Fouquet and the Absent Frame: Pictorial and Textual Relationships

Fouquet and the Absent Frame:
Pictorial and Textual Relationships
in the Hours of Etienne Chevalier
Nick Herman
The work of Jean Fouquet is in the midst of a critical re-evaluation. Recent reappraisals of his work, instigated by monographic exhibitions held in 1981 and 2003, 1 have increased
our knowledge of the artist by great strides. Even so, his biography remains piecemeal and his few surviving works are hotly
debated. The pith of these discussions concerns the sources
of Fouquet's innovative images, which are situated at the junction of a trio of influences -Italian, Flemish, and natively French.
Fouquet scholarship is problematic because the artist's career is difficult to contextualize. Unlike his Flemish contemporaries, his work does not insert itself easily within an ongoing
pictorial tradition, and the singularity of his surviving works
makes them as enigmatic as they are valuable. Compared to
the atmosphere in which his Italian peers were operating, there
is precious little synchronous literary evidence relating to the
artistic climate in fifteenth century France. The fact that Fouquet
practiced both the art of the book and that of the panel also
adds to the interest of his work. Furthermore, Fouquet's development as a miniaturist seems far from linear, with his later
works apparently displaying a certain regression, or at least a
conscious re-evaluation, of his previous innovations.
Nevertheless, endeavouring to reconstruct the artistic
pathways of Fouquet's career is a worthy project. Tracing the
origins of the various stylistic and iconographical influences
employed by Fouquet is difficult, but can be of value if it is
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undertaken carefully, for it is clear that art historical scholarship should serve to resurrect not only the most readily evidenced instances of creativity, but also those which, through
lack of corroborating documentation, need to be surmised by
other means. Unwritten networks of exchanges and ideas such
as these are a critical part of the humanistic record, and are
all the more important when dealing with so poorly documented
an artist as Fouquet. Traditional scholarship has, in examining his work, reached its own avowed limits, and new means
of analyzing Fouquet's production have recently been brought
to the fore with some success. 2
Among the items that have long been securely attributed to Fouquet's hand are the forty-seven excised folios that
once formed part of The Hours of Etienne Chevalier. Produced between 1452 and 1460 for Man~chal Chevalier, the
treasurer of Charles VII of France, these miniatures have taken
their place at the core of the artist's oeuvre, and are recognized as some of the most innovative works of fifteenth century manuscript illumination. 3 In this instance, Fouquet's originality stems from his ability to create a cohesive pictorial space
within his miniatures; one that incorporates text, landscape,
foliage and marginalia into a single unified composition. As
has been noted time and again, the very format of the book of
hours was conducive to experimentation since it was free from
the constraints imposed on monumental painting. The Hours
of Etienne Chevalier is a case in point.
Previous to the recent monographic exhibitions, several scholars had attempted to explain more fully the sources
of Fouquet's inventive spatial solutions, beginning with Otto
Pacht's seminal discussion of the artist's style, published in
1941.4 John White and Charles Sterling, recognizing the degree to which the innovations introduced in the Hours of
Etienne Chevalier betray cisalpine influences, each suggest
that these would not have been possible prior to the artist's
stay in ltaly. 5 Thus, the circumstances of Fouquet's sparsely
documented journey to Italy acquire considerable importance
when examining the artist's use of pictorial innovations hitherto unseen in France. In this vein, several further studies have
focused on specific incidents of Italian ate influence in Fouquet's
work, using The Hours of Etienne Chevalier as starting point. 6
The most complete and successful survey of this kind was
undertaken by Mark Evans, who in his 1998 essay Jean
Fouquet and Italy, recognized direct Italian prototypes for many
of Fouquet's unusual or arcane stylistic elements. 7 The adoption of the so-called "text placard," to use Evans' own terminology attributed in an earlier article of his to Fouquet's initial
training in France, is revealed as one of Fouquet's most novel
pictorial concepts. 8
Evans identifies two principal models for the inclusion
of text within the miniature in Fouquet's work. The first, which
has easily identifiable prototypes in earlier French illumination, is characterized as relatively orthodox; in twenty-two of
the forty-seven full-page miniatures that survive from The Hours
of Etienne Chevalier, Fouquet chose to include a small strip of
text running along the bottom edge of the illumination, contiguous to the image's border (figure 1). This was, by the 1450s,
a fairly common solution to the problem of integrating text into
full-page miniatures. The Boucicaut Master, the Rohan Master, and the Limbourg Brothers had each used a similar device earlier in the century. 9 The remaining twenty-five miniatures, however, demonstrate a highly innovative concern on
behalf of Fouquet to integrate the initial and text within the
content of the illustration itself. 10 In these instances, a
historiated initial, along with several lines of text, is depicted
as an illusionistic placard existing within the rational pictorial
space of the miniature (figure 2). Within the picture, the threedimensional tablet of text is always realistically supported, either by a topographical feature, small iron hooks, or caryatid
figure s; it never floats unexplainedly before the picture plane.
Where possible (Christ Before Pilate, The Entombment, The
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Nick Herman
Consecration of Saint Nicholas), a shadow seemingly cast by
the panel is depicted, further stressing its integration within
the optical reality of the scene. Unfortunately, subsequent alterations to these sections of the manuscript have obscured
the original text, and, in some cases, the historiated initials,
but the figurative aspects of the illusionistic device survive intact.
The originality of the spatial solutions arrived at in The
Hours of Etienne Chevalier seems all the more remarkable
when viewed in the context of what is presumed to be
Fouquet's ensuing commissions, the miniatures of the Grandes
Chroniques de France (BNF. FR. 6465), those of the double
volume of Josephus' Antiquites Judai"ques (BNF. FR. 247), and
La Guerre des Juifs (BNF. NAF. 21013), each of which has
solicited lengthy debates regarding authorship. Images such
as The Coronation of Louis VI from the Grandes Chroniques,
display a lack of one-point perspective in favour of a more
multifocal view. Certain scholars, including Philippe Lorentz,
have seen the variations in Fouquet's approach to perspective evident in these later works as an indication of his changing attitude towards Albertian perspective; that it was merely
one of several possible conceptions of space. 11 Others have
posited that as the memories of his Italian sojourn faded,
Fouquet reverted to more traditional northern concepts of spatiality.12 The more likely cause for discrepancies between each
of these three works, though, is their varying character and
differing circumstances of production.
The Hours of Etienne Chevalier was not a unique commission, as the remarkably similar and slightly ulterior Hours
of Jean Robertet (Pierpont Morgan Library, ms. M. 834) attest, and there would have been no need to abandon the apparently successful spatial approach that had been devised.
The Melun Diptych (Koninklijk Museum voor Schone Kunsten,
Antwerp and Gemaldgalerie, Berlin), essentially a large-scale
version of the double-paged Etienne Chevalier Presented to
the Virgin and Child from The Hours of Etienne Chevalier, ought
to be viewed as a proclamation of the artist's confidence in his
analogous, miniaturized composition, which predates the larger
work. Fouquet's work as an illustrator of monumental histories, however, was far different from these earlier, more intimate commissions. Proportionally, his share of the total work
in both the Grandes Chroniques and the twin-volumed
Josephus was far lower than in his previous commissions, including, of course, his panel paintings. Accordingly, the former
were a less suitable platform for experimentation. The great
French-language histories were primarily textual monuments,
the Gallic equivalents of Virgil ian war epics, where there could
be no discussion of pictorial precedence.
Despite the changes apparent in his later work,
Fouquet's intentions in The Hours of Etienne Chevalier remain clear. In the second category of miniatures singled out
by Evans, text is wholly subservient to image, and the devotional message of the prayer book evolves into a primarily visual one. Fouquet effectively introduced an entirely new conception of the page in French manuscript illumination. The
process of "depaginization", which arguably began over a century prior with the work of Jean Pucelle, had evolved to its
fullest potential by reducing the text to an epigraphical monument within the image. 13 Such was the case, not only with the
aforementioned text placard motifs, but also in the dedicatory
inscriptions that run along the architraves depicted in several
of the miniatures (The Visitation, Etienne Chevalier Presented
to The Virgin and Child, The Marriage of The Virgin). Thus, an
item that previous generations of illuminators had relegated
to marginal banderoles or textual colophons actually became
incorporated into the very image of biblical and celestial architecture, further contributing to the synthesis of hitherto disparate elements that individuates Fouquet's work in The Hours of
Etienne Chevalier.
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These meta-textual motifs can be interpreted as predecessors of illusionistic devices used to similar ends in later
decades. They are in fact harbingers of what Victor Stoichita
characterized as parergon, 14 illusionistic elements that are "neither simply exterior nor simply within" the image, to borrow
from Jacques Derrida's definition of the literary term. 15 Regardless of superscribed terminology, the painter and his audience were evidently pleased with the results of such creative subordination of the calligrapher's text. A closely subsequent commission, the aforementioned Hours of Jean
Robertet, made use of the same device. Soon emulated with
a lesser level of understanding by members of Fouquet's workshop, the motif of the text placard became widespread in late
fifteenth century French manuscript illumination. Examples
directly inspired by Fouquet's models include books of hours
variously attributed to Jean Colombe and Jean Bourdichon,
and the so-called Hours of Mary Stuart (Washington, private
collection and BNF. L. 1405), which was produced by Angevin
illuminators. 16 In terms of its negation of the page as a platform for two-dimensional texts, the text placard was essentially the direct precursor of pictorial inversions practiced by
the Bruges-Ghent school of illumination in the final thirty years
of the fifteenth century. Though Stoichita saw the Master of
Mary of Burgundy himself as the instigator of such a tradition,
in compartmentalizing the self-reflexive image as a fundamentally Flemish innovation he ignored its earlier, evidently French
prototypes.
Though its subsequent iterations can be chronicled
readily, the origins of such a highly creative model of text integration within the pictorial field are difficult to trace. Evans'
short article in Scriptorium attempts to locate the sources of
Fouquet's innovate illusionistic device in the production of the
Bedford and Boucicaut master workshops active in Paris in
the 1420s and 1430s. The author cites two specific manuscripts that seem to contain a precedent for Fouquet's text
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placards. 17 The first is a book of hours associated with the
Boucicaut Master and his workshop, now at the Bibliotheque
Nation ale (lat. 10538), which contains a miniature of King David
Praying to God the Father. Between the two principal sections of the miniature, the block of text, clearly written by a
separate artisan without giving thought to the illustrator's intentions, is clumsily framed off. This approach to framing the
text differs fundamentally from the text placards of Fouquet.
The earlier master sought to isolate the block of text from the
surrounding image, and in doing so had no desire to include it
logically within the principal image. The text, clearly, is seen
as an impediment to the illustration, as evidenced by the awkward semicircular extension of the frame in order to include
the protruding serif from the q in quoniam. The second manuscript cited by Evans is The Sobieski Hours, produced by the
circle of the Bedford Master, and currently in the Royal Library
at Windsor (figure 3). At first glance, the Last Judgment page
that he discusses has closer parallels to Fouquet's work,
though in this case as well the treatment of the text block is
entirely different from what is found in The Hours of Etienne
Chevalier. In The Sobieski Hours miniature, the figure s surrounding the block of text ignore it completely and almost seem
to purposely avoid interacting with it. Compare this Last Judgment to Fouquet's miniature of the Lamentation, in which two
attendant angels each support the text placard with one hand
while brandishing instruments of the passion in the other. In
this miniature, the textual block actually takes on an added
level of significance, since it is interpreted as an additional
instrument of the passion, a duplicate lid of Christ's tomb. Unlike
the earlier Parisian examples, Fouquet's spatial constructions
and the relationships between the various planes in his images, were always deliberate, never accidental or forced. 18
This rational physical space, a distinguishing feature of
Fouquet's earliest miniatures, was accompanied by a cohesive narrative structure that continued not only between vari-
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~us miniatures, but within each miniature as well, as the particular case of the Lamentation attests. Just as the underlying
geometry of his images was always carefully planned, so too
were their various iconographical elements.
Such an approach recalls Panofsky's observations regarding Van Eyck's work and the increase in disguised symbolism that accompanied the illusionistic revolution of the fifteenth century. 19 As the Albertian notion of the image as window flourished, embraced by both Flemish and Italian painters alike, it became necessary to eliminate iconographical elements that did not corroborate a parallel temporal rationality.
In this sense, Fouquet's bas-de-pages are entirely different
from those of his predecessors, not only in terms of their integration into the spatial structure of the miniature, but also by
their subject matter. Only events that could plausibly be concurrent with the principal scene are depicted as actually taking place in the lower part of the page. Such is the case with
the parables ofthe blacksmith's wife and the carpenters, shown
below the scenes of Christ Before Pilate and The Carrying of
the Cross (figure 4 ), respectively. Other symbolic episodes that
occurred at markedly different times are depicted as bas-re~iefs, either carved in stone or cast in bronze, effectively servmg as sculptural mementoes or premonitors of important
events.
The disguised symbolism in Fouquet's work, and its
concordance with Panofsky's hypothesis, becomes all the more
apparent when the artist's "historicazation" of architecture is
examined. Like Van Eyck, Fouquet was able to consider architectural styles with a greater degree of objectivity than had
been done in the past. This ability to distinguish precise gradations in history through the filter of building styles is, in
Panofsky's view, a distinguishing element of Renaissance
thought. In the case of the French painter, this keen sense of
historicity was likely engendered by his visit to the cantieri of
early Renaissance Florence, and the diminished but still dis-
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Nick Herman
cernible grandeur of Eugenius the fourth's Rome. Both Roman and early Renaissance architectural forms, juxtaposed
wit~ late Gothic elements, make their appearance in The Hours
of Etienne Chevalier, thirty years before the new Italian style
became actualized in structures north of the alps.
Recently, Alexander Nagel and Christopher Wood have
challenged the integrity of Panofsky's concept of historicity,20
but in a certain sense Fouquet's work provides an exception
to their findings. In various miniatures, such as the Presentation of Etienne Chevalier to the Virgin and Child and the Fountain of the Apostles (figure 5), anachronisms are indeed created by the presence of two competing architectural styles,
but have definite symbolic meaning. In the latter, the font from
which the Apostles draw baptismal water is late gothic in style
while the architectural backdrop for the scene is classical in
flavour. The chief sacrament of the new covenant, baptism,
flows from the Gothic, the most genuine of Christian architectural styles. The same is true of the Virgin's throne in the presentation miniature; its gothic qualities enforce Mary and the
Christ child's status as emblems of the new covenant. The
most overt example of the painter's historical lucidity, however, occurs in the miniature of the Marriage of the Virgin,
where the temple of Solomon is depicted in the guise of a
Roman triumphal arch. His addition oftorquated columns and
an inner cella, however, implies an exoticism that would be
appropriate to such a structure. Thus, the ancient architecture
of Rome, suitably modified, is equated with the ancient architecture of the Holy Land. Such an approach implies knowledge not just of variations in style, but also of variations in
age. These observations, which deserve to be treated at
greater length elsewhere, are for the moment only of interest
inasmuch as they relate to Fouquet's sense of historical appropriateness as a logical concomitant of his efforts to achieve
perspectival verisimilitude.
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The tendency to integrate text creatively within the illustration was the natural product of the tension between word
and image that had always existed in illustrated books of hours.
In the particular case of The Hours of Etienne Chevalier, it
seems as though Fouquet, whom we know had achieved sufficient fame in his lifetime to warrant the insertion of his miniatures into already complete books of hours, wished to exercise total artistic control over the pages he was responsible
for creating. Such was the case with another, concurrent commission that Fouquet undertook around 1455 - his tipped-in
additions to The Hours of Simon de Varye. In this instance,
the three folios painted by Fouquet were left entirely free of
text, allowing his pictorial compositions to cover the entire page.
A similar approach was taken in The Hours of Etienne Chevalier, where the artisans responsible for the remainder of the
book's rather orthodox batarde text and foliate borders left the
pages intended for Fouquet blank. The varying size and placement of the text placards in The Hours of Etienne Chevalier,
and their deviation in style from the plain text pages, demonstrate that they were not first written by a scribe and then transferred over to the illustrator, as had been the case with earlier
books of hours. 21 Both the strips of text and, more significantly,
the illusionistic placards that appear in Fouquet's images were
added during the painterly process, entirely under his direction, as they correspond tightly to his artistic vision. This interpretation fits well within our knowledge of Fouquet as a precociously self-aware creative individual; the same man who included an enamel self-portrait medallion in the frame of his
now dismembered Melun Diptych, itself a product of Etienne
Chevalier's patronage.
If Fouquet's innovative solutions for incorporating text
into the fabric of his images are bound up with his sense of
artistic self-reflexivity, then it would seem appropriate to look
to Italy for explanation. In Italy the status of the artist as an
independent creative entity had been evolving for some time
when Fouquet arrived there in the mid 1440s. 22 Leon Battista
Alberti, the Florentine architect, had published his treatise On
Painting in 1436, a work that championed the emancipation of
the painter from the status of an artisan towards that of a creative, original individual. Under the influence of Alberti's publication and the work of artists such as Ghiberti and Brunelleschi,
the use of scientific perspective was becoming widespread in
Tuscany. Fouquet's well thought-out sense of mass and proportion, together with the rational physical spaces that his characters inhabit, all undeniably indicate encounters with the work
of Tuscan contemporaries such as Masolino, Masaccio, and,
most importantly, Fra Angelico together with his pupil Benozzo
Gozzoli. 23
The precious mention of Fouquet's name in the work
of another influential Italian architect, Antonio Filarete's Treatise on Architecture, confirms that he was active in Rome as
well, and furthermore that he was well-respected enough to
paint a portrait, now lost, of Pope Eugenius IV. 24 Evidently,
Fouquet was able to insert himself into the predominant artistic currents of the day, even as a newcomer in a distant land.
It is interesting to note, moreover, that Filarete, writing in the
mid-1460s, was among the first to codify the distinction in architecture between the maniera antica of the Romans and the
maniera moderna, by which he meant gothic. Such a
historicizing approach, we have seen, is a hallmark of the miniatures Fouquet produced for The Hours of Etienne Chevalier.
Evans keenly points out several direct linkages between
Roman art and the works of Fouquet as a history painter, notably in his depiction of Caesar crossing The Rubicon from
the Histoire Ancienne, now in the graphic arts collection of the
Louvre (RF 29493), which recalls almost exactly figure s of
Bacchus found in Late Imperial sarcophagi. 25 In terms of architecture, Fouquet is even more explicit in his allusions to
Rome. His illustration of The Coronation of Charlemagne takes
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place in a perfectly accurate rendition of the interior of Old
Saint Peter's basilica. 26 These sorts of historicizing references
present in Fouquet's later work serve to confirm his ongoing
use of motifs gleaned from his Italian journey, and tend to
disprove the notion that such experiences faded progressively
from the miniaturist's artistic vocabulary as he grew older.
Of a more intimate nature than his large scale Histories, the decorative program devised for Etienne Chevalier was
subtle and refined, as would befit the private tastes of such an
educated patron. Consequently, the stylistic references to Italian art are less monumental but more generally diffused. The
putti and grotesques that literally prop up the text placards in
several of the miniatures are doubtless a pictorial adaptation
of contemporary trends in Florentine sculpture, for they enjoy
no precedent in Northern painting. The source for these caryatid figure s may have been the sarcophagus of Giovanni de'
Medici in the Old Sacristy of San Lorenzo in Florence, a work
of around 1434 that had been attributed to Brunelleschi's assistant II Buggiano (figure 6)_27 In fact, a work such as this,
itself drawing on Roman funerary monuments, may have been
the prime example for Fouquet's text placard innovation. A
further Florentine source may be detected in Fra Angelico's
trompe l'oeil painting of a crucifix panel in his San Marco altarpiece, completed in the early 1440s, and no doubt seen by
Fouquet himself. 28 Essentially, Fra Angelico's illusionistically
rendered devotional panel serves as a parergon to the sacra
conversazione, a sort of intermediate break between the main
image and its audience. The conceptual and pictorial leap involved in using the devotional text placard as a parergon for
miniatures of the Passion is not a large one.
Based on the manifold connections to Italian art
throughout The Hours of Etienne Chevalier many scholars
have pointed out that it seems most convincing to attribute
Fouquet's illusionistic rendering of text within the pictorial space
of his miniatures to his Italian experiences, coupled with his
own unquestionable skill as a conscious synthesizer of numerous predominant European artistic currents. More convincing than these direct linkages, though, should be the notion
that Fouquet's innovative concept of manuscript illustration,
and his consequent reordering of traditional workshop practice, were the products of his cisalpine experiences. It is precisely for this reason that Fouquet's work in subsequent secular volumes, which were proportionally far less under his control, do not exhibit such traits. If anything, the pictorial oddity
identified by Evans in both the Parisian books of hours he
proposes as prototypes for Fouquet's work signals the growing dominance of the miniaturist, struggling to find painterly
solutions whilst being held back by conservative workshop
practices that maintained the division of labour between scribe
and illustrator. Fouquet's importance, therefore, lay in his ability to seek out a novel solution to a problem that had existed in
French manuscript illumination for some time by invoking the
experiences of his unique Italian journey.
2
3
See, for the 1981 exhibition held at the Louvre: Nicole
Reynaud, Jean Fouquet: Catalogue (Paris: Editions de Ia
Reunion des musees nationaux, 1981 ), and, for the 2003
exhibition held at the Bibliotheque Nationale: Fran~;ois Avril,
ed. Jean Fouquet: Peintre et enlumineur du xveme siec/e
(Paris: BNF/Hazan, 2003).
Nicole Reynaud, "Image et texte dans les Heures d'Etienne
Chevalier," 64-69, and Marie-Therese Gousset, "Fouquet et
l'art de geometrie," 76-86, both in Jean Fouquet: Peintre et
enlumineur du xveme siecle, ed. Fran~;ois Avril (Paris: BNF/
Hazan, 2003).
Millard Meiss, French Painting in The Time of Jean de Berry:
The Late Fourteenth Century and The Patronage of The Duke
(London: Phaidon, 1967), 144-5, and: Charles Sterling and
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4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Claude Schaefer, The Hours of Etienne Chevalier (London:
Thames and Hudson, 1972), 8.
Otto Pacht, "Jean Fouquet: A Study of His Style," Journal of
the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes IV (1940-1 ): 85-102.
John White, The Birth and Rebirth of Pictorial Space (New
York: Harper and Row, 1967), 225. Sterling and Schaefer, 8.
See Michel Laclotte, "A propos de Fouquet: des putti et un
boeuf," in Napoli, /'Europa: Richerche di Storia deii'Arte in
onore di Ferdinanda Bologna, eds. Francesco Abbate and
Fiorella Sricchia Santoro (Cantazaro: Meridiana, 1995), 95100, and; Fiorella Sricchia Santoro, "Jean Fouquet en ltalie,"
in Jean Fouquet: Peintre et enlumineur du xveme siecle, ed.
Franc;:ois Avril (Paris: BNF/Hazan, 2003), 50-63. Santoro's
survey deals more particularly with supposed evidence of
Fouquet's activity in Italy, as opposed to he Italian influences
in his French work.
Mark L. Evans, "Jean Fouquet and Italy:' ... buono maestro,
maxime a ritrare del naturale"' in Illuminating The Book:
Makers and Interpreters, Essays in Honour of Janet
Backhouse, eds. Michelle P. Brown and Scot McKendrick
(London: British Library, 1998), 163-90.
Mark L. Evans, "An Illusionistic Device in the Hours of Etienne
Chevalier," Scriptorium (1981 ): 81-3.
Evans, 81. Specifically, The Boucicaut Hours, The Rohan
Hours, and The Tres Riches Heures de Jean, Due de Berry
all make use of a similar type of textual border. For a more
detailed study of the subject, see David Byrne, "Manuscript
Ruling and Pictorial Design in the Work of the Limbourgs,
the Bedford Master, and the Boucicaut Master," Art Bulletin
66 (1984), 118-36.
The twenty-one miniatures that sport text placards are, as
numbered in Sterling and Schaefer: 1, 14, 15, 16, 19, 20,
28,29,30,31,32,33,34,36,37,38,40,41,42,44,and45.
Philippe Lorenz, "Jean Fouquet et les peintres des anciens
Pays-Bas," in Jean Fouquet: Peintre et enlumineur du xveme
siecle, ed. Franc;:ois Avril (Paris: BNF/Hazan, 2003), 41.
White, 226.
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
By citing Jean Pucelle, I make reference to his continuation
of the principal narrative by means of allegorical bas-depage illustrations in The Hours of Jeanne d'Evreux and the
Belleville Breviary, but also his innovative removal of frames
surrounding certain scenes, such as the Crucifixion and
Annunciation in The Hours of Jeanne d'Evreux. I do not,
however, mean to imply that Fouquet's innovations were
necessarily contingent upon those of Pucelle. Rather, both
painters, faced with similar challenges, arrived at related
conclusions.
Victor Stoichita, L'instauration du tableau: Metapeinture a
J'aube des Temps modernes (Paris: Meridiens Klincksieck,
1993), 23.
Jacques Derrida, La Verite en Peinture (Paris: Flammarion,
1978), 63. Likewise quoted in Stoichita, 24.
Avril, ed., 402-407.
Evans, "An Illusionistic Device," 81.
Gousset, 77.
Erwin Panofsky, Early Netherlandish Painting (New York:
Harper and Row, 1953), 131-148.
Alexander Nagel and Christopher S. Wood, "Interventions:
Toward a New Model of Renaissance Anachronism," Art
Bulletin LXXXVII no. 3 (September 2005), 403-415.
Jonathan Alexander, Medieval /1/uminators and Their Methods
of Work (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), 40.
Evans, "Jean Fouquet and Italy," 169.
Sricchia Santoro, 54.
AntonioAverlino, called Filarete, Trattato diArchitettura, eds.
A. M. Finoli and L. Grassi (Milan: Edizioni il Polifio, 1972),
265.
Evans, "Jean Fouquet and Italy," 175.
Avril ed., 219.
Evans, "Jean Fouquet and Italy," 174.
Evans, 172.
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2006
1 Fouquet, Jean, The Ascension, Hours of Etienne Chevalier,
1452-1469, tempera and gold leaf on parchment, 19.4 x 14.6
em, Robert Lehman Collection, 1975 (1975.1.2490) (photo:
Frangois Avril, ed. Jean Fouquet: Peintre et enlumineur du
xveme siecle (Paris: BNF/Hazan, 2003))
2 Fouquet, Jean, The Lamentation, Hours of Etienne
Chevalier, 1452-1469, tempera and gold leaf on
parchment, 19.4 x 14.6 em, Robert Lehman Collection,
1975 (1975.1.2490) (photo: Frangois Avril, ed. Jean
Fouquet: Peintre et enlumineur du xveme siecle (Paris:
BNF/Hazan, 2003))
66
67
3 The Last Judgment, The Sobieski Hours, 1420-1425, tempera
and gold leaf on parchment,28.9 x 20 x 6.5 em, Windsor, Royal
Library (RCIN 1142248) (photo: Mark L. Evans, "An Illusionistic
Device in the Hours of Etienne Chevalier," Scriptorium (1981): 8183)
68
4 Fouquet, Jean, The Carrying of the Cross, Hours of
Etienne Chevalier, 1452-1469, tempera and gold leaf on
parchment, 19.4 x 14.6 em, Robert Lehman Collection,
1975 (1975.1.2490) (photo: Franc;ois Avril, -~d. Jean.
Fouquet: Peintre et enlumineur du xveme s1ecle (Pans:
BNF/Hazan, 2003))
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6 Attributed to II Buggiano, Sarcophagus of Giovanni de' Medici, c.
1430, marble, Florence, San Lorenzo (source: Mark L. Evans,
"Jean Fouquet and Italy: ' ... buono maestro, maxi me a ritrare del
naturale"' in Illuminating The Book: Makers and Interpreters,
Essays in Honour of Janet Backhouse, eds. Michelle P. Brown and
Scot McKendrick (London: British Library, 1998), 163-90)
5 Fouquet, Jean, The Fountain of the Apostles, Hours of Etienne
Chevalier 1452-1469, tempera and gold leaf on parchment, 19.4 x
14.6 em, Robert Lehman Collection, 1975 (1975.1.2490) (photo:
Franc;:ois Avril, ed. Jean Fouquet: Peintre et enlumineur du xveme
siecle (Paris: BNF/Hazan, 2003))
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