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DAVID GOMIS
MULHOUSE
DIETARY MANUAL
DESCRIPTIONS OF THE FEEDING REGIMES
CURRENTLY IN USE
JUNE 2007 – V 1.0
PUBLISHED BY
Parc Zoologique et Botanique de Mulhouse, France
SPONSORED BY
Sanders Grand Est, France
Copyright © 2007 Mulhouse Zoo
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be produced or transmitted in any form, by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, or any information
storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the publisher, except for
the inclusion of brief quotations in a review.
Cover photo: A. Drouin (Crowned sifaka, Mulhouse Zoo)
ISBNPrinted in France
4
INTRODUCTION
Zoo animal nutrition is increasingly being recognised as a specialty: knowledge
available on zoo diets and specific zoo animals requirements is also increasing. Meeting
the nutritional needs of zoo animals is essential to assure their survival and reproduction
in captivity.
The first aim of these pages was to provide a database, useful for the development and
comparison of zoo diets, as objective as possible. With this purpose, we synthetized the
data we could collect in Mulhouse Zoo (Parc Zoologique et Botanique de Mulhouse,
France) between 2001 and 2007.
This Dietary Manual only describes the feeding regimes currently in use at
Mulhouse Zoo, thus, these descriptions don’t have to be seen as formal
recommendations!
Using ZOOTRITIONTM software, a detailed evaluation was done on our nutrition
experience, and more especially for primates for which a special pellet is used since
1989.
As far as we know, this work is the first one describing and processing such an amount
of intake studies:
-
Lemuridae: 8 species studied, between 35 and 63 days of intake records for each one,
Cercopithecidae: 5 species studied, between 36 and 70 days of intake records for each one,
Cebidae: between 3 species studied, between 61 and 99 days of intake records for each one,
Callithricidae: 7 species studied, between 109 and 355 days of intake records for each one,
Hylobatidae: 4 species studied, between 42 and 44 days of intake records for each one,
Psittacidae: 6 species studied, between 12 and 38 days of intake records for each one,
Canidae: 1 species studied, 9 days of intake records,
Ursidae: 2 species studied, between 13 and 38 days of intake records for each one,
Felidae: 8 species studied, between 25 and 55 days of intake records for each one.
Hopefully this manual will initiate further nutritional research on these species, and
more coordination among zoos. In Europe, several zoo-related associations or working
groups have been working hard since 1999 to “promote and support nutrition in
zoological institutions as an essential component of their conservation mission”: the
European Zoo Nutrition Center (see http://www.eznc.org), the EAZA Nutrition Group
(see http://www.eaza.net) and more recently the EAZWV Nutrition Working Group (see
http://www.eazwv.org). “L’union fait la force!"
Dr. David Gomis
5
6
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank:
- Pierre Moisson (Mulhouse Zoo director) for his support on this work since six years,
- Ellen Dierenfeld (St Louis Zoo), Andrea Fidgett (Chester Zoo), Joeke Nijboer
(Rotterdam Zoo) and Christoph Schwitzer (Bristol Zoo) for their comments and
reviewing parts of this document,
- Tony Allchurch (Jersey Zoo) for his initiative of editing their first Dietary Manual in
1986,
- Jean-Marc Lernould (Mulhouse Zoo former director) for his work on zoo animal diets
and pellets,
- Arsène Untereiner and Ivo Pecl (Sanders Grand Est) for their collaboration and
sponsoring,
- Eric Bureau (Villars les Dombes Bird Park) for sharing his experience on bird handrearing protocols,
- Animal keepers’ staff from Mulhouse Zoo, for their collaboration and patience since
2002. Especially Jean-François Lefèvre (for hand-rearing protocols), Sara De Michelis
(for lemur and gibbon diets), Corinne Fromm (for plant database), Yves Gridel (for
bird diets), Anne-Sophie Boursier (for tamarin diets), Marc Vogel (for tortoise diets)
and Caroline Kammerer (for english text reviewing).
7
TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS
ADF__________________________________________________________________ Acid detergent fiber
AF ______________________________________________________________________________ As fed
Al______________________________________________________________________________ Animal
AZA _____________________________________________________ Association of Zoos and Aquariums
BMR _________________________________________________________________ Basal metabolic rate
BW ________________________________________________________________________ Body weight
CHO _______________________________________________________________________Carbohydrate
CP ________________________________________________________________________ Crude protein
DM __________________________________________________________________________Dry matter
DMI____________________________________________________________________ Dry matter intake
EAZA ______________________________________________ European Association of Zoos and Aquaria
EAZWV __________________________________ European Association of Zoo and Wildlife Veterinarians
EZNC ________________________________________________________ European Zoo Nutrition Center
FA ___________________________________________________________________________ Fatty acid
HR_________________________________________________________________________ Hand-reared
IU _____________________________________________________________________ International Unit
ME _________________________________________________________________ Metabolisable energy
NAG _____________________________________________________________ Nutrition Advisory Group
nd _______________________________________________________________________Number of days
NDF________________________________________________________________ Neutral detergent fiber
ng______________________________________________________________________ Number of groups
ni __________________________________________________________________ Number of individuals
NRC ____________________________________________________________ National Research Council
ns ______________________________________________________________________ Number of studies
NSC____________________________________________________________ Non structural carbohydrate
PR _________________________________________________________________________Parent-reared
PUFA ____________________________________________________________ Polyunsaturated fatty acid
TDF____________________________________________________________________ Total dietary fiber
Vit._____________________________________________________________________________ Vitamin
WAZA______________________________________________ World Association of Zoos and Aquariums
8
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION _____________________________________________________________________ 5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ______________________________________________________________ 7
TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS __________________________________________________________ 8
1.
FOOD SOURCES _______________________________________________________________ 12
1.1
Food items used____________________________________________________________ 12
1.2
Manufacturers / Suppliers ____________________________________________________ 14
1.3
On site live food production __________________________________________________ 15
1.4
Hay and foliage ____________________________________________________________ 16
2.
FOOD HANDLING AND HYGIENE _______________________________________________ 17
2.1
Food storage ______________________________________________________________ 17
2.2
Preparation of food _________________________________________________________ 17
2.3
Cleaning and desinfection ____________________________________________________ 17
3.
NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF COMMERCIAL FEEDS_________________________ 19
3.1
Herbivore pellets ___________________________________________________________ 19
3.2
Herbivore Plus pellets _______________________________________________________ 20
3.3
Galli 16 pellets ____________________________________________________________ 20
3.4
Galli 24 pellets ____________________________________________________________ 21
3.5
Ostrich growth pellets _______________________________________________________ 22
3.6
A19 & A21 powders ________________________________________________________ 22
3.7
T16 pellets________________________________________________________________ 23
3.8
Primate leaf eater pellets _____________________________________________________ 24
3.9
Simial pellets & powder _____________________________________________________ 25
3.10
Stabimil pellets ____________________________________________________________ 26
3.11
Crousti Croc dog pellets _____________________________________________________ 26
4.
VITAMIN, MINERAL, COLOUR AND PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTS ____________________ 28
4.1
“Dog premix” powder _______________________________________________________ 29
4.2
“Carnivore” powder ________________________________________________________ 29
4.3
“Chick” powder____________________________________________________________ 30
4.4
“Bird” powder _____________________________________________________________ 31
4.5
“Tortoise” powder __________________________________________________________ 32
4.6
“Simial plus” powder _______________________________________________________ 33
4.7
“Carophyll” powder ________________________________________________________ 33
9
4.8
“Tamarin” powder _________________________________________________________ 34
4.9
Salt and mineral block ______________________________________________________ 35
4.10
Vitapaulia M _____________________________________________________________ 35
5.
IN-HOUSE MIXES _____________________________________________________________ 37
5.1
Frugivores _______________________________________________________________ 37
5.2
Roseate spoonbills and Scarlet ibises ___________________________________________ 41
5.3
Bald ibises _______________________________________________________________ 44
5.4
Darwin’s rheas ____________________________________________________________ 44
5.5
Tamarins ________________________________________________________________ 45
5.6
Lemurs & Gibbons_________________________________________________________ 47
6.
MATERIAL AND METHODS____________________________________________________ 50
6.1
Feeding programs__________________________________________________________ 50
6.2
Food intake_______________________________________________________________ 50
6.3
Carnivore powder supplementation ____________________________________________ 56
7.
REPTILE DIETS _______________________________________________________________ 57
7.1
Testudines _______________________________________________________________ 57
7.2
Crocodylia _______________________________________________________________ 60
7.3
Ophidia__________________________________________________________________ 60
8.
BIRD DIETS __________________________________________________________________ 61
8.1
Rheiformes _______________________________________________________________ 61
8.2
Casuariiformes ____________________________________________________________ 63
8.3
Sphenisciformes ___________________________________________________________ 63
8.4
Pelicaniformes ____________________________________________________________ 66
8.5
Ciconiiformes_____________________________________________________________ 70
8.6
Anseriformes _____________________________________________________________ 78
8.7
Falconiformes_____________________________________________________________ 79
8.8
Galliformes_______________________________________________________________ 83
8.9
Gruiformes _______________________________________________________________ 83
8.10
Columbiformes____________________________________________________________ 86
8.11
Psittaciformes_____________________________________________________________ 91
8.12
Cuculiformes ____________________________________________________________ 113
8.13
Strigiformes _____________________________________________________________ 115
8.14
Coraciiformes____________________________________________________________ 116
8.15
Passeriformes ____________________________________________________________ 116
8.16
Tinamiformes ____________________________________________________________ 116
9.
MAMMAL DIETS_____________________________________________________________ 117
9.1
Marupiala _______________________________________________________________ 117
10
9.2
Perissodactyla ____________________________________________________________ 117
9.2.1 Equidae ________________________________________________________________ 117
9.2.2 Tapiridae _______________________________________________________________ 118
9.3
Artiodactyla______________________________________________________________ 119
9.3.1 Camelidae ______________________________________________________________ 119
9.3.2 Cervidae________________________________________________________________ 119
9.3.3 Bovidae ________________________________________________________________ 120
9.4
Primates_________________________________________________________________ 123
9.4.1 Lemuridae ______________________________________________________________ 131
9.4.2 Cebidae ________________________________________________________________ 161
9.4.3 Callimiconidae ___________________________________________________________ 173
9.4.4 Callitrichidae ____________________________________________________________ 180
9.4.5 Cercopithecidae __________________________________________________________ 217
9.4.6 Macaca_________________________________________________________________ 233
9.4.7 Hylobatidae _____________________________________________________________ 236
9.5
Rodentia ________________________________________________________________ 252
9.6
Carnivora________________________________________________________________ 253
9.6.1 Canidae ________________________________________________________________ 253
9.6.2 Ursidae_________________________________________________________________ 255
9.6.3 Mustelidae ______________________________________________________________ 257
9.6.4 Felidae _________________________________________________________________ 258
9.7
10.
Pinnipedia _______________________________________________________________ 263
PRACTICAL DIET FORMULATION_____________________________________________ 264
10.1
Using observed intake averages in zoos ________________________________________ 264
10.2
Using energy requirement ___________________________________________________ 265
10.3
Using “protein monitoring”__________________________________________________ 266
10.4
Note for high fat content diets ________________________________________________ 267
REFERENCES ______________________________________________________________________ 269
APPENDIX 1: MULHOUSE ZOO GENERAL PLANTS' DATABASE __________________________ 277
APPENDIX 2: MULHOUSE ZOO PLANTS’ DATABASE FOR LEMURIDAE ___________________ 284
APPENDIX 3: MULHOUSE ZOO PLANTS’ DATABASE FOR HYLOBATIDAE_________________ 287
APPENDIX 4: REPTILE SPECIES INDEX ________________________________________________ 288
APPENDIX 5: BIRD SPECIES INDEX ___________________________________________________ 289
APPENDIX 6: MAMMAL SPECIES INDEX ______________________________________________ 294
11
1. FOOD SOURCES
The table 1.1 shows the food items and in which times of the year these are used in
Mulhouse Zoo, also a number is given in reference to the suppliers of these food items
(table 1.2). In the zoo, insects, rodents and rabbits are bred. This is discussed more
thoroughly in paragraph 1.3. Part of the hay and straw is also produced by the zoo, more
information on this can be found in paragraph 1.4.
1.1 FOOD ITEMS USED
Food item
Fruits
Apples
Apricots
Bananas
Cherries
Dates
Figs
Grapes
Kiwi fruit
Mangos
Melons, cantaloupe
Oranges
Peaches
Pears
Pineapples
Plums
Raisins
Strawberries
Watermelons
Vegetables
Artichoke
Aubergine
Avocados
Brocolli
Carrots
Cauliflower
Courgette
Cucumber
Endive
Fennel
Leeks
Lettuce
Onion
Pepper, sweet
Radish
Spinach
Tomatoes
Fish / Aquatic Invertebrates
Capelin
Herring
Spring
Summer
Autumn
Winter
Supplier No.
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
1, 2, 3, 4
1, 2
1, 2, 4
1, 2
1, 2
1, 2
1, 2
1, 2
1, 2
1, 2
1, 2
1, 2
1, 2
1, 2
1, 2
5
1, 2
1, 2
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
1, 2
1, 2
1, 2
1, 2, 4
1, 2
1, 2, 4
1, 2, 4
1, 2,4
1, 2
1, 2
1, 2
1, 2, 4
1, 2
1, 2
1, 2
1, 2
1, 2
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
6, 7, 8
6, 7, 8
12
Food item
Spring
Mackerel
x
Pout
x
Fish / Aquatic Invertebrates (continuation)
Smelt
x
Sprat
x
Squid
x
Tench
x
Meat
Beef heart in strips
x
Beef meat with bone
x
Beef meat without bone
x
Chicken meat
x
Minced beef
x
Whole prey
Chick, day old
x
Chicken
x
Cricket, domestic
x
Guinea pig
x
Mealworm, yellow
x
Mouse
x
Rabbit
x
Rat
x
Grains / Cereals
Alfalfa
x
Bread
x
Sweet corn
x
Oats flaked
x
Wheat
x
Bran
x
Nuts / Seeds / Pulses
Tame chestnuts
x
Sunflowerseeds
x
Sweetners
Fruit sirop
x
Honey
x
Fats / Oils
Isio 4 Oil
x
Dairy / Milk substitute / Eggs
Casein lactic
x
Eggs
x
Emmenthal cheese
x
Milk powder
x
Lactofoal
Forage / Browse
Hay
x
Second cut hay
x
Straw
x
Commercial feeds
Cat pellets
x
Crousti Croc dog pellets
x
Exotic bird pellets
x
Commercial feeds (continuation)
Galli 16
x
Galli 24
x
Summer
x
x
Autumn
x
x
Winter
x
x
Supplier No.
6, 7, 8
6, 7, 8
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
6, 7, 8
6, 7, 8
6, 7, 8
6, 7, 8
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
6
6
6
6
6
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
6
6
9, zoo
6, zoo
9, zoo
6, zoo
6, zoo
6
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
10
2
10
10
10
10
x
x
x
x
x
x
4
10
x
x
x
x
x
x
11
15
x
x
x
11
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
12
15
15
11
19
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
14 , zoo
14 , zoo
14, zoo
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
2
15
11
x
x
x
x
x
x
16
16
13
Food item
Herbi pellets
Herbi Plus pellets
Mélange pigeons/ doves
Nutribird A19
Nutribird T16
Rabbit pellets
Rat and Mice pellets
Simial pellets
Supplements
Bevitine 250 mg
Bi-Calcium 18 MIN
Bi-Calcium Phosphate
Biotine 2%
Brewer’s yeast
Calcium carbonate
Carnivore powder
Carophyll red 10 %
Cattle cake (sunflower)
Dog premix
Ephynal 100 mg
Salt bloc / KNZ Pierre
Sea salt
Vitamin A500
Vitapaulia D3
Spring
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Summer
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Autumn
x
x
x
Winter
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Supplier No.
16
16
11
11
11
16
17
16
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
13
18
18
15
15
18
16
18
10
15
13
16
16
19
19
Table 1.1: Food items, with the seasons when used (x) and the manufacturer/supplier number
1.2 MANUFACTURERS / SUPPLIERS
Most fruits and vegetables are donated by local supermarkets, all other products are
bought. Hay and straw are partly partly produced by the zoo. The rest is bought from a
farmer. The addresses of all food providers can be found in table 1.2
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Manufacturer/Supplier
Super U
Cora
Pom d’Alsace
6.
Heintz Primeurs Fruits
Legumes
Société coopérative des
Maîtres boulangers
St. Laurent ZA du Bouillon
7.
Michael Hassel Gmbh
8.
South Coast Fishery France
9.
Insecte production Vente
10.
Coopérative agricole de
céréales
Versele-Laga nv
5.
11.
Address
43, Rue Eugene Ducretet, 68200 Mulhouse; Tel: +33 (0)389326200
130, Rue Soultz; 68270 Wittenheim; Tel: +33 (0)389528484
4, Rue du Maréchal Leclerc; 68630 Bennwihr Mittelwihr; Tel: +33
(0)389 479834
1, Rue des frères Peugeot; 68127 Sainte Croix en Plaine; Tel: +33
(0)389209860 / Fax: +33 (0)389220924
130, Rue Mer rouge ; 68100 Mulhouse; Tel: +33 (0)389507950 / Fax:
+33 (0)389602444
79430 La Chapelle Saint-Laurent; [email protected]; Tel: +33
(0)549720920 / Fax: +33 (0)549721112
Bildstock 9; D-88085 Langenargen; Tel: +49 (0)7543953900 / Fax: +49
(0)7543953939
7, Rue Huret Lagache; 62200 Boulogne-sur-Mer; Tel: +33
(0)321305077 / Fax: +33 (0)321305688
Quartier Combe Tourmente; 26260 St Vye; Tel: +33 (0)475688476 /
Fax: +33 (0)475039578
Centre Pont d’ Aspach ; 68520 Burnhaupt Le Haut Tel. +33 (0) 389
487178 Fax. +33 (0) 389 831327
Kapellestraat 70; 9800 Deinze; Belgium Tel: +32 (0)93813200/ Fax:
+32 (0)93868513
14
12.
Cooper
13.
Bayer
14.
15.
Addresses hay
Metro
16.
Sanders Grand Est
17.
Dietex France
18.
Agrobase 01
19.
Centravet Nancy
Place Lucien Auvert, 77020 Melun Cédex Tel: +33 (0)164872000 / Fax:
+33 (0)164872070
273, Rue du Champ du Garet, BP 10001 Arnas, 69651 Villefranche /
Soane cedex Tel: +33 (0)474022727 / Fax: +33 (0)474683067
Several adresses in the neighbourhood of Mulhouse
Rue de la Griottes, Z.I., 68260 Kingersheim Tel: +33 (0)389570500 /
Fax:
13, Route de Maixe; 54370 Einville; [email protected]; Tel:
+33 (0)3 8376 2222 / Fax: +33 (0)3 8376 2239
75, Rue du General Leclerc; 95210 Saint-Gratien; Tel: +33 (0)1 3010
9494 / Fax: +33 (0)1 3010 9499
3, Rue Barthélemy Thimonnier; 01000 Bourg en Bresse; Tel: +33 (0)4
7424 6362 / Fax: +33 (0)4 7424 69 99
3, Allee des erables, Parc de Haye; 54840 Velaine en Haye Tel: +33
(0)3 8323 4100 / Fax: +33 (0)3 8323 4108
Table 1.2 : Addresses of manufacturers and food suppliers of the zoo
1.3 ON SITE LIVE FOOD PRODUCTION
In Mulhouse Zoo, several animal species are bred for food to save costs. Generally, only
adult animals are used.
1 Insects
Acheta domesticus............................................................................House cricket
Housing conditions for breeding:
A temperature not lower than 25°C. 30°C is recommended (an infra-red lamp or a
heating cable can be used) and an humidity of 50% is sufficient. A light is constantly on
for 13 hours (8h =>21h for eg.). As ground cover, cardboard egg boxes are used. As
nesting material: humid soil, changed every 3 weeks.
Nutrition:
Water is placed in small dishes containing little stones. The first three weeks after
hatching, the young are only fed pulverized cat pellets. Adult animals are fed pulverized
cat pellets, bread, apple, tomato and orange.
2 Rodents and rabbits
Mus musculus......................................…..................................................................Mouse
Oryctolagus cuniculus.............................…….........................................................Rabbit
Cavia porcellus........................................................…......................................Guinea pig
Housing conditions for breeding:
There are breeding boxes for mice, with in each cage one male and 4 females. All the
remaining mice are kept in a large cage. The guinea pigs are housed together in a grass
paddock and the rabbits are kept alone in cages. Straw is used as bio-bedding material.
Nutrition:
Water is given ad lib. The mice are fed on rat and mice pellets, lettuce and bread. The
guinea pigs are fed on rabbit pellets, lettuce, carrots, apples and hay. Sometimes they
also eat parsley and cauliflower. Rabbit pellets and hay are given to the rabbits.
15
1.4 HAY AND FOLIAGE
1 Hay and straw
The zoo buys approx 40.000 kg hay, 20.000 kg second cut hay, and 3000 kg straw per
year. An amount of 19100 kg hay is produced per year by the zoo itself.
2 Foliage
Most foliage given to the zoo animals grows in the park and is used by the keepers.
Plant species that are given in Mulhouse Zoo are Horse chestnut Aesculus
hippocastanum, European Beech Fagus sylvatica, Hazel Corylus avellana, Linden Tilia
cordata / Tilia platiphyllos, European ash Fraxinus excelsior, Sycamore Maple Acer
pseudoplatanus and Willow Salix. Approximatly 110 kg of black locust Robinia
pseudoacacia is cut and frozen each year for the primates dependant on foliage in their
diet.
16
2.
FOOD HANDLING AND HYGIENE
2.1 FOOD STORAGE
1 Storage in cooling (meat, fish, vegetables, fruits, foliage)
In the main kitchen there is a freezer for meat, fish and some foliage which is kept at 25°C. The meat and fish are stored in a fridge two days before given to the animals.
Foliage is defrosted at room temperature the day of feeding. All fruits and vegetables
are stored in a different fridge until distributed to the animal sectors. Every sector has
it’s own fridge to store the products. All fridges are kept at 5-6 °C.
2 Dry storage (commercial feeds, cereals, hay)
There is a storage space above the main kitchen for all commercial feeds and cereals.
Silos are used to store part of the stock and for easier rationing below in the kitchen.
The storage of hay is above the fridges and freezer of the main kitchen, and in the attics
of some ungulate stables.
2.2 PREPARATION OF FOOD
1 Kitchens
In the main kitchen food is distributed for all sectors in the zoo and for some species the
food is prepared. Every morning the food is taken to the sector kitchens or animal
enclosures. The final preparation of the food items takes place in the sector kitchens.
2 Food items
Fruits for all primates and birds are washed with water before being used. The fruits for
the lemurs and for frugivorous birds are washed with a blend of 0,2% of iodine and
water to protect these species against Yersinia sp., which could be in the soil where the
fruits are grown. All fish are defrosted, sorted and washed before feeding and always
handled with gloves. The sealions are only fed fish which are not damaged. The
damaged fish are fed to the wolves, bears and pelicaniformes.
2.3 CLEANING AND DESINFECTION
1 Food and water bowls
For the cleaning of food and water bowls a soft black soap is used. After that, chlorine
and a product TH4+ are used to disinfect. TH4+ contains chlorine compounds and
glutaraldehyde and works preventativly against brucellosis, tuberculosis, foot-andmouth disease, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Aspergillus versicolor, Trichophyton
mentagraphytes, Microsporum canis and Candida albicans.
2 Entrances to the keeper areas or animal enclosures
The product Virkon is used for disinfecting the shoes of the zoo staff. A tray with a
Virkon solution is placed at every entrance to the keeper areas or animal enclosures. In
17
the ungulate sector another product, called Ecodiol (active against Mycobacteriun
tuberculosis, Legionella pneumophila and Salmonella enterica ser.) is used for
disinfection.
3 Animal enclosures
The animal enclosures are cleaned with a soft/black soap solution and regularly
disinfected with a chlorine solution. This chlorine solution contains 0,18% active Cl and
is left on a surface for at least 10 minutes to act against bacteria, viruses, spores of
bacteria and amoeba. For the penguin nests a product called Mephisto is used, which
has the same composition as TH4+ but is supplemented with perméthrine. It is active
against bacteria, flying and crawling insects and works preventativly against Absidia
Corymbifera, Aspergillus versicolor, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Gumboro disease,
porcine parvovirus, porcine circovirus (PCV2), classical swine feber, Aujeszky’s
disease and Newcastle disease.
Photos 4.0.1 - 3: D. Gomis 2007: Central kitchen; Mulhouse Zoo
Photos 4.0.4 - 6: D. Gomis 2007: Pellets’ storage in central kitchen; Mulhouse Zoo
Photos 4.0.7 - 9: D. Gomis 2007: Fruits & vegetables room, F&V storage, fish & meat room;
Mulhouse Zoo
18
3.
NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF COMMERCIAL FEEDS
In Mulhouse Zoo several commercial products, mainly pellets, are used. Most of them
are produced by Sanders Grand Est, which is willing to develop pellets with a certain
nutrient composition. This means that more specialized food can be offered to the zoo
animals.
The values in the tables of this chapter are derived from the computer program
ZOOTRITIONTM. The tables give an indication of the nutritional content of feeds, but it
should be taken in account that when a nutrient is unknown a zero value is given. All
the values in the tables are on dry matter (DM) basis. Some values were controlled with
an analysis (done by an independent lab, Eurofins Scientific Analytics, and sponsored
by Sanders Grand Est (values in blue).
3.1 HERBIVORE PELLETS (SANDERS)
1 Characteristics
The composition of this pellet is suited to the requirements of all the herbivorous
mammals which are in Mulhouse Zoo (Camelidae, Cervidae, Bovidae, Tapiridae and
some Equidae species). The initial calculation of the nutrient content is 1kg of pellets
per 100 kg body weight.
2
Nutrient composition
Nutrient Category: Ash/Minerals
Nutrient Qty Unit
Ash 11.12 %
Calcium 2.53 %
Copper 24.06 mg/kg
Iodine 0.35 %
Iron 241.06 mg/kg
Magnesium 0.32 %
Phosphorus 0.74 %
Selenium 0.50 mg/kg
Sodium 0.22 %
Zinc 121.33 mg/kg
Nutrient Category: Protein
Nutrient Qty Unit
Arginine 1.19 %
Crude Protein 17.97 %
Cystine 0.36 %
Isoleucine 0.75 %
Leucine 1.34 %
Lysine 0.96 %
Methionine 0.33 %
Threonine 0.75 %
Nutrient Category: Carbohydrates
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fiber 12.94 %
NDF 35.64 %
ADF 16.43 %
Lignine 3.27 %
Nutrient Category: Fat
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fat 2.81 %
Nutrient Category: Vitamins
Nutrient Qty Unit
Choline 1908.29 mg/kg
Vit. A 11.24 IU A/g or RE/g
Vit. B1 (Thiamin) 10.23 mg/kg
Vit. D3 1.12 IU Vit. D3/g
Vit. E 32.25 mg/kg
Table 3.1: Nutrient composition of Herbivore pellets, DM base (11.02% water)
19
3.2 HERBIVORE PLUS PELLETS (SANDERS)
1 Characteristics
The herbivore plus pellets have the same composition as the herbivore pellets, but
contains an higher level of vitamin E and biotin for species who require this. The pellets
are given to species which are sensitive to myopathy, e.g. Macropodidae and some
Equidae species.
2
Nutrient Qty Unit
Ash 11.12 %
Calcium 2.53 %
Copper 24.06 mg/kg
Iron 241.06 mg/kg
Magnesium 0.32 %
Phosphorus 0.74 %
Selenium 0.50 mg/kg
Zinc 121.33 mg/kg
Nutrient Qty Unit
Arginine 1.19 %
Cystine 0.36 %
Isoleucine 0.75 %
Leucine 1.34 %
Lysine 0.96 %
Methionine 0.33 %
Threonine 0.75 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fiber 12.94 %
NDF 35.64 %
ADF 16.43 %
Lignine 3.27 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fat 2.81 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Biotin 63.16 mg/kg
Vit. E 818.92 mg/kg
Table 3.2: Nutrient composition of Herbivore Plus pellets, DM base (11.02% water)
3.3 GALLI 16 PELLETS (SANDERS)
1 Characteristics
Galli 16 pellets are given to all birds which can be fed on pellets, apart from when they
are breeding or growing. The nutrient composition is derived from the formula of pellets
for future egg-laying chicks, with 16% crude protein (CP) as fed basis (AF), and with a
similar energetic level as for chickens. It is used for all avian species which can be fed
on pellets and where no information is available on what the birds eat in their
enclosures, e.g. greens and algae.
2
Nutrient Qty Unit
Ash 7.55 %
Calcium 1.59 %
Copper 17.94 mg/kg
Iodine 0.16 mg/kg
Iron 127.52 mg/kg
Magnesium 0.24 %
Phosphorus 0.88 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fiber 7.04 %
NDF 18.26 %
ADF 9.78 %
Lignine 2.18 %
20
Selenium 0.31 mg/kg
Sodium 0.21 mg/kg
Zinc 50.06 mg/kg
Calcium/Phosphor ratio 1.81:1
Nutrient Qty Unit
Arginine 1.37 %
Cystine 0.38 %
Isoleucine 0.83 %
Leucine 1.49 %
Lysine 0.97 %
Methionine 0.35 %
Threonine 0.73 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fat 3.43 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Vit. E 11.37 mg/kg
Vit. K 1.14 mg/kg
Table 3.3: Nutrient composition of Galli 16 pellets, DM base (12.03 % water)
3.4 GALLI 24 PELLETS (SANDERS)
1 Characteristics
The first calculation of this pellet was done for cranes in growth, with 24% CP AF. This
meant a little more than 27% CP DM, which seems high, but it resembles the natural
diet of these animals. Later on, the pellet was also used for phasianidae and
phoenicopteridae. The pellet is therefore used also for flamingos. Galli 24 is only used
in the breeding season and for growing birds. Galli 16 is used in the rest of the year.
Before changing totally to the other pellet, Galli 16 and Galli 24 are mixed for one or
two weeks to let the birds get used to the new diet.
2
Nutrient Qty Unit
Ash 9.29 %
Calcium 1.75 %
Copper 19.19 mg/kg
Iodine 0.17 mg/kg
Iron 160.67 mg/kg
Magnesium 0.25 %
Phosphorus 1.25 %
Selenium 0.30 mg/kg
Sodium 0.17 mg/kg
Zinc 48.65 mg/kg
Nutrient Qty Unit
Arginine 1.92 %
Cystine 0.48 %
Isoleucine 1.23 %
Leucine 2.03 %
Lysine 1.51 %
Methionine 0.43 %
Threonine 1.03 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fiber 6.26 %
NDF 15.65 %
ADF 8.88 %
Lignine 1.64 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fat 2.92 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Vit. E 11.28 mg/kg
Vit. K 1.13 mg/kg
Table 3.4: Nutrient composition of Galli 24 pellets, DM base (11.33 % water)
21
3.5 OSTRICH GROWTH PELLETS (SANDERS)
1 Characteristics
Ostrich growth pellets are formulated with the help and experience of ostriche farms,
without any special calculation.
2
Nutrient Qty Unit
Calcium 2.82 %
Copper 14.29 mg/kg
Chloride 0.46 %
Magnesium 0.25 %
Phosphorus 0.91 %
Potassium 1.34 %
Sodium 0.16 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fat 2.68 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Cystine 0.32 %
Lysine 0.88 %
Methionine 0.44 %
Threonine 0.68 %
Tryptophan 0.24 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Cellulose 11.50 %
Table 3.5: Nutrient composition of Ostrich growth pellets, DM base (9.82 % water)
3.6 A19 & A21 POWDERS (VERSELE-LAGA)
1 Characteristics
Dry prepared feeds used for hand-rearing Macaws, Eclectus, Hawk-headed parrots and
chicks of other bird species with a high energy requirement. Protein content is either
19% or 21% of CP DM depending on the species’ known or supposed requirements (cf.
chapter 8.11). It has the advantage that Lactobacilli and digestive enzymes are already
included in these powders, so no need for the supplement.
2
Nutrient Qty Unit
Ash 6.00 %
Calcium 0.90 %
Copper 10.00 mg/kg
Iodine 3.00 mg/kg
Iron 40.00 mg/kg
Magnesium 0.17 %
Manganese 100.00 mg/kg
Phosphorus 0.60 %
Sodium 0.20 mg/kg
Zinc 80.00 mg/kg
Nutrient Qty Unit
Lysine 0.93 %
Methionine 0.45 %
Threonine 0.68 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fat 12.00 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Biotin 0.20 mg/kg
Folacin 1.50 mg/kg
Vit. B12 0.02 mcg/g
Vit. B2 (Riboflavin) 16.00 mg/kg
Vit. B3 (Niacin) 16.00 mg/kg
Vit. B6 (Pyridoxine) 6.00 mg/kg
Vit. C (Ascorbic acid) 60.00 mg/kg
Vit. E 80.00 mg/kg
Vit. K 3.00 mg/kg
Table 3.5.1: Nutrient composition of A19 powder, DM base (5.00 % water)
22
Nutrient Qty Unit
Ash 6.00 %
Calcium 0.90 %
Copper 10.00 mg/kg
Iodine 3.00 mg/kg
Iron 40.00 mg/kg
Magnesium 0.17 %
Phosphorus 0.60 %
Sodium 0.20 mg/kg
Zinc 80.00 mg/kg
Nutrient Qty Unit
Lysine 0.93 %
Methionine 0.45 %
Threonine 0.68 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fat 8.00 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Biotin 0.20 mg/kg
Folacin 1.50 mg/kg
Vit. B12 0.02 mcg/g
Vit. E 80.00 mg/kg
Vit. K 3.00 mg/kg
Table 3.5.2: Nutrient composition of A21 powder, DM base (5.00 % water)
3.7 T16 PELLETS (VERSELE-LAGA)
1 Characteristics
T16 is a complete frugivorous bird pellet, which is only used in Mulhouse Zoo for
animals which are not growing or breeding. For maintenance it is a good pellet, but
when used on young Musophagidae, problems developed (poor feather coloration,
perosis,…), so the frugivorous hand-rearing mix was composed.
2
Nutrient Qty Unit
Ash 5.00 %
Calcium 0.90 %
Copper 10.00 mg/kg
Iron 80.00 mg/kg
Magnesium 0.15 %
Phosphorus 0.60 %
Sodium 0.20 mg/kg
Zinc 100.00 mg/kg
Nutrient Qty Unit
Lysine 0.80 %
Methionine 0.33 %
Threonine 0.50 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fat 5.00 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Biotin 0.26 mg/kg
Folacin 1.50 mg/kg
Vit. B12 0.02 mcg/g
Vit. E 85.00 mg/kg
Vit. K 2.90 mg/kg
Table 3.7: Nutrient composition of T16 pellets, DM base (10.00 % water)
23
3.8 PRIMATE LEAF-EATER PELLETS (MAZURI)
1 Characteristics
According to Mazuri®, these pellets are specially formulated to meet the requirements
of leaf-eating primates such as langurs and howlers, thought to require a high-fiber diet.
In Mulhouse Zoo, these pellets were introduced in Propithecus and Hapalemur diets
only recently, for various reasons:
- dog pellets were never used in Propithecus diets,
- the intake of simial pellets was hard to evaluate, as these species are fed ad lib for
some feeds (contrary to other Lemuridae species there is no need to restrict the
diets),
- these leaf-eaters pellets contain 23% CP AF and could have the same role as Crousti
Croc pellets concerning the “crude protein’ choice.
2
Nutrient Qty Unit
Ash 8.11 %
Calcium 1.14 %
Chloride 0.47 %
Cobalt 0.41 mg/kg
Copper 23.33 mg/kg
Iron 533.33 mg/kg
Magnesium 0.23 %
Manganese 138.89 mg /kg
Phosphorus 0.74 %
Potassium 1.18 %
Selenium 0.26 mg/kg
Sodium 0.30 mg/kg
Zinc 161.11 mg/kg
Nutrient Qty Unit
Arginine 1.42 %
Cystine 0.34 %
Histidine 0.64 %
Iodine 1.24 mg/kg
Isoleucine 1.30 %
Leucine 2.32 %
Lysine 1.39 %
Methionine 0.60 %
Phenylalanine 1.40 %
Threonine 0.94 %
Tryptophan 0.32 %
Tyrosine 1.02 %
Valine 1.42 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fat 5.56 %
Linoleic acid 3.11 %
Pantothenic acid 66.67 mg/kg
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fiber 13.78 %
NDF 27.44 %
ADF 17.78 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Beta-carotene 5.33 mg/kg
Biotin 0.32 mg/kg
Folacin 12.22 mg/kg
Vit. B12 0.06 mcg/g
Vit. E 233.33 mg/kg
Vit. K 3.44 mg/kg
Table 3.8: Nutrient composition of Mazuri Primate Leafeater Pellets, DM base (10.00 % water)
24
3.9 SIMIAL PELLETS & POWDER (SANDERS)
1 Characteristics
This pellet was first formulated as complement for fruit and vegetable based diets, for
all Old World and some New World Monkeys which have a need of approx 15% CP
DM basis in their diet. The calculation is based on the idea that the pellets could
represent around 50% of the total DMI, therefore the pellets have two times as much of
every nutrient than necessary, eg. 30% of CP.
Simial pellets are also used for the gibbons but not for Pithecia, Saimiri and Chiropotes
species, because these may require about 25% CP DM basis in the diet, like all
tamarins. Even if 15% CP DM was sometimes found as an adequate level for successful
reproduction and growth of common marmosets, a higher protein content may still be
appropriate when high quality proteins are not eaten in sufficient quantities or even
available in the diet (see references 139 and 143, and chapter 9.4 preliminar notes):
therefore, the same strategy was chosen for Cebidae species in Mulhouse Zoo.
Simial pellets are also crumbled into a powder, in order to use it as supplement
supplying the major protein source for reptile and frugivorous bird diets (see chapters
4.5, 4.6, 4.7 and 4.8).
Finding appropriate protein sources is difficult since pellet producers have to work with
available and financially interesting ingredients: for the same composition, original
feeds used may change from time to time. Temperature and pressure of the cooking
procedures for some cereals can lead to better or worse digestion, eg. extruded corn is
better digested by monkeys than floconned corn. Too much starch can cause digestive
problems in folivores.
The first problem encountered with simial pellet is that its intake is almost always less
than 50% of the DM amount (only between 16% and 25% DM! see graphs 9.4.1.14,
9.4.2.27, 9.4.2.9, 9.4.5.8, 9.4.7.10 and 9.4.7.12). Therefore the diet was completed with
a better eaten pellet, the Crousti Croc dog pellet with 22% CP DM. Using this second
pellet is also interesting, as it contains proteins from animal sources. This could help to
bring the amino acids levels in balance (proteins from plant sources are less digestible
and generally contain low levels of one or more of the essential amino acids).
The second problem is palatability for some primate species: for Ateles simial pellets
only represent 16% DMI (graph 9.4.2.7) and for Cercopithecidae 17% DMI (graph
9.4.5.8) versus Lemuridae 25% DMI (graph 9.4.1.14). Several artificial flavours were
tried (banana, red berries, etc) but this did not improve the intake. For all primates, fruit
syrup is added to the pellets just before serving.
In conclusion, simial pellet is a very useful and a well balanced pellet, but should be
improved for better monkey palatability.
2
Nutrient Qty Unit
Ash 12.86 %
Calcium 2.78 %
Copper 47.44 mg/kg
Iodine 0.14 %
Iron 291.86 mg/kg
Magnesium 0.22 %
Phosphorus 1.67 %
Selenium 0.41 mg/kg
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fiber 6.46 %
NDF 13.75 %
ADF 8.16 %
Lignine 1.68 %
Total Dietary Fiber 18.00 %
25
Sodium 0.59 %
Zinc 41.94 mg/kg
Nutrient Qty Unit
Arginine 1.70 %
Cystine 0.55 %
Isoleucine 1.33 %
Leucine 3.17 %
Lysine 1.44 %
Methionine 0.74 %
Threonine 1.11 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fat 6.67 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Vit. E 55.56 mg/kg
Vit. K 2.22 mg/kg
Table 3.9: Nutrient composition of Simial pellets (v.7001) / powder, DM base (10.01 % water)
3.10 STABIMIL PELLETS (SANDERS)
1 Characteristics
Stabimil pellets are general rabbit pellets, without any special calculation.
2
Nutrient Qty Unit
Ash 9.76 %
Calcium 1.43 %
Copper 11.28 mg/kg
Phosphorus 0.68 %
Sodium 3.34 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Arginine 1.16 %
Cystine 0.42 %
Isoleucine 0.73 %
Leucine 1.21 %
Lysine 0.80 %
Methionine 0.28 %
Threonine 0.70 %
Valine 0.94 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fiber 18.50 %
ADF 23.11 %
Lignine 5.28 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fat 2.83 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Vit. E 30.83 mg/kg
Vit. K 0.85 mg/kg
Table 3.10: Nutrient composition of Stabimil pellets, DM base (11.33 % water)
3.11 CROUSTI CROC DOG PELLETS
1 Characteristics
This dog pellet is used as a protein supplement for primate species because the simial
intake is not enough. It is also used for other species, even parrots, because it is easy to
use. When used in diets attention is paid to the fact that the iron content is unknown.
2
Nutrient Qty Unit
Nutrient Qty Unit
26
Ash 8.99 %
Calcium 1.35 %
Copper 5.62 mg/kg
Phosphorus 1.12 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fiber 4.49 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fat 6.74 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Vit. E 89.89 mg/kg
Table 3.11: Nutrient composition of Crousti Croc dog pellets, DM base (11.00 % water)
27
4.
VITAMIN, MINERAL, COLOUR AND PROTEIN
SUPPLEMENTS
Mulhouse Zoo has the tradition of producing its own supplements. This is useful when
formulating diets, as supplements can be changed to suit to the different animals.
It is interesting to note that using mineral/vitamin premixes for these powders, an
important source of non specified iron can be included into diets: Clauss M. et al (see
reference 42) indicate that some can contain up to 5000-7000 ppm! Final diets obtained
with these kind of powders may be analysed before distributing to iron storage sensitive
species.
Photo 4.0.1: D. Gomis 2007: In-house supplement powders produced in Mulhouse Zoo
Dog
premix
Bi-Ca
Phos.
Ca
Carb.
NaCl
Vit.B1
Used with:
500g
3000g
1000g
250g
5g
Meat/Fish
CHICK
100g
600g
200g
1g
Meat/Fish
BIRD
150g
300g
550g
100g
50g
50g
Ingredients:
Mulhouse
powders:
CARNIVORE
Simial
powder
TORTOISE
600g
SIMIAL
PLUS
100g
CAROPHYLL
TAMARIN
900g
Dog
pel.lets
poweder
1000g
75g
+ 4g CARNIVORE POWDER
+ 100g Red Carophyll (10%)
See details chapter 4.10
0,5g
Dosis
g/
Kg
2025
2025
Soaked
50
sunflower
seeds
Fruits
&Vegetables
50
Frugivore
mix
190
Bananas
250
Bananas
+ Apples
100g
Galli pellets
10
Scarlet ibis
mixture
2,7
See details chapter
5.5
Table 4.0.2: Mulhouse Zoo supplements
28
ZOOTRITIONTM. The tables give an indication of the nutritional content of feeds, but it
the values in the tables are on DM basis.
4.1 “DOG PREMIX” POWDER
1 Characteristics
This premix is used by the pellet producers and has a general composition which is easy
to dilute in powders produced in the zoo. It is interesting to know that on the
information label, the producer indicates the values of nutrients after dilution in a pellet,
not the real values in the powder.
2
Nutrient Qty Unit
Ash 54.74 %
Calcium 18.53 %
Copper 1184.21 mg/kg
Iodine 156.63 mg/kg
Iron 4736.84 mg/kg
Magnesium 1.26 %
Selenium 42.63 mg/kg
Sodium 0.01 mg/kg
Zinc 7810.53 mg/kg
Calcium/Phosphorus ratio ?:1
Nutrient Qty Unit
Biotin 63.16 mg/kg
Choline 200000 mg/kg
Folacin 105.26 mg/kg
Vit. B12 4.21 mcg/g
Vit. C 2105.26 mg/kg
Vit. E 18947.37 mg/kg
Table 4.1: Nutrient composition of Dog premix powder, DM base (5.00 % water)
4.2 “CARNIVORE” POWDER
1 Characteristics
Like for other powders sold for carnivorous animals, Felidae requirements were the
target of this powder at the beginning. The calculation of this carnivore supplement was
initially 20-25 g per kg meat.
For some species (Tigers, Lions, Pantheras, Sand Cats and Oncillas) the incorporation
of wheat bran help for a better crude fiber content and digestion: 2/3 volume of
carnivore powder for 1/3 volume of wheat bran, that represents 9.5% of wheat bran
weight in the powder (see chapter 9.6.5).
The problem of the powder was that the sufficant quantity did not stay on the meat,
therefore the chicken and the meat were cut in smaller pieces. A survey on carnivore
powder intake was conducted by S. Plumey (see reference 150) for controlling
supplementation, even if no diet-related health problems were observed in the Mulhouse
Zoo carnivorous mammal collection since 1991 (see resulting graphs chapter 9.6).
Ingredients:
Dog premix powder
Bi-calcium Phosphate
Calcium Carbonate
500 g
3000 g
1000 g
29
Natrium chloride
Vitamin B1 (Thiamin)
250 g
5g
Note: Tigers, pantheras, lions and polar bears are given an extra-supplement of vit.A
(see chapters9.6.2 and 9.6.4). Otters and sealions are given an extra-supplement of vit.
B1 (see chapters 9.6.3 and 9.7).
2
Nutrient Qty Unit
Ash 32.54 %
Calcium 25.93 %
Copper 121.23 mg/kg
Iodine 16.03 mg/kg
Iron 549.57 mg/kg
Magnesium 0.14 %
Phosphorus 11.65 %
Potassium 0.06 %
Selenium 4.36 mg/kg
Sodium 2.78 %
Zinc 799.57 mg/kg
Nutrient Qty Unit
Biotin 6.47 mg/kg
Folacin 10.78 mg/kg
Vit. B12 0.43 mcg/g
Vit. E 1939.66 mg/kg
Table 4.2: Nutrient composition of Carnivore powder, DM base (2.42 % water)
4.3 “CHICK” POWDER
1 Characteristics
This powder is used as a mineral and vitamin supplement for the chicks of carnivorous
birds, or birds which have a specialized carnivorous diet during the rearing of their
chicks. Before this powder was compiled, carnivore powder was used, but some chicks
had problems with oedema (high sodium content), so another composition was used.
The new chick powder includes the same ingredients as the carnivore powder, except
salt. No problems were noticed after this product was used.
Utilisation:
2,5 g per 100 g mixture of chicks and beef heart (hand-rearing Scarlet ibises and
spoonbills)
2,0 g per 100 g smelt (hand-rearing Scarlet ibises and spoonbills)
25 g per kg meat (hand-rearing of young vultures)
Ingredients:
Dog premix powder
Bi-calcium phosphate
Calcium carbonate
Vitamin B1 (Thiamin)
2
100 g
600 g
200 g
1g
Nutrient Qty Unit
Nutrient Qty Unit
30
Ash 28.70 %
Calcium 27.40 %
Copper 128.13 mg/kg
Iodine 16.95 mg/kg
Iron 580.87 mg/kg
Magnesium 0.15 %
Phosphorus 12.31 %
Potassium 0.06 %
Selenium 4.61 mg/kg
Sodium 0.70 %
Zinc 845.10 mg/kg
Biotin 6.83 mg/kg
Folacin 11.39 mg/kg
Vit. B12 0.46 mcg/g
Table 4.3: Nutrient composition of Chick powder, DM base (2.55 % water)
4.4 “BIRD” POWDER
1 Characteristics
The nutrient composition is calculated to be used with sunflower seeds and is given to
the Cacatuidae and Psittacidae species. At the beginning carnivore powder was used,
but the calcium/phosphor ratio of the diet was not good, even though the breeding
results were fine. The quantity of bird powder supplementation is two times higher than
necessary because an intake study showed that about half of the powder was spilled
when the birds ate the sunflower seeds (see resulting intake graphs chapter 8.11).
Utilisation: 5 g of Bird powder per 100 g of soaked sunflower seeds
Ingredients:
Dog premix powder
Calcium Carbonate
Sodium chloride
2
150 g
300 g
550 g
100 g
Nutrient Qty Unit
Ash 67.19 %
Calcium 28.51 %
Copper 155.75 mg/kg
Iodine 20.60 mg/kg
Iron 775.27 mg/kg
Magnesium 0.19 %
Phosphorus 5.00 %
Potassium 0.05 %
Selenium 5.61 mg/kg
Sodium 3.94 %
Zinc 1027.23 mg/kg
Nutrient Qty Unit
Biotin 8.31 mg/kg
Folacin 13.84 mg/kg
Vit. B12 0.55 mcg/g
Table 4.4: Nutrient composition of Bird powder, DM base (1.50 % water)
31
4.5 “TORTOISE” POWDER
1 Characteristics
The supplementation for tortoises is hard to calculate as there is not much reliable
information on their needs. Most of the requirements are indeed known through hyperor hypovitaminosis and mineral deficiency cases reports (see references 108, 201 and
206). In the mixture, dog pellets are included to increase the palatability. This powder is
only used since january 2003, but results on palatibility and growth rate on young
Radiated tortoises seem excellent (see chapter 7.1).
Utilisation: 50 g Tortoise powder per kg fruits and vegetables
Ingredients:
Dog pellets in powder 1000 g
Simial powder
600 g
Dog premix powder
75 g
Calcium carbonate
50 g
Sodium chlorine
50 g
0,5 g
Vitamin B1
2
Nutrient Qty Unit
Ash 18.01 %
Calcium 3.70 %
Copper 71.79 mg/kg
Iodine 7.01 mg/kg
Iron 318.47 mg/kg
Magnesium 0.13 %
Phosphorus 1.19 %
Selenium 2.03 mg/kg
Sodium 1.43 %
Zinc 361.59 mg/kg
Nutrient Qty Unit
Arginine 0.57 %
Cystine 0.19 %
Isoleucine 0.45 %
Leucine 1.07 %
Lysine 0.48 %
Methionine 0.25 %
Threonine 0.38 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fiber 4.67 %
NDF 4.64 %
ADF 2.75 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fat 5.99 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Biotin 2.81 mg/kg
Folacin 4.68 mg/kg
Vit. B12 0.19 mcg/g
Vit. E 911.54 mg/kg
Vit. K 0.75 mg/kg
Table 4.5: Nutrient composition of Tortoise powder, DM base (9.79 % water)
32
4.6 “SIMIAL PLUS” POWDER
1 Characteristics
The simial plus powder contains 30% CP DM, like the simial pellet itself. The powder
is produced to have a vitamin and mineral supplementation for egg laying frugivorous
birds. For that reason we tried to reach a percentage of 16% CP in the diets. The final
composition is almost similar to Nutribird pellets but better results are obtained for
breeding birds or Musophagidae hand-rearing formulas.
Utilisation:
25 g per 100 g bananas (hand-rearing Turacos first stage, see detail chapter 8.12)
40 g per 100 g bananas + 100 g apples (hand-rearing Turacos second stage, see detail
chapter 8.12)
190 g per kg frugivore adult mix
Ingredients:
Simial powder
100 g
Carnivore powder
4g
2
Nutrient Qty Unit
Ash 13.68 %
Calcium 3.74 %
Copper 50.50 mg/kg
Iodine 0.80 mg/kg
Iron 302.57 mg/kg
Magnesium 0.21 %
Phosphorus 2.08 %
Selenium 0.57 mg/kg
Sodium 0.68 %
Zinc 33.24 mg/kg
Nutrient Qty Unit
Arginine 1.63 %
Cystine 0.53 %
Isoleucine 1.27 %
Leucine 3.04 %
Lysine 1.38 %
Methionine 0.71 %
Threonine 1.07 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fiber 6.19 %
NDF 13.18 %
ADF 7.82 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fat 6.39 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Biotin 0.27 mg/kg
Folacin 0.45 mg/kg
Vit. B12 0.02 mcg/g
Vit. E 133.89 mg/kg
Vit. K 2.13 mg/kg
Table 4.6: Nutrient composition of Simial Plus powder, DM base (9.72 % water)
4.7 “CAROPHYLL” POWDER
1 Characteristics
The simial powder in this mixture is only used to dilute canthaxanthine (Carophyll red,
33
ROCHE®) to a final concentration of 1%. Literature about the red factor in canaries
was used because no more information was available. Dog pellet powder could have
been used as well for the dilution, but simial powder is already made for other powders,
so it was easier to use the latter. Due to the small amounts used, it is not important to
choose a powder with a certain percentage of crude protein.
Some zoos suggest that the canthaxanthine could cause fertility problems because
sometimes a high concentration of the pigment is found in the egg yolk. This
phenomenon of infertility has not been seen in Mulhouse Zoo.
At the beginning the carophyll powder was only offered during the moult, but adult
groups and young did not moult at the same time, so the powder is used all year round.
Utilisation:
Flamingos: 10 g per kg pellets (Galli 16, Galli 24 or a mixture of these)
Scarlet ibises and Roseate spoonbills: 2,7 g per kg Ibis and spoonbill mixture
Ingredients:
Red Carophyll (10%)
Simial powder
100 g
900 g
2 Nutrient composition
see Table 3.7 + canthaxanthine 1%
4.8 “TAMARIN” POWDER
1 Characteristics
In an attempt to reach a 25% CP DM in the tamarin diets, a powder was produced with
50% protein (see details chapter 5.5). Severe diarrhoeas were observed when the fiber
content in the gruel was too low, for that reason the sunflower cattle cake was added.
No future problems have been seen.
Utilisation: 240g for 2 kg of gruel, see chapter 5.5
Ingredients:
Sunflower cattle cake
Casein lactic
Brewer’s yeast
Wheat bran
Dog premix powder
Calcium carbonate
2
200 g
160 g
100 g
100 g
7,5 g
15 g
10 g
Nutrient Qty Unit
Ash 5.43 %
Calcium 1.81 %
Copper 18.72 mg/kg
Iodine 2.08 mg/kg
Iron 86.34 mg/kg
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fiber 12.25 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
34
Magnesium 0.90 %
Phosphorus 1.49 %
Selenium 0.57 mg/kg
Sodium 0.04 %
Zinc 153.87 mg/kg
Nutrient Qty Unit
Arginine 1.05 %
Cystine 0.09 %
Isoleucine 1.72 %
Leucine 2.64 %
Lysine 2.14 %
Methionine 0.84 %
Threonine 1.17 %
Crude Fat 3.28 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Biotin 0.85 mg/kg
Choline 62.17 mg/kg
Folacin 1.53 mg/kg
Vit. B12 0.06 mcg/g
Vit. B3 (niacin) 0.27 mg/kg
Vit. E 272.25 mg/kg
Table 4.8: Nutrient composition of Tamarin powder, DM base (9.49 % water)
4.9 SALT AND MINERAL BLOCK
1 Characteristics
For most ungulate species, basic salt and mineral blocks for cattle are used.
2
Nutrient Qty Unit
Copper 231.58 mg/kg
Cobalt 18.95 mg/kg
Iodine 105.26 mg/kg
Magnesium 0.21 %
Selenium 10.53 mg/kg
Sodium 40.53 %
Zinc 852.63 mg/kg
Table 4.9: Nutrient composition of salt and mineral block, DM base (5.00 % water)
4.10 VITAPAULIA M
1 Characteristics
Vitapaulia M (INTERVET®) is a mineral/vitamin supplement formulated for horses,
cattle, sheep, goats, swine, chickens and rabbits. It is used for all primate species in
Mulhouse Zoo. Expected intake of simial pellets of 50% DM was never confirmed in
most of the OWM (see comments chapter 3.7 and 9.4), so doubled values of minerals
and vitamins were not enough, and Vitapaulia M was incorporated in the diets.
2
Nutrient Qty Unit
Cobalt 1580.00 mg/kg
Nutrient Qty Unit
35
Copper 4000.00 mg/kg
Magnesium 0.37 %
Zinc 3395.00 mg/kg
Vit. B3 (niacin) 63000.00 mg/kg
Vit. D3 21000.00 IU Vit. D3/g
Vit. E 23100.00 mg/kg
Table 4.10: Nutrient composition of Vitapaulia M, DM base (98.00 % water)
36
5.
IN-HOUSE MIXES
ZOOTRITIONTM. The tables give an indication of the nutrient content of feeds, but it
the values in the tables are on a dry matter (DM) basis.
5.1 FRUGIVORES
Frugivore adult mix
1 Characteristics (see photo 8.12.1)
The composition of this mixture is based on standard frugivore bird pellets but with a
target of 16% CP DM. It was formulated and used before T16 pellets from Versele-laga
were produced.
Turacos can sucessfully rear chicks with this mixture, but some perosis problems were
sometimes observed (especially with C. personata leopoldi chicks) in both, parent and
hand-reared chicks (see next paragraph). After several trials trying to improve nutrient
composition of these mixes (especially folic acid, vit. B5 and Ca/P ratio), we are now
exploring the choline content: the value of 1450 ppm DM may be low in some cases
(eg. starting domestic turkeys 0-4 weeks may require around 1700 ppm DM).
Methionine, vit. B12 and folate have lipotrope activity by participating in the
endogenius synthesis of choline, and choline is know to be a factor of cartilage
maturation in growing chicks. However, this should be carefully explored as
suplementing choline as choline chloride may depress growth (see reference 109).
Iron content is lower than 150 ppm DM, mainly coming from the simial powder
(analysed 262.64 ppm AF, see chapter 3.9) an in a lower level from soaked sultanas.
Concerning post-mortem findings we sometimes observe some iron storage in the livers
of frugivorous birds, which died from other reasons (especially turacos): we haven’t
observe clinical cases of iron storage disease, for years.
Photo 5.1.1 and 5.1.2: D. Gomis 2007: Fischer’s turacos, adult male and 12 day old HR chicks
37
Photos 5.1.3 and 5.1.4: D. Gomis 2003: perosis on a
28 day old HR Bare-faced go-away turaco, Mulhouse
Photo 5.1.5: D. Gomis 2004:
4 years and 7 months old Barefaced go-away turaco, Mulhouse
Zoo:
this disproportional and unusual
deposition of adipose tissue in the
digestive tract could be explained
by a moderate deficiency of an
essential amino acid (see reference
109).
Photo 5.1.6: D. Gomis 2006:
femur deformity and fracture on a 1
month and 42 day old PR Fischer’s
turaco, Mulhouse Zoo:
some chicks may have higher calcium
(or Ca/P ratio) and/or vit.D3 requirements than others and can develop
metabolic bone disease, depending on
what parents really feed them…
38
Ingredients:
Apples
Bananas
Sultanas (soaked)
Simial-plus powder
2
750 g
200 g
50 g
190 g
Nutrient Qty Unit
Ash 7.52 %
Calcium 1.78 %
Copper 25.41 mg/kg
Iodine 0.38 mg/kg
Iron 148.90 mg/kg
Magnesium 0.13 %
Phosphorus 1.01 %
Selenium 0.28 mg/kg
Sodium 0.32 %
Zinc 36.47 mg/kg
Nutrient Qty Unit
Arginine 0.80 %
Cystine 0.26 %
Isoleucine 0.63 %
Leucine 1.49 %
Lysine 0.70 %
Methionine 0.34 %
Threonine 0.54 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fiber 4.13 %
NDF 8.71 %
ADF 5.33 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fat 4.04 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Biotin 0.13 mg/kg
Folacin 0.38 mg/kg
Vit. B12 0.01 mcg/g
Vit. E 71.49 mg/kg
Vit. K 1.00 mg/kg
Table 5.1.7: Nutrient composition of frugivore adult mix, DM base (69.30 % water)
Turaco hand-rearing mix
1 Characteristics
Bananas and apples are used as a basis for frugivorous birds which don’t need high
amounts of protein for rearing the chicks. The hand-rearing mixture is mainly used for
Musophagidae species. See chapter 8.12 for the detailed hand-rearing protocol.
Photos 5.1.8 and 5.1.9:
D. Gomis 2007:
25 and 28 day old HR
Fischer’s turacos,
Mulhouse Zoo:
The poor colouring of the
feathers could be due to
some sulfur amino-acids
deficiencies (Met + Cys)?
(see reference 109). As a
test, the chick on the photo 5.1.9 (right side) was given every day Tonivit, TVM® (1 drop PO/
200 g BW, see composition chapter 8.1), when chick on the photo 5.1.8 (left side) did not. After
the first moult both will recover the same bright colours.
39
Ingredients:
Gruel first period (weeks 1, 2 and 3)
Bananas (crushed)
100 g
Simial Plus powder
25 g
Gruel second period (from week 4 till 4 months)
Bananas (crushed)
100 g
Apples (cut in very small pieces)
100 g
Simial Plus powder
40 g
2
Gruel first period (week 1 to 3)
Nutrient Qty Unit
Ash 8.05 %
Calcium 1.76 %
Copper 25.75 mg/kg
Iodine 0.37 mg/kg
Iron 147.78 mg/kg
Magnesium 0.16 %
Phosphorus 1.02 %
Selenium 0.29 mg/kg
Sodium 0.32 %
Zinc 37.62 mg/kg
Nutrient Qty Unit
Arginine 0.86 %
Cystine 0.28 %
Isoleucine 0.66 %
Leucine 1.57 %
Lysine 0.74 %
Methionine 0.35 %
Threonine 0.57 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fiber 2.89 %
NDF 6.16 %
ADF 3.66 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fat 3.98 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Biotin 0.13 mg/kg
Folacin 0.60 mg/kg
Vit. B12 0.01 mcg/g
Vit. E 68.14 mg/kg
Vit. K 1.00 mg/kg
Table 5.1.10: Nutrient composition of frugivore hand-rearing mix 1st period, DM base (61.35 %
water)
Gruel second period (starting on week 4)
Nutrient Qty Unit
Ash 7.70 %
Calcium 1.75 %
Copper 25.27 mg/kg
Iodine 0.37 mg/kg
Iron 146.51 mg/kg
Magnesium 0.14 %
Phosphorus 1.00 %
Selenium 0.28 mg/kg
Sodium 0.32 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fiber 3.63 %
NDF 7.68 %
ADF 4.66 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fat 4.04 %
40
Zinc 36.60 mg/kg
Nutrient Qty Unit
Arginine 0.82 %
Cystine 0.27 %
Isoleucine 0.64 %
Leucine 1.51 %
Lysine 0.72 %
Methionine 0.35 %
Threonine 0.55 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Biotin 0.12 mg/kg
Folacin 0.49 mg/kg
Vit. B12 0.01 mcg/g
Vit. E 69.62 mg/kg
Vit. K 0.99 mg/kg
Table 5.1.11: Nutrient composition of frugivore hand-rearing mix 2nd period, DM base (67.53 %
water)
5.2 ROSEATE SPOONBILLS AND SCARLET IBISES
Roseate spoonbill and Scarlet ibis adult mix
1 Characteristics
The livers of the roseate spoonbills and scarlet ibises seem able to metabolize high
amounts of proteins, so for the composition of the mixture the same target as for
carnivorous birds is used. Attention was paid to the calcium /phosphorous ratio, so this
would be optimal for breeding.
Fed whole one day old chicks can form a problem for the digestion in roseate spoonbills
and scarlet ibises chicks due to the feathers and legs. The gut impaction can lead to
death, so the chicks are well ground before being fed with the adult mix. Bald ibises
don’t seem to be susceptible to this problem.
Ingredients:
Minced beef meat
One day chicks
Simial powder
Carnivore powder
Carophyll powder
500 g
500 g
300 g
20 g
3,6 g
Some zoos have lots of experience with feeding pellets to Ibises and Spoonbills. A
comparison of nutrient composition between our mix and pellet mixes can be seen on
the table below. Even if Mulhouse Zoo has good results with the meat & chicks mix,
parent rearing for A.ajaja and E.ruber can remain uncertain (some gut impaction cases):
we could either diminuate the one day old chicks proportion during breeding time, or try
pellet mixes; it’s under review while this manual is been written.
CP level in our mix is higher than 40% DM, pellet mixes only reach 22-28% CP DM.
Lundi® has also a special Ibis pellet with 45 % CP DM but only 33 ppm vit.E.
41
Nutrient Category
Ash/Minerals
Ash %
Calcium %
Copper mg/kg
Iodine mg/kg
Iron mg/kg
Magnesium %
Manganese mg/kg
Phosphorus %
Selenium mg/kg
Sodium %
Zinc mg/kg
C/P ratio %
Protein
Arginine %
Crude Protein %
Cystine %
Isoleucine %
Leucine %
Lysine %
Methionine %
Threonine %
Carbohydrates
Crude Fiber %
NDF %
ADF %
Total Dietary Fiber %
Fat
Crude Fat %
Vitamins
Biotin mg/kg
Choline mg/kg
Folacin mg/kg
Vit. A IU A/g or RE/g
Vit. B1 (Thiamin) mg/kg
Vit. B12 mcg/g
Vit. B2 (Riboflavin)
mg/kg
Vit. B3 (Niacin) mg/kg
Vit. B6 (Pyridoxine)
mg/kg
Vit. C (Ascorbic acid)
mg/kg
Vit. D3 IU/g
Vit. E mg/kg
Vit. K mg/kg
Adult mix
Mulhouse
Zoo
Mixing pellets
50%AF Flamingo
Premium +
50%AF Crane
Regular (Lundi ®)
Ibis special pellet
(Lundi ®)
Mixing pellets
50%AF Flamingo +
50%AF Crane
(Mazuri ®)
3.57
2.39
26.29
0.57
184.35
0.12
55.33
1.46
0.44
0.55
95.19
1.64
10.56
1.56
1.0
0.89
1.56
10.5
2.2
1.4
0.80
1.57
8.78
2.17
17.22
1.44
388.89
0.26
118.89
1.32
0.43
0.28
135.00
1.64
1.71
41.41
0.38
1.20
2.54
1.83
0.66
1.09
27.78
-
45.00
-
1.32
22.50
0.32
0.92
1.69
1.19
0.46
0.82
3.03
6.02
3.57
7.88
5.56
-
5.0
-
3.00
-
24.33
4.44
12.00
6.50
0.20
1669.25
0.41
23.94
38.59
0.03
1.70
12.22
-
12.00
-
0.90
1916.67
6.00
20.56
18.33
0.05
13.89
36.57
5.44
-
-
101.67
16.11
6.82
61.11
60.00
-
4.38
97.86
0.97
1.22
33.33
-
1.20
35.00
-
8.75
157.22
2.50
Table 5.2.1: Nutrient composition of Roseate spoonbill and Scarlet ibis adult mix, DM base
(53.29 % water), Mulhouse Zoo values compared to mixes of dry pelleted diets (Lundi® and
Mazuri®)
42
Roseate spoonbill and Scarlet ibis hand-rearing mix
1
Characteristics
The hand-rearing protocol used in Mulhouse Zoo is a
simplified version of the protocol of Bird park
Walsrode (DE), but the mixture (sort of gruel) has the
same targets of nutrient composition. See chapter 8.5
for the detailed hand-rearing protocol.
Photo 5.2.2:
D. Gomis 2003, Mulhouse
Zoo: 14 day old HR
Roseate spoonbill
Photo 5.2.3:
D. Gomis 2003, Mulhouse
2 day old HR Scarlet ibis
Ingredients: gruel
50% One day old chicks (without legs, head, yolk sac and skin)
50% Beef heart
2,5 g Chick powder per 100 g mixture of chicks and beef heart
2
Nutrient Qty Unit
Ash 6.42 %
Calcium 2.10 %
Copper 15.36 mg/kg
Iodine 0.79 mg/kg
Iron 173.11 mg/kg
Magnesium 0.08 %
Phosphorus 1.50 %
Selenium 0.21 mg/kg
Sodium 0.50 %
Zinc 132.10 mg/kg
Calcium/Phosphor ratio 1.40
Nutrient Qty Unit
Arginine 2.17 %
Cystine 0.42 %
Isoleucine 1.43 %
Leucine 2.87 %
Lysine 2.68 %
Methionine 0.83 %
Threonine 1.53 %
Tryptophan 0.36 %
Tyrosine 1.18 %
Valine 1.70 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fiber 0.49 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fat 18.13 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Biotin 0.32 mg/kg
Folacin 0.57 mg/kg
Vit. B12 0.28 mcg/g
Vit. E 209.46 mg/kg
Table 5.2.4: Nutrient composition of Roseate spoonbill and Scarlet ibis hand-rearing mix, DM
base (73.21 % water)
43
5.3 BALD IBISES
Bald ibis adult mix
1 Characteristics
The bald ibis mix has the same composition as the scarlet ibis mix but contains no
colouring agent. The mix is also suitable during breeding season and for parent reared
chicks. For hand-reared chicks, Roseate spoonbill and Scarlet ibis hand-rearing
mix can be used (see chapter 8.5-2).
Ingredients:
Minced beef meat
One day chicks
Simial powder
Carnivore powder
500 g
500 g
300 g
20 g
See table 5.2.1
5.4 DARWIN’S RHEAS
Darwin’s Rhea hand-rearing mix
1 Characteristics
This mix is only used during the first 6 days of life, see hand-rearing protocol chapter
8.1.
Ingredients:
Dandelion
Carrots (grated)
Galli 16 pellets in powder
Boiled egg without shell
Crickets adult
Chick powder
2
100 g (mean 50% of the greens)
100 g (mean 50% of the greens)
20 g
25 g (mean ½ egg)
1,8 g (mean an average of 6 crickets/chick/day)
2 g (mean more or less 0.5-1% supplement)
Nutrient Qty Unit
Ash 9.16 %
Calcium 1.97 %
Copper 14.92 mg/kg
Iodine 0.68 mg/kg
Iron 138.30 mg/kg
Magnesium 0.19 %
Phosphorus 1.04 %
Selenium 0.45 mg/kg
Sodium 0.36 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fiber 3.65 %
NDF 8.36 %
ADF 5.09 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fat 8.03 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
44
Zinc 65.88 mg/kg
Calcium/Phosphor ratio 1.89 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Arginine 0.89 %
Cystine 0.28 %
Isoleucine 0.68 %
Leucine 1.08 %
Lysine 0.82 %
Methionine 0.31 %
Threonine 0.63 %
Biotin 0.25 mg/kg
Folacin 1.40 mg/kg
Vit. B12 0.02 mcg/g
Vit. E 140.75 mg/kg
Vit. K 0.38 mg/kg
Table 5.4: Nutrient composition of Darwin’s Rhea hand-rearing mix, DM base (78.71 % water)
5.5 TAMARINS
Tamarin gruel
1
Characteristics
This gruel (sort of semi-liquid mixture) was formulated in 1986 with 50% CP DM,
since it was expected that the mixture intake could be 50% of the total DMI per day (see
description of tamarin powder chapter 4.10). For this reason all other nutrients were
double the value required per day. At the beginning Callimiconidae and Callitrichidae
didn’t eat this gruel so well (low sweet taste), so more bananas were added: this meant
the protein percentage was decreased, and the intake of the mixture was below 50% on
DM (see graph 9.4.4.41), so the aimed 25% CP DM in the diet was not reached (further
details see chapters 9.4.3 and 9.4.4).
During winter time, the gruel is supplemented vith vit. D3: resulting winter diets intake
contain an average of 13.70 IU vit. D3/ g DMI, instead of 2.82 13.70 IU vit. D3/ g DMI
for summer diets (see comments on tables 9.4.4.47 and 9.4.4.48, chapter 9.4.4).
Ingredients:
Tamarin powder
240 g
Bananas
600 g
Water
1000 g
Isio 4 Oil
6g
Fruit syrup
150 g
Vitamin D3 (in winter time) 0.05 g (lab. BOUCHARA RECORDATI®, vit. D3 B.O.N.
200 000 IU/mL)
In winter supplemented with Vit D3: Vit. D3 reaches 30,89 IU Vit. D3/g
Nutrient Qty Unit
Ash 4.60 %
Calcium 1.04 %
Copper 12.41 mg/kg
Iodine 1.18 mg/kg
Nutrient Qty Unit
Arginine 0.67 %
Cystine 0.08 %
Histidine 0.57 %
45
Iron 54.13 mg/kg
Magnesium 0.56 %
Phosphorus 0.88 %
Potassium 0.62 %
Selenium 0.34 mg/kg
Sodium 0.03 %
Zinc 90.64 mg/kg
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fiber 6.95 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fat 5.23 %
Linoleic Acid 1.31 %
Linolenic Acid 0.08 %
Isoleucine 1.03 %
Leucine 1.61 %
Lysine 1.29 %
Methionine 0.50 %
Threonine 0.72 %
Tryptophan 0.20 %
Tyrosine 0.87 %
Valine 1.21 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Biotin 0.48 mg/kg
Folacin 1.17 mg/kg
Pantothenic Acid 4.52 mg/kg
Vit. E 179.69 mg/kg
Table 5.5.1: Nutrient composition of Tamarin gruel, DM basis (79.32 % water)
Tamarin cake
1 Characteristics
After having changed the diets by adding extra protein sources (boiled eggs, boiled
chicken meat, dog pellets, cheese and crickets), a dry gruel was tested: the ingredients
of this tamarin cake are almost the same as the tamarin gruel, but no water and less
syrup is used. Intake studies showed that some individuals or groups appreciate it, even
if not eaten in huge amounts (see table 9.4.4.46)
After several months, the interest for this new tamarin cake was decreasing in some
groups, and we decided to give it just in winter time. In fact, the keepers observed a
lower intake of gruel during this season: thus, it was more interesting to give it at this
time than in summer. We tried to demonstrate this seasonal variation in the gruel intake:
see S. bicolor, for which we made the higher number intake trials (number of
studies=45, number of days=355, see graphs 9.4.4.24, 9.4.4.25, 9.4.4.44 and 9.4.4.45).
It was not possible to make a fair conclusion.
Ingredients:
Tamarin powder
Bananas
Isio 4 oil
Fruit syrup
2
225 g
375 g
6g
18 g
Nutrient Qty Unit
Ash 4.53 %
Calcium 1.19 %
Copper 13.55 mg/kg
Iodine 1.37 mg/kg
Nutrient Qty Unit
Arginine 0.74 %
Cystine 0.08 %
Histidine 0.61 %
46
Iron 60.43 mg/kg
Magnesium 0.62 %
Phosphorus 1.01 %
Potassium 0.48 %
Selenium 0.39 mg/kg
Sodium 0.02 %
Zinc 102.96 mg/kg
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fiber 8.04 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fat 5.96 %
Isoleucine 1.17 %
Leucine 1.82 %
Lysine 1.46 %
Methionine 0.57 %
Threonine 0.81 %
Tryptophan 0.23 %
Tyrosine 0.99 %
Valine 1.38 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Biotin 0.56 mg/kg
Folacin 1.24 mg/kg
Vit. E 207.80 mg/kg
Table 5.5.2: Nutrient composition of Tamarin cake, DM basis (49.15 % water)
5.6 LEMURS & GIBBONS
Milk-bread mix
1 Characteristics
This mixture of bread, water and milk powder was made in order to include Vitapaulia
M in Lemuridae and Hylobatidae diets (see chapter 4.12). The receipe can change
depending on the type of bread used -usually it’s white commercially prepared breadand final consistency that animals eat better. As this mixture contains milk, the CP level
in DM is around 15 to 17% and proteins delivered by this mixture can indeed reach 13,6
% (in Lemuridae diets, see graph 9.4.1.10) to 21,8 % (in Nomascus diets, see graph
5.4.7.9) of the total intake proteins. Intake studies revealed higher incorporation than
first expected.
Proportions used for Lemurs:
Ingredients:
Bread, white 1000 g
Milk powder
220 g
Water
660 ml
Vitapaulia M
12 ml
Proportions used for Gibbons:
Ingredients:
Bread, white 1000 g
Milk powder
460 g
Water
1380 ml
Vitapaulia M 5.75 ml
47
2
Nutrient Qty Unit
Ash 3.93 %
Calcium 0.40 %
Cobalt 0.46 mg/kg
Copper 2.84 mg/kg
Iron 37.49 mg/kg
Magnesium 0.06 %
Phosphorus 0.32 %
Potassium 0.49 %
Selenium 0.39 mg/kg
Sodium 0.76 %
Zinc 17.09 mg/kg
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fat 8.59 %
Nutrient Quantity Unit
TDF 2.76 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Arginine 0.65 %
Cystine 0.28 %
Histidine 0.41 %
Isoleucine 0.83 %
Leucine 1.42 %
Lysine 0.85 %
Methionine 0.36 %
Threonine 0.62 %
Tryptophan 0.22 %
Tyrosine 0.64 %
Valine 0.93 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Folacin 1.25 mg/kg
Vit. B12 0.01mg/kg
Vit. E 12.79 mg/kg
Table 5.6.1: Nutrient composition of Milk-bread Lemurs, DM basis (70.90 % water)
Nutrient Qty Unit
Ash 3.50 %
Calcium 0.30 %
Cobalt 0.25 mg/kg
Copper 2.46 mg/kg
Iron 42.22 mg/kg
Magnesium 0.05 %
Phosphorus 0.24 %
Potassium 0.35 %
Selenium 0.41 mg/kg
Sodium 0.80 %
Zinc 13.77 mg/kg
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fat 7.27 %
Nutrient Quantity Unit
Nutrient Qty Unit
Arginine 0.58 %
Cystine 0.28 %
Histidine 0.35 %
Isoleucine 0.69 %
Leucine 1.19 %
Lysine 0.63 %
Methionine 0.30 %
Threonine 0.52 %
Tryptophan 0.19 %
Tyrosine 0.52 %
Valine 0.77 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Folacin 1.37 mg/kg
Vit. B12 0.00 mg/kg
48
TDF 3.16 %
Vit. E 9.73 mg/kg
Table 5.6.2: Nutrient composition of Milk-bread Gibbons, DM basis (61.39 % water)
49
6.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
6.1 FEEDING PROGRAMS
1 Research design
The feeding programs of all species present in Mulhouse Zoo were gathered in 2002.
Mean body weights, feeding times, food items, mean quantity of food per day and
special remarks per species were noted. If present, seasonal differences were also noted.
2 Materials
The scales used to weigh the food given to primates, carnivores, reptiles and birds were
accurate within 2 grams. The scales for the food of the ungulates was acurate within 100
and 500 g.
4 Data analysis
Total amount of food given per group was divided by the number of animals to
determine the amount of food given per animal. The diets were analysed for nutrient
content using ZOOTRITIONTM software (St Louis, SSE Inc.v2.6). All available nutrient
compositions of the commercial feeds, supplements and in-house mixes used in
Mulhouse Zoo were entered into ZOOTRITIONTM database before.
ZOOTRITIONTM v2.6 is a software package and database designed as a tool for zoos,
aquariums and training institutions to assist in the analysis and preparation of diets for
captive wild animals. We found this tool very useful for a quick analysis of the diets:
you just need to enter the intake values for each item, and it calculates the nutrient
composition of the diet, in DM or in AF basis. The database also includes requirements
and allows comparisons, group feeding formulation, energetics and body condition
management.
6.2 FOOD INTAKE
1 Research design
The purpose of performing an intake study is to determine the actual amount of food
consumed by an animal or a group of animals in an enclosure. Some diet components
may be given but not be consumed, therefore measuring the intake gives a better
evaluation of the nutritional adequacy of the diet possible.
1.
2.
3.
All food items were individually washed and prepared before being weighed
and then mixed into the feed pan.
The weights were automatically reported on a list of foods that are included in
each animal’s diet.
Ideally, a desiccation pan must be set up, separately from the feed pans, to
measure the amount of water lost to the air. This pan should be placed in an
area as similar as possible to the exhibit being evaluated.
50
4.
5.
6.
7.
The feed pans are left overnight and retrieved in the morning, with the
exception of Callitrichidae for which leftovers were taken in the evening after
the last meal.
We collected all food items remaining in the enclosure and separated them all
from each other.
Each item was weighed individually, including discarded items, and recorded
on the sheet.
Food amounts need to be adjusted using dessication factors measured with the
extra pan.
Intake studies comprising several observation periods have been conducted with the
species listed in table 6.2.1 below. Data collection has taken place between 15-01-2002
and 29-04-2007 at different moments of the year. Most observation periods for monkey
species lasted seven days, however some lasted up to eighteen days. The observation
period of Psittaciformes species lasted seven days and this study was repeated four
times.
During the sample weeks the bio-bedding in the indoor cages of the Callithricidae and
Cercopithecidae species was removed to simplify collecting the food leftovers.
Weighing the given diet and leftovers resulted in the real food intake. It was impossible
to collect all leftovers, but these non-collected amounts should be small enough to be
neglected.
Species
Most Lemuridae spp
Hapalemur spp
Eulemur coronatus
Propithecus verreauxi
coronatus
Pithecia pithecia
Callithricidae spp
Callimiconidae spp
Cebus apella
Ateles fusciceps
Cercopithecidae spp
Macaca tonkeana
Nomascus concolor spp
Hylobates pileatus
Psittaciformes spp
No. of studies
5
6
6
9
Total no. of days
35
40
42
63
14
99
Varies, see graphs
17
119
11
84
7
61
Varies, see graphs
3
29
6
42
5
44
Varies, see graphs
Start first study
08-08-2002
08-08-2002
22-07-2002
24-09-2002
End last study
13-04-2005
29-04-2007
13-04-2005
24-12-2006
12-02-2002
15-01-2002
15-01-2002
28-01-2002
03-07-2002
03-07-2002
02-07-2002
16-07-2002
03-07-2002
09-08-2002
12-01-2006
03-10-2006
28-03-2004
30-11-2003
16-11-2003
30-11-2003
13-07-2003
21-02-2005
21-03-2004
25-10-2002
Table 6.2.1: Information on studies per (group of) species
Family
Lemuridae
Cebidae
Species
Crowned lemur
Sclater's lemur
Mongoose lemur
Red-bellied lemur
Alaotran gentle lemur
Western grey gentle lemur
Ring-tailed lemur
Crowned sifaka
Red ruffed lemur
Black and white ruffed lemur
Columbian black spider monkey
Yellow-breasted capuchin
Latin name
Eulemur coronatus
Eulemur macaco flavifrons
Eulemur mongoz
Eulemur rubriventer
Hapalemur griseus aloatrensis
Hapalemur griseus occidentalis
Lemur catta
Propithecus verreauxi coronatus
Varecia variegata rubra
Varecia variegata variegata
Ateles fusciceps robustus
Cebus apella xanthosternos
51
Callimiconidae
Callitrichidae
Cercopithecidae
Macaca
Hylobatidae
Cacatuidae
Psittacidae
Black saki
Pale-headed/White faced saki
Bolivian Squirrel monkey
Goeldi’s monkey
White-faced marmoset
Pygmy marmoset
Golden-headed lion tamarin
Pied tamarin
Emperor tamarin
Red-handed tamarin
Cotton-top tamarin
Diana monkey
Owl-faced monkey
L'Hoest's monkey
Allen's swamp monkey
Tonkean macaque
Yellow-cheeked crested gibbon
Northern white-cheeked gibbon
Southern white-cheeked gibbon
Pileated gibbon
Salmon-crested cockatoo
Citron-crested cockatoo
Lilacine Amazon
Yellow-shouldered Amazon
Yellow-headed Amazon
Vinaceous Amazon
Hyacinth macaw
Buffon's macaw
Blue and yellow macaw
Scarlet macaw
Military macaw
Red-fronted macaw
Golden-capped conure
Hawk-headed parrot
Jardine's parrot
Brown-necked Parrot
Cape parrot
Chiropotes satanas
Pithecia pithecia
Saimiri boliviensis
Callimico goeldii
Callithrix geoffroyi
Cebuella pygmaea
Leontopithecus chrysomelas
Saguinus bicolor bicolor
Saguinus imperator subgrisescens
Saguinus midas midas
Saguinus oedipus oedipus
Cercopithecus diana roloway
Cercopithecus hamlyni
Cercopithecus lhoesti
Allenopithecus nigroviridis
Macaca tonkeana
Hylobates concolor gabriellae
Hylobates concolor leucogenys
Hylobates concolor siki
Hylobates pileatus
Cacatua moluccensis
Cacatua sulfurea citrinocristata
Amazona autumnalis lilacina
Amazona barbadensis
Amazona ochrocephala oratrix
Amazona vinacea
Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus
Ara ambigua
Ara ararauna
Ara macao
Ara militaris
Ara rubrogenys
Aratinga auricapilla
Deroptyus accipitrinus
Poicephalus gulielmi gulielmi
Poicephalus fuscicollis fuscicollis
Poicephalus robustus robustus
Table 6.2.2: Species used for the intake studies
2 Materials
The scale used for weighing the food had a precision of two grams. For data analyses
the computer programs ZOOTRITIONTM and MICROSOFT EXCEL® were used.
3 Group compositions
The group compositions of all species were kept the same during the observation
periods. Total food intake per group was divided by the amount of animals to determine
the food intake per animal. An adult animal is counted as one animal. A young eating
50% of an adult ration is counted as 0.5 animal.
Mulhouse Zoo keepers observed an evolution of the intake with growth. We were able
to modelize this for some lemur and gibbon species, as shown in the graphs below:
52
Concolor gibbons: observed "young coefficient" (Mulhouse Zoo)
1,00
1,00
0,90
0,80
0,80
0,70
0,60
0,50
0,50
0,40
0,30
0,25
0,20
0,10
0,10
0,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
months
Graph 6.2.3: Gibbons Intake young coefficient. Between age of 6 and 30 months, the coefficient
can be approximated with: “y = 0,0392x - 0,175” (R2 = 0,9897)
Concerning Prosimians, young adult animals can eat more than an adult one, thus young
coefficient can reach 1.10 or 1.15 between 10 and 11 months of age:
Prosimians: observed "young coefficient" (Mulhouse Zoo)
1,15
1,05
0,95
0,85
0,75
0,65
0,55
0,45
0,35
0,25
0,15
0,05
-0,05
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
-0,15
Varecia spp.
Eulemur spp.
months
Linéaire (Varecia spp.)
Linéaire (Eulemur spp.)
Hapalemur spp.
Graph 6.2.4: Lemurs Intake young coefficient (age in months).
Between age of 1 and 12 months, the coefficient can be approximated with:
“y = 0,1014x - 0,0008” for Varecia and Hapalemur; “y = 0,1019x - 0,1083” for Eulemur.
53
(0,1)
Geoffroyi
born
02/05/2003
(0,1)
Chrysomel
as
born
08/07/2003
(1,0)
Oedipus
born
20/07/2005
(0,1)
Midas
born
14/06/2003
(1,0)
Pygmea
born
28/07/2002
(1,0)
Pithecia
born
30/05/2003
young coeff
0
0
0,5
0,5
0,5
0,75
0,75
0,75
start date of
the study
age in days
19/05/2003
23/06/2003
11/08/2003
29/09/2003
20/10/2003
17/11/2003
22/12/2003
19/01/2004
17
52
101
150
171
199
234
262
ARKS n°
young coeff
M03053
M03053
M03053
M03053
M03053
M03053
M03053
M03053
0
0,5
0,5
0,75
0,75
0,75
0,75
start date of
the study
age in days
ARKS n°
21/07/2003
18/08/2003
29/09/2003
20/10/2003
17/11/2003
22/12/2003
19/01/2004
13
M03110
41
M03110
83
M03110
104
M03110
132
M03110
167
M03110
195
M03110
young coeff
start date of
the study
age in days
0,75
30/11/2005
133
ARKS n°
young coeff
M05115
0
0,5
0,75
0,75
0,75
1
start date of
the study
age in days
23/06/2003
04/08/2003
16/09/2003
06/10/2003
10/11/2003
08/12/2003
9
51
94
114
149
177
ARKS n°
young coeff
M03082
M03082
M03082
M03082
M03082
M03082
0,5
0,5
0,5
1
1
1
start date of
the study
age in days
ARKS n°
young coeff
09/12/2002
20/01/2003
17/02/2003
24/03/2003
28/04/2003
02/06/2003
134
M02080
176
M02080
204
M02080
239
M02080
274
M02080
309
M02080
0
0,2
0,5
0,75
0,75
1
1
start date of
the study
age in days
ARKS n°
23/06/2003
04/08/2003
22/09/2003
20/10/2003
17/11/2003
22/12/2003
19/01/2004
24
M03070
66
M03070
115
M03070
143
M03070
171
M03070
206
M03070
234
M03070
Table 6.2.5: 5 young Callitrichidae and 1White-faced Saki: Intake young coefficient
Concerning the Callitrichidae and Pithecia, we followed 6 families with only 1 young
reared at this time (see table 6.2.5). Finding out the young coefficient remain more
difficult for these species (increased intake for lactating and again pregnant females!):
results are presented on the graph below but should be further investigated….
1
0,9
0,8
0,7
Depending on
the species and
mother’s
behaviour,
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
are usually
not
seen eating
before the age
of one
or two months.
0,2
0,1
0
1
31
61
91
121
151
181
211
241
271
301
days
(0,1) Geoffroyi
(0,1) Chrysomelas
(1,0) Oedipus
(0,1) Midas
(1,0) Pygmea
(1,0) Pit hecia
Logarit hmique ((0,1) Chrysomelas)
Logarit hmique ((0,1) Geoffroyi)
Logarit hmique ((0,1) Midas)
Polynomial ((1,0) Pithecia)
Puissance ((1,0) Pygmea)
Graph 6.2.6: Callitrichidae and Pithecia intake young coefficient.
54
5 Keeping conditions and daily routine
Animals of the same species were housed in roughly the same enclosures. Some gibbon
and tamarin species were housed in different buildings and were fed by two different
teams of keepers (see comments and graphs 9.4.4.39 and 9.4.4.40). The other primate
and the Psittaciformes species were all fed by the same keepers. The daily routine for
the animals during the observation periods was kept the same.
6 Data analysis
The food intake was calculated by subtracting the amount of food leftovers from the
total amount of food offered to the animals the day before. The data of different
observation periods was compared to calculate the mean food intake per animal per
species. A comparison between species was made.
Intake studies were each time taken during 7 consecutive days, the averages of intake
amounts were calculated with MICROSOFT EXCEL® tables.
Amounts in g. 16/07/02 17/07/02 18/07/02 19/07/02 20/07/02 23/07/02 24/07/02 Average Average / adult
Apples
819
730
606
758
580
864
808
737,9
207,8
Bananas
449
530
514
293
513
550
127
425,1
119,8
Cooked carrots
9
94
89
110
100
102
133
91,0
25,6
Milk bread
164
170
188
177
195
300
185
197,0
55,5
« Simial » powder
41
65
33
43
54
54
69
51,3
14,4
Lettuce
106
268
166
164
75
110
97
140,9
39,7
Chicory
0
0
0
0
0
248
0
35,4
10,0
Leeks
0
0
0
0
0
0
22
3,1
0,9
Cabbage
0
0
0
0
0
0
68
9,7
2,7
Cucumber
54
108
58
110
113
87
70
85,7
24,1
Peppers
28
0
35
0
62
0
0
17,9
5,0
Aubergine
0
23
43
0
70
40
40
30,9
8,7
Grapefruit
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0,0
0,0
Melon
0
0
0
349
0
340
0
98,4
27,7
Plums
0
0
0
0
114
0
0
16,3
4,6
Pears
0
0
0
173
102
0
0
39,3
11,1
Pineapple
348
0
0
0
0
0
0
49,7
14,0
Grapes
0
386
299
0
0
0
609
184,9
52,1
Sunflower seeds
42
42
42
42
42
42
42
42,0
11,8
“Crousti’ croc” pel. 41
41
41
41
41
41
41
40,5
11,4
“Simial” pellets
68
68
68
68
68
68
68
67,5
19,0
Total
2168
2524
2181
2327
2128
2845
2356 2361,3
665,2
Table 6.2.7: Eg. intake study for a family of Yellow-cheeked crested gibbons
In this example, the family consisted of the breeding pair and two young,
the 1st one was 3 years and 10 months old, the 2nd was 1 year and 7 months old.
Intake composition was first evaluated on an AF basis in order to work with major
feeds. In Mulhouse Zoo, diets seem very complicated but that’s only because we receive
most fruits and vegetables for free from supermarkets, and because the donation varies
from day to day. MICROSOFT EXCEL® averages were calculated even if only given
once (in other Zoos, diets can be much easier to monitor and calculate!). AF percentages
were translated to a DM basis, which is better to monitor Crude Protein levels (CP) and
thus pellets’ incorporation.
55
6.3 CARNIVORE POWDER SUPPLEMENTATION
1 Research design
This research has been conducted with Timber wolfs Canis lupus occidentalis, Brown
bears Ursus arctos, Polar bears Ursus maritimus, Sand cats Felis margarita, Little
spotted cats Felis tigrina, Pallas’s cats Otocolobus manul, Lynx Lynx lynx, Amur
leopards Panthera pardus orientalis, Persian leopards Panthera pardus saxicolor, Snow
leopards Panthera uncia and Siberian tigers Panthera tigris altaica in Mulhouse Zoo.
The weights of the pieces of meat and the supplemented carnivore powder offered to
these species were weighed during a period of four weeks.
2 Materials
A scale within a precision of 2,5 grams was used to weigh the meat and the carnivore
powder. The computer program MICROSOFT EXCEL® was used for data analysis.
3 Data analysis
For each measure, the powder/meat-ratio was determined in g/kg. The results were
sorted by species and afterwards by meat type. A graphic representation was used to
situate and compare the measures with the expected values of 20 and 25 g/kg, with the
weight of meat in kg as the x scale and the weight of carnivore powder in grams as the y
scale. Two lines were drawn with y = 20x - 2,5 and y = 25x + 2,5 to show the range
where the measures should fall within, taken in account an imprecision of 2,5 grams. In
this way the percentage of measures coming up to the expectations could be determined.
56
7.
REPTILE DIETS
All feeding programs show the amount per food item given per animal per day,
unless indicated differently. Hand-rearing protocols are given if they were used
successfully in Zoo Mulhouse.
7.1 TESTUDINES
1 Testudinidae
Astrochelys radiata.............................….................................................Radiated tortoise
Geochelone sulcata.......................................................................African spurred tortoise
Testudo graeca...................................................................................Spur-thighed tortoise
Testudo graeca graeca...............................................Mediterranean spur-thighed tortoise
Testudo graeca ibera.......................................................Asia minor spur-thighed tortoise
Testudo graeca terrestris...............................................Middle East spur-thighed tortoise
Testudo hermanni..................................................................................Hermann's tortoise
Testudo hermanni hermanni.....................................................Balkan Hermann's tortoise
Testudo hermanni boettgeri......................................................Eastern Hermann's tortoise
Feeding program
The same fruits and vegetables are not available every day, as many of them are
received from supermarkets. Tortoise powder (see chapter 4.5) was calculated to suit for
any mix composed by 500g of fruits and vegetables from group A + 250g of fruits and
vegetables from group B + 100g of fruits and vegetables from group C. Fruits only
have to represent 10% AF of the mix. Incorporation of powder is 50g /kg fruits and
vegetables mix. Tortoises are fed once every morning.
Group A
(500g)
Group B
(250g)
Group C
(100g)
Endive, dandelion, lettuce,
radishes leaves, celery, mache
Cabbage, broccoli, spinach,
tomatoes, cucumber, aubergines,
courgette, apples
Carrots, french bean, clementine,
oranges, figs, grapes, water melon
Photo 7.1.1: D. Gomis 2004
Radiated tortoise, hatching, Mulhouse Zoo
Diet composition:
Nutrient Unit
Mix 1
Tortoises
Acid Lignin
%
ADF
%
Cellulose
%
Crude Fiber
%
Lignin
%
0,04
4,78
3,06
3,97
0,73
Mix 2
Tortoises
0,03
3,67
2,17
3,28
0,56
Mix 3
Tortoises
0,05
5,63
3,33
4,19
0,84
Mix 4
Tortoises
0,06
5,55
3,23
4,06
0,82
57
NDF
%
6,19
Total Dietary Fiber
%
22,12
Water Soluble
%
2,16
Carbohydrates
Nutrient Category:
Fat
Arachidonic Acid
%
0,00
Crude Fat
%
3,59
Linoleic Acid
%
0,80
Linolenic Acid
%
0,47
Monounsaturated Fats
%
0,14
PUFA
%
1,40
Saturated Fats
%
0,44
Nutrient Category:
Protein
Arginine
%
0,81
Crude Protein
%
18,77
Cystine
%
0,16
Histidine
%
0,30
Isoleucine
%
0,65
Leucine
%
1,04
Lysine
%
0,82
Methionine
%
0,22
Phenylalanine
%
0,64
Threonine
%
0,55
Tryptophan
%
0,16
Tyrosine
%
0,40
Valine
%
0,71
Biotin
mg/kg
0,60
Choline
mg/kg
2.078,99
Folacin
mg/kg
5,28
Pantothenic Acid
mg/kg
11,49
Vit A
IU A/g
246,38
Vit B1 (Thiamin)
mg/kg
73,12
Vit B12 *
mcg/g
0,04
Vit B2 (Riboflavin)
mg/kg
5,50
Vit B3 (Niacin)
mg/kg
32,83
Vit B6 (Pyridoxine)
mg/kg
17,47
Vit C Ascorbic Acid mg/kg
1.344,62
Vit D3
IU Vit D3/g
6,51
Vit E
mg/kg
236,22
Vit K
mg/kg
0,16
Ash
%
10,12
Calcium
%
1,13
Chloride
%
0,05
Cobalt
mg/kg
0,02
Copper
mg/kg
20,46
Iodine
mg/kg
1,51
Iron
mg/kg
132,98
Magnesium
%
0,20
Manganese
mg/kg
141,25
Phosphorus
%
0,54
Potassium
%
2,09
Selenium
mg/kg
0,51
Sodium
%
0,47
Sulfur
%
0,03
Zinc
mg/kg
96,75
Ca/P ratio
2,10
4,72
18,76
2,14
7,14
20,42
2,16
7,03
20,34
2,16
0,00
3,24
0,73
0,37
0,12
1,21
0,38
0,00
3,52
0,78
0,41
0,15
1,30
0,43
0,00
3,47
0,78
0,42
0,15
1,32
0,43
0,67
16,05
0,13
0,25
0,52
0,85
0,67
0,18
0,53
0,44
0,13
0,31
0,57
0,73
17,56
0,15
0,27
0,59
0,92
0,74
0,20
0,57
0,49
0,14
0,36
0,64
0,74
17,81
0,15
0,27
0,59
0,93
0,75
0,21
0,58
0,50
0,14
0,37
0,65
0,60
2.057,56
3,96
10,13
158,16
71,43
0,04
4,13
25,65
15,67
1.061,87
6,44
220,77
0,16
0,60
2.079,71
5,00
12,37
259,28
72,90
0,04
5,21
33,08
17,16
1.449,38
6,51
235,51
0,16
0,60
2.080,67
5,10
12,34
209,95
72,98
0,04
5,24
32,00
17,03
1.448,16
6,52
236,50
0,16
8,75
1,05
0,05
0,01
19,22
1,49
112,62
0,15
133,70
0,49
1,66
0,50
0,43
0,03
92,18
2,14
9,97
1,09
0,05
0,02
20,10
1,51
125,59
0,18
140,33
0,52
2,04
0,51
0,46
0,03
95,43
2,10
9,96
1,09
0,05
0,02
20,14
1,51
126,64
0,18
140,77
0,52
2,01
0,50
0,46
0,03
95,23
2,10
Table 7.1.2
58
350
325
300
275
250
225
200
175
150
125
100
75
50
25
0
1 2
3 4 5 6
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
Graph 7.1.3 : Growing weights for 49 Radiated tortroises (g, months) hatched in Mulhouse Zoo
between 2001 and 2006 over 36 months; established by M. Vogel (Mulhouse Zoo 2007)
Photo 7.1.4: D. Gomis
2007: 1 day old
Spur-thighed tortoise
(ssp nabeulensis),
Mulhouse Zoo
Photo 7.1.5: D. Gomis
2004: 3 day old
Radiated tportoise,
Mulhouse Zoo
Pelomedusidae
Pelomedusa subrufa…................................................................... African helmeted turtle
Feeding program
Fed once a day, depending on appetite. Mealworms, Crousti’ Croc pellets, pinkies,
tench pieces, …
Emydidae
Emys orbicularis…............................................................................ European pond turtle
Feeding program
Adults are fed 4 times a week in outside ponds, depending on appetite. Available fishes
(tench, roach, bream, smelt, small pond fishes, herring) and beef heart pieces.
59
Hand-rearing pudding
Juveniles are fed every day. It’s important to remove leftovers and keep always water
clean. German breeders developed this pudding receipt for starting juveniles:
- 20
box containing 3 packs of Gelatine
- 1,5 kg Trout (whole)
- 0,72 kg Schrimp
- 0,54 kg Mussel
- 1,5 kg Beef fillet
- 1,5 L
Milk
-6
Eggs
-9
glasses of vegetables for babys (young carrots, garden vegetables, spinach)
- 300 g Rabbit or poultry liver
-6
soup spoons Vitamines (eg Korvimin ZVT)
- 2,5 L
Water
- Red food coloring can be used to better stimulate juveniles to eat
7.2 CROCODYLIA
Crocodylinae
Osteolaemus tetraspis tetraspis...........................................West African dwarf crocodile
Feeding program 2 times a week
16.00hr
half a chicken, chicken meat or rats (amounts depending on appetite)
7.3 OPHIDIA
Boidae
Sanzinia madagascariensis................................….......…..………...Madagascar tree boa
Feeding program 1 time a week
16.00hr
mice (amounts depending on appetite and growth stage)
60
8.
BIRD DIETS
All feeding programs show the amount of food items given per animal per day,
unless indicated differently. Hand-rearing protocols are given if they are used
successfully in Mulhouse Zoo.
8.1 RHEIFORMES
Rheidae
Pterocnemia pennata.........................................…..........….........................Darwin’s rhea
Fed once a day. Adult weight is between 15 and 30 kg.
Feeding program
08.00hr
500 g Galli 16 pellets (only in October-April)
500 g Galli 24 pellets (only from April-October)
grass ad lib
Note: When growing, the rheas are fed with Ostrich growth pellets. Adult rheas are
housed together with the vicunas and some Herbivore pellets can be eaten.
Hand-rearing protocol
Many attempts of hand-rearing protocols have been tried without great success. The
more successful one was developped by Jean-François Lefèvre (Mulhouse Zoo head
keeper) in 2006:
- Day 0 to 6: Ad lib: Darwin’s rhea hand-rearing mix (see chapter 5.4).
Photo 8.1.1: S. Carton 2006: 6 day old Darwin’s rhea, Mulhouse Zoo.
It’s important to place food on high position
- Day 7 to 36 : Ad lib: 50% AF dandelion, 50% AF grated carrots, 1/2 hard-boiled egg
without shell, galli 16 pellets reduced in powder, 0.5-1.0% chick powder, 6 adult
house crickets
61
Photo 8.1.2: S. Carton 2006:
15 day old Darwin’s rhea,
Mulhouse Zoo
Rheas need exercise, put on
green paddock and provide
some sand or gravel.
- Day 36 to 45: Ad lib : 50% AF curly lettuce, 50% AF grated carrots, 1 hard-boiled egg
without shell, ½ galli 16 pellets + ½ stabimil pellets reduced in powder, 0.5-1.0%
chick powder
- From day 45: Ad lib: grass and ½ galli16 pellets + ½ stabimil pellets
- From 3-4 months: Ad lib: grass and Ostrich growth pellets
Extra supplements:
- Day 0 to 45 : Give PO extra supplement containing vit A, D3, E, F, K3, B1, B2, B3,
B6, B12, C, PP, Folic acid, Cu, Mn, Zn, Mg, Tau, Met, Lys, Choline, Glutamic acid,
Gly (eg. Tonivit, TVM®: 1 drop/ 200 g BW).
- During growth : depending on diet composition, extra IM Vit E+Se may be needed,
we observed some cases of myopathy even at the age of 2 months (eg. Selepherol,
VETOQUINOL® containing 3,82g/100mL vit.E + 23mg/100mL Se, 0.22 to 0.43
mL/kg BW).
2500
2250
2000
1750
1500
1250
1000
750
500
250
0
1
3
5
7
9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45
Graph 8.1.3 : Growing weights for 3 HR Darwin’s rheas (g, days)
established by J.-F. Lefèvre (Mulhouse Zoo 2006)
62
8.2 CASUARIIFORMES
Casuariidae
Casuarius casuarius.................…..............…...........................Double-wattled cassowary
Fed once a day. Males weigh about 35 kg, females weigh up to 60 kg.
Feeding program
17.00hr
2,5 kg Apples in pieces
260 g Bananas in pieces
700 g Simial powder
grass ad lib, sometimes season fruits (grapes, melon pieces, …)
Diet composition
Nutrient Qty Unit
Ash 8.15 %
Calcium 1.61 %
Copper 28.38mg/kg
Iodine 0.08 mg/kg
Iron 172.18 mg/kg
Magnesium 0.14 %
Phosphorus 0.98 %
Selenium 0.24 mg/kg
Sodium 0.34 %
Zinc 25.33 mg/kg
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fiber 5.06 %
NDF 10.67 %
ADF 6.77 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Arginine 1.00 %
Cystine 0.33 %
Isoleucine 0.79 %
Leucine 1.86 %
Lysine 0.86 %
Methionine 0.43 %
Threonine 0.66 %
Folacin 0.11 mg/kg
Nutrient Qty Unit
Crude Fat 4.76 %
Nutrient Qty Unit
Vit. C (Ascorbic acid) mg/kg
Vit. E 39.78 mg/kg
Vit. K 1.27 mg/kg
Table 8.2: Nutrient composition of Cassowary mix, DM basis (68.25 % water)
8.3 SPHENISCIFORMES
Spheniscidae
Spheniscus demersus.............…................................................................Jackass penguin
Fed once a day, and 1 to 2 times more with little amounts of herring if parent reared
chicks are in the enclosure. Adult weight is 2.7 - 3.6 kg.
Feeding program
15.15hr
470 g Herring, sometimes the herring is partly substituted by capelin
63
Supplements:
capsules containing 75mg Vit.E + 125mg Vit.B1 are fed three times a week, each
individual approximately receives 2 capsules (eg.. 45 fishes are supplemented and given
by hand / 20 penguins).
Diet composition:
see table 8.4.3.
Hand-rearing protocol:
This protocol was established by E. Bureau, DVM and J.-F. Lefèvre in Villars les
Dombes Bird Park, France, for Humboldt penguins, and sucessfully used in Mulhouse
Zoo for Jackass penguins.
First meal is only given 12 -18h after hatching. Temperature may be 35°C (humidity 4550%) and can be reduced to 31°C after 4 days. The gruel has to be heated to 36°C for 1h
½ before using.
Photo 8.3.1 D. Gomis 2005: 14 day old Jackass penguins in incubator, Mulhouse Zoo
(Iodine solution is added in the humidity water dish)
Hand-rearing gruel :
40%
60%
2%
1%
1
fish fillet (2/3 low-fat fish (withing, pollack, codfish) + 1/3 fat fish (mackerel))
salt water (9g salt / 1L bottle water)
ISIO 4 oil
Bi-calcic phosphate
capsule Tryplase / 100g gruel. (capsules contianing 500mg of porc pancreas
extract; lipase activity 14000 Un.FIP, amylase activity 10000 Un.FIP, protease
activity 500 Un.FIP; INTERVET®)
64
Day 0 to 30 : 4 meals of this gruel / day. Quantity of gruel is determinated with graph
8.3.2.
Eg.. if one 5 day old chick weighs 70g, the graph gives a value of 33%: this chick
should eat 4 meals of: ((70 x 0.33) / 4) = 5.78g each meal.
Mineral, vitamin and amino-acid supplement :
- From hatch BW to 200g BW: every day Tonivit, TVM®: 1 drop PO/ 200 g BW (see
content chapter 8.1) + one day UltraB (10g/100mL Vit.B1 and 0.8g/100mL Vit.B6;
Schering-Plough®) 0.10mL PO/ kg BW and the day after Méthio-B12 (25g/100mL
acetyl met and 5g/100mL L-Arg; Schering-Plough®) 0.20 mL PO/ kg BW
- From 200g BW: once the chick’s BW reach 200g, stop using Tonivit, UltraB and
Méthio-B12 and start supplementing with Mazuri® fish-eating tablets: 0,08g/200g BW
44
42
40
38
36
34
32
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Graph 8.3.2 : Daily intake percentage for hand-rearing Humbolt or Jackass penguins (%, days)
established by E. Bureau, DVM and J.-F. Lefèvre (Villars les Dombes Bird Park)
65
2500
2400
2300
2200
2100
2000
1900
1800
1700
1600
1500
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1
3
5
7
9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45
Graph 8.3.3 : Growing weights for 4 HR or partially h-r Jackass penguins (g, days)
established by J.-F. Lefèvre (Mulhouse Zoo 2005-2007)
8.4 PELICANIFORMES
1 Pelecanidae
Pelecanus crispus............…...................................................................Dalmatian pelican
Fed once a day. When fish quantity is high, half of the amount is given at 11.00hr. The
other half is given at 15.45hr. The amounts differ per week depending on appetite.
Adult weight is 10 kg.
Feeding program:
15.45hr
0.44 kg - 2.0 kg fish, average 1.5 kg of Tench
Note: When fish quantity is high, half of the amount is given at 11.00hr. The amounts
differ per week.
Supplements: three times a week ¼ tablet of Bevitine (D.B.PHARMA®) 250 mg vit.B1
per fish, each individual approximately receives 1 full tablet (eg.. 80 fish are
supplemented and given by hand / 20 pelicans).
Diet composition:
see table 8.4.3.
66
Dombes Bird Park, France, and sucessfully used in Mulhouse Zoo.
The first meal is only given after 6 -12h after hatching. A temperature of 35°C
(humidity 45-50%) can be reduced to 31°C after 4 days. The gruel has to be heated to
40°C for 1h ½ to 2h before using.
Hand-rearing gruel :
50% low-fat fish fillet (roach, bream)
50% salt water (9g salt / 1L bottle water)
2% ISIO 4 vegetal oil
0.5% Bi-calcic phosphate
1
capsule Tryplase / 80g gruel. (capsules contianing 500mg of porc pancreas
extract; lipase activity 14000 Un.FIP, amylase activity 10000 Un.FIP, protease
activity 500 Un.FIP; INTERVET®)
4 meals of this gruel / day during the first 40 days, after only 3 meals/ day. Quantity of
gruel is determinated with graph 8.4.1
Eg.. if one 5 day old chick weigh 138g, the graph gives a value of 34.5%: this chick
should eat 4 meals of: ((138 x 0.345) / 4) = 11.90g each one.
- Days 2 et 3 : 4 meals of gruel
- From day 4 : Begin to replace gruel by little pieces of fish (roach, bream, carp)
- From day 6 : Gruel quantity is fixed to not more than 10 g/ meal
- From day 11: Begin to incorporate whole small fishes (smelt, small pond fishes)
- From day 13: Stop giving gruel. Give Bi-calcic phosphate in each meal (0,5%AF of
the diet quantity) and 0,5 mL of oil/ bird/ day
- From day 20: Stop giving fish fillet, use only whole small fishes (cut in 3 pieces for
roach type eg.)
Every day Tonivit, TVM®: 5 drop PO/ kg BW (see content chapter 8.1)
+ one day UltraB (10g/100mL Vit.B1 and 0.8g/100mL Vit.B6; Schering-Plough®):
0.10mL PO/ kg BW
and the day after Méthio-B12 (25g/100mL acetyl met and 5g/100mL L-Arg; ScheringPlough®): 0.20 mL PO/ kg BW.
2 Phalacrocoracidae
Phalacrocorax carbo............................................................................Common cormoran
Fed once a day. Adult weight is 2.5 kg.
Feeding program
11.30hr
470 g fish (Tench) and chicks
67
42
40
38
36
34
32
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1
3
5
7
9
11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43
Graph 8.4.1 : Daily intake percentage for hand-rearing Dalamtian pelicans (%, days)
3800
3600
3400
3200
3000
2800
2600
2400
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1
3
5
7
9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45
Graph 8.4.2 : Growing weights for 2 HR Dalmatian pelicans (g, days)
established by J.-M. Lernould, DVM and P. Moisson, DVM (Mulhouse Zoo 1997)
68
Diet composition (DM basis):
Nutrient
Unit
Pelecanus
crispus
Spheniscus
demersus
Min./Max.
recommend.
Zoo Mulh.
22,59
31,36
10,00/
1,11/
63,98
59,62
Nutrient Category:
Crude Fat
Linoleic Acid
Fat
%
%
Nutrient Category:
Arginine
Crude Protein
Cystine
Histidine
Isoleucine
Leucine
Lysine
Methionine
Phenylalanine
Threonine
Tryptophan
Tyrosine
Protein
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
Nutrient Category:
Biotin
Choline
Folacin
Pantothenic Acid
Vit A
Vit B1 (Thiamin)
Vit B2 (Riboflavin)
Vit B3 (Niacin)
Vit B6 (Pyridoxine)
Vit D3
Vit E
Vitamins
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
IU A/g
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
IU Vit D3/g
mg/kg
Nutrient Category:
Ash
Calcium
Copper
Iodine
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Potassium
Selenium
Sodium
Zinc
Ash/Minerals
%
12,40
%
2,20
mg/kg
4,80
mg/kg
mg/kg
55,28
%
0,10
mg/kg
4,00
%
%
mg/kg
%
mg/kg
86,28
26,69
282,25
22,87
798,85
313,71
572,49
7,89
2,50
2,30
98,07
0,10
7,49
61,02
1,60/
22,00/ 35,00
0,48/
0,39/
0,89/
1,50/
1,33/
0,56/
0,80/
0,89/
0,26/
0,69/
0,11/
1.700,00/
0,54/
11,10/
1,67/ 3,50
110,00/
3,22/
36,71/
3,10/
3,60/0,50
400,00/
0,80/ 1,64
5,00/ 6,67
0,39/
73,35/ 80,00
0,05/ 0,06
38,85/
0,60/ 0,39
0,33/
0,13/
0,17/
44,45/ 50,00
Table 8.4.3
69
8.5 CICONIIFORMES
1 Ardeidae
Ciconia ciconia..............................…...............................................................White stork
Fed twice a day. Adult weight is 3.5 kg.
Feeding program
Summer:
08.00hr
200 g chicks, minced beef and fish (Herring)
16.00hr
Winter:
08.00hr
16.00hr
Dombes Bird Park, France, for White storks and Abdim’s storks, and sucessfully used
in Mulhouse Zoo for White storks.
The first meal is only given after 10-12h after hatching. A temperature of 30°C
(humidity 45-50%) can be reduced to 25°C after 4 days. Feeds have to be heated to 2530°C with water, for 1h before using. BW growth should be 10 à 15% / day.
Hand-rearing feeds: Beef meat, fish, mice
Day 1 to 5 :
50% fish fillet (roach, bream, smelt, etc)
50% beef meat
1 capsule Tryplase / 100g
(capsules contianing 500mg of porc pancreas extract; lipase activity 14000
Un.FIP, amylase activity 10000 Un.FIP, protease activity 500 Un.FIP;
INTERVET®)
4 meals of this gruel / day during the first 20 days. Quantity of food is determinated
with graph 8.5.1
Eg.. if one 5 day old chick weigh 95g, the graph gives a value of 29%: this chick should
eat 4 meals of: ((95 x 0.29) / 4) = 6.88g each one.
From day 6 :
Use whole fish cut in pieces
- From hatch BW to 500g BW: every day Tonivit, TVM®: 5 drops PO/ kg BW (see
content chapter 8.1
- From 500g BW: once chick’s BW reach 500g, stop using Tonivit and start
supplementing with Mazuri® fish-eating tablets: ½ / bird
- From 1 kg BW: Mazuri® fish-eating tablets: 1 / bird and don’t increase this quantity
Calcium phosphate tricalcic : 1% AF
70
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 11 12 13
14 15 16
17
18
19
Graph 8.5.1 : Daily intake percentage for hand-rearing Storks (%, days)
established by J.-F. Lefèvre (Villars les Dombes Bird Park)
375
350
325
300
275
250
225
200
175
150
125
100
75
50
25
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Gaph 8.5.2 : Growing weights for 4 HR White storks (g, days)
71
Ciconia nigra.....................................................................................................Black stork
Fed three times per day. Adult weight is 3 kg.
Feeding program:
08.00hr
333 g chicks
11.15hr
165 g fish (Capelin, Whiting, Herring or sometimes Tench)
15.45hr
165 g fish (Capelin, Whiting, Herring or sometimes Tench)
Same as for white storks.
Photo 8.5.3: D. Gomis 2007: 8 day old HR Black stork, Mulhouse Zoo
2500
2400
2300
2200
2100
2000
1900
1800
1700
1600
1500
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Graph 8.5.4 : Growing weights for 1 HR Black stork (g, days)
72
2 Threskiornithidae
Ajaia ajaja......….....................................................................................Roseate spoonbill
Eudocimus ruber..........................................................…..................................Scarlet ibis
Geronticus eremita................................................................................................Bald ibis
Lophotibis cristata...............................................................….....Madagascar crested ibis
Food is distributed once a day ad lib. Adult weight is 1.2 - 1.8 kg for roseate spoonbill,
0.7 - 0.9 kg for scarlet ibis, 1.2 kg for bald ibis and 1,5 kg for Madagascar crested ibis.
Feeding program
08.30hr
300 g Ibis mix (for roseate spoonbill)
200 g Ibis mix (for scarlet ibis)
260 g Ibis mix (for bald ibis)
250 g Ibis mix (for Madagascar crested ibis)
Supplements: 5,5 g Carophyll per 2 kg ibis mix (for roseate spoonbill and scarlet ibis)
This hand-rearing protocol was established in Mulhouse Zoo adapting the protocol from
Bird Park Walsrode, Germany.
Hand-rearing gruel: (see composition Table 5.2.4)
50% chicks (remove legs, head, yolk sac and skin)
50% beef heart
2,5 g chick powder per 100g of this mixture
The chick powder is added at the start of mixing (mix a bit, add the powder, finish
mixing).
The gruel is prepared in advance and packed in small pots. The pots are immediately put
into the deep freezer (-20°C). To defrost they are put in the refrigerator the evening
before. First days (small quantity): 1 pot = different meals, so at the time of the first
meal in the morning, the gruel is re-packed in order to heat only the quantity needed.
These small quantities heat up quicker, so in the beginning half an hour or even 15
minutes is sometimes enough: use of bain-marie to get temperature at approx. 34°C.
Mesure the temperature before feeding the bird. Bain-marie is better then adding warm
water or microwave- ven.
When the quantity per meal is large enough, it is more practical to take one pot for each
meal. All the gruel prepared for the day stays in the refrigerator until heated.
Hand-rearing gruel is completed with fish (smelt, cut in 2 pieces, pieces are given
entirely with 2g of chick powder per 100g of fish) once ibises reach 220g BW and
spoonbills 500g BW.
Adult mixture (see chapter 5.2) is only introduced once ibises reach 450g BW and
spoonbills 900g BW (see table 8.5.7).
73
Photos 8.5.5 and 8.5.6: D. Gomis 2003, Mulhouse Zoo:
getting Roseate spoonbills and Scarlet ibises used to adult mix
In our experience, using BW scores for deciding food transitions seem more exact than
giving days, as we now have enough BW datas to compare with (see graphs 8.5.8 and
8.5.9).
Day 2-11
~Day 12-26
reached 220g
~Day 27
reached 450g
~Day 28
~Day 29
Ibis
24-30
hours
after
hatching
Spoonbill
Weaning: ad lib Ibis Mixture, make little balls and stimulate as many times as possible
per day
24-30
hours
after
hatching
Day 2-12
~Day 13-25
reached 500g
~Day 25
reached 900g
~Day 26
~Day 27
Introduction
fish
Introduction Ibis Mixture (I.M.)
07h30 gruel
07h30 gruel
10h30 gruel
10h30 smelt
13h30 gruel
13h30 gruel
07h30 1/3 I.M.
2/3 gruel
10h30 1/3 I.M.
2/3 gruel
13h30 smelt
16h30 gruel
16h30 smelt
19h00 gruel
19h00 gruel
First
liquid
meal
(remixed
gruel)
16h30 1/2 I.M.
1/2 gruel
19h00 1/2 I.M.
1/2 gruel
07h30 1/2 I.M.
1/2 gruel
10h30 1/2 I.M.
1/2 gruel
13h30 2/3 I.M.
1/3 gruel
16h30 2/3 I.M.
1/3 gruel
19h00 I.M.
07h30 I.M
.
10h30 I.M.
13h30 I.M.
16h30 I.M.
19h00 I.M.
Table 8.5.7: Distribution of meals:
74
1300,00
1200,00
1100,00
1000,00
900,00
800,00
700,00
600,00
500,00
400,00
300,00
200,00
100,00
0,00
1
3
5
7
9
11
13
15
17
19
21
23
25
27
29
31
33
35
37
39
41
43
45
Graph 8.5.8 : Growing weights for 14 HR Roseate spoonbills (g, days)
established by D. Gomis, DVM (Mulhouse Zoo 2001-2004)
75
850
MALES
800
750
700
FEMALES
650
600
550
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1
3
5
7
9
11
13
15
17
19
21
23
25
27
29
31
33
35
37
39
41
43
45
47
Graph 8.5.9 : Growing weights for 42 HR Scarlet ibises (g, days)
After 2 weeks of age, BW average for males is higher than for females
76
3 Phoenicopteridae
Phoenicopterus ruber roseus..................………….................................Greater flamingo
Phoenicopterus ruber ruber..........................…........................................Caribbean flamingo
Greater flamingo adult weight is 2.1 – 3.0 kg. Caribbean flamingo adult weight for males is
3.0 kg, for females 2.2 kg. Food is given once a day ad lib.
Feeding program
Summer (15 March - 15 October)
09.30hr
600 g Galli 24 pellets (for Greater flamingo)
375 g Galli 24 pellets (for Caribbean flamingo)
Winter (15 Oct - 15 March)
09.30hr
Supplements:
6,0 g “Carophyll powder” (1: 9) (for Greater flamingo)
3,75 g “Carophyll powder” (1: 9) (for Caribbean flamingo)
1405
This hand-reraing gruel was
established by E. Bureau, DVM
and J.-F. Lefèvre in Villars les
Dombes Bird Park, France, and
successfully used in Mulhouse Zoo
for a Greater flamingo.
1355
1305
1255
1205
1155
1105
1055
1005
955
Hand-rearing gruel:
56g
Smelt (entirely)
56g
Shrimps (pealed)
56g
Egg yolk
28g
Cereal gruel (baby)
200g
Water
1,5
Mazuri Fish-eating tablet
1,5%
Calcium Bicarbonate
Ultra B
Méthio B12
1 drop
Dédrogyl
905
855
805
755
705
655
605
555
505
455
405
355
305
255
205
155
In the beginning 6 meals, later 4
meals a day. Warm up the gruel
before feeding ‘au bain marie’.
Verify the temperature.
105
55
5
0
3
6
9
12 15 18 21
24 27 30 33
36 39 42 45 48
51 54 57 60
Graph 8.5.10 : Growing weights for 1 HR Greater flamingo
(g, days) established by J.-F. Lefèvre (Mulhouse Zoo 2007)
77
8.6 ANSERIFORMES
1 Anhimidae
Chauna torquata...............................................….................................Southern screamer
Fed once a day. Adult weight is 2.7 - 4.0 kg.
Feeding program
50 g Galli 16 pellets
grass ad lib
2 Anatidae
Anas acuta ............................................................................................................... Pintail
Anas bernieri.............................................................................................Madagascar teal
Anas capensis.......................................................................................................Cape teal
Anas clypeata....................................................................................................... Shoveler
Anas formosa .................................................................................................... Baikal teal
Anas penelope .........................................................................................European wigeon
Anas strepera ........................................................................................................ Gadwall
Anser canagicus......................................................................................... Emperor goose
Anser erythropus..................................................................... Lesser white-fronted goose
Anser indicus..........................................................................................Bar-headed goose
Anser rossi .....................................................................................................Ross’s goose
Aythya ferina......................................................................................... European pochard
Aythya fuligula................................................................................................ Tufted duck
Aythya nyroca .........................................................................................Ferruginous duck
Branta canadensis ssp.................................................................................. Canada goose
Branta leucopsis ........................................................................................ Barnacle goose
Branta ruficollis.................................................................................. Red-breasted goose
Bucephala clangula .......................................................................................... Goldeneye
Cairina scutulata ...................................................................... White-winged wood duck
Callonetta leucophrys ...................................................................................... Ringed teal
Chenonetta jubata........................................................................... Australian wood duck
Chloephaga melanoptera.............................................................................Andean goose
Coscoroba coscoroba .............................................................................. Coscoroba swan
Dendrocygna bicolor ....................................................................Fulvous whistling-duck
Dendrocygna eytoni.......................................................................Eyton’s whistling duck
Dendrocygna viduata............................................................................. White-faced duck
Marmaronetta angustirostris ......................................................................... Marbled teal
Somateria millissima..................................................................................................Eider
Feeding program
14.00hr
Galli 16 (in winter)
Galli 24 (in spring and summer)
Crousti Croc dog pellets (for Eiders)
78
8.7 FALCONIFORMES
1 Cathartidae
Sarcoramphus papa.........................................................................................King vulture
Fed once a day, three times per week. Adult weight is 3.6 - 5.4 kg.
Feeding program
14.30hr
600 g chicken and/or beef meat
Supplements:
8 g carnivore powder per day, sprinkled on the meat.
Same as for Black vulture and Eurasian griffon
3100,0
2900,0
2700,0
2500,0
2300,0
2100,0
1900,0
1700,0
1500,0
1300,0
1100,0
900,0
700,0
500,0
300,0
100,0
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
Graph 8.7.1 : Growing weights for 1 HR King vulture (g, days)
established by D. Gomis, DVM (Mulhouse Zoo 2004); photo D. Gomis: 42 day old chick
79
2 Accipitridae
Aegypius monachus........................................................................................Black vulture
Gyps fulvus......................................................................................................Eurasian griffon
Fed once a day, three times per week. Adult weight is 7.0 - 12.5 kg for Black vultures and
6.5-6.8 kg for Eurasian griffons.
Feeding program
08.00hr
300 to 500 g beef meat
Supplements:
10 g carnivore powder per feed
This protocol was established by E. Bureau, DVM and J.-F. Lefèvre in Villars les Dombes
Bird Park, France, for Eurasian griffons and Himalayan vultures, and sucessfully used in
Mulhouse Zoo for Black vultures, Eurasian vultures and King vultures.
The first meal is only given after 8-24h after hatching. A temperature of 35°C (humidity
45-50%) can be reduced to 31°C after 4 days. The gruel has to be heated to 34°C for 1h
before using.
Pre-digestion of the meal:
1
capsule Tryplase / 90g g food. (capsules contianing 500mg of porc pancreas extract;
lipase activity 14000 Un.FIP, amylase activity 10000 Un.FIP, protease activity 500
Un.FIP; INTERVET®)
- Day 0 to 34 : 4 meals / day. Quantity of food is determinated with graph 8.7.2
Eg.. if one 5 day old chick weigh 170g, the graph gives a value of 21%: this
chick should eat 4 meals of: ((170 x 0.21) / 4) = 8.93g each one.
- Day 34 to 40 : 3 meals / day. Quantity of food is determinated with graph 8.7.2
Eg.. if one 35 day old chick weigh 2400g, the graph gives a value of 20%:
this chick should eat 3 meals of: ((2400 x 0.20) / 3) = 160g each one.
- Day 1-3: 4 meals of liver, heart and kidney from adult mice (8h30 – 12h00 – 15h30 –
17h00).
- From day 4 on: 4 meals of 2/3 mice organs (everything) and 1/3 beef meat.
Mice (pinkies, young mice, adult mice) are gradually added to the diet. Start
putting them in pots and complete the required weight of the meals always
with approx. 2/3 mice organs and 1/3 beef meat.
- ~Day 14: add baby mice (pinkies, cut in two pieces) to the diet (1 per meal, later 2,…)
- ~Day 20: add young mice (phase popcorn, cut in 2) to the diet (idem)
- ~Day 26: add young mice (cut in 6, later in 4) to the diet (idem.)
- ~Day 30: first rejection pellets
- ~Day 32: ½ mice cut in pieces + ½ meat
- ~Day 34: drop to 3 meals (8h30 – 12h – 17h), the sign for this is given by a drop in
appetite after the 3rd meal of the day
- ~Day 40: lower gradually the amount of Tryplase and the time of predigestion in order to
cut it out totally on day 60
80
- ~Day 58: drop to 2 meals (8h30 – 17h), the sign for this is given by a drop in appetite
after the 2nd meal of the day
When the rejection pellets are regular and the plumage is developing well, add rats. To start
they are cut in small pieces, later they are given entirely with the abdomen open.
every day Tonivit, TVM®: 1 drop PO/ 200 g BW (see content chapter 8.1) and chick
powder: 2,5g/100g of food.
Neophron percnopterus ginginianus........................................................Egyptian vulture
Fed twice a day. The weight of adult animals is between 2.0 and 2.5 kg.
Feeding program
08.00hr
300 g chicks, minced beef and fish (Tench)
16.00hr
300 g chicks, minced beef and fish (Tench)
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1
4
7
10
13
16
19
22
25
28
31
34
37
40
Graph 8.7.2 : Daily intake percentage for hand-rearing Vultures (%, days)
81
4000,0
3900,0
3800,0
3700,0
3600,0
3500,0
3400,0
3300,0
3200,0
3100,0
3000,0
2900,0
2800,0
2700,0
2600,0
2500,0
2400,0
2300,0
2200,0
2100,0
2000,0
1900,0
1800,0
1700,0
1600,0
1500,0
1400,0
1300,0
1200,0
1100,0
1000,0
900,0
800,0
700,0
600,0
500,0
400,0
300,0
200,0
100,0
0,0
1
3
5
7
9
11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43
EG1
EG2
EG3
HV
BV
Graph 8.7.3 : Growing weights (g, days) for
3 HR Eurasian griffons and 1 HR Himalayan vulture (in Villars les Dombes Bird Park, 2002) and 1
Black vulture (in Mulhouse Zoo, 2006)
established by D. Gomis, DVM and J.-F. Lefèvre
82
8.8 GALLIFORMES
Phasianidae
Lophura edwardsi........................................................................................Edwards' pheasant
Polyplectron inopinatum..............................................................Mountain peacock-pheasant
Tragopan caboti.............................................................................................Cabot’s tragopan
Fed once a day. Edwards' pheasants adult weight is 0.75 - 1.30 kg, Mountain peacockpheasants adult weight about 300 - 400 g and Cabot’s tragopan about 0.90 – 1.4 kg.
Feeding program: 10.00hr
265 g Frugivore mix,
225 g Galli 16 pellets,
10 g mealworms.
P. caboti also receive doves mix, cucumber,
courgette, carrots and aubergines finely cutted
Hand-r earing protocol
HR Pheasants chicks start eating with more
difficulty than PR ones. Feed pheasant start
dry food with some white mealworms, using
a chicken chick can help single chicks to
start eating.
Photo 8.8: D. Gomis 2007: 1 day old
Edwards' pheasant, Mulhouse Zoo
Pavo cristatus.........................................................................................Common peafowl
Free in the park and are fed once a day. The adult weight is 3 - 4.8 kg.
Feeding program
08.00hr
Corn
8.9 GRUIFORMES
Gruidae
Anthropoides paradisea.......................................................................................Stanley crane
Anthropoides virgo....................................................................................…Demoiselle crane
Balearica pavonina..................................................................................Black crowned crane
Balearica regulorum gibbericeps.............................................................Grey crowned crane
Grus antigone antigone..........................................................................................Sarus crane
Grus vipio....................................................................……........................White-naped crane
All cranes are fed once a day.
Stanley cranes: adult male weight is 4.0 kg, female weight is 3.5 kg.
Demoiselle cranes: adult male weight is 2.5 kg, female weight is 2.0 kg.
83
Black crowned cranes: adult male weight is 4.0 kg, females weight is 3.7 kg.
Sarus cranes: adult male weight is 10.0 kg, female weight is 7.0 kg.
White-naped cranes: adult weight is 6.0 kg.
265 g Frugivore mix
225 g Galli 16 pellet
10 g mealworms.
P. caboti also receive doves mix, cucumber, courgette, carrots and aubergines finely
cutted"
When the Sarus crane have young (For one couple with one young):
first 60 days: 100 g minced beef
2 g carnivore powder
after 60 days:2x/wk minced beef with carnivore powder
Winter (15 October-14 March):
130 g Galli 16 (Stanley crane and White-naped crane)
09.00hr
100 g Galli 16 (Demoiselle crane)
120 g Galli 16 (Black crowned crane)
250 g Galli 24 (Sarus crane)
Note: During one week the food is changed from winter to summer diet and summer to winter.
Crane chicks are started with finely cut pinky mice pieces, supplemented with chick
powder.
Galli 24 pellets are given from the 1st day (we can also humidify them) and mice pieces
used to stimulate pellet intake.
Chicks usually start eating the pellets after 3-5 days and we can stop the pinky mice
between 10 and 15 days.
Photo 8.9.1 D. Gomis 2005: 20 day old HR Demoiselle crane, Mulhouse Zoo
84
600,0
575,0
550,0
525,0
500,0
475,0
450,0
425,0
400,0
375,0
350,0
325,0
300,0
275,0
250,0
225,0
200,0
175,0
150,0
125,0
100,0
75,0
50,0
25,0
0,0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
Graph 8.9.2 : Growing weights for 4 HR Demoiselle cranes (g, days)
1200,0
1150,0
1100,0
1050,0
1000,0
950,0
900,0
850,0
800,0
750,0
700,0
650,0
600,0
550,0
500,0
450,0
400,0
350,0
300,0
250,0
200,0
150,0
100,0
50,0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
Graph 8.9.3 : Growing weights for 4 HR Stanley cranes (g, days)
85
8.10 COLUMBIFORMES
Columbidae
Ducula bicolor....................................................................................Pied imperial pigeon
They are fed once a day. Adult weight is 300 - 450 g.
Feeding program
09.00hr
180 g frugivore mix
This hand-rearing protocol was only successfully experienced once (see graph 8.10.1
below).
- Days 1 to 4: 50% boiled whole egg + 50% water + chick powder + bifidus
- Day 5: add slowly A19 powder, 5% to 15% at day 10 (see composition chapter 3.6)
- Day 10: add slowly fruits (bananas, grapes)
- Day 12: add slowly T16 pellets (see composition chapter 3.3)
170,00
150,00
130,00
110,00
90,00
70,00
50,00
30,00
10,00
1
3
5
7
9
11
13
15
17
19
21
23
25
27
29
31
33
35
37
graph 8.10.1 : Growing weights for 1 HR Pied imperial pigeon (g, days)
established by J.-M. Lernould, DVM and P. Moisson, DVM (Mulhouse Zoo 2001)
86
Caloenas nicobarica.........................................................................................Nicobar pigeon
Fed once a day. Adult male weight is about 700 g, female weight is 465 - 700 g.
Feeding program
09.00hr
35 g Frugivore mix
35 g Pigeon seed mix
We only have one experience of hand-rearing a Nicobar pigeon (nest neglected after egg
laying). We tried first the Pied imperial pigeon hand-rearing protocol but chick grew too
slowly; thus, the Crowned pigeon protocol was started at the age of 4 days and growth rate
increased (see graph 8.10.4). The chick died at the age of 2 weeks because it choked on
regurgitation (aspiration pneumonia). But protocol seemed correct to us and should be
further investigated: less fluid mix but same composition?
Photo 8.10.2 D. Gomis 2007: 12 day old HR Nicobar pigeon, Mulhouse Zoo
Photo 8.10.3 D. Gomis 2004: Crop of a female Nicobar pigeon dead whilst rearing, Mulhouse Zoo
87
50
48
46
44
42
40
38
36
34
32
30
28
26
24
22
20
Graph 8.10.4 :
Growing weights
for 1 HR Nicobar
pigeon
(g, days)
established by
J.-F. Lefèvre
(Mulhouse Zoo 2007)
protocol changed
n
g
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Columba mayeri....................................................................................Mauritius Pink pigeon
Gallicolumba criniger.......................................................................................Bartlett’s dove
Zenaida graysoni.................................................................................................Socorro dove
Fed once a day. Socorro dove adult weight is about 160-200 g. Pink pigeon adult weight is
around 300-350 g and for Bartlett’s dove is 180-200 g.
C. mayeri: 70g Versele - Laga® special Liegeois mix, 20g Versele-Laga® doves mix (eat
also some Frugivore mix from Turacos); G. criniger: 70g doves mix, 30g frugivore mix;
Z. graysoni: 60g doves mix.
We only have one experience of hand-rearing a Mauritius Pink pigeon (parents neglected
the nest after egg laying and foster parents (Ringed turtle doves) did too). This protocol was
established by J.-F. Lefèvre in Mulhouse Zoo. We tried the first mix from the Crowned
pigeon protocol (see table 8.10.10, mix “D1”) but added 8g of nature yoghurt and 4g of
peanut butter / 100g of soja milk from the 1st day, + 5g of cereal gruel /100g of soja milk
after the 12th day, this slowly increased to 8g /100g of soja milk after the 19th day.
185
180
175
170
165
160
155
150
145
140
135
130
125
120
115
110
105
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
Graph 8.10.5 :
Growing weights
for 1 HR Mauritius
Pink pigeon (g, days)
established by
J.-F. Lefèvre
(Mulhouse Zoo 2007)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34
88
Photos 8.10.6 - 9 D. Gomis 2007: the same HR Mauritius Pink pigeon chick
at the age of 5, 15, 27 and 32 days (Mulhouse Zoo)
Goura scheepmakeri sclateri.........................…...............................Sclater’s crowned pigeon
Fed once a day. Adult weight is 1.8 - 2.3 kg.
Feeding program
09.00hr
80 g frugivore mix
30 g corn
25 g dog pellets
This soja milk + casein hand-rearing mixture was successfully tried in 1998. A second
attempt failed in 2001 and proportions were recently changed according to the
compositions published for the crop milk in the 4th European studbook report (see ref. 136).
Amounts in g.
D1
D5
D10
D15
D20
D25
D30
Soja milk (nature)
1000
867
733
600
467
333
200
Soja cream (for cooking)
200
350
500
650
800
950
1100
Lactic casein
40
57
73
90
107
123
140
Ornivital® (*)
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
0,8
1
Calcium carbonate
5
5
6
7
8
9
10
Bicalcic phosphate
5
5
6
7
8
9
10
Table 8.10.10: Receipt for the hand-rearing mixture, change proportions each 5 days (D. Gomis 2005)
(*) Ornivital is a special pigeon supplement containing / 100g powder: 500.000 IU vit.A, 75.000 IU vit.D3, 750
mg vit.E, 200 mg vit.K3, 25 mg vit.B1, 160 mg vit.B2, 120 mg vit.B6, 1.000mg vit.PP, 0,4 mg vit.B12, 7,5 mg
folic acid, 200 mg panthotenic acid, 4mg biotin, 7.000mg choline, 8 mg Co, 4,5 mg Se, 122 mg Cu, 1.580 mg Fe,
3.250 mg Mn, 1.624 mg Zn
89
Around 35-40 days of age: start introducing solid feeds (soaked T16 pellets and Crousti
Croc pellets, frugivore mixture, etc). Soaked pigeon seeds seem not be really digested by
the chick till the age of 2 months.
925
900
875
850
825
800
775
750
725
700
675
650
625
600
575
550
525
500
475
450
425
400
375
350
325
300
275
250
225
200
175
150
125
100
75
50
25
0
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43 46 49 52 55 58 61 64 67 70 73 76 79 82 85 88
O01140
O05001
980222
Graph 8.10.11 : Growing weights for 3 HR Sclater’s crowned pigeons (g, days)
established by J.-M. Lernould, DVM, Pierre Moisson, DVM and D. Gomis, DVM
(Mulhouse Zoo 1998-2005), photo D. Gomis: 45 day old chick
90
8.11 PSITTACIFORMES
Some preliminar notes: Feeding ecology and requirement establishment:
Psittaciformes’ requirements are poorly known and most of the knowledge is in fact
extracted from a few scientific studies (most on budgerigars) and mainly from captive
practical feeding experience. Thus, successful commercial pelleted feeds, hand-rearing
preparations and seed mixture compositions can give us a better idea on Psittaciformes’
needs when comparing datas with feeding ecology.
Psittaciformes are worldwide spread in southern hemisphere and the more than 350 species
can be separated in 3 main geographical areas, 5 ecologic groups, 3 feeding strategies and 2
main physical adaptations (see figures 8.11.1 and 8.11.2). Nectarivoress and “nutrientdiluted fruits” frugivores have a fast digestive transit whereas granivores and “nutrientdense fruits” frugivores have slower one, with better enzymatic efficiency.
In captivity nectarivores and frugivores often suffer from vit.B1 and Met deficiencies
whereas granivores suffer from vit.A, E, B1, B3, biotine, Met, Lys and Zn deficiencies:
nutritional pathology is well known and explained by feed nutritional deficiencies.
5
4
1, 2, 3
Figure 8.11.1 : Feeding ecology: 3 geographical areas and 5 ecologic groups (D. Gomis, 3ème Congrès
International Vétérinaire Francophone sur les NAC et les animaux exotiques , Paris april 2006) :
« GROUP 1 » : O.Psittaciformes, F. Psittacidae
s\F. Lorinae (« lories »), 53 sp: Chalcopsitta, Eos, Pseudeos, Trichoglossus, Psitteuteles, Lorius, Phigys, Vini,
Glossopsitta, Charmosyna, Oreopsittacus, Neopsittacus
« GROUP 2 » : O.Psittaciformes, F. Cacatuidae
s\F. Calyptorhynchinae (« black cockatoos »), 6 sp: Probosciger, Calyptorhynchus
s\F. Cacatuinae (« white / grey cockatoos »), 14 sp: Callocephalon, Eolophus, Cacatua
s\F. Nymphicinae (« cokatiel »), 1 sp: Nymphicus
« GROUPS 2 & 3 » : O.Psittaciformes, F. Psittacidae
s\F. Psittacinae
T. Psittrichadini (« Pesquet’s Parrot »), 1 sp: Psittrichas - T. Nestorini (« Kea and Kaka »), 2 sp: Nestor
T. Strigopini (« Kakapo »), 1 sp: Strigops – T. Micropsittini (« Pygmy-parrots »), 6 sp: Micropsitta
T. Cyclopsittacini (« Fig-parrots »), 6 sp: Cyclopsitta, Psittaculirostris, Bolbopsittacus
91
« GROUP 2 » : O.Psittaciformes, F. Psittacidae
s\F. Psittacinae
T. Platycercini (« Platycercine parrots »), 37 sp: Prosopeia, Eunymphicus, Cyanoramphus, Purpureicephalus,
Barnardius, Platycercus, Northiella, Psephotus, Neopsephotus, Neophema, Lathamus, Melopsittacus, Pezoporus,
Geopsittacus
T. Psittaculini (« Psittaculine parrots »), 66 sp: Psittinus, Psittacella, Geoffroyus, Prioniturus, Tanygnathus,
Eclectus, Alisterus, Aprosmictus, Polytelis, Loriculus, Psittacula …
« GROUP 4 » : O.Psittaciformes, F. Psittacidae, s\F. Psittacinae
T. Psittaculini (« Psittaculine parrots »), 66 sp: …, Psittacula (P.krameri, P.echo), Agapornis
T. Psittacini (« Afrotropical parrots »), 12 sp: Coracopsis, Psittacus, Poicephalus
« GROUP 5 » : O.Psittaciformes, F. Psittacidae, s\F. Psittacinae
T. Arini (« Neotropical parrots »), 148 sp: Anodorhynchus, Cyanopsitta, Ara, Orthopsittaca, Propyrrhyra,
Diopsittaca, Rhynchopsittaca, Ognorhynchus, Guarouba, Aratinga, Nandayus, Leptosittaca, Cyanoliseus,
Pyrrhura, Enicognathus, Myiopsitta, Psilopsiagon, Bolborhynchus, Forpus, Brotogeris, Nannopsittaca, Touit,
Pionites, Pianopsitta, Hapalopsittaca, Graydidascalus, Pionus, Amazona, Deroptyus, Triclaria
Central and South America:
148 species
South-Eastern
Asia, Australia:
125 species
South-Eastern Asia, Australia:
53 species (Lorinae)
NECTARIVORES
FRUGIVORES - GRANIVORES
Africa,
Madagascar,
Mauritius:
23 species
NG,
NZ:
4
« FLORIVORES »
INSECTIVORES
CARNIVORES
(molluscs)
OPPORTUNISTIC
CARNIVORES
Figure 8.11.2 : Feeding ecology: 3 geographical areas and 3 feeding strategies (D. Gomis, 3ème Congrès
International Vétérinaire Francophone sur les NAC et les animaux exotiques , Paris april 2006) :
A nutritonal comparison conducted on 30 commercial seed mixtures and 27 commercial
pellets for parrots (see reference 199) shows that:
- Once the shells are removed, seeds contain higher levels of CP and fats, and thus, ME,
- Energy is mainly supported by carbohydrates in the pellets and by fats in the seeds’ mixtures,
- Pellets contain lower levels of CP than seeds but higher when calculated per energy unit,
- Whole seeds have higher fiber levels, but if the shell is removed they have the same as pellets,
- Shelled seeds contain lower fiber level than pellets when calculated per energy unit,
- Shelled seeds have worse Ca/P ratio than whole seeds (0,29% DM versus 0,47% DM),
- Some pellets (12/27 tested) and seeds are quite poor in sodium content (< 0,15 % DM)
There are huge differences between both feeds and should be considered when formulating
diets in captivity.
92
Versele-Laga®
Amazone Parrot Loro
Parque Mix
Versele-Laga®
Australian Parrot Loro
Parque Mix
Versele-Laga®
African Parrot Loro
Parque Mix
Versele-Laga®
Ara Loro Parque
Mix
CRUDE PROTEIN
%
13
13,5
14
14,5
CRUDE FAT
%
10
10,5
15,5
22
CELLULOSE
ASH
%
%
10
5
11
5,5
14,5
5
19
5
Calcium
Phosphorus
Ca/P ratio
%
%
0,92
0,37
2,49
0,92
0,33
2,79
0,95
0,38
2,50
0,97
0,42
2,31
8.000
8.000
8.000
8.000
1.600
1.600
1.600
1.600
20
20
20
20
4.000
4.500
4.450
5.000
Vitamin E
UI/k
g
UI/k
g
mg/k
g
Lys
mg/k
g
Vitamin A
Vitamin D3
Figure 8.11.3 : Versele-laga® formulation strategy with Loro Parque mixes
(D. Gomis, 3ème Congrès International Vétérinaire Francophone sur les NAC et les animaux
exotiques , Paris april 2006) :
For some years, producers have begun to adjust seed mixture compositions to practical
feeding knownledge (like Versele-laga® with Loro Parque collaboration, see figure 8.11.3),
formulating mixes with an ecological target (Africa, Australia, South-America…). This
new commercial strategy shows, even if late, that considering feeding ecology is essential
for parrot breeders from years of practical experience and adaptation.
The comparison of successful commercial feeds’ compositions (pellets, seed mixtures and
hand-rearing powders) and some published data (Ullrey et al. 1991, Stoodley J. & P. 1990)
give us a better idea of nutritional requirements, even though we cannot establish formal
needs for all Psittaciformes species (see table 8.11.4).
Dietary lipids in Psittacines’ diets seem an essential point to explore. Birds are know to be
unable to use stearic acid to synthesize linoleic or α-linolenic acids, but few species of birds
(other than Galliformes) have been studied concerning their cacapcity to elongate or
desaturate them. So, even if we know that n-3/n-6 ratio in diet is important, we have no real
datas concerning PUFA requirements, especially arachidonic and eicosapentanoic acids
(see reference 109). A recent review (see reference 43) shows that captive birds have lower
unsaturated index (UI), lower proportions of PUFA, n-3 PUFA and a lower n-3/n-6 ratio in
their body tissues and lipid fractions than free-ranging birds. This may suggest that quantity
and quality of dietary lipids can certainly have a major incidence on physiological
processes, in addition to well know excessive accumulation of liver fats (note that fatty
liver infiltration can also result from lack of fatty acids, needed for lipid metabolism. See
reference 165 chapter 31).
93
Unit
Average
Mulhouse Zoo
(Ara all studies)
Palm
Cockatoo
(SSP
Husbandry
Manual)
Psittacines;
Adult
(Ullrey et
al., 1991)
Stoodley
J. &
P.,1990
Kcal/g
-
-
-
3,22
16,4-20,0
Acid Lignin
ADF
Cellulose
Crude Fiber
Lignin
NDF
Total Dietary Fiber
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
0,01-0,02
0,72-01,21*
0,67-1,12*
2,43-2,97
0,02 –0,05
1,08-1,78*
2,55-4,02*
-
-
-
Arachidonic Acid
Crude Fat
Linoleic Acid
Linolenic Acid
PUFA
Saturated Fats
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
23,31-25,54
14,41-16,29
0,04-0,05*
0,34-0,40*
0,70-0,87*
0,25-0,29*
2,00
-
2,00
-
Arginine
Crude Protein
Cystine
Histidine
Isoleucine
Leucine
Lysine
Methionine
Phenylalanine
Threonine
Tryptophan
Tyrosine
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
1,15-1,30
13,88-14,47
0,05-0,06*
0,08-0,11*
0,58-0,65
0,32-0,42*
0,48-0,54*
0,26-0,30*
0,13-0,17*
0,50-0,53
0,17-0,19
0,11-0,14*
24,00
1,20
0,50
-
1,30
24,00
0,40
1,10
1,20
0,50
0,95
0,24
-
Nutrient
ME poultry
VerseleLaga®
pellets
(n=4)
Harrison®
pellets
(n=5)
VerseleLaga®
seeds
(n=4)
handrearing
formulas
(n=5)
16,4-20,0
-
-
-
-
3,0-4,1
3,0-3,2
11,2-14,7
-
3,0-4,1
3,0-3,2
11,2-14,7
-
3,5
-
4,0-6,5
-
10-19
-
2-5
-
1,11
-
7,0-7,5
-
7,0-7,5
-
16
-
5,5-15
-
10-22
-
8-15
-
0,756
16,10
0,256
0,178
0,556
0,811
1,00
0,40
0,444
0,50
0,156
0,444
0,84-1,00
0,84-1,00
0,26-0,32
0,41-0,45
0,73-0,94
1,69-1,90
0,80-0,95
0,50-0,57
0,82-0,97
0,58-0,71
0,17-0,21
0,52-0,62
0,26-0,32
0,41-0,45
0,73-0,94
1,69-1,90
0,80-0,95
0,50-0,57
0,82-0,97
0,58-0,71
0,17-0,21
0,52-0,62
0,80-0,95
0,33-0,45
0,50-0,78
0,15-0,19
-
10
0,6-0,9
0,4
-
13,0-14,5
0,4-0,5
0,30-0,36
-
18-22
0,93-1,15
0,45-0,53
0,68-0,80
0,17-0,19
-
Mazuri® Nutrazu®
pellets
pellets
(n=2)
(n=2)
94
Nutrient
Valine
Glycine
Beta-carotene
Biotin
Choline
Folacin
Pantothenic Acid
Vit A
Vit B1 (Thiamin)
Vit B12
Vit B2 (Riboflavin)
Vit B3 (Niacin)
Vit B6 (Pyridoxine)
Vit C Ascorbic Acid
Vit D3
Vit E
Vit K
Ash
Calcium
Chloride
Copper
Iodine
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Potassium
Selenium
Unit
%
%
Average
Mulhouse Zoo
(Ara all studies)
0,14-0,18*
-
Palm
Cockatoo
(SSP
Husbandry
Manual)
-
Psittacines;
Adult
(Ullrey et
al., 1991)
-
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
IU A/g
mg/kg
mcg/g
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
IU Vit D3/g
mg/kg
mg/kg
0,11-0,51*
0,58-0,90
1 851,42-2 857,33
1,08-1,59
1,91-2,23*
38,20-63,47
11,04-13,63
0,04-0,06 *
1,82-2,03*
30,61-34,39*
12,17-17,49
69,62 –108,69
4,64 –9,05
188,66-279,74
-
8,00
1,90
250,00
-
%
%
%
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
%
mg/kg
%
%
mg/kg
5,90-8,40
1,70-3,21
20,39-26,35
1,45-2,24
93,33-124,03
0,20-0,23
136,09-204,49
0,80-0,97
0,52-0,57
0,75-0,97
1,10
20,00
150,00
0,15
65,00
0,80
0,70
0,30
Stoodley
J. &
P.,1990
0,611
-
Mazuri® Nutrazu®
pellets
pellets
(n=2)
(n=2)
0,80-0,99 0,80-0,99
0,65-0,75 0,65-0,75
VerseleLaga®
pellets
(n=4)
-
Harrison®
pellets
(n=5)
2,7-3,2
VerseleLaga®
seeds
(n=4)
-
handrearing
formulas
(n=5)
-
0,30
1 700,00
0,90
20,00
8,00
6,00
0,03
6,00
55,00
6,00
1,90
250,00
4,00
1,68
0,167
1,00
11,10
5,50
0,89
0,004
5,00
75,00
5,00
1,10
22,00
0,68-0,73 0,45-0,68
1,4-1,5
1,4-1,5
3,9-4,8
2,8-3,9
18-20
12-18
12-15
9-12
11-12
6-12
33-44
30-33
12-15
10-12
93-110
60-93
10-12
6,5-10
1,8-1,9
1,5-1,8
180-185
125-185
3
3
0,20-0,22
550-700
0,4-0,5
12-15
1,5-2,0
20
8-10
12,5-15,5
3-4
25-30
1,2-1,5
30-50
1,2-1,5
0,6-0,76
3,4-4,5
4-5
16-25
72-80
13-20
95-125
14-25
1,015-1,650
300-450
3,52-4,4
8
1,6
20
-
0,2-0,7
1.000
1,5-4,5
5-12
4-25
20-80
16-20
16-125
6-25
60
1,50-1,65
80-450
3,0-4,4
1,10
0,20
20,00
1,00
150,00
0,15
65,00
0,80
0,70
0,30
1,00
8,89
0,33
100,00
0,056
75,00
0,70
0,167
0,11
4,6-6,0
0,85-1,2
0,21-0,24
13
270-390
0,17
91-120
0,73-0,87
0,59-0,61
0,27
4,5
0,9
14
30
0,15-0,17
85
0,6
-
2,7-3,2
0,65-0,80
-
5-5,5
0,92-0,97
0,33-0,42
-
3,2-6
0,9
10
40
0,17
100
0,4-0,6
-
4,6-6,0
0,85-1,2
0,21-0,24
13
150-260
0,17
91-120
0,73-0,87
0,59-0,61
0,27
95
Nutrient
Sodium
Zinc
Cobalt
Unit
%
mg/kg
mg/kg
Average
Mulhouse Zoo
(Ara all studies)
0,29-0,44
100,05-140,46
-
Palm
Cockatoo
(SSP
Husbandry
Manual)
0,20
120,00
-
Psittacines;
Adult
(Ullrey et
al., 1991)
0,20
120,00
-
Stoodley
J. &
P.,1990
0,167
75,00
-
Mazuri® Nutrazu®
pellets
pellets
(n=2)
(n=2)
0,12-0,13 0,12-0,13
102-105
102-105
0,30-0,35 0,30-0,35
VerseleLaga®
pellets
(n=4)
0,2
100
0
Harrison®
pellets
(n=5)
-
VerseleLaga®
seeds
(n=4)
-
handrearing
formulas
(n=5)
0,2
80
-
Table 8.11.4: Comparison of Mulhouse Zoo diet composition for Ara species intake average (all studies, A. ararauna, A. macao, A. militaris, A. rubrogenys)
, some published requirement datas, 13 pelleted feeds’ compositions, 4 seed mixtures compositions and 5 hand-rearing formulas (established by D. Gomis, in
april 2006)
*: These values are not reliable because these nutrient values are not always entered in ZOOTRITIONTM for the feeds which are used in the diet.
Pelleted feeds compared:
Mazuri®
Parrot
Maintenance
Mazuri®
Parrot
Breeder
Nutrazu®
Parrot
Maintenance
Nutrazu®
Parrot
Breeder
VerseleLaga®
Nutribird
P 15
Original
VerseleLaga®
Nutribird
P 15
Tropical
VerseleLaga®
Nutribird
P 19
Original
VerseleLaga®
Nutribird
P 19
Tropical
Harrison®
Adult
lifetime
coarse
Harrison®
Adult
Lifetime
fine &
super-fine
Harrison®
High
potency
coarse
Harrison®
High
potency
fine and
super fine
Harrison®
Power
treats
Seed mixtures compared:
Versele-Laga® Amazone Parrot Loro Parque
Mix
Versele-Laga® Australian Parrot Loro Parque
Mix
Versele-Laga® African Parrot Loro Parque
Mix
Versele-Laga® Ara Loro
Parque Mix
Hand-rearing formulas compared:
Versele-Laga® Nutribird A
19
Versele-Laga® Nutribird A 19 High
Energy
Versele-Laga® Nutribird A
21
Harrison® Juvenile
Handfeeding
Kaytee® Exact Hand-Feeding
Formula
96
1 Cacatuidae
Cacatua moluccensis...................................................................Salmon-crested cockatoo
Cacatua sulfurea citrinocristata...................................................Citron-crested cockatoo
Salmon-crested cockatoo: adult weight is 700 - 800 g.
Citron-crested cockatoo: adult weight is 300 - 425 g.
Feeding program
For one couple of parrots outside of the breeding season, fed once a day.
1
2
3
4
A fistfull of the mixture apples, carrots, soaked corn and bird powder
One fruit (grapes, banana, pear, plum, orange, mango, walnuts or hazelnuts) or
one vegetable (chicory, courgette, sweet pepper) which are mixed with the
mixture and the total is sprinkled with bird powder.
4 or 5 dog pellets (dry or soaked)
About 120 g soaked sunflower seeds with bird powder
The amount of this mixture is raised according the appetite of the parent animals during
breeding and rearing periods.
Proportions of the basic mixture in grams:
Apples
200g
Carrots
75g
Soaked corn
225g
Bird
5g
Note: in 2006, soaked corn was replaced by soaked pigeon seed mix (Versele-Laga®
Liégeois)
Soaked sunflower seeds with bird powder:
Soaked sunflower seeds 100g
Bird powder
5g
Intake composition: Graph 8.11.5
Cacatua moluccensis: intake composition (% AF), ns=4, ng=1, ni=2, nd=38
GRAPES 3%
BIRD POWDER 5%
CROUSTI' CROC, SOAKED 4%
CORN YELLOW,
SOAKED
19%
SUNFLOWER SEED,
SOAKED
31%
APPLES,
WITH SKIN
34%
CARROTS
4%
Diet composition: See table 8.11.13
See next chapter 2-Psittacidae
Photo 8.11.6: D. Gomis 2005: 9 day old Salmon-crested cockatoo, Mulhouse Zoo
Foliage
Sycamore Maple Acer pseudoplatanus, Goat willow Salix caprea, Hazel Corylus
avellana, European Beech Fagus sylvatica, Horsechestnut Aesculus hippocastanum.
Not to be given:
Elderberry Sambicus nigra, Common juniper Juniperus communis, Elder tree Sambucus
2
Psittacidae
Amazona autumnalis lilacina....................................................................Lilacine amazon
Amazona barbadensis..............................................................Yellow-shouldered amazon
Amazona ochrocephala oratrix.....................................................Yellow-headed amazon
Amazona vinacea...................................................................................Vinaceous amazon
Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus....................................................................Hyacinth macaw
Ara ambigua..............................................................................................Buffon's macaw
Ara ararauna.................................................................................Blue and yellow macaw
Ara macao....................................................................................................Scarlet macaw
Ara militaris...............................................................................................Military macaw
Ara rubrogenys....................................................................................Red-fronted macaw
Aratinga auricapilla........................................................................Golden-capped conure
Deroptyus accipitrinus........................................................................Hawk-headed parrot
Eunymphicus cornutus cornutus ..............................................................Horned parakeet
Poicephalus gulielmi gulielmi.....................................................................Jardine's parrot
Poicephalus fuscicollis fuscicollis.....................................................Brown-necked parrot
Poicephalus robustus robustus.........................................................................Cape parrot
Psittacula derbiana..................................................................................Derbian parakeet
All Psittacidae are fed twice a day. The average weights are as follow:
Lilacine amazon: 220-500 g. Yellow-shouldered amazon: 270 g. Yellow-headed
amazon: 380-480 g. Golden-capped conure: 150 g. Hyacinth macaw: 1200-1450g.
98
Vinaceous amazon: 370 g. Buffon's macaw: 1300 g. Blue and yellow macaw: 800-1292
g. Scarlet macaw: 900-1100 g. Military macaw: 900 g. Red-fronted macaw: 525 g.
Hawk-headed parrot: 250 g. Jardine’s parrot: 200 g. Western cape parrot and Cape
parrot: 320 g. Horned parakeet: 100-150g.
Feeding program
See the feeding program of the Cacatuidae species. Parakeets also receive VerseleLaga® parakeet mixture, millet bunches (reddish-brown) and frugivore mix.
Intake composition
See graphs 8.11.7 to 8.11.12, and 8.11.14 to 8.11.19 for small species
Diet composition
See tables 8.11.13, 8.11.20 and 8.11.21.
Graph 8.11.7
Ara ararauna: intake composition (% AF), ns=1, ng=1, ni=2, nd=12
BIRD POWDER
2%
CROUSTI' CROC, SOAKED
8%
APPLES, WITH SKIN
46%
CORN YELLOW, SOAKED
12%
SUNFLOWER SEED,
SOAKED
27%
CARROTS
5%
Graph 8.11.8
Ara rubrogenys: intake composition (% AF), ns=3, ng=1, ni=2, nd=22
GRAPES
3%
BIRD POWDER
3%
3%
CORN YELLOW, SOAKED
20%
APPLES, WITH SKIN
35%
CARROTS
3%
SUNFLOWER SEED, SOAKED
33%
99
Graph 8.11.9
Ara macao: intake composition (% AF), ns=3, ng=1, ni=4, nd=26
APPLES, WITH SKIN
GRAPES
3%
5%
BIRD POWDER
CARROTS
5%
3%
3%
SUNFLOWER SEED,
SOAKED
55%
CORN YELLOW, SOAKED
26%
Graph 8.11.10
Ara militaris: intake composition ( % AF), ns=3, ng=2, ni=4, nd=34
GRAPES
3%
BIRD POWDER
5%
APPLES, WITH SKIN
6%
35%
CORN YELLOW, SOAKED
17%
SUNFLOWER SEED,
CARROTS
SOAKED
1%
33%
Graph 8.11.11
Ara spp.: intake composition (% AF, average all species)
GRAPES
3%
BIRD POWDER
4%
5%
APPLES, WITH SKIN
31%
CORN YELLOW, SOAKED
18%
36%
CARROTS
3%
100
Graph 8.11.12
Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus: intake composition (% AF), ns=2, ng=1, ni=2, nd=20
BIRD POWDER
3%
2%
CORN YELLOW, SOAKED
20%
APPLES, WITH SKIN
44%
SUNFLOWER SEED,
SOAKED
26%
CARROTS
5%
Comments for the intake composition:
Concerning the intake composition (%AF), there are not so many differences among
these 6 species of Cacatuidae and Psittacidae:
- apples represent between 35 % and 46 % of the intake,
- soaked sunflower seeds represent between 26 % and 33% of the intake,
- soaked corn represent between 12 % and 20 % of the intake,
- soaked dog pellets represent between 3 % and 8 % of the intake.
The first specificity is composed by the Scarlet macaw pair which receive the same
mixture, but choose feeds in very different proportions: apples only represent 3 % AF of
the intake, soaked sunflower seeds and soaked corn proportions are respectively
increased to 55 % and 26 %! Surprisingly crude fat content is not so high (25,54 %
DMI) in the analysed diet (see table 8.11.13 below), the fatty acids proportions seem not
to be altered. This species doesn’t show any sign of obesity, deficiency or any breeding
problems.
The second specificity is of course the Hyacinth macaw which has been separated from
graph 8.11.11 and presented separately with graph 8.11.12. Walnuts and hazelnuts are
constant in the diet but haven’t been evaluated, thus, intake proportions seem normal
compared to Ara species. The pellet intake is the lowest one among Psittacidae species
with only 2% AF of soaked Crousti’ Croc dog pellets. Therefore, the protein content is
the lowest with only 12,88 % CP DMI.
101
Diet composition
Nutrient
Nutrient Category:
Acid Lignin
ADF
Cellulose
Crude Fiber
Lignin
NDF
Total Dietary Fiber
Nutrient Category:
Crude Fat
Linoleic Acid
Linolenic Acid
PUFA
Saturated Fats
Nutrient Category:
Arginine
Crude Protein
Cystine
Histidine
Isoleucine
Leucine
Lysine
Methionine
Phenylalanine
Threonine
Tryptophan
Tyrosine
Valine
Ara
ararauna
Anodorhynchus
hyacinthinus
Ara
macao
Ara
militaris
0,02
1,21
1,12
2,97
0,05
1,78
4,02
0,02
1,09
1,00
2,43
0,04
1,60
3,61
0,01
0,75
0,70
2,61
0,02
1,13
2,69
0,01
0,72
0,67
2,50
0,02
1,08
2,55
0,01
0,76
0,71
2,36
0,03
1,12
2,66
0,01
0,75
0,70
2,43
0,03
1,11
2,66
Fat
%
%
%
%
%
%
23,09
14,41
0,04
0,34
0,70
0,25
20,79
13,02
0,05
0,50
0,97
0,33
25,54
16,29
0,04
0,40
0,77
0,26
23,31
14,72
0,04
0,39
0,75
0,26
22,12
13,96
0,04
0,43
0,82
0,28
23,46
14,85
0,04
0,46
0,87
0,29
Protein
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
1,15
14,02
0,05
0,08
0,58
0,32
0,48
0,26
0,13
0,50
0,17
0,11
0,14
1,09
12,88
0,07
0,12
0,57
0,47
0,47
0,26
0,19
0,49
0,16
0,16
0,20
1,30
14,47
0,06
0,09
0,65
0,37
0,54
0,30
0,15
0,56
0,19
0,12
0,16
1,18
13,88
0,05
0,09
0,60
0,36
0,49
0,27
0,15
0,51
0,17
0,12
0,15
1,14
13,33
0,06
0,10
0,58
0,40
0,48
0,27
0,16
0,50
0,17
0,13
0,17
1,21
13,96
0,06
0,11
0,62
0,42
0,51
0,28
0,17
0,53
0,18
0,14
0,18
Unit
Carbohydrates
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
Cacatua
mollucensis
Ara
rubrogenys
Nutrient Category:
Beta-carotene
Biotin
Choline
Folacin
Pantothenic Acid
Vit A
Vit B1 (Thiamin)
Vit B12 *
Vit B2 (Riboflavin)
Vit B3 (Niacin)
Vit B6 (Pyridoxine)
Vit C Ascorbic Acid
Vit D3
Vit E
Nutrient Category:
Ash
Calcium
Copper
Iodine
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Potassium
Selenium
Sodium
Zinc
Vitamins
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
IU A/g or
mg/kg
mcg/g
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
IU Vit D3/g
mg/kg
Ash/Minerals
%
%
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
%
mg/kg
%
%
mg/kg
%
mg/kg
0,12
0,58
1.851,42
1,08
2,17
63,47
11,04
0,04
1,82
30,61
12,17
108,69
5,90
188,66
0,11
0,65
2.046,26
1,20
2,64
65,05
10,35
0,04
1,94
32,99
13,95
102,05
6,47
202,79
0,14
0,62
1.956,07
1,12
2,01
38,20
12,35
0,04
2,03
34,39
12,85
76,70
6,19
192,23
0,12
0,90
2.857,33
1,59
1,91
40,12
11,20
0,06
1,87
31,66
17,49
82,67
9,05
279,74
0,11
0,99
3.127,40
1,75
2,17
64,09
10,82
0,07
1,90
32,31
19,19
90,54
9,89
304,47
0,12
0,65
2.045,36
1,18
2,23
47,42
11,47
0,04
2,01
34,11
13,62
78,07
6,47
201,50
6,22
2,17
20,39
1,45
93,33
0,20
136,09
0,80
0,57
0,75
0,29
100,05
6,34
2,30
20,68
1,60
98,91
0,20
148,88
0,77
0,55
0,77
0,33
107,94
5,90
2,21
21,77
1,53
101,15
0,23
144,35
0,80
0,57
0,82
0,31
107,89
8,40
3,21
26,35
2,24
124,03
0,22
204,49
0,97
0,52
0,97
0,44
140,46
9,04
3,48
27,51
2,45
131,36
0,21
222,56
1,00
0,53
1,02
0,49
150,57
6,24
2,31
21,62
1,60
101,83
0,22
149,72
0,80
0,55
0,81
0,33
110,05
Table 8.11.13
The range of nutrient requirements for parrot species is very wide. It is not right to compare a single parrot diet with ‘universal’ recommendations (see
preliminar note of this chapter and table 8.11.4). Therefore we have not included a minimum and maximum recommendation to compare our values with.
103
Diets smaller Psittacids
There are no intake studies. The given amount of food has been measured for a
certain number of days for each species.
Comments Intake composition:
Concerning the intake composition (%AF), there are not so many differences among
these 6 species of small Psittacidae:
- apples represent between 30 % and 41 % of the intake,
- soaked sunflower seeds represent between 38 % and 49% of the intake,
- soaked corn represent between 10 % and 14 % of the intake,
- soaked dog pellets represent between 2 % and 4 % of the intake.
Derbian parakeets receive and eat less apples (15%), more sunflower seeds (56%) and
soaked corn (16%). These differences should be further confirmed by intake studies.
Graph 8.11.14
Amazona autumnalis lilacina: diet (% AF), ni=2, nd=1
BIRD POWDER
3%
4%
CORN YELLOW, SOAKED
12%
APPLES, WITH SKIN
30%
CARROTS
6%
45%
Graph 8.11.15
Amazona vinacea: diet (% AF), ni=2, nd=5
BIRD POWDER
3%
2%
CORN YELLOW, SOAKED
11%
APPLES, WITH
SKIN 35%
41%
CARROTS
8%
Graph 8.11.16
Eclectus roratus solomonensis: diet (% AF), ni=4, nd=1
BIRD POWDER
4%
3%
CORN YELLOW, SOAKED
14%
APPLES, WITH SKIN
25%
CARROTS
5%
49%
Graph 8.11.17
Pionites melanocephala: diet (% AF), ni=6, nd=1
BIRD POWDER
3%
3%
CORN YELLOW, SOAKED
10%
APPLES, WITH SKIN
41%
38%
CARROTS
5%
Graph 8.11.18
Poicephalus spp.: diet (% AF), ni=22, nd=1
BIRD POWDER
3%
4%
CORN YELLOW, SOAKED
12%
APPLES, WITH SKIN
30%
CARROTS
6%
45%
105
Graph 8.11.19
Psittacula derbiana: diet (% AF), ni=1, nd=1
BIRD POWDER
4%
4%
APPLES, WITH SKIN
15%
CORN YELLOW, SOAKED
16%
CARROTS
5%
56%
106
Diet composition
Nutrient
Psittacula
derbiana
Unit
Acid Lignin
%
ADF
%
Cellulose
%
Crude Fiber
%
Lignin
%
NDF
%
Total Dietary Fiber
%
Nutrient Category:
Arachidonic Acid
Crude Fat
Linoleic Acid
Linolenic Acid
PUFA
Saturated Fats
Nutrient Category:
Arginine
Crude Protein
Cystine
Histidine
Isoleucine
Leucine
Lysine
Methionine
Phenylalanine
Threonine
Tryptophan
Tyrosine
Valine
Fat
%
%
%
%
%0,19
%
%
Protein
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
Eclectus
roratus
solomonensis
Poicephalus
gulielmi
fantiensis
Pionites
melanocephala
0,00
0,23
0,21
3,54
0,02
0,32
0,75
0,01
0,37
0,34
3,55
0,02
0,54
1,24
0,01
0,47
0,43
3,56
0,02
0,68
1,55
0,01
0,67
0,62
3,56
0,03
0,98
2,22
0,00
39,00
25,29
0,01
0,19
0,36
0,12
0,00
37,88
24,54
0,02
0,19
0,37
0,12
0,00
36,51
23,55
0,02
0,18
0,36
0,12
0,00
35,14
22,66
0,02
1,91
19,94
0,03
0,05
0,92
0,18
0,76
0,41
0,07
0,77
0,28
0,06
0,08
1,86
19,37
0,03
0,04
0,90
0,18
0,74
0,40
0,07
0,75
0,27
0,06
0,08
1,78
19,04
0,03
0,04
0,86
0,17
0,71
0,38
0,07
0,72
0,26
0,06
0,08
1,72
18,22
0,03
0,04
0,83
0,17
0,69
0,37
0,07
0,69
0,25
0,06
0,08
0,38
0,14
Nutrient Category:
Beta-carotene
Biotin
Choline
Folacin
Pantothenic Acid
Vit A
Vit B1 (Thiamin)
Vit B12 *
Vit B2 (Riboflavin)
Vit B3 (Niacin)
Vit B6 (Pyridoxine)
Vit C Ascorbic Acid
Vit D3
Vit E
Nutrient Category:
Ash
Calcium
Copper
Iodine
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Potassium
Selenium
Sodium
Zinc
Vitamins
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
IU A/g
mg/kg
mcg/g
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
IU Vit D3/g
mg/kg
Ash/Minerals
%
%
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
%
mg/kg
%
%
mg/kg
%
mg/kg
0,22
0,47
1.485,96
0,83
0,91
37,40
18,27
0,03
2,26
40,88
8,97
33,71
4,72
146,68
0,21
0,45
1.440,96
0,81
1,00
36,37
17,75
0,03
2,22
39,78
8,79
43,43
4,58
142,84
0,20
0,46
1.452,19
0,82
1,08
44,54
17,07
0,03
2,16
38,53
8,90
51,04
4,63
145,73
0,19
0,45
1.439,32
0,82
1,21
44,20
16,46
0,03
2,11
37,27
8,91
64,95
4,58
144,53
4,48
1,76
23,37
1,16
100,73
0,30
116,99
0,91
0,62
0,90
0,23
99,96
4,39
1,71
22,74
1,13
98,02
0,29
113,53
0,88
0,62
0,87
0,23
97,00
4,60
1,74
22,39
1,14
96,43
0,28
113,75
0,88
0,62
0,85
0,23
95,89
4,56
1,71
21,85
1,13
94,45
0,27
112,41
0,85
0,63
0,83
0,23
93,97
Table 8.11.20
preliminar note of this chapter and table 8.11.4). Therefore we have not included a minimum and maximum recommendation to compare our values
with.
108
Diet composition
Nutrient
Amazona
autumnalis
lilacina
Poicephalus
fuscicollis
fuscicollis
Poicephalus
robustus
robustus
Amazona
vinacea
0,01
0,48
0,44
3,56
0,02
0,70
1,59
0,01
0,52
0,48
3,57
0,02
0,76
1,72
0,01
0,47
0,43
3,58
0,02
0,67
1,54
0,01
0,64
0,58
3,58
0,03
0,92
2,10
Fat
%
%
%
%
%
%
36,60
23,63
0,02
0,19
0,37
0,13
36,23
23,38
0,02
0,18
0,36
0,13
36,70
23,68
0,02
0,18
0,36
0,12
36,50
23,66
0,02
0,18
0,36
0,13
Protein
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
1,79
18,99
0,03
0,04
0,87
0,17
0,72
0,38
0,07
0,72
0,26
0,06
0,08
1,77
18,83
0,03
0,04
0,86
0,17
0,71
0,38
0,07
0,71
0,26
0,06
0,08
1,79
19,10
0,03
0,04
0,87
0,17
0,72
0,38
0,07
0,72
0,26
0,06
0,08
1,79
18,48
0,03
0,04
0,87
0,17
0,72
0,38
0,07
0,72
0,26
0,06
0,07
Unit
Acid Lignin
%
ADF
%
Cellulose
%
Crude Fiber
%
Lignin
%
NDF
%
Total Dietary Fiber
%
Nutrient Category:
Crude Fat
Linoleic Acid
Linolenic Acid
PUFA
Saturated Fats
Nutrient Category:
Arginine
Crude Protein
Cystine
Histidine
Isoleucine
Leucine
Lysine
Methionine
Phenylalanine
Threonine
Tryptophan
Tyrosine
Valine
109
Nutrient Category:
Beta-carotene
Biotin
Choline
Folacin
Pantothenic Acid
Vit A
Vit B1 (Thiamin)
Vit B12 *
Vit B2 (Riboflavin)
Vit B3 (Niacin)
Vit B6 (Pyridoxine)
Vit C Ascorbic Acid
Vit D3
Vit E
Vitamins
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
IU A/g
mg/kg
mcg/g
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
IU Vit D3/g
mg/kg
Nutrient Category:
Ash
Calcium
Copper
Iodine
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Potassium
Selenium
Sodium
Zinc
Ash/Minerals
%
%
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
%
mg/kg
%
%
mg/kg
%
mg/kg
0,20
0,45
1.438,21
0,81
1,08
42,13
17,12
0,03
2,16
38,60
8,82
51,41
4,58
144,03
0,20
0,46
1.467,99
0,83
1,10
43,78
16,95
0,03
2,15
38,21
8,99
54,67
4,68
147,11
0,20
0,45
1.434,64
0,81
1,07
44,00
17,16
0,03
2,16
38,64
8,79
50,42
4,57
143,97
0,20
0,49
1.543,35
0,87
1,22
58,11
17,18
0,03
2,19
38,85
9,45
64,85
4,90
152,53
4,53
1,72
22,33
1,13
96,18
0,28
112,84
0,88
0,62
0,85
0,23
95,46
4,63
1,75
22,38
1,15
96,55
0,28
114,72
0,88
0,62
0,85
0,23
96,20
4,55
1,72
22,35
1,12
96,13
0,28
112,62
0,88
0,62
0,85
0,23
95,37
4,66
1,80
22,89
1,21
99,56
0,28
120,08
0,87
0,65
0,87
0,24
99,54
Table 8.11.21
preliminar note of this chapter and table 8.11.4). Therefore we have not included a minimum and maximum recommendation to compare our values
with.
110
Foliage
Sycamore Maple Acer pseudoplatanus, Goat willow Salix caprea, Hazel Corylus avellana,
European Beech Fagus sylvatica, Horsechestnut Aesculus hippocastanum.
Not to be given: Elderberry Sambicus nigra, Common juniper Juniperus communis, Elder
tree Sambucus, Common yew Taxus baccata
With commercial hand-rearing foods available nowadays (see chapter 3.6, preliminar note
of these chapter and table 8.11.22 below), hand-rearing psittacines is much easier.
However, some species may have higher fat or energy requirements than those provided by
these formulas: graph 8.11.24 shows the case of a hand-reared Cape parrot for which
growth rate was insufficient (at the age of 50 days the chick only reached the weight of a 20
day old parent-reared one). When adding peanut butter, growth rate increased. Crude fat
content may not be the only factor when fats are insufficient, also their composition and
quality (UI (unsatured index), PUFA, n-3 and n-3/n-6 ratio) may be important (see
reference 43).
Versele-Laga®
Nutribird
A 19
Versele-Laga®
Nutribird A 19
High Energy
Versele-Laga®
Nutribird
A 21
Harrison®
Juvenile
Handfeeding
Kaytee® Exact
Hand-Feeding
Formula
CP
CFat
Cellulose
Ash
%
%
%
%
19
12
3
6
19
15
2
6
21
8
3
6
18
11
4
3.2
22
9
5
-
Calcium
Phosphore
Ca/P
Sodium
Magnesium
Iron
Copper
Manganese
Zinc
%
%
%
%
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
0,9
0,6
1,5
0,2
0,17
40
10
100
80
0,9
0,6
1,5
0,2
10
-
0,9
0,6
1,5
0,2
0,17
40
10
100
80
0.9
0.4
2,25
-
-
Vitamin A
Vitamin D3
Vitamin E
Vitamin K
Vitamin B1
Vitamin B2
Vitamin B3
Vitamin B5
Vitamin B6
Vitamin
B12
Vitamin C
Folacin
Biotine
Choline
UI/kg
UI/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
12.000
1.500
80
3
4
16
16
80
6
12.000
1.500
80
3
4
16
16
80
-
12.000
1.500
80
3
4
16
16
80
6
5.000
1.650
450
4.4
25
20
125
-
µg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
µg/kg
mg/kg
20
60
1,5
200
1.000
20
60
1,5
200
1.000
20
60
1,5
200
1.000
80
4.5
700
-
-
Lysine
Methionine
Threonine
Tryptophane
%
%
%
%
0,93
0,45
0,68
0,17
-
1,15
0,53
0,80
0,19
-
-
25
Table 8.11.22: Comparison of 5 hand-rearing formulas’ compositions (DM base), 2006
360
340
320
300
280
260
240
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1
4
7
10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43 46 49 52 55 58 61
Graph 8.11.23 : Growing weights for 8 parent-reared Cape parrots (g, days)
105,00
95,00
85,00
75,00
65,00
55,00
Pe anut butte r
45,00
35,00
25,00
15,00
5,00
1
3
5
7
9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61
Graph 8.11.24 : Growing weights for 1 HR Cape parrots (g, days)
established by D. Gomis, DVM (Mulhouse Zoo 2002)
112
8.12 CUCULIFORMES
Musophagidae
Corythaixoides personata leopoldi..........................…..................Bare-faced go-away turaco
Musophaga rossae...................................................…...............................Lady Ross's turaco
Musophaga violacea..................................................…......................................Violet turaco
Tauraco erythrolophus.................................................…...........................Red-crested turaco
Tauraco fischeri..............................................................….....…....................Fischer's turaco
Tauraco porphyreolophus.............…..........................……..……..........Purple-crested turaco
All Musophagidae are fed once a day with adult frugivore mix.
The weights for each species are as follows: Go-away turaco: 210-300 g. Lady Ross's
turaco: 390 - 444 g. Violet turaco: 360 g. Red-crested turaco: 210-325 g. Fischer's turaco:
227 - 283g. Pourple-crested turaco: 200-290 g.
Feeding program
09.00hr
180 g Frugivore mix
Diet composition
See chapter 5.1, table 5.1.7.
Composition of the hand- rearing mix:
see chapter 5.1, tables 5.1.10 and 5.1.11.
Photo 8.12.1 D. Gomis 2007: Frugivore adult mix
Photo 8.12.2 D. Gomis 2007: 12 day old Fischer’s turacos
Preparation, conservation and distribution of
meals:
The two different mixtures have to be
completely homogenous. The mixture is
prepared every morning and kept in the
refrigerator.
The first meal comes from a mixture prepared
at ambient temperature. It is heated by adding
a bit of warm water. The water is added to
obtain a consistency that allows the chick to
swallow the mixture without any problems.
Following meals: take the amount necessary
for the meal, add a bit of water and let it
warm up in the brooder (small closed pot)
until the next meal.
Consistency: in relation to the chick growth
113
and the ability to swallow, the consistency of the mixtures becomes gradually thicker.
Never give a gruel that’s too thick and dry: risk of dehydratation of the chicks.
Frequency of meals:
First meal: 12-24 hours after hatching. Start with a gruel which is very liquid. The interval
between 2 meals starts at 1,5 hours, after one week it becomes 2 hours. The frequency of
feeding depends on the appetite of the chicks and the ability to feed.
every day Tonivit, TVM®: 1 drop PO/ 200 g BW (see content chapter 8.1).
Weaning:
The second mixture is mixed with apples in order to have a smooth transition to the adult
frugivore mix. From the 5th week on, use the adult frugivore mix ad lib.
Note: if you prefer continue with pellets: at 4 months (when the adult size is near to be
reached), change progressively to T16 pellets (adult frugivore mix and T16 pellets
simultaneously available for birds). At 4,5-5 months the birds should be eating just the T16
pellets.
Chick growth monitoring:
A moderate weight loss the first 2-3 days is normal (see graph 8.12.4).
The chicks are weighed every morning at the same time and before the first meal. Report
immediately to the veterinarians if the weight gain is minimal or zero, or if there is weight
loss.
190
180
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10111213141516171819202122232425262728293031323334353637383940
Graph 8.12.3 : Growing weights for 6 parent-reared Lady Ross turacos (g, days)
114
190
180
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Graph 8.12.4 : Growing weights for 7 HR Fischer’s turacos and 6 HR Violet creted turacos (g, days)
established by J.-F. Lefèvre (Mulhouse Zoo 2006-2007)
8.13 STRIGIFORME
Strigidae
Bubo bubo.................................................................................................................Eagle owl
Nyctea scandiaca....................................................................................................Snowy owl
Strix nebulosa....................................................................................................Great grey owl
All owls are fed every day in winter, and 6 days per week during the rest of the year.
Eagle owl: males 1.6-3 kg, females 2.4 - 4 kg.
Snowy owl: males 1.3 - 1.8 kg, females 2.3 kg on average.
Great grey owl: 0.9 - 1,2 kg.
Feeding program
16.00hr
1 rat (160 g)
or
5 chicks (175 g)
or
1 chick, beef meat and chicken meat (together 160 g)
Supplements:
115
Surnia ulula..............................................................................................................Hawk owl
Fed every day in winter, and 6 days per week during the rest of the year. Adult weight is
230 - 280 g.
Feeding program
16.00hr
or
or
Supplements:
2-4 chicks (140-200 g)
1 rat (150 g)
100 g mice
8.14 CORACIIFORMES
Bucerotidae
Bucorvus cafer..................................................................................Southern ground hornbill
Fed once a day. Adult weight of males is 3.5 - 6 kg, of females 2.2 - 4.6 kg.
Feeding program
08.00hr
10 chicks (650 g)
8.15 PASSERIFORMES S
Sturnidae
Garrulax galbanus................................................................Yellow-throated laughing thrush
Leucopsar rothschildi..................................................…......................................Bali starling
Both species are fed once a day. Yellow-throated laughing thrush weighs 45 - 51 g. Bali
starling weighs 70 - 150 g.
Feeding program
09.00hr
30 g Frugivore mix
5 g soaked dog pellets
10 g mealworms
8.16 TINAMIFORMES
Tinamidae
Eudromia elegans...............................................................................Elegant crested-tinamou
Fed once a day. Adult weight is about 400 - 800 g
Feeding program
10.00hr
36 g Exotic bird seed mix
33 g Galli 16
1/3 Lettuce
116
9.
MAMMAL DIETS
All feeding programs show the amount of food items given per animal per day, unless
indicated differently. Hand-rearing protocols are given if they are used successfully in
Mulhouse Zoo.
9.1 MARUPIALA
Marcopodidae
Macropus rufogriseus rufogriseus….......................................................Red-necked wallaby
Male adult weight is 25 kg, female weight is 12 kg. Fruits and vegetables are only given in
winter due to the shortage of grass.
Feeding program
07.30hr 500 g Herbi Plus pellets
Grass and hay ad lib
(in winter) 200 g fruits and vegetables (carrots + apples + lettuce)
Plants
Grass ad lib and fallen leaves from Horse chestnut Aesculus hippocastanum and English
Elm Ulmus minor are eaten.
9.2 PERISSODACTYLA
NOTE FOR ALL PERISSODACTYLA SPECIES: Grass and branches with leaves of European
Beech Fagus sylvatica, Hazel Corylus avellana, Acacia Acacia and Sycamore Maple Acer
pseudoplatanus are provided when available.
9.2.1 EQUIDAE
Equus grevyi........................................................................................................Grevy's zebra
Estimated adult weight is 350 kg.
Feeding program
07.30hr
1,5-2 kg hay offered at outside paddock
17.00hr
7 kg of hay
1 kg Herbi Plus pellets
117
Supplements:
ad lib straw
Mineral salt-lick provided ad lib
Plants
The zebras have access to European black elderberry Sambucus nigra in the outside
enclosure. Acacia Acacia, Sycamore Maple Acer pseudoplatanus, Hazel Corylus avellana
and Linden Tilia cordata / Tilia platiphyllos are in or next to the enclosure. The stems are
protected from the animals by wire netting if necessary, but fallen leaves are eaten.
Equus asinus f. Poitou........................................................................................Poitou donkey
Equus asinus asinus......................................................................................Miniature donkey
Adult weight of a Poitou donkey is 300 - 450 kg. Adult weight of a miniature donkey is
about 80 - 100 kg.
Feeding program
08.00hr
7-8 kg of hay and 1 kg Herbi Plus pellets per Poitou donkey.
3-4 kg of hay and 0,5 kg Herbi Plus pellets per miniature donkey.
Straw ad lib
Supplements:
Lactofoal (AUDEVARD®) is used as a milk substitute. The usage is as described by the
manufacturer.
Plants
Acacia Acacia, Sycamore Maple Acer pseudoplatanus, Hazel Corylus avellana and Linden
Tilia cordata / Tilia platiphyllos are in or next to the enclosures of the donkeys. The stems
are protected from the animals with wire netting if neccesary, but fallen leaves are eaten.
9.2.2 TAPIRIDAE
Tapirus indicus....................................................................................................Malayan tapir
Adult weight is 250 - 300 kg.
Feeding program
17.30hr
1 kg Herbi Plus pellets every second day
6 kg apples
1 kg bananas
2 kg carrots
~5 kg hay (provided ad lib)
Supplements:
118
9.3 ARTIODACTYLA
NOTE FOR ALL ARTIODACTYLA SPECIES: Grass and branches with leaves of European
Beech Fagus sylvatica, Hazel Corylus avellana, Acacia Acacia and Sycamore Maple Acer
pseudoplatanus are provided when available.
9.3.1 CAMELIDAE
Camelus bactrianus...........................................................................................Bactrian camel
Adult weight is 700-800 kg.
Feeding program
18.00hr
5 kg Cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli and radish
or
6-7 kg Herbi Plus pellets (only fed when the vegetables are not available)
hay ad lib
Supplements:
Lama glama.....................................................................................................................Llama
Vicugna vicugna.............................................................................................…...........Vicuna
Llamas: adult weight is 90 kg. Vicunas: male adult weight is 65 kg, female weight is 45 kg.
Feeding program
09.00hr
500 g Herbi pellets for Llama
250 g Herbi pellets for Vicuna
hay ad lib, in summer grass ad lib
Supplements:
Plants
Acacia Acacia, Sycamore Maple Acer pseudoplatanus, Hazel Corylus avellana and Linden
Tilia cordata / Tilia platiphyllos are in or next to the enclosure of the llamas and vicunas.
The stems are protected from the animals with wire netting if necessary, but fallen leaves
are eaten.
9.3.2 CERVIDAE
Cervus alfredi........................................................................................Phillipine spotted deer
Adult weight of males is 80 kg, females weigh 50 kg.
119
Feeding program
08.00hr
500 g Herbi pellets
450 g Apples
250 g Bananas / Melon / Grapes
225 g Carrots
50 g Courgette
50 g Radish
50 g Cabbage
Second cut hay ad lib
Supplements:
12 g carnivore powder per day.
Mineral salt-lick provided ad lib.
Note: Browse is offered one or two times a week
Goat milk is used as a milk substitute.
Cervus elaphus bactrianus...............................................................................Bactrian wapiti
Cervus nippon pseudaxis..............................................................................Vietnam sika deer
Rangifer tarandus.......................................................................................................Reindeer
Bactrian wapiti: adult males weigh 150 kg, females weigh 65 kg. Vietnam sika deer: adult
male weight is 80 kg, females weigh 60 kg. Reindeer: adult male weight is 100 kg, female
weight is 65 kg.
Feeding program
08.00hr
1 kg Herbi pellets (for Bactrian wapiti)
400 g Herbi pellets (for Vietnam sika deer)
1,5 kg Herbi pellets (for Reindeer)
1,5 kg carrots for (Reindeer)
Supplements:
Goat milk is used as a milk substitute for these species.
9.3.3 BOVIDAE
Bison bison............................................................................................................Prairie bison
One meal per day in the morning. Adult weight is 400-600 kg.
Feeding program
08.00hr
3,5 kg Herbi Plus pellets
7-8 kg second cut hay (ad lib)
120
Supplements:
Some cabbage when available
Addax nasomaculatus.....................................................................................................Addax
Capra aegagrus cretica..................................................................................Cretan wild goat
Capra hircus hircus domestic.................................................................................Dwarf goat
Capra hircus hircus rove..........................................................................................Rove goat
Ovis aries aries cameron................................................................................Cameroun sheep
Addax: adult male weight is 90 kg, female weight is 65 kg. Cretan wild goats: adult males
weigh 30 kg, females weigh 15 kg. Dwarf goats: adult weight is 20-25 kg. Rove goats:
adult weight is 50-80 kg. Cameroun sheep: adult weight is 25-40 kg.
Feeding program
09.30hr
600 g Herbi pellets (for Addax)
350 g Herbi pellets (for Cretan wild goat)
150 g Herbi pellets (for Dwarf goat)
250 g Herbi pellets (for Rove goat)
150 g Herbi pellets (for Cameroun sheep)
300 g Carrots (for Cretan wild goat)
Hay ad lib
Supplements:
Sheep milk is used as a milk substitute.
Tragelaphus spekei gratus.........................................................................................Sitatunga
They are given food every morning. Adult male weight is 85 kg, females weigh 45 kg.
Feeding program
09.30hr
600-700 Herbi pellets
Supplements:
Pseudois nayaur......................................................................................................Blue sheep
The group of blue sheep consists of four adult males, six adult females and one young.
They are fed together once a day in the morning. Adult males weigh 80 kg, females 40 kg.
Feeding program
09.30hr
200 g Herbi pellets
121
Supplements:
100 g Flaked oats
250 g Corn
150 g Lucerne
250 g Carrots
122
9.4 PRIMATES
Some preliminar notes: Requirement establishment and intake studies comparison:
Taxonomy (see figures 9.4.0.1, 9.4.1.1 and 9.4.2.1), feeding ecology and digestive strategy
(see reference 139: NRC 2003 figures 1-1 to 1-8 p.22-23) are essential for adapting
nutritional programs in captivity:
ORDRE
Primates
PROSIMIENS
SOUS ORDRE STREPSIRRHINI
Strepsirrhiniens
INFRA ORDRE
Lorisiformes
SIM IENS
SOUS ORDRE HAPLORRHINI
Haplorrhiniens
INFRA ORDRE
Lémuriformes
INFRA ORDRE
Tarsiiformes
INFRA ORDRE
Platyrrhiniens
ORDRE
Primates
INFRA ORDRE
Catarrhiniens
Hominoïdes
Super famille
Hominoidea
SIMIENS
Famille
Hylobatidae
Haplorrhiniens
INFRA ORDRE
Platyrrhiniens
Haplorrhiniens
INFRA ORDRE
Catarrhiniens
Famille
Pongidae
Famille
Hominidae
Sous famille
Gorillinae
Sous famille
Paninae
Sous famille
Homininae
Hominoïdes
Cercopithécoïdes
Hominoïdes
Super famille
Hylobatoidea
Super famille
Cercopithecoidea
Super famille
Hominoidea
Famille
Hylobatidae
Genre
Hylobates
Famille
Pongidae
Famille
Hominidae
Sous famille
Ponginae
Genre
Pongo
Super famille
Hominoidea
Sous famille
Gorillinae
Sous famille
Homininae
Genre
Gorilla
Famille
Hominidae
Genre
Pan
Genre
Homo
Sous famille
Homininae
Panines
Hominines
Figure 9.4.0.1: Primate
taxonomy, 3 main
possibilities to classify
Hominoïdes (P. Moisson)
Primate requirements were, for a long time, only divided into two major groups: New
World (NWP) and Old World Primates (OWP). Protein requirements of nonhuman
primates was derived empirically from colonies in zoos and research laboratories, or
extrapolated from well-defined requirements for other laboratory, domestic, and wild
animals and for humans (see reference 139) . In 2003, the National Research Council of the
National Academies (NRC) published a 2nd revised edition of the Nutrient Requirements of
Nonhuman Primates (available online: http://www.nap.edu/books/0309069890/html/) and
established new requirements for 12 primate model species (see table 9.4.0.2 below).
123
Cercopithecidae
Macaque
Baboon
8
-
Cebidae
Squirrel
monkey
8-21
Cebus
Howler
7-10
-
Callitrichidae
Colobinae
Strepsirrhini
Pongidae and
Hominidae
Marmoset,
Tamarin
12-18
Colobus,
Langur
-
Lemur
Chimpanzee
Humans
-
14
6
Table 9.4.0.2: Estimated CP Requirement (in Dietary DM) of Primate Model Species Fed Purified or
Semipurified Diets (NRC 2003 Table n° 11-1 p.192)
Even if we are convinced that these new requirement classification suit better primate
feeding ecologies and digestive strategies, we would like to note that some of these values
are still derived from laboratory models: with high quality reference proteins like casein,
lactalbumin and soya concentrate. In zoo conditions high quality proteins are not always
available or not eaten, and for those used primate digestibility is not really known. Thus,
NRC 2003 table n°11-2 should be always keeped in mind. This second table presents
“estimated adequate nutrient concentrations (dry matter basis) in diets containing
conventional feed ingredients intended for post-weaning nonhuman primates, accounting
for potential differences in nutrient bioavailabilities and adverse nutrient interactions, but
not accounting for potential losses in feed processing and storage”.
In NRC 2003 table 11-2; CP requirement is estimated to 15-22 % DM noting that
“lactation and growth of young—particularly of smaller primates, such as
callitrichids—can be more satisfactory when the higher protein concentrations in this
range are used. Required concentrations are greatly affected by protein quality (amounts
and proportions of essential amino acids), and this issue must be considered. Taurine
appears to be a dietary essential for some primate species through the first postnatal year”.
That’s why in this Dietary Manual, we adjusted recommendations in tables 9.4.0.3 and
9.4.7.2, mixing several bibliographical sources and Mulhouse Zoo experience.
Definitively, we still target our Callitrichidae and some Cebidae species to 25% CP DM in
order to obtain finally 17-23% CP DMI (see tables 9.4.4.47 and 9.4.4.48). If we had
targeted our marmosets and tamarins diets to 15% CP DM, resulting intake composition
will have certainly lead to only 11-13% CP DMI. This may be also one good reason to
think that low proteins and bad quality ones could partially explain some growing
problems, or the wasting disease syndrome (WDS) (see references 158 and 162) are
encountered in captivity (see preliminar note chapter 9.4.4).
Intake diets comparison (AF basis):
In Mulhouse Zoo, all Lemuridae, Cebidae (excluding Pithecia sp.), Cercopithecidae,
Macaca and Hylobatidae species eat between 77% and 88 % of fruits and vegetables, 3%
and 7% of simial pellets, 2% and 5% of Crousti Croc dog pellets, and 3% and 11% of other
feeds (milk bread mix, sunflower seeds, mealworms, cheese, etc). Lemuridae species and
Pileated gibbons are the best pellets eaters with 12% and 10% of intake (for Nomascus spp,
see graph 9.4.7.11). However, we cannot observe any major difference on these AF basis
percentages, and analysing intake diets on a DM basis (see next paragraph) should give us
much more information.
P. pithecia, Callitrichidae and Callimiconidae are not included in comparison, as their diets
are “tamarin gruel-based” and presentation of intake results were done in another better
adapted graphic format (see chapters 9.4.2, 9.4.3 and 9.4.4 for AF composition details).
124
Cercopithecidae
Metabolic Energy (M)
Lemurs
Unit
Min
Max
Min
Kcal/Kg BW/day
40.8 b3)
100 a)****
200 a)
300 a)
Metabolic Energy (G)
Propithecus
Callitrichinae
Cebus
100*
__ d1)
Max
__ d1)
Min
__ d1)
Max
100 a)****
Min
100 a)
Max
300 a)
Min
100 a)
Max
300 a)
__ d1)
200 a)
300 a)
500 a)
300 a)
500 a)
16.7 c)
300 a)
__ d1)
15 e2)
27,8 c2)
7 c1)
__ d1)
Crude Protein
%
8 b2)
16.7 c)
16.7 c)
__ d1)
Carbohydrates
%
50 a)
60 a)
50 a)
60 a)
50 a)
60 a)
50 a)
60 a)
50 a)
60 a)
Crude Fat
%
traces a)
10 a)
traces a)
10 a)
% NDF
10 b2)
30
traces a)
10
10 a)
20
traces a)
10
10 a)
20
5 b2)
15
30
__ d1)
10 a)
__ d1)
% ADF
10*
__ d1)
traces a)
30
__ d1)
__ d1)
5
10
5
10
Calcium
%
0.55
0.8 b1)
0.55
0.8 b1)
0.55
0.8 b1)
0.55
0.75 c) G
0.55
0.8 b1)
Phosphorus
%
0.33
0.6 b1)
0.33
0.6 b1)
0.33
0.6 b1)
0.33
0.6 b1)
0.33
0.6 b1)
Potassium
%
0.24 b2)
0.89 a)
0.4
0.89 a)
0.4
0.89 a)
0.4
0.89 a)
0.4
0.89 a)
Sodium
%
0.2 b1)
0.65
0.2 b1)
0.65
0,1 g)
0.17
0,1 g)
0.2 c)
0.2 b1)
0,1 g)
0.65
0.2 c)
0.65
%
0.65
0.2 c)
0.2 b1)
Magnesium
0.2 b1)
0,1 g)
0,1 g)
0.17
Chloride
%
0.2
0.55
0.2
0.55
0.2
0.55
0.2
0.55
0.2
0.55
Copper
mg/kg DM
12
20
12
20
12
20
12
16 c) G
12
20
Zinc
mg/kg DM
11 c)
100 b1)
11 c)
100 b1)
11 c)
100 b1)
11 c)
110 c) G
11 c)
100 b1)
Manganese
mg/kg DM
20 b1)
100 a)
20 b1)
100 a)
20 b1)
100 a)
20 b1)
100 a)
20 b1)
100 a)
Iodine
Iron
mg/kg DM
mg/kg DM
__ d1)
100 b1)
0.35 b1)
200 c)
__ d1)
80 a)
0.35 b1)
140 c)
__ d1)
80 a)
0.35 b1)
140 c)
0.65 b2)
80 f)
2 f)
200 f)
0,35 b1)
100 b1)
2 f)
200 c)
Vit A
IU/kg DM
5000 b2)
14000 c)
8000 b1)
14000 c)
8000 b1)
14000 c)
12500 c)
14000 c)
8000 b1)
14000 c)
Vit D3
IU/kg DM
1000 c2)
3000
1000
3000
1000
3000
2200 c)
3000
1000
3000
Vit E
mg/kg DM
56 c)
100 b1)
56 c)
100 b1)
56 c)
100 b1)
56 c) M
200 c) G
Vit K
mg/kg DM
0.06(*)
12
0.5** b1)
12
0.5** b1)
12
0.5** b1)
12
3(**)
0.5** b1)
100
12
Vit C
mg/kg DM
55
110
55
111*
55
111*
300 e3)
500 f)
55
110
Fiber
Vit B1
mg/kg DM
1.1
3 b1)
1.1
5.6*
1.1
5.6*
1.1
5.6
1.1
3 b1)
Vit B2
mg/kg DM
1.7
4 b1)
1.7
5.6*
1.7
5.6*
1.7
5.6
1.7
4 b1)
Vit B3
mg/kg DM
16
56
16
56
16
56
16
56
16
56
Vit B5
mg/kg DM
12 b1)
20 b2)
12 b1)
__ d1)
12 b1)
__ d1)
12 b1)
__ d1)
12 b1)
__ d1)
Vit B6
mg/kg DM
2.5 a)
4.4
2.5 a)
4.4
2.5 a)
4.4
2.5 a)
4.4
2.5 a)
4.4
Vit B 12
mg/kg DM
0.011
0.03
0.6*
__ d1)
0.6*
__ d1)
0.6 f)
__ d1)
0.011
0.03
Folacin
mg/kg DM
0.2 a)
4 b1)
0.2 a)
4 b1)
0.2 a)
4 b1)
0.2 a)
4 b1)
0.2 a)
4 b1)
Biotin
mg/kg DM
0.11
0.2 b1)
0.1*
0.2 b1)
0.1*
0.2 b1)
0.1
0.2 b1)
0.1
0.2 b1)
Choline
mg/kg DM
__d1)
750 b1)
__d1)
750 b1)
__d1)
750 b1)
__d1)
750 b1)
750 b1)
800
Unit
Min
Max
Min
Max
Min
Max
Min
Max
Min
Max
Cercopithecidae
Lemurs
Propithecus
Callitrichinae
Cebus
Table 9.4.0.3: Requirement ranges used for diet formulation and analysis in Mulhouse Zoo (DM basis)
For Hylobatidae species, refer to table 9.4.7.2
Main source: NRC, Nutrient requirements for Non Human Primates, 2003; for other sources (a) to h)) see details on bottom.
a) NRC, Nutrient Requirements for Nonhuman Primates, 1978
b1) NRC, Nutrient Requirements for Non Human Primates, 2003. Table 11-2 : Estimated Adequate Nutrient Concentrations (Dry Matter basis) in diets for post weaning Non human
b2) NRC, Nutrient Requirements for Non Human Primates, 2003. Table 11-1 : Nutrient requirements for Humans, p192
b3) NRC, Nutrient Requirements for Non Human Primates, 2003. Table 2-2: Biologic and Metabolic Parameters of Species Fed dry Diets
c) W. L. Jansen and Joeke Nijboer, 2003: Zoo Animal Nutrition, Tables and Guidelines, Recommendations
d1) No reliable data found
d2) practical values, commonly used
e) FITCH and DINNING, Vitamin E deficiency in the monkey. V. Estimated requirements and the influence of fat deficiency and antioxidants on the syndrome, 1963. 79:69-78.
e2) Oftedal et al., 1991: Do NW primates really have elevated needs for protein and Vit D? (value based on high quality protein)
e3) Flurer et al., 1987
f) S. Crissey, B. Lintzenich and K. Slifka, Diets for Callitrichids, 1998
g) E. Dierenfeld: personal communication
(M) Maintenance
(G) Growth
* AZA Nutrition Advisory Group, TAG/SSP Husbandry Notebook, Nutrition Section, Lemur catta
(*) Lower concentration inadequate
(**) Tested for Cebus albifrons
** As Phylloquinone
*** Comments of author
**** From NRC,78 Table 1, Energy requirements for Adults Old world primates: Real maximum recommended
***** Recommendation with High Quality Protein
126
Graphs 9.4.0.4 -9: Intake composition (AF basis)
Eulemur coronatus, E. macaco,flavifrons, E. mongoz,
E. rubriventer, Lemur catta, ,
Varecia variegata rubra, Varecia variegata variegata
3%
7%
11%
7%
2%
5%
88%
77%
Cebus xanthosternos
8%
Cercopithecus d. roloway, C. erythrogaster,
C. hamlyni, C. lhoesti, Allenopithecus nigroviridis
4%
4%
8%
4%
2%
84%
86%
SIMIAL
OTHERS
CROUSTI'
CROC
Macaca tonkeana
7%
4%
4%
Hylobates pileatus
3%
FRUIT +
VEGETABLES
85%
5%
5%
87%
Intake diets comparison (DM basis):
We observe the highest protein content in fruits and vegetables basis for the Ateles’ diets
(6,4% CP DM) when the Lemuridae diets have lowest one (3,3% CP DM) (see Table
9.4.0.10). The pellet intake is higher in Lemuridae diets (43% DMI) when Ateles is the
lowest (only 27 % DMI) (see Table 9.4.0.11).
Pellet intake can depend on several factors like taste and palatability, lower percentage of
vegetables than fruits in the diets, specific crude proteins and amino-acids requirements,
etc. When formulating a diet, expected protein content from fruits and vegetables should be
also considered (table 9.4.0.10 below).
Lemuridae
Propithecus
Nomascus
H.
pileatus
Cebus
Cercopithecidae
M.
tonkeana
Ateles
3,3
3,96
4,4
4,8
5,6
6,0
6.0
6,4
F&V basis
% CP DM
Table 9.4.0.10: Protein content of fruits and vegetables basis in primate diets
Both pellets
Simial pellets
Crousti' Croc pellets
% CP DMI
Ateles
27,0
16,0
11,0
14,0
Cercopithecidae
28,0
17,0
11,0
14,5
Nomascus
28,0
20,0
8,0
13,2
Macaca tonkeana
31.0
16.0
15.0
15.1
Cebus
35,0
19,0
16,0
15,7
H. pileatus
39,0
20,0
19,0
13,6
Lemuridae
43,0
25,0
18,0
15,5
Table 9.4.0.11: Pellets’ incorporation (% DM) in primate diets
As we already noticed with AF based graphs (see graphs 9.4.0.4 to 9.4.0.9), Lemurs and
Gibbons are the best eaters of pellets, and for these species simial represents near half of the
intake protein content (49%) (see table 9.4.0.11). Crousti croc pellets only deliver a quarter
of the intake protein content in Lemurs, Capuchins, Pileated gibbons and Macaques diets
(22% to 27%) (see also table 9.4.0.12). When formulating a diet (at least in Mulhouse Zoo)
not more than 75% of the protein intake should be expected from pellets.
From
Simial
From
Crousti Croc
From Fruits and
Vegetables
From others
(mainly milkbread mix)
% CP DMI
Lemuridae
49
27
10
14
15,5
Cercopithecidae
36
16
23
25
14,5
Macaca
33
22
21
24
15,2
Nomascus
47
13
18
22
13,2
H. pileatus
46
32
20
2
13,6
Ateles
35
17
27
21
14,0
Cebus
39
22
20
19
15,7
Table 9.4.0.12: Proteins percentages delivered by feeds’ categories in primate diets
Dietary proteins and amino-acid balance:
128
Analysing pellet intake and CP dietary level is not enough to ensure adequate amounts of
essential amino acids required for growth and for synthesis of all structural and functional
proteins. “High-quality” proteins for all primate species are not known but are often mostly
derived from animal sources. Proteins from plant sources generally contain low levels of
one or more amino acids and most, if not all, primates may need other protein sources than
vegetal ones. Therefore it is important to diversify the items in a diet: a mixture of plants
will provide complementary ratios of amino acids. Table 9.4.0.13 was built in order to
compare some amino acid values obtained in whole intake diets analysed with
ZOOTRITION TM software.
We can note a difference between lactic casein (see chapter 5.5) and pellets (simial +
Crousti Croc) based diets. Animal proteins content is of course higher in P. pithecia,
Callitrichidae and Callimiconidae diets and this can explain the difference observed for
Cys, His, Lys and Val contents.
129
Comparison: % of
amino acids
Nutrient
Unit
Arginine
CP
Cystine
Histidine
Isoleucine
Leucine
Lysine
Methionine
Phenylalanine
Threonine
Tryptophan
Tyrosine
Valine
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
Lem. Hylobat. Cercopith. Ceb./Ateles Pithecia Callithr. Callimic.
0,58 0,61
15,37 13,31
0,20 0,19
0,18 0,22
0,50 0,47
1,08 0,95
0,55 0,50
0,25 0,23
0,56 0,52
0,41 0,39
0,12 0,12
0,42 0,36
0,55 0,52
0,71
14,63
0,19
0,24
0,52
0,97
0,55
0,24
0,52
0,43
0,13
0,36
0,55
0,66
13,97
0,19
0,23
0,50
0,96
0,53
0,23
0,52
0,41
0,12
0,36
0,54
0,71
20,22
0,13
0,45
0,73
1,14
0,94
0,35
0,65
0,55
0,17
0,57
0,85
0,51
20,55
0,09
0,44
0,68
1,08
0,90
0,33
0,59
0,50
0,14
0,56
0,80
0,42
17,22
0,07
0,37
0,56
0,89
0,73
0,27
0,49
0,41
0,12
0,46
0,66
Table 9.4.0.13: Comparison: % of amino acids in different primate diets and feed components (DM base)
Beef
meat
Casein
lactic
3,00
44,42
0,43
1,41
1,90
3,56
3,71
1,04
1,69
1,86
0,55
1,39
2,15
3,85
95,00
0,34
2,86
6,32
9,71
7,88
3,10
5,31
4,32
1,19
5,41
7,40
Chicken meat Soybeans
4,28
68,42
0,91
2,01
3,42
4,98
5,58
1,82
2,66
2,83
0,77
2,21
3,32
2,92
42,29
0,51
1,12
1,87
3,03
2,43
0,45
2,07
1,63
0,51
1,54
2,00
9.4.1 LEMURIDAE
(see table 9.4.0.3)
Most lemurs are generalist feeders, omnivorous with fruits or leaves dominating other
plant parts (see NRC 2003 table 1-1, reference 139), and usually fed with fruits,
vegetables, pellets, seeds, etc in zoos. As many other primates, feeding behaviour in
wild conditions differs a lot from the captive one: in zoos, animals spend less time
feeding, are usually offered large amounts of food in order to reduce conflicts and
therefore appear to be more suceptible to obesity (see reference 176). Existing studies of
their feeding ecology are often based on a qualitative, more than on a quantitative
aspect. Thus, food intake regulation is poorly known.
ORDRE
Primates
PROSIMIENS
SOUS ORDRE STREPSIRRHINI
Strepsirrhiniens
INFRA ORDRE
Lorisiformes
SIM IENS
Haplorrhiniens
INFRA ORDRE
Lémuriformes
Super famille
Lemuroidea
Famille
Cheirogaleidae
Sous famille
Cheirogaleinae
Famille
Magaladapidae
Famille
Lemuridae
Famille
Indridae
Famille
Daubentoniidae
Sous famille
Phanerinae
Figure 9.4.1.1: Lemuriformes taxonomy and position of Lemuridae family (P. Moisson)
On behalf of the Program Sahamalaza (AEECL, see reference 177), a research is being
conducted by Dr C. Schwitzer on Sclater’s lemurs. Nutritional ecology, habitat use,
activity patterns and parasitic status are being studied since 2004: as far as we know,
this complete study is the first one to consider all these aspects on the same species of
lemur, in one geographical area. Preliminar results on fruits and leaves’ compositions
showed that fruits and leaves consumed at Cologne Zoo are more nutrient-diluted than
those that Blue-eyed lemurs were observed feeding on in Sahamalaza, and surprisingly,
that wild fruits and leaves have quite similar nutrient content. These preliminar results
perfectly illustrate that:
-
In captivity, fruits and vegetable are more nutrient-diluted. The variety and the
nutritional content of the feeds available on the market seem to be very
different from those that are consumed in the wild. Analysis of fruits from the
same botanical classification showed, that fruits in the wild are higher in fiber
and proteins but lower in sugars and water, than those cultivated for human use
(Calvert, 1985; Oftedal and Allen, 1997). Also, fruits consumed in the wild
may be primarily unripe and lower in energy, while those available to zoos are
usually very ripe. Ripening increases the sugar level in the fruit.
131
-
Foraging and food intake patterns in the wild differ considerably from those in
captive environments (Fernandes, 1996; Schwitzer, 2003). This may also
contribute to explain behavioural problems, health problems and changes in
reproductive biology we observe in captivity (higher proportion of multiple
births (Pereira, 1993) as well as lower or nil breeding rate for obese females).
In Mulhouse Zoo, all Lemuridae species (except folivores) are fed with daily restricted
amounts of food and each diet is composed with the scales. Diets are made with a
certain amount of apples, completed with other fruits and vegetables; dog pellets, simial
powder and milk bread are then added according to practically experienced amounts
(see table 9.4.1.2: amounts in g AF / adult animal). Good health conditon and breeding
rate, and no observed obesity, may suggest that this nutritional strategy works well for
more than 25 years.
132
Eulemur coronatus.....................................................................................Crowned lemur
Eulemur macaco flavifrons..........................................................................Sclater's lemur
Eulemur mongoz.......................................................................................Mongoose lemur
Eulemur rubriventer...............................................................................Red-bellied lemur
Lemur catta.............................................................................................Ring-tailed lemur
Varecia variegata rubra...........................................................................Red ruffed lemur
Varecia variegata variegata.................................................Black and white ruffed lemur
Crowned lemur: weight 1.5 - 1.8 kg
Sclater's lemur: weight 2 - 2.5 kg
Mongoose lemurs: weight 1.5 kg
Red-bellied lemurs: weight 2 kg
Ring-tailed lemurs: weight 2.3 - 3 kg
Red ruffed lemurs lemur: weight 3.2 - 4.5 kg
Black and white ruffed lemurs: weight 3.2 - 3.6 kg.
Feeding program
08.00hr
13.30/18.00hr
Crowned lemur
Sclater's lemur
Mongoose lemur
Red-bellied
lemur
Ring-tailed
lemur
Red ruffed
lemur
Black ruffed
lemur
Dog pellets: Crousti’ croc
Apple
Other fruits + vegetables (F+V)
Simial powder
Milk-bread mix
Lettuce/endive/cabbage
Apple
(g)
60
100
60
100
Total F+V
(g)
110
160
110
180
Simial powder
(g)
10
10
10
10
Milk-bread
(g)
10
20
10
20
Dog pellets
(g)
10
15
10
15
TOTAL
125
180
15
20
20
235
200
270
20
30
30
350
200
270
20
30
30
350
140
205
140
225
Table 9.4.1.2 : Diet composition in grams AF per animal per day, per species
Constant: Apple, banana, cooked or raw carrot, cucumber, courgette, aubergine,
lettuce.
Frequent: Melon, chicory, pepper, oranges, grapes, kiwi.
Less frequent: Nectarine, pear, peach, sweet cherry, fig, dried fig, strawberry,
pineapple, grapefruit, carambola, walnut, red cabbage, radish.
Intake composition
See graphs 9.4.1.6 to 9.4.1.14
Diet composition
See tables 9.4.1.15 and 9.4.1.16, and graph 9.4.1.17
133
study n°
coro g1 (1)
coro g1 (2)
coro g1 (3)
coro g1 (4)
coro g2 (1)
coro g2 (2)
coro g2 (3)
coro g2 (5)
coro g3 (4)
coro g4 (5)
flavi g1 (1)
flavi g1 (2)
flavi g1 (3)
flavi g2 (1)
flavi g2 (4)
flavi g2 (5)
flavi g3 (2)
flavi g4 (3)
flavi g4 (4)
flavi g4 (5)
mongoz (1)
mongoz (2)
mongoz (3)
mongoz (4)
mongoz (5)
date
age of
young
young
coefficient
*
july-02
2m 1j
0,098557
jan-03
7m 17j 0,663083
june-03
oct-03
july-02
3m 8j
0,224913
jan-03
8m 24j
0,78842
june-03 1m 25j 0,078177
feb-04
9m 5j
0,826123
oct-03
feb-04
AVERAGE E. coronatus
july-02
jan-03
june-03
july-02
oct-03
feb-04
jan-03
june-03
oct-03
feb-04
AVERAGE E. macaco flavifrons
aug-02 3m 23j 0,275863
feb-03
9m 22j 0,883187
may-03 1m 20j 0,061873
nov-03 6m 29j 0,601943
feb-04 10m 26j 0,999353
AVERAGE E. mongoz
Number
SIMIAL
CROUSTI CROC CP
% CP from
TOTAL INTAKE
of
g AF g DM / Al g g DM / Al %
g g AF / %
g g AF / %
% SIMIAL
C.
Animals
DM
DM AF
Al
DM AF
Al
DM DM
CROC
2,10
2,66
3,00
3,00
4,22
4,79
4,08
4,83
3,00
2,00
323
496
460
383
619
753
762
519
371
283
154
186
153
128
146
157
187
108
124
141
148
74
126
112
104
145
211
181
143
103
78
35
47
37
35
34
44
44
30
34
39
38
23
25
24
27
23
28
24
28
28
28
26
16
36
32
27
31
73
43
38
31
26
8
14
11
9
7
15
11
8
10
13
11
20
26
26
23
19
31
21
24
27
30
25
10
17
20
30
25
32
29
40
30
18
5
6
7
10
6
7
7
8
10
9
7
12
12
16
26
15
14
14
25
26
20
18
13,8
14,9
15,5
16,7
13,7
16,5
14,5
16,2
17,7
17,3
16
44,8
54,1
51,4
43,6
44,1
58,5
45,6
45,7
47,0
53,2
49
19,6
18,2
22,8
34,6
25,1
18,4
21,8
34,5
32,9
26,5
25
2,00
1,00
2,00
2,00
2,00
2,00
2,00
2,00
2,00
2,00
496
350
502
554
406
451
598
634
442
432
248
350
251
277
203
226
299
317
221
216
261
132
97
129
141
112
123
151
152
124
117
66
97
65
71
56
62
76
76
62
59
69
27
28
26
25
28
27
25
24
28
27
26
33
39
37
31
33
39
51
32
38
37
16
39
19
16
16
19
26
16
19
19
20
22
36
26
20
26
28
31
19
27
28
26
35
10
26
35
30
30
13
30
29
30
18
10
13
18
15
15
6
15
14
15
14
24
9
18
22
24
22
8
18
20
23
19
15,4
17,1
15,7
14,4
16,3
16,7
15,0
14,1
16,4
16,6
16
45,2
65,8
51,1
42,6
50,3
52,4
63,2
41,8
51,9
53,2
52
34,4
12,1
25,7
34,5
32,9
29,2
11,4
28,0
28,1
30,8
27
4,28
3,88
4,06
2,60
3,00
817
749
784
417
438
191
193
193
160
146
177
198
201
196
115
121
46
52
48
44
40
46
24
27
25
28
28
26
39
66
56
39
39
9
17
14
15
13
14
18
29
26
31
29
27
35
34
39
21
30
8
9
10
8
10
9
16
15
18
16
22
17
14,0
16,4
15,6
16,7
17,5
16
39,5
55,6
51,5
57,0
51,8
51
25,2
20,4
25,7
21,5
28,3
24
134
study n°
rubri g1 (1)
rubri g1 (2)
rubri g1 (3)
rubri g1 (4)
rubri g1 (5)
rubri g2 (1)
rubri g2 (2)
rubri g2 (3)
rubri g2 (4)
rubri g2 (5)
date
age of
young
young
coefficient
*
july-02
jan-03
june-03
jan-04
4m 1j
0,302357
mar-04
6m 3j
0,53367
july-02
3m 7j
0,220837
jan-03
9m 14j 0,856693
june-03 2m 20j 0,163773
jan-04
9m 2j
0,815933
mar-04 11m 4j 1,025847
AVERAGE E. rubriventer
Number
SIMIAL
CROUSTI CROC CP
% CP from
TOTAL INTAKE
of
g g AF / %
g g AF / %
% SIMIAL
C.
Animals
DM
DM AF
Al
DM AF
Al
DM DM
CROC
3,00
3,00
2,00
2,30
2,53
3,22
3,86
4,16
4,82
5,03
704
824
548
515
592
784
1101
1056
1072
1042
235
275
274
224
234
243
285
254
223
207
245
166
220
137
146
168
197
292
261
282
284
55
73
68
63
66
61
76
63
59
57
64
24
27
25
28
28
25
27
25
26
27
26
36
71
39
51
50
39
88
66
86
78
12
24
20
22
20
12
23
16
18
15
18
19
29
26
31
27
18
27
23
28
25
25
35
29
24
31
45
55
44
43
50
75
12
10
12
14
18
17
11
10
10
15
13
19
12
16
19
24
25
13
15
16
24
18
13,8
15,5
15,8
16,9
16,7
14,3
14,8
14,4
15,3
16,0
15
43,5
57,9
50,7
57,4
49,8
39,0
56,8
49,3
55,8
47,9
51
30,6
16,8
22,5
25,4
32,1
39,0
20,2
22,8
23,1
33,0
27
% CP
from
SIMIAL
% CP
from
C.
CROC
42,9
50,0
36,2
51,4
43,9
45
22,4
25,9
34,4
30,3
37,0
30
Table 9.4.1.3: Observed intake amounts (AF and DM) for Eulemur species, and protein monitoring (see explanation chapter 10.3)
*: for young coefficient see graph 6.2.4
study n°
catta (1)
catta (2)
catta (3)
catta (4)
catta (5)
date
age of
young
young
coefficient
*
sept-02 5m 15j 0,45215
feb-03 9m 21j 0,88013
may-03 1m 11j 0,031303
nov-03 6m 12j 0,54386
feb-04 10m 10j 0,944327
AVERAGE Lemur catta
Number
SIMIAL
TOTAL INTAKE
CROUSTI' CROC CP
of
g g AF / %
g g AF / %
%
Animals
DM
DM AF
Al
DM AF
Al
DM DM
3,45
3,88
4,03
4,54
4,94
1011
1090
1130
1159
1252
293
281
280
255
253
272
238
281
293
325
351
69
72
73
72
71
71
24
26
26
28
28
26
48
75
54
89
85
14
19
13
20
17
17
18
24
17
25
22
21
35
54
72
74
100
10
14
18
16
20
16
13
17
22
20
25
20
13,1
14,9
14,3
14,9
15,4
15
Table 9.4.1.4: Observed intake amounts (AF and DM) for Lemur catta, and protein monitoring (see explanation chapter 10.3)
135
study n°
date
age of
young
young
coefficient
*
Number
SIMIAL
TOTAL INTAKE
CROUSTI' CROC
CP
of
g g AF / %
g g AF / %
%
Animals
DM
DM AF
Al
DM AF
Al
DM DM
% CP
from
SIMIAL
% CP
from
C.
CROC
variegata (1)
variegata (2)
variegata (3)
variegata (4)
variegata (5)
oct-02
5m 11j 0,543718
jan-03
9m 6j
0,93208
june-03
oct-03
feb-04
AVERAGE V. v. variegata
2,54
3,00
1,60
1,60
1,60
1471
1409
633
752
797
578
470
396
470
498
482
385
337
182
198
217
151
112
114
124
136
127
26
24
29
26
27
26
74
81
45
55
66
29
27
28
34
41
32
17
22
22
25
27
23
90
45
49
34
37
35
15
31
21
23
25
21
12
24
15
15
17
13,9
13,2
15,6
14,5
15,2
14
38,8
51,1
44,3
53,5
55,6
49
33,6
20,2
34,5
23,9
22,5
27
rubra (2)
rubra (3)
rubra (4)
rubra (5)
jan-03
9m 16j 0,93208
july-03 1m 28j 0,194902
oct-03
5m 17j 0,563998
feb-04
9m 15j
0,9625
AVERAGE V. v. rubra
5,00
2,58
3,69
5,00
2274
1233
1574
1872
455
477
426
374
433
579
298
445
475
116
115
121
95
112
25
24
28
25
26
174
80
137
133
35
31
37
27
32
27
24
28
25
26
62
40
94
86
12
15
25
17
18
10
12
19
16
14
14,2
14,5
15,5
14,8
15
58,9
51,6
55,5
52,8
55
15,1
18,5
27,1
24,4
21
Table 9.4.1.5: Observed intake amounts (AF and DM) for Varecia species, and protein monitoring (see explanation chapter 10.3)
136
Graph 9.4.1.6
APPLES, WITH SKIN
Lemur catta: intake composition (%AF)
ns=5, ng=1, ni=5, nd=35
BANANAS
CARROTS
MILK-BREAD MIX
SIMIAL 7001
LETTUCE
CROUSTI' CROC
1%
MILK-BREAD MIX 12%
SIMIAL 7001 7%
CARROTS 4%
CHICORY
CUCUMBER
0%
CROUSTI' CROC 6%
1%
2%
LEEKS
1%
BANANAS 8%
GRAPES 2%
COURGETTE
FENNEL, BULB
0%
REST 13%
2%
0%
TOMATOES, RED RIPE
PEPPERS
AUBERGINE
1%
0%
ORANGE
0%
APPLES 49%
SULTANAS
KIWI
1%
1%
1%
1%
0%
MELONS
MANGO
0%
PEARS
0%
STRAWBERRIES
PINEAPPLE
GRAPES
PEACHES
Graph 9.4.1.7
Eulemur coronatus: intake composition (%AF)
ns=6, ng=4, ni=13, nd=42
SIMIAL 7001 7%
0%
LETTUCE 4%
0%
CROUSTI' CROC 5%
MILK-BREAD MIX 11%
1%
0%
CUCUMBER 3%
0%
1%
1%
PINEAPPLE 2%
0%
GRAPES 2%
CARROTS 4%
1%
BANANAS 7%
REST 12%
2%
1%
0%
0%
0%
0%
1%
0%
APPLES 41%
1%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
APPLES, WITH SKIN
BANANAS
CARROTS
MILK-BREAD MIX
SIMIAL 7001
LETTUCE
CROUSTI' CROC
CHICORY
CUCUMBER
LEEKS
CAULIFLOWER
COURGETTE
CELERY
BROCCOLI
RADISHES
FENNEL, BULB
CABBAGE
TOMATOES, RED RIPE
TURNIPS
PEPPERS
AUBERGINE
BRUSSELS SPROUTS
SULTANAS
KIWI
ORANGE
MELONS
PEARS
STRAWBERRIES
PINEAPPLE
GRAPES
PEACHES
CHERRIES
BLUEBERRIES
137
Graph 9.4.1.8
Eulemur flavifrons: intake composition (%AF
ns=5, ng=4, ni=8, nd=35
0%
0%
SIMIAL 7001 8%
MILK-BREAD MIX 10%
0%
LETTUCE 3%
CARROTS 5%
0%
CROUSTI' CROC 6%
CUCUMBER 3%
BANANAS 6%
1%
2%
0%
2%
0%
1%
0%
REST 13%
0%
0%
0%
1%
0%
0%
0%
1%
APPLES 47%
1%
0%
0%
0%
1%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
APPLES, WITH SKIN
BANANAS
CARROTS
MILK-BREAD MIX
SIMIAL 7001
LETTUCE
CROUSTI' CROC
CHICORY
CUCUMBER
LEEKS
CAULIFLOWER
COURGETTE
CELERY
BROCCOLI
RADISHES
FENNEL, BULB
CABBAGE
TOMATOES, RED RIPE
TURNIPS
PEPPERS
AUBERGINE
SULTANAS
KIWI
ORANGE
GRAPEFRUIT
MELONS
MANGO
PEARS
STRAWBERRIES
PINEAPPLE
GRAPES
PEACHES
APRICOTS
CHERRIES
PASSION-FRUIT
PLUMS
TANGERINES
Graph 9.4.1.9
Eulemur mongoz: intake composition (% AF)
ns=5, ng=1, ni=5, nd=35
SIMIAL 7001 7%
LETTUCE 3%
MILK-BREAD MIX 12%
CROUSTI' CROC 5%
1%
1%
CUCUMBER 3%
2%
0%
CUCUMBER 3%
PINEAPPLE 2%
CARROTS 4%
BANANAS 8%
REST 13%
0%
2%
1%
0%
0%
0%
1%
1%
0%
0%
0%
APPLES 40%
1%
1%
0%
0%
0%
1%
APPLES, WITH SKIN
BANANAS
CARROTS
MILK-BREAD MIX
SIMIAL 7001
LETTUCE
CROUSTI' CROC
CHICORY
CUCUMBER
LEEKS
CAULIFLOWER
COURGETTE
CELERY
BROCCOLI
FENNEL, BULB
CABBAGE
TOMATOES, RED RIPE
TURNIPS
PEPPERS
AUBERGINE
SULTANAS
KIWI
ORANGE
MANGO
PEARS
STRAWBERRIES
PINEAPPLE
GRAPES
PEACHES
PLUMS
CARAMBOLA, STARFRUIT
138
Graph 9.4.1.10
Eulemur rubriventer: intake composition (% AF)
ns=5, ng=2, ni=8, nd=35
SIMIAL 7001 7%
MILK-BREAD MIX 10%
CARROTS 4%
1%
LETTUCE 3%
1%
1%
CROUSTI' CROC 5%
CUCUMBER 2%
BANANAS 7%
0%
1%
PINEAPPLE 2%
1%
0%
REST
11%
0%
0%
1%
0%
1% 0%
APPLES 48%
1%
0%
0%
0%
0%
1%
0%
0%
0%
0%
APPLES, WITH SKIN
BANANAS
CARROTS
MILK-BREAD MIX
SIMIAL 7001
LETTUCE
CROUSTI' CROC
CHICORY
CUCUMBER
LEEKS
COURGETTE
CELERY
BROCCOLI
RADISHES
FENNEL, BULB
CABBAGE
TOMATOES, RED RIPE
TURNIPS
PEPPERS
AUBERGINE
BRUSSELS SPROUTS
SULTANAS
ORANGE
MELONS
PEARS
STRAWBERRIES
PINEAPPLE
GRAPES
PEACHES
CHERRIES
PLUMS
DATES
Graph 9.4.1.11
APPLES, WITH SKIN
BANANAS
CARROTS
MILK-BREAD MIX
SIMIAL 7001
LETTUCE
CROUSTI' CROC
CHICORY
Varecia variegata variegata: intake composition (% AF)
ns=5, ng=1, n=3, nd=35
MILK-BREAD MIX 12%
CARROTS 4%
BANANAS 9%
1%
SIMIAL 7001 6%
1%
0%
1%
CROUSTI' CROC 5%
0%
0%
GRAPES 4%
1%
2%
0%
REST 11%
1%
0%
0%
APPLES, WITH SKIN 49%
1%
0%
0%
1%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
CUCUMBER
LEEKS
COURGETTE
CELERY
BROCCOLI
RADISHES
FENNEL, BULB
CABBAGE
TOMATOES, RED RIPE
TURNIPS
PEPPERS
AUBERGINE
SULTANAS
KIWI
ORANGE
GRAPEFRUIT
MELONS
PEARS
STRAWBERRIES
PINEAPPLE
GRAPES
139
Graph 9.4.1.12
Varecia variegata rubra: intake composition (% AF)
ns=5, ng=1, ni=5, nd=35
MILK-BREAD MIX 11%
CARROTS 4%
BANANAS 8%
1%
SIMIAL 7001 8%
CROUSTI'CROC 4%
GRAPES 3%
0%
0%
1%
0%
0%
1%
1%
REST 12%
1%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
1%
0%
1%
0%
0%
APPLES, WITH SKIN
BANANAS
CARROTS
MILK-BREAD MIX
SIMIAL 7001
LETTUCE
CROUSTI' CROC
CUCUMBER
LEEKS
CAULIFLOWER
COURGETTE
CELERY
BROCCOLI
RADISHES
FENNEL, BULB
CABBAGE
TOMATOES, RED RIPE
PEPPERS
AUBERGINE
SULTANAS
KIWI
ORANGE
GRAPEFRUIT
MELONS
MANGO
PEARS
STRAWBERRIES
GRAPES
Graph 9.4.1.13
Lemuridae: intake composition ( % AF, average all species)
OTHERS (milk-bread mix)
11%
SIMIAL 7001
7%
CROUSTI' CROC
5%
FRUIT + VEGETABLES
77%
140
Graph 9.4.1.14
Lemuridae: intake composition (% DM, average all species)
OTHERS (milk-bread mix)
12%
SIMIAL 7001
25%
CROUSTI' CROC
18%
FRUIT + VEGETABLES
45%
Graph 9.4.1.17
Lemuridae: % of proteins delivered by diet components
OTHERS (milkbread mix)
14%
FRUIT +
VEGETABLES
10%
SIMIAL
49%
CROUSTI' CROC
27%
141
Diet composition (DM basis)
Nutrient
Unit
Nutrient Category:
ME Primate
Energy
kcal/g
Nutrient Category:
Carbohydrates
Acid Lignin*
%
ADF*
%
Cellulose*
%
Crude Fiber*
%
Lignin*
%
NDF*
%
Total Dietary Fiber
%
Water Soluble
%
Carbohydrates*
Nutrient Category:
Fat
Arachidonic Acid
%
Crude Fat
%
Linoleic Acid
%
Linolenic Acid
%
%
PUFA
%
Saturated Fats
%
Nutrient Category:
Protein
Arginine
%
Crude Protein
%
Cystine
%
Histidine
%
Isoleucine
%
Leucine
%
Lysine
%
Methionine
%
Phenylalanine
%
Threonine
%
Tryptophan
%
Lemur
catta
Eulemur
coronatus
Eulemur
macaco
flavifrons
Eulemur
mongoz
2,94
2,92
2,89
2,96
0,07
3,80
1,56
3,53
0,48
5,98
11,34
6,70
0,05
3,98
1,56
3,70
0,55
6,26
11,52
7,35
0,04
4,15
1,57
3,85
0,54
6,55
11,90
7,96
0,08
4,05
1,45
3,72
0,58
6,40
11,72
8,11
0,00
4,86
1,16
0,08
0,47
1,59
0,88
0,00
4,97
1,24
0,09
0,47
1,71
0,89
0,00
4,95
1,30
0,08
0,40
1,80
0,82
0,00
5,07
1,32
0,08
0,50
1,83
0,92
0,51
14,58
0,17
0,16
0,45
0,95
0,49
0,22
0,50
0,37
0,11
0,57
15,63
0,19
0,18
0,49
1,04
0,54
0,25
0,55
0,41
0,12
0,58
15,82
0,19
0,17
0,49
1,07
0,54
0,25
0,55
0,41
0,12
0,61
16,08
0,20
0,19
0,52
1,12
0,57
0,26
0,58
0,43
0,13
Min./max.
recommendations
Zoo Mulhouse
10,00/30,00
3,00/6,00
16,70/
142
Tyrosine
Valine
Nutrient Category:
Biotin
Choline
Folacin
Pantothenic Acid
Vit A
Vit B1 (Thiamin)
Vit B12 *
Vit B2 (Riboflavin)
Vit B3 (Niacin)
Vit B6 (Pyridoxine)
Vit C Ascorbic Acid
Vit D3
Vit E
Vit K
Nutrient Category:
Ash
Calcium
Chloride
Cobalt*
Copper
Iodine*
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Potassium
Selenium
Sodium
Sulfur
Zinc
%
%
Vitamins
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
IU A/g
mg/kg
mcg/g
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
IU Vit D3/g
mg/kg
mg/kg
Ash/Minerals
%
%
%
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
%
mg/kg
%
%
mg/kg
%
%
mg/kg
0,37
0,50
0,40
0,55
0,41
0,55
0,43
0,58
0,10/0,20
519,40
0,42
4,39
39,71
3,04
0,01
1,85
14,80
3,91
300,41
2,12
39,76
0,49
571,32
0,61
4,73
51,62
3,29
0,01
2,00
16,09
4,03
329,09
2,22
41,26
0,54
619,79
0,49
4,15
48,24
2,91
0,01
1,71
13,90
3,59
319,53
2,21
42,11
0,59
626,72
0,55
4,74
45,05
3,35
0,01
2,00
16,03
4,02
347,77
2,39
41,01
0,60
6,17
0,95
0,17
0,11
13,62
0,03
77,02
0,08
21,73
0,66
0,78
0,15
0,24
0,11
13,78
6,63
1,02
0,18
0,11
14,72
0,03
86,33
0,09
23,88
0,70
0,85
0,16
0,25
0,12
15,23
6,74
1,07
0,20
0,10
15,56
0,04
90,42
0,09
21,24
0,73
0,83
0,16
0,25
0,13
15,55
6,75
1,07
0,20
0,12
15,74
0,04
91,95
0,09
24,63
0,73
0,85
0,17
0,27
0,13
16,16
/750,00
0,20/4,00
12,00/
8,00/14,00
1,10/5,60
0,60/
1,70/5,60
16,00/56,00
2,50/4,40
55,00/111,00
1,00/3,00
56,00/100,00
0,50/12,00
0,55/0,80
0,20/0,55
12,00/20,00
/0,35
80,00/140,00
0,10/0,20
20,00/100,00
0,33/0,60
0,40/0,89
0,20/0,65
11,00/100,00
Table 9.4.1.15
*: These values are not reliable and possibly too low. This is because these values are not always entered in ZOOTRITIONTM for the feeds which are used in the diet.
143
Diet compostition (DM basis)
Nutrient
Nutrient Category:
ME Primate
Eulemur
Rubriventer
Varecia
variegata
variegata
Varecia
variegata
rubra
2,93
2,98
3,08
0,06
4,14
1,65
3,80
0,56
6,51
11,82
7,64
0,05
3,75
1,51
3,47
0,47
5,93
11,25
6,82
0,07
4,24
1,60
3,59
0,55
6,58
12,14
7,84
0,00
4,88
1,26
0,08
0,42
1,74
0,84
0,00
4,84
1,18
0,08
0,46
1,62
0,89
0,00
4,81
1,31
0,08
0,45
1,80
0,90
0,56
15,40
0,19
0,17
0,49
1,04
0,53
0,24
0,54
0,40
0,12
0,52
14,50
0,18
0,17
0,45
0,97
0,49
0,23
0,50
0,37
0,11
0,57
14,77
0,19
0,18
0,49
1,07
0,54
0,25
0,55
0,41
0,12
Min./Max.
recommendations
Zoo Mulhouse
Unit
Energy
kcal/g
Nutrient Category:
Carbohydrates
Acid Lignin*
%
ADF*
%
Cellulose*
%
Crude Fiber*
%
Lignin*
%
NDF*
%
Total Dietary Fiber
%
Water Soluble
%
Carbohydrates*
Nutrient Category:
Fat
Arachidonic Acid
%
Crude Fat
%
Linoleic Acid
%
Linolenic Acid
%
%
PUFA
%
Saturated Fats
%
Nutrient Category:
Protein
Arginine
%
Crude Protein
%
Cystine
%
Histidine
%
Isoleucine
%
Leucine
%
Lysine
%
Methionine
%
Phenylalanine
%
Threonine
%
Tryptophan
%
10,00/30,00
3,00/6,00
/16,70
144
Tyrosine
Valine
Nutrient Category:
Biotin
Choline
Folacin
Pantothenic Acid
Vit A
Vit B1 (Thiamin)
Vit B12 *
Vit B2 (Riboflavin)
Vit B3 (Niacin)
Vit B6 (Pyridoxine)
Vit C Ascorbic Acid
Vit D3
Vit E
Vit K
Nutrient Category:
Ash
Calcium
Chloride
Cobalt*
Copper
Iodine*
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Potassium
Selenium
Sodium
Sulfur
Zinc
%
%
Vitamins
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
IU A/g or
mg/kg
mcg/g
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
IU Vit D3/g
mg/kg
mg/kg
Ash/Minerals
%
%
%
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
%
mg/kg
%
%
mg/kg
%
%
mg/kg
0,40
0,54
0,38
0,50
0,41
0,55
592,44
0,49
4,38
49,02
3,02
0,01
1,79
14,57
3,75
309,49
2,19
41,04
0,56
530,97
0,42
4,36
40,23
3,05
0,01
1,90
14,70
4,21
289,21
2,12
39,29
0,51
608,44
0,44
4,38
41,05
3,05
0,01
1,87
14,62
4,11
337,30
2,25
38,52
0,58
6,57
1,03
0,19
0,10
15,02
0,04
87,28
0,09
22,16
0,70
0,83
0,16
0,25
0,12
15,12
6,16
0,95
0,17
0,10
13,84
0,03
78,74
0,08
21,76
0,65
0,80
0,15
0,24
0,11
14,01
6,31
0,99
0,20
0,11
15,22
0,04
88,45
0,09
21,48
0,67
0,85
0,17
0,26
0,13
15,46
0,10/0,20
/750,00
0,20/4,00
12,00/
8,00/14,00
1,10/5,60
0,60/
1,70/5,60
16,00/56,00
2,50/4,40
55,00/111,00
1,00/3,00
56,00/100,00
0,50/12,00
0,55/0,80
0,20/0,55
12,00/20,00
/0,35
80,00/140,00
0,10/0,20
20,00/100,00
0,33/0,60
0,40/0,89
0,20/0,65
11,00/100,00
Table 9.4.1.16
145
Comments Intake composition: (for requirement values see table 9.4.0.3)
Energy: Obesity in captive lemurs is a common problem when ad lib diets are offered
or when the diets contain too much fruit. Energy intake was evaluated for some
Lemuridae species by C. Schwitzer in captive conditions (see reference 178) and
conclusions of this thesis are interesting to compare with datas collected in the wild
(Pereira 1993, Fernandes 1996, Schwitzer 2003). Overweight can be explained by the
nutritional quality of fruits used in captivity (lower fiber and protein content, higher
sugar content), foraging and food intake patterns. Captive lemurs should always be fed
with daily restricted amounts of food and energy intake evaluated.
Eg.: adult male Sclater's lemur (estimated BW = 2Kg):
MEPrimate = 2,89 Kcal / gDM (table 9.4.1.15) and DMI = 69 g / day (table 9.4.1.3)
MEI = 69 x 2,89 = 199,4 Kcal / animal / day, MEI = 199,4 / 2 = 99,7 Kcal / Kg BW.
This value seem adequate for maintenance (min. 100 Kcal/Kg BW/ day recommended).
Carbohydrates: There are no real recommendations for this nutrient category.
Reference values have been determined from feeding ecology: it has been observed that
in the wild, most primate species ate about 50-60% of carbohydrates on DM basis
(source, NRC 1978). But many fluctuations occur (season, ripeness...).
In Mulhouse, the diets for Lemuridae species comprises between 60,38 % (E. mongoz)
and 63,25 % CHO DMI (V. v. variegata). These values are approximative: crude fiber
value is possibly too low (datas missing for some feeds in ZOOTRITION ® database)
and TDF has been used instead of crude fiber. Thus, the carbohydrates calculation has
been done using “CHO= 100-(CP+CFat+TDF+Ash)”. These values are certainly
majorated but seem reasonable.
Fiber: Concerning the fiber analysis, it has been observed that the free-ranging diet was
composed of 10-30 % NDF (source, NRC 2003). Values of ADF and TDF in
ZOOTRITION® software are not realiable because of missing data in the database. For
folivore species, the NDF/NSC ratio can be used for monitoring fiber content in diets.
But for generalist feeders with fruits dominating other plant parts (see NRC 2003 table
1-1, reference 139) this ratio is not well adapted.
Fatty acids and crude fat : Few data exists on the fat requirement for gibbons. The
only recommendations we found are a maximum of 10% DM of fat in the diet. In fact, it
is mostly the level of essential fatty acids, as linoleic acid and linolenic are important.
Fat is an important factor of palatability (Murray and Fowler, 1986), but too much fat
can induce diarrhea and may in long term issue, lead to antagonisms with calcium,
selenium, iron, and vitamin E metabolism.
In Mulhouse, diets contain an average 4 to 5% DM of fat, and this seems adequate.
Protein: “Adequacy” of dietary protein generally reflects ability to support satisfactory
health, growth, and reproductive ability. “Quantity” of dietary protein is reflected by
total nitrogen content. “Quality” reflects the presence and ratios of the constituent
essential amino acids. Animal source of proteins has a high-digestibility and contains
high levels of essential amino acids. Proteins from plant sources are less digestible and
146
generally contain low levels of one or more ot the essential amino acids. Therefore a
dietary amino acids balance should be maximised by a mixed diet.
The diet distributed in Mulhouse has been determined in function of the protein
concentration (see chapter 10.3). The diets for Lemuridae species comprises between
14,5 % (V. v. variegata) and 16,1 % CP DMI (E. mongoz). These values seem to be an
adequate level to support the lemurs needs, at least in Mulhouse Zoo.
It is interesting to note the percentage of proteins delivered by diet items (see graph
9.4.1.17): “Simial” pellets and powder deliver 49 % of the total dietary protein,
“Crousti’ Croc” pellets 27 % , Fruits + vegetables 10 % and others 14 %. This means
that 3/4 of the proteins are delivered by 12 % AF and 43 % DM (Simial and Crousti’
croc) of the diet (see graphs 9.4.1.13 and 9.4.1.14).
Vitamins:
Vitamin A (Retinol) and Provitamin A (Carotens): No data is available on Beta
carotene, but with conversion (carotene 6µg = 1µg Retinol), we can calculate the total
vitamin A concentration in the diet. Published Studies consider diets containing from 8
to 14 IU vit A /g DM as adequate. Mulhouse’s diet contains between 39,71 and 51,62
IU vit A/g DMI. Lemurs fed with that diet don’t show signs of toxicity.
(Nb: Beta caroten is never toxic for humans. Teratogen effects occur in females with
diets containing more than 3000 UI per day of vitaminA in the first month of
pregnancy. The highest safe levels for non-ruminant animals are presumed to be 4 to 10
times the requirement).
Vitamin D: It has been shown that Vitamin D3 is much more effective than Vitamin D2
for New world primates, particularly in preventing rickets. Old world primates (OWP)
such as rhesus monkeys appear to utilize ergociferol (Vit D2) more effectively, but Hunt
et al. (1972) indicate that cholecalciferol (Vit D3) still has a stronger biological activity.
This may explain why only recommendations for cholecalciferol exist: about 1-3 UI of
vit D3/g DM. In Mulhouse Zoo, lemur diets contain between 2,12 and 2,39 IU vit D3/g
DMI (mainly coming from the supplements Simial and Vitapaulia M).
(Nb: 400 UI Vitamin D3 per day in Rhesus monkeys’ diet doesn’t produce signs of
toxicity, but for Humans, the limitation for an adult is 1000 UI of vit D per day).
Vitamin E: Biologic activity of vitaminE (and diet recommendation) depends directly
on α-tocopherol and w6 fatty acids proportions. VitE Deficiency is common in zoos.
The adequate values were estimated at 56 to 100 milligram per kilo of diet on dry matter
basis. In Mulhouse Zoo, the diets for lemurs contain between 38,52 and 42,11 mg/ Kg
DMI, which is still sufficient for primates (E. Dierenfeld, personal communication).
(Nb: Uncertainty remains on vitamin E composition of the offered diet, because the
values of food composition data vary extremely from one source to another).
Vitamin K: The vitamin K requirement for nonhuman primates is small because of an
endogen source : synthesized by bacteria in the intestinal tract (except newborn animals
and those receiving long-term broad spectrum antibiotic therapy). In Mulhouse Zoo, the
diets for lemurs contain between 0,49 and 0,60 mg vit K/ Kg DMI, which is still
sufficient for primates (min. 0,50 mg vit K/ Kg DM, NRC 2003).
147
Vitamin B1 (Thiamin): Thiamin’s requirement exists, and diets with 1,1 to 5,6 mg/Kg
DM are sufficient for Lemuridae species. Principal natural sources are yeasts, cereals
and leguminous plants. Recommended minimal values published can be easily reached,
notably when using supplements: Mulhouse diets contain between 2,91 and 3,35 mg vit
B1 / Kg DMI.
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin): Sources of Vitamin B2 are various and deficiency is rare.
The diet distributed in Mulhouse to the Lemuridae species contains about 1,71-2,00 mg
vit B2/kg DM, which corresponds to the target interval.
Vitamin B3 (PP, Niacin) : With a level of 13,9 to 16,1 mg/Kg DM of Niacin in the
diet, Mulhouse diet is on the low side. Lemurs fed with that diet don’t show signs of
deficiency. Protein intake seem adequate and the risk to develop a nicotinamid
deficiency is low.
(Nb: Nicotinamid -second form of niacin with equivalent biological activity- is
synthesized partially from Tryptophan in the liver. Also Niacin deficiency is usually
linked with a protein deficiency. Toxicity limit of Niacin for Humans is 33mg per day
on top of the nutrient need (>15mg/day)).
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine): The concentration of Vitamin B6 in Mulhouse diet seems
adequate with values comprised between 3,75 and 4,21 mg/Kg DMI (requirement range
is estimated 2,5-4,4 mg/Kg DM.
(Nb: Pyridoxine’s requirement depends on the protein concentration in the diet and with
specific medications such as ison azid or D-penicillamin, that augment its urinary
elimination. Moreover, oestrogens increase the Pyridoxine needs.)
Vitamin B9 (Folic acid): This nutrient level must be controlled because deficiency is
quite frequent. It concerns mostly in pregnant or lactating females and in newborn
animals. Observed values in Mulhouse diet, between 0,42 and 0,61 mg/Kg DM, seem
adequate (2 times the minimal recommendation of 0,20 mg/Kg DM found in NRC
1978).
Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) : Dietary sources of vitamin B12 are exclusively animal
sources. Biological needs are very low but deficiency signs may occur when using a
vegetarian diet (no meat, no fish, no egg). The analysis of Mulhouse diet is incorrect
because of a lack of data of vitamin B12 concentration in the supplements. For that
reason values in the tables 9.4.1.15 and 9.4.1.16 are not reliable.
Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid): The diet in Mulhouse Zoo contains pepper, broccoli and
citrus fruits, and the lemurs’ needs are consequently easily reached. Unfortunately, the
toxicity value isn’t known. Long term excess may create oxalate calculi in the urinary
tract. In Mulhouse, Vit C is 2 to 3 times the requirement but, being a water-soluble
vitamin, this is not a risk for toxicity. High Vit C levels could also contribute to the
development of haemosiderosis due to enhanced iron-absorption (see reference 72), but
the iron content in this diet is on the low side.
Lemuridae species are known to be particularly prone to haemosiderosis (see references
64 and 105). Therefore liver histology is undertaken for each necropsy. We sometimes
observe some iron storage cases as a post-mortem finding on lemurs which died from
other reasons, but we haven’t observe real iron storage disease cases for years.
148
Biotin and Cholin: There is not much data available about these nutrients; food
composition datas give only 50% of the cholin analysis and nothing about biotin. So we
cannot make conclusions about these nutrient requirements and the diets analysis.
Minerals:
All primates have high needs of sodium, chloride, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium and
lower, but nonetheless essential, needs of zinc, chrome, copper, cobalt, iron, manganese,
selenium and molybdenum.
Calcium and phosphorus: The ratio of Ca/P is important and is recommended to be
between 1,0 and 1,5. Calcium absorption is in competition with magnesium’s.
Ca/P ratio for Mulhouse diets seem adequate with values comprised between 1,44 and
1,48.
Sodium: The minimal recommended value published is covered by the diet provided in
Mulhouse Zoo and no deficiency signs such as pica have been observed.
Chloride and Iodine: The analysis cannot lead to a conclusion, because 50% of the
feed composition data are lacking for chloride and even more for Iodine.
Copper and Iron: Iron content seem adequate with 77,02 to 91,95 mg/Kg DMI. The
maximal recommendation is 140 mg/Kg DM for Lemuridae species, which are prone to
haemosiderosis. Copper recommended range is 12-20 mg/ Kg DM and Mulhouse diet
contain between 13,62 and 15,74 mg/ Kg DMI.
(Nb: Copper deficiency can lead to iron accumulation in the liver. Its absorption is
diminished with high vitamin C, zinc and iron).
Plants
See appendix 2
Foliage
Bamboo, European Beech Fagus sylvatica, Hazel Corylus avellana, European ash
Fraxinus excelsior.
149
Propithecus verreauxi coronatus...............................................................Crowned sifaka
Hapalemur griseus alaotrensis.........................................................Alaotran gentle lemur
Hapalemur griseus occidentalis................................................Western grey gentle lemur
Alaotran gentle lemurs: weight 1.4 - 1.6 kg
Western grey gentle lemurs: weight 0.9 kg
Crowned sifakas: weight 3 - 4.5 kg
Feeding program
08.00hr
11.00hr
16.00hr
18.00hr
Mazuri leaf-eater primate pellets soaked in 10% Vitapualia M (see
chapter 4.10)
for gentle lemurs and sifakas
Bamboo for gentle lemurs and half of the meal from 18.00hr
Black locust for sifakas + 1carrot and 1 apple
2 walnuts or hazelnuts for sifakas
Bamboo for gentle lemurs
Black locust for sifakas
Apples
Other fruits + vegetables (F + V)
Simial powder
Lettuce/endive/cabbage
Apple (g)
Alaotran gentle lemurs
Grey gentle lemurs
Crowned sifaka
40
30
100
Total F+V (g) Simial powder
(g)
80
5
70
5
350
20
Mazuri, soaked
20
20
40
TOTAL
without browse
105
95
410
Table 9.4.1.18 : Diet composition in grams AF per animal per day, per species
Constant: Apple, cooked carrot, cucumber, courgette, aubergine, pepper, chicory,
lettuce.
Frequent: Banana, grapes, kiwi
Less frequent: Nectarine, peach, cherry, fig, dried fig, strawberry, pineapple,
grapefruit, carambola, red cabbage, radish, broccoli.
Intake composition
See graphs 9.4.1.20 to 9.4.1.25, 9.4.1.29 to 9.4.1.31
9 intake studies have been undertaken with the Propithecus verreauxi coronatus. For
the 7 first studies, milk-bread mix was used in the diet. For the last 2 studies we have
taken out the milk-bread mix and replaced it by Mazuri leaf-eater pellets, soaked in a
dilution of Vitapaulia (10mL Vitapaulia M for 1L of water). We have separated these
different diets into two different graphs. Currently we are continuing with Mazuri leafeater pellets.
5 intake studies have been carried out for Hapalemur griseus occidentalis and 6 studies
for Hapalemur griseus alaotrensis. Milk-bread mix was used, apart from the 6th study
with H. g. alaotrensis. In this last study, we’ve taken out the milk-bread mix and we’ve
150
replaced it by Mazuri leafeater pellets, soaked in a dilution of Vitapaulia M (10mL
Vitapaulia M for 1L of water). We have separated these different diets in two different
graphs. Currently we are feeding our Alaotran gentle lemurs with Mazuri leaf-eater
pellets. From 2006 we haven’t anymore Western grey gentle lemurs in our collection.
In April-May, when the bamboo starts to grow, young shoots of bamboo are also given
to the Alaotran gentle lemurs, in combination with bamboo leaves. They strongly prefer
these young shoots, and the intake is much higher than the intake of leaves. The intake
percentage of shoots in studies 1-5 comes from one study which has been done in
spring. More intake studies – preferably in summer – have to be undertaken to
determine the real proportions of intake of bamboo leaves versus shoots.
Diet composition
See tables 9.4.1.26 and 9.4.1.32, and graphs 9.4.1.27 and 9.4.1.28
151
study n°
date
age of
young
propi (1)
propi (2)
propi (3)
propi (4)
propi (5)
propi (6)
propi (7)
propi (8)
propi (9)
alaotrensis g1 (1)
alaotrensis g1 (2)
alaotrensis g1 (3)
alaotrensis g1 (4)
alaotrensis g1 (5)
alaotrensis g2 (2)
alaotrensis g2 (3)
occidentalis (1)
occidentalis (2*)
occidentalis (3)
occidentalis (4)
occidentalis (5)
young
Number
SIMIAL
TOTAL INTAKE
CROUSTI' CROC CP % CP from
g g AF / %
g g AF / %
coefficient of Animals g AF g AF / g g DM / %
DM AF Al DM AF Al DM
DM
Al
Al
sept-03
jan-03
june-03
nov-03
mar-04
nov-04
mar/05
june/05
dec-06
AVERAGE Propithecus v coronatus.
aug-02
feb-03
june-03
nov-03
feb-04
1a 4m
18j
feb-03
4m 6j
0,42508
may-03
7m 12j
0,74956
AVERAGE H. g. alaotrensis
oct-02
feb-03
july-03
oct-03
mar-04
AVERAGE H. g. occidentalis
2,00
2,00
2,00
2,00
2,00
2,00
2,00
2,00
2,00
718
728
661
854
835
557
661
724
924
359
364
331
427
418
278
330
362
462
370
315
326
304
357
337
205
321
378
378
157
163
152
178
168
103
160
189
189
162
44
45
46
42
40
37
49
52
41
44
31
47
21
21
32
19
20
25
21
16
24
11
11
16
10
10
13
11
13
9
13
6
5
9
9
6
6
5
7
6,00
4,00
4,00
4,00
5,00
699
483
385
393
395
117
121
96
98
79
140
110
84
86
97
23
28
21
21
19
20
23
22
22
24
36
41
20
23
28
6
10
5
6
6
2,43
2,75
386
296
159
108
111
90
60
37
22
25
23
20
22
30
14
2,00
2,00
2,00
2,00
2,00
237
229
232
185
191
118
114
116
92
96
107
52
51
47
42
42
26
25
23
21
21
23
22
22
20
23
22
22
14
14
12
15
14
% CP
from
% DM SIMIAL C. CROC
40
40
20
20
20
5
5
5
18.66
19.8
18,21
14.63
17.26
16.85
21.0
19.0
17.5
18.1
13,2
18,6
9,4
9,2
13,2
13,6
8,1
9,3
8,7
11
6,1
6,8
6
23
33
21
24
26
15
15
16
17
25
3
4
4
4
5
10
12
17
18
23
14,7
17,6
15,3
15,0
16,7
48,4
58,5
43,3
49,6
48,4
14,6
15,4
24,8
26,5
31,0
12
5
7
30
21
25
11
12
4
4
4
11
17
15
16,6
15,7
15.7
55,9
42,2
49
14,3
24,7
22
7
7
6
8
7
7
24
26
23
32
29
27
5
5
10
8
10
3
3
5
4
5
4
9
9
19
16
20
15
14,6
15,4
17,5
18,0
17,9
16.2
50,2
51,5
41,4
55,1
49,9
50
13,2
12,8
24,5
20,3
25,5
19
Table 9.4.1.19: Observed intake amounts (AF and DM) for Propithecus and Hapalemur species, and protein monitoring (see explanation chapter 10.3)
152
Graph 9.4.1.20
Propithecus verreauxi coronatus: intake compostition (%AF)
Intake studies 1-7, ns=7, ng=1, ni=2, nd=49
1%
BLACK LOCUST
LEAVES 29%
1%
0%
GRAPES 3%
0%
2%
0%
PEARS 3%
1%
1%
0%
SIMIAL 7001 4%
0%
1%
MILK-BREAD
MIX 10%
0%
REST 12%
CARROTS 13%
0%
1%
1%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
2%
1%
APPLES, WITH
SKIN 26%
0%
2%
0%
0%
APPLES, WITH SKIN
BANANA
S
CARROTS
MILK-BREAD MIX
SIMIAL 7001
LETTUCE
CHICORY
CUCUMBER
LEEKS
CAULIFLOWER
COURGETTE
CELERY
BROCCOLI
FENNEL, BULB
TOMATOES, RED RIPE
PEPPERS
AUBERGINE
SULTANAS
KIWI
ORANGE
MELONS
MANGO
PEARS
STRAWBERRIES
PINEAPPLE
GRAPES
APRICOTS
TANGERINES
CHESTNUTS
AVOCADO
WALNUTS
BLACK LOCUST LEAVES
Graph 9.4.1.21
APPLES, WITH SKIN
BANANA
S
CARROTS
SIMIAL 7001
LETTUCE
CHICORY
CUCUMBER
LEEKS
CAULIFLOWER
COURGETTE
CELERY
BROCCOLI
FENNEL, BULB
TOMATOES, RED RIPE
PEPPERS
AUBERGINE
Propithecus verreauxi coronatus: intake composition (%AF)
intake studies 8-9, ns=2, ng=1, ni=2, nd=14
BLACK LOCUST LEAVES
29%
PEPPERS 3%
0%
MAZURI LEAFEATER
SOAKED 5%
1%
0%
0%
1%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
SIMIAL 7001 3%
REST 11%
1%
1%
0%
0%
0%
1%
CARROTS 36%
1%
1%
0%
0%
1%
1%
0%
SULTANAS
KIWI
ORANGE
MELONS
MANGO
PEARS
STRAWBERRIES
PINEAPPLE
GRAPES
APRICOTS
TANGERINES
CHESTNUTS
AVOCADO
WALNUTS
BLACK LOCUST LEAVES
MAZURI LEAFEATER SOAKED
153
Graph 9.4.1.22
Propithecus verreauxi coronatus: intake composition (% AF); studies1-7
OTHERS (milk-bread mix,
chestnuts, walnuts)
11%
SIMIAL 7001
4%
BLACK LOCUST LEAVES
29%
FRUITS + VEGETABLES
56%
Graph 9.4.1.23
Propithecus verreauxi coronatus: intake composition (% AF); studies 8-9
SIMIAL 7001
3%
OTHERS (chestnuts, walnuts)
1%
MAZURI LEAFEATER,
SOAKED
5%
BLACK LOCUST LEAVES
29%
FRUITS + VEGETABLES
62%
154
Graph 9.4.1.24
Propithecus verreauxi coronatus: intake composition (% DM); studies 1-7
chestnuts, walnuts)
14%
SIMIAL 7001
13%
FRUITS + VEGETABLES
32%
BLACK LOCUST LEAVES
41%
Graph 9.4.1.25
Propithecus verreauxi coronatus: intake composition (% DM); studies 8-9
OTHERS (chestnuts, walnuts)
SIMIAL 7001
1%
10%
MAZURI LEAFEATER,
SOAKED
9%
FRUITS + VEGETABLES
33%
BLACK LOCUST LEAVES
47%
155
Nutrient
Unit
Nutrient Category:
Energy
ME Primate
kcal/g
Acid Lignin *
%
ADF *
%
Cellulose *
%
Crude Fiber *
%
Lignin *
%
NDF
%
Total Dietary Fiber
%
Water Soluble
%
Carbohydrates *
Nutrient Category:
Fat
Crude Fat
%
Linoleic Acid
%
Linolenic Acid
%
%
PUFA
%
Saturated Fats
%
Nutrient Category:
Protein
Arginine
%
Crude Protein
%
Cystine
%
Histidine
%
Isoleucine
%
Leucine
%
Lysine
%
Methionine
%
Phenylalanine
%
Threonine
%
Tryptophan
%
Tyrosine
%
Valine
%
Nutrient Category:
Vitamins
Beta-carotene
mg/kg
Biotin
mg/kg
Choline
mg/kg
Folacin
mg/kg
Pantothenic Acid
mg/kg
Vit A
IU A/g
Vit B1 (Thiamin)
mg/kg
Vit B12 *
mcg/g
Vit B2 (Riboflavin)
mg/kg
Vit B3 (Niacin)
mg/kg
Vit B6 (Pyridoxine)
mg/kg
Vit C Ascorbic Acid
mg/kg
Vit D3
IU Vit D3/g
Vit E
mg/kg
Vit K
mg/kg
Nutrient Category:
Ash/Minerals
Ash
%
Calcium
%
Chloride
%
Cobalt
mg/kg
Copper
mg/kg
Iodine
mg/kg
Iron
mg/kg
Propithecus
verreauxi
coronatus, 1-7
Propithecus
verreauxi
coronatus, 8-9
2,19
1,84
0,02
2,74
1,24
7,90
0,36
4,17
8,29
4,00
0,01
4,67
1,77
10,31
0,47
6,67
9,09
3,11
4,53
1,04
0,08
0,59
1,34
0,73
3,76
0,94
0,05
0,21
0,88
0,25
0,39
17,81
0,12
0,12
0,33
0,67
0,36
0,16
0,36
0,27
0,08
0,27
0,37
0,40
19,23
0,11
0,13
0,34
0,63
0,36
0,15
0,35
0,27
0,08
0,26
0,37
0,03
311,94
0,43
3,98
142,12
2,88
0,00
1,72
16,33
2,49
239,47
1,45
16,81
0,30
0,10/0,20
391,22
1,47
10,04
420,97
3,61
0,00
2,37
28,63
4,43
509,42
1,26
37,50
0,54
6,52
0,45
0,10
0,08
8,18
0,02
51,67
7,50
0,44
0,12
0,09
8,53
0,12
88,74
Min./max.
recommendations
Zoo Mulhouse
30,00/
3,00/6,00
15,00/16,70
0,47
/750,00
0,20/4,00
12,00/
8,00/14,00
1,10/5,60
0,60/
1,70/5,60
16,00/
2,50/4,40
55,00/111,00
1,00/3,00
56,00/100,00
0,50/12,00
0,55/0,80
0,20/0,55
12,00/20,00
/0,35
80,00/140,00
156
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Potassium
Selenium
Sodium
Sulfur
Zinc
%
mg/kg
%
%
mg/kg
%
%
mg/kg
0,06
18,54
0,31
0,63
0,11
0,19
0,06
10,54
0,08
24,88
0,32
0,89
0,09
0,15
0,05
22,81
0,10/0,20
20,00/100,00
0,33/0,60
0,40/0,89
0,20/0,65
11,00/100,00
Table 9.4.1.26
Graph 9.4.1.27
Propithecus verreauxi coronatus, studies 1-7
% of proteins delivered by diet components
SIMIAL
chestnuts, walnuts)
20%
19%
FRUIT + VEGETABLES
12%
BLACK LOCUST LEAVES
49%
Graph 9.4.1.28
Propithecus verreauxi coronatus, studies 8-9:
% of proteins delivered by diet components
MAZURI LEAFEATER,
SIMIAL
SOAKED
17%
12%
FRUITS, VEGETABLES
AND OTHERS (chestnuts,
walnuts)
11%
BLACK LOCUST LEAVES
60%
157
Graph 9.4.1.29
Hapalemur griseus alaotrensis, study 6 intake composition (% AF),
ns=1, ng=2, ni=5, nd=5
APPLES, WITH SKIN
STRAWBERRIES 2%
CHICORY 7%
BAMBOO
BANANAS
LEAVES 2%
CARROTS
0%
,
SIMIAL 7001
MAZURI LEAFEATER PELLETS
BAMBOO
COURGETTE3%
1%
SHOOTS 22%
CUCUMBER 7%
LETTUCE
CUCUMBER
, COURGETTE
1%
FENNEL, BULB
MAZURI LEAFEATER,
REST 4%
PEPPERS
SOAKED 13%
CHICORY
APPLES,
LETTUCE 9%
SIMIAL 7001 3%
STRAWBERRIES
WITH SKIN 20%
PINEAPPLE
2%
BANANAS 5%
GRAPES
CARROTS 3%
BAMBOO LEAVES
BAMBOO SHOOTS
H
a
Graph 9.4.1.30
APPLES, WITH SKIN
BANANAS
, COURGETTE
CARROTS
MILK-BREAD MIX
SIMIAL 7001
LETTUCE
CROUSTI' CROC
CUCUMBER
CUCUMBER 13%
LEEKS
BAMBOO LEAVES 16%
CROUSTI' CROC 3%
COURGETTE
1%
FENNEL, BULB
BAMBOO
SHOOTS 6%
CABBAGE
0%
1%
TOMATOES, RED RIPE
LETTUCE 7%
0%
SIMIAL 7001 5%
REST 6%
0%
0%
0%
MILK-BREAD
MIX 9%
0%
AUBERGINE
SULTANAS
KIWI
ORANGE
0%
CARROTS 4%
BANANAS 4%
PEPPERS
1%
APPLES
27%
0%
0% 0%
0%
0%
0%
PEARS
STRAWBERRIES
PINEAPPLE
0%
GRAPES
PEACHES
PLUMS
TANGERINES
BAMBOO LEAVES
BAMBOO SHOOTS
158
Graph 9.4.1.31
Hapalemur griseus occidentalis: intake composition (% AF),
APPLES, WITH SKIN
BANANAS
ns=5, ng=1, ni=2, nd=35
CARROTS
MILK-BREAD MIX
SIMIAL 7001
LETTUCE
CROUSTI' CROC
CUCUMBER
CUCUMBER 13%
CROUSTI' CROC
3%
GRAPES 3%
BAMBOO LEAVES 13%
COURGETTE
0%
0%
0%
FENNEL, BULB
0%
PEPPERS
BAMBOO SHOOTS 4%
KIWI
LETTUCE 12%
0%
ORANGE
MELONS
REST 3%
SIMIAL 7001
5%
MILK-BREAD
MIX 11%
0%
2%
CARROTS 3%
PEARS
0%
STRAWBERRIES
0%
APPLES 25%
0%
BANANAS 5%
MANGO
0%
0%
PINEAPPLE
GRAPES
PEACHES
TANGERINES
BAMBOO LEAVES
BAMBOO SHOOTS
Nutrient
Unit
Nutrient Category:
Energy
ME Primate
kcal/g
Nutrient Category:
Carbohydrates
Acid Lignin *
%
ADF *
%
Cellulose *
%
Crude Fiber *
%
Lignin *
%
NDF *
%
Total Dietary Fiber
%
Water Soluble
%
Carbohydrates*
Nutrient Category:
Fat
Crude Fat
%
Linoleic Acid
%
Linolenic Acid
%
%
PUFA
%
Saturated Fats
%
Nutrient Category:
Protein
Arginine
%
Crude Protein
%
Cystine
%
Histidine
%
Isoleucine
%
Leucine
%
Lysine
%
Methionine
%
Phenylalanine
%
Threonine
%
Hapalemur
alaotrensis
studies 1-5
Hapalemur
alaotrensis
study 6
Hapalemur
griseus
occidentalis
2,86
2,04
2,92
0,04
12,10
0,99
2,39
2,28
24,72
8,33
5,22
0,08
5,87
1,10
3,10
0,69
9,81
9,81
3,42
0,03
11,21
1,11
2,65
2,07
22,35
8,61
5,82
3,43
0,87
0,07
0,37
1,21
0,68
2,36
0,89
0,08
0,05
0,81
0,34
3,76
0,97
0,09
0,42
1,35
0,77
0,44
15,74
0,14
0,14
0,39
0,80
0,43
0,19
0,42
0,32
0,53
11,37
0,14
0,21
0,46
0,84
0,52
0,20
0,48
0,37
0,49
16,20
0,16
0,16
0,44
0,89
0,48
0,21
0,47
0,36
159
Tryptophan
Tyrosine
Valine
Nutrient Category:
Vit D3
Vit E
Vit K
Beta-carotene
Biotin
Choline
Folacin
Pantothenic Acid
Vit A
Vit B1 (Thiamin)
Vit B12 *
Vit B2 (Riboflavin)
Vit B3 (Niacin)
Vit B6 (Pyridoxine)
Vit C Ascorbic Acid
Nutrient Category:
Ash
Calcium
Chloride
Cobalt
Copper
Iodine
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Potassium
Selenium
Sodium
Sulfur
Zinc
%
%
%
Vitamins
IU Vit D3/g
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
IU A/g
mg/kg
mcg/g
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
Ash/Minerals
%
%
%
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
%
mg/kg
% 0,54
%
mg/kg
%
%
mg/kg
0,09
0,30
0,43
0,11
0,28
0,50
0,10
0,34
0,48
1,63
85,76
0,39
0,57
0,03
404,57
0,59
3,36
44,48
2,50
0,00
1,56
11,94
2,53
228,84
1,45
48,77
0,62
1,86
80,07
0,43
439,49
2,07
9,99
73,59
3,46
0,01
2,63
24,00
4,07
412,70
452,50
0,93
3,86
52,23
3,04
0,00
1,95
14,45
2,88
281,74
7,32
0,79
0,13
0,08
12,21
0,02
75,91
0,07
32,55
0,38
0,84
0,12
0,21
0,08
18,01
5,01
0,50
0,13
0,10
9,66
0,15
101,97
0,08
32,51
0,58
1,32
0,08
0,12
0,05
26,47
7,43
0,85
0,15
0,10
13,03
0,03
82,38
0,08
33,53
0,85
0,13
0,23
0,09
18,70
Table 9.4.1.32
Plants
See appendix 2.
Foliage
For crowned sifakas: Black locust Robinia pseudoacacia
For both gentle lemur species: Bamboo Bambusa, Phyllostachys, Sasa, Arundinaria,
Dendrocalamus
Comments Intake composition:
The main comments are the same for the other Lemuridae species. Concerning fibers,
using NDF/NSC ratio could help to monitor the maximal fruit incorporation and the
minimal fiber content in their diet.
The interpretation of the values can better be undertaken by comparison of successful
diets in captivity. Such a study is carried out for Sifakas by Paris Zoo and under review
when writing this manual (see reference 116).
Few reliable datas are published for folivore species and further investigation is needed
(see references 65, 66, 71, 73 and 161).
160
9.4.2 CEBIDAE
ORDRE
Primates
PROSIMIENS
SIMIENS
Haplorrhiniens
INFRA ORDRE
Platyrrhiniens
INFRA ORDRE
Catarrhiniens
Super famille
Ceboidae
Famille
Callithrichidae
Sous famille
Callithricinae
Famille
Cebidae
Sous famille
Aotinae
Sous famille
Callicebinae
Sous famille
Cebinae
Sous famille
Pitheciinae
Sous famille
Alouattinae
Sous famille
Atelinae
Figure 9.4.2.1: Plathyrrhini taxonomy and position of Cebidae and Callitrichidae families
(P. Moisson)
NOTE FOR ALL CEBIDAE SPECIES: FRUITS AND VEGETABLES OFFERED:
Constant: Apple, banana, cooked or raw carrot, cucumber, courgette, aubergine,
lettuce.
Frequent: Pear, grapes, melon, chicory, pepper.
Less frequent: nectarine, peach, kiwi, orange, sweet cherry, fig, dried fig, strawberry,
pineapple, grapefruit, carambola, walnut, red cabbage, radish, leeks.
Concerning requirements: see table 9.4.0.3
Ateles fusciceps robustus.................................................Columbian black spider monkey
Cebus xanthosternos..................................................................Yellow-breasted capuchin
Columbian black spider monkeys: weight about 9 kg. Yellow-breasted capuchin: weight
for adult males is 1.4 - 4.8 kg, adult females weigh 1.4 - 3.4 kg.
Feeding program
10.00hr
Simial pellets with some black currant sirop
14.00hr
Sunflower seeds
18.00hr
Fruits and vegetables
Intake composition:
See graphs 9.4.2.5 to 9.4.2.9
Diet composition:
See table 9.4.2.10 and graphs 9.4.2.11 and 9.4.2.12
161
study n°
date
Number
SIMIAL
TOTAL INTAKE
g
DM
g
AF
g AF
/ Al
%
DM
g
AF
g AF
/ Al
%
DM
%
DM
SIMIAL
C. CROC
201
20
96
31
14
94
30
13
15,3
28,0
19,8
44
17
100
29
11
13,4
38,3
18,1
43
18
64
18
7
12,7
43,2
13,2
35
17
48
14
7
12,6
42,0
11,9
123
31
15
121
30
14
12,9
35,5
25,0
18
120
30
13
104
26
11
14,8
28,1
17,4
19
134
34
15
111
28
12
16,0
28,2
16,8
35,2
15,4
25,0
10,9
14,0
34,8
17,5
july-02
3,100
3049
984
624
Ateles (2)
jan-03
3,500
4135
1181
829
237
20
153
Ateles (3)
mar-03
3,500
3652
1043
766
219
21
151
Ateles (4)
may-03
3,500
3786
1082
638
182
17
121
Ateles (5)
july-03
4,000
3994
999
749
187
19
Ateles (6)
sept-03
4,000
4460
1115
806
202
Ateles (7)
nov-03
4,000
4374
1094
829
207
205
19,2
AVERAGE / ANIMAL
1071
% CP from
%
DM
g
AF
Ateles (1)
CP
g DM
/ Al
of animals
g AF
/ Al
CHENIL
Table 9.4.2.2: Observed intake amounts (AF and DM) for Ateles, and protein monitoring (see explanation chapter 10.3)
Note:
Spider monkeys are specialized frugivores unlike the majority of Neotropical monkeys. The fruits ingested in the wild are rich in fats and
proteins and contain just one or a few large seeds. These nutritious and large-seeded fruits make up about 80% of the total amount of fruits
eaten (20% small-seeded, relatively low-nutritious fruits). 82,9% of total feeding record, for Ateles p. paniscus, is fruit. Flowers and leaves
play a minor role in the overall diet of spider monkeys, counting for 6,4% 7,9% respectively. Other foods eaten by spider monkeys include
bark, decaying wood, pseudobulbs, aerial roots, honey, termites and caterpillars (see reference 167: Van Roosmalen, 1980: Habitat
preferences, diet, feeding strategy and social organization of the black spider monkey (Ateles p. paniscus) in Surinam).
Fruits consumed in the wild may be primarily unripe and lower in energy, while those available in zoos are usually very ripe. Spider
monkeys easily ferment sugars in fruits and this can cause diarrhoea. Therefore, in captivity, we should restrict fruit amounts and give more
vegetables in their diet.
162
study n°
date
Number
SIMIAL
TOTAL INTAKE
of Animals
g AF
CROUSTI' CROC
CP
g DM / Al g DM g DM / Al % DM g AF g AF / Al % DM g AF g AF / Al % DM % DM
% CP from % CP from
SIMIAL
C. CROC
xantho (1)
jan-03
3,5
3026
865
661
189
22
71
20
10
94
27
13
15,0
20,0
19,0
xantho* (2)
mar-03
3,5
2762
789
694
198
25
169
48
22
91
26
12
16,6
41,1
15,9
xantho (3)
may-03
3,5
2008
574
505
144
25
115
33
20
111
32
20
17,1
37,2
25,7
xantho (4)
aug-03
3,5
2956
844
626
179
21
86
25
12
105
30
15
15,5
24,7
21,6
xantho (5)
nov-03
4
3747
937
798
200
21
82
21
9
158
40
18
14,7
19,5
27,0
182,0
22,9
29,3
14,7
30,8
15,3
15,8
28,5
21,8
AVERAGE Cebus xanthosternos Gp1
801,7
xantho (2)
mar-03
2,5
2809
1124
568
227
20
150
60
24
83
33
13
13,6
54,2
21,6
xantho (3)
apr-03
2,5
2745
1098
537
215
20
150
60
25
69
28
11
15,3
51,0
16,8
xantho (4)
may-03
2,5
2627
1051
551
220
21
151
60
25
66
26
11
14,2
53,9
16,9
xantho (5)
july-03
2,5
2781
1112
602
241
22
151
60
23
184
74
27
17,2
40,7
35,6
xantho (6)
aug-03
2,5
2850
1140
633
253
22
151
60
21
134
54
19
17,1
38,9
24,8
xantho (7)
nov-03
3
2987
996
680
227
23
150
50
20
107
36
14
15,7
39,2
20,1
AVERAGE Cebus xanthosternos Gp1
1086,7
230,5
21,2
58,5
22,9
41,8
15,9
15,5
46,3
22,6
AVERAGE / ANIMAL
944,2
206,2
22,1
43,9
18,8
36,3
15.7
15,6
37,4
22,2
Table 9.4.2.3: Observed intake amounts (AF and DM) for Cebus, and protein monitoring (see explanation chapter 10.3)
163
Graph 9.4.2.4
Ateles fusciceps robustus: intake composition (% AF
ns=7, ng=1, ni=4, nd=61
CHICORY 3%
PEPPERS 5%
, ZUMMER
COURGETTE
3%
CUCUMBER 3%
1%
0%
LEEKS 2%
2%
0%
LETTUCE 12%
1%
0%
1%
CARROTS 7%
1%
1%
AUBERGINE
3%
1%
REST
15%
0%
0%
1%
1%
0%
0%
0%
APPLES 27%
1%
SIMIAL 7001 3% 0%
1%
0%
BANANAS 13%
MILK-BREAD MIX 3%
2%
0%
0%
0%
1%
0%
CROUSTI' CROC SOAKED
CROUSTI' CROC
SIMIAL BOULETTE 1
EGG
SIMIAL 7001
MILK-BREAD MIX
SUNFLOWER SEED
MEALWORMS
CHICKEN, WHITE MEAT
PINEAPPLE
BANANAS
STRAWBERRIES
KIWI
MELONS
PEACHES
ORANGE
APPLES, WITH SKIN
GRAPES
PEARS
APRICOTS
ONIONS
CAULIFLOWER
FENNEL, BULB
AUBERGINE
CARROTS
CABBAGE
BROCCOLI
CUCUMBER
COURGETTE
TURNIPS
CHICORY
PEPPERS
LEEKS
RADISHES
LETTUCE
TOMATOES, RED RIPE
CELERY
BRUSSELS SPROUTS
SULTANAS
Graph 9.4.2.5
Cebus apella xanthosternos: intake composition (% AF)
ns=11, ng=2, ni=7, nd=84
0%
CUCUMBER 5%
CARROTS 5%
AUBERGINE 4%
1%
CHICORY 4%
0%
PEPPERS 3%
LETTUCE 5%
PEARS 4%
GRAPES 3%
0%
2%
0%
1%
1%
0%
0%
1%
APPLES 17%
REST 16%
1%
0%
1%
1%
0%
ORANGE 2%
MELONS 2%
0%
0%
0%
CROUSTI' CROC
SOAKED 4%
0%
BANANAS 13%
PINEAPPLE 2%
MILK-BREAD
MIX
3%
CROUSTI' CROC 2%
SIMIAL 7001 4%
2%
1%
0%
1%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
1%
CROUSTI' CROC
SIMIAL BOULETTE 1
EGG
SIMIAL 7001
MILK-BREAD MIX
SUNFLOWER SEED
MEALWORMS
CHICKEN, WHITE MEAT
CHEESE
TAMARIN MIXTURE
PINEAPPLE
BANANAS
CHERRIES
STRAWBERRIES
KIWI
MELONS
ORANGE
APPLES, WITH SKIN
GRAPES
PEARS
APRICOTS
ONIONS
CAULIFLOWER
FENNEL, BULB
AUBERGINE
CARROTS
CABBAGE
BROCCOLI
CUCUMBER
COURGETTE
TURNIPS
CHICORY
PEPPERS
LEEKS
RADISHES
LETTUCE
TOMATOES, RED RIPE
CELERY
POTATOES
SULTANAS
GRAPEFRUIT
MANGO
PLUMS
TANGERINES
AVOCAT
WALNUTS
WATERMELON
164
Graph 9.4.2.6
Ateles fusciceps robustus: intake composition (% AF)
OTHERS (egg, sunflower seed,
chicken, milk-bread mix,
mealworms)
7%
SIMIAL 7001
3%
CROUSTI' CROC
2%
FRUIT + VEGETABLES
88%
Graph 9.4.2.7
Ateles fusciceps robustus: intake composition (% DM)
OTHERS (egg, sunflower seed,
chicken, milk-bread mix,
mealworms)
13%
SIMIAL 7001
16%
CROUSTI' CROC
11%
FRUIT + VEGETABLES
60%
165
Graph 9.4.2.8
Cebus apella xanthosternos: intake composition (% AF)
OTHERS (milk-bread mix, egg,
sunflower seeds, mealworms,
SIMIAL 7001
chicken, cheese, tamarin
4%
mixture, walnuts)
8%
CROUSTI' CROC
4%
FRUIT + VEGETABLES
84%
Graph 9.4.2.9
Cebus apella xanthosternos: intake composition (% DM)
mixture, walnuts)
10%
SIMIAL 7001
19%
CROUSTI' CROC
16%
FRUIT + VEGETABLES
55%
166
Nutrient
Unit
Ateles
fusciceps
robustus
Nutrient Category:
Energy
ME Primate
kcal/g
Nutrient Category:
Carbohydrates
Acid Lignin*
%
ADF*
%
Cellulose*
%
Crude Fiber*
%
Lignin*
%
NDF
%
Total Dietary Fiber*
%
Water Soluble
%
Carbohydrates*
Nutrient Category:
Fat
Arachidonic Acid
%
Crude Fat
%
Linoleic Acid
%
Linolenic Acid
%
%
PUFA
%
Saturated Fats
%
Nutrient Category:
Protein
Arginine
%
Bound Protein
%
Crude Protein
%
Cystine
%
Histidine
%
Isoleucine
%
Leucine
%
Lysine
%
Methionine
%
Nitrogen
%
Phenylalanine
%
Threonine
%
Tryptophan
%
Tyrosine
%
Valine
%
Nutrient Category:
Vitamins
Biotin*
mg/kg
Choline*
mg/kg
Folacin
mg/kg
Pantothenic Acid
mg/kg
Vit A
IU A/g
Vit B1 (Thiamin)
mg/kg
Vit B12*
mcg/g
Vit B2 (Riboflavin)
mg/kg
Vit B3 (Niacin)
mg/kg
Vit B6 (Pyridoxine)
mg/kg
Vit C Ascorbic Acid
mg/kg
Vit D3**
IU Vit D3/g
Vit E
mg/kg
Vit K
mg/kg
Nutrient Category:
Ash/Minerals
Ash
%
Calcium
%
Chloride
%
Pithecia
pithecia
Cebus
xanthosternos
3,23
2,83
3,01
0,04
4,00
2,28
3,59
0,54
5,75
13,57
5,52
0,02
1,15
0,78
3,69
0,08
1,62
7,59
1,53
0,06
3,96
1,43
3,26
0,58
5,95
11,90
6,24
0,00
7,03
3,07
0,16
0,91
3,46
0,99
0,01
9,20
3,62
0,10
1,85
3,10
1,65
0,01
6,92
2,48
0,12
0,98
2,90
1,06
0,66
0,00
13,96
0,18
0,23
0,51
0,92
0,55
0,22
0,00
0,49
0,42
0,12
0,34
0,53
0,71
0,00
20,22
0,13
0,45
0,73
1,14
0,94
0,35
0,98
0,65
0,55
0,17
0,57
0,85
0,66
0,00
15,70
0,19
0,23
0,51
0,99
0,58
0,25
0,04
0,52
0,42
0,12
0,37
0,55
0,20
597,41
0,97
11,73
53,80
9,11
0,02
2,62
19,07
13,78
266,78
8,01
112,95
0,00
422,90
1,01
9,30
69,00
3,72
0,01
2,35
19,71
6,80
623,48
1,38
53,61
0,43
0,10/0,20
750,00/800,00
0,20/4,00
12,00/
8,00/14,00
1,10/3,00
0,01/0,03
1,70/4,00
16,00/56,00
2,50/4,40
55,00/110,00
1,00/3,00
3,00/100,00
0,50/12,00
3,98
0,54
6,41
0,83
0,14
0,55/0,80
0,20/0,55
329,61
1,59
12,00
94,72
4,69
0,00
2,79
24,05
8,05
718,00
1,23
56,83
0,34
6,09
0,68
0,11
Min./max.
recommendations
Zoo Mulhouse
5,00/10,00
10,00/20,00
3,00/6,00
7,00/
167
Cobalt*
Copper
Iodine*
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Potassium
Selenium
Sodium
Sulfur
Zinc
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
%
mg/kg
%
%
mg/kg
%
%
mg/kg
0,05
11,66
0,02
73,27
0,11
19,58
0,55
1,26
0,14
0,16
0,07
17,01
0,00
8,73
0,50
37,45
0,30
56,44
0,54
0,87
0,23
0,07
0,06
47,76
0,05
13,14
0,03
75,37
0,11
16,81
0,63
1,09
0,15
0,17
0,09
16,54
12,00/20,00
0,35/2,00
100,00/200,00
0,10/0,17
20,00/100,00
0,33/0,60
0,40/0,89
0,20/0,65
11,00/100,00
Table 9.4.2.10
Recommendations are for Cebus sp. We didn’t find any specific recommendation
published for Ateles and Pithecia found.
*: These values are not reliable and possibly too low. This is because these values are not always
entered in ZOOTRITIONTM for the feeds which are used in the diet.
Graph 9.4.2.11
Ateles fusciceps robustus: % of proteins delivered by diet components
mixture, walnuts)
10%
SIMIAL 7001
19%
CROUSTI' CROC
16%
55%
FRUIT + VEGETABLES
168
Graph 9.4.2.12
Cebus apella xanthosternos: % of proteins delivered by diet
chicken, cheese, tamarin gruel,
walnuts)
19%
SIMIA
39%
FRUIT + VEGETABLES
20%
CROUSTI' CROC
22%
Comments intake composition:
Requirements are mainly published for Cebus species (see table 9.4.0.3) and not for
Ateles (see comment concerning their feeding ecology, table 9.4.2.2). Mulhouse diet
seem adequate and CP level obtained is 15,70 % DMI for Yellow-breasted capuchins
(in Mulhouse zoo, the CP target is the same as for Gibbons and Cercopithecidae
species, 15% DM).
It’s interesting to note that vit A content seem very high (range 53,80-94,72 IU/ g DMI)
but in zoos it is frequent to have a diet with about 100 IU/ g. Cebidae species fed with
that diet don’t show signs of toxicity.
In Mulhouse zoo, White-faced sakis, as well as Black sakis and Bolivian squirrel
monkeys, are fed with the same strategy as for Callimiconidae and Callitrichidae
species: high protein target (25% DM). Therefore, these three species are fed with
Tamarin gruel and extra sources of proteins are given (mealworms, crickets, boiled
white chicken meat, hard-boiled egg and cheese). That’s why intake composition graphs
are shown in following pages (9.4.2.13 to 9.4.2.17) like for Callithrichidae species.
Foliage
European Beech Fagus sylvatica, Hazel Corylus avellana, Sycamore Maple Acer
pseudoplatanus, Banana tree leaves, Willow Salix, Bamboo
169
Chiropotes satanas.............................................................................................Black saki
Pithecia pithecia..................................................................Pale-headed/White faced saki
Saimiri boliviensis......................................................................Bolivian squirrel monkey
No intake studies have been done for Chiropotes satanas and Saimiri boliviensis, as
they are in a mixing exhibit and the species couldn’t be separated for weighing given
diets and leftovers.
Black saki: weight 2.9 kg. Pale-headed/white faced sakis: weight 1.6- 1.9 kg
Feeding program: same as for Callitrichidae but Crousti Croc pellets are given every
day (see chapter 9.4.4)
07.30hr
Tamarin mixture (ad lib)
11.30hr
1 or 2 protein sources (boiled chicken, cheese, boiled egg)
5 g sunflower seeds
Simial powder
17.30hr
Banana
Simial powder
Supplements:
Vitapaulia 4x per week
Vitamin D3 in the mixture from November till April
Intake composition: see graphs 9.4.2.13 to 9.4.2.17
Diet composition: see table 9.4.2.10 for White-faced saki
Graph 9.4.2.13
Pithecia pithecia: intake composition (%AF)
ns=14, ng=1, ni=5, nd=99
TAMARIN POWDER 7,5
TAMARIN GRUEL 7,5 + D3
EGG
EDAM CHEESE
SUNFLOWER SEEDS
MEALWORMS
1%
0%
0%
0%
GRAPES 2%
0%
CARROTS 6%
0%
CUCUMBER 3%
BANANAS 18%
1%
1%
1%
1%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
1%
REST 15%
1%
0%
0%
2%
0%
0%
1%
TAMARIN GRUEL 7,5 (+ D3)
35%
CROUSTI' CROC
SOAKED 2%
2%
1%
1%
0%
1%
PINEAPPLE
BANANAS
STRAWBERRIES
KIWI
MELONS
PEACHES
MANGO
ORANGE
TANGERINES
APPLES, WITH SKIN
GRAPES
PEARS
AUBERGINE
CARROTS
CUCUMBER
COURGETTE
CHICORY
PEPPERS
LETTUCE
TOMATOES, RED RIPE
SULTANAS
BLUEBERRIES
PLUMS
LITCHIS
AVOCADO
CRICKET
170
Pithecia pithecia: intake composition (% AF)
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
01
01
01
02
03
04
05
08
06-07
09
10
11
12
12
average
12
12
average
Month
Gruel
Vegetables
Fruits
Others
Graph 9.4.2.14
Pithecia pithecia: intake composition (g AF/animal)
300,0
250,0
200,0
150,0
100,0
50,0
0,0
01
01
01
02
03
04
05
06-07
08
09
10
11
Month
Gruel
Vegetables
Fruits
Others
Graph 9.4.2.15
171
Pithecia pithecia: intake composition (% DM)
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
01
01
01
02
03
04
05
06
06
08
09
10
11
12
12
average
Month
Gruel % DM
Others % DM
Graph 9.4.2.16
Pithecia pithecia: intake composition (g DM/animal)
70,00
60,00
50,00
40,00
30,00
20,00
10,00
0,00
01
01
01
02
03
04
05
06
06
08
09
10
11
12
12
average
Month
Gruel g DM / Al
Others g DM / Al
Graph 9.4.2.17
172
9.4.3 CALLIMICONIDAE
Some preliminar notes about feeding ecology: see next chapter 9.4.4
Concerning requirements: see table 9.4.0.3
Callimico goeldii......................................................................................Goeldi’s monkey
Goeldi’s monkey: adult weight is 400-500 g.
Feeding program; same as for Callitrichidae
monday
wednesday
thursday
friday
saturday
sunday
AD LIB TAMARIN GRUEL, LEAVE THE DISH UNTIL 13.30hrs
7.30-.8.00hrs
11h30
tuesday
C.
Croc*
+
Hard
boiled
egg
Sultanas
+
Boiled
chicken
meat
C. Croc*
+
Mealworms
+
Tamarin
cake
Cheese
C. Croc*
+
Hard boiled
egg
+
Tamarin
cake
Sultanas
+
Boiled
chicken
meat
C. Croc*
+
Mealworms
+
Tamarin
cake
FRUITS (more apples) AND VEGETABLES with tamarin powder sprinkled
17.00hrs
Supplements:
FRUITS (more bananas) AND VEGETABLES with tamarin powder sprinkled
*Vitapaulia M 4 times per week given in Crousti Croc dog pellets,
soaked. Vitamin D3 in the tamarin gruel from November until April
Behavioural study: diet transition and tamarin gruel (Mulhouse Zoo, 0521/07/2003):
The couple of Goeldi’s monkeys is composed of a 3 year old male, born in Mulhouse,
and a 5 year old and pregnant female, born in the Anthropologisches Museum from
Zürich and transferred to Mulhouse in February 2003. The aim of the study was to
observe feeding behaviour and to compare the time invested in this activity towards 6
other behavioural items.
Behavioural scans were done every 2 minutes during periods of half an hour during the
day: 4 times between 08.00hrs and 11.30hrs (the 1st meal of tamarin gruel was offered at
08.00hrs), 2 times between 12.00hrs and 13.30hrs (the 2nd meal of fruits and vegetables
with tamarin powder + 1 or 2 other protein sources was given at 13.30hrs) and 3 times
between 17.00hrs and 19.00hrs (the 3rd meal of bananas and tamarin powder was
offered at 17.00hrs). The couple was then observed during 4 ½ hours / day during 11
days: 49 ½ hours of observation.
173
We noted that time spent for feeding only represents around 10% of the global time
budget for both, and that there were no sign of aggressiveness between them (see graph
9.4.3.1 below).
45,00
40,00
35,00
30,00
25,00
20,00
15,00
10,00
5,00
0,00
rest
confort
locomotion
observation
Female
feeding
exploration
social non ag.
Male
Graph 9.4.3.1: Global time budget (%) for this couple of C. goeldii
(E. Freyburger & D. Gomis 2003)
Difference between both monkeys is significant (Χ²=86,8 ; ddl=6 ; α=0,05)
We noted for both individuals that time spent for feeding increased during the 2nd meal
(see graphs 9.4.3.2 and 9.4.3.3 below).
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
rest
confort
locomotion
observation
feeding
exploration
social non ag.
1st meal
4,24
8,48
35,45
32,73
4,55
9,39
15,15
2nd meal
19,09
12,73
16,97
23,64
25,76
0,91
25,45
Graph 9.4.3.2: Time budget (%) during 1st and 2nd meal for the male
Difference between both meals is significant (Χ²=138,8 ; ddl=6 ; α=0,05).
174
60,00
50,00
40,00
30,00
20,00
10,00
0,00
rest
confort
locomotion
observation
feeding
exploration
social non ag.
1st meal
13,64
4,85
16,36
56,36
1,21
5,45
13,33
2nd meal
28,48
4,55
8,48
25,15
33,33
1,82
24,55
Graph 9.4.3.3: Time budget (%) during 1st and 2nd meal for the female
Difference between both monkeys is significant (Χ²=178,3 ; ddl=6 ; α=0,05).
Concerning the food choice during 2nd meal, we noted a huge difference between both
monkeys: the female only spent 0,30% of her time eating the gruel and prefered to eat
the fruits and vegetables offered with the 2nd meal, whereas the male spent 7 times more
than female eating the gruel (see graph 9.4.3.4 below). The easiest way to interpret this
observation is that palatability for food items may differ from one individual to another,
especially when coming from another institution and not use to the same food.
35,00
30,00
25,00
20,00
15,00
10,00
5,00
0,00
gruel
others
F
M
0,30
2,12
33,03
23,64
Graph 9.4.3.4: Comparison of feeds’ choice budget (%) during the 2nd meal
(E. Freyburger, D. Gomis 2003)
Difference between both monkeys is significant (Χ²=108,5 ; ddl=6 ; α=0,05)
175
This behavioural study leads to some observations:
- the female was not born in the zoo and only arrived 5 months before this
behavioural study, whereas the male was born in the zoo and is use to the
tamarin gruel,
- gruels are fluid and some monkeys, especially tamarins, use their hands a lot
when eating (a study was also conducted when introducing the tamarin cake,
see chapter 9.4.4.46)
- our tamarin gruel is supplemented with red berry syrup and has a sweet taste
(see chapter 5.5), and even if Goeldi’s monkeys are known for their soluble
sugars preferece (see reference 182 and 183) and the mix used in
Anthropologisches Museum Zürich includes honey, individual preferences and
diet’s diversity can have a huge importance for the Callimiconidae like for the
Callitrichidae (see chapter 9.4.4 preliminar notes),
- when conducting intake trials in a group, and calculating intake amounts of
food per individual, we should keep in mind that food choice may differ from
one animal to another,
- when transfering an animal, we should always think to undertake a diet
transition; this transition can take a long time (sometimes some months !) to
get use to the new food.
Intake composition : see graphs 9.4.3.5 to 9.4.3.9
Diet composition: see table 9.4.4.47
Comments intake composition: see next chapter 9.4.4
Graph 9.4.3.5
Callimico goeldii: intake composition (% AF)
ns=17, ng=4, ni=5, nd=119
0%
0%
0%
0%
BANANAS 19%
GRAPES 3%
0%
0%
0%
0% 0%
0% 0%
1%
0%
APPLES,
WITH SKIN 25%
CARROTS 2%
2%
1%
0%
0%
REST 10%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
1%
1%
0%
CROUSTI' CROC,
SOAKED 2%
1%
0%
2%
38 %
0%
0% 0%
0%
TAMARIN GRUEL 7,5(+D3)
TAMARIN POWDER 7,5
EGG
CHEESE
CHICKEN, WHITE MEAT
TAMARIN CAKE
MEALWORMS
CRICKETS
APPLES, WITH SKIN
BANANAS
GRAPES
SULTANAS
DATES
PEARS
MANGO
KIWI
MELONS
TANGERINES
ORANGE
PINEAPPLE
PEACHES
STRAWBERRIES
GRAPEFRUIT
APRICOTS
PLUMS
AVOCADOS
TOMATOES
PEPPERS
COURGETTE
CARROTS
CUCUMBER
CHICORY
AUBERGINE
BROCCOLI
RADISHES
LEEKS
176
Callimico goeldii: intake composition (% AF)
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
01
02
03
03
05
06
07
08
09
09
10
11
11
11
12
12
12
average
Month
Gruel
vegetables
Fruits
Others
Graph 9.4.3.6
Callimico goeldi: intake composition (g AF/animal)
180,0
160,0
140,0
120,0
100,0
80,0
60,0
40,0
20,0
0,0
01
02
03
03
05
06
07
08
09
09
10
11
11
11
12
12
12
average
Month
Gruel
vegetables
Fruits
Others
Graph 9.4.3.7
177
Callimico goeldii: intake composition (% DM)
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
07
08
09
09
10
11
11
11
11
12
12
12
12
average
Month
Gruel % DM
Others % DM
Graph 9.4.3.8
Callimico goeldii: intake composition (g DM/animal)
35,00
30,00
25,00
20,00
15,00
10,00
5,00
0,00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
07
08
09
09
10
11
11
11
11
average
Month
Gruel g DM / Al
Others g DM / Al
Graph 9.4.3.9
One male Goeldi’s monkey was successfully hand-reared in 2006 with human baby
milk Lemiel I (NUTRICIA®) supplemented with lactic casein. The dry milk already
contains 11.1% CP AF (8.9% of casein and 2.2% of soluble proteins) and 72 kcal/100
178
mL (14.4% of powder diluted), 2g of lactic casein was added to 6.75g of milk powder.
Day 25: add slowly tamarin gruel, bananas
and apples, to incorporate the taste
Day 34: add 2.5g of cereal gruel (we used
BLEDINA®)
Day 41: add fruit mix (50g bananas + 25g
apples)
Day 60: we started sociabilization in family
group
Photo 9.4.3.10: S. Carton 2006: 10 day old
Goeldi’s monkey, Mulhouse Zoo
260
250
240
230
220
210
200
190
180
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
0
2
4
6
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76
Graph 9.4.3.11: Growing weights for 1 HR Goeldi’s monkey (g, days)
36
34
32
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
Graph 9.4.3.12: Milk volume drunk by 1 HR Goeldi’s monkey (mL, days)
179
9.4.4 CALLITRICHIDAE
Some preliminar notes: Feeding ecology and diet formulation
(see preliminar notes chapter 9.4 and table 9.4.0.3)
The tamarin gruel used in Mulhouse Zoo combines high digestible and well amino-acid
balanced proteins (lactic casein) with a sweet taste (see chapter 5.5 and table 9.4.0.13).
In the wild, these species have a very large choice of high protein foods, and we cannot
expect all to have the same attraction to sugars: this is confirmed by discrimination tests
done between bitter, astringent and sweet substances (see references 90, 182 and 183).
It’s interesting to note that:
- The variety and the nutritional content of the feeds available in zoos seem to be
very different from those that are consumed in the wild. Analysis of fruits from
the same botanical classification showed, that fruits in the wild are higher in
fiber and proteins but lower in sugars and water, than those cultivated for
human use. Also, fruits consumed in the wild may be primarily unripe, while
those available to zoos are usually very ripe. Ripening increases the sugar level
in the fruit.
- Species’ discriminative abilities seem specific for each nutrient compound (see
reference 183). Even if marmosets, eating smaller proportions of fleshy fruits
in the wild, are known to have a lower taste sensitivity for soluble sugars,
higher taste tolerance for bitter substances could indicate an adaptation to
higher proportions of immature fruits, seeds and leaves in mainly frugivorous
diets.
- Varied protein sources like insects, small bird chicks or eggs in nests, lizards,
etc are available in the wild. Zoo diets will never be so rich and diversified.
Dentition adaptations (V-shaped mandible for specialized gumminivorous type
of marmosets and U-shaped mandible for tamarin type) also reflects feeding
ecology (Hershkowitz, 1977).
- Protein, sugar or gum sources in the wild are not all year available in the same
proportions, thus, these small species may opportunistically adapt to a large
range of food choice. Proteins, from either vegetal or animal sources, can be
digested and converted in “quick” energy, just like sugars can, and this
prevents building up fat reserves. It could explain why some species are better
adapted to environmental modifications (eg. S. midas versus S bicolor). Taste
preferences reflect also this digestive adaptation.
(see references 34, 47, 49, 96, 142, 143, 153, 154, 155, 156, 158, 171, 172, 186 and
203)
Thus, other protein items were added to the diet at Mulhouse Zoo: boiled eggs, boiled
chicken meat, dog pellets, cheese and crickets (mealworms were always used in the
diet) (see table 9.4.4.46). Therefore, some sources are now associated with fats, and not
only with sugar.
We are convinced that offering such a diversity of food (sugar- and fat-protein
associated), and controlling the main protein item intake, it may help to reduce Wasting
Disease Syndrome cases and viral digestive sensitivity. It also means that in zoos, we
have to pay attention to “educate” such primates to a better balanced diet, even though
we can only work with ad lib diets of course: we experimented this on several occasions
180
when receiving new tamarins from other zoos, some refused to eat the gruel whereas
others liked it. A behavioural study conducted on C.goeldi in Mulhouse showed that
Mulhouse born animals like the gruel more than foreign ones, even after one or two
years of getting used to such a diet (see chapter 9.4.3 and graphs 9.4.3.2, 9.4.3.3 and
9.4.3.4).
To end, tamarins and marmosets in zoos have usually the opportunity to eat as much of
each feed as they prefer, but have a reduced foraging and hunting activity, whereas wild
ones have to adapt to season-available foods. Wild tamarins naturally equilibrate their
diet intake. Some captive species encounter breeding problems, because of this (related
to health status like S.bicolor or to foetus size like S.imperator).
Feeding program: 3rd meal leftovers and appetite the day after (Mulhouse Zoo,
14/01-07/02/2002):
Many zoos distribute pellets to monkeys in the morning when they are hungry and
therefore will eat them better, or by reducing the quantity of fruit fed (see reference
156). It seem us quite tricky to force Marmosets and tamarins to eat foods providing
major source of proteins by reducing fruits and vegetables amounts: on one hand these
species have low metabolic reserves, on the other hand diversity of feeds may be
essential.
In this trial we tried to evaluate the effect on tamarin gruel intake when removing
leftovers from the 3rd meal (mainly fruits and vegetables) the evening before. The gruel
intake was weighed during 14 days with leftovers and 10 days without leftovers. The
initial intake average of 122.4 g AF (7 species) increased to 160.6g AF (see table 9.4.4.1
below). The effect of removing leftovers in the evening was confirmed positive for
tamarin gruel intake. Depending on keepers’ hours, animals are usually already awake
and eat fruits leftovers from the day before.
This method is applied in Mulhouse Zoo but keepers are asked to offer the gruel, if
possible, not later than 08.00hrs.
Tamarin gruel intake amounts in g.:AF
Leftovers not removed after the last meal
Leftovers removed after the last meal
AVERAGES 14-28/01/2002
AVERAGES 29/01-07/02/2002
offered consumed leftovers % leftovers offered consumed leftovers % leftovers
S. bicolor
C. geoffroyi
S. oedipus
L. chrysomelas
C. goeldi
S. imperator
33,5
96,5
128,4
195,2
56,6
127,7
25,0
91,0
69,3
128,8
35,0
54,1
8,5
5,5
59,1
66,4
21,6
73,6
C. pygmea
33,9
9,7
AVERAGE ALL SP.
150,1
122,4
25,3
5,7
46,0
34,0
38,2
57,7
55,5
112,9
140,6
172,5
59,1
131,4
44,3
110,6
67,4
156,9
43,4
104,0
11,3
2,3
73,3
15,6
15,8
27,4
9,1
26,6
20,8
24,2
71,3
35,3
24,5
10,8
30,5
27,7
18,5
160,6
160,6
0,0
0,0
20,3
2,0
52,1
rd
Table 9.4.4.1: Effect of letting or not leftovers of the 3 meal on tamarin gruel intake the day after
(D. Gomis and A.Faure, Mulhouse Zoo, feb. 2002)
181
Tamarin gruel ingredients and taste’s preference trial n°1: (Mulhouse Zoo, 1820/11/2002):
Intake studies showed us that the tamarin gruel only represents 34,2% to 43,4% DM of
the daily intake for some species (C. goeldi, S. oedipus, C. pygmea) whereas 50% was
expected (see graph 9.4.4.41). Thus, a test was carried out replacing fruit syrup by grape
juice during 3 days.
The difference was not really significant for all species (see graphs 9.4.3.2 and 9.4.3.3)
and some species begun to have diarrhoea after only 3 days of the trial (especially S.
imperator): the ingredients of the gruel were not changed, trial was stopped and syrup
was prefered to the juice.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
day 1
day 2
day 3
S. bicolor
C. geof f r oyi
S. oedipus
C. goeldi
S. imperat or
C. pygmea
L. chrysomelas
Graph 9.4.4.2: Comparison of gruel intake (g. AF/ animal) when using grape juice instead of
syrup (D. Gomis, Mulhouse Zoo, Tamarin house, nov. 2002)
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
day 1
S. midas
day 2
S. imperator
S. bicolor
day 3
S. bicolor
L. chrysomelas
C. goeldi
Graph 9.4.4.3: Comparison of gruel intake (g. AF/ animal ) when using grape juice instead of
syrup (D. Gomis, Mulhouse Zoo, Monkey house, nov. 2002)
182
Feeding program and tamarin gruel hours: (Mulhouse Zoo, 06-12/10/2003):
The aim of this study was to evaluate tamarin gruel intake at the end of the morning, as
2nd meal is distributed at 11.30hrs. Keepers thought it was not worth leaving the gruel
till 13.30hrs. The trial was carried out during 4 days on 5 species and 7 days on 2
species (table 9.4.4.4 only shows 4 days but averages are calculated over a week for S.
bicolor and S. midas): the aim was only to demonstrate that our tamarins and
Marmosets ate some gruel at the end of the morning.
Depending on species, the percentage of gruel intake between 11.00hrs and 13.30hrs
over the whole intake between 08.00hrs and 13.30hrs is 6 to 22%. It was decided to
leave the gruel till 13.30hrs.
09/10/03
10/10/03
11/10/03
12/10/03
Species
distrib 8h
leftover 11h
intake1
leftover 13h30
intake 2
total intake
distrib 8h
leftover 11h
intake1
leftover 13h30
intake 2
total intake
distrib 8h
leftover 11h
intake1
leftover 13h30
intake 2
total intake
distrib 8h
leftover 11h
intake1
leftover 13h30
intake 2
total intake
S. bicolor S. midas S. oedipus C. geoffroyi C. goeldi L. chrysomelas C. pygmea
463
552
551
552
472
530
391
372
434
478
451
430
387
369
91
118
73
101
42
143
22
361
424
471
426
426
308
359
11
10
7
25
4
79
10
102
128
80
126
46
222
32
435
519
504
504
432
536
364
320
386
435
392
364
405
337
115
133
69
112
68
131
27
293
365
432
362
332
348
325
27
21
3
30
32
57
12
142
154
72
142
100
188
39
451
570
577
580
528
597
427
298
398
450
427
418
360
359
153
172
127
153
110
237
68
277
398
444
384
418
339
359
21
0
6
43
0
21
0
174
172
133
196
110
258
68
463
539
499
512
443
543
384
381
435
418
404
391
378
357
82
104
81
108
52
165
27
346
434
413
382
373
345
355
35
1
5
22
18
33
2
117
105
86
130
70
198
29
AVERAGE INTAKE
number of animals
AVERAGE INTAKE / ANIMAL
117
2
58
145
2,75
53
93
3
31
149
2,5
59
82
2
41
217
2,5
87
42
3
14
% intake 1/ total intake
% intake 2/ total intake
84%
16%
90%
10%
94%
6%
80%
20%
83%
17%
78%
22%
86%
14%
Table 9.4.4.4: Tamarin gruel intake (g.AF)
evaluated between 08.00hrs-11.00hrs, and 11.00hrs-13.30hrs (D. Gomis, oct. 2003)
183
Tamarin gruel ingredients and taste’s preference trial n°2: (Mulhouse Zoo, 30/0414/05/2004):
The aim of this trial was the same as in 2002, but conducted on only 2 species (Cottontop tamarins and Goeldi’s monkeys, 1 couple for each) during 2 weeks and replacing
fruit syrup with honey. Both species chosen were the worse gruel eaters (34.2% DMI
and 40.9% DMI, see graph 9.4.4.41).
Adding honey in the gruel instead of syrup had only a positive effect on Goeldi’s
monkey but should be further investigated with a longer period. Honey was bought for
gruel production and is added from time to time. Like for tamarin cake introduction (see
chapter 5.5 and table 9.4.4.46), it seems to us -in an empirical way- that what makes
tamarins eat more is the newness of sweet tastes, more than one special ingedient.
gruel intake g AF/ animal (1,1) S. oedipus (1,1) C. goeldi
offered
392
398
30/04/2004
consumed
312
313
intake
40
42,5
offered
420
457
01/05/2004
consumed
322
393
intake
49
32
offered
393
392
02/05/2004
consumed
316
340
intake
38,5
26
offered
374
374
04/05/2004
consumed
314
351
intake
30
11,5
offered
417
427
05/05/2004
consumed
341
371
intake
38
28
offered
376
364
06/05/2004
consumed
306
286
intake
35
39
blackcurrant syrup before
38
30
offered
470
477
07/05/2004
consumed
355
422
intake
57,5
27,5
offered
417
434
08/05/2004
consumed
321
367
offered
intake
48
33,5
12/05/2004
offered
421
435
consumed
09/05/2004
consumed
334
382
intake
offered
intake
43,5
26,5
13/05/2004
offered
437
448
consumed
10/05/2004
consumed
358
411
intake
offered
intake
39,5
18,5
14/05/2004
offered
437
440
consumed
11/05/2004
consumed
361
386
intake
intake
38
27
blackcurrant syrup after
honey
45
27
blackcurrant syrup both
410
354
28
393
338
27,5
375
318
28,5
28
35
391
365
13
394
372
11
389
360
14,5
13
24
Graph 9.4.4.5: Comparison of gruel intake (g. AF/ animal ) when adding honey instead of
blackcurrant syrup (D. Gomis, Mulhouse Zoo, may. 2004)
184
Callithrix geoffroyi..........................................................................White-faced marmoset
Cebuella pygmaea...................................................................................Pygmy marmoset
Leontopithecus chrysomelas...................................................Golden-headed lion tamarin
Saguinus bicolor bicolor.................................................................................Pied tamarin
Saguinus imperator subgrisescens..........................................................Emperor tamarin
Saguinus midas midas.........................................................................Red-handed tamarin
Saguinus oedipus oedipus...............................................…..................Cotton-top tamarin
The approximative weights are as follows:
White-faced marmoset: 360-400 g
Pygmy marmosets: 140 and 160 g
Golden-headed lion tamarins: 450 - 570 g
Pied tamarins: 330 - 400 g
Emperor tamarins: male 470 g, female 330 g
Red-handed tamarins: 300 - 600 g
Cotton-top tamarins: 360-385 g.
Feeding program
monday
wednesday
thursday
friday
saturday
sunday
AD LIB TAMARIN GRUEL, LEAVE THE DISH UNTIL 13.30hrs
7.30-.8.00hrs
11h30
tuesday
C.
Croc*
+
Hard
boiled
egg
Sultanas
+
Boiled
chicken
meat
C. Croc*
+
Mealworms
+
Tamarin
cake
Cheese
C. Croc*
+
Hard boiled
egg
+
Tamarin
cake
Sultanas
+
Boiled
chicken
meat
C. Croc*
+
Mealworms
+
Tamarin
cake
FRUITS (more apples) AND VEGETABLES with sprinkled tamarin powder
17.00hrs
Supplements:
FRUITS (more bananas) AND VEGETABLES with sprinkled tamarin powder
*Vitapaulia M 4 times per week given in Crousti Croc dog soaked
pellets. Vitamin D3 in the tamarin gruel from November until April
Intake composition: see graphs 9.4.46 to 9.4.40
Tamarin gruel intake: see summary table 9.4.4.41
Environmental and keepers’ effect: see graphs 9.4.4.42 and 9.4.4.43
Seasonnal differences: see 9.4.4.44 and 9.4.45
Extra protein sources and resulting CP level in DMI: see table 9.4.4.46
Diet composition: see tables 9.4.47 and 9.4.48
185
Intake composition:
Graph 9.4.4.6:
Callithrix geoffroyi: intake composition (% AF)
ns=18, ng=4, ni=4, nd=138
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
BANANAS 17%
APPLES,
WITH SKIN 17%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
1%
0%
0%
0%
0%
GRAPES 3%
CROUSTI' CROC,
SOAKED 2%
0%
0%
2%
1%
REST 8%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
1%
0%
52 %
1%
0%
1%
TAMARIN POWDER 7,5
MILK-BREAD MIX
EGG
CHEESE
CHICKEN, WHITE MEAT
TAMARIN CAKE
MEALWORMS
CRICKETS
APPLES, WITH SKIN
BANANAS
LITCHIS
GRAPES
SULTANAS
DATES
PEARS
MANGO
STRAWBERRIES
KIWI
MELONS
TANGERINES
ORANGE
PINEAPPLE
PEACHES
PLUMS
BLUEBERRIES
FIGS
GRAPEFRUIT
TOMATOES
PEPPERS
COURGETTE
CARROTS
CUCUMBER
CHICORY
AUBERGINE
CABBAGE
Callithrix geoffroyi: intake composition (% AF)
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
01
01
02
02
03
04
05
06-07
08
08
09
09
10
10
10
11
12
12
12
average
Month
Gruel
Vegetables
Fruits
Others
Graph 9.4.4.7
186
Callithrix geoffroyi: intake composition (g AF/animal)
300,0
250,0
200,0
150,0
100,0
50,0
0,0
01
02
01
02
03
04
05
08
06-07
08
09
09
10
10
10
11
12
12
12
average
Month
Gruel
Vegetables
Fruits
Others
Graph 9.4.4.8
Callithrix geoffroyi: intake composition (% DM)
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
01
01
02
02
04
05
06
08
09
09
09
10
10
11
12
12
12
average
Month
Gruel % DM
Others % DM
Graph 9.4.4.9
187
Callithrix geoffroyi: intake composition (g DM/animal)
35,00
30,00
25,00
20,00
15,00
10,00
5,00
0,00
01
01
02
02
04
05
06
08
09
09
09
10
10
11
12
12
12
average
Month
Gruel g DM / Al
Others g DM / Al
Graph 9.4.4.10
Graph 9.4.4.11:
Cebuella pygmaea: intake composition (% AF)
ns=15, ng=3, ni=6, nd=109
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
BANANAS 20%
0%
0%
0%
0%
1%
GRAPES 4%
CUCUMBER 3%
0%
0%
1%
2%
0%
CROUSTI' CROC,
SOAKED 3%
REST 10%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
1%
0%
0%
1%
46 %
1%
1%
1%
TAMARIN POWDER 7,5
EGG
CHEESE
CHICKEN, WHITE MEAT
TAMARIN CAKE
MEALWORMS
CRICKETS
APPLES, WITH SKIN
BANANAS
LITCHIS
GRAPES
SULTANAS
DATES
PEARS
MANGO
KIW
IMELONS
TANGERINES
ORANGE
PINEAPPLE
PEACHES
PLUMS
APRICOTS
TOMATOES
PEPPERS
COURGETTE
CARROTS
CUCUMBER
CHICORY
AUBERGINE
LEEKS
188
Cebuella pygmaea: intake composition (% AF)
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
01
01
02
03
02-04
04-05
06
07
08
09
10
11
11
12
12
12
12
12
average
Month
Gruel
Vegetables
Fruits
Others
Graph 9.4.4.12
Cebuella pygmaea: intake composition (g AF/animal)
70,0
60,0
50,0
40,0
30,0
20,0
10,0
0,0
01
01
02
02-04
03
04-05
06
07
08
09
10
11
11
12
average
Month
Gruel
Vegetables
Fruits
Others
Graph 9.4.4.13
189
Cebuella pygmaea: intake composition (% DM)
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
01
01
02
03
05
06
06
07
08
09
10
11
11
12
12
12
average
Month
Gruel % DM
Others % DM
Graph 9.4.4.14
Cebuella pygmaea: intake (g DM/animal)
16,00
14,00
12,00
10,00
8,00
6,00
4,00
2,00
0,00
month
01
01
02
03
05
06
06
07
08
09
10
11
11
12
12
12
average
Month
Gruel g DM / Al
Other g DM / Al
Graph 9.4.4.15
190
Graph 9.4.4.16:
TAMARIN POWDER 7,5
EGG
CHEESE
CHICKEN, WHITE MEAT
TAMARIN CAKE
MEALWORMS
CRICKETS
APPLES, WITH SKIN
BANANAS
LITCHIS
GRAPES
SULTANAS
DATES
PEARS
MANGO
STRAWBERRY
KIWI
MELONS
TANGERINES
ORANGE
PINEAPPLE
APRICOTS
NECTARINES
PEACHES
PLUMS
TOMATOES
TURNIPS
CAULIFLOWER
PEPPERS
COURGETTE
CARROTS
CUCUMBER
CHICORY
AUBERGINE
FENNEL
BROCCOLI
Leontopithecus chrysomelas: intake composition (% AF)
ns=17, ng=5, ni=13, nd=121
0% 0%
0%
0%
0
0%
1%
0%
0%
1%
0%
BANANAS 17%
0%
0%
0%
APPLES 13%
0%
0%
GRAPES 3%
0%
0%
CUCUMBER 2%
1%
1%
REST 11%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
1%
0%
1%
53%
1% 0%
0%
1%
Leontopithecus chrysomelas: intake composition (% AF)
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
01
01
02
02
03
05
06
07
08
9
09
10
11
11
12
12
12
average
Month
Gruel
Vegetables
Fruits
Others
Graph 9.4.4.17
191
Leontopithecus chrysomelas: intake composition (g AF/animal)
160,0
140,0
120,0
100,0
80,0
60,0
40,0
20,0
0,0
01
01
02
02
03
05
06
07
08
9
09
10
11
11
12
12
12
average
Month
Gruel
Vegetables
Fruits
Others
Graph 9.4.4.18
Leontopithecus chrysomelas: intake composition (% DM)
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
01
01
02
02
04
05
06
07
07
08
09
09
10
11
11
11
12
12
average
Month
Gruel % DM
Others % DM
Graph 9.4.4.19
192
Leontopithecus chrysomelas: intake composition (g DM/animal)
35,00
30,00
25,00
20,00
15,00
10,00
5,00
0,00
month
01
01
02
02
04
05
06
07
07
08
09
09
10
11
11
11
12
12
average
Month
Gruel g DM / Al
Other g DM / Al
Graph 9.4.4.20
Graph 9.4.4.21:
Sanguinus bicolor bicolor: intake composition (% AF)
ns=45, ng=9, ni=9, nd=355
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
BANANAS 17%
APPLES, WITH SKIN
12%
GRAPES 3%
FENNEL 4%
1%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
1%
0%
2%
1%
REST 12%
0%
1%
1%
0%
0%
51 %
1%
1%
0%
0%
0%
2%
0% 1% 0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
TAMARIN POWDER 7,5
MILK-BREAD MIX
EGG
CHEESE
CHICKEN, WHITE MEAT
TAMARIN CAKE
MEALWORMS
CRICKETS
APPLES, WITH SKIN
BANANAS
GRAPES
SULTANAS
PEARS
KIW
IMELONS
TANGERINES
ORANGE
PINEAPPLE
PEACHES
STRAWBERRIES
GRAPEFRUIT
BLUEBERRIES
PLUMS
FIGS
LITCHIS
AVOCADOS
CHERRIES
MANGO
RASPBERRIES
DATES
APRICOTS
WATERMELON
TOMATOES
PEPPERS
COURGETTE
CARROTS
CUCUMBER
CHICORY
AUBERGINE
TURNIPS
BROCCOLI
RADISHES
CAULIFLOWER
CABBAGE
LETTUCE
FENNEL
193
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
01
01
01
01
05-06
02 02-04 03
04-05
07
07
08
08
09
10
10
10
11
11
12
12
12
12
average
Month
Gruel
Vegetables
Fruits
Others
Graph 9.4.4.22
Sanguinus bicolor bicolor: intake composition (g AF/animal)
180,0
160,0
140,0
120,0
100,0
80,0
60,0
40,0
20,0
0,0
01
01
01
01
02
02-04
03
05-06
07
07
08
08
09
10
10
10
11
11
12
12
12
12
average
04-05
Month
Gruel
Vegetables
Fruits
Others
Graph 9.4.4.23
194
Sanguinus bicolor bicolor: intake composition (%DM)
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
01
01
01
01
02
03
03
05
05
07
07
08
08
09
10
10
10
11
11
12
12
12
12 average
Month
Gruel % DM
Other %DM
Graph 9.4.4.24
Sanguinus bicolor bicolor: intake composition (g DM/animal)
40,00
35,00
30,00
25,00
20,00
15,00
10,00
5,00
0,00
01
01
01
01
02
03
03
05
05
07
07
08
08
09
10
10
10
11
11
12
12
12
12 average
Month
Gruel g DM / Al
Other g DM / Al
Graph 9.4.4.25
195
Graph 9.4.4.26:
Sanguinus imperator subgrisescens: intake composition (% AF)
ns=25, ng=9, ni=6, nd=197
0%
0%
GRAPES 3%
CROUSTI' CROC,
SOAKED
2%
0%
0% 0%
BANANAS
21%
APPLES, WITH
SKIN 11%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
1%
1%
0%
0%
0%
REST 12%
1%
1%
0%
0%
0%
0%
1%
0%
0%
1%
0% 1%
TAMARIN GRUEL 7,5 (+
D3)
51 %
0%
1%
0%
0%
0%
0%
TAMARIN POWDER 7,5
MILK-BREAD MIX
EGG
CHEESE
CHICKEN, WHITE MEAT
TAMARIN CAKE
MEALWORMS
CRICKETS
APPLES, WITH SKIN
BANANAS
GRAPES
SULTANAS
PEARS
KIWI
MELONS
TANGERINES
ORANGE
PINEAPPLE
PEACHES
STRAWBERRIES
GRAPEFRUIT
BLUEBERRIES
PLUMS
FIGS
LITCHIS
AVOCADOS
TOMATOES
PEPPERS
COURGETTE
CARROTS
CUCUMBER
CHICORY
AUBERGINE
TURNIPS
CELERY
BROCCOLI
RADISHES
CAULIFLOWER
BRUSSELS SPROUTS
LEEKS
CABBAGE
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
01
01 01
02 03
04
06 07
05-06
07 07
08 08
08
08
09 09
10 10
10 11
11 12
12
average
Month
Gruel
Vegetables
Fruits
Others
Graph 9.4.4.27
196
Sanguinus imperator subgrisescens: intake composition (g AF/animal)
180,0
160,0
140,0
120,0
100,0
80,0
60,0
40,0
20,0
0,0
01
01
01
02
03
04
06
07
07
07
08
08
08
08
09
09
10
10
10
11
11
05-06
12
12
average
Month
Gruel
Vegetables
Fruits
Others
Graph 9.4.4.28
Sanguinus imperator subgrisescens : intake composition (% DM)
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
01
02
04
06
07
07
08
08
09
10
10
11
12
average
Month
Gruel % DM
Others %DM
Graph 9.4.4.29
197
Sanguinus imperator subgrisescens: intake composition (g DM/animal)
35,00
30,00
25,00
20,00
15,00
10,00
5,00
0,00
01
02
04
06
07
07
08
08
09
10
10
11
12
average
Month
Gruel g DM / Al
Others g DM / Al
Graph 9.4.4.30
Graph 9.4.4.31:
Sanguinus midas midas: intake composition (% AF)
ns=17, ng=3, ni=8, nd=126
0%
0%
APPLES, WITH SKIN
13%
0%
1%
0%
1%
BANANAS 19%
0%
0%
2%
0%
0%
GRAPES 3%
0%
0%
0%
REST 17%
1%
1%
0%
1%
0%
0%
0%
1%
0%
1%
48 %
1% 0%
1% 0%
2%
0% 0%
0%
0%
TAMARIN POWDER 7,5
MILK-BREAD MIX
EGG
CHEESE
CHICKEN, LIGHT MEAT
TAMARIN CAKE
MEALWORMS
CRICKETS
APPLES, WITH SKIN
BANANAS
GRAPES
SULTANINES
DATES
PEARS
MANGO
KIWI
MELONS
TANGERINES
ORANGE
PINEAPPLE
PEACHES
STRAWBERRIES
GRAPEFRUIT
CHERRIES
BLUEBERRIES
WATERMELON
CHERRIES
APRICOTS
PLUMS
TOMATOES
PEPPERS
SQUASH, SUMMER ZUCCHINI
CARROTS
CUCUMBER
CHICORY
EGGPLANT
TURNIPS
CELERY
BROCCOLI
FENNEL
RADISHES
CAULIFLOWER
LETTUCE
BRUSSELS SPROUTS
LEEKS
198
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
01
01
02
03
04-05 05-06
06
07
08
09
09
10
10
11
11
12
12
average
Month
Gruel
Fruits
Vegetables
Others
Graph 9.4.4.32
Sanguinus midas midas: intake composition (g AF/animal)
180,0
160,0
140,0
120,0
100,0
80,0
60,0
40,0
20,0
0,0
01
01
02
03
04-05 05-06
06
07
08
09
09
10
10
11
11
12
12
average
Month
Gruel
Vegetables
Fruits
Others
Graph 9.4.4.33
199
Sanguinus midas midas: intake composition (% DM)
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
01
01
02
03
05
05
06
07
08
09
09
10
10
11
11
12
12
average
Month
Gruel % DM
Others % DM
Graph 9.4.4.34
Sanguinus midas midas: intake composition (g DM/animal)
40,00
35,00
30,00
25,00
20,00
15,00
10,00
5,00
0,00
month
01
01
02
03
05
05
06
07
08
09
09
10
10
11
11
12
12
average
Month
Gruel g DM / Al
Other g DM / Al
Graph 9.4.4.35
200
Graph 9.4.4.36:
TAMARIN POWDER 7,5
EGG
CHEESE
CHICKEN, WHITE MEAT
TAMARIN CAKE
MEALWORMS
CRICKETS
APPLES, WITH SKIN
BANANAS
GRAPES
SULTANAS
DATES
PEARS
MANGO
STRAWBERRIES
KIW
IMELONS
TANGERINES
ORANGE
PINEAPPLE
PEACHES
PLUMS
FIGS
GRAPEFRUIT
BLUEBERRIES
TOMATOES
TURNIPS
CAULIFLOWER
PEPPERS
COURGETTE
CARROTS
CUCUMBER
CHICORY
AUBERGINE
BROCCOLI
CELERY
Sanguinus oedipus oedipus: intake composition (% AF)
ns=21, ng=4, ni=6, nd=149
0%
0%
0%
0% 0%
0%
0%
GRAPES 3%
0%
0%
BANANAS 25%
CUCUMBER 3%
0%
1%
0%
APPLES, WITH SKIN
18%
1%
1%
0%
0%
2%
0%
1%
REST 13%
0%
0%
0%
CROUSTI' CROC,
SOAKED 3%
0%
1%
0% 0%
1%
0% 0%
35%
1%
1%
0%
Sanguinus oedipus oedipus: intake composition (% AF)
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
01
01
01
02
03
03
07
04-05
08
9
09
09
10
11
11
11
12
12
12
12
average
05-06
Month
Gruel
Vegetables
Fruits
Others
Graph 9.4.4.37
201
Sanguinus oedipus oedipus: intake composition (g AF/animal)
140,0
120,0
100,0
80,0
60,0
40,0
20,0
0,0
01
01
01
02
03
03
07
04-05
9
08
09
09
10
11
11
11
12
12
12
12
average
05-06
Month
Gruel
Vegetables
Fruits
Others
Graph 9.4.4.38
Sanguinus oedipus oedipus: intake composition (% DM)
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
01
01
01
02
03
03
05
05
07
07
08
09
09
09
10
11
11
11
11
12
12
12
average
Month
Gruel % DM
Others % DM
Graph 9.4.4.39
202
Sanguinus oedipus oedipus: intake composition (g DM/animal)
30,00
25,00
20,00
15,00
10,00
5,00
0,00
01
01
01
02
03
03
05
05
07
07
08
09
09
09
10
11
11
11
11
12
12
12
average
Month
Gruel g DM / Al
Others g DM / Al
Graph 9.4.4.40
Comments on intake composition
We can see a difference in intake of tamarin gruel among the different species of
Callitrichidae (see graph 9.4.4.41). However it is not possible to make a statistical
conclusion, and even to separate a tamarin or a marmoset tendancy.
It is interesting to note that vegetables represent 30% AF DMI in the White-faced
marmosets diet, whereas they only reach 5-7% for all the other species.
Summary table: intake of tamarin gruel (% DM)
100%
90%
80%
43,8
51,4
70%
59,1
47
56,6
51,5
51
65,8
60%
50%
40%
30%
56,2
48,6
20%
40,9
53
43,4
48,5
49
34,2
10%
0%
Callimico goeldii,
Callithrix
nd=119
geoffroyi, nd=138
Cebuella
pygmaea,
nd=109
Leontopithecus
chrysomelas,
nd=121
Gruel % DM
Sanguinus
bicolor bicolor,
nd=355
Sanguinus
Sanguinus midas
Sanguinus
imperator
midas, nd=126 oedipus oedipus,
subgrisescens,
nd=149
nd=197
Others % DM
Graph 9.4.4.41
203
Sanguinus bicolor bicolor and Sanguinus imperator subgrisescens are housed in
different buildings during the intake studies. This means that there could be an intraspecies difference in environmental factors which influences the intake studies.
Different teams of keepers take care of different intake studies of the same species (but
different animals). We have analysed this and we haven’t found significant differences
between the studies performed in the building of the tamarins versus the building of the
monkeys (see tables 9.4.4.42 and 9.4.4.43).
Comparison different keepers: building monkeys versus building tamarins;
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Building monkeys
Building tamarins
Gruel
Vegetables
Fruits
Others
Graph 9.4.4.42
Comparison different keepers: building monkeys versus building tamarin;
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Building monkeys
Building tamarins
Gruel
Vegetables
Fruits
Others
Graph 9.4.4.43
204
The intake of tamarin gruel and consequently the total food intake by our
Callithrichidae and Callimiconidae tend to be less in winter than in summer periods.
This is also reported by our keepers. To illustrate this, we have included the tables
9.4.4.44 and 9.4.4.45.
In these tables we can see a number of 4 subsequent annual cycles, with generally the
same pattern returning: less intake in winter periods (marked by arrows).
However, there are some other factors which could contribute to this difference in
intake between winter and summer periods. For instance, a part of the diet is eaten in the
outside enclosures in summer, with as a result that the intake measurements are possibly
less accurate because of an easier loss of food rests. Therefore we cannot make reliable
conclusions.
Saguinus bicolor bicolor: intake composition (g AF/animal)
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
bic o
0
02- 08 10 12 01 02 03 04- 05- 07 08 09 10 11 12 01 11 12 07 08 10 11 12 01 02 03 04- 05- 07 08 09 10 11 12 01 01 07 10 11 12 01 02 03 12 01 12
04
05 06
05 06
month
Bouillie
Vegetables
Fruits
Others
Graph 9.4.4.44: february 2002 to december 2006
205
Saguinus bicolor bicolor: intake composition (% AF)
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
bico 980041
bico 980041
bico 980041
bico 980041
bico 980041
bico 980041
bico 980041
bico 980041 + 960020
bico 980041 + 960020
bico 980041 + 960020
bico 980041 + 960020
bico 980041 + 960020
bico 980041 + 960020
bico 980041 + 960020
bico 980041
bico 980041
bico M 04125
bico 980041 + M 05112
bico 960019
bico 960019
bico 960019
bico 960019 + M 02098
bico 960019 + M 02098
bico 960019 + M 02098
bico 960019 + M 02098
bico 960019 + M 02098
bico 960019 + M 02098
bico 960019 + M 02098
bico 960019 + M 02098
bico 960019 + M 02098
bico 960019 + M 02098
bico 960019 + M 02098
bico 960019 + M 02098
bico 960019 + M 02098
bico 960019 + M 02098
bico 960019 + M 05127
bico 960020
bico 960020
bico 960020
bico 960020
bico 960020
bico 960020
bico 960020
bico 960020
bico 960020
bico M04002 + M 04003
0%
02- 08 10 12 01 02 03 04-05- 07 08 09 10 11 12 01 11 12 07 08 10 11 12 01 02 03 04-05- 07 08 09 10 11 12 01 01 07 10 11 12 01 02 03 12 01 12
04
05 06
05 06
month
Bouillie
Vegetables
Fruits
Others
Graph 9.4.4.45: february 2002 to december 2006
Apart from the tamarin gruel, our Callithrichids are given extra sources of proteins
(boiled chicken, cheese, boiled egg) in order to increase CP levels. In winter time,
tamarin cake is also given. In table 9.4.4.46, we have separated the diets in three groups,
with the objective of having a clear view on the protein levels when the extra sources of
protein and the tamarin cake are offered, versus the diet without extra proteins and/or
tamarin cake.
Surprisingly, we can see that the average levels of the diet without extra protein sources
and tamarin cake contains more proteins! We compared these protein levels with the
percentages of gruel intake for the respective diets. In general, we can see that:
- the 7 species of Callithrichids consume less tamarin gruel when extra protein
sources and tamarin cake are offered (average of 19.74 % CP DMI with 22.38
% AF intake gruel versus 21.54 % CP DMI with 28.13 % AF intake gruel),
- intake CP level is only increased for 2 species (S. midas and S. imperator)
when extra protein sources are offered (values in red),
- the Callitrichids tend to eat a fruit and vegetable basis containing higher CP
level, when extra protein sources are not offered (average 4.00% CP DM
versus 3.50% CP DM). This suggests that, when feeds containing high CP
levels are not offered, animals could select fruit and vegetable items. However,
the difference of 0.50% is not enough to consider really significant of a choice
done on CP contents, and could also be explained by different fruits or
vegetables available during intake trials,
The conclusion is that this table only reflects quantitative aspect of the protein intake,
but diversity of offered foods remain essential for Callitrichidae nutrition in zoo
conditions (see preliminar note of this chapter). This is what we can note from our
results, more studies would be required to confirm this.
206
Tamarin cake
Extra sources of proteins (boiled egg, boiled chicken, cheese)
Fruits and vegetables + Simial powder
Tamarin gruel (+ mealworms, Crousti' croc, crickets)
Sanguinus
Sanguinus
Sanguinus
Sanguinus
Callimico
Leontopithecus
Callithrix
Cebuella
midas midas
imperator
oedipus
bicolor
goeldii
chrysomelas
geoffroyii
pygmea
subgrisescens
oedipus
bicolor
ns
%
prot.
%
gruel
AF
ns
22,6
3
21,67
29,3
13
16,05
16,5
6
19,21
27,9
12
18,28
9
17,77
16,8
12
19,50
24,6
20
16,02
20,70
25
17,76
21
19,95
45
18,07
3
3,88
7
4,00
3
4,11
13
3,77
7
3,76
9
3,57
6
3,52
12
X
3,67
7
3,66
9
3,53
12
3,48
Average basis FV
3,81
17
3,81
25
3,64
21
3,65
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Average intake
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
%
prot.
%
gruel
AF
ns
%
prot.
%
gruel
AF
ns
%
prot.
%
gruel
AF
20,77
28,9
3
19,66
26,7
7
19,22
19,69
24
7
21,25
25,2
9
21,48
23
7
20,86
24,9
20,48
17
4,20
%
gruel
AF
ns
%
prot.
%
gruel
AF
0
25,25
19,1
11
18,3
ns
%
prot.
%
gruel
AF
35
2
20,54
20,66
26
9
8
20,33
23,1
22,68
17
0
4,21
4,43
11
20
3,10
16
3,46
%
prot.
ns
%
prot.
%
gruel
AF
29,9
2
23,66
22,14
26,7
7
6
21,83
26
17
Average
ns
%
prot.
%
gruel
AF
24,5
1
21,54
28,13
20,55
24
6
19,73
23,68
7
20,14
22,3
8
19,74
22,38
21,02
18
20,31
15
20,12
2
3,90
2
3,69
1
4,00
3,51
7
3,30
9
3,93
6
3,72
6
3,70
8
3,05
7
3,79
8
3,50
17
3,67
17
3,29
18
3,81
15
3,64
Table 9.4.4.46: Comparison diets when extra sources of proteins provided, versus diets without extra proteins:
% of protein (DM) and intake of gruel (AF) for the respective diets
207
Nutrient
Nutrient Category:
ME Primate
Nutrient Category:
Acid Lignin*
ADF*
Cellulose*
Crude Fiber*
Lignin*
NDF*
Total Dietary Fiber
Water Soluble
Carbohydrates*
Nutrient Category:
Crude Fat
Linoleic Acid
Linolenic Acid
PUFA
Saturated Fats
Nutrient Category:
Arginine
Bound Protein
Crude Protein
Cystine
Histidine
Isoleucine
Leucine
Lysine
Methionine
Nitrogen
Phenylalanine
Threonine
Callithrix
geoffroyi
Callimico
goeldi
Cebuella
pygmaea
2,24
2,40
2,56
2,37
0,02
0,66
0,43
4,65
0,04
1,00
6,05
0,02
0,02
0,88
0,66
4,32
0,04
1,44
6,46
0,02
0,03
1,20
0,91
3,91
0,06
1,83
7,66
0,03
0,01
0,76
0,49
4,07
0,04
1,27
6,18
0,00
Fat
%
%
%
%
%
%
4,67
0,93
0,10
0,95
0,31
0,85
5,14
0,90
0,10
1,06
0,40
1,03
4,27
0,79
0,10
0,79
0,39
0,84
4,81
0,79
0,10
0,90
0,32
1,04
Protein
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
0,54
0,00
22,14
0,09
0,46
0,74
1,17
0,97
0,36
1,41
0,64
0,54
0,53
0,00
20,97
0,10
0,43
0,70
1,11
0,92
0,34
1,26
0,61
0,53
0,42
0,00
17,22
0,07
0,37
0,56
0,89
0,73
0,27
1,02
0,49
0,41
0,50
0,01
20,48
0,08
0,43
0,66
1,06
0,89
0,32
1,22
0,58
0,48
Unit
Energy
kcal/g
Carbohydrates
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
Leontopithecus
chrysomelas
Min./Max.
recommendations
Zoo Mulhouse
5,00/10,00
10,00/20,00
3,00/6,00
15,00/27,80
208
Tryptophan
Tyrosine
Valine
%
%
%
Nutrient Category:
Biotin
Choline
Folacin
Pantothenic Acid*
Vit A
Vit B1 (Thiamin)
Vit B12***
Vit B2 (Riboflavin)
Vit B3 (Niacin)
Vit B6 (Pyridoxine)
Vit C Ascorbic Acid
Vit D3**
Vit E
Vit K
Vitamins
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
IU A/g or
mg/kg
mcg/g
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
IU Vit D3/g
mg/kg
mg/kg
Nutrient Category:
Ash
Calcium
Ca/P
Chloride
Copper*
Iodine*
Iron*
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Potassium
Selenium
Sodium*
Sulfur
Zinc
Ash/Minerals
%
%
%
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
%
mg/kg
%
%
mg/kg
%
%
mg/kg
0,15
0,62
0,87
0,15
0,58
0,82
0,12
0,46
0,66
0,14
0,55
0,78
0,29
940,14
0,92
5,85
18,83
9,66
0,02
2,31
14,24
16,36
248,84
13,23
116,20
0,50/12,00
0,25
774,34
0,81
6,12
14,37
8,54
0,02
2,43
13,69
14,57
236,42
9,47
101,59
0,21
669,73
0,78
5,96
28,72
7,35
0,02
2,31
13,19
14,39
288,73
9,85
89,92
4,04
0,68
1,1
0,20/0,55
9,03
0,72
38,29
0,37
75,70
0,60
0,83
0,22
0,04
0,08
58,16
3,89
0,62
1,1
3,76
0,54
1,1
3,99
0,62
1,1
8,10
0,60
34,57
0,32
64,09
0,56
0,80
0,21
0,04
0,07
50,89
7,56
0,52
31,29
0,28
55,84
0,48
0,88
0,17
0,04
0,06
43,34
8,17
0,60
33,71
0,32
63,39
0,55
0,83
0,19
0,05
0,07
49,72
0,24
729,18
0,81
5,65
14,57
8,24
0,020,60/
2,31
14,62
15,14
256,26
10,49
100,63
0,10/0,20
/750,00
0,20/4,00
12,00/
12,50/14,00
1,10/5,60
1,70/5,60
16,00/56,00
2,50/4,40
300,00/500,00
2,20/3,00
56,00/200,00
0,55/0,75
1,25/1,5
12,00/16,00
0,65/2,00
80,00/200,00
0,10/0,20
20,00/100,00
0,33/0,60
0,40/0,89
0,20/0,65
11,00/110,00
Table 9.4.4.47
209
Nutrient
Unit
Sanguinus
bicolor bicolor
Sanguinus
imperator
subgrisescens
Sanguinus
midas midas
Sanguinus
oedipus
oedipus
Nutrient Category:
ME Primate
Energy
kcal/g
2,31
2,38
2,38
2,58
Nutrient Category:
Acid Lignin*
ADF*
Cellulose*
Crude Fiber*
Lignin*
NDF*
Total Dietary Fiber
Water Soluble
Carbohydrates*
Carbohydrates
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
0,02
0,76
0,52
4,45
0,04
1,17
6,45
0,01
0,03
0,72
0,47
4,20
0,06
1,09
6,31
0,04
0,03
0,89
0,58
4,37
0,07
1,34
6,54
0,02
0,03
1,15
0,80
3,72
0,08
1,74
7,43
0,03
Fat
%
%
%
%
%
%
4,52
0,90
0,10
0,91
0,33
0,78
4,79
0,88
0,10
0,99
0,38
0,94
4,89
0,91
0,10
1,02
0,38
0,98
4,47
0,75
0,10
0,85
0,38
1,01
Protein
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
0,50
0,00
20,73
0,08
0,43
0,68
1,08
0,89
0,33
1,32
0,59
0,50
0,53
0,00
20,78
0,09
0,44
0,69
1,10
0,91
0,34
1,23
0,60
0,51
0,55
0,00
21,18
0,10
0,45
0,72
1,13
0,95
0,35
1,26
0,62
0,53
0,44
0,00
17,57
0,08
0,39
0,57
0,92
0,77
0,28
0,99
0,50
0,42
Nutrient Category:
Crude Fat
Linoleic Acid
Linolenic Acid
PUFA
Saturated Fats
Nutrient Category:
Arginine
Bound Protein
Crude Protein
Cystine
Histidine
Isoleucine
Leucine
Lysine
Methionine
Nitrogen
Phenylalanine
Threonine
Min./Max.
recommendations
Zoo Mulhouse
5,00/10,00
10,00/20,00
3,00/6,00
15,00/27,80
210
Tryptophan
Tyrosine
Valine
%
%
%
Nutrient Category:
Biotin
Choline
Folacin
Pantothenic Acid*
Vit A
Vit B1 (Thiamin)
Vit B12***
Vit B2 (Riboflavin)
Vit B3 (Niacin)
Vit B6 (Pyridoxine)
Vit C Ascorbic Acid
Vit D3**
Vit E
Vit K
Vitamins
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
IU A/g
mg/kg
mcg/g
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
IU Vit D3/g
mg/kg
mg/kg
Nutrient Category:
Ash
Calcium
Ca/P
Chloride
Cobalt*
Copper*
Iodine*
Iron*
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Potassium
Selenium
Sodium*
Sulfur
Zinc
Ash/Minerals
%
%
%
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
%
mg/kg
%
%
mg/kg
%
%
mg/kg
0,14
0,57
0,81
0,15
0,57
0,82
0,15
0,59
0,84
0,12
0,47
0,68
0,26
816,34
0,88
6,09
21,36
9,17
0,02
2,38
13,44
15,85
268,32
11,83
106,71
0,50/12,00
0,23
718,53
0,85
6,45
20,10
8,71
0,02
2,54
15,37
15,54
290,74
8,25
97,56
0,25
742,92
0,88
6,49
27,40
8,90
0,02
2,51
15,59
15,56
322,06
9,36
102,37
0,20
549,53
0,78
6,28
24,66
7,16
0,01
2,44
14,76
14,63
310,82
7,69
85,11
3,97
0,64
1,1
4,01
0,62
1,1
4,01
0,63
1,1
3,85
0,53
1,1
0,00
8,53
0,64
36,03
0,35
69,06
0,57
0,86
0,21
0,03
0,08
53,19
0,00
7,97
0,57
33,65
0,33
62,24
0,56
0,87
0,19
0,04
0,07
48,80
0,00
8,27
0,61
35,30
0,34
66,01
0,56
0,87
0,20
0,05
0,07
51,38
0,00
7,32
0,48
30,06
0,28
52,64
0,48
0,90
0,16
0,05
0,06
41,44
0,10/0,20
/750,00
0,20/4,00
12,00/
12,50/14,00
1,10/5,60
0,60/
1,70/5,60
16,00/56,00
2,50/4,40
300,00/500,00
2,20/3,00
56,00/200,00
0,55/0,75
1,25/1,5
0,20/0,55
12,00/16,00
0,65/2,00
80,00/200,00
0,10/0,20
20,00/100,00
0,33/0,60
0,40/0,89
0,20/0,65
11,00/110,00
Table 9.4.4.48
211
The maximum and minimum recommendations are not to be interpreted as upper and lower safe levels. These
values are the lowest and highest recommendations found in literature.
*: These values are not reliable and possibly too low. This is because these values are not always entered in
ZOOTRITIONTM for the feeds which are used in the diet.
Energy: Energy requirement is known to be high during growth, for Cebidae and
Callitrichinae species (around 500 Kcal/Kg BW/day).
Contrary to Cebidae, obesity is not a concern in captive Callithrichinae: their
metabolism is able to convert sugars and proteins in “quick” energy and this prevents
building up fat reserves. Just like for some birds species, some rare cases of
disproportional and unusual deposition of adipose tissue in the digestive tract could be
explained by a moderate deficiency of an essential amino acid. However, the Waste
Disease Syndrome is a much more frequent issue to this kind of deficiencies.
Callitrichinae species receive ad lib diets in captivity: energy restriction is not a
concern. More attention should be paid to offer them high quality sources of proteins
and to “educate” them to a better balanced diet (see preliminar notes of this chapter).
Higher proportion of mutiple births (triplets are common and increasing in captivity)
and some breeding problems encountered because of large foetus size (especially for S.
imperator) can however be related to protein and energy intake. Reducing sugars and
energy during last third of pregnancy can help to reduce the impact of this behavioural,
foraging and intake pattern concern. This nutritional strategy is also undertaken for
Squirrel monkeys.
Eg.: adult male Emperor tamarin (estimated BW = 450 g):
MEPrimate = 2,38 Kcal / gDM (table 9.4.4.48) and DMI = 26 g / day (graph 9.4.4.30)
MEI = 26 x 2,38 = 61,9 Kcal / animal / day, MEI = 61,9 / 0,45 = 137,5 Kcal / Kg BW.
This value seem adequate for maintenance (100-300 Kcal/Kg BW/ day recommended).
Nb: when rearing, the costs of infant-carrying have to be considered (see reference 171).
In Mulhouse, the diets for Callitrichidae and Callimiconidae species comprises between
63,10 % (L. chrysomelas) and 67,90 % CHO DMI (C. goeldii). The highest values are
found for Goeldi’s monkey and Cotton-top tamarin which have lowest CP levels in the
DMI. All these carbohydrate values are approximative: crude fiber value is possibly too
low (datas missing for some feeds in ZOOTRITION ® database) and TDF has been
used instead of crude fiber. Thus, the carbohydrates calculation has been done using
“CHO= 100-(CP+CFat+TDF+Ash)”. These values are certainly majorated but seem
reasonable.
composed of 10-20 % NDF and 5-10 % ADF (source, NRC 2003). Values of NDF,
ADF and crude fiber in ZOOTRITION® software are not realiable because of missing
data in the database. Only TDF has been used to estimate carbohydrate level.
212
Fatty acids and crude fat : Few data exists on the fat requirement for Callitrichinae.
The only recommendations we found are a maximum of 10% DM of fat in the diet. In
fact, it is mostly the level of essential fatty acids, as linoleic acid and linolenic are
important. Fat is an important factor of palatability (Murray and Fowler, 1986), but too
much fat can induce diarrhea and may in long term issue, lead to antagonisms with
calcium, selenium, iron, and vitamin E metabolism.
In Mulhouse, diets contain an average 4,27 to 5,14% DM of crude fat, and this seems
adequate.
Protein: This is an essential nutrient in Callitrichinae species because required
concentrations of dietary proteins are greatly affected by protein quality (see further
comments on chapters 5.5 and 9.4, and preliminar notes on this chapter 9.4.4).
“Adequacy” of dietary protein generally reflects the ability to support satisfactory
essential amino acids. Animal source of proteins have a high-digestibility and contain
generally contain low levels of one or more of the essential amino acids. Therefore a
dietary amino acids balance should be maximised by a mixed diet.
concentration (see chapter 10.3). The diets for Callitrichinae species are between
17,22% (C. goeldii) and 22,14 % CP DMI (L. chrysomelas). These values seem to be an
adequate level to support their needs, at least in Mulhouse Zoo.
Vitamins:
vitamin A concentration in the diet. Published Studies consider diets containing from
12,5 to 14 IU vit A /g DM as adequate. Mulhouse’s diet contains between 14,37 and
28,72 IU vit A/g DMI. Callitrichinae fed with this diet don’t show signs of toxicity.
Vitamin D: The values for Vit D3 are different in summer than in winter. The reason is
that we add Vit D3 to our tamarin gruel in winter periods, when the animals have less
access to the outside enclosures and when there is less sunshine (see table 5.5.1). The
values in the table are an average of both, summer and winter diets. We have also
calculated the mean levels for winter diets (Vit D3 supplemented) versus summer diets
(without Vit D3). These values are 13.70 IU Vit D3/g DM (20.12 % CP DM) and 2.82
IU Vit D3/g DM (20.15 % CP DM) respectively.
The Vit D3 level is high. Hypervitaminosis D3 exists in Callitrichids, and the upper safe
level for Vit D3 is 4 to 10 times the requirement. However, we think that it is safer to
oversupplement Vit D3 slightly because Callitrichids are known to be very prone to
hypovitaminosis D3. The intake studies are undertaken with animal groups, it is
possible that some individuals will take less foods that are rich in Vit D3 than other
ones.
213
(Nb: It has been shown that Vitamin D3 is much more effective than Vitamin D2 for
New world primates, particularly in preventing rickets. For further explanations
concerning vit D3 see references 143 and 154).
on α-tocopherol and w6 fatty acids proportions. VitE deficiency is common in zoos.
The adequate values were estimated at 56 to 200 mg/Kg DM. In Mulhouse Zoo, the
diets for Callitrichids contain between 85,11 and 116,20 mg/ Kg DMI, which seem
adequate.
(Nb: Uncertainty remains on vitamin E composition of the offered diet, because values
of food composition data vary extremely from one source to another).
endogen source: synthesized by bacteria in the intestinal tract (except newborn animals
and those receiving long-term broad spectrum antibiotic therapy). For Callitrichinae
diets, Vit K values are completely missing in our ZOOTRITION® software database.
Vitamin B1 (Thiamin): Thiamin’s requirement exists and diets with 1,1 to 5,6 mg/Kg
DM are sufficient for Callitrichinae species. The principal natural sources are yeasts,
cereals and leguminous plants. Recommended minimal values published can be easily
reached, notably when using supplements: Mulhouse diets contain between 7,16 and
9,66 mg vit B1 / Kg DMI (the tamarin powder contains brewer’s yeast and wheat bran).
These values seem high but being a water-soluble vitamin, this is not at all a reason for
concern.
The diet distributed in Mulhouse to the Callitrichinae species contains about 2,31-2,54
mg vit B2/kg DMI, which corresponds to the target interval of 1,7-5,6 mg vit B2/kg
DM.
Vitamin B3 (PP, Niacin) : With a level of 13,19 to 15,59 mg/Kg DMI of Niacin,
Mulhouse diet is on the low side (recommended interval of 16-56 mg/Kg DM).
Callitrichids fed with our diet don’t show signs of deficiency. Protein intake seem
adequate and the risk to develop a nicotinamid deficiency is low.
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine): The concentration of Vitamin B6 seems high with values are
between 14,39 and 16,36 mg/Kg DMI (requirement range is estimated 2,5-4,4 mg/Kg
DM). These values are the highest within primate diets in Mulhouse. This is because the
supplement “dog premix powder” is used for producing the “tamarin powder” (see
tables 4.1 and 4.8): resulting vit B6 level in the tamarin gruel is 18,35 mg/Kg DM (see
tale 5.5.1). But being a water-soluble vitamin, this is not at all a reason for concern.
214
quite frequent. It concerns mostly pregnant or lactating females and newborn animals.
Observed values in Mulhouse diet are between 0,78 and 0,92 mg/Kg DM and seem
adequate (4 times the minimal recommendation of 0,20 mg/Kg DM found in NRC
1978).
vegetarian diet (no meat, no fish, no egg).
The recommendation for Vit B12 (0,60 mg/kg) is the only specific recommendation
we’ve found for Callitrichids. Recommendations for other primate species go as low as
0,01 mg/kg, so it is likely that the lower safe level for Callitrichids is much lower than
our recommendation.
The analysis of Mulhouse diet is incorrect because of a lack of data of vitamin B12
concentration in the supplements. For that reason values in the tables 9.4.1.15 and
9.4.1.16 are not reliable.
Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid): Vit C requirements for Callitrichinae species are estimated
as the highest among primates (range 300-500 mg/Kg DM, Flurer et al 1987 and
Crissey et al 1998). Even if the diet in Mulhouse Zoo contains pepper, broccoli and
citrus fruits, most of the vegetables are not eaten well (C. geoffroyii is an exception) and
citrus fuits are restricted because of diarrhea risk (see reference 203). Observed range in
our diets is only 236-322 mg/Kg DMI but no deficiency signs have been observed.
Biotin and Choline: The biotin level is mainly known because of dog premix
supplement used for producing the tamarin powder (see table 4.1, 4.8 and 5.5.1) and its
minimal requirement of 0,1 mg/Kg DM is covered. Concerning choline it’s the same
case: even if no minimal requirement is known for Callitrichinae species, observed
values in Mulhouse zoo diet coming from dog premix powder (549-940 ppm DMI)
seem reasonable.
Minerals:
The Ca/P ratio for Mulhouse diets of 1,1 is on the low side and likely to be sufficient for
maintenance conditions, but pregnant females or growing animals will probably need a
higher ratio.
No deficiency signs have been noticed for years, but two cases of osteodystrophy
appeared in 2006-2007: thoracic bone deformities found on a young Emperor tamarin
(its twin was healthy, both parent-reared, primipar female) and low growth rate and
some bone deformities too on two twin Red-handed tamarin (also parent-reared,
experienced female but a big family group and competition conditions). The Ca/P ratio
in tamarin gruel is only 1,18 and could be easily increased by modifying bi-calcium
phosphate and calcium carbonate in tamarin powder receipt. This gruel represents
215
between 34,2 % and 56,2% DMI (see graph 9.4.4.41) and could help to bring the
calcium level in balance for lactating females and growing young. This point is under
review when writting this manual: vit D3 level was verified previously (summer versus
winter diets).
Sodium: The minimal recommended value published is not covered by the diet
provided in Mulhouse Zoo (range 0,03-0,05 % DMI versus 0,20-0,65 % DM).
However, no deficiency signs such as pica have been observed for years and several
values (eg. Crousti’ Croc dog pellets, some fruits and vegetables) are missing in
ZOOTRITION® software database.
Copper and Iron: Iron content in Mulhouse diet is only 30,06 to 38,29 mg/Kg DMI
when the minimal recommendation is 80 mg/Kg DM for Callitrichinae species. Copper
recommended range is 12-16 mg/ Kg DM and Mulhouse diet contains between 7,32 and
9,03 mg/ Kg DMI. Both minerals are on the low side and, among all primate diets
evaluated in Mulhouse zoo, Callitrichinae species are the unique ones like this.
ZOOTRITION® software database should be improved and controlled with some
further analysis (particularly vitamin and mineral supplements, see reference 42).
Copper deficiency can lead to iron accumulation in the liver. Its absorption is
diminished with high vitamin C, zinc and iron. This is not the case, and no copper
deficiency signs have been noticed.
The iron level is far too low. There is no Vit C excess, so the absorption of iron will not
be enhanced. Iron deficiency can cause microcytic hypochromic anaemia, but no
problems which could be related to this have been encountered yet.
216
9.4.5 CERCOPITHECIDAE
Preliminar note: feeding ecology:
(see table 9.4.0.3)
Most cercopithecine primates, except colobines are generalist feeders omnivorous with
fruits or leaves dominating other plant parts, and usually fed with fruits, vegetables,
pellets, seeds, etc in zoos. The stomach of these species (Cercopithecus, Macaca, and
Papio) is relatively simple and smooth-walled, followed by a short small intestine (see
reference 139).
As many other primates, feeding behaviour in wild conditions differs a lot from captive
one: in zoos, animals spend less time feeding, are usually offered large amounts of food
in order to reduce conflicts and therefore appear to be more suceptible to obesity. Even
if it is less frequent than for Lemur species.
Cercopithecus diana roloway......................................................................Diana monkey
Cercopithecus erythrogaster...............................................................Red-bellied monkey
Cercopithecus hamlyni.........................................................................Owl-faced monkey
Cercopithecus lhoesti..............................................................................L'Hoest's monkey
Allenopithecus nigroviridis............................................................Allen's swamp monkey
Diana monkeys: adult male weight is about 5 kg, female weight is 4 kg
Red-bellied monkey: male weight is between 3.5 - 4.5 kg
Owl-faced monkey: adult males weigh 5.5 kg, females 3.4 kg
L'Hoest's monkey: adult weight is 3.5 kg for females and 6.0 kg for males
Allen's swamp monkeys: adult males weigh 6 kg, females weigh on average 3.2 kg.
Feeding program:
10.00hr
Simial pellets with some sirop
14.00hr
Sunflower seeds
17.30hr
Crousti Croc dog pellets (4x per week soaked in water and Vitapaulia)
Constant: Bananas, apples, cooked or raw carrots, cucumbers, courgettes, aubergine,
lettuce.
Frequent: Pears, grapes, melons, chicory, peppers, leeks.
Less frequent: nectarines, peaches, kiwis, oranges, tangerines, sweet cherries, figs,
dried figs, strawberries, pineapples, grapefruits, carambolas, walnuts, red cabbage,
radishes.
Diet composition: see tables 9.4.5.9 and 9.4.5.10, and graph 9.4.5.11
217
study n°
nigroviridis (1)
nigroviridis (2)
nigroviridis (3)
nigroviridis (5)
date
Number
of animals
g
AF
4
4
4
4
2467
2128
2315
2738
617
532
579
685
603
2
2
2
2
2
1458
1462
1151
1563
1365
1
710
2
2
2
2
2
1358
1412
1305
1609
1390
july-02
jan-03
apr-03
nov-03
AVERAGE A. nigroviridis
hamlyni (1)
hamlyni (2)
hamlyni (3)
hamlyni (4)
hamlyni (5)
july-02
feb-03
may-03
aug-03
dec-03
AVERAGE C. hamlyni
erythro. Gp1 (1)
july-02
AVERAGE C.rythrogaster Gp1
erythro. Gp2 (1)
erythro. Gp2 (2)
erythro. Gp2 (3)
erythro. Gp2 (4)
erythro. Gp2 (5)
july-02
feb-03
may-03
aug-03
dec-03
AVERAGE C.rythrogaster Gp2
AVERAGE C.rythrogaster
SIMIAL
TOTAL INTAKE
g
g AF
/ Al DM
CHENIL
CP
% CP from
g DM
/ Al
%
DM
g
AF
g AF
/ Al
%
DM
g
AF
g AF
/ Al
%
DM
%
DM
SIMIAL
C. CROC
569
408
466
643
142
102
117
161
130
23
19
20
23
21,5
129
54
97
129
32
14
24
32
25,6
20
12
19
18
17,3
91
31
28
78
23
8
7
19
14,2
14
7
5
11
9,3
16,5
12,8
12,6
15,4
14,5
38,4
28,9
46,2
36,4
37,5
19,3
12,0
9,5
15,7
14,1
729
731
576
782
683
700
325
309
246
293
261
163
155
123
147
131
143
22
21
21
19
19
20,5
64
63
53
60
32
32
32
27
30
16
27,2
18
18
19
18
11
17,0
64
18
22
22
21
32
9
11
11
11
14,7
18
5
8
7
7
8,9
16,2
13,2
13,8
13,9
12,6
14.0
33,9
43,1
43,6
41,1
27,2
37,8
24,4
8,7
13,0
10,8
12,8
13,9
710
710
679
706
653
805
695
707
708
159
159
159
155
147
145
172
138
151
152
22
22,4
23
21
22
21
20
21,4
21,5
34
34
34,0
32
30
25
34
22
28,4
29,4
19
19,2
19
19
15
18
14
16,9
17,3
30
30
30,0
31
9
19
18
15
18,3
20,2
17
16,8
18
5
11
9
10
10,7
11,7
16,6
16,6
17,0
13,6
14,0
14,8
13,3
14,5
14,9
36,0
36,0
34,2
42,5
34,1
36,8
32,8
36,1
36,1
22,7
22,7
23,7
8,7
18,4
14,2
16,4
16,3
17,4
309
293
290
343
275
64
61
50
67
43
62
17
37
36
30
218
study n°
diana Gp1 (1)
diana Gp1 (2)
diana Gp1 (3)
diana Gp1 (4)
diane Gp1 (5)
date
Number
of animals
g
AF
4
4
4
4
4
2666
3429
3096
3458
3260
2
2
2
2
2
1506
1737
1417
1698
1409
1
1
1
1
797
847
996
844
july-02
546
600
697
714
660
172
162
198
185
AVERAGE C. lhoesti
797
847
996
844
871
AVERAGE / ANIMAL
734
may-03
aug-03
nov-03
AVERAGE C. diana roloway Gp1
diana Gp2 (1)
diana Gp2 (2)
diana Gp2 (3)
diana Gp2 (4)
diana Gp2 (5)
july-02
jan-03
may-03
aug-03
nov-03
AVERAGE C. diana roloway Gp2
AVERAGE C. diana roloway
lhoesti (1)
lhoesti (3)
lhoesti (4)
lhoesti (5)
g
g AF
/ Al DM
666
857
774
865
815
795
753
869
709
849
705
777
786
jan-03
july-02
may-03
aug-03
dec-03
SIMIAL
TOTAL INTAKE
343
302
325
358
294
CHENIL
CP
% CP from
g DM
/ Al
%
DM
g
AF
g AF
/ Al
%
DM
g
AF
g AF
/ Al
%
DM
%
DM
SIMIAL
C. CROC
137
150
174
179
165
161
172
151
163
179
147
162
162
20
17
23
21
20
20,3
23
17
23
21
21
21,0
20,6
108
54
151
145
113
27
13
38
36
28
28,5
32
14
31
33
36
28,9
28,7
18
8
19
18
15
15,8
17
8
17
16
22
16,0
15,9
54
52
57
88
77
13
13
14
22
19
16,4
39
11
20
25
21
23,0
19,7
9
8
7
11
10
9,0
20
6
11
12
13
12,4
10,7
14,8
10,6
15,3
15,0
13,8
13,9
16,5
10,8
15,0
14,3
15,0
14,3
14,1
37,4
23,5
39,4
37,8
34,6
34,5
31,4
23,1
34,9
35,5
45,6
34,1
34,3
13,3
16,5
10,6
16,4
17,0
14,7
27,4
13,3
16,5
19,1
18,7
19,0
16,9
172
162
198
185
179
22
19
20
22
20,6
33
26
32
40
33
26
32
40
32,8
17
14
15
19
16,4
34
17
22
24
34
17
22
24
24,5
18
9
10
12
12,2
16,0
13,2
15,0
15,4
14,9
33,7
34,1
30,0
39,1
34,2
25,0
15,9
14,8
17,0
18,2
153
21,0
28,7
16,8
18,7
10,6 14,4
36,0
16,1
64
27
61
65
72
78
22
40
49
41
Table 9.4.5.1: Observed intake amounts (AF and DM) for Cercopithecidae species, and protein monitoring (see explanation chapter 10.3)
219
Intake compositions (%AF):
Graph 9.4.5.2
Allenopithecus nigroviridis, ns=4, ng=1, ni=4, nd=37
SQUASH,
ZUMMER ZUCCHINI
2%
CUCUMBER 3%
CARROTS 5%
0%
EGGPLANT 3%
1%
0%
PEPPERS 6%
1%
1%
1%
LETTUCE 8%
GRAPES 4%
0%
0%
1%
2%
REST
20%
1%
0%
2%
APPLES 23%
2%
1%
1%
SIMIAL 7001 4%
2%
0%
2%
BANANAS 15%
MILK-BREAD MIX 4%
1%
0%
SUNFLOWER SEED
2%
0%
1%
0%
0%
0%
0%
CROUSTI' CROC
SIMIAL BOULETTE 1
EGG
SIMIAL 7001
MILK-BREAD MIX
SUNFLOWER SEED
MEALWORMS
PINEAPPLE
BANANAS
CHERRIES
STRAWBERRIES
KIWI
MELONS
PEACHES
ORANGE
APPLES, WITH SKIN
GRAPES
BLACKBERRIES
PEARS
APRICOTS
OIGNONS
CAULIFLOWER
FENNEL, BULB
EGGPLANT
CARROTS
CABBAGE
BROCCOLI
CUCUMBER
CHICORY
PEPPERS
LEEKS
RADISHES
LETTUCE
TOMATOES, RED RIPE
CELERY
BRUSSELS SPROUTS
SULTANINES
Graph 9.4.5.3
Cercopithecus diana roloway, ns=10, ng=2, ni=7, nd=70
1%
0%
1%
CUCUMBER 3%
CARROTS 7%
0%
PEPPERS 5%
LETTUCE 10%
2%
0%
0%
2%
0%
1%
0%
1%
1%
APPLES 24%
REST 23%
1%
0%
0%
1%
1%
0%
0%
1%
1%
MELONS 1%
0% 1%
1%
CROUSTI' CROC SOAKED 1%
BANANAS 15%
2%
0%
SIMIAL 7001 3%
1%
MILK-BREAD MIX 5%
0%
0%
2%
2%
1%
0%
CROUSTI' CROC
SIMIAL BOULETTE 1
EGG
SIMIAL 7001
MILK-BREAD MIX
SUNFLOWER SEED
MEALWORMS
CHICKEN, LIGHT MEAT
PINEAPPLE
BANANAS
CHERRIES
STRAWBERRIES
KIWI
MELONS
PEACHES
ORANGE
APPLES, WITH SKIN
GRAPES
BLACKBERRIES
PEARS
APRICOTS
OIGNONS
CAULIFLOWER
FENNEL, BULB
EGGPLANT
CARROTS
CABBAGE
BROCCOLI
CUCUMBER
TURNIPS
CHICORY
PEPPERS
LEEKS
RADISHES
LETTUCE
TOMATOES, RED RIPE
CELERI
POTATOES
GRAPEFRUIT
PLUMS
TANGERINES
AVOCAT
220
Intake compositions (%AF):
Graph 9.4.5.4
Cercopithecus erythrogaster, ns=6, ng=2, ni=3, nd=64
0%
CUCUMBER 3%
0%
PEPPERS 5%
CARROTS 7%
2%
2%
LETTUCE 10%
0%
2%
0%
GRAPES 3%
2%
0%
1%
0%
0%
1%
REST 21%
APPLES 23%
1%
0%
0%
1%
0%
ORANGE 2%
0%
MELONS 3%
CROUSTI' CROC 2%
0%
BANANAS 12%
0%
0%
0%
1%
2%
0%
2%
0%
SIMIAL 7001 3%
0%
0%
MILK-BREAD MIX 5%
CROUSTI' CROC
SIMIAL BOULETTE 1
EGG
SIMIAL 7001
MILK-BREAD MIX
SUNFLOWER SEED
CHICKEN, LIGHT MEAT
PINEAPPLE
BANANAS
CHERRIES
STRAWBERRIES
KIWI
MELONS
PEACHES
ORANGE
APPLES, WITH SKIN
GRAPES
BLACKBERRIES
PEARS
APRICOTS
OIGNONS
CAULIFLOWER
FENNEL, BULB
EGGPLANT
CARROTS
CABBAGE
BROCCOLI
CUCUMBER
TURNIPS
CHICORY
PEPPERS
LEEKS
RADISHES
LETTUCE
TOMATOES, RED RIPE
CELERY
POTATOES
SULTANINES
TANGERINES
AVOCAT
Graph 9.4.5.5
Cercopithecus hamlyni, ns=5, ng=1, ni=2, nd=46
1%
1%
0%
SQUASH,
ZUMMER ZUCCHINI 3%
0%
PEPPERS 5%
1%
LETTUCE 12%
CUCUMBER 4%
CARROTS 7%
1%
0%
1%
2%
EGGPLANT 2%
GRAPES 2%
1%
GRAPES 2%
1%
1%
REST 21%
1%
1%
APPLES 20%
0%
0%
1%
0%
0%
0%
ORANGE 3%
BANANAS 14%
SIMIAL 7001 3%
MILK-BREAD MIX 5%
0%
0%
2%
0%
1%
0%
2%
1%
CROUSTI' CROC
SIMIAL BOULETTE 1
EGG
SIMIAL 7001
MILK-BREAD MIX
SUNFLOWER SEED
BLANC DE POULET
PINEAPPLE
BANANAS
CHERRIES
STRAWBERRIES
KIWI
MELONS
PEACHES
ORANGE
APPLES, WITH SKIN
GRAPES
BLACKBERRIES
PEARS
APRICOTS
OIGNONS
CAULIFLOWER
FENNEL, BULB
EGGPLANT
CARROTS
CABBAGE
BROCCOLI
CUCUMBER
TURNIPS
CHICORY
PEPPERS
LEEKS
RADISHES
LETTUCE
TOMATOES, RED RIPE
CELERI
POTATOES
GRAPEFRUIT
AVOCAT
221
Intake composition (%AF):
Graph 9.4.5.6
Cercopithecus L'Hoesti, ns=4, ng=1, ni=4, nd=36
0%
SQUASH, ZUMMER
ZUCCHINI 3%
CUCUMBER 4%
CARROTS 8%
0%
PEPPERS 5%
LETTUCE 10%
GRAPES 3%
1%
1%
1%
2%
0%
0%
1%
1%
1%
REST
19%
0%
0%
2%
APPLES 24%
2%
0%
1%
MELONS 3%
CROUSTI' CROC 3%
0%
1%
0%
0%
BANANAS 12%
SIMIAL 7001 4%
MILK-BREAD MIX 3%
0%
1%
2%
1%
0%
CROUSTI' CROC
EGG
SIMIAL 7001
MIL-BREAD MIX
SUNFLOWER SEED
CHICKEN, LIGHT MEAT
PINEAPPLE
BANANAS
CHERRIES
STRAWBERRIES
KIWI
MELONS
PEACHES
ORANGE
APPLES, WITH SKIN
GRAPES
BLACKBERRIES
PEARS
OIGNONS
CAULIFLOWER
FENNEL, BULB
EGGPLANT
CARROTS
BROCCOLI
CUCUMBER
TURNIPS
CHICORY
PEPPERS
LEEKS
RADISHES
LETTUCE
TOMATOES, RED RIPE
CELERY
POTATOES
SULTANINES
AVOCAT
222
Graph 9.4.5.7
Cercopithecidae: intake composition (% AF, average all species)
sunflower seeds, mealworms)
SIMIAL 7001
4%
CROUSTI' CROC
2%
8%
FRUIT + VEGETABLES
86%
Graph 9.4.5.8
Cercopithecidae: intake composition (% DM, average all species)
17%
SIMIAL 7001
17%
CROUSTI' CROC
11%
FRUIT + VEGETABLES
55%
223
Diet composition:
utrient
Unit
Cercopithecus
diana
roloway
Cercopithecus
erythrogaster
Cercopithecus
hamlyni
Nutrient Category:
ME Primate
Energy
kcal/g
3,28
3,18
3,24
Nutrient Category:
Acid Lignin*
ADF*
Cellulose*
Crude Fiber*
Lignin*
NDF*
Total Dietary Fiber
Water Soluble
Carbohydrates*
Carbohydrates
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
0,08
3,75
1,80
3,13
0,54
5,37
12,53
6,14
0,08
3,64
1,72
3,19
0,53
5,18
11,89
5,97
0,08
3,55
1,79
3,18
0,54
5,08
12,10
5,32
Fat
%
%
%
%
%
%
8,12
3,69
0,14
1,18
4,07
1,17
8,23
3,68
0,13
1,20
4,05
1,15
7,16
3,06
0,14
1,03
3,41
1,06
Protein
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
0,68
14,27
0,19
0,24
0,51
0,95
0,54
0,23
0,51
0,42
0,13
0,35
0,72
14,94
0,20
0,24
0,54
1,00
0,57
0,25
0,51
0,44
0,13
0,35
0,68
14,02
0,19
0,24
0,52
0,97
0,56
0,23
0,48
0,43
0,12
0,33
Nutrient Category:
Crude Fat
Linoleic Acid
Linolenic Acid
PUFA
Saturated Fats
Nutrient Category:
Arginine
Crude Protein
Cystine
Histidine
Isoleucine
Leucine
Lysine
Methionine
Phenylalanine
Threonine
Tryptophan
Tyrosine
Min./max.
recommendations
Zoo Mulhouse
5,00/15,00
10,00/30,00
/10,00
8,00/16,70
224
Valine
%
0,55
0,55
0,52
Nutrient Category:
Biotin
Choline
Folacin
Pantothenic Acid
Vit A
Vit B1 (Thiamin)
Vit B12 *
Vit B2 (Riboflavin)
Vit B3 (Niacin)
Vit B6 (Pyridoxine)
Vit C Ascorbic Acid
Vit D3
Vit E
Vit K
Vitamins
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
IU A/g
mg/kg
mcg/g
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
IU Vit D3/g
mg/kg
mg/kg
346,41
1,48
12,73
79,15
5,15
0,00
2,85
24,26
7,95
739,35
1,40
62,59
0,36
334,22
1,41
12,23
83,50
5,12
0,00
2,69
24,52
7,20
698,61
1,41
63,93
0,38
310,63
1,52
11,61
79,46
4,87
0,00
2,89
24,98
7,89
720,56
1,39
55,47
0,38
Nutrient Category:
Ash
Calcium
Chloride
Cobalt*
Copper
Iodine*
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Potassium
Selenium
Sodium
Sulfur
Zinc
Ash/Minerals
%
%
%
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
%
mg/kg
%
%
mg/kg
%
%
mg/kg
5,98
0,70
0,11
0,06
12,12
0,02
72,65
0,12
20,78
0,56
1,19
0,16
0,17
0,07
17,63
6,13
0,74
0,11
0,06
12,02
0,02
75,58
0,11
19,34
0,59
1,15
0,16
0,16
0,07
17,07
5,99
0,70
0,10
0,06
11,43
0,02
75,23
0,11
19,90
0,55
1,22
0,14
0,16
0,06
16,31
0,11/0,20
/750,00
0,20/4,00
12,00/20,00
5,00/14,00
1,10/3,00
0,01/0,03
1,70/4,00
16,00/56,00
2,50/4,40
55,00/110,00
1,00/3,00
56,00/100,00
0,06/12,00
0,55/0,80
0,20/0,55
12,00/20,00
/0,35
100,00/200,00
0,10/0,17
20,00/100,00
0,33/0,60
0,24/0,89
0,20/0,65
11,00/100,00
Table 9.4.5.9
225
Diet composition:
utrient
Nutrient Category:
ME Primate
Unit
Energy
kcal/g
Nutrient Category:
Acid Lignin*
ADF*
Cellulose*
Crude Fiber*
Lignin*
NDF*
Total Dietary Fiber
Water Soluble
Carbohydrates*
Carbohydrates
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
Cercopithecus
lhoesti
3,24
0,09
3,92
1,74
3,24
0,56
5,62
12,39
6,80
Macaca
tonkeana
Allenopithecus
nigroviridis
3,22
3,40
0,110,06
3,64
1,42
2,96
0,59
5,27
11,85
6,79
Min./max.
recommendations
Zoo Mulhouse
4,09
1,86
3,29
0,58
5,95
13,13
7,27
5,00/15,00
3,00/6,00
Nutrient Category:
Crude Fat
Linoleic Acid
Linolenic Acid
PUFA
Saturated Fats
Fat
%
%
%
%
%
%
8,48
4,00
0,13
1,25
4,40
1,15
9,48
4,43
0,23
1,36
4,92
1,19
9,00
4,49
0,13
1,28
4,90
1,21
Nutrient Category:
Arginine
Crude Protein
Cystine
Histidine
Isoleucine
Leucine
Lysine
Methionine
Nitrogen
Phenylalanine
Threonine
Tryptophan
Protein
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
0,72
14,95
0,19
0,24
0,53
0,97
0,58
0,24
0,05
0,54
0,44
0,13
0,70
15,15
0,19
0,24
0,49
0,92
0,51
0,22
0,01
0,52
0,41
0,12
0,75
14,45
0,20
0,25
0,53
1,00
0,56
0,24
10,00/30,00
8,00/16,70
0,55
0,44
0,13
226
Tyrosine
Valine
%
%
0,38
0,58
0,36
0,55
0,38
0,58
Nutrient Category:
Biotin
Choline
Folacin
Pantothenic Acid
Vit A
Vit B1 (Thiamin)
Vit B12 *
Vit B2 (Riboflavin)
Vit B3 (Niacin)
Vit B6 (Pyridoxine)
Vit C Ascorbic Acid
Vit D3
Vit E
Vit K
Vitamins
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
IU A/g or
mg/kg
mcg/g
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
IU Vit D3/g
mg/kg
mg/kg
0,11/0,20
386,42
1,40
12,78
85,24
4,97
0,00
2,54
24,55
7,47
690,98
1,26
66,40
0,37
378,32
1,17
12,92
72,38
4,92
0,00
2,59
22,76
8,34
735,06
1,30
68,91
0,36
407,71
1,37
13,58
64,76
5,40
0,00
2,62
22,68
8,08
781,28
1,34
70,05
0,40
Nutrient Category:
Ash
Calcium
Chloride
Cobalt*
Copper
Iodine*
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Potassium
Selenium
Sodium
Sulfur
Zinc
Ash/Minerals
%
%
%
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
%
mg/kg
%
%
mg/kg
%
%
mg/kg
6,05
0,72
0,13
0,06
12,92
0,02
74,46
0,12
18,95
0,58
1,17
0,16
0,17
0,08
18,15
6,19
0,75
0,12
0,06
13,03
0,02
71,07
0,13
17,95
0,60
1,16
0,16
0,16
0,08
18,08
6,00
0,72
0,13
0,06
13,55
0,02
77,87
0,13
18,35
0,58
1,20
0,18
0,17
0,08
19,00
/750,00
0,20/4,00
12,00/20,00
5,00/14,00
1,10/3,00
0,01/0,03
1,70/4,00
16,00/56,00
2,50/4,40
55,00/110,00
1,00/3,00
56,00/100,00
0,06/12,00
0,55/0,80
0,20/0,55
12,00/20,00
/0,35
100,00/200,00
0,10/0,17
20,00/100,00
0,33/0,60
0,24/0,89
0,20/0,65
11,00/100,00
Table 9.4.5.10
227
Graph 9.4.5.11
Cercopithecidae: % of proteins delivered by diet components
25%
SIMIAL
36%
FRUIT + VEGETABLES
23%
CROUSTI' CROC
16%
Foliage
European Beech Fagus sylvatica, Hazel Corylus avellana, Sycamore Maple Acer
pseudoplatanus, Willow Salix, Bamboo
Energy: Energy requirement for Cercopithecidae species is known to be low among
primates (100 Kcal/Kg BW/day was a real maximum recommended for the maintenance
of adults OWP in NRC 1978). Obesity in captive Cercopithecidae species is a common
problem when ad lib diets are offered or when the diets contain too much fruits.
Overweight can be explained by nutritional quality of fruits used in captivity (lower
fiber and protein content, higher sugar content), foraging and food intake patterns.
Eg.: adult male Diana monkey (estimated BW = 5 Kg):
MEPrimate = 3,28 Kcal / gDM (table 9.4.5.9) and DMI = 162 g / day (table 9.4.5.1)
MEI = 162 x 3,28 = 531,4 Kcal / animal / day, MEI = 531,4 / 5 = 106,3 Kcal / Kg BW.
This value seem on the high side for maintenance but reasonable
Nb: DMI/animal/day has been evaluated between 137 g and 179 g in a family group
composed of 4 animals but 2 of them still growing; thus, real DMI value remain
uncertain. The young coefficient graph hasn’t been modelized yet because of
insufficient reliable datas.
In Mulhouse, the diets for Cercopithecidae species are comprised between 57,42 % (A.
nigroviridis) and 60,72 % CHO DMI (C. hamlyni). The highest value is found for the
Allen’s swamp monkeys which have the lowest CP level in the DMI. All these
228
carbohydrate values are approximative: crude fiber value is possibly too low (datas
missing for some feeds in ZOOTRITION ® database) and TDF has been used instead of
crude fiber. Thus, carbohydrates calculation has been done using “CHO= 100(CP+CFat+TDF+Ash)”. These values are certainly majorated but seem reasonable.
composed of 10-30 % NDF and 5-15 % ADF (source, NRC 2003). Values of NDF,
ADF and crude fiber in ZOOTRITION® software are not realiable because of missing
data in the database. Only TDF has been used to estimate carbohydrate level.
Fatty acids and crude fat : Few data exists on the fat requirement for Cercopithecidae.
The only recommendations we found are a maximum of 10% DM of fat in the diet. In
fact, it is mostly the level of essential fatty acids, as linoleic acid and linolenic are
important. Fat is an important factor of palatability (Murray and Fowler, 1986), but too
much fat can induce diarrhea and may in long term issue, lead to antagonisms with
calcium, selenium, iron, and vitamin E metabolism.
In Mulhouse, diets contain an average of 7,16 to 9,48 % DM of crude fat. These are the
highest values observed amoung our primates, with Cebidae species, this is due to the
sunflower seeds that are given. However, the exact amounts of seeds really eaten by the
monkeys are not easy to evaluate: they are used as food enrichment and an
approximative maximal amount was entered into ZOOTRITION® diets.
essential amino acids. The animal source of proteins has a high-digestibility and
contains high levels of essential amino acids. Proteins from plant sources are less
digestible and generally contain low levels of one or more ot the essential amino acids.
Therefore a dietary amino acids balance should be maximised by a mixed diet.
concentration (see chapter 10.3). The diets for Cercopithecidae species are between
14,02 % (C. hamlyni) and 14,95 % CP DMI (C. lhoesti). These values seem to be an
adequate level to support their needs, at least in Mulhouse Zoo.
It is interesting to note the percentage of proteins delivered by diet items (see graph
9.4.5.11): “Simial” pellets and powder deliver 36 % of the total dietary protein,
“Crousti’ Croc” pellets 16 % , Fruits + vegetables 23 % and others 25 %. This means
that only half of the proteins are delivered by 6 % AF and 28 % DM (Simial and
Crousti’ croc) of the diet (see graphs 9.4.5.7 and 9.4.5.8). With Spider monkeys and
Macaques, Cercopitheques have the highest protein content in their fruits & vegetables
diet basis (6,0 to 6,4 % CP DMI, see table 9.4.0.10), and with Ateles, Cercopitheques
have the lowest pellet intake (27 to 28 % of the DMI composed of pellets, see table
9.4.0.11). Fruit syrup is added to the pellets just before serving in order to improve
palatability (see chapter 3.9) but the Simial pellet could be improved.
Vitamins:
vitamin A concentration in the diet. Published Studies consider diets containing from 5
229
to 14 IU vit A /g DM as adequate. Mulhouse’s diet contains between 72,38 and 85,24
IU vit A/g DMI. Vitamine A levels are 5 to 6 times too high but in zoos it is frequent to
have a diet with about 100 IU vitA/g DM. These levels are not very likely to cause
disease in primates. The higher safe levels for non-ruminant animals are presumed to be
4 to 10 times the requirement.
pregnancy).
vit D3/g DM. In Mulhouse Zoo, Cercopithecidae diets contain between 1,26 and 1,41
IU vit D3/g DMI (mainly coming from the supplements Simial and Vitapaulia M).
Cercopithecidae species are not know to be prone to hypovitaminosis and there is no
need to add more vitD3 in winter, when the monkeys have less access to the outside
enclosures and when there is less sunshine
on α-tocopherol and w6 fatty acids proportions. VitE deficiency is common in zoos.
The adequate values are estimated at 56 to 200 mg/Kg DM. In Mulhouse Zoo, the diets
for Cercopithecidae contain between 55,47 and 70,05 mg/ Kg DMI, which seem
adequate.
(Nb: Uncertainty remains on vitamin E composition of the given diet, because values of
food composition data vary extremely from one source to another).
endogen source: synthesized by bacteria in the intestinal tract (except newborn animals
diets for Cercopithecidae contain between 0,36 and 0,40 mg vit K/ Kg DMI, which is
still sufficient for primates (the minimum of 0,06 mg vit K/ Kg DM was published as
the lower concentration inadequate).
DM are sufficient for Cercopithecidae species (NRC 2003). Principal natural sources
are yeasts, cereals and leguminous plants. Recommended minimal values published can
be easily reached, notably when using supplements: Mulhouse diets contain between
4,87 and 5,40 mg vit B1 / Kg DMI. These values seem high but being a water-soluble
vitamin, this is not at all a reason for concern.
The diet distributed in Mulhouse contains about 2,54-2,89 mg vit B2/kg DMI, which
corresponds to the target interval of 1,7-4,0 mg vit B2/kg DM.
230
Vitamin B3 (PP, Niacin) : With a level of 22,68 to 24,98 mg/Kg DMI of Niacin,
Mulhouse diet seem reasonable (recommended interval of 16-56 mg/Kg DM). Like for
vit A, these values are the highest among all our primates, it can certainly explained by
Vitapaulia M supplementation.
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine): The concentration of Vitamin B6 seems high with values
comprised between 7,20 and 8,34 mg/Kg DMI (requirement range is estimated 2,5-4,4
mg/Kg DM) but being a water-soluble vitamin, this is not at all a reason for concern.
specific medications such as ison azid or D-penicillamin, that increase its urinary
quite frequent. It concerns mostly in pregnant or lactating females and newborn animals.
Observed values in Mulhouse diet are between 1,17 and 1,52 mg/Kg DMI and seem
adequate (5 to 7 times the minimal recommendation of 0,20 mg/Kg DM found in NRC
1978 but lower than the maximal recommendation of 4,00 mg/Kg DM found in NRC
2003).
vegetarian diet (no meat, no fish, no egg). The recommendation range of 0,011 to 0,03
mg/kg for Cebus and Cercopithecidae is the lowest one among non-human primate
recommendations for cobalamin.
The analysis of Mulhouse diet is incorrect because of a lack of data of vitamin B12
concentration in the supplements. For that reason values in the tables 9.4.5.9 and
9.4.5.10 are not reliable.
citrus fruits, and the Cercopitheques’ needs are consequently easily reached. In
Mulhouse, Vit C is 6 to 7 times the maximal recommendation.
Being a water-soluble vitamin, this is not a risk for toxicity and this is certainly not a
long term excess. As for capuchins, Cercopithecidae species receive the more important
diversity of fruits among our primates (citrus fruits can represent 2-3% AF of the total
intake) but the donation from supermarkets vary from day to day. Moreover, most of the
fruits rich on vitC content are only seasonally available.
High Vit C levels could also contribute to the development of haemosiderosis due to
enhanced iron-absorption (see reference 72), but the iron content in this diet is on the
low side and Cercopithecidae species are not known to be particularly prone to
haemosiderosis. However, as for lemurs, a liver histology is undertaken for each
necropsy but we have never observed any iron storage disease cases.
Biotin and Choline: There is not much data available about these nutrients; food
composition datas give only 50% of the choline analysis and nothing about biotin. So
we cannot make conclusions about these nutrient requirements and the diets analysis.
231
Minerals:
1,27 (calcium 0,70-0,75 and phosphorus 0,55-0,60).
Sodium: The minimal recommended value published is not covered by the diet
provided in Mulhouse Zoo (range 0,16-0,17 % DMI versus 0,20-0,65 % DM
recommended). However, no deficiency signs as pica have been observed for years and
several values (eg. Crousti’ Croc dog pellets, some fruits and vegetables) are missing
into ZOOTRITION® software database.
Copper and Iron: Copper and iron contents in Mulhouse diet for Cercopithecidae is
similar to Lemuridae one. Iron is comprised between 72,65 and 77,87 mg/Kg DMI
(recommended range 100-200 mg/Kg DM) and Copper between 11,43 and 13,55 mg/
Kg DM (recommended range 12-20 mg/Kg DM). Mulhouse diet seem adequate for both
minerals but:
- Contrary to the comment for Callitrichinae species (ZOOTRITION® software
database should be improved and controlled with some further analysis of iron
content in vitamin and mineral supplements), Cercopithecidae species don’t
receive any special in-house powder and the Simial pellet has been controlled
for this. Thus, iron content of this diet seem to be on the low side even if no
deficiency case has been observed (like microcytic hypochromic anaemias).
- This diet is quite rich in vit C, even if seasonally, and this could lead to a
reduced copper absorption. However, no copper deficiency signs have been
noticed.
232
9.4.6 MACACA
Macaca tonkeana.......................................................................Tonkean macaque
Female weight about 9 kg and males 12.5 kg
Feeding program
10.00hr
Simial pellets
Sunflower seeds
Raisins
14.30hr
Apple
Banana
Raisins
15.30hr
Constant: Bananas, apples, cooked or raw carrots, cucumbers, courgettes, aubergine,
lettuce. Frequent: Pears, grapes, melons, chicory, peppers, leeks. Less frequent:
nectarines, peaches, kiwis, oranges, sweet cherries, figs, dried figs, strawberries,
pineapples, grapefruits, carambolas, walnuts, red cabbage, radishes.
Diet composition: see table 9.4.5.10 and graph 9.4.6.5
Graph 9.4.6.2
Macaca tonkeana: intake composition (%AF), ns=3, ng=1, ni=9, nd=29
, ZUMMER
COURGETTE
2%
PEPPERS 5%
RADISHES 3%
CUCUMBER 4%
LETTUCE 4%
CARROTS 2%
TOMATOES 2%
PEARS 2%
1%
2%
0%
2%
0%
0%
0%
2%
APPLES
15%
1%
0%
REST 3%
1%
1%
0%
KIWI 19%
1%
CROUSTI' CROC 4%
2%
0%
SIMIAL 7001 4%
MILK-BREAD MIX 4%
2%
1%
1%
0%
0%
BANANAS 19%
SUNFLOWER SEEDS 4%
CROUSTI' CROC
SIMIAL 7001
MILK-BREAD MIX
SUNFLOWER SEEDS
MEALWORMS
PINEAPPLE
BANANAS
CHERRIES
STRAWBERRIES
KIWI
MELONS
PEACHES
ORANGE
APPLES, WITH SKIN
GRAPES
PEARS
ONIONS
CAULIFLOWER
AUBERGINE
CARROTS
CABBAGE
RED CABBAGE
BROCCOLI
CUCUMBER
COURGETTE
CHICORY
PEPPERS
LEEKS
RADISHES
LETTUCE
TOMATOES, RED RIPE
CELERY
GRAPEFRUIT
WALNUTS
WATERMELON
233
study n°
date
Macaca (1)
Macaca (2)
Macaca (3)
july-02
mar-03
july-03
Number
SIMIAL
TOTAL INTAKE
CHENIL
CP
% CP from
of animals
g
AF
g AF
/ Al
g
DM
g DM
/ Al
%
DM
g
AF
g AF
/ Al
%
DM
g
AF
g AF
/ Al
%
DM
%
DM
SIMIAL
C. CROC
9
9
9
7127
7534
7107
792
837
790
1577
1600
1769
175
178
197
22
21
25
315
256
319
35
28
35
18
14
16
269
257
314
30
29
35
15
14
16
14,70
14,72
15,91
37,6
30,1
31,4
31,8
29,9
30,5
183
23
33
16
31
15
15,1
33,0
30,7
AVERAGE / ANIMAL
806
Table 9.4.6.1: Observed intake amounts (AF and DM) for Macaques, and protein monitoring (see explanation chapter 10.3)
234
Graph 9.4.6.3
Graph 9.4.6.4
Macaca tonkeana: intake composition (% AF)
sunflower seeds)
7%
SIMIAL 7001
4% CROUSTI' CROC
4%
Macaca tonkeana: intake composition (% DM)
sunflower seeds)
16%
SIMIAL 7001
16%
CROUSTI' CROC
15%
FRUIT + VEGETABLES
85%
FRUIT + VEGETABLES
53%
Graph 9.4.6.5
Macaca tonkeana: % of proteins delivered by diet components
sunflower seeds)
24%
SIMIAL
33%
FRUIT + VEGETABLES
21%
CROUSTI' CROC
22%
Comments Intake composition: same comments as for Cercopithecidae species.
Foliage
Willow Salix
235
9.4.7 HYLOBATIDAE
Gibbons are considered frugivorous, although feeding ecology suggests they may have
a more mixed herb or even an omnivorous diet. Ellefson (1974) reported that they eat at
least 61 sorts of plants. These include leaf buds, shoots, fruits and flowers. Occasionally
they catch insects, eggs or little birds. The proportion of each may depend on the food
distribution, the territory size and the seasonal changes (they will eat some animals
when fruits are scarce).
Mean proportions of a Concolor’s natural diet are estimated to exist of 61% of leaf buds
and shoots, 21% of fruits, 10% of leaves; 7% of flowers and 1% of animal prey (see
table 9.4.7.1).
The diet composition of gibbons varies with the body size and the digestive morphology
of the animal. For instance, siamangs have a larger range of food than others gibbons,
because of the longer digestive tract, which facilitates the digestion of dry leaves.
Consequently their territory is often smaller.
The feeding ecology is very useful when establishing a captive diet, but it may be more
important to know the quality and the quantity of the consumed nutrients. Very few
studies about nutrient requirements have been undertaken: the main source of compiled
scientific information on nutrient requirements in Non human primates remains the
National Research Council publications (2003). Unfortunately, few species were
examined and only 24 nutrients were presented , while primates may require more (up
to 47 nutrients).
The table 9.4.7.2 presents a synthesis of data collected on Old World primate nutrient
recommendations, compared to Human recommendations.
Protein
requirement:
The protein dietary level can easily be used as a first “monitoring” nutrient, as mineral
and vitamin supplementation can be carried out following pellet intake, with pellets
supplying the major protein source (see tables 9.4.7.3 and 9.4.7.4).
Dietary nitrogen in the form of protein, including adequate amounts of essential amino
acids, is required for growth and for synthesis of all structural and functional proteins.
“High-quality” protein for gibbons is mostly derived from animal sources (casein,
lactalbumin). Proteins from plant sources generally contain low levels of one or more
amino acids, therefore it is important to diversify the items in a diet: a mixture of plants
will hopefully provide complementary ratios of amino acids.
Smaller species have greater requirements, per unit of body weight, than larger species
do. Growing, pregnant and lactating animals can also be assumed to have higher
requirements, per unit of body weight, than adult animals. As a general rule, about 3-5
g/kg of body weight per day of high-quality protein are required for infant animals of
larger species such as rhesus monkeys. Smaller infant cebus and squirrel monkeys need
a larger amount, 5-8 g/kg of body weight per day. Older and larger animals within each
species require a lesser quantity and quality of dietary protein per unit body weight,
with approximately 3,5-4,5 g/kg BW/ day of high-quality proteins being the minimal
amount suggested.
236
SPECIES
Study sites
H. hoolock
H. agilis
H. klossii
H. lar
H. pileatus
H. moloch
H. muelleri
H. syndactylus
H. concolor
Assam, India
Sungai Dal, W. Malaysia
Paitan, Siberut, Indonesia
Kuala Lompat, W. Malaysia
Khao Soi Dao, Thailand
Ujong Kulon, Java, Indonesia
Kutai, E. Kalimantan, Indonesia
Kuala Lompat, W. Malaysia
Monthly dietary proportions (% mean and range)
FRUITS
FIG FLOWERS
LEAVES
PREYS
67
32
0
72
17
6
15
7
70
23
0
2
25
50 (36-60) 22
7 (3-8)
29 (14-53) 13 (6-24)
71
26
15
13
1
61 (49-68)
1 (0-2)
38 (30-50)
0
62 (27-90) 24
4 (0-16)
32 (8-73)
2 (0-6)
36 (21-49) 22
6 (0-23)
43 (19-69) 15 (8-20)
21
7
71
1
Sources
Tilson, 1979; Chivers, 1984
Gittins and Raemakers, 1980; Whitten, 1984
Whitten, 1984
Gittins and Raemakers, 1980; Whitten, 1984
Srikosamatara, 1984
Kappeler, 1984; Chivers, 1984
Leighton, unpub.; Chivers, 1984
Gittins and Raemakers, 1980
Yang D.H., 1990
Table 9.4.7.1: Dietary proportions of some Hylobatidae sp observed in wild
NUTRIENT
UNIT
MINI
MAXI
COMMENTS
34 (Pongidae,
table 2-2)
100* a)
(M)
200 a)
300 a)
(G)
1,38 to 0,59 g/BW/day (egg or milk
protein)
5(G) to 6(M)
% ME b2)
Human recommendations
1800-2400 kcal/day women
2200-3400 kcal/day men
50-100 kcal/kgBW/day
Metabolic Energy
(Kcal/KgBW/day)
Crude Protein
(%)
15 a)
16,7 c)
Carbohydrates
(%)
50 a)
60 a)
Crude fat
(%)
traces a)
10 a)
(%) NDF
20
30
(%) ADF
10
15
(%) TDF
30,1 f)
37,4 f)
Fiber
2-3g/KgBW/d(M)
35g/kgBW/d (G) (rhesus
monkey)****
>1g /KgBW/day
mini: 4%DM d2)
w3 =1-2% total calories
0,8g /kgBW/day
10-15% EM/day
150g/day 50-55% EM/day
30-35% EM/day
W6=4%EM W3=0,8%EM
w6/w3=+-5
TDF = 0,73(NDF)+15,5 f)
25-30 g/day with 10-15g
soluble fiber
237
NUTRIENT
UNIT
MINI
MAXI
COMMENTS
Calcium
(%)
0,55
0,8 b1)
Phosphorus
(%)
0,33
0,6 b1)
Potassium
(%)
0,40
0,89 a)
Sodium
(%)
0,2 b1)
0,65
NaCl : 5-6g/day
Magnesium
(%)
0,10
0,17 c)
6mg/kBW/day
Chloride
(%)
0,20
0,55
Copper
(mg/kgDM)
12
20
Zinc
(mg/kgDM)
11 c)
100 b1)
Manganese
(mg/kgDM)
20 b1)
100 a)
Iodine
(mg/kgDM)
_ _d1)
0,35 b1) **
Iron
(mg/kgDM)
100 b1)
Vit A
(IU/KgDM)
(IU/KgDM)
Vit D3
Ca/P from 1:1 to 2:1
1-1,3 %DM d2)
900-2000mg/day adult
1300mg/day lactation 500-1000
mg/day growth
1,6-2 mg/day
1-1,5 mg/kgBW
/day (G) (experimented on Rhesus infant)
10-20 mg/day
200 c)
5 mg/d or 3-10 mg/kgBW/day (G) (experimented on Rhesus infant)
150-200 µg/day
Men : 9mg/day women :
16mg/day
8000 b1)
14000 c)
20000-25000 IU/ kgDM d2)
Men : 800 ER/day
Women :600 ER/day
1000
3000
Vit E
(mg/kgDM)
56 c)
100 b1)
Vit K
(mg/kgDM)
0,5*** b1)
12
Vit C
(mg/kgDM)
55
110
400UI/day (0-3 yo, repro, old)
200UI/day
0,7-3mg/kgBW/d (rhesus) e)
0,36 mg d-a-tocopherol/ g of
dietary linoleic acid a) (on
rhesus)
12 mg/day
110mg/day
238
NUTRIENT
UNIT
MINI
MAXI
Vit B1
(mg/kgDM)
1,1
3 b1)
Vit B2
(mg/kgDM)
1,7
4 b1)
Niacin
(mg/kgDM)
16
56
Vit B5
(mg/kgDM)
12 b1)
_ _d)1**
COMMENTS
Men : 1,3 mg/day
Women : 1,1mg/day
5mg/ 1000kcal (>15mg/day)
(on rhesus monkeys)
0,5-5µg/day (2,4 adult)
Vit B6
(mg/kgDM)
2,5 a)
4,4 (for rhesus)
Vit B12
(mg/kgDM)
0,011
0,03
Folacin
(mg/kgDM)
0,2 a)
4 b1)
Biotin
(mg/kgDM)
0,11
0,2 b1) **
Choline
(mg/kgDM)
_ _d1)
750 b1)
Men : 1,8 mg/day
Women : 1,5mg/day
1mg/day sufficient to prevent signs of deficiency (rhesus)
300µg/day (400 reproductive)
30-60µg/kgBW/day (G) rhesus)
500-750 mg/kgDM d2)
Table 9.4.7.2: Values we could use for Gibbons’ requirements (dietary Dry Matter basis)
Main source: NRC, Nutrient requirements for Non Human Primates, 1998-2003; for other sources (a) to h)) see details on bottom.
a) NRC, Nutrient requirements for Non human primates, 1978
b1) NRC, Nutrient Requirements for Non Human Primates, 2003. Table 11-2 : Estimated Adequate Nutrient Concentrations (Dry Matter basis) in diets for post weaning Non human primates, p193
b2) NRC, Nutrient Requirements for Non Human Primates, 2003. Table 11-1 : Nutrient requirements for Humans, p192
c) W.L. JANSEN and J. NIJBOER, 2003 : Zoo Animal Nutrition, Tables and Guidelines, Recommendations for Old World Primates
d1) no reliable data
d2) practical values, commonly used
e) FITCH and DINNING, Vitamin E deficiency in the monkey. V. Estimated requirements and the influence of fat deficiency and antioxidants on the syndrome, 1963. 79:69-78.
f) E. DIERENFELD et al., unpublished
h) ZOOTRITION Software, Tolerances, issued from NRC, 1987 : Vitamin Tolerance of Animals. National Academy Press.Washington, DC. 96 pp.
(M) Maintenance
(G) Growing
* From NRC,78 Table 1, Energy requirements for Adults Old world primates: Real maximum recommended
** Single recommendation found
*** as Phylloquinone
**** Recommendation with High quality protein
239
Nomascus gabriellae......................................... ...............Yellow-cheeked crested gibbon
Nomascus leucogenys leucogenys....................................Northern white-cheeked gibbon
Nomascus leucogenys siki.................................................Southern white-cheeked gibbon
Hylobates pileatus......................................................................................Pileated gibbon
Yellow-cheeked crested gibbons: adult weight is 5-6 kg
Northern white-cheeked gibbons: adult males weigh 8,0 kg, females weigh 10,0 kg
Southern white-cheeked gibbons: adult male weight is 7,0 kg, female weight is 8,0 kg
Pileated gibbons: adult weight is about 5 kg.
Feeding program: All gibbons are fed pellets in the morning and fruits and vegetables in
the evening.
10.00hr
Simial pellets
Sunflower seeds
17.30hr
Fruits and vegetables (300g Apples + 150g Bananas + 150g Season
fruits + 30g Lettuce + 350g other vegetables)
Milk bread-mix (around 80g)
Simial powder (around 50g)
Note: Sultanas are fed when there is not enough fruit
Diet composition: see table 9.4.7.13 and graphs 9.4.7.14 and 9.4.7.15
Graph 9.4.7.5
Hylobates pileatus: intake composition (% AF)
ns=5, ng=1, ni=5, nd=44
2%
CROUSTI' CROC 3%
LETTUCE 5%
SIMIAL 7001 5%
MILK-BREAD
MIX 3%
CHICORY 2%
CUCUMBER 4%
1%
PEPPERS 4%
MELONS 3%
0%
1%
1%
PEARS 5%
1%
0%
1%
1%
CARROTS 7%
REST 14%
0%
1%
0%
1%
0%
BANANAS 18%
0%
0%
1%
APPLES 26%
2%
0%
0%
1%
1%
APPLES, WITH SKIN
BANANAS
CARROTS
MILK-BREAD MIX
SIMIAL 7001
LETTUCE
SIMIAL 7001 CAKE
CROUSTI' CROC
SUNFLOWER SEEDS
CHICORY
CUCUMBER
LEEKS
COURGETTE
CELERY
BROCCOLI
RADISHES
FENNEL, BULB
CABBAGE
TOMATOES, RED RIPE
TURNIPS
PEPPERS
AUBERGINE
SULTANAS
KIWI
ORANGE
MELONS
PEARS
STRAWBERRIES
PINEAPPLE
GRAPES
PEACHES
CHERRIES
PLUMS
240
study n°
date
Number
of Animals
*
g
AF
SIMIAL
CROUSTI' CROC
CP
TOTAL INTAKE
g DM / g DM g DM / % DM g AF g AF / % DM g AF g AF / % DM % DM
Al
Al
Al
Al
% CP from
SIMIAL
C. CROC
leucogenys (1)
july-02
3,000
leucogenys (2)
feb-03
3,125
leucogenys (3)
july-03
3,260
leucogenys (4)
dec-03
3,400
leucogenys (5)
mar-04
3,590
leucogenys (6)
feb-05
4,000
AVERAGE N. l. leucogenys
2394
4107
3244
3458
3668
4425
798
1314
995
1017
1022
1106
1042
585
914
819
858
925
1051
195
292
251
252
258
263
252
24
22
25
25
25
24
24,3
115
195
199
209
210
206
38
62
61
62
59
51
55,6
18
19
22
22
20
18
19,8
41
58
80
86
99
106
14
19
24
25
28
27
22,6
6
6
9
9
10
9
8,0
13,0
11,9
13,0
13,5
13,6
12,4
13,0
42,3
50,1
52,2
50,4
46,7
44,0
47,6
10,6
10,7
15,0
14,8
15,7
16,3
13,8
gabriellae (1)
july-02
3,550
gabriellae (2)
feb-03
3,985
gabriellae (3)
july-03
4,195
gabriellae (4)
dec-03
4,340
gabriellae (5)
mar-04
4,490
gabriellae (6)
feb-05
4,970
AVERAGE N. gabriellae
2365
4231
3587
3964
4148
4717
666
1062
855
913
924
949
895
572
933
916
1033
1027
1131
161
234
218
238
229
228
218
24
22
26
26
25
24
24,4
119
190
224
244
210
207
33
48
53
56
47
42
46,5
19
18
22
21
18
16
19,2
41
54
106
114
110
100
11
13
25
26
25
20
20,2
6
5
10
10
10
8
8,2
13,1
11,9
14,0
13,6
13,7
12,4
13,1
44,3
47,7
48,8
48,5
41,7
41,2
45,4
10,8
9,7
16,5
16,2
15,7
14,3
13,9
1425
2433
2086
2079
2294
2996
713
1161
927
877
907
1002
931
305
607
542
537
603
742
153
290
241
227
238
248
233
21
25
26
26
26
25
24,9
56
143
138
126
145
157
28
68
61
53
57
53
53,5
16
21
23
21
22
19
20,4
15
41
53
57
72
58
7
20
24
24
28
19
20,4
4
6
9
9
11
7
7,7
12,5
13,6
13,3
14,0
14,7
13,1
13,6
40,8
48,3
53,5
46,9
45,8
45,1
46,7
7,8
9,9
14,8
15,2
16,2
11,8
12,6
234
24,5
51,9
19,8
21,1
7,9
13,1
46,6
13,4
siki (1)
siki (2)
siki (3)
siki (4)
siki (5)
siki (6)
july-03
feb-03
july-03
dec-03
mar-04
feb-04
AVERAGE N. l. siki
2,000
2,095
2,250
2,370
2,530
2,990
AVERAGE / ANIMAL
956
Table 9.4.7.3: Observed intake amounts (AF and DM) for Concolor gibbons, and protein monitoring (see explanation chapter 10.3)
* for young coefficient see graph 6.2.3
241
study n°
date
Number
of Animals
*
pileatus (1)
july-02
3,775
pileatus (2)
feb-03
4,075
pileatus (3)
july-03
4,175
pileatus (4)
dec-03
4,34
pileatus (5)
mar-04
4,47
AVERAGE Hylobates pileatus
SIMIAL
TOTAL INTAKE
g AF
g DM
/ Al
g DM
2633
2921
2531
2627
3501
697
717
606
605
783
682
550
618
590
648
813
CROUSTI' CROC
CP
g DM % DM g AF g AF / Al % DM g AF g AF / % DM % DM
Al
/ Al
146
152
141
149
182
154
21
21
23
25
23
23
116
130
165
152
148
31
32
40
35
33
34
19
19
25
21
16
20
130
86
185
138
155
34
21
44
32
35
33
21
12
28
19
17
19
14,6
10,4
14,8
14,1
13,7
14
% CP from
SIMIAL
% CP
from
C. CROC
40,5
56,4
52,9
46,3
37,1
47
32,3
26,6
42,4
30,1
27,9
32
Table 9.4.7.4: Observed intake amounts (AF and DM) for Pileated gibbons, and protein monitoring (see explanation chapter 10.3)
* for young coefficient see graph 6.2.3
242
Graph 9.4.7.6
Nomascus gabriellae: intake composition (% AF)
ns=6, ng=1, ni=5, nd=42
SIMIAL 7001 3%
LETTUCE 3%
MILK-BREAD MIX 8%
SIMIAL 7001 PELLETS 2%
1%
CROUSTI' CROC 2%
5%
CARROTS 3%
1%
2%
2%
1%
2%
BANANAS 17%
2%
KIWI
2%
0%
20%
0%
1%
2%
1%
2%
0%
1%
0%
0%
APPLES 34%
1%
0%
CHICORY 5%
0%
0%
1%
0%
2%
APPLES, WITH SKIN
BANANAS
CARROTS
MILK-BREAD MIX
SIMIAL 7001
LETTUCE
SIMIAL 7001 PELLETS
CROUSTI' CROC
SUNFLOWER SEEDS
CHICORY
CUCUMBER
LEEKS
CAULIFLOWER
COURGETTE
CELERY
RADISHES
FENNEL, BULB
CABBAGE
TOMATOES, RED RIPE
PEPPERS
AUBERGINE
SULTANAS
KIWI
ORANGE
MELONS
MANGO
PEARS
STRAWBERRIES
PINEAPPLE
GRAPES
CHERRIES
LITCHIS
PLUMS
DATES
SHALLOTS
Graph 9.4.7.7
Nomascus leucogenys leucogenys: intake composition (% AF)
ns=6, ng=1, ni=4, nd=42
SIMIAL 7001 3%
MILK-BREAD MIX 8%
LETTUCE 4%
CARROTS 3%
1%
CROUSTI' CROC 2%
1%
1%
0%
CHICORY 2%
1%
2%
2%
BANANAS 18%
1%
REST
22%
2%
0%
0%
1%
0%
0%
2%
0%
APPLES 36%
1%
1%
2%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
1%
1%
0%
2%
APPLES, WITH SKIN
BANANAS
CARROTS
MILK-BREAD MIX
SIMIAL 7001
SIMIAL 7001 PELLETS
LETTUCE
CROUSTI' CROC
SUNFLOWER SEEDS
CHICORY
CUCUMBER
LEEKS
CAULIFLOWER
COURGETTE
CELERY
RADISHES
FENNEL, BULB
CABBAGE
TOMATOES, RED RIPE
TURNIPS
PEPPERS
AUBERGINE
SULTANAS
KIWI
ORANGE
GRAPEFRUIT
MELONS
MANGO
PEARS
STRAWBERRIES
PINEAPPLE
GRAPES
CHERRIES
PLUMS
TANGERINES
DATES
LITCHIS
243
Graph 9.4.7.8
Nomascus leucogenys siki: intake composition (% AF
ns=6, ng=1, ni=3, nd=42
LETTUCE 3%
MILK-BREAD MIX 9%
SIMIAL 7001 3%
CROUSTI' CROC 2%
2%
1%
2%
CARROTS 4%
1%
3%
2%
18%
KIWI
3%
0%
PEPPERS 2%
0%
1%
0%
0%
BANANAS 18%
APPLES 32%
0%
0%
1%
0%
0%
APPLES, WITH SKIN
BANANAS
CARROTS
MILK-BREAD MIX
SIMIAL 7001
LETTUCE
SIMIAL 7001 PELLETS
CROUSTI' CROC
SUNFLOWER SEEDS
ONIONS
CHICORY
CUCUMBER
1%
0%
LEEKS
CAULIFLOWER
COURGETTE
2%
CELERY
RADISHES
FENNEL, BULB
CABBAGE
2%
TOMATOES, RED RIPE
TURNIPS
PEPPERS
0%
AUBERGINE
LITCHISSULTANAS
2%
KIWI
0%
ORANGE
MELONS
1% 0%
MANGO
0%
PEARS
CHICORY 2%
STRAWBERRIES
PINEAPPLE
GRAPES
CHERRIES
LITCHIS
PLUMS
TANGERINES
DATES
Graph 9.4.7.9
Graph 9.4.7.10
Hylobates pileatus: intake composition (% AF)
sunflower seeds)
3%
Hylobates pileatus: intake composition ( % DM)
SIMIAL 7001
5% CROUSTI' CROC
5%
FRUIT + VEGETABLES
58%
sunflower seeds)
3%
SIMIAL 7001
20%
CROUSTI' CROC
19%
FRUIT + VEGETABLES
87%
244
Graph 9.4.7.11
Graph 9.4.7.12
Nomascus (gabriellae, leucogenys, siki):
intake composition (% AF, average all species)
sunflower seeds)
9%
SIMIAL 7001
5%
CROUSTI' CROC
2%
Nomascus (gabriellae, leucogenys, siki):
intake composition (% DM, average all species)
sunflower seeds)
17%
SIMIAL 7001
20%
CROUSTI'
CROC
8%
FRUIT + VEGETABLES
55%
FRUIT + VEGETABLES
84%
For Concolor gibbons approximate pellet intake (both “simial” -which is more or less
31% CP DM- and “crousti’croc” -which is near 22% CP DM-) represented 28% DM,
and fruit and vegetables basis 55% DM. Fruits and vegetables commonly used in Zoos
for gibbons only represent between 3,93% and 4,83% CP DM: so 5 % CP DM
maximum!
Graph 9.4.7.14
Graph 9.4.7.15
Nomascus spp.: % of protein
delivered by diet components
Hylobates pileatus: % of proteins
delivered by diet components
sunflower seeds)
22%
sunflower seeds)
2%
FRUIT + VEGETABLES
20%
SIMIAL
46%
SIMIAL
47%
FRUIT +
VEGETABLES
18%
CROUSTI' CROC
13%
CROUSTI' CROC
32%
245
Nutrient
Unit
Nutrient Category:
ME Primate
Nutrient Category:
Acid Lignin*
ADF*
Cellulose*
Crude Fiber*
Lignin*
NDF*
Total Dietary Fiber
Water Soluble
Carbohydrates*
Nutrient Category:
Crude Fat
Linoleic Acid
Linolenic Acid
PUFA
Saturated Fats
Nutrient Category:
Arginine
Crude Protein
Cystine
Histidine
Isoleucine
Leucine
Lysine
Methionine
Phenylalanine
Threonine
Tryptophan
Tyrosine
Energy
kcal/g
Nomascus
gabriellae
Nomascus
leucogenys
leucogenys
Hylobates
pileatus
Nomascus
leucogenys
siki
3,42
3,40
3,12
3,44
Carbohydrates
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
0,06
3,53
1,39
2,76
0,46
5,45
12,38
6,86
0,08
3,70
1,52
2,90
0,51
5,63
12,37
6,75
0,07
3,90
1,54
3,06
0,59
5,79
12,21
6,46
0,05
3,73
1,37
2,82
0,50
5,76
12,25
7,19
Fat
%
%
%
%
%
%
6,70
2,91
0,11
0,98
3,32
1,06
5,97
2,43
0,10
0,83
2,84
0,99
6,06
2,45
0,11
0,68
2,85
0,83
6,71
2,90
0,10
0,99
3,33
1,08
Protein
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
0,63
13,17
0,19
0,22
0,48
0,96
0,50
0,23
0,53
0,40
0,12
0,37
0,60
12,96
0,19
0,21
0,47
0,96
0,50
0,23
0,52
0,39
0,12
0,37
0,58
13,56
0,17
0,20
0,44
0,89
0,47
0,21
0,47
0,37
0,11
0,33
0,64
13,56
0,20
0,23
0,50
1,01
0,53
0,24
0,55
0,41
0,13
0,39
Min./max.
recommendations
Zoo Mulhouse
10,00/15,00
20,00/30,00
3,00/6,00
15,00/16,70
246
Valine
%
0,54
0,53
0,48
0,56
Nutrient Category:
Biotin*
Choline
Folacin
Pantothenic Acid*
Vit A
Vit B1 (Thiamin)
Vit B12 *
Vit B2 (Riboflavin)
Vit B3 (Niacin)
Vit B6 (Pyridoxine)
Vit C Ascorbic Acid
Vit D3
Vit E
Vit K
Vitamins
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
IU A/g
mg/kg
mcg/g
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
IU Vit D3/g
mg/kg
mg/kg
448,91
0,89
9,31
40,39
4,33
0,00
2,48
20,71
6,75
476,38
1,49
49,44
0,43
462,68
0,87
8,43
42,87
4,03
0,00
2,46
20,28
6,68
489,59
1,53
44,61
0,44
431,60
0,90
8,60
74,88
3,54
0,00
2,23
18,56
7,35
558,41
1,31
50,54
0,43
479,02
0,87
9,12
48,19
4,39
0,00
2,52
21,64
6,67
503,74
1,60
49,32
0,46
Nutrient Category:
Ash
Calcium
Chloride
Cobalt*
Copper
Iodine*
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Phosphorus
Potassium
Selenium
Sodium
Sulfur
Zinc
Ash/Minerals
%
%
%
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
%
mg/kg
%
%
mg/kg
%
%
mg/kg
5,52
0,73
0,15
0,07
13,14
0,03
75,59
0,11
18,11
0,54
1,01
0,18
0,22
0,09
16,11
5,54
0,74
0,15
0,07
13,11
0,03
76,33
0,10
17,87
0,54
1,01
0,17
0,23
0,10
15,60
6,06
0,78
0,14
0,05
13,10
0,03
74,61
0,11
14,63
0,58
1,09
0,14
0,17
0,09
15,42
5,65
0,76
0,15
0,08
13,72
0,03
79,35
0,11
19,07
0,56
1,01
0,19
0,24
0,10
16,72
0,00/0,20
/750,00
0,00/4,00
12,00/
8,00/14,00
1,00/3,00
0,01/0,03
1,00/4,00
16,00/56,00
2,00/4,40
55,00/110,00
1,00/3,00
56,00/100,00
0,00/12,00
0,55/0,80
0,20/0,55
12,00/20,00
/0,35
100,00/200,00
0,04/0,17
20,00/100,00
0,33/0,60
0,40/0,89
0,20/0,65
11,00/100,00
Table 9.4.7.13
247
Energy: Values cannot be easily compared to the requirement target because the
problem of a universal unit and the lack of precision in the food data remains, as for
Simial pellets and powder. For some of the food compositions, the energy value has
been calculated with Atwater’s coefficients, which are 4 kcal per gram of CHO and per
gram of crude protein, and 9 kcal per gram of crude fat. Even if energy could be the
most interesting way to calculate diets, energy requirements remain very difficult to
evaluate under zoo conditions. Thus, energy and carbohydrates are merely restricted in
zoo diets, where we often encounter overweight problems with already well-balanced
diets (CP, vit & min).
Eg.: see chapter 10.2: example of a couple of of Northern white-cheeked gibbon
in the wild, gibbons ate about 50-60 % of carbohydrates on DM basis. But many
fluctuations occur (season, ripeness...). In Mulhouse, the diet for Concolor and Pileated
gibbons comprises an average of 62,23 %, 63,16 %, 61,83 % and 62,11 % CHO for
respectively the N. gabriellae, N. l. leucogenys, N. l. siki and H. pileatus. All these
carbohydrate values are approximative: the crude fiber value is possibly too low (datas
missing for some feeds in ZOOTRITION ® database) and TDF has been used instead of
crude fiber. Thus, carbohydrates calculation has been carried out using “CHO= 100(CP+CFat+TDF+Ash)”. These values are certainly majorated but seem reasonable.
composed of 10-15 % ADF and 20-30 % NDF (source, NRC 2003). Values of ADF,
NDF and Crude Fiber in ZOOTRITION® software are not realiable because of missing
data in the database. If NDF value was reliable, we could have approximated TDF with
the proposed formula from E. Dierenfeld et al. (for gorillas’ species, source.,
unpublished: TDF = 0,73(NDF) + 15,5). However, the value given by ZOOTRITION®
software has been used to estimate carbohydrate level.
Fatty acids and crude fat : Few data exists on the fat requirement for gibbons. The
only recommendations we found are a maximum of 10 % DM of fat in the diet. In fact,
it is mostly the level of essential fatty acids, as linoleic acid and linolenic are important.
Fat is an important factor of palatability (Murray and Fowler, 1986), but too much fat
can induce diarrhea and may, in long term issues, lead to antagonisms with calcium,
selenium, iron, and vitamin E metabolism. In Mulhouse diets contain between 5,97 %
and 6,71% DM of fat, and this seems adequate.
essential amino acids. Animal sources of proteins have a high-digestibility and contain
generally contain low levels of one or more ot the essential amino acids. Therefore a
dietary amino acids balance should be maximised by a mixed diet. The diet distributed
in Mulhouse has been determined in function of the protein concentration (target 15 %
248
CP DM): observed range of 12,96-13,56 % CP DMI seems to be an adequate level to
support the gibbons needs, at least in Mulhouse Zoo.
Proteins deliver 16-17,5 % of the metabolized energy of the diet, a proportion very close
to the human recommendations. Nevertheless, an uncertainty on the protein content of
some feeds and the industrial supplements is still remaining.
It is interesting to note the percentage of proteins delivered by diet items (see graphs
9.4.7.9 to 9.4.7.12, 9.4.7.14 and 9.4.7.15): for Pileated and Concolor gibbons
respectively, “Simial” pellets and powder deliver 46-47 % of the total dietary protein,
“Crousti’ Croc” pellets 32-13 %, Fruits + vegetables 20-18 % and others 2-22 %. This
means that nearly 2/3 of the proteins are delivered by 10-7 % AF and 39-28 % DM
(Simial and Crousti’ croc) of the diet. 30 % DM seems to us to be the maximum pellets’
incorporation we can obtain in this kind of diet, therefore the protein content in pellets
has to be determined according to this incorporation percentage.
Vitamins:
vitaminA concentration in the diet. Published Studies consider diets containing from 8
to 14 IU vitA per gram diet on a dry matter basis as adequate. In Zoos it is frequent to
have a diet with about 100 IU vitA/g DM. With the supplement “Simial” - a major
source of vitamineA, which delivers 76% of the total dietary vitaminA - Mulhouse’s
Concolor diet contains an average of 43.8 IU vitA/g DMI and Pileated one 74,88 IU
vitA/g DMI. This difference can easily explained by pellet intake gap (28% DMI verus
39%DMI). Gibbons fed with this diet don’t show signs of toxicity.
vitamin D3 per gram of diet on dry matter basis. In Mulhouse Zoo the minimal
recommendation published - of 1 IU vit D3 per gram DM- is reached with the
supplement “Simial”, that contributes more than 90% of the Vit D3 level in the diet
(observed range 1,31-1,60 IU vitD3/g DMI).
on α-tocopherol and w6 fatty acids proportions. VitE Deficiency is common in zoos.
The adequate values were estimated at 56 to 100 mg/KG DM. In Mulhouse Zoo, the
gibbon diets contain between 44,61 and 50,54 mg/ Kg DMI, which is still sufficient for
primates (E. Dierenfeld, personal communication).
249
(Nb: Uncertainty remains on vitamin E composition of the given diet, because values of
food composition data vary extremely from one source to another. We could observe
this in the case of sunflower seeds for instance, very rich in vitamin E).
endogen source : synthesized by bacteria in the intestinal tract (except newborn animals
diets for Gibbons contain between 0,43 and 0,46 mg vit K/ Kg DMI, which is on the
low side but seem sufficient for primates.
DM are sufficient. Principal natural sources are yeasts, cereals and leguminous plants.
Recommended maximal values published can be easily reached, notably when using
supplements. Mulhouse diets contain between 3,54 and 4,39 mg vit B1/Kg DMI. These
values seem high but being a water-soluble vitamin, this is not at all a reason for
concern.
The diet distributed in Mulhouse to Gibbons contains between 2,23 and 2,52 mg/kg
DMI, which corresponds to the target interval of 1,7-4,0 mg/kg DM.
Vitamin B3 (PP, Niacin) : With a level of about 18-21 mg/Kg DMI of Niacin in the
diet, Mulhouse diet is adequate for Niacin (target range 16-56 mg/Kg DM).
(Nb: Nicotinamid -secondary form of niacin with equivalent biological activity- is
linked with a protein deficiency. Toxicity limit of Niacin for Humans is 33mg per day at
top of the nutrient need (>15mg/day)).
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine): The concentration of Vitamin B6 in Mulhouse diet seems
adequate even if it exceeds the maximal target (between 6,67 and 7,35 mg/Kg DMI
versus a target range of 2,5-4,4 mg/Kg DM). For Humans, toxicity signs have been
noticed with a diet containing more than a hundred times the daily need.
elimination. Moreover, oestrogens increase the Pyridoxine needs).
quite frequent. It concerns mostly pregnant or lactating females and newborn animals.
Observed values in Mulhouse diet, comprised between 0,87 and 0,90 mg/Kg DMI, seem
adequate (4 times the minimal recommendation of 0,20 mg/Kg DM found in NRC 1978
but lower than the maximal recommendation of 4,00 mg/Kg DM found in NRC 2003).
vegetarian diet (no meat, no fish, no egg). The analysis of Mulhouse diet is incorrect
because of a lack of data of vitamin B12 concentration in the supplements.
citrus fruits, and the gibbons’ needs are consequently easily reached. Unfortunately, the
250
toxicity value isn’t known. Long term excess may create oxalate calculi in the urinary
tract. In Mulhouse, Vit C is 4 to 5 times the requirement but, being a water-soluble
vitamin, this is not a risk for toxicity. High Vit C levels could also contribute to the
development of haemosiderosis due to enhanced iron-absorption (see reference 72), but
the iron content in this diet is on the low side and Hylobatidae are not particularly prone
to haemosiderosis.
Biotin and Choline: There is not much data available about these nutrients; food
composition datas give only 50% of the choline analysis and nothing about biotin. So
we cannot make conclusions about these nutrient requirements and the diets analysis.
Minerals:
1,37 (calcium 0,73-0,78 and phosphorus 0,54-0,58).
Sodium: The minimal recommended value published is just covered by the diet
provided in Mulhouse Zoo but it seems adequate.
Copper: Its deficiency can lead to Iron accumulation in the liver but with 13 mg/kg diet
DM basis, Mulhouse diets seem adequate.
(Nb: Copper absorption is reduced with high vitamin C, zinc and iron).
Plants
See appendix 3
Foliage
Hazel Corylus avellana, Bamboo Bambusa, Arundinaria, Phyllostachys, Sasa,
Dendrocalamus
251
9.5 RODENTIA
Castoridae
Castor canadensis....................................................................................American beaver
Feeding program
14.00hr
500 g Apple
350 g Diverse fruits
340 g Carrots
100 g Diverse vegetables
250 g Lettuce
125 g Bread
Cricetidae
Cricetus cricetus.....................................................................................European hamster
Adult weight is 220-460 g.
Feeding program
14.00hr
Ad lib apple, carrots, diverse vegetables, lettuce, alfalfa, diverse
greens, bread, corn, wheat.
252
9.6 CARNIVORA
NOTE FOR ALL CARNIVORE SPECIES:
Carnivore powder is sprinkled on meat (about 20-25 g powder per kg of meat).
9.6.1 CANIDAE
Canis lupus occidentalis..................................................................................Timber wolf
Adult males weigh 45-55 kg, females weigh 35 kg.
Feeding program
Summer:
11.00hr
2,3 kg Whole chicken
0,8 kg Beef meat with bone
0,3 kg Fish (Herring, mackerel, sprat) / chicks / chicken legs
Occasionally
0,2 kg Fruits (apples, pears, plums, grapes, bananas, cherries)
Winter:
11.00hr
4,6 kg Whole chicken
1,6 kg Beef meat with bone
0,3 kg Fish (Herring, mackerel, sprat) / chicks / chicken legs
Supplements:
Carnivore powder
Various meat
9
14.872
254.2
17
1 (=11%)
Number of measures
Average meat weight (Kg)
Average supplement quantity (g)
Supplement/food ratio (g/Kg)
n[20-25g/Kg] +/- 2,5 g
Table 9.6.1.1: Carnivore powder supplementation on meat for the group of wolves
400
300
Suplement (g)
Various meat
20 g/Kg - 2,5g
200
25 g/Kg + 2,5g
100
0
0
4
8
12
16
20
Food (Kg)
Figure 9.6.1.2: Supplemented carnivore powder / meat – ratio for the group of wolves
253
Chrysocyon brachyurus...................................................................................Maned wolf
Feeding program
17.00hr
0,2 kg Fruits (apples, bananas, grapes)
either 0,8 kg Whole chicken
or 2 Rats (370 g, once a week)
or 1 Rabbit/Guinea pig (function of availablility)
Supplements:
Carnivore powder 10-15 g/kg
Speothos venaticus...............................................................................................Bush dog
Feeding program
17.00hr
300 g Chicken
or 1 Rat (185 g, once a week)
or 1 Guinea pig (in function of availability)
Supplements:
Carnivore powder 5 g per animal/day
Note: When the female is pregnant, she forces the young of the previous years to
regurgitate their food for her. However, she is separated from them if the young get too
thin.
254
9.6.2 URSIDAE
Ursus arctos......................................................................................................Brown bear
Feeding program
Quantities are extremely variable in function of availability of food.
Summer:
07.30hr
125 g Dog pellets
500 g Fruits (grapes, melon)
15.00hr
125 g Dog pellets
500 g Fruits (grapes, melon)
Occasionally
500 g Fish (Herring, mackerel)
18.30hr
2 kg Meat (whole chicken or beef meat)
6 kg Fruits and vegetables (apples, oranges, melon, grapes, carrots,
lettuce)
220 g Bread
Winter:
17.00hr
1 kg Chicken meat, cooked
1-2 kg Fruits and vegetables (apples, carrots)
Supplements:
Carnivore powder
Half chicken
Beef
Chicken pieces
Total
Number of measures
24
10
4
38
Average weight (Kg)
0,889
0,498
0,346
Supplement quantity (g)
18,5
16,5
9
21
34,1
27,3
25,1
n[20-25g/Kg] +/- 2,5 g
16 (67%)
3 (30%)
4 (100%)
23 (=61%)
Table 9.6.2.1: Carnivore powder supplementation on meat for the two brown bears
30
Suplement (g)
Half chicken
Chicken pcs
20
Beef meat
20 g/Kg - 2,5g
10
25 g/Kg + 2,5g
0
0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1
1,2
Food (Kg)
Figure 9.6.2.2: Supplemented carnivore powder / meat – ratio for the two brown bears
255
Ursus maritimus..................................................................................................Polar bear
Adult male weight is 750 kg, adult female weight is 450 kg.
Feeding program
There is too much variation for an average diet to be determined.
15.00hr
18.00hr
4 kg Fish (herring, mackerel) + fruit
10 kg Whole chicken (Male)
6 kg Whole chicken (Female)
2 kg Beef meat (Female)
Supplements:
1 g Vitamin A for the female
2 g Vitamin A for the male
Carnivore powder
Various meat
Number of measures
13
Average weight (Kg)
7,101
145,5
20
n[20-25g/Kg] +/- 2,5 g
10 (=77%)
Table 9.6.2.3: Carnivore powder supplementation on meat for the pair of polar bears
300
Suplement (g)
250
Various meat
200
20 g/Kg - 2,5g
150
25 g/Kg + 2,5g
100
50
0
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Food (Kg)
Figure 9.6.2.4: Supplemented carnivore powder / meat – ratio for the pair of polar bears
256
9.6.3 MUSTELIDAE
Amblonyx cinerea..................................................................................Small-clawed otter
Adult weight is 1,7 kg. The Small-clawed otters are fed 4 to 5 times a day.
Feeding program
08.00hr
32 g Fish (Tench)
27 g Chicken meat
22 g Chicks
8 g Carrots
12.00hr
32 g Fish (Tench)
28 g Beef meat
27 g Chicken meat
8 g Carrots
15.00hr
32 g Fish (Tench)
28 g Beef meat
22 g Chicks
8 g Carrots
17.00hr
32 g Fish (Tench)
21 g Beef meat
8 g Carrots
Supplements:
¼ Bévitine 250 mg tablet per animal per day
Carnivore powder
Note: The otters tend to wash their food in the water. Result: intake of only a very small
amount of the carnivore powder.
257
9.6.4 FELIDAE
For all the Felidae species, except the cheetah and lynx, some bran (1 volume) is added
to the “carnivorous supplement” (2 volumes). This mixture contains on average 91%
“carnivorous supplement” on weight basis, so Supplement weight / (bran + supplement)
weight = 0,91. This value is used to determine the supplement quantity on meat.
Acinonyx jubatus....................................................................................................Cheetah
Adult female weight is 36-48 kg.
Feeding program
18.00hr
1 Chicken without fat, sometimes without skin and intestines ~1,5 kg
or 1 fresh rabbit
(appr. once per week, 2-3 kg)
Supplements:
Carnivore powder 20-25 g/kg
Felis margarita......................................................................................................Sand cat
Felis tigrina..............................................................................................Little spotted cat
Sand cats: adult weight is 2,5 kg.
Little spotted cats: adult weight is 1,5 kg.
The animals are fed once a day, six times a week.
Feeding program
17.30hr
1 Rat (220 g)
or 220 g Beef meat
or 220 g Chicken meat
or 220 g Chicks
or 220 g Fish
Supplements:
Carnivore powder with bran
Note: Suckling females are fed every day and ad lib till the young are weaned.
Number of measures
Average weight (Kg)
Average supplement + bran(g)
n[20-25g/Kg] +/- 2,5 g
1 Rat
67
0,270
7,3
6,6
25,3
52 (78%)
Beef
4
0,169
7,5
6,8
39,3
2 (50%)
Chicken breast
27
0,130
4,3
3,9
31,5
24 (89%)
Total
98
27,6
78 (=80%)
Table 9.6.4.1: Carnivore powder supplementation on meat for the sand cats or little spottled cats
258
12,5
Chicken breast
Suplement (g)
10
1 Rat
7,5
Beef meat
20 g/Kg - 2,5g
5
25 g/Kg + 2,5g
2,5
0
0
0,1
0,2
0,3
Food (Kg)
0,4
0,5
Figure 9.6.4.2:: Supplemented carnivore powder / meat – ratio for the sand and little spottled cats
Otocolobus manul..............................................................................................Pallas’s cat
Adult male weight is 6-7 kg, adult female weight is 4 kg. The animals are fed once a
day, six times a week.
Feeding program
17.30hr
360 g Meat (rats, chicks, chicken meat, beef meat or fish)
Supplements:
Carnivore powder
Rat
34
0,346
8,4
24,8
29 (=85%)
Number of measures
Average weight (Kg)
n[20-25g/Kg] +/- 2,5 g
Table 9.6.4.3: Carnivore powder supplementation on meat for the Pallas’s cats
Suplement (g)
15
10
1 Rat
20 g/Kg - 2,5g
25 g/Kg + 2,5g
5
0
0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
Food (Kg)
Figure 9.6.4.4: Supplemented carnivore powder / meat – ratio for the Pallas’s cats
259
Lynx lynx.....................................................................................................................Lynx
Feeding program
18.00hr
½ Chicken
Or 900 g Chicken meat
Occasionally substituted by beef meat
Supplements:
Carnivore powder
Half chicken
23
1
20,6
20,8
13 (57%)
Number of measures
Average weight (Kg)
n[20-25g/Kg] +/- 2,5 g
Beef
2
0,768
20
25,8
1 (50%)
Total
25
21,2
14 (=56%)
Table 9.6.4.5: Carnivore powder supplementation on meat for the lynx
40
Suplement (g)
30
Half chicken
Beef meat
20
20 g/Kg - 2,5g
25 g/Kg + 2,5g
10
0
0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1
1,2
1,4
Food (Kg)
Figure 9.6.4.6: Supplemented carnivore powder / meat – ratio for the lynx
Panthera pardus orientalis............................................................................Amur leopard
Panthera pardus saxicolor..........................................................................Persian leopard
Panthera uncia..............................................................................................Snow leopard
The leopards are fed separately in the evening, four times a week. Adult animal weight
is 35-60 kg.
Feeding program
260
Summer:
18.00hr
2 times a week 1 kg Chicken
Occasionally ice blocs with meat in it
Winter:
16.30hr
Supplements:
1 g Vitamin A per animal per week
Diet per animal/day:
Female: 1 half chicken when fed (1,230 Kg on average), nothing on fast days, beef meat
on Friday (1,308 Kg on average)
Male: Generally 1 chicken (2,184 Kg on average) or something equivalent (1 half
chicken and beef meat), 1 half chicken (1,021 Kg) on fast days, beef meat on Friday
(0,950 Kg)
Half chicken
33
1,007
22,8
20,7
20,8
18 (55%)
Number of measures
Average weight (Kg)
Supplement + bran(g)
n[20-25g/Kg] +/- 2,5 g
Chicken
25
2,010
28,1
25,5
12,6
3 (12%)
Beef meat
26
1,235
34,2
31
25,8
17 (65%)
Total
84
19,9
38 (=45%)
Table 9.6.4.7: Carnivore powder supplementation on meat for the leopards
50
Suplement (g)
40
Half chicken
Chicken
30
Beef meat
20 g/Kg - 2,5g
20
25 g/Kg + 2,5g
10
0
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
Food (Kg)
Figure 9.6.4.8: Supplemented carnivore powder / meat – ratio for the leopards
261
Panthera tigris altaica...................................................................................Siberian tiger
The tigers are fed separately in the evening four times a week. Adult male weight is
250-300 kg, adult female weight is 150-220 kg.
Feeding program
Summer:
18.00hr
male: 6 kg Chicken and beef meat with bone
female: 5 kg Chicken and beef meat with bone
Winter:
16.30hr
male: 8 kg Chicken and beef meat with bone
female: 6 kg Chicken and beef meat with bone
Note: Suckling female is given with food every day.
Supplements:
Diet per animal/day: 2 chickens or half chicken (3,273 Kg on average per day) or beef
meat (1.34 Kg) with beef meat on bone (7.665 Kg) per animal during suckling. Some
bran (1 volume) is added to the “carnivorous supplement” (2 volume), but in this mix,
the “carnivorous supplement” represents 91% on average on weight basis, value which
is used to determine the supplement quantity on meat knowing the quantity of bran
+”carnivorous supplement”: Supplement weight / (bran + supplement) weight=0,91
Number of measures
Average weight (Kg)
Supplement + bran (g)
n[20-25g/Kg] +/- 2,5 g
Half chicken
8
0,953
25
22,6
23,8
7 (88%)
Chicken
30
1,850
30
26,9
15,1
10 (33%)
Beef meat
5
1,340
34
30,8
25,9
4 (80%)
Beef meat with bone
12
7,665
131,2
118,8
15
2 (17%)
Total
55
17,3
23 (=42%)
Table 9.6.4.9: Carnivore powder supplementation on meat for the Siberian tigers
160
Half chicken
Suplement (g)
Chicken
120
Beef meat
20 g/Kg - 2,5g
80
25 g/Kg + 2,5g
"Beef+bone"
40
0
0
2
4
6
Food (Kg)
8
10
12
Figure 9.6.4.10: Supplemented carnivore powder / meat – ratio for the Siberian tigers
262
Panthera leo persica..........................................................................................Asian Lion
They are fed four times a week. Adult male weight is 160 kg, adult female weight is 120
kg.
Feeding program
Summer:
18.00hr
male: 3-6 kg Chicken and beef meat with bone
female: 2-4 kg Chicken
Winter:
16.30hr
Supplements:
male: 3 - 6 kg Chicken and beef meat with bone
female: 3 - 5 kg Chicken and beef meat with bone
9.7 PINNIPEDIA
Otariidae
Otaria byronia…..........................................................................South American sea lion
Male and females are fed separately three times a day. Adult male weight is 450 kg,
adult female weight is 150-180 kg.
Feeding program
Summer:
11.00hr
~1,3 kg Fish per female; 1,7 - 2 kg fish for male
15.30hr
as above
18.30hr
as above
Winter:
11.00hr
15.30hr
16.30hr
2,3-3,3 kg fish per female; 6-6,6 kg fish for male
as above
as above
Fish fed are Mackerel (7 kg), Herring (25 kg), Capelin (7 kg)
Supplements:
Male: 2 tablets of Bévitine (D.B.PHARMA®, 250mg vit. B1) + 2
tablets of Ephynal (ROCHE ®, 100mg vit.E) per day, hidden in
fish.
Females: 1 tablet of Bévitine (D.B.PHARMA®, 250mg vit. B1) +1
tablet of Ephynal (ROCHE ®, 100mg vit.E) per day, hidden in
fish.
263
10.
PRACTICAL DIET FORMULATION
10.1 USING OBSERVED INTAKE AVERAGES IN ZOOS
We can take, for example, the case of an adult couple of Northern white-cheeked
gibbons. According to Mulhouse observed intake amounts (see table 10.1, part from
table 9.4.7.3) this couple should eat more or less:
-
(1050 x 2) = 2100 g AF (BW difference between males and females is not considered)
(250 x 2) = 500 g DM and 500/2100 = 23.80% DM (or using observed % DM of
24.30% (table 10..3): 510 g DM)
we can expect 4.5 % CP DM from fruits and vegetables (see table 9.4.0.10)
pellets have only to deliver (15.0 – 4.5) = 10.5% CP DM, so (0.105 x 500) = 52.5 g CP
DM
if we use a pellet containing 20% CP DM (basic OWM), they should eat (52.5 x
100)/20 = 262.5 g DM of pellets
if pellets contain 90% DM, they should eat (262.5 x 100)/90 = 291.6 g AF of pellets
resulting diet (15 % CP DM) is: 291.6 g of pellets and (2100 – 291.6) = 1808.4 g of
fruits and vegetables
pellets will be incorporated (262.5 / 500) = 52.5 % DM and (291.6 / 2100) = 13.9 % AF
, which is too high
Generally, pellet producers estimate the intake percentage of a pellet in a diet at 30%
AF and 60% DM (eg. Mazuri® Primate basix). In this case, our calculated diet would
be right. However, as written previously (chapter 9.4.7, graph 9.4.7.12), 30% DM seems
to be the maximum pellets’ incorporation we can obtain, in this kind of zoo diet. Thus,
such pellets are not rich enough in proteins: we need pellets with at least 25 to 30% CP
DM:
-
if we use a pellet containing 25% CP DM, they should eat (52.5 x 100)/25 = 210 g
DM of pellets
if pellets contain 90% DM, they should eat (210 x 100)/90 = 233.3 g AF of pellets
resulting diet (15% CP DM) is: 233.3 g of pellets and (2100 – 233.3) = 1866.7 g of
pellets will be incorporated (210 / 500) = 42 % DM and (233.3 / 2100) = 11.1 % AF ,
which is still high
In this case we cannot expect more than 13.5% CP DM in the intake diet. Even 13% CP
DM in the diet seems to be an adequate level to support gibbons needs, at least in
Mulhouse Zoo
-
pellets have then only to give (13.5 – 4.5) = 9% CP DM, so (0.09 x 500) = 45 g CP
DM
if we use a pellet 25% CP DM, they should eat (45 x 100)/25 = 180 g DM of pellets
if pellets contain 90% DM, they should eat (180 x 100)/90 = 200 g AF of pellets
resulting diet (13.5 % CP DM) is: 200 g of pellets and (2100 – 200) = 1900 g of
pellets will be incorporated (180 / 500) = 36 % DM and (200 / 2100) = 9.5 % AF ,
which is still a little bit high but possible with a high palatability pellet
264
In fact working with two different kinds of pellets makes the diet possible:
-
-
pellets’ incorporation target is now 30% DM, so (500 x 0.3) = 150 g DM
if we use a 1st pellet 22% CP DM and a 2d one 31 % CP DM like in Mulhouse, they
should eat X g DM of 1st pellet and Y g DM of 2d one, with 150 = X + Y and (9/13.5) x
(0.135 x 500) = 45 = 0.22X + 0.31Y ; so X = 16.6 g and Y = 133.4 g
if both pellets contain 90% DM, they should eat (16.6 x 100)/90 = 18.4 g AF of 1st
pellet and (133.4 x 100)/90 = 148.2 g AF of 2d pellet
resulting diet (13.5 % CP DM) is: 18.4 g of pellets 22%, 148.2 g of pellets 31% and
(2100 – 166.6) = 1933.4 g of fruits and vegetables
pellets will be incorporated (166.6 / 2100) = 8 % AF , which is easy to reach
This final diet contains 30% DM (only 8% AF) of pellets. If a problem of weight gain is
encountered, the amount of vegetables could be easily reduced for BW control. The
protein loss as a result of this would be minimal, because of the low protein content of
fruits.
Nomascus gabriellae
Nomascus leucogenys leucogenys
Nomascus leucogenys siki
all sp.
Nomascus gabriellae
all sp.
jul.
feb.
jul.
dec.
2002
2003
2003
2003
g AF intake / adult animal
666,0
1062,0
855,0
913,0
798,0
1314,0
995,0
1017,0
713,0
1161,0
927,0
877,0
161,0
195,0
153,0
g DMI / adult animal
234,0
218,0
292,0
251,0
290,0
241,0
238,0
252,0
227,0
mar.
2004
feb.
2005
AVERAGE
924,0
1022,0
907,0
949,0
1106,0
1002,0
894,9
1042,1
931,1
956,0
229,0
258,0
238,0
228,0
263,0
248,0
218,0
251,9
232,7
234,2
Table 10.1: Observed intake amounts in Mulhouse Zoo (AF and DM basis) for an adult gibbon
In conlusion, when we use pellets containing 25% CP DM, or even better, two kinds of
pellets (around 20% and 30%), are needed. It seems that a sufficient intake of basic
OWP pellets with only 20% CP DM is difficult to reach, if the produce is not restricted.
Using two kind of pellets allows us to give two different kinds of proteins (eg.. one
from animal origin and the other one from plant origin). This could help to bring the
amino acids levels in balance (see diet composition, chapter 9.4.7).
Another way is of course to replace a part of the pellets by meat, cheese, eggs, etc, but
the calculation of proportions is more difficult and should be closely monitored
concerning intake. Using software like ZOOTRITION® could help.
10.2 USING ENERGY REQUIREMENT
Using energy requirement is not so easy, moreover few datas are available for gibbons.
Basal Metabolic Rate formula BMR= 0.31W0.755 (where W is the BW in g., source
reference 103) can also be used to estimate energy requirement.
For the same couple of Northern white-cheeked gibbon:
-
estimated BW = 8.0+10.0 = 18.0Kg
estimated Maintenance Energy requirement is between 34 and 100 Kcal/KgBW/day
(see table 9.4.7.2), in this case:
265
-
-
-
ME min = 34 x 18 = 612 Kcal / day and ME min = 100 x 18 = 1800 Kcal / day
estimated BMR = 0.31 x 10000 0.755 + 0.31 x 8000 0.755 = 324.6 + 274.3 = 598.9 Kcal /
day
600 Kcal / day is a minimum and 1800 Kcal / day the maximum energy requirement for
this pair of gibbons
according to NRC 2003, protein requirement is 6 % ME for maintenance
0.06 x 600 = 36 g CP is a minimum protein requirement, 0.06 x 1800 = 108 g CP a
maximum
if we use a pellet 25% CP DM, they should eat between (36 x 100)/25 = 144g DM and
(108 x 100)/25 = 432g DM of pellets
if pellets contain 90% DM, they should eat between (144 x 100)/90 = 160 g AF and
(432 x 100)/90 = 480 g AF of pellets (this maximum calculated amount of pellets is
extremely high and will never be eaten!)
once we choose an amount, eg. 200 g AF of pellets (180 g DM), and an expected
incorporation limit, eg. 30% DM, we calculate the rest of the diet: (180 x 70) / 30 =
466.6 g DM of fruits and vegetables
fruits and vegetables commonly used for gibbons contain 84% of moisture, then (466.6
x 100) / 16 = 2916.2 g AF
resulting diet is: 200 g of pellets and 2916.2 g of fruits and vegetables…!
ME Primate in fruits and vegetables commonly used for gibbons could be around 3.56
Kcal / g DM
this big amount of fruits and vegetables calculated contains at least 3.56 x (0.16 x
466.6) = 265.8 Kcal
We conclude that energy requirement is difficult to evaluate and interpret, but it remains
helpful to zoo nutritionists for calculationg the amount of a pellet. We have experienced
a lack of precision in the food data. Observed intake averages in zoos are easier to work
with, and energy content seems adequate: in our previous example choosing 250 g DM /
animal seem to work:
-
ME Primate calculated with Zootrition in Mulhouse diets is 3.40 Kcal / g DM
we estimated DMI to 500 g
ME reached with Mulhouse diet is around 500 x 3.40 = 1700 Kcal / day / this pair
10.3 USING “PROTEIN MONITORING”
Protein dietary level (in % DM) of the total diet is easy to use as a first “monitoring”
nutrient. The following two reasons make it difficult to work with the unit ‘g of
proteins/BW/day’:
- observed intake averages in zoos are scarce for the moment, so the intake
quantity in grams/BW/day is not well known
- BW is often difficult to estimate accurately, unless the animals are being
captured or medically trained
Also, nutrient quantities expressed in % DM basis gives a better idea on the nutrient
density and consequently the quality of the diet.
Mineral and vitamin supplementation can be undertaken following a pellet intake
assessment
In Mulhouse Zoo, the gibbons diets have been established from the total protein level to
approximate the requirement, which is known to be less than 15% DM for OWP (see
also new NRC requirements 2003, table 9.4.0.2):. Of course “protein monitoring”
supposes at least some intake weight studies. We first have to evaluate real proportions
266
of pellets or feeds ingested! Table 7 shows how we have increased the weight of given
and eaten pellets because the calculated dietary protein levels were rather low: eg.. N.
leucogenys leucogenys study n°2 and N. gabriellae study n° 2. From the ongoing study
3, we’ve increased the quantity of pellets offered. This obviously results in an increase
of dietary protein.
-
as fruits and vegetables basis always change, we couldn’t base the diet with a constant
mineral and vitamin source coming from fruits and vegetables, so the Simial pellet was
calculated with doubled content (if dietary CP target is 15% DM and “Simial” is
produced with 30% CP DM content, 50% DM dietary intake should lead to 30/2 = 15%
CP DM !; for vit&min it was calculated in the same way). However, observed intake
was only 20% DM for Simial, and Crousti’ croc dog pellets were added to diet.
-
a special milk bread was made with Vitapaulia M® (INTERVET®) containing vit. A,
D3, E, B1, B3, B5, Cu, Co, Mn, Mg and Zn.
10.4 NOTE FOR HIGH FAT CONTENT DIETS
Fat is an important factor of palatability (Murray and Fowler, 1986) and satisfactory.
For this reason, species fed with high fat content diets may eat less amounts of food
than expected. Thus, protein content in the diet cannot be monitored in DM as explained
in the previous chapter 10.3. The best way in this case is to calculate CP level per
energy content:
Eg.
-
For large carnivores, a beef carcass contains ≈ 40,5 % CP DM and ≈ 56,3 %
CFat DM (USDA & Spitze et, al., 2003).
According to Atwater’s coefficients, proteins and carbohydrates provide 4 Kcal
/g and crude fats 9 Kcal /g.
In high fat content diets like fat meats or meat mixes, carbohydrate content is
less and energy is mainly sustained by proteins and fats.
Thus, we can simplify and consider this easy approximative way to calculate
CP per energy content: CP / [CP + (2 x CFat)].
In this case: 40,5 / [40,5 + 2x56,3] = 40,5 / 153,1 ≈ 26,5% of CP/energy
CP/Kcal is indeed a better way to monitor this kind of diet!
267
study n°
date
Number
TOTAL INTAKE
SIMIAL
CROUSTI' CROC
% CP from % CP from
CP
of Animals g AF g DM / Al g DM g DM / Al % DM g AF g AF / Al % DM g AF g AF / Al % DM % DM SIMIAL
C. CROC
leucogenys (1) july-02
leucogenys (2) feb-03
leucogenys (3) july-03
leucogenys (4) dec-03
leucogenys (5) mar-04
leucogenys (6) feb-05
AVERAGE LEUCOGENYS
3,000
3,125
3,260
3,400
3,590
4,000
2394
4107
3244
3458
3668
4425
798
1314
995
1017
1022
1106
1042,1
585
914
819
858
925
1051
195
292
251
252
258
263
251,9
24
22
25
25
25
24
24,3
115
195
199
209
210
206
38
62
61
62
59
51
55,6
18
19
22
22
20
18
19,8
41
58
80
86
99
106
14
19
24
25
28
27
22,6
6
6
9
9
10
9
8,0
13,0
11,9
13,0
13,5
13,6
12,4
12,8
42,3
50,1
52,2
50,4
46,7
44,0
47,6
10,6
10,7
15,0
14,8
15,7
16,3
13,8
gabriellae (1) july-02
gabriellae (2) feb-03
gabriellae (3) july-03
gabriellae (4) dec-03
gabriellae (5) mar-04
gabriellae (6) feb-05
AVERAGE GABRIELLAE
3,550
3,985
4,195
4,340
4,490
4,970
2365
4231
3587
3964
4148
4717
666
1062
855
913
924
949
894,9
572
933
916
1033
1027
1131
161
234
218
238
229
228
218,0
24
22
26
26
25
24
24,4
119
190
224
244
210
207
33
48
53
56
47
42
46,5
19
18
22
21
18
16
19,2
41
54
106
114
110
100
11
13
25
26
25
20
20,2
6
5
10
10
10
8
8,2
13,1
11,9
14,0
13,6
13,7
12,4
13,1
44,3
47,7
48,8
48,5
41,7
41,2
45,4
10,8
9,7
16,5
16,2
15,7
14,3
13,9
siki (1)
july-03
siki (2)
feb-03
siki (3)
july-03
siki (4)
dec-03
siki (5)
mar-04
siki (6)
feb-04
AVERAGE SIKI
2,000
2,095
2,250
2,370
2,530
2,990
1425
2433
2086
2079
2294
2996
713
1161
927
877
907
1002
931,1
305
607
542
537
603
742
153
290
241
227
238
248
232,7
21
25
26
26
26
25
24,9
56
143
138
126
145
157
28
68
61
53
57
53
53,5
16
21
23
21
22
19
20,4
15
41
53
57
72
58
7
20
24
24
28
19
20,4
4
6
9
9
11
7
7,7
12,5
13,6
13,3
14,0
14,7
13,1
13,5
40,8
48,3
53,5
46,9
45,8
45,1
46,7
7,8
9,9
14,8
15,2
16,2
11,8
12,6
234,2
24,5
51,9
19,8
21,1
7,9
13,1
46,6
13,4
AVERAGE ALL SP
956,0
Table 10.3: Eg. of protein monitoring in Mulhouse Concolor gibbons
* Concerning mineral and vitamin supplementation, two strategies were applied in Mulhouse Zoo:
268
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276
APPENDIX 1
MULHOUSE ZOO GENERAL PLANTS' DATABASE
LATIN NAME
Acaena magellanica
FRENCH
FAMILY
COMMON NAME
Acaena de Magellan Rosaceae
TOXICITY
comments (french)
?
Achillée
Asteraceae
OK
Acer capillipes
Erable Jaspé de
rouge
Aceraceae
TOX
Amelanchier sp
Amelanchier sp
Rosaceae
OK
Aucuba japonica
variegata
Aucuba du Japon
panaché
Cornaceae
TOX
Bambusoideae
Bambou
Gramineae
OK
Bellis perenis
Paquerette
Asteraceae
OK
Berberis thunbergii
julianae Xhybridogagnepainii
Epine-vinette de
Thunberg à grandes Berbéridaceae
feuilles hybride
Betula utilis var
jacquemontii
Bouleau de
Jacquemont
Betulaceae
Calycanthus
occidentalis
Arbre aux
anémones de
Californie
Calystegia sepium
Carex pendula
Achillea millefolium
PART OF THE
PLANT
TOX
Flowers
Huile essentielle
Cicatrisant, anti-inflamatoire
Dried flowers
Sub. toxique inconnue (puissant agent
oxydant)
Anémie hémolytique, tachycardie,
ictère, sang et urines bruns
Fruits: edible berries
Baies: hété. cyanogènes
Whole plant,
especially berries
Hétéroside: aucuboside
Whole plant,
especially seeds
Flowers and leaves
Whole plant, berries
lower tox.
Dermite, enterotoxique
Hété. cyanogènes
Huile essentielle Saponosides
Anti-hémoragique
Acide oxalique
Alcaloïdes
isoquinoléiques dont berberine (coul.
Jaune) protoberbérines aporphines
Vomissements, troubles rénaux et
hépatiques
OK
Bark
Diurétique
Calycanthaceae
TOX
Seeds
Cardio et neurotoxique
Grand liseron
Convolvulaceae
TOX
Roots
Alcaloïdes dont cuscohygrine Résine
Grand carex
Cyperaceae
Leaves can cut
Carex arenaria: saponosides
OK
Carex arenaria: rhizome dépuratif
diurétique
277
Whole plant,
especilaly seeds
Huile essentielle
Facilite la digestion, combat
aérophagie et flatulences
TOX.
Med.
Whole plant
Alcaloïdes indoliques: vincamine,
vincristine, vinblastine. Tanoïdes
Tox: hallucinogènes
med: leucémie et certains cancers
dont maladie de Hodgkin
Cupressaceae
TOX
Stems and leaves
Acide isocupressique
essentielles si abus
Neurotoxique, mort
Asteraceae
TOX
Fruits: akenes; Whole Fruit: alcaloïde
plant
2 glucosides
Cornus alba
alternifolia L
sanguinea
Cornouiller blanc à
Cornaceae
feuilles alternes
sanguin
TOX
Fruits: drupes
Corylus avellana
Noisetier commun
Corylaceae
TOX
Med.
Leaves
Crataegomespilus X
dardarii
Néflier- aubépine
Rosaceae
Carum carvi
Cumin des prés
Apiaceae
Catharanthus roseus
(Vinca rosea)
Pervenche de
Madagascar
Apocynaceae
Chamaecyparis
lawsoniana sp
Cyprès de Lawson
Faux-Cyprès sp
Circium arvense
Chardon des
champs
Crataegus monogyna Aubépine à un style Rosaceae
Arbre aux
Davidiaceae
Davidia involucrata
mouchoirs
Decaisnea fargesii
Decaisnea de Farges Lardizabalaceae
Deutzia sp
Deutzia sp
Dipelta à fleurs
nombreuses
Dipelta floribunda
Philadelphaceae
Caprifoliaceae
OK
OK
Edible fruits after 1st
frozen
OK
Edible berries
Huiles
Plante:
C blanc: allergisant, dermites du
cueilleur. Fruit: légèrement toxique
Tanins catéchiques
Dérivés
flavoniques (myricitroside)
Tox: allergisant
Med: astringent,tonique veineux
Flavonoïdes
Cardiotonique, hypotenseur
?
?
Fruits: beens
sometimes eaten by
Chineese, steril in our
zoo
OK
?
278
Dryopteris filix-mas
Fougère mâle
Dryoptéridaceae
TOX
Med.
Whole plant
Edible fruits
Hémorragies, diarrhées sanglantes,
Thiaminase: antivitaminique B1. Poils
troubles hépatiques, cancérogène
sécréteurs: polyphénols filicine
med: vermifuge dont taenifuge
Elaeagnus umbellatus Chalef en ombelle
Elaeagnaceae
OK
Epimedium pinnatum
Epimedium penné
fleurs des elphes
Berbéridaceae
?
Euonymus alatus
fortunei ' vegetus'
myrianthus
Fusain ailé couvresol à fleurs
Celastraceae
nombreuses
TOX
Whole plant,
especially leaves,
bark, berries
Hété. Cardio: évonoside
Alcaloïdes sesquiterpéniques:
théobromine cardénolide
Irritant du tube digestif, violente
purgation, convulsions, syncopes,
troubles cardiaques, mortel 30 bais
Eupatorium
cannabinum
Eupatoire chanvrine
Asteraceae
à flles de chanvre
TOX
Whole plant
Alcaloïdes pyrrolisidiniques
Trémétrol
Maladie veino-occlusive, sénéciose
(mode chronique), hépatotoxique
Fagus sylvatica
Hêtre commun
Fagaceae
TOX
Med.
Foeniculum vulgare
Fenouil
Apiaceae
OK
Fraxinus ornus
Orne
Oleaceae
OK
Geranium
himalayense
Géranium de
l'Himalaya
Geraniaceae
Hedera helix
Lierre grimpant
Araliaceae
Tox: sub. Inconnue
tanin (créosote)
Med:
Huile essentielle: anéthol fenchrone
Med: antiseptique, antiparasitaire
Propriétés toniques et apéritives.
Expectorant
?
TOX
Whole plant, edible Stérols Flavonoïdes Saponosides
berries only for birds Polyine: falcarinol (allergène)
Dermites, gastro-entérite aiguë,
troubles nerveux, coma par
dépression respiratoire, mort par
asphyxie
279
Helleborus orientalis Héllebore d'Orient
Ranunculaceae
TOX
Roots, stems, leaves
Protoanémonine: glucoside
(ranunculine) dégr en lactone irritante
Saponosides
Hété. cardio:
helléboroside Alcaloïdes: helleborine
helleboréïne
Principes irritants peau et
muqueuses, troubles digestifs
cardiaques et nerveux, intoxication
rare mais rapidement fatale
Hypericum
androsaemum
Millepertuis
Androsème
officinal
Hypéricaceae
TOX
Whole plant,
especially flowers
Photosensibilisation primaire:
Naphtodianthrones:
érythème prurigineux, oedèmes
hypéricine (pigment rouge fluorescent)
oreilles paupières face
Iris sp cultivars
Iris des jardins
Iridaceae
TOX
Rhizome
Huile essentielles. Hétéroside
flavonique: iridoside, iridine
Ligustrum sinense
Troène de Chine
Oleaceae
TOX
Whole plant,
Troubles digestifs, neurologiques,
especially berries and Alcaloïdes du quinquina Saponosides cardiaques et respiratoires, atteinte
rénale
leaves
Lonicera morrowii
pileata
Chevrefeuille de
Caprifoliaceae
Morrow couvre-sol
TOX
Whole plant,
especially berries and Saponosides: xylostine
leaves
Irritation muqueuses et peau
(congestion), vomissements,
douleurs abdominales, diarrhées
Magnolia stellata
Magnolia étoilé
Seeds
Fébrifuge
Malus sargentii
Pommier de Sargent Rosaceae
Matteucia
struthiopteris
Fougère
d'Allemagne
Athyriaceae
OK
Edible whole plant
Melissa officinalis
Mélisse
Lamiaceae
OK
Leves and stems
Huiles essentielles
Stomachique
Mentha
Menthe
Lamiaceae
OK
Leaves and flowers
Huiles essentielles
Antiseptique
Magnoliaceae
OK
TOX
Seeds and bark
Hété. cyanogènes: amygdaline
prunasoside
Vomissement, diarrhées avec sang
A forte dose: troubles respiratoires,
vomissements, mydriase,
hypothermie, convulsions puis coma
Espèce non cancérogène
280
Miscanthus sinensis Miscanthus de
(cultivar) gracillimus Chine
Gramineae
OK
Nandina Domestica
Nandina
domestique
Nandinaceae
?
Ophiopognon
planiscapus
'Nigrescens'
Ophiopognon noir
Liliaceae
?
Origanum vulgare
Origan commun
Lamiaceae
Parrotia persica
Arbre de fer de
Perse
Hamamelidaceae
Pennisetum
alopecuroides
Pennisetum queueEquisetaceae
de-Renard
Picea abies
Epicea commum
Pinaceae
OK
Picea pungens
'Glauca Globosa'
Epicéa du Colorado
Pinaceae
'Glauca Globosa'
TOX
Pinus mugo pumita
Pin Mugo nain
bleuté
Pinaceae
OK
Pleioblastus graminus
Pleioblastus
Graminée
Gramineae
OK
Prunus laurocerasus
Laurier-cerise
Rosaceae
Prunus Tenella
Amandier de
Sibérie
Rosaceae
Especially leaves
Huiles essentielles
Contre le tounis des mouton, sédatif
sexuel
Especially leaves
Acide isocupressique
Avortements ou vélages prématurés
Whole plant
Hété. cyanogènes
TOX
Leaves and seeds
prunasoside
Vomissements, ataxie, dyspnée
tachycardie, convulsions puis coma
TOX
Especially seeds,
leaves and bark (no
fruits in our zoo)
prunasoside
A forte dose: troubles respiratoires,
vomissements, mydriase,
hypothermie, convulsions puis coma
OK
?
?
281
Pyracantha coccinea
Pyracantha buisson
Rosaceae
ardent
TOX
Leaves and berries
TOX
Whole plant,
Diterpènes grayanotoxines
especially leaves,
flowers and nectar;
(andromédotoxine)
European one less tox.
Rhododendron sp
Rhododendron sp
Ericaceae
Ribes nigrum
Cassis
Grossulariaceae
OK
Fruits and leaves
Ribes rubrum
Groseillier rouge
Groseillier à
maquereau
Grossulariaceae
OK
Edible fruits
Grossulariaceae
OK
Edible fruits
OK
Ribes uva-crispa
Ribes X gordonianum
Groseiller de
Gordon
Grossulariaceae
Robinia pseudoacacia
Robinier fauxacacia
Fabaceae
TOX
Rosa canina
Eglantier commun
Rosaceae
OK
Rosa moyesii
Rosier de Moyes
Rosaceae
OK
Rumex obtusifolius
Rumex à feuilles
obtuses
Polygonaceae
Sedum spurium
Sédum spure
Crassulaceae
Hété. cyanogènes
Huile essentielle. Tanin. Acide de
quininique
Vomissement, douleurs digestives,
inflammation iris et conjonctive
épines: synovites
Céphalés, vomissements violents,
douleurs abdominales, diarrhées,
troubles cardiaques, mortalité
importante
Antitoxique, anti-allergique
Bark (especially
during autumn), fruits, Lectine: robine
leaves and flowers
Troubles digestifs puis troubles
cardiaques et respiratoires,
néphrotoxique, céphalées
Fruits: cynorrhodons
edible by Humans
Tanin. Vitamine: C, K, P
after 1st frozen
Astringent, antidiarrhéique
TOX
Whole plant
Tremblements, salivation
importante,
troubles
respiratoires, atteinte rénale
TOX
Sap
Acide oxalique
Principe irritant peau et muqueuses
282
Sorbus pratii
Sorbier de Prat
Rosaceae
Symphoricarpos albus Symphorine à fruit
Caprifoliacées
Xchenaultii 'Hancock' blanc 'Hancock'
TOX
Whole plant,
especially fruits
Hété. cyanogènes parasorboside
Sommnolence, troubles digestifs:
diarrhées/constipation
TOX
Berries
Alcaloïdes: chélidonine Saponosides
Coumarines
Vomissement rapide (donc peu
intoxiqué), entérotoxique
Syringa X 'Josée'
Lilas de Josée
Oleaceae
OK
Tacus baccata
b.'Semperaurea'
If à baies toujours
doré (ne fructifie
pas)
Taxaceae
TOX
Urtica dioica
Grande ortie
Urticaceae
TOX
Med.
Viburnum farreri
rhytidophyllum
Viorne parfumée
(de Farrer) ridées
Caprifoliaceae
TOX
Leaves and red berries Saponosides. Scopolétol esculétol.
Purgatif violent, troubles digestifs et
Viopudial vibutinal. Viburnine et autres
(only aetable when
cardiaques
glucosides
mature)
Vinca major
Grande pervenche
Apocynaceae
TOX
Whole plant
Alcaloïde indolique: vincamine
Tanoïdes
Hallucinogène
Vitis vinifera
Vigne cultivée
Vitaceae
Wisteria floribunda
'Alba'
Glycine blanche du
Fabaceae
Japon
Especially seeds and
bark
Lectine: wistarine
Entérotoxique, congestion du visage,
mydriase, céphalées, agglutination
des globules rouges
Diterpènes: taxoïdes. PseudoLeaves, wood, seeds,
alcaloïdes: taxine taxol
berries (unless pulp)
céphalomannine
Troubles cardiaques, digestifs et
nerveux, inhibiteur de la division
cellulaire, mort foudroyante
Tox: irritations dermites
Nitrate Silice Tanin Acide formique
med: antianémique, antidiabétique,
Hétérosides Glucoquinines
hémostatique, diurétique
OK
TOX
283
APPENDIX 2
MULHOUSE ZOO PLANTS’ DATABASE FOR LEMURIDAE
Eulemur coronatus
in the
outside
enclosure
animals
can take Amelanchier sp, carex pendula, carum carvi, foeniculum vulgare, hedera helix,
near the melissa officinalis, mentha, origanum vulgare
wire
Acaena magellanica, acer capillipes, bambou, aucuba japonica variegata, berberis
thunbergii, betula utilis var jacquemonti, calycanthus occidentalis, catharanthus
roseus, corylus avellana, crataegomespilusXdardarii, davidia involucrata, decaisnea
fargesii, deutzia sp, dipelta floribunda, elaeagnus umbellatus, epimedium pinnatum,
animals
euonymus alatus, euonymus myrianthus, geranium himalayense, helleborus
cannot
orientalis, hypericum androsaemum, ilex aquifolium, iris sp cultivars, lonicera
reach but
tatarica, ophiopognon planiscapus 'Nigrescens', pennisetum alopecuroides, picea
< 20m
abies, pinus pumita, prunus Tenella, rhodotypos scandens, ribesXgordonianum, rosa
moyesii, sedum spurium, sorbus pratii, symphoricarpos albus, syringa X 'Josée',
taxcus baccata, viburnum farreri, vinca major, waldsteinia geoides, waldsteinia
ternata
in the
Achillea millefolium, bellis perenis, foeniculum vulgare, melissa officinalis, mentha,
outside
miscantus gracillimus, miscantus sinensis
enclosure
animals
can take Carex pendula, carum carvi, foeniculum vulgare, melissa officinalis,
near the mentha,origanum vulgare,
wire
Acaena magellanica, acer capillipes, calycanthus occidentalis, catharanthus roseus,
crataegomespilusXdardarii, davidia involucrata, decaisnea fargesii, dipelta
animals floribunda, elaeagnus umbellatus, epimedium pinnatum, euonymus alatus, euonymus
cannot myrianthus, geranium himalayense, helleborus orientalis, hypericum androsaemum,
reach but iris sp cultivars, lonicera tatarica, ophiopognon planiscapus 'Nigrescens', pennisetum
< 20m alopecuroides, picea abies, pinus pumita, prunus Tenella, rhodotypos scandens,
ribesXgordonianum, sedum spurium, sorbus pratii, syringa X 'Josée', taxcus baccata,
viburnum farreri, vinca major, waldsteinia geoides, waldsteinia ternata
Eulemur mongoz
in the
outside Bambou, carex pendula
enclosure
animals
can take
Parrotia persica, robinia pseudoacacia, rosa canina
near the
wire
Chamaecyparis sp, cornus alternifolia, crataegus monogyna, elaeagnus umbellatus,
animals
euonymus fortunei ' vegetus ', lonicera morrowii, magnolia stellata, malus sargentii,
cannot
nandina domestica, nepetaXfaassenii 'Six Hills Giants', picea pungens 'Glauca
reach but
Globosa', pleioblastus graminus, prunus Tenella, rhododendron sp, vitis vinifera,
< 20m
waldsteinia geoides
284
Eulemur rubriventer
in the
outside Bambou, matteucia struthiopteris, miscantus sinensis
enclosure
animals
can take
near the
wire
animals
cannot
reach but
< 20m
carum carvi, cornus alternifolia, elaeagnus umbellatus, hedera helix, origanum
vulgare
Euonymus fortunei ' vegetus ', magnolia stellata, nepetaXfaassenii 'Six Hills Giants',
picea pungens 'Glauca Globosa', pennisetum alopecuroides, pleioblastus graminus,
prunus Tenella, rhododendron sp, robinia pseudoacacia, vitis vinifera, waldsteinia
geoides
Hapalemur griseus alaotrensis
in the
outside
enclosure
animals
can take
Davidia involucrata, malus sargentii, robinia pseudoacacia
near the
wire
Acer capillipes, bambou, calycanthus occidentalis, catharanthus roseus, cornus
alternifolia, decaisnea fargesii, dipelta floribunda, euonymus alatus, euonymus
animals
myrianthus, geranium himalayense, lonicera tatarica, magnolia stellata,
cannot
nepetaXfaassenii 'Six Hills Giants', ophiopognon planiscapus 'Nigrescens',
reach but
pennisetum alopecuroides, picea abies, pleioblastus graminus, prunus Tenella,
< 20m
rhododendron sp, sorbus pratii, syringa X 'Josée', taxcus baccata, viburnum farreri,
waldsteinia geoides, waldsteinia ternata
in the
outside
enclosure
animals
can take
near the
wire
Acaena magellanica, bambou, carex pendula, catharanthus roseus, corylus avellana,
animals
deutzia sp, euonymus myrianthus, helleborus orientalis, hypericum androsaemum, ilex
cannot
aquifolium, iris sp cultivars, lonicera tatarica, picea abies, rhodotypos scandens,
reach but
ribesXgordonianum, sedum spurium, sorbus pratii, syringa X 'Josée', taxcus baccata,
< 20m
vinca major, waldsteinia geoides
Lemur catta
in the
outside Bambou, miscantus sinensis
enclosure
animals
can take
Rosa canina, robinia pseudoacacia
near the
wire
285
Chamaecyparis sp, cornus alternifolia, crataegus monogyna, elaeagnus umbellatus,
animals
euonymus fortunei ' vegetus ', lonicera morrowii, magnolia stellata, malus sargentii,
cannot
nandina domestica, nepetaXfaassenii 'Six Hills Giants', picea pungens 'Glauca
reach but
Globosa', pleioblastus graminus, prunus Tenella, rhododendron sp, vitis vinifera,
< 20m
waldsteinia geoides
Propithecus verreauxi coronatus
in the
Bambou, carex pendula, crataegus monogyna, fraximus ornus, miscanthus sinensis
outside
(cultivar), ribes nigrum, ribes rubrum, ribes uva-crispa
enclosure
animals
can take
Amelanchier sp, cornus alternifolia
near the
wire
Aucuba japonica variegata, berberis thunbergii, betula utilis var jacquemontii,
animals crataegomespilusXdardarii, deutzia sp, elaeagnus umbellatus, epimedium pinnatum,
cannot euonymus fortunei ' vegetus', hedera helix, ilex aquifolium, lonicera morrowii,
reach but magnolia stellata, nandina domestica, nepetaXfaassenii 'Six Hills Giants', parrotia
< 20m persica, picea pungens 'Glauca Globosa', pleioblastus graminus, rhododendron sp,
rosa moyesii, vitis vinifera, waldsteinia geoides
in the
outside Achillea millefolium, miscantus sinensis
enclosure
animals
can take
Bambou, carex pendula, crataegomespilusXdardarii, epimedium pinnatum
near the
wire
Acaena magellanica, amelanchier sp, berberis thunbergii, betula utilis var
animals
jacquemontii, corylus avellana, deutzia sp, helleborus orientalis, hypericum
cannot
androsaemum, ilex aquifolium, iris sp cultivars, rhodotypos scandens,
reach but
ribesXgordonianum, sedum spurium, symphoricarpos albus, vinca major, waldsteinia
< 20m
geoides
in the
outside Bambou, miscantus sinensis
enclosure
animals
can take Carex pendula, carum carvi, elaeagnus umbellatus, hedera helix, melissa officinalis,
near the mentha,
wire
Acer capillipes, aucuba japonica variegata, bambou, calycanthus occidentalis,
catharanthus roseus, cornus alternifolia, davidia involucrata, decaisnea fargesii,
animals
dipelta floribunda, euonymus alatus, euonymus myrianthus, geranium himalayense,
cannot
lonicera tatarica, magnolia stellata, nepetaXfaassenii 'Six Hills Giants', ophiopognon
reach but
planiscapus 'Nigrescens', pennisetum alopecuroides, picea abies, pleioblastus
< 20m
graminus, prunus Tenella, rhododendron sp, sorbus pratii, syringa X 'Josée', taxcus
baccata, viburnum farreri, waldsteinia geoides, waldsteinia ternata
286
APPENDIX 3
MULHOUSE ZOO PLANTS’ DATABASE FOR HYLOBATIDAE
in the
Bambou, berberis Xhybrido-gagnepainii, cornus sanguinea, crataegus monogyna,
outside
fraxinus ornus, ribes nigrum, ribes rubrum, ribes uva-crispa
enclosure
animals
can take
Bambou
near the
wire
animals
cannot
Berberis julianae, pyracantha coccinea, wisteria floribunda 'Alba'
reach but
< 20m
Nomascus gabriellae
in the Bambou, berberis Xhybrido-gagnepainii, calystegia sepium, carex pendula, cornus
outside sanguinea, corylus avellana, crataegus monogyna, fraxinus ornus, pinus mugo, ribes
enclosure nigrum, ribes rubrum, ribes uva-crispa
animals
can take
near the
wire
animals
cannot
reach but
< 20m
Bambou, pyracantha coccinea,
Berberis julianae, chamaecyparis lawsoniana, corylus avellana, fagus sylvatica,
ligustrum sinense, lonicera pileata, prunus laurocerasus, taxcus baccata, viburnum
rhytidophyllum, wisteria floribunda 'Alba'
in the
Bambou, calystegia sepium, carex pendula, circium arvense, dryopteris filix-mas,
outside
eupatorium cannabinum, pinus mugo, rumex obtusifolius
enclosure
animals
can take
near the
wire
animals
cannot
reach but
< 20m
Bambou, wisteria floribunda 'Alba'
Berberis julianae, chamaecyparis lawsoniana, corylus avellana, fagus sylvatica,
ligustrum sinense, lonicera pileata, prunus laurocerasus, pyracantha coccinea, taxcus
baccata, tacus baccata 'Semperaurea', viburnum rhytidophyllum,
287
APPENDIX 4 : REPTILE SPECIES INDEX
page
CHELONIA
57
TESTUDINIDAE
Astrochelys radiata
TORTUE RAYONNEE
Radiated tortoise
Strahlenschildkröte
57
TESTUDINIDAE
Geochelone sulcata
TORTUE SILLONNEE
African spurred tortoise
Sporenschildkröte
57
TESTUDINIDAE
Testudo graeca
TORTUE GRECQUE
Mediterranean spur-thighed tortoise Maurische Landschildkröte
57
TESTUDINIDAE
Testudo hermanni
TORTUE D'HERMANN
Hermann's tortoise
Griechische Landschildkröte
59
PELOMEDUSIDAE Pelomedusa subrufa
TORTUE A COU CACHE D'AFRIQUE
African helmeted turtle
Starrbrust Pelomedusenschildkröte
59
EMYDIDAE
CISTUDE D’EUROPE
European pond turtle
Emys orbicularis
SQUAMATA - OPHIDIA
60
BOIDAE
Sanzinia madagascariensis BOA DE MADAGASCAR
Madagascar tree boa
CROCODYLIA
60
CROCODYLINAE Osteolamus tetraspis
CROCODILE NAIN D'AFRIQUE DE L'OUEST
288
APPENDIX 5 : BIRD SPECIES INDEX
page
61
RHEIFORMES
RHEIDAE
Pterocnemia pennata
NANDOU DE DARWIN
Darwin rhea
Darwin Nandou
Double-wattled cassowary
Helmkasuar
Jackass penguin
Brillenpinguin
PELICAN FRISE
Dalmatian pelican
Krauskopfpelican
GRAND CORMORAN
Common cormoran
Kormoran
CASUARIIFORMES
63
CASUARIIDAE
Casuarius casuarius
CASOAR A CASQUE
SPHENISCIFORMES
63
SPHENISCIDAE
Spheniscus demersus
MANCHOT DU CAP
PELECANIFORMES
Pelecanus crispus
66
PELECANIDAE
67
PHALACROCORACIDAE Phalacrocorax carbo
CICONIIFORMES
70
ARDEIDAE
Ciconia ciconia
CIGOGNE BLANCHE
White stork
Weiss Storch
72
ARDEIDAE
Ciconia nigra
CIGOGNE NOIRE
Black stork
Schwartzstorch
73
THRESKIORNITHIDAE
Ajaia ajaja
SPATULE ROSE
Roseate spoonbill
Rosa Löffler
73
THRESKIORNITHIDAE
Eudocimus ruber
IBIS ROUGE
Scarlet ibis
Roter Sichler
73
THRESKIORNITHIDAE
Geronticus eremita
IBIS CHAUVE
Waldrapp ibis
Waldrapp
73
THRESKIORNITHIDAE
Lophotibis cristata
IBIS MALGACHE
Madagascar crested ibis
Schopf-Ibis
77
PHOENICOPTERIDAE
Phoenicopterus ruber roseus
FLAMANT ROSE
Greater flamingo
Rosa flamingo
77
PHOENICOPTERIDAE
Phoenicopterus ruber ruber
FLAMANT ROUGE
Caribbean flamingo
Kuba flamingo
ANSERIFORMES
78
ANHIMIDAE
Chauna torquata
KAMICHI A COLLIER
Southern screamer
Halsband-Wehrvogel
78
ANATIDAE
Aix galericulata
CANARD MANDARIN
Mandarin duck
Mandarinente
78
ANATIDAE
Aix sponsa
CANARD CAROLIN
Wood duck
Brauente
78
ANATIDAE
Anas acuta
CANARD PILET
Pintail
Spiessente
78
ANATIDAE
Anas bernieri
SARCELLE DE BERNIER
Madagascar teal
Bernierente
289
78
ANATIDAE
Anas capensis
SARCELLE DU CAP
Cape teal
Kapente
78
ANATIDAE
Anas falcata
SARCELLE À FAUCILLES
Falcated teal
Sichelente
78
ANATIDAE
Anas formosa
SARCELLE ELEGANTE
Baikal teal
Gluckente
78
ANATIDAE
Anas penelope
CANARD SIFFLEUR
European wigeon
Pfeifente
78
ANATIDAE
Anas strepera
CANARD CHIPEAU
Gadwall
Schnatterente
78
ANATIDAE
Anser anser
OIE CENDRÉE
Greylag goose
Graugans
78
ANATIDAE
Anser canagicus
OIE EMPEREUR
Empereur goose
Kaisergans
78
ANATIDAE
Anser erythropus
OIE NAINE
Lesser white-fronted goose
Zwerggans
78
ANATIDAE
Anser indicus
OIE À TÊTE BARRÉE
Bar-headed goose
Streifengans
78
ANATIDAE
Anser rossi
OIE DE ROSS
Ross's goose
Ross Gans
78
ANATIDAE
Aythia ferina
FULIGULE MILOUIN
European pochard
Tafelente
78
ANATIDAE
Aythia fuligula
FULIGULE MORILLON
Tufted duck
Reiherente
78
ANATIDAE
Aythia marila
FULIGULE MILOUINAN
Greater scaup
Bergente
78
ANATIDAE
Aythia nyroca
FULIGULE NYROCA
Ferrugineus duck
Moorente
78
ANATIDAE
Branta canadensis spp et minima
BERNACHE DU CANADA
Canada goose
Kanada Gans
78
ANATIDAE
Branta leucopsis
BERNACHE NONETTE
Barnacle goose
Weisswangengans
78
ANATIDAE
Branta ruficollis
BERNACHE À COU ROUX
Red-breasted goose
Rothalsgans
78
ANATIDAE
Bucephala clangula
GARROT À OEIL D'OR
Goldeneye
Schellente
78
ANATIDAE
Cairina scutulata
CANARD A AILES BLANCHES
White-winged wood duck
Weissflügelente
78
ANATIDAE
Callonetta leucophrys
SARCELLE A COLLIER
Ringed teal
Rotschulterente
78
ANATIDAE
Chloephaga melanoptera
OIE DES ANDES
Andean goose
Orinoko Gans
78
ANATIDAE
Chloephaga picta
BERNACHE DE MAGELLAN
Upland goose
Magellangans
78
ANATIDAE
Coscoroba coscoroba
CYGNE COSCOROBA
Coscoroba swan
Coscorobaschwan
78
ANATIDAE
Dendrocygna bicolor
DENDROCYGNE FAUVE
Fulvous whistling duck
Gelbbrust-Pfeifgans
78
ANATIDAE
Dendrocygna eytoni
DENDROCYGNE D’EYTON
Eyton’s whistling duck
Eytons Baumente
78
ANATIDAE
Dendrocygna viduata
DENDROCYGNE VEUF
White-faced whistling duck
Witwenente
78
ANATIDAE
Marmaronetta angustirostris
SARCELLE MARBREE
Marbled teal
Marmelente
290
78
ANATIDAE
Neochen jubata
OIE DE L'ORENOQUE
Orinoco goose
Orinoko Gans
78
ANATIDAE
Netta rufina
Nette rousse
Red-crested pochard
Kolbenente
78
ANATIDAE
Somateria mollissima
Eider à duvet
Common eider
Eiderente
78
ANATIDAE
Tadorna ferruginea
Tadorne casarca
Ruddy shellduck
Rostgans
78
ANATIDAE
Tadorna tadorna
Tadorne de Belon
Common shellduck
Brandgans
FALCONIFORMES
79
CATHARTIDAE
Sarcoramphus papa
VAUTOUR PAPE
King vulture
Königsgeier
80
ACCIPITRIDAE
Aegypius monachus
VAUTOUR MOINE
Black vulture
Mönchsgeier
80
ACCIPITRIDAE
Gyps fulvus
VAUTOUR FAUVE
Eurasian griffon
Gänsegeier
81
ACCIPITRIDAE
Neophron percnopterus ginginianus VAUTOUR PERCNOPTERE
Egyptian vulture
Schmutzgeier
GALLIFORMES
83
PHASIANIDAE
Lophura edwardsi
FAISAN D'EDWARDS
Edwards' pheasant
Edwardsfasan
83
PHASIANIDAE
Pavo cristatus
PAON BLEU
Common Peafowl
Blauer Pfau
83
PHASIANIDAE
Polypectron inopinatum
EPERONNIER DE ROTHSCHILD
Mountain peacock-pheasant
Rothschildpfaufasan
83
PHASIANIDAE
Tragopan caboti
TRAGOPAN DE CABOT
Cabot's Tragopan
Cabottragopan
GRUIFORMES
83
GRUIDAE
Anthropoides paradisea
GRUE DE PARADIS
Stanley crane
Paradieskranich
83
GRUIDAE
Anthropoides virgo
DEMOISELLE DE NUMIDIE
Demoiselle crane
Jungfernkranich
83
GRUIDAE
Balearica pavonina
GRUE COURONNEE NOIRE
Black crowned crane
Schwarzer Kronenkranich
83
GRUIDAE
Balearica regulorum gibbericeps
RUE COURONNEE GRISE
Grey crowned crane
Grauer Kronenkranich
83
GRUIDAE
Grus antigone
GRUE ANTIGONE
Sarus crane
Saruskranich
83
GRUIDAE
Grus vipio
GRUE A COU BLANC
White-naped crane
Weissnackenkranich
COLUMBIFORMES
87
COLUMBIDAE
Caloenas nicobarica
PIGEON DE NICOBAR
Nicobar pigeon
Mähnentaube
86
COLUMBIDAE
Ducula bicolor
PIGEON BICOLORE
Pied imperial pigeon
Muskatnussfruchtaube
88
COLUMBIDAE
Gallicolumba criniger
GALLICOLOMBE DE BARTLET
Bartlet’s dove
Bartlett-Dolchstichtaube
291
88
COLUMBIDAE
Columba mayeri
PIGEON ROSE DE L’ILE MAURICE
Mauritius pink pigeon
Mauritiusrosataube
89
COLUMBIDAE
Goura scheepmakeri sclateri
GOURA DE SCLATER
Maroon-breasted crowned pigeon Rotbrust Krontaube
89
COLUMBIDAE
Zenaida graysoni
TOURTERELLE DE SOCORRO
Socorro dove
Socorrotaube
PSITTACIFORMES
97
CACATUIDAE
Cacatua moluccensis
CACATOES DES MOLUQUES
Salmon-crested cockatoo
Molukkenkakadu
97
CACATUIDAE
Cacatua sulfurea citrinocristata
CACATOES A HUPPE ORANGE
Citron-crested cockatoo
Orangehaubenkakadu
98
PSITTACIDAE
Amazona autumnalis lilacina
AMAZONE DE L'EQUATEUR
Lilacine amazon
Ekuador Amazone
98
PSITTACIDAE
Amazona barbadensis
AMAZONE A EPAULETTES JAUNES Yellow-shouldered amazon
Gelbschulteramazone
98
PSITTACIDAE
Amazona ochrocephala oratrix
AMAZONE DE LEVAILLANT
Yellow-headed amazon
Doppelgelbkopfamazone
98
PSITTACIDAE
Amazona vinacea
AMAZONE VINEUSE
Vinaceous amazon
Taubenhalsamazone
98
PSITTACIDAE
Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus
ARA HYACINTHE
Hyacinthine macaw
Hyazinthara
98
PSITTACIDAE
Ara ambigua
ARA DE BUFFON
Buffon's macaw
Grosser Soldatenara
98
PSITTACIDAE
Ara ararauna
ARA ARARAUNA
Blue and yellow macaw
Gelbbrustara
98
PSITTACIDAE
Ara macao
ARA MACAO
Scarlet macaw
Hellroter Ara
98
PSITTACIDAE
Ara militaris mexicana
ARA MILITAIRE
Military macaw
Soldatenara
98
PSITTACIDAE
Ara rubrogenys
ARA A FRONT ROUGE
Red-fronted macaw
Rotohrara
98
PSITTACIDAE
Aratinga auricapilla aurifrons
CONURE A TETE DOREE
Golden-capped conure
Goldscheitelsittich
98
PSITTACIDAE
Deroptyus accipitrinus
PERROQUET MAILLE
Hawk-headed parrot
Fächerpapagei
98
PSITTACIDAE
Eunymphicus cornutus cornutus
PERRUCHE CORNUE
Horned Parakeet
Hornsittich
98
PSITTACIDAE
Psittacula derbiana
PERRUCHE DE DERBY
Derbyan Parakeet
Chinasittich
98
PSITTACIDAE
Poicephalus gulielmi
PERROQUET A FRONT ROUGE
Jardine's parrot
Kongo-Papagei
98
PSITTACIDAE
Poicephalus fuscicollis fuscicollis
PERROQUET A COU BRUN
Brown-necked Parrot
Kappapagei
98
PSITTACIDAE
Poicephalus robustus robustus
PERROQUET ROBUSTE
Cape parrot
Kappapagei
CUCULIFORMES
113
MUSOPHAGIDAE
Corythaixoides personata leopoldi TOURACO A FACE NOIRE
Bare-faced go-away bird
Nacktkehl Lärmvogel
113
MUSOPHAGIDAE
Musophaga rossae
TOURACO DE ROSS
Lady Ross's turaco
Lady Ross Schildturako
113
MUSOPHAGIDAE
Musophaga violacea
TOURACO VIOLET
Violet turaco
Schildturako
292
113
MUSOPHAGIDAE
Tauraco erythrolophus
TOURACO PAULINE
Red-crested turaco
Rotschopfturako
113
MUSOPHAGIDAE
Tauraco fischeri
TOURACO DE FISCHER
Fischer's turaco
Fischer Turako
113
MUSOPHAGIDAE
Tauraco porphyreolophus
TOURACO A HUPPE VIOLETTE
Purple-crested turaco
Glanzhaubenturako
STRIGIFORMES
115
STRIGIDAE
Bubo bubo
HIBOU GRAND DUC
Eagle owl
Uhu
115
STRIGIDAE
Nyctea scandiaca
CHOUETTE HARFANG
Snowy owl
Schneeule
115
STRIGIDAE
Strix nebulosa
CHOUETTE LAPONE
Great grey owl
Bartkauz
116
STRIGIDAE
Surnia ulula
CHOUETTE EPERVIERE
Hawk owl
Sperbereule
Southern ground hornbill
Süddlicher Hornrabe
CORACIIFORMES
116
BUCEROTIDAE
Bucorvus cafer
CALAO TERRESTRE DU SUD
PASSERIFORMES
116
STURNIDAE
Garrulax galbanus
GARRULAXE A GORGE JAUNE
Yellow-throated laughingthrush
Gelbbrusthäherling
116
STURNIDAE
Leucopsar rothschildi
MARTIN DE ROTHSCHILD
Bali starling
Bali Star
Elegant crested-tinamou
Schopftinamu
TINAMIFORMES
116 TINAMIDAE
Eudromia elegans
TINAMOU ELEGANT
293
APPENDIX 6 : MAMMAL SPECIES INDEX
page
117
MARUPIALA
MACROPODIDAE
Macropus r. rufogriseus
WALLABY DE BENNETT
Red-necked wallaby
Bennett Känguruh
118
EQUIDAE
Equus asinus
PERISSODACTYLA
BAUDET DU POITOU
Poitou's donkey
Poitou Esel
117
EQUIDAE
Equus grevyi
ZEBRE DE GREVY
Grevy's zebra
Grevy Zebra
118
EQUIDAE
ANE GRIS NAIN
Dwarf donkey
Zwergesel
118
TAPIRIDAE
TAPIR MALAIS
Malayan tapir
Schabrackentapir
Bactrian camel
Kamel
Tapirus indicus
ARTIODACTYLA
CAMELIDAE
Camelus bactrianus
119
CAMELIDAE
Lama glama
LAMA
Lama
Lama
119
CAMELIDAE
Vicugna vicugna
VIGOGNE
Vicuna
Vicugna
119
CERVIDAE
Cervus alfredi
CERF DU PRINCE ALFRED
Philippine spotted deer
Prinz Alfred Hirsch
119
CHAMEAU
120
CERVIDAE
Cervus elaphus bactrianus
CERF DE BACTRIANE
Bactrian wapiti
Buchara Hirsch
120
CERVIDAE
Cervus nippon pseudaxis
CERF PSEUDAXIS
Vietnam sika deer
Vietnam Sikahirsch
120
CERVIDAE
Rangifer tarandus
RENNE
Reindeer
Ren
121
BOVIDAE
Addax nasomaculatus
ADDAX
Addax
Mendesantilope
120
BOVIDAE
Bison bison
BISON
Prairie bison
Bison
121
BOVIDAE
Capra aegagrus cretica
CHEVRE DE CRETE
Cretan wild goat
Kretiche Bezoarziege
121
BOVIDAE
Capra hircus hircus domestic
CHEVRE NAINE
Dwarf goat
Zwergziege
121
BOVIDAE
Capra hircus hircus rove
CHEVRE DU ROVE
Rove goat
Rove Ziege
121
BOVIDAE
Ovis aries aries cameroon
MOUTON DU CAMEROUN
Cameroun sheep
Kamerun Schaf
121
BOVIDAE
Pseudois nayaur
BHARAL
Blue sheep
Blauschaf
121
BOVIDAE
Tragelaphus spekei
GUIB D’EAU
Sitatunga
Sumpfantilope
133
LEMURIDAE
Eulemur coronatus
LEMUR COURONNE
Crowned lemur
Kronenmaki
PRIMATES
294
133
LEMURIDAE
LEMUR AUX YEUX TURQUOISES
Sclater's lemur
Sclaters Mohrenmaki
133
LEMURIDAE
Eulemur mongoz
LEMUR MONGOZ
Mongoose lemur
Mongozmaki
133
LEMURIDAE
Eulemur rubriventer
LEMUR A VENTRE ROUX
Red-bellied lemur
Rotbauchmaki
150
LEMURIDAE
Hapalemur griseus aloatrensis
PETIT HAPALEMUR DU LAC ALAOTRA Alaotran gentle lemur
Alaotra Halbmaki
150
LEMURIDAE
PETIT HAPALEMUR DE L'OUEST
Western grey gentle lemur
Westlicher grauer Halbmaki
133
LEMURIDAE
Lemur catta
MAKI CATTA
Ring-tailed lemur
Katta
150
LEMURIDAE
Propithecus verreauxi coronatus PROPITHEQUE COURONNE
Crowned sifaka
Kronensifaka
133
LEMURIDAE
VARI ROUX
Red ruffed lemur
Roter vari
133
LEMURIDAE
VARI NOIR ET BLANC
Black and white ruffed lemur
Schwarzweisser Vari
161
CEBIDAE
ATELE NOIR DE COLOMBIE
Columbian black spider monkey Kolumbien schwarzer Klammeraffe
161
CEBIDAE
Cebus apella xanthosternos
CAPUCIN A POITRINE JAUNE
Yellow-breasted capuchin
Gelbbrustkapuziner
SAKI SATAN
Black saki
Satansaki
Weisskopfsaki
170
CEBIDAE
Chiropotes satanas
170
CEBIDAE
Pithecia pithecia
SAKI A FACE BLANCHE
Pale-headed saki
170
CEBIDAE
Saimiri boliviensis
SAIMIRI
Bolivian monkey
173
CALLIMICONIDAE Callimico goeldii
TAMARIN DE GOELDI
Goeldi's monkey
Springtamarin
185
CALLITHRICIDAE
Callithrix geoffroyi
OUISTITI DE GEOFFROY
White-faced marmoset
Weissgesichtsseidenäffchen
185
CALLITHRICIDAE
Cebuella pygmaea
OUISTITI PYGMEE
Pygmy marmoset
Zwergseidenäffchen
185
CALLITHRICIDAE
Leontopithecus chrysomelas
LION A TETE DOREE
Golden-headed lion tamarin
Goldkopflöwenäffchen
185
CALLITHRICIDAE
Saguinus bicolor bicolor
TAMARIN BICOLORE
Pied tamarin
Zweifarbentamarin
185
CALLITHRICIDAE
Saguinus imperator subgrisescens TAMARIN EMPEREUR
Emperor tamarin
Kaiserschnurrbarttamarin
185
CALLITHRICIDAE
Saguinus midas midas
TAMARIN A MAINS ROUSSES
Red-handed tamarin
Rothandtamarin
185
CALLITHRICIDAE
Saguinus oedipus oedipus
TAMARIN PINCHE
Cotton-top tamarin
Liszt-Äffchen
217
CERCOPITHECIDAE Cercopithecus diana roloway
CERCOPITHEQUE DIANE DE ROLOWAY Diana monkey
Diana Meerkatze
217
CERCOPITHECIDAE Cercopithecus erythrogaster
CERCOPITHEQUE A VENTRE ROUGE
Red-bellied monkey
Rotbauchmeerkatze
217
CERCOPITHECIDAE Cercopithecus hamlyni
CERCOPITHEQUE DE HAMLYN
Owl-faced monkey
Eulenkopfmeerkatze
217
CERCOPITHECIDAE Cercopithecus lhoesti
CERCOPITHEQUE DE L'HOEST
L'Hoest's monkey
Vollbartmeerkatze
217
CERCOPITHECIDAE Cercopithecus nigroviridis
CERCOPITHEQUE DES MARAIS
Allen's swamp monkey
Sumpfmeerkatze
233
CERCOPITHECIDAE Macaca tonkeana
MACAQUE DE TONKEAN
Tonkean macaque
Tonkean Makak
295
240
HYLOBATIDAE
Hylobates pileatus
GIBBON A COIFFE
Pileated gibbon
Kappengibbon
240
HYLOBATIDAE
Nomascus gabriellae
GIBBON À FAVORIS ROUX
Black gibbon
Gelbwangen-Schopfgibbon
240
HYLOBATIDAE
Nomascus leucogenys leucogenys GIBBON A FAVORIS BLANCS DU NORD Black gibbon
Nördlicher Weisswangen-Schopfgibbon
240
HYLOBATIDAE
Nomascus leucogenysr siki
GIBBON A FAVORIS BLANCS DU SUD
Black gibbon
Südlicher Weisswangen-Schopfgibbon
252
CASTORIDAE
Castor canadensis
CASTOR DU CANADA
American beaver
Kanada Biber
252
CRICETIDAE
Cricetus cricetus
GRAND HAMSTER D’ALSACE
European hamster
Feldhamster
253
CANIDAE
Canis lupus occidentalis
CARNIVORA
LOUP DU CANADA
Timber wolf
Timberwolf
254
CANIDAE
Chrysocyon brachyurus
LOUP A CRINIERE
Maned wolf
Mähnenwolf
254
CANIDAE
Speothos venaticus
CHIEN DE FORET
Bush dog
Waldhund
255
URSIDAE
Ursus arctos
OURS BRUN
Brown bear
Braunbär
256
URSIDAE
Ursus maritimus
OURS BLANC
Polar bear
Eisbär
257
MUSTELIDAE
Amblonyx cinereus
LOUTRE NAINE
Small-clawed otter
Zwergotter
258
FELIDAE
Acynonyx jubatus
GUEPARD
Cheetah
Gepard
258
FELIDAE
Felis margarita
CHAT DES SABLES
Sand cat
Sandkatze
258
FELIDAE
Felis tigrina
CHAT TIGRE
Little spotted cat
Oncilla
260
FELIDAE
Lynx lynx
LYNX BOREAL
Lynx
Luchs
259
FELIDAE
Otocolobus manul
CHAT MANUL
Pallas's cat
Manul
RODENTIA
260
FELIDAE
Panthera pardus orientalis
PANTHERE DE L'AMOUR
Amur leopard
Amur leopard
260
FELIDAE
Panthera pardus saxicolor
PANTHERE DE PERSE
Persian leopard
Persischer leopard
262
FELIDAE
Panthera tigris altaica
TIGRE DE SIBERIE
Siberian tiger
Sibirischer Tiger
263
FELIDAE
Panthera leo persica
LION D'ASIE
Asian lion
Asiatischer Löwe
260
FELIDAE
Panthera uncia
PANTHERE DES NEIGES
Snow leopard
Schneeleopard
263
OTARIIDAE
Otaria byronia
OTARIE A CRINIERE
South American sea lion
Mähnenrobbe
PINNIPEDIA
296

dietary manual end - Association Française des Vétérinaires de

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