine
ABS, PC,
Found in the
environment
and
bioaccumulates
PE, PS
(CAS 37853-59-1)
disrupting
500
501
Flame
Bromoethene (CAS 593-
retardant
60-2)
X
X
H350
Plastic
168
Flame
retardant
Gamma-hexabromocychlododecane (gammaHBCDD)
(CAS 134237-52-8)
X
X
H410
Thermoplastic,
thermosetting
plastic,
37
PBT
rubber
Flame
retardant
Hexabromocychlododecane (HBCDD)
(CAS 3194-55-6 and
X
H410
PE, PS
May be
endocrine
disrupting
502
25637-99-4)
Flame
retardant
Chlorinated paraffins (CAS
63449-39-8), (CAS 8553584-8) 10-13 carbon atoms,
(CAS 85535-85-9) >17
carbon atoms , (CAS
61788-76-9) 20-22 carbon
X
X
H351 for
10-13
carbons,
H410, H411
for 20-22
PET, PS
May be
endocrine
64
disrupting and
possibly
carcinogenic
503
carbons
atoms
Flame
Red phosphorous
retardant
(CAS 7723-14-0)
Flame
Tribromophenolallylether
retardant
(CAS 3278-89-5)
Flame
retardant
Tetrabromophthalanhydrid
X
H412
X
Epoxy
resins, PA,
PE, PET,
PS, PUR
PS
Bioaccumulates
504
X
PS
Endocrine
505
disrupting
Akrylplastics,
PVC,
thermosetting
plastic,
PUR,
Can damage
development of
the nervous
506
system ,
endocrine
507
disrupting
(CAS 632-79-1)
Flame
retardant
Trichloretylphosphate
X
(CAS 115-96-8)
X
H351,
H360F,
H411
rubber
Flame
retardant
2-etylhexyldiphenylphosphate
X
H410
Plastics
X
H410
ABS,
phenol-
(CAS 1241-94-7)
Flame
retardant
2,2', 6,6'tetrabromobisphenol A
(TBBPA) (CAS 79-94-7)
Flame
2,4,6-tribromophenol
retardant
(CAS 118-79-6)
plastics, PS
X
H410
Epoxy
resins
169
Filler
Carbon black (CAS 1333-
X
H351
Rubber
86-4)
Curing
agent
Tributyltin oxide
(CAS 56-35-9)
X
X
H372, H410
Plastics
Curing
4,4'-methylenebis(2chloraniline)
(CAS 101-14-4)
X
X
H350, H410
Epoxy
resins,
PUR,
agent
37
PBT
rubber
Cross-linker
Akrylamide (CAS 79-06-1)
X
X
H317,
H350,
H361f,
Plastics,
rubber
H372
Cross-linker
Butadiene dioxide
(CAS 1464-53-5)
X
X
H340, H350
Plastics
Cross-linker
R-epichlorohydrin
X
X
H317, H350
Plastics
(CAS 51594-55-9)
Cross-linker
1,3-benzenediol
(CAS 108-46-3)
X
X
Lubricant
Branched nonylphenols
X
X
(CAS 90481-04-2)
Lubricant
Nonylphenol
H361fd,
H410
X
X
(CAS 25154-52-3)
H361fd,
H410
Rubber
Endocrine
508
disrupting
Thermosetting
plastic
Endocrine
Thermosetting
Endocrine
disrupting
disrupting
37
477
plastic
Lubricant
p-nonylphenol
X
X
H410
(CAS 104-40-5)
Thermosetting
Endocrine
disrupting
478
plastic
Lubricant
(1,1,3,3tetrametylbutyl)phenol
X
X
H410
(CAS 27193-28-8)
Thermosetting
plastic,
Bioaccumulates
and endocrine
disrupting
509
rubber
Lubrikant
4-(1,1,3,3tetrametylbutyl)phenol
X
X
H410
(CAS 140-66-9)
Thermosetting
plastic,
Bioaccumulates
and endocrine
disrupting
509
rubber
Solvent
Acid dimethylamide
(CAS 127-19-5)
X
X
H360Df
PUR, other
plastics
and
rubber
170
Solvent
Anthracene oil
X
X
H340, H350
(CAS 90640-82-7)
Plastics,
rubber
Solvent
Benzene (CAS 71-43-2)
X
X
H340,
H350, H372
Rubber
Solvent
Hexane (CAS 110-54-3)
X
X
H361f,
Rubber
H373, H411
Solvent
Nitrosodipropylamine
X
X
H350, H411
Rubber
X
X
H360D
PVC,
acrylic
plastic and
(CAS 621-64-7)
Solvent
N,N-dimethylformamide
(CAS 68-12-2)
PUR
Solvent
1,2-dibromethane
(CAS 106-93-4)
X
X
H350, H411
Thermosetting
plastic,
rubber
Solvent
1,2-dichlorobenzene
(CAS 95-50-1)
X
X
H410
Foam
plastics
Plasticiser
Benzylbutylphthalate
(BBP)
(CAS 85-68-7)
X
X
H360Df,
Plastics
(OPVC, PE,
PA,
PMMA),
H410
rubber
Plasticiser
Bis(2etylhexyl)phthalate(DEHP)
X
X
H360FD
All types
of plastics
and
rubber,
but mostly
PVC
H360Df
Plastics
(CAS 117-81-7)
Plasticiser
Plasticiser
Bis(2metoxyethyl)phthalate
(DMEP) (CAS 117-82-8)
X
Dibutylphthalate
X
unborn child
X
H360Df
(CAS 84-74-2)
Plasticiser
Dicyclohexylphthalate
(DCHP)(CAS 84-61-7)
Plasticiser
Dietylphthalate (DEP)
(CAS 84-66-2)
Can damage the
510
Plastics,
rubber
X
X
X
H413
PVC
Plastics,
rubber
May be
endocrine
511
disrupting
171
Plasticiser
Dipentylphthalate
X
X
H360FD
PVC
(CAS 131-18-0)
Plasticiser
Dihexylphthalate (DHP)
(CAS 84-75-3)
Plastics, a
lot in PVC
X
May damage the
unborn and
endocrine
disrupting
Plasticiser
Diisobutylphthalate (DIBP)
X
X
H360Df
512
Plastics
(CAS 84-69-5)
Plasticiser
Diisononylphthalate
PVC,
X
(DINP) (CAS 28553-12-0)
Plasticiser
Dimethylnitrosoamine
rubber
X
X
(CAS 62-75-9)
Plasticiser
Di-n-decylphthalate
H350,
May be
endocrine
513
disrupting
Rubber
H373, H411
X
H360Df
Plastics
X
H360Df
PVC
H341,
H350,
H361f,
H373, H410
Thermoplastic,
thermosetting
plastic,
(CAS 84-77-5)
Plasticiser
Di-n-octylphthalate
(DnOP) (CAS 117-84-0)
Plasticiser
2,4-dinitrotoluene
X
X
(CAS 121-14-2)
rubber
Plasticiser
Di(2-ethylbutyl)phthalat
(DEBP) (CAS 7299-89-0)
X
Plasticiser
Di-2-etylhexyladipate
X
Plastics
H341, H410
PVCplastic
film,
rubber
H360Df
PVC,
(CAS 103-23-1)
Plasticiser
Plasticiser
Branched
diisononylphthalate (DINP)
(CAS 68515-48-0)
X
Hexachlorbenzene
X
(CAS 118-74-1)
X
rubber
X
H350,
H372, H410
PVC,
nitrile- and
styrene
rubber
172
Plasticiser
Plasticiser
Chlorinated paraffins (CAS
63449-39-8), (CAS 8553584-8) 10-13 carbon atoms
(CAS 85535-85-9) >17
carbon atoms , (CAS
61788-76-9) 20-22 carbon
atoms
X
Cresyl diphenyl phosphate
X
X
H351 for
10-13
carbons,
H410, H411
for 20-22
carbons
H410
(CAS 26444-49-5)
Plasticiser
Trichloretylphosphate
(CAS 115-96-8)
PVC
PS, PVC,
PUR
X
X
H351,
H360F,
H411
Acrylic
plastics,
PVC,
thermosetting
plastic,
PUR,
rubber
Plasticiser
Tricresyl phosphate
X
H411
Rubber
X
H413
PVC
(CAS 78-32-0)
Plasticiser
Tris(2-etyhexyl)benzene1,2,4-tricarboxylate
(CAS 3319-31-1)
Plasticiser
Tri(tridekyl)bensen-1,2,4trikarboxylat (TEHTM)
(CAS 94109-09-8)
X
Plasticiser
(1,1,3,3-tetrametylbutyl)
X
X
H410
Thermosetting
plastic,
rubber
X
X
H360Df
PVC
H410
PET, PUR
H410
Thermosetting
plastic,
Plastics
phenol (CAS 27193-28-8)
Plasticiser
1,2-benzenedicarboxylic
acid (CAS 68515-48-0)
Plasticiser
2-ethylhexyldifenylphosphate
X
(CAS 1241-94-7)
Plasticiser
4-(1,1,3,3tetrametylbutyl)phenol
(CAS 140-66-9)
X
X
rubber
173
Monomer/
raw
material/
other
Perfluorooctane acid
Monomer/
raw
material/
2-chloride-1,3-butadiene
Residues
X
(PFOA) (335-67-1)
in PTFE
X
X
H350, H373
(CAS 126-99-8)
other
Monomer/
raw
material/
Thermosetting
plastic,
rubber
R-epichlorhydrine
X
X
H317, H350
Plastics
X
X
H350,
H372, H410
PVC, nitricand
styrene
(CAS 51594-55-9)
other
Peptizing
agent
Hexachlorobenzene
(CAS 118-74-1)
rubber
Peptizing
agent
Pentachlorophenol
(CAS 131-52-2)
X
Pigment/
Lead chromatemolybdat-
X
paint
sulphate (CAS 12656-85-8)
X
H351, H410
Rubber
H350,
H360Df,
H373, H410
Thermoplastic,
thermosetting
plastic
Pigment/
paint
Disodium 3,3'-((1,1'biphenyl)-4,4'diylbis(azo))bis(4aminonaphthalene-1-
X
X
H350,
H361d
Plastic
films
sulphonate)(CAS 573-58-0)
Pigment/
paint
Disodium 4-amino-3-((4'((2,4-diaminophenyl)azo)(1,1'-biphenyl)-4yl)azo) -5-hydroxy-6(phenylazo)naphthalene2,7-disulphonate
X
Plastics
(CAS 1937-37-7)
Pigment/
paint
Disodium (5-((4'-((2,6dihydroxy-3-((2-hydroxy-5sulphophenyl)azo)phenyl)
azo)(1,1'-biphenyl)-4yl)azo)salicylate(4-))cuprat(2-)
X
X
H350
Plastics,
for
example
nylon
(CAS 16071-86-6)
174
Pigment/
Calcium chromate
paint
(CAS 13765-19-0)
Pigment/
paint
1,4,5,8-tetraamino
antraquinone
X
X
H350
Plastics
X
X
H317, H350
PET, PA,
acrylic
(CAS 2475-45-8)
Pigment/
paint
3-ethyl-2-methyl-2-(3metylbutyl)-1,3-oxazolidin
plastics
X
X
H360F
PUR
X
X
H350
Plastics,
(CAS 143860-04-2)
Pigment/
3,3'-dimethoxybenzidine
paint
(CAS 119-90-4)
Vulcanizer
N-cykolhexylbensotiazol -2-
rubber
X
H317, H410
Rubber
sulfenamide (CAS 95-33-0)
Vulcanizer
Thiamine disulphide
(Thiram) (CAS 137-26-8)
X
X
H317,
H373, H410
Rubber
Vulcanizer
1-hydroxy-4-tertbutylbenzene
X
X
H317
Rubber
H361f,
Rubber
(CAS 98-54-4)
Vulcanizer
1,3-diphenylguanidine
X
(CAS 102-06-7)
H411
Other
Benzidine (CAS 92-87-5)
and salts
X
X
H350, H410
Rubber
Other
Dimethylsulphate
X
X
H317,
Plastic,
H341, H350
rubber
(CAS 77-78-1)
Other
Hydrazobenzene
(CAS 122-66-7)
X
X
H350, H410
Recycled
rubber
Other
Perchloroethylene
X
X
H351, H411
Rubber
H410
Plastics
(CAS 127-18-4)
Other
2,4,6-tris(N-1,4,dimethylpentyl-pphenylendiamnio)-1,3,5-
X
triazine (CAS 121246-28-4)
175
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293
Ban
on
Plastic
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Slowly
Gaining
Momentum,
GMA
Network
News,
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28
Aug.
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294 Palace Supports Plastic Bag Ban, Journal Online, 02 Sept. 2012. Web. http://www.journal.com.ph/index.php/news/national/37189palace-supports-plastic-bag-ban/
295 Philippine Plastic Industry Association. PPIA Position Paper on Proposed Legisla tion on Plastics, 2011.
296 Philippine Chemical Industry Fact Book, p. 7. 2004.
297 Clapp, J. and Swanston L. Doing Away With Plastic Shopping Bags: International Patterns of Norm Emergence and Policy
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298 EcoWaste Coalition. EcoWaste Coalition Backs Manila City. Web. http://ecowastecoalition.blogspot.com/2012/07/ecowaste -coalitionbacks-manila-city.html
299 Ocean Conservancy. Marine Debris Index 2009. Retrieved from http://act.oceanconservancy.org/pdf/2009_Marine_Debris_Index.pd/
300 Philippine Plastics Industry Association. Recycling and Proper Waste Management of Plastics.
301 Philippine Plastic Industry Association. PPIA Position Paper on Proposed Legislation on Plastics, 2011.
302 Riguer, M. Employment in a Plastic Bag Linking Environment and Employment Policies and Outcomes. 2011.
303 Philippine Plastic Industry Association. PPIA Position Paper on Proposed Legislation on Plastics, 2011.
304 Plastic Industry Expects 50% Downsizing If Manila Bans Plastic Bags, GMA Network News, 2011.
http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/265156/economy/business/industry-expects-50-downsizing-if-manila-bans-plastic-bags
305 DENR Pushes for Reusable Bags, Inquirer News, 2010. Retrieved from
http://www.inquirer.net/specialreports/theenvironmentreport/view.php?db=1&article=20100929-295040
306 National Solid Waste Management Commission. National Framework Plan for the Informal Waste Sector in Solid Waste Management.
Retrieved from http://piwsnet.swapp.org/attachments/article/63/FinalReportIS%202009.pdf
307 JICA, The Study on Recycling Industry Development in the Republic of the Philippines. February 2008.
308 Asian Development Bank, The Garbage Book: Solid Waste Management in Metro Manila, 2 004.
309 United Nations Environment Program-Department of Environment and Natural Resources (UNEP-DENR). State of the Brown
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310 National Solid Waste Management Commission. List of Material Recovery Facilities for 3rd Quarter 2011. Retrieved from
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312 Monsada, A. Department of Science and Technology. Waste Plastics Recycling Technology in the Philippines. Presented in the UNEP AIST Workshop on Waste Plastics Management, 2011.
313 Howard, C.Vyvyan, Statement of Evidence, Particulate Emissions and Health, Proposed Ringaskiddy Waste-to-Energy Facility, June
2009.
314 United Nations Environment Program, The Dangers of Plastic Bags. Retrieved from
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315 Department of Trade and Industry (DTI). Gamitin ang Bayong and Preserve the Philippine Economy, 2009. Retrieved from
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316 European Bioplastics. Position Paper on “Oxo-Biodegradable Plastics,” 2009
317 Plastics are Forever by Algalita Marine Research Foundation . Retrieved from
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318 GroundWork, 2007. Peak Poison The elite energy crisis and environmental justice
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319 See Jack Doyle, 2004: Trespass Against Us. Dow Chemical & The Toxic Century. Environmental Health Fund, Boston, Massachusetts,
Common Courage Press.
320 Telephonic communication, NCRS employee
321 “http://www.wrc.org.za/Knowledge%20Hub%20Documents/Research%20Reports/KV%20228 09%20Water%20quality%20management.pdf page 20.
322 Interview with Sasol Safety, Health, Environment … managers and specialists Martin Ginster, Fred Goede and Trevor Naicker.
323 Hallowes d. and Munnik, V, 2008. Wasting the Nation, making trash of people an d palces, groundwork report 2008.
324 Telephone discussion, Dr Murray Coombs, 27 September 2012
325 Rishi Madho, Sasol Polymers PVC products manager, interview 26 September 2012
326 http://www.polystyrenepackaging.co.za/
327 www.plasticsinfo.co.za
328 Khuluma, kulula inflight magazine, August 2012. A cleaning Initiative (article). “Plastics make it possible” (advertisement)
329 http://www.bizcommunity.com/Article/196/174/77292.html
330 http://www.essentialmag.co.za/index.php?pg=art&bk=174&sq=3497
331 http://www.thedti.gov.za/trade_investment/chemicals.jsp accessed 22oct 2012
332 http://www.bizcommunity.com/Article/196/174/77292.html
333 Hallowes, D., and Munnik, V., 2007. Peak Poison. groundWork Report 2007, quoting then Department of Environment official Joan ne
Yawitch at the Energy Summit September 2007
334 Jack Doyle, 2004: Trespass Against Us. Dow Chemical & The Toxic Century. Environmental Health Fund, Boston, Massachusetts,
Common Courage Press.
335 Doyle, J.,2004. Tresspas Against Us. Dow Chemical and The Toxic Century. Common Courage Press, Maine.
336 http://www.safripol.com/market_market_overview.html
337 Interview Fred Goede, Sasol General Manager Health and Environment, 26 September 2012
338 Sasol Sustainable Development Report, 30 June 2011
339 http://www.sasol.com, last updated last updated: 20 Jan 2011, accessed 14 Nov 2012
340 Martin Ginster, Sasol Safety Health and Environment Centre and Trevor Naicker, SHE manager Sasol Polymers, interviews 26
September 2012
189
341 Innovations for Greenhouse Gas Reductions. A life cycle quantification of carbon abatement solutions enabled by the chemical
industry, International Council of Chemical Associations, July 2009.
342 sasol.com last updated 25 Jun 2008, accessed 12 November 2012
343 http://archive.greenpeace.org/toxics/pvcdatabase/bad.html
344 Interview Rishi Madho, Sasol Polymers PVC Product Manager, 26 September 2012
345 Interview Fred Goede, Sasol General Manager Health and Environment, 26 September 2012
346 Interview Trevor Naicker, 26 September 2012.
347 The information in this section is based on an interview with Caroline Ntaopane of the Sasolburg Air Quality Monitoring Committee,
November 27, 2012.
348 www.groundwork.org.za/Pamphlets/OILWATCH%20Winter%202000.doc
349 plastixportal.co.za
350 http://www.polystyrenepackaging.co.za/objectivesofpspc.htm
351 http://www.savinyls.co.za/
352 http://mg.co.za/article/2012-04-20-not-made-in-south-africa
353 Telephonic interview, 27 September 2012
354 Telephonic interview 26 November 2012
355 Read full report at http://www.groundwork.org.za/Publications/plastskor_eng.pdf
356 http://mg.co.za/article/2011-10-28-govt-bans-unsafe-baby-bottles
357 Johane Dikgang,J., Anthony Leiman, A., and Martine Visser,M., 2010. Policy Paper Number 18, Analysis of the Plastic-bag Levy in South
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358 Dikgang et al, 2010
359 http://www.iol.co.za/news/south-africa/gauteng/plastic-bags-who-s-keeping-profit-1.1357137#.ULYuIob1qu4
360 http://www.plasticsnews.co.za/news/plastics -recycling-survey-south-africa-2012.html
361 http://www.petco.co.za/ag3nt/system/recycling_02_reasons.php
362 See http://5gyres.org
363 Telephonic interview, 27 September 2012
364 http://www.groundwork.org.za/Publications/Reports/gWReport2008.pdf
365 http://www.plasticsnews.co.za/news/plastics -recycling-survey-south-africa-2012.html
366 www.plasticsindustry.org
367 www.groundwork.org.za
368 Allsopp M, Costner P, Johnston P. (2001). Incineration and human health. State of knowledge of the impacts of waste incinerat ors on
human health. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2001;8(2):141 -5.
369 Groundwork.org.za
370 Personal communication, Rico Euripidou, groundWork researcher
371 Personal communication, Rico Euripidou, groundWork researcher
372 http://www.pcasa.co.za/about.asp
190
373 ESDO. 2011. ’Bangladesh: Plastic and the Plastic Bag Scenario’. (Note: In 2011 ESDO conducted an extensive study of waste
management practices in Bangladesh and the effectiveness of the plastic bag ban, the study included surveys of business owner s and waste
collectors and many of the results are included in this report. Not yet p ublished)
374 Halden, R. (2010) ‘Plastics and Health Risks’ Annual Reviews 31(2010)
375 Plastic and the Environment ( http://www.plasticsindustry.com/plastics -environment.asp )
376 Reazuddin et al. Banning Polythene Shopping Bags: A step forward towards promoting environmentally sustainable development in
Bangladesh, see: www.ekh.unep.org/files/Paper%20on%20Polythene.doc
377 A Compilation of Environmental laws, Department of Environment and Bangladesh Environmental Management project ( BEMP ), 2002
378 The World Bank: Bangladesh Climate Data, see: http://data.worldbank.org/country/bangladesh#cp_cc
379 Ecology Centre factsheet ‘Adverse Health Effects of Plastics’, see: http://www.ecologycenter.org/factsheets/plastichealtheffects.html
380 Clean Dhaka City Project, see; http://dhakacity.org/cleandhaka/
381 Derraik, J. G. (2002). The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 44(9), 842-852
382 Tawhid, K.G. 2004. ‘Cause and Effects of Waterlogging in Dhaka City Banglades h’ TRITA-LWR Masters Thesis, Royal Institute of
Technology, Stockholm
383 Time to Protect Earth: Safe Life from Plastic Pollution by Dr. S. Hossain, see: http://www.studymode.com/essays/Time -To-ProtectEarth-Safe-Life-From-212014.html
384 ‘Bangladesh: Plastic and the Plastic Bag Scenario’ ESDO 2012
385 Plastic production in Bangladesh: Plastic Manufacturer Association of Bangladesh, see: http://bpgmea.org.bd/
386 Polythene choking drains, water bodies for lack of monitoring, The Daily Star, see: http://archive.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news details.php?nid=198253
387 Polybags bounce back despite ban: Creep into markets
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for
lax
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The
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388 Government of Bangladesh: Export Policy 2009 – 2012, see:
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389 Transparency International, see: http://www.transparency.org/cpi2012/results
390 Cash and Carry on: Battle rages over Bangladeshi Government’s ban on ‘killer’ plastic bags, the Guardian,
http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2002/mar/27/guardiansocietysupplement7
391 United Nations Population Fund Bangladesh, see: http://unfpabgd.org/index.php?option=page&id=49&Itemid=4
392 Waste Concern. 2005. ‘Urban Solid Waste Management Scenario of Bangladesh: Problems and Prospects’, see:
http://www.wasteconcern.org/Publication/Waste%20Survey_05.pdf
393 Dhaka City Corporation. 2005. Clean Dhaka Mater Plan, see:
http://www.dhakacity.org/cleandhaka/Documents/CleanDhakaMasterPlanMain.pdf
394 Waste and waste management in Bangladesh- ESDO, 2012
395 Bangladesh Garment Manufacturers and Exporters Association,2013: www.bgmea.com.bd
396 Socie EM, Gromen KD, Migliozzi AA, Geidenberger CA (1997) “Work-related skin disease in the plastics industry” American Journal of
Independent Medicine 31(5)
397 BRAC Reseach Report: Hospital Waste Disposal in Bangladesh with Special Reference to Dhaka City and its Environmental Evaluat ion,
see: http://wwww.bracresearch.org/reports/hospital_waste.pdf
398 Hossain, M., Islam, M.M. 2006.Ship Breaking Activities and its Impact on the Coastal Zone of Chittagong, Bangladesh: Towards
Sustainable Management, see:
http://www.shipbreakingbd.info/report/Ship%20Breaking%20Activities%20and%20its%20Impact% 20on%20the.pdf
399 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants http://chm.pops.int/Convention/ConventionText/tabid/2232/Default.aspx
191
400 In 2012 more than 200 ships were imported for ship breaking according to ’ Ship Breaking In Bangladesh’, see:
http://www.shipbreakingbd.info/
401 Benefits of Shipbreaking, see: http://www.shipbreakingbd.info/Benefits.html
402 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007, see: http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ch10s10-4-3.html
403 Ross, Stuart, and David Evans. "The environmental effect of reusing and recycling a plastic-based packaging system." Journal of Cleaner
Production11.5 (2003): 561-571.
404 Björklund, Anna, and Göran Finnveden. "Recycling revisited—life cycle comparisons of global warming impact and total energy use of
waste management strategies." Resources, Conservation and Recycling 44.4 (2005): 309-317.
405 Plastics Industry, Plastic and the Environment (http://www.plasticsindustry.com/plastics -environment.asp )
406 La Mantia, F. P., & Morreale, M. (2011). Green composites: A brief review.Composites Part A: Applied Science and
Manufacturing, 42(6), 579-588.
407 Ecoflex, Biodegradable Plastic, see: http://www.bioplastics.basf.com/ecoflex.html
408 Seven Misconceptions about Plastic and Pl astic Recycling/ Five Strategies to Reduce the Environmental Impact of Plastics
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409 Plastic Waste in the Environment, European Commission DG ENV, April 2011
410 http://cpcb.nic.in/Plastic_waste.php
411 CPCB report on ‘Assesment of plastic waste and its management at airport and railway station in Delhi’ p.8, December 2009
412 http://www.wbpcb.gov.in/html/downloads/NewsMay03.pdf
413 CPCB Website
414 http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/per-capita-plastic-consumption-set-to-rise/429261/
415 http://www.racketchina.com/blog/post/513.html
416 http://cipet.gov.in/plastics_statics.html
417 World Bank Institute. 2008. ‘Improving Municipal Solid Waste Management in India: ASource -book for Policy Makers and
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418 http://www.cpcb.nic.in/139-144.pdf
419 http://www.cpcb.nic.in/divisionsofheadofficene/pcp/managemt_plasticwaste.pdf
420 TERI, 2002. ‘Plastic’, Edugreen http://edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/solwaste/plastics.htm
421 Narayan, P, 2001. ‘Analyzing Plastic Waste Management in India—Case study of Polybags and PET bottle’ IIIEE Reports, pp 37-49
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422 http://www.mumbaimirror.com/article/2/2011070620110706034051861e2b7848/Choke%E2%80%99s-on-us-Mumbai-generates-300crore-plastic-bags-every-year.html
423 http://zeenews.india.com/news/eco-news/no-plastic-bags-in-delhi-from-december-22_808048.html
424 http://www.dw.de/india -to-ban-plastic-bags/a-16345169
425 Chemsult, H, 1996. Chemical Weekly-Annual, Mumbai, India, vol. I, p. 70–84.
426 Gill, K. 2010. Of Poverty and Plastic, Oxford Press
427 Ministry of Environment and Forest, 1997. ‘The Report of the National Plastic Waste Management Task Force’, MoEF, GoI.
428 Sinha, S., Mahesh, P. and et al., 2012. ‘Improving Plastic Management in Delhi’, Toxics Link and EMPA.
429 Akrylplasticss komponenter är farliga, Arbetsmiljöverket 2005:18 (http://www.av.se/dokument/publikationer/adi/adi_449.pdf).
430 Plastipedia (http://www.bpf.co.uk/Plastipedia/Default.aspx).
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431 Date, K., Ohno, K., Azuma, Y., Hirano, S., Kobayashi, K., Sakurai, T., Nobuhara, Y., Yamada, T., 2002. Endocrine -disrupting effects of
styrene oligomers that migrated from polystyrene containers into food. Food and Chemical Toxicology 40, 65 –75.
432 Ohyama, K., Satoh, K., Sakamoto, Y., Ogata, A., Nagai, F., 2007. Effects of prenatal exposure to styrene trimers on genital o rgans and
hormones in male rats. Experimental Biology and Medicine 232, 301–308.
433 Thermosetting plastic, Arbetsmiljöverket 2005:18 (http://www.av.se/dokumet/afs/AFS2005_18.pdf)
434 Strömvall, H.-E., 2002. Producera i plast. Industrilitteratur AB, 304 p.
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