Karst sink- holes in the Würm Gla cia tion de pos its, sub sur face

STUDIA
GEOLOGICA
POLONICA
Vol. 131, Kraków 2008, pp. 281–289.
Geology of the Pieniny Klippen Belt and the Tatra Mts, Carpathians
Edited by K. Birkenmajer
Part XIX
Krzysztof BIRKENMAJER1
Karst sink-holes in the Würm Glaciation deposits,
subsurface drainage and extent of Triassic limestones
in the Sucha Woda Valley, Polish Tatra Mts
(West Carpathians)2
(Figs 1–3)
Abstract. Distribution of karst sink-holes developed in morainic deposits of the Würm Glaciation in
outer part of the Sucha Woda Valley, Polish Tatra Mts (Carpathians), indicates much wider
subsurface extension of Triassic limestones than that shown on geological maps of the area.
Key words: Karst, sink-holes, Würm Glaciation, Tatra Mts, Carpathians.
INTRODUCTION
The present study on distribution of karst sink-holes in the Sucha Woda Valley
and its surroundings (Fig. 1) is a result of reambulation by the present author of
parts of the detailed geological maps of the Polish Tatra Mountains, 1:10,000,
sheets Kopy So³tysie and Kopieniec.
Karst sink-holes distinguished in detailed geological maps, 1:10,000 scale, of
the Polish Tatra Mountains (Soko³owski & Jaczynowska, 1979a, b, 1980) evidence
the presence of karstified Middle Triassic limestones both at the surface and under
Quaternary deposits. This is particularly well visible in the Bia³a Woda Valley
(eastern part of the Polish Tatra Mts), where distribution of karst sink-holes in vast
areas covered by Pleistocene morainic deposits has been used to trace subsurface
extension of Triassic limestones and of Late Tertiary (Middle Miocene) transversal
fault zones (Birkenmajer, 1999, 2000).
1
2
Mailing address: Institute of Geological Sciences, Cracow Research Centre, Polish Academy of
Sciences, ul. Senacka 1, 31-002 Kraków, Poland. E-mail: [email protected]
Manuscript accepted for publication July 20, 2008.
282
K. BIRKENMAJER
Fig. 1. Position of the Sucha Woda Valley in the Tatra Mts. Geological features after Bac-Moszaszwili et al. (1979), simplified and slightly modified. 1 – Hightatric crystalline core (pre-Mesozoic);
2 – Hightatric overthrust crystalline rocks; 3 – Hightatric Mesozoic sedimentary cover of crystalline
core; 4 – Hightatric tectonic units (Mesozoic sedimentary rocks); 5 – Lower Subatric Nappe (= Kriûna
Nappe: Mesozoic sedimentary rocks); 6 – Middle Subtaric Nappe (= Choè Nappe: Mesozoic
sedimentary rocks); 7 – Podhale Palaeogene (stippled) and the Rusinowa Conglomerate Formation,
?Upper Cretaceous (black); 8 – important overthrusts; 9 – important faults; 10 – young mylonites;
11 – Polish-Slovak state boundary
In the Sucha Woda Valley (central part of the Polish Tatra Mountains), karst
sink-holes have been distinguished on geological maps: sheet Kopieniec, 1:10,000
scale (Soko³owski & Jaczynowska, 1979b), and the Polish Tatra Mts, 1:30,000
scale (Bac-Moszaszwili et al., 1979), in exposures of the Middle Triassic limestones to the south of the Psia Trawka meadow.
No karst sink-holes have been recognized in outer part of the Sucha Woda Valley north of the Psia Trawka meadow either in detailed geological maps, 1:10,000
scale (Soko³owski and Jaczynowska, 1979b) and 1:30,000 scale (Bac-Moszaszwili
et al., 1979), or in sketch-map of glacigenic deposits and morphological forms of
the ancient Sucha Woda Glacier (Baumgart-Kotarba & Kotarba, 2001, fig. 1) attributable to the Würm Glaciation.
CAPOWSKI
Zakopane
£ysa Polana
LAS
TOPOROWA
CYRHLA
Drog
BRZEZINY
Os
a
Balc
a
wald
era
979.3
974.9
1016.1
1024.4
1031.7
1032.2
1041
1094.5
30
20
Such
a
Ch
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1087
30
30
30
20
30
30
Potok
1070.8
Po
to
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W
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30
Koby³a
Wy¿ni
Toporowy
Staw
ka
30
Krzywañ
O D Y
B
30
1198.2
1231
1234.4
Polana
pod Koby³¹
W
20
Podspad
Ni¿ni
Toporowy
Staw
1059.8
1211.2
1280
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Wielki
Kopieniec
1308.5
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Kopieniec
Kotlinowy
Wierch
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Selected tourist paths
Peat-bog
Erosional escarpments
Talus, weathering
and solifluction clays
Alluvia
Holocene fluvial terraces
Ponds
Eocene–Oligocene cover
Strzelecka
Koliba
0
500 m
Bathonian–Oxfordian
Faults
Bedrock
B
Karst sink-holes
Oversized granite
boulders
Hettangian–Bajocian
(B – Baboš Quartzite)
Triassic
Alluvial cones
WÜRM OR
PRE-WÜRM
Bottom
Terminal, lateral
Dead-ice
Bottom
Terminal, lateral
Pañszczycki Potok Lobe
moraines
LATE WÜRM
GLACIATION
Median and
dead-ice
Toporowe Stawy Lobe
moraines
LATE WÜRM
GLACIATION
LATE WÜRM
GLACIATION
Kotlinowy Wierch Lobe
moraines
Median and
dead-ice
Bottom
Terminal, lateral
Residual Toporowa Cyrhla moraine
Fig. 2. Geological map of Pleistocene glacial deposits and distribution of karst sink-holes: Sucha Woda Valley, Polish Tatra Mountains
KARST SINK-HOLES
283
THE SUCHA WODA GLACIER AREA: MORAINES
AND OCCURRENCE OF KARST SINK-HOLES
Glacial deposits and related geomorphological forms of the ancient Sucha
Woda Glacier may be subdivided in three groups (Fig. 2):
(1) The Toporowa Cyrhla residual moraine: ?Würm or ?pre-Würm;
(2) The Toporowe Stawy Lobe: terminal and lateral morainic ridges; bottom
moraine; recession and dead-ice melt-out morainic ridges. They represent the
youngest epoch of the Würm Glaciation – the Bia³ka Stage of Lindner et al. (2003,
2008), 36Cl-dated at 11.6±2.3 – 21.0±1.3 Ka (Dzier¿ek et al., 1999, fig. 6);
(3) The Kotlinowy Wierch Lobe: terminal and lateral moraines; bottom moraine; recession and dead-ice melt-out morainic ridges. They post-date the Toporowe Stawy Lobe moraines, thus probably representing the youngest episode of the
Bia³ka Stage: Würm/Holocene boundary (?).
A closer correlation of these moraines with detailed climatostratigraphic standards proposed for the Würm Glaciation in the Tatra Mountains by BaumgartKotarba & Kotarba (2001) and Lindner et al. (2003, 2008) is beyond the scope of
the present paper. It is left open to further discussion.
(1) The Toporowa Cyrhla residual moraine and karst-hole
(i) Gently northward-sloping, forrested morphological surface south of the
Toporowa Cyrhla and Brzeziny hamlets (Fig. 3) is covered by weathered morainic
material (boulder clay) with scattered large granite boulders (up to 5 m across – see
Derkacz et al., 2008, fig. 1). It plunges under the prominent, high terminal/lateral
moraine lobe of the Würm Glaciation (2).
Klimaszewski (1978) treated deposits which cover this surface as glacifluvial,
Soko³owski and Jaczynowska (1979b) mapped this surface as “glacifluvial deposits of the last, and partly earlier, glaciations”, Baumgart-Kotarba and Kotarba
(2001, fig. 1) – as glacifluvial cover in forefield of the terminal moraines. Derkacz
et al. (2008, p. 64) and Wójcik et al. (in Iwanow et al., 2008, pp. 118–119), seem to
favour a pre-Würm age and glacial, not glacifluvial, origin of the discussed
glacigenic deposits at Toporowa Cyrhla.
After a break, this morphological surface reappears immediately south-east of
the Polana Kopieniec alp.
(ii) Another bottom morainic surface is recognizable on both sides of the Sucha
Woda Stream, upper course (south of the Psia Trawka meadow) between two marginal-type morainic ridges: Pod Szatrê (in NW) and Suche (in SE) – Fig. 2. It is unclear, whether it represents the same surface as at Toporowa Cyrhla-Brzeziny, or a
younger one.
Karst sink-hole. A single karst sink-hole, about 15 m in diameter and 5–6 m
deep is visible within the Brzeziny residual moraine (see Figs 2 and 3). It is marked
as point 1059.8 m a.s.l. in the topographic map of the Tatra Mountains, 1:10,000
scale (sheet No 4, published in 1984).
South of this karst-hole, grey limestone of Middle Triassic (Anisian) of the
284
K. BIRKENMAJER
Lower Subtatric Nappe (cf. Soko³owski & Jaczynowska, 1979b), crops out at red
tourist path (Toporowa Cyrhla – Psia Trawka). In all probability, this limestone
continues under glacial deposits as far north as the above-mentioned karst-hole.
(2) The Toporowe Stawy Lobe: glacial deposits and karst sink-holes
Terminal moraine. This is a well developed, high blocky moraine, rising about
30 m above the Sucha Woda stream bed, to 1094 m a.s.l. at its northernmost tip. It
marks the maximum extent of the Sucha Woda Glacier during the Bia³ka Stage of
the Würm Glaciation. Its best exposure is at left slope of the Sucha Woda stream
just above the first bridge over the stream.
From this terminal moraine comes a 11.6±2.3 Ka 36Cl date obtained by Dzier¿ek
et al. (1999, fig. 6).
Left lateral moraine. Along west side of the Sucha Woda Valley, the terminal
moraine passes into the left lateral moraine. At a distance of about 1 km, between
Brzeziny and red tourist path (Toporowa Cyrhla – Psia Trawka), it forms a steep
wall rising southward from 1094 m a.s.l. (northernmost tip of the terminal moraine)
to c. 1200 m a.s.l. (at top part of red tourist path). From this moraine come two 36Cl
dates: 15.3±0.5 and 17.9±2.3 Ka (Dzier¿ek et al., 1999, fig. 6).
Right lateral moraine. Along left bank of the Sucha Woda stream bed, the terminal moraine passes into right lateral moraine; it continues between the first
bridge (in the north) and red tourist path, approximately opposite the Pañszczycki
Potok stream outlet (in the south), at a distance of about 1 km. From this moraine,
come five 36Cl dates: 13.6±0.5 Ka from its northern part; 11.5±0.5, 13.6±0.6,
17.2±2.2, and 21.0±1.3 Ka from its more southern part (Dzier¿ek et al., 1999,
fig. 6).
Bottom moraine and recession/dead-ice melt-out ridges. A small plain of the
Toporowe Stawy peat-bog and residual water ponds, contained between the terminal, left and right lateral moraines of the discussed group, shows the presence of
several morainic ridges which may be interpreted as formed during glacier recession and melt-out of dead-ice (cf., e.g., Baumgart-Kotarba & Kotarba, 2001;
Wójcik et al., in Iwanow et al., 2008, p. 119).
Depressions between recession morainic ridges are filled with Holocene lacustrine deposits, including peat-bogs which still grow around residual water ponds
(the larger Ni¿ny Toporowy Staw pond and two smaller ponds of the Wy¿ny
Toporowy Staw). Sediments obtained from a shallow borehole drilled near Wy¿ny
Toporowy Staw (1135 m a.s.l.) were analysed by Obidowicz (1975) who recognized there a continuous sequence of Holocene climatic epochs starting with the
Pre-Boreal one (see also Granoszewski & Wójcik, 2008). A sample taken at 3.5 m
below the surface (Gd 19050) yielded a 9,190±210 yrs B.P. 14C date (Wójcik et al.,
in Iwanow et al., 2008, p. 119). The history of the Wy¿ni Toporowy Staw peat-bog
formation did start during the Atlantic climatic epoch of the Holocene (Obidowicz,
1996, p. 191).
Karst sink-holes. Nine karst sink-holes have been recognized along red tourist
KARST SINK-HOLES
285
path, and slightly north of it, in front of the terminal moraine of the Kotlinowy
Wierch glacier lobe (see below). They delineate a south-eastward subsurface extension of the Middle Triassic limestones (which are exposed downslope, further
NW (Fig. 2). This indiates the presence of a rocky (limestone) threshold buried under glacial deposits.
As a contrary, no karst sink-holes have been encountered either in the terminal
or lateral moraines of the Toporowe Stawy Lobe. If present in the subsurface, they
could be camouflaged by thick (30 m or so) morainic deposits.
(3) The Kotlinowy Wierch Lobe: glacial deposits and karst sink-holes
Terminal moraine. Outer margin of terminal moraine of the Kotlinowy Wierch
Lobe begins near the Triassic limestone exposure (Fig. 2); there, it gradually
merges with left lateral moraine of the Toporowe Stawy Lobe. Further south-east,
this margin runs south of the red tourist path, approximately along a NW–SEtrending line of karst sink-holes. The latter mark subsurface extent of the Triassic
limestone threshold (see above).
Left lateral moraine. The left lateral moraine of the Kotlinowy Wierch Lobe
continues southwards along the Kotlinowy Wierch high (1305.5 m at its highest
point), south of the Hala Kopieniec alp. It is divided from this alp by a slowly
SE-rising plain covered by residual moraine, probably prolongation of the Toporowa Cyrhla one (see above).
The Hala Kopieniec plain, presently covered by weathered boulder clay and alluvia, had developed along a prominent transverse fault (directed N–S) which divides the Triassic–Jurassic strata (Lower Subtatric Nappe) of the Wielki Kopieniec mount (1328 m) from Triassic limestones exposed at tourist path further east
(see Fig. 2).
Right lateral moraine. The right lateral moraine of the Kolinowy Wierch Lobe
is very well developed along left slope of the Sucha Woda Valley, called Pod
Szatrê, SW of the Psia Trawka meadow.
Bottom moraine and recession/dead-ice melt-out ridges. The terminal and
lateral moraines of the Kotlinowy Wierch Lobe delimit a rather wide, nearly flat
summit plain of the Kotlinowy Wierch high (1290–1300 m a.s.l.) which represents
bottom moraine of this glacier lobe. In its southern part, the morainic ridges, originally mainly median moraines, are elongated parallel to the lateral moraines. In
northern part, pattern of these ridges becomes irregular, suggesting that they originated due to dead-ice disintegration and melt-out.
The beginning of the peat-bog formation in the Kotlinowy Wierch pond area
(1280 m a.s.l.) happened during the Atlantic climatic epoch of the Holocene
(Obidowicz, 1996, p. 191).
Karst sink-holes. Only one questionable karst sink-hole has been recognized in
SE part of the bottom-moraine field (near a forest road, above the slope called Pod
Szatrê). Numerous karst sink-holes located along red tourist path, related to
subsurface extent of the Triassic limestone threshold, had developed along outer
286
K. BIRKENMAJER
margin of the Kotlinowy Wierch Lobe, at its contact with the Toporowe Stawy
Lobe.
THE PAÑSZCZYCA GLACIER AREA: MORAINES
AND OCCURRENCE OF KARST SINK-HOLES
Right slope of the Sucha Woda Valley between the first bridge (in the north) and
the Psia Trawka meadow (in the south) is extensively covered by morainic deposits
of the ancient Pañszczyca Glacier. They are distinctly separated from those of the
Toporowe Stawy and the Kotlinowy Wierch lobes. Their clastic material derived,
accordingly, from a different source – mainly from slopes and peaks which surround the Hala Pañszczyca alp and the Waksmundzka Hala alp (cf. Bac-Moszaszwili et al., 1979).
A sigmoidal line which divides moraines of the Sucha Woda Glacier (Toporowe
Stawy and Kotlinowy Wierch lobes) from those of the Pañszczycki Potok Lobe, almost exactly follows the present course of the Sucha Woda stream. This could indicate that this stream flowed along confluence zone of both glaciers already during
Würm Glaciation, either in a deep open ice-crevasse or in a subglacial ice-tunnel
system.
In the lack of radiometric dates, it is at present difficult to establish a direct age
correlation between the Pañszczyca Glacier moraines and those of the Sucha Woda
Glacier, i.e. either the Toporowe Stawy- and/or the Kotlinowy Wierch lobes. However, taking into account that patterns of recession and dead-ice melt-out ridges of
the Kotlinowy Wierch Lobe, and those of the Pañszczycki Potok Lobe, are roughly
similar, it seems possible that they are coeval.
Terminal moraine. The terminal moraine of the Pañszczyca Glacier is less pronounced in morphology than that of the Sucha Woda Glacier. The moraine rests directly upon Jurassic (Liassic) basement rocks of the Lower Subtatric Nappe. They
are exposed at the surface between entrances to the Sucha Woda Valley in the west,
and an unnamed valley which dissects the Koby³a Mount in the east, moreover
along the Sucha Woda stream course to the east of the first bridge (Fig. 2). During
summer, the stream dries up there, probably mainly due to subsurface drainage.
Left lateral moraine. The terminal moraine passes into a narrow left lateral moraine which continues along right bank of the Sucha Woda Valley as far south as the
outlet of the Pañszczycki Potok stream.
Right lateral moraine. The terminal moraine passes into the right lateral moraine which continues southward as far as the Polanka pod Koby³¹ alp. Jurassic
basement rocks (Liassic through Malm of the Lower Subtatric Nappe) form there
eastern wall of the glacier’s valley between mounts Koby³a and Krzywañ – Fig. 2
(see also Soko³owski & Jaczynowska, 1997b).
Bottom moraine. The bottom moraine forms narrow strips divided from each
other by narrow morainic ridges, usually parallel with the margins of the Pañszczycki Potok Lobe. They mainly represent median moraines of the ancient Pañszczyca Glacier. In the upper part of the Pañszczycki Potok valley (near Strzelecka
KARST SINK-HOLES
287
Koliba), these ridges become irregular in shape. In a shallow borehole drilled at the
Wy¿na Pañszczycka M³aka peat-bog, the oldest deposits were 14C dated at between
4570±100 and 3600±1100 yrs BP (Obidowicz, 1996, pp. 193, 197). At northern termination of the Pañszczycki Potok Lobe, the bottom moraine is covered by a less
regular pattern of narrow morainic ridges which could be interpreted as formed during dead-ice fragmentation and melt-out.
Karst sink-holes and polje. No karst sink-holes have been found in the terminal and left lateral moraines of the Pañszczyca Glacier in the Sucha Woda Valley.
On the contrary, numerous (13) karst sink-holes have been recognized in northern
part of the Pañszczycki Potok Lobe, between linearily-to-irregularly arranged narrow, rather high, bottom moraine ridges. Most of these sink-holes are dry, but in
two of them small residual water ponds are still present.
Two northermost karst sink-holes are 20–30 m in diameter, and 5–8 m deep; further south (west of Koby³a mount) there are several sink-holes 8–12 m deep, their
walls being dissected by narrow gaps of water-outflow.
Occurrence of karst sink-holes in frontal part of the bottom moraine of the
Pañszczyca Glacier indicates that its bedrock is represented by karstified Triassic
limestones of the Lower Subtatric Nappe (see Fig. 2). To establish their role in
subsurface drainage of the Sucha Woda stream water during dry season of the year,
it would be desirable to perform a suitable hydrogeological field experiment.
Immediately south of the Koby³a (1231.6 m)–Krzywañ (1234.4 m) mountain
ridge, a polje was recognized at Polanka pod Koby³¹ alp (about 1200 m a.s.l.). The
polje is crescentic in shape, c. 400 x 200 m large, occurs within the right morainic
ridge at c. 1210 m a.s.l.. Well marked crescentic scarps within the polje (Fig. 2)
might indicate two stages of substratum collapse.
The Koby³a–Krzywañ ridge north of the polje is built of northward-dipping
lowermost Liassic shales, marls and limestones, with a thick quartzite intercalation
(Baboš Quartzite: Sinemurian) in western part of the ridge.
It is proposed that the Polanka pod Koby³¹ polje had developed above a strip of
karstified Triassic limestones of the Lower Subtatric Nappe, under a cover of glacial deposits. The polje is situated above a steep scarp of the Podspad ¯leb gorge,
once an icefall at a lateral outflow of the ancient Pañszczyca Glacier. Below the fall,
the upper part of the Podspad Valley is covered with chaotically arranged moraine
consisting chiefly of local Liassic limestone and shale fragments, with granite
blocks (up to 2 m in diameter), and with pebble- to cobble-sized water-worn granite
and quartzite pebbles. The polje is filled with Holocene lacustrine deposits. This
could be a good place for drilling a shallow borehole for studying Holocene climate
changes.
SUBSURFACE EXTENT OF THE TRIASSIC LIMESTONES
Distribution of karst sink-holes and a polje recognizable within morainic deposits of the Würm Glaciation in lower part of the Sucha Woda Valley is considered an
evidence of the presence of karstified Middle Triassic limestones in the substratum
288
K. BIRKENMAJER
of Quaternary deposits. These limestones belong to the Lower Subtatric Nappe as
indicated by areal distribution of this nappe in the area (see Soko³owski &
Jaczynowska, 1979b; Bac-Moszaszwili et al., 1979).
(1) The Wielki Kopieniec Fault. East of a transversal N–S-trending fault which
delimits the eastern extent of Triassic and Jurassic strata of the Wielki Kopieniec
mount, here termed the Wielki Kopieniec Fault, Middle Triassic carbonates (limestones and dolostones) occur in the substratum of Quaternary deposits. They apparently form a subsurface strip extending between Toporowa Cyrhla (northernmost
sink-hole) and the limestone threshold that divides the Toporowe Stawy from the
Kotlinowy Wierch lobes. The Wielki Kopieniec Fault is a sinistral strike-slip fault
(Figs 2, 3) which belongs to the Middle Miocene (Sarmatian) fault system well recognized further east, between the Kopy So³tysie mounts and the Bia³a Woda Valley
(see Birkenmajer, 1999, 2000).
(2) The Sucha Woda Fault Zone. Eastern termination of the above Triassic
limestone threshold, at left slope of the Sucha Woda Valley, coincides with a zone
of transversal (NNE–SSW-trending) faults, here called the Sucha Woda Fault
Zone. The most prominent faults of this zone are again sinistral strike-slip ones.
This fault zone is mirrored in the present course of the Sucha Woda stream, and also
in the line of confluence between the ancient Sucha Woda and Pañszczyca glaciers.
(3) To the east of the Sucha Woda Fault Zone, numerous well developed karst
sink-holes present in northern part of the Pañszczycki Potok Lobe, delimit the
northern extent of the karstified Triassic limestone bedrock. The Jurassic (Liassic
through Malm) sedimentary rocks of the Lower Subtatric Nappe, and their postnappe Palaeogene (Eocene–Oligocene) cover, are displaced in this area by numerous, NNE–SSW-trending faults.
The most prominent faults, the Koby³a–Krzywañ Faults, are again of sinistral
strike-slip character (Figs 2, 3).
(4) A striking coincidence between directions of the above transversal faults (1,
2), and elongation of lobes of the ancient Sucha Woda Glacier, might be an indication that tectonic structure of the bedrock played an important part in the development of the glacier’s valley.
REFERENCES
Bac-Moszaszwili, M., Burchart, J., G³azek, J., Iwanow, A., Jaroszewski, W., Kotañski, Z., Lefeld, J.,
Mastella, L., Ozimkowski, W., Roniewicz, P., Skupiñski, W. & Westwalewicz-Mogilska, E.,
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1:30,000 scale). Wydawnictwa Geologiczne, Warszawa.
Baumgart-Kotarba, M. & Kotarba, A., 2001. Deglacjacja Doliny Suchej Wody w Tatrach Wysokich
(Deglaciation of the Sucha Woda Valley in the Tatra Mountains). In: Karczewski, A. &
Zwoliñski, Z. (wyd.), Funcjonowanie ekosystemów w zró¿nicowanych warunkach morfologicznych. Stowarzyszenie Geomorfologów Polskich, Poznañ: 73–83.
Birkenmajer, K., 1999. Late Tertiary fault system of the Bia³a Woda Valley, Tatra Mountains,
Carpathians. Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Earth-sci., 47: 239–246.
Birkenmajer, K., 2000. Correlation of the Lower Subtatric Nappe partial units across the Bia³a Woda
Valley, Tatra Mts, Carpathians. Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Earth-sci., 48 (2):
CAPOWSKI
Zakopane
£ysa Polana
LAS
TOPOROWA
CYRHLA
Drog
BRZEZINY
Osw
a
alda
979.3
Balc
era
974.9
1016.1
1031.7
1024.4
1032.2
1041
1094.5
Po
to
k
Potok Sucha Woda
1070.8
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Staw
Ch
³
1087 abó
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Wielki
Kopieniec
1308.5
Kotlinowy
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Lower Subtatric
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A
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1182.5
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od
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kP
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a
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a
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to
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o
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1292.8
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1234.4
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1198.2
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1231
Podspad
Ni¿ni
Toporowy
Staw
1059.8
500 m
Miocene faults
with strike-slip direction
Jurassic
Triassic
Karst sink-holes
Fig. 3. Subsurface extension of the Triassic limestones, based on distribution of karst sink-holes and a polje: Sucha Woda Valley, Polish
Tatra Mountains
KARST SINK-HOLES
289
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