On Department of Livestock Production Management College of

Transcription

ASSISTANCE TO STATES FOR CONTROL OF ANIMAL DISEASES
(ASCAD) TRAINING PROGRAMME
On
TRANSFORMATION OF CONVENTIONAL TO ORGANIZED
LIVESTOCK FARMING FOR IMPROVED PRODUCTIVITY
18-23 November, 2013
Course Director
Dr. P.H.Vataliya
Course Co-ordinator
Dr. K.Ravikala
Editors
Dr. K.S.Dutta
Dr. M.R.Gadariya
Dr. M.D.Odedra
Dr. A.R.Ahlawat
Dr. H.H. Savsani
Dr. P.S.Dalal
Dr. S.Marandi
Dr. T.K.Patbandha
Department of Livestock Production Management
College of Veterinary Science & Animal Husbandry
Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh-362001, Gujarat, India
Department of Livestock Production Management
JAU, Junagadh-362001, Gujarat
Participants: Training on "Transformation of Conventional to Organized Livestock
Improved Productivity" 18-23 November, 2013
Sr.
Name and Correspondence Address
Email
Farming for
Phone No.
No.
1
Dr. Suresh Bhavanjibhai Dudhatra
[email protected]
98791 27682
[email protected]
98793 25260
V. O., District Panchayat, Junagadh
2
Dr. Hiteshkumar Mohanbhai Kotadiya
3
Dr. Mehulkumar Hamirbhai Dahima
[email protected]
9227014570
4
Dr. Hareshkumar Labhubhai Bhoraniya
[email protected]
94263 80189
[email protected]
94297 38124
[email protected]
99258 64070
[email protected]
84694 71971
V. O., District Panchayat, Surendranagar
5
Dr. Priteshkumar Bhailalbhai Patel
V. O., District Panchayat, Surendranagar
6
Dr. Dharmendrakumar Ashokkumar Khant
V. O., District Panchayat, Porbandar
7
Dr. Vimalkumar Rameshchandra Vasiani
V. O., District Panchayat, Rajkot
8
Dr. Jitendrakumar Khimjibhai Patel
_
98252 96101
V. O., District Panchayat, Rajkot
9
Dr. Mitaben Virabhai Patel
[email protected]
80007 99694
[email protected]
94264 48458
[email protected]
99094 14264
V. O., District Panchayat, Kutch-Bhuj
10
Dr. Nileshkumar Ambaram Jakasniya
V. O., District Panchayat, Amreli
11
Dr. Nilesh Dahyalal Bhadaja
V. O., District Panchayat, Bhavnagar
LIST OF SPEAKERS
Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh
Name of Faculty Member
E-mail & Phone number
Dr. P.H.Vataliya
[email protected]
Professor & Head,
Dept. of Animal Genetics & Breeding,
College of Veterinary Science & A. H.
Dr. P.U.Gajbhiye
94284 89731
Research Scientist(AG)
Cattle Breeding Farm
Dr. K.S.Murthy
Research Scientist(AN)
Dr. K.S.Dutta
Professor & Head,
Dept. of Animal Nutrition,
Dr. K. Ravikala
Professor & Head,
Dept. of Livestock Production Management,
Dr. M. R. Gadariya
Associate Professor,
Instructional Livestock Farm Complex,
Dr. D.D.Garg
Associate Professor,
Dr. M. D. Odedra
Associate Professor
Dr. A.R.Ahlawat
Associate Professor
Dr. H.H.Savsani
Associate Professor
[email protected]
94275 02366
[email protected]
99980 35734
[email protected]
94275 02721
[email protected]
98980 23811
[email protected]
98258 40315
[email protected]
95101 46169
[email protected]
95748 39225
[email protected]
84012 28451
[email protected]
94275 02728
Dr. P. S. Dalal
[email protected]
Assistant Professor
Dr. S. Marandi
99793 85119
Assistant Professor
Dr. T. K. Patbandha
Assistant Professor
Dr. V.B. Dongre
Assistant Professor
Dr. G.S. Sonawane
[email protected]
97255 60993
[email protected]
81284 87679
[email protected]
81411 67154
[email protected]
Assistant Professor
96241 87037
Dr. S.S. Patil
[email protected]
Assistant Professor
Dr. G.B. Solanki
90894 71632
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Gynaecology & Obstetrics,
Dr. Amit Prasad
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Veterinary Medicine,
[email protected]
99094 64747
[email protected]
96013 55075
INDEX
Sr.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
Topic
Limitations and short falls of Livestock farming system in India.
Opportunities of organized farm practices for increasing Livestock
production.
Strategies for sustainable milk production in cattle and buffaloes.
Need for organized sheep and goat farming in changing social
perspectives.
Opportunities for Rabbit farming in Gujarat
Care and management of advanced pregnant and early lactating cows
and buffaloes.
Care and management of work animals (Bullock, horse and camel)
Recent trends in commercial layer production.
Industry prospective of broiler production and essentials of biosecurity in
poultry.
Shelter management in modern dairying.
Clean milk Production.
Health management in dairy animals with special reference to mastitis.
Reproductive management of bovines to improve milk production.
Rumen manipulation techniques in dairy animals.
Recent trends in feed processing technology.
Utilization of by-products in animal feeding specific to Saurashtra
region.
Feed resource management and ration formulation for livestock.
Feeding of bypass nutrients to improve animal performance.
Micro nutrient requirement of livestock for sustaining productivity.
Conservation of Animal Genetic resources of India.
Strategies for organized breeding programmes in sheep and goat.
Strategies for layer and broiler breeding.
Equine breeding with special reference to Kathiawadi horses.
Speaker
Page
Dr. K. Ravikala
Dr. K. Ravikala
1
5
Dr. M.R. Gadariya
Dr. M.R. Gadariya
10
17
Dr. M. D. Odedra
Dr. M. D. Odedra
24
29
Dr. P.S. Dalal
Dr. S. Marandi
Dr. S. Marandi
31
36
42
Dr. T. K. Patbandha
Dr. T. K. Patbandha
Dr. Amit Prasad
Dr. G.B.Solanki
Dr. K.S.Dutta
Dr. K.S.Murthy
Dr. K.S.Murthy
45
53
58
62
66
73
77
Dr. D.D.Garg
Dr. H.H.Savsani
Dr. S.S.Patil
Dr. P.H.Vataliya
Dr. P.U.Gajbhiye
Dr. A.R.Ahlawat
Dr. A.R.Ahlawat
and
Dr. M.D.Odedara
Molecular approach to improve Production, reproduction and growth Dr. G.S.Sonawane
traits in cattle and buffaloes.
Breeding strategies for improvement of milk production in cattle and Dr. V.B.Dongre
buffaloes.
82
88
92
99
102
107
114
118
122
Limitations and shortfalls of livestock farming system in India
K. Ravikala, T. K. Patbandha, M. R. Gadariya* and P. H. Vataliya**
Dept. of Livestock Production Management (* ILFC, ** AGB)
College of Veterinary Science and A.H.
The adage of "except the cry of the animal nothing goes waste" is perfectly valid looking
to the role of animal husbandry in agrarian economy viz. conversion of useless by-products in to
wholesome nutritious food for human consumption, generation of employment, providing raw
materials to industries, motive power for agriculture and transport purposes and miscellaneous
uses of fur, wool and hides. In the world's second most populated country like India, livestock
contribution to food security through milk, meat and eggs assumes more significance considering
the higher biological values of animal products vis-à-vis food products of plant origin. Share of
Agriculture and livestock in GDP are tabulated below:
Table 1. Contribution of agriculture and Livestock sector in GDP
Year
At Current prices (%)
At Constant Prices of 2004-2005(%)
Agriculture Livestock Livestock to Agriculture Livestock Livestock to
to GDP
to GDP
Agriculture
to GDP
to GDP
Agriculture
1980-81
34.72
4.82
13.88
34.72
4.82
13.88
1990-91
28.30
6.45
22.78
28.73
5.75
20.00
2000-01
21.24
5.44
25.61
21.84
5.29
24.23
2008-09
10.99
3.26
29.64
9.60
3.22
33.54
In absolute terms contribution of livestock to GDP was estimated to be Rs 4,08,386 crore
during 2009-10 accounting for 29.7 % of the value of output from agriculture and allied sector to
GDP. Contribution of milk at 2,28,809 crore was higher than rice at Rs 1,35,307 crore, while the
output from meat and fisheries was Rs 64,073 and 67,913 crore respectively in 2009-2010. Total
export earnings from Livestock sector is Rs 19,036 crore. Of interest to note that share of
agriculture to total GDP at current prices declined from 28.30 to 10.99% in 2008-2009, the share
of livestock sector concomitantly increased from 22.78 to 29.64 %. Per cent annual growth in
milk production during 1999-2000 and 2009-2010 was 3.7 % that surpassed 1.8% growth in
human population, resulting in net increase availability by around 2% per year. Per capita
availability of livestock products is given in Table 2.
Table 2. Per capita requirement and availability of milk, meat and eggs in India (2009-10
and 2020-25)
Livestock
ICMR
per capita
Deficit
Quantities
Product
Quantities
product
guide
availability /surplus required to meet
ion
required to
lines
(2009-10)
in per
ICMR guide
(2009meet ICMR
capita
lines million
10)
guide lines
(2009tons(2009-10)
million
million
10)
tons
tons(2020-25)
Milk(ml/day)
300
263
-37.00
128.12
112.5
153.3
Meat(kg/Year)
10.95
3.42
-7.53
12.81
4.0
15.33
Eggs(no's/year)
180
51
-129.00
210.6
59.84
252
From the perusal of the above table, it is clear that while India may be able to meet the
requirements of milk in near term it has to make tremendous effort to meet the per capita
requirement of meat and eggs. Growth in economy and increasing personal income levels resulted
in greater demand for quality foods viz, milk, meat and eggs and thereby increasing Mean
Personal Consumption Expenditure (MPCE) by Indian's over the years.
ASCAD Training on Transformation of Conventional to Organized Livestock Farming for Improved Productivity, (18-23 Nov., 2013)
1
MPCE during the last decades declined by 12 and 20% respectively in rural and urban areas, it
has increased in rural areas and declined by just 2% in urban areas. Total requirements for
population projected for the years 2020-25 would be 153.3 million tons of milk, 15.33 million
tons of meat and 252 billion numbers of eggs.
Livestock sector presents a peculiar situation in India. Holding size of 58 % of rural
households is less than 2 ha of land, while another 32 % are landless. However, landless own 85%
of livestock and almost of half of their income is from livestock. Indian dairy cooperatives
operate in 346 Districts covering 1,40,227 villages with around 14 million farmer members of
which 4 million are women as on March 2010. Livestock sector provides employment to
approximately 22.45 millions, i.e., 5.8% of total workforce in the country. Livestock is the only
sector of the economy which has consistently shown positive growth in the last three decades,
even during the periods of drought. By its very nature, any positive growth in livestock sector
percolates to the lowest strata of the society and hence, its importance in poverty alleviation.
Indian livestock is mainly reared on bulky crop residues like straws of paddy and wheat,
thus making the animals an important cog in the food cycle. They recycle these crop residues to
generate precious milk and meat. . However, in the recent past due to labour shortage and time
constraints, farmers are burning or burying these straws in the fields. About 110, 2306, 2 and 84
Gg, respectively of CH4, CO, N2O and NO are released in to atmosphere due to burning of rice
and wheat straw. Burning not only results in loss of precious feed resources to ruminants, but also
destroys microflora of soil thus resulting in loss of soil fertility Different models to predict deficit
/surplus feed resources and the same are given in Table 3.
Table 3. Per cent surplus/deficit of feed resources in different scenario (on DF, GF and
Concentrate basis)
2011
2025
Dry
Green
Concentrate**
Dry
Green
Concentrate**
fodder*
Fodder
fodder*
Fodder
Availa(Mil T)
358.27
641.26
53.15
432.89
600.24
65.06
Model 1 : 100% fed to productive animal and 100% non-productive animals
Requirement
475
800
78
550
1000
105
Surplus/deficit -32.58
-24.75
-46.75
-27.05
-66.60
-61.39
Requirement
350
670
60
430
810
89
Surplus/deficit +2.31
-4.48
-12.89
+0.67
-34.95
-36.80
Requirement
310
645
55
396
769
84
-.58
-3.48
+8.52
-28.12
-29.11
Requirement
390
695
69
470
850
96
Surplus/deficit
-8.86
-8.38
-29.32
-8.57
-41.61
-47.56
Requirement
300
635
51
373
750
75
+0.98
+4.05
+13.83
-24.95
-15.28
Requirement
280
565
48
350
660
74
+11.89
+9.69
+19.15
-9.96
-13.74
Requirement
212
500
38
285
565
62
+22.03
+28.5
+34.16
+5.87
+4.70
Productive animals include milch cattle, buffaloes, poultry and fish
*Dry fodder deficit may more than projected due to burning of straw in the fields, use of
combines, diversion to packaging and fuel briquette industry.
2
** Deficit of concentrate may be less than projected as the estimates do not include nonconventional feed resources
Reasons for different set of conditions were taken in to consideration. Of interest to the
present paper, limitations and shortfalls of Livestock farming systems are discussed keeping in
view the above statistical data.
 Farmers do not feed livestock as per their nutritional requirements and milch animals always
get priority in feeding compared to dry or non-productive animals.
 Landless owners own 85% of livestock and they have neither resources nor money to
maintain livestock on scientific principles. Availability of feed resources is very limited with
them and milk production becomes uneconomical with purchased feed and fodder resources.
 Shortage of conventional and unconventional crop residues will be severe in future due to a
combination of exponential growth in the use of combined harvesters coupled with increased
area under HYV of cereal crops. Diversion of crop residues for packaging industry, fuel
industry and burning complicates availability further.
 Genetic worth of animals owned by landless is generally poor and animals are mostly nondescript variety with very low yield.
 Breeding services available at village level is limited to scrub bulls. Availability and reach of
frozen semen of progeny tested bulls is also limited. With the result continuous inbreeding is
a matter of concern. It is therefore necessary to extend breeding services at village level to
cover all the breedable population. Scrub bulls should invariably be discarded. Frozen semen
and distribution facilities should be established in each and every district for wider coverage.
Crossbreeding of non-descript cattle with exotic semen is preferred, but care should be taken
not to breed pure indigenous breeds with exotic semen. Indiscriminate breeding of native
breeds with exotic semen already resulted in dilution of native breeds and with it inherent
breeding problems in future generations. National policy on breeding is to be re-reviewed. In
the quest for milk production, cross breeding was used as a tool and with the result India has
become the world's largest milk producer. However, a carefully and critically reviewed
breeding policy is in the interest of not only planners but also livestock owners. From the
data detailed above, milk production and per capita availability of milk targets are likely to
be achieved in near future and hence a need for effective National Breeding Policy.

Health cover is another major limitation. Pre-monsoon Vaccination for HS and BQ is done
by Animal Husbandry departments. FMD vaccinations are also being done by majority of the
states. Recurrence of FMD, due to variation in strain in vaccinated animals is a cause for
concern. Avian Flu is causing huge financial losses for poultry farmers. More attention
should be laid to control the spread of this disease. Brucellosis is another disease in the field,
a disease of Zoonotic importance, is a cause for worry. Though calf hood vaccine is available
it is not used extensively. Abortion in late pregnancy causes extensive financial damage and
extended reproductive cycle to livestock owners. Animal remaining a carrier lifelong is
another worry for field veterinarians. A landless labour with a aborted cow with no milk
income is the worst case scenario.
 Many a time exportable milk and milk commodities are not allowed abroad due to high
bacterial load/somatic cell count. Principles of Clean milk production are ignored by
livestock owners with the result milk with high somatic cell count are procured by diaries.
Mastitis milk invariably finds its way to diaries and thus to human consumption.
 Small ruminant production has not received its due significance in the country, though they
contribute significantly to meat production. In fact, stall feeding of small ruminants for
exploitation of growth is confined to research activities. Simply these animals graze, grow
and get slaughtered. Production levels of meat of these animals are low in comparison to
western standards.
3



Pack animals are neglected due to the availability of mechanical power at cheaper rates and
comfort. With the result, they have no or limited role to play in society. Even for simple
agricultural operation like weeding, bullocks are not available. Maintenance of these animals
has become a burden to farmers. However, energy crisis and increase in cost of fossil fuels,
make these animals significant from their redundancy.
Droughts/floods ravage, feed resources routinely, thus making milk production activity
costlier. Valuable forest resources, such as forest grasses though lying in godowns, are not
put to use for feeding. Due to their lower bulk density, these grasses cannot be transported
from place of procurement to place of use.
Housing concept for animals is non existent, since majority of animals owners are landless.
Any physical comfort provided to the animals according to season, results in better animal
performance. However, open or no housing concept is responsible for not providing ideal
environment for milk production.
4
Opportunities of organized farm practices for increasing Livestock Production
K. Ravikala, T. K. Patbandha, K. S. Murthy*, S. Marandi**, M. D. Odedra
Dept. of Livestock Production management (* CBF, ** ILFC)
Dependence on agriculture as main livelihood declined from 70% in the early years
independence to 58% as per 2001 census with a land holding size less than two hectares of land
and other 32% of rural households are landless owning 85% of livestock and deriving 50% of
income from animal husbandry sector. Livestock sector provides employment to 22.45 millions
(5.8% of total workforce in the country) and is the only sector hitherto depicted positive growth
during the last three decades. Being number one in world scenario in terms of milk production
does not do any good to India in terms of productivity per animal, which is abysmally low. Sheep
and goat production is still a backyard livestock sector maintained mostly on grazing and
browsing top feed resources with no scientific approach. The only livestock sector that can boast
of being maintained and organized on Scientific principles in our country is Poultry but in this
sector return over investments is not very encouraging. The scope of this paper is to discuss how
an organized farming principles help livestock owners to enhance livestock productivity. Good
farm practices are not only essential to enhance livestock production, but also to produce
exportable clean and standard livestock products according to International standards. Let us do
SWOT analysis of dairying sector before discussing further:
Strengths
Weaknesses
Opportunities
Threats
Demand
Perishability
Value addition
Non-oraganized sector
Margins
Low productivity
Export potential
-Flexibility of product Procurement logistics
--mix
Availability of raw Problematic
--material
distribution
Technical manpower
Competition
--Technology transfer
--The concept of liberalization from labor intensive work by resorting to mechanization or
automation (weaning, feeding, watering, milking, waste removal) in livestock industry is
increasingly catching momentum, but we can not afford to separate importance of labor
involvement in livestock industry even with mechanization. We rear livestock for obtaining
production for as long as possible but not maximum production for short term as mandated
elsewhere. Therefore, our animals must go on reproducing regularly for long. Reproduction is not
a luxury, but an outcome of continued well being and feeling. Let us keep in mind that 85% of
livestock owners are landless and plan the livestock centric programmes accordingly.
Some of the critical areas that need immediate concern are:
Housing: It is almost absent and livestock are tied to trees and sheep and goat are kept in open
pens. Cheap housing can be erected with elevated floors and some kind of roof over. Comfortable
floor space with required bedding and housing ameliorates stress. Plantation of shade providing
trees around roof and paddock has been a good option in tropical climate. Thatched roofs are also
a good option. There is no thumb rule for housing, but a comfortable house will provide ideal
conditions for the living of the animals.
Silent heat in buffaloes: Buffaloes contribute 55% of Indian milk production in spite of their
being silent breeders during peak stress season. Ponds, wetting, splashing, fogging, misting are
provided to buffaloes on organized farms in Punjab and Haryana but a wallowing pond is a simple
answer to reduce body heat of buffaloes. Providing shade by means of trees additionally breaks
photoperiod signals by 2-3 hrs during peak noon results in exhibiting signs of estrus more
prominently.
5
Conception rate (CR): Artificial Insemination Worker (AIW) knowledge and inherent attitude
are the key factors for variation in CR. Thorough rectal examination of cow alone before
attempting to load AI gun will reduce number of AIs carried out by the inseminator drastically
and undesired impact on economics of breeding program by simultaneously reducing precious
semen utilization and intrauterine infections.
Feeding, watering and devices: Feeding and watering are labor intensive and hence not
performed as warranted. Frequent feeding and watering are two cardinal areas for improving
appetite, increasing DMI and thereby enhancing productivity of animals. A small water tank for
round the clock availability of water and a portable manger for feeding are required for 2-3
livestock owing farmers. Cool water in summer and warm water in winter enhances water intake
and milk production.
Livestock Density on a farm: Excess livestock (Calves, heifers, dry cows, infertile and senile
animals, bullocks, disabled) become constant disturbing factor on other productive animals and
economics of farm. Efficient culling is not possible due to religious sentiments in the country, as
culled animals invariably find their way to slaughter houses. Panjarapoles, Goshalas also have
their limitations for housing excess stock. Our country has 24 National parks in almost all the
states where sufficient fodder remains for wild life. Animals live there freely under natural
conditions. A national debate with regard to disposal of animals is required and the agenda to be
fully implemented. Sexing of semen for insemination is another option to obtain desired
progenies, but sexed semen is not available on large scale. Till then the best principle is, "keep
few animals and breed the few with the superior animal".
Faster Milking: Cow yields maximum when she enjoys milking. Importance of faster milking (67minutes) is well known. As is well known, dairying operations are mostly dominated by women
work force. A skilled worker may be able to milk faster, a woman milker may take a longer time.
If lady milkers are involved, two workers can sit on either side of the animal and faster milking
can be acheived.
Challenge of Mastitis: With huge crossbred population dotting dairy industry, mastitis is one of
the most economically important disease of cows. It is not very common in goats, sheep, camels
and grazing herds of indigenous cows and buffaloes, as these animals generally do not sit after
milking and their teat canal get sufficient time to seal restricting passage of disease causing
microbes through it. Heavy yielders lose lot of their energy during milking and get somewhat
exhausted and thus try to sit down soon after milking. A better way to prevent mastitis is to make
the animal standing for half an hour after milking. Clean milk production is dependent on mastitis
occurrence and better prevent the disease.
Three cardinal areas viz., feeding, breeding and management play a crucial role in enhancing
livestock productivity and these are clubbed and detailed as a rational thought of Livestock
production management that may yield dimensions for the benefit of mankind.
1. Pride in our germplasm: Some of indigenous breeds like Gir, Shahiwal and Red Sindhi
are easy to manage, disease resistant, consume less feed and yield 8-10 litres of milk per
day. Maintenance of these animals is easy and returns over feed cost are attractive for
landless labour. Besides A-2 alleles present in the milk of indigenous cattle and buffaloes
have immense health benefits like dilatation of endothelium of coronary arteries, antidiarrhoeal properties etc. There is a need to create niche market in India and abroad for
milk and semen of our cattle.
2. Dry fodder to your rescue: Animals can thrive on dry fodder for long and productive
animals need concentrate and green fodder as additional supplements. Indian dairy
industry is crop by- product based. Diversion of agricultural wastes such as straw,
groundnut shell powder, cotton stalks as fuel, for paper and briquetting industries should
be withheld and these must be conserved for animal feeding. Forest Departments should
help dairy farmers in droughts/floods by supplying grass bales at subsidized rate.
6
3. Methane Emission: Ruminant digestive system is such that methane production is a
natural by-product of forage fermentation in rumen. Different research workers evolved
various methods to reduce methane production. Alternative approach may be to
trap/absorb/convert the emitted methane by chemical or biological means for useful
purpose (fuel or other compounds).
4. Alternative source of energy production: Ruminants possess heavy body weights and
they keep on moving for sufficient length of time under loose housing system. The
momentum, thus produced due their movement may be converted in to energy by
providing designer floorings, mangers and water troughs where large numbers of cattle are
maintained. Pack animals are nowadays totally forgotten due to extensive use of
automotive power. Energy crisis due to exhaustion of fossil fuel will ultimately draw our
attention to pack animals.
5. Multiple births: There is an established linkage between number of teats and offspring
born at single parturition as is the case in dogs and sows that have been gifted with
functional systems to facilitate multiple birth. This linkage in cows and buffaloes may be
in quiescent stage which leads to single off springs though they posse four teats. There is a
need to identify and re-establish such linkage, if existed earlier, in order to easily multiply
elite animals naturally and more economically.
6. Clean Milk production: In the interest of dairy industry future milk pricing will be based
on somatic cell and bacterial counts of the milk supplied to dairies. This facilitates the
farmers to adopt clean milk production techniques for producing hygienic milk on his
farm.
Let us glance at the basic tenets of livestock production, i.e., breeding, feeding and health
management from international perspective:
(a) Genetics and Breeding
Historically, domestication and the use of conventional livestock breeding techniques have
been largely responsible for the increases in yield of livestock products that have been observed
over recent decades. At the same time, considerable changes in the composition of livestock
products have occurred. Changes in demand for livestock products have been met by a
combination of conventional techniques, such as breed substitution, crossbreeding and withinbreed selection, future changes are likely to be met increasingly from new techniques. Of the
conventional techniques, selection among breeds or crosses is a one-off process, in which the
most appropriate breed or breed cross can be chosen, but further improvement can be made only
by selection within the population. In the future, many developed countries will see a continuing
trend in which livestock breeding focuses on other attributes in addition to production and
productivity, such as product quality, increasing animal welfare, disease resistance and reducing
environmental impact.
In developing countries, if livestock are to continue to contribute to improving livelihoods
and meeting market demands, the preservation of farm animal genetic resources will be critical in
helping livestock adapt to climate change and the changes that may occur in these systems, such
as shifts in disease prevalence and severity. In developed countries, the narrowing animal genetic
resource base in many of the intensive livestock production systems demonstrate a need to
maintain as broad a range of genetic resources as possible, to provide genetic insurance against
future challenges and shocks. Institutional and policy frameworks that encourage the sustainable
use of traditional breeds and in situ conservation need to be implemented, and more
understanding is needed of the match between livestock populations, breeds and genes with the
physical, biological and economic landscape (FAO 2007).
(b) Nutrition
The nutritional needs of farm animals with respect to energy, protein, minerals and
vitamins have long been known, and these have been refined in recent decades. Various
requirement determination systems exist in different countries for ruminants and non-ruminants,
which were originally designed to assess the nutritional and productive consequences of different
7
feeds for the animal once intake was known. However, a considerable body of work exists
associated with the dynamics of digestion, and feed intake and animal performance can now be
predicted in many livestock species with high accuracy. A large agenda of work still remains
concerning the robust prediction of animal growth, body composition, feed requirements, and the
outputs of waste products from the animal and production costs. Such work could go a long way
to help improve the efficiency of livestock production and meeting the expectations of consumers
and the demands of regulatory authorities.
Better understanding of the processes involved in animal nutrition could also contribute to
improved management of some of the trade-offs that operate at high levels of animal
performance, such as those associated with lower reproductive performance. While understanding
of the science of animal nutrition continues to expand and develop, most of the world’s livestock,
particularly ruminants in pastoral and extensive mixed systems in many developing countries,
suffer from permanent or seasonal nutritional stress. Poor nutrition is one of the major production
constraints in smallholder system. Much research has been carried out to improve the quality and
availability of feed resources, including work on sown forages, forage conservation, the use of
multi-purpose trees, fibrous crop residues and strategic supplementation. There are also prospects
for using novel feeds from various sources to provide alternative sources of protein and energy,
such as plantation crops and various industrial (including ethanol) by-products. The potential of
such feeds is largely unknown. Given the prevalence of mixed crop-livestock systems in many
parts of the world, closer integration of crops and livestock in such systems can give rise to
increased productivity and increased soil fertility.
Addressing the nutritional constraints faced by pastoralists in extensive rangeland systems
in the developing world is extremely difficult. While there is potential to improve livestock
productivity in semiarid and arid areas, probably the most feasible solutions require integrated
application of what is already known, rather than new technology. This could involve
dissemination of information from early warning systems and drought prediction, for example, so
that herders can better manage the complex interactions between herd size, feed availability and
rainfall (NRC 2009).
(c) Disease
Animal diseases generate a wide range of biophysical and socio-economic impacts that
may be both direct and indirect, and may vary from localized to global. The economic impacts of
diseases are increasingly difficult to quantify, largely because of the complexity of the effects that
they may have, but they may be enormous as per the available data the total costs of foot-andmouth disease in the UK may have amounted to $18–25 billion between 1999 and 2002. The last
few decades have seen a general reduction in the burden of livestock diseases, as a result of more
effective drugs and vaccines and improvements in diagnostic technologies and services. At the
same time, new diseases have emerged, such as avian influenza H5N1, which have caused
considerable global concern about the potential for a change in host species from poultry to man
and an emerging global pandemic of human influenza.
A difficulty in assessing the changing disease status in much of the developing world is
the lack of data, a critical area where progress needs to be made if disease diagnostics, monitoring
and impact assessment are to be made effective and sustainable. Globally, the direct impacts of
livestock diseases are decreasing, but the total impacts may actually be increasing, because in a
globalized and highly interconnected world, the effects of disease extend far beyond animal
sickness and mortality. For the future, the infectious disease threat will remain diverse and
dynamic, and combating the emergence of completely unexpected diseases will require detection
systems that are flexible and adaptable in the face of change. Travel, migration and trade will all
continue to promote the spread of infections into new populations.
Over the long term, future disease trends could be heavily modified by climate change.
For some vector-borne diseases such as malaria, trypanosomiasis and bluetongue, climate change
may shift the geographical areas where the climate is suitable for the vector. Reports on the effect
on climate change, especially elevated temperature, has already changed the overall abundance,
seasonality and spatial spread of endemic helminths in the UK. This has obvious implications for
8
policy-makers and the sheep and cattle industries, and raises the need for improved diagnosis and
early detection of livestock parasitic disease, along with greatly increased awareness and
preparedness to deal with disease patterns that are greatly changing.
Climate change may have impacts not only on the distribution of disease vectors. Some
diseases are associated with water, which may be exacerbated by flooding and complicated by
inadequate water access. Droughts may force people and their livestock to move, potentially
exposing them to environments with health risks to which they have not previously been exposed.
While the direct impacts of climate change on livestock disease over the next two to three decades
may be relatively muted, there are considerable gaps in knowledge concerning many existing
diseases of livestock and their relation to environmental factors, including climate. Future disease
trends are likely to be heavily modified by disease surveillance and control technologies.
Potentially effective control measures already exist for many infectious diseases, and whether
these are implemented appropriately could have considerable impacts on future disease
prevention.
9
Strategies for Sustainable Milk Production in Cattle and Buffaloes
M.R. Gadariya, T.K. Patbandha*, S. Marandi, P.S. Dalal and P.H. Vataliya**
Instructional Livestock Farm Complex (* LPM, ** AGB)
Junagadh Agricultural University
1. Introduction:
India has perhaps the fastest growing economy in the world and mainly depends on the
agrarian sector as a tool for progress. Dairy sector is emerging as the highest contributor to the
agricultural wealth of India, surpassing even cereals. India is the highest milk producing country
in the world contributing 17% of the world production. The annual milk production in India has
reached 127.9 mill. tones ( 291 gm /d per Capita availability) in 2012 (vs. 17 mill. tonnes in
1951). Sustainable dairy farming is an interaction of many factors that influence production and
reproduction efficiencies, environment, longevity of livestock and input management.
1.1. Bovine Population and change during different periods: The bovine population (304
million) is the highest in India. Fortunately, our country is blessed with vast animal genetic
resources of dairy type cattle and buffaloes. Present population of cattle and buffalo is
respectively, 7.98 and 8.77 mill. in Gujarat and 199.08 and 105.34 mill. in India (Table-1).
Gujarat state possesses 4.01 and 8.33% of Country’s livestock population of corresponding
species.
Table-1. Population of cattle and buffalo and trend of change in population
Region / Species
Population (mill. Nos.)
% annual change
1992
1997
2003
2007
92-97
97-02 2002-07 1992-07
India : Cattle
204.58 198.88 185.18 199.08
-0.56
-1.38
1.50
-0.18
Buffalo
84.21
89.92
97.92 105.34
1.36
1.78
1.52
1.34
Gujarat: Cattle
6.78
6.75
7.42
7.98
-0.09
2.00
1.49
1.00
Buffalo
5.47
6.28
7.14
8.77
2.97
2.74
4.58
2.51
Saurashtra: Cattle
2.16
2.11
2.21
2.32
-0.46
0.95
1.00
0.46
Buffalo
1.17
1.42
1.56
1.93
4.27
1.97
4.74
2.63
Among bovines, cattle outnumbered buffaloes indicating livestock economy as the cattle
economy, but cattle population has remained almost static in the country as buffaloes are
preferred over cattle. However, Gujarat has witnessed a growth (1% p.a) in cattle number. The
annual growth in buffalo population was encouraging, the rate being higher in Gujarat (2.51%) as
compared to India (1.34 %).
1.2 Trend of milk production in India and Gujarat : The total annual milk production during
last 15 years (1992-93 in 2007-08) increased from 3795.2 to 7911.7 thous. tones in Gujarat state
and 58000 to 107900 thous. tones in the country. The share of the state was 7.33 % in India’s total
milk production (Table-2).The over-all increase in milk production was more in Gujarat than in
the country (7.23 vs 5.74 %) during different 15 years time period of the study might be
contributed by presence of well defined bovine breeds. Marked increase in annual milk production
in the state (108.47%) and country (86.03%) is attributed primarily to increase in number of dairy
animals and to some extent on account of improvement in milk yields. However, it is opined that
increase in number of dairy animals rather than improvement in milk yields contributed overall
increase in milk production.
10
Table-2. Milk production and trend of change in the production
Region
Milk, thousand tonnes
% annual change
1992
1997
2002
2007
1992-97 1997-02 2002-07
1992-2007
India
58000 69100 86200
107900
3.83
4.95
5.03
5.74
Gujarat
3795.2 4830.6 6089.4
7911.7
5.46
5.21
5.99
7.23
Saurashtra 1188.5 1348.7 1572.1
1968
2.70
3.31
5.04
4.37
Dairying in India is by-large in the hands of small/marginal land-holders and agriculture
labourers. The national average land holding is 1.68 hectares per farm family and cattle and/or
buffalo is a part of family. Eighty per cent of 97.7 million farm families in India possess cattle and
/or buffalo. Even agriculture labourers (11.5% of 97.7 million) possess one or two dairy cattle /
buffalo. Co-operative dairying has changed the life-style of farm family. Livestock keeping in
general and dairying in particular, once a subsidiary enterprise to agriculture, has now become the
major enterprise economically and crop production is becoming dependent on dairying. Dairying
generates plenty of jobs for rural women and is major instrument in bringing about socioeconomic transformation of rural poor in our country. The economic activity based on dairy
farming alone can reverse the trend of migration of rural masses to cities in search for
employment.
2. Sustainable Milk Production in Cattle and Buffaloes :
Sustainable dairy farming is continuity of viability of the foundation stock with continuous
improvement in economic traits viz., milk yield, persistency/efficiency of lactation, productive
life, nos. of calving per life span (breeding efficiency), endurance, disease resistance and tolerance
to tropical temperature with optimum age and size/ body weight at puberty/first breeding/ calving.
Sustainable dairy farming is an interaction of many factors that influence production and
reproduction, environment, longevity of lives and input management. It depends on the efficiency
of management of inputs, manpower and livestock to optimise the production viz., milk yield,
inter calving period, replacement stock, sale of surplus young stock, production of fodder,
summer stress management and sale price of principal commodity (milk).
Since, ever growing human population is making scarcely available land still scarcer, our
aim to improve milk output should be by way of improving productivity of the animals rather than
increasing the number of bovine population. Concerted efforts are being directed towards the
dairy farmers contributing major proportion of our country’s milk production to provide necessary
input and make them adopt newer technologies in breeding, housing, feeding, rearing and health
care to ensure substantial growth in milk output and higher returns to dairy farmers. Efforts are
also directed towards new product development through biotechnology (genetically modified
cultures and convenient packaging ensuring longer shelf life). There exists a vast difference
between urban and rural milk consumption indicating scope for increased domestic demand is still
very high.
2.1 Problem Confronting Sustainable Dairy Production:
There is wide variation in agro-climatic condition, biodiversity and ecology, socioeconomic and cultural background of people and types/breeds of dairy bovines reared. It is
necessary to plan for dairy development specific to each micro level, viz., a village, a taluka and a
district. This would result in optimum utilisation of local resources and ensure better viability of
the programmes and higher cost benefits ratio. It is necessary to consider environmental impact
viz., water bodies pollution, over grazing of grasslands, degradation of watersheds, deforestation.
2.2 Tips / strategies for efficient identification and formulation of dairy farming:
1
Gradual improvement of existing indigenous breeds of dairy bovine animals.
2
Gradual removal of useless stock and replacement with high yielding superior quality
animals.
3
Gradual manipulation in husbandry practices for improving animal productivity and
11
adoption of biotechnological interventions in feed and fodder, reproduction and growth
aspects.
4.1 Need for Government role in improving the supply of inputs and service to dairy farmers /
beneficiaries at their doorsteps with minimum cost.
4.2 Contribution from various NGOs/agencies to ease the problems of farmers in association
with the governmental agencies
5.1 Need for identifying such technologies, which demand less capital, less time and minimum
operations.
5.2 Exploring the possibilities of providing loans at the lowest interest rates with subsidies for
dairy development activities.
6.1 Need for developing viable farmers’ milk producers cooperative societies at village and
district levels, federations, boards and corporations, if not existing.
6.2 Need for simultaneous development of cold chain storage and marketing facilities especially
for milk and milk products, if not existing.
7
Need for extensions services from the Government, Agriculture Universities, R&D
institutions, federations and corporation, besides mobilization of various input services from
various agencies.
2.3 Planning a Sustainable Dairy Project: Consideration of information for planning and
development
of new dairy husbandry projects for throughout sustainability1 Dairy Cattle
Existing number position of dairy animals in the different dairy sub-zones of
Population
the country through available records , Classification of available information
2 Feed
2.1. Pasture grazing land
Resources
2.2. Green fodder availability and short-falls in supply, Availability of dry
Available
fodder
2.3. Concentrate, type and cost, quality, brand , Mineral mixer
3 Categories of 3.1 Land less agricultural workers, marginal, small, medium and large
Holdings
farmers.
3.2 Extent of Usage of Natural Resources Like Land, Human (labour), Capital
and entrepreneurship.
4 Existing
4.1.Veterinary hospitals, dispensaries, and rural veterinary dispensaries
Infrastructure (veterinary primary health centers), AI centers- AI breeding facilities with
facilities
liquid or frozen
Semen banks – semen collection, evaluation and freezing facilities with
adequate facilities for storing of frozen semen.
4.2. Cooperatives – primary / secondary societies for meeting the farmers
demands, provision of inputs inclusive of soft term, short term and medium
term loans.
4.3. Extension services – Animal husbandry and dairying.
4.4.Chilling centers–milk collection and chilling units and transportation to
processing units.
4.7. Feed plants – manufacturing of compounded feed.
4.8. Manpower availability.
5 Prod.
and 5.1. Prod. of milk per year per animal and per one thousand human.
Supply.
of 5.2. Actual domestic demand (consumption)
Milk
5.3. Surplus available for export.
3. Balance between Social, economic and environmental goals for Sustainable dairying:
Till date Indian dairy farmers have insulated themselves form innovation when it comes
to applying environment friendly practices and pursuing new technologies because lack of
knowledge or monitory might. Environmental degradation has holistic impacts on our ecosystem,
plants, animals, water bodies and even the soil. Pollution can compromise local cultural and
spiritual values and may bring society’s pressure to bear on the dairy industry.
12
3.1 Animal waste management:
Dairy farms produce large amounts of waste in small areas. For example, a single dairy
cow produces approximately 50-60 kg of wet manure per day. If properly stored and used,
manure from animal feeding operations can be a valuable resource. Application of manure
(FYM) to land has been used in India since ages and it is environmentally sound approach to
fertilizing fields. Manure can also be used in digesters (which decompose manure and capture the
methane gas emitted also called Gobar gas plant) to produce electricity, and other useful byproducts such as ethanol. However, if not managed correctly, the waste produced by Dairy farms
can pollute the environment, especially water.
Consequences of waste mismanagement:
Improperly stored or used, animal waste can pollute rivers and underground drinking
water supplies. Inadequately sized and poorly-lined ponds or other storage structures allow
manure to escape into the surrounding environment. Poorly maintained and unlined corrals and
contaminated wastewater can pollute ground water.
Though India is number one producer of milk in world but still it lacks any consolidate
policy for sustainable dairy or dairy waste management. Most of the livestock farms and dairies
lack necessary waste management system. India also misses any norms for land selection for
establishment of dairy farm. Farm location for example, on hillsides, along streams, and sensitive
ground water areas, complicates sound animal waste management.
Animal waste has the potential to contribute pollutants such as nutrients (e.g., nitrate,
phosphorous), organic matter, sediments, pathogens (e.g., giardia, cryptosporidium), heavy
metals, hormones, antibiotics and ammonia to the waters we use for drinking, swimming and
fishing. In addition to water quality problems, Dairies may also contribute to significant air
quality problems, including dust and odours.
3.2 Actions suggested:
Approach, Establishment, Operation etc.: Understand that high standards of environmental
compliance are important both from a public health view point and commit to achieve good
environmental outcomes in given limitation of known technologies and basic economics. Ensure
that all effluent management infrastructure (solids separation, effluent storage, low application
rate, irrigation) will be at good practice levels, meeting or exceeding Regional/National standards
which ever applicable. Adopt systems and procedures that could ensure the sustainable operation
of effluent management infrastructure, including ensuring effluent is applied to pasture at
appropriate soil moisture levels, with appropriate irrigation rotation and suitable records are
maintained. Preserve valuable waster bodies, ground water aquifers and environment should be
our priority. Therefore Stocks should be excluded from water ways.
Nutrient management: There is one thumb rule “What goes into the cow, Comes out of the
cow”. Nutrient management also encompasses providing crops a “balanced diet” for desired
production while minimizing adverse environmental effects. Nutrients should be applied to crops
at rates needed to optimize crop growth and to maintain soil productivity. To avoid contamination
of air or water, excessive nutrients should not be applied to fields.
Efficient water use: As regards to water use in the dairy farm (including practices to minimise
effluent volumes) and management of the farm water system (to ensure secure water supply for
stock). Focus on using water as efficiently as possible and reducing water loss in operations.
Ensure resources are both comprehensive and easy to use and do not hinder the financial
sustainability .
Greenhouse gas production: Ensure that bovines are well fed and well managed, thereby
reducing the volume of greenhouse gases produced per kilograms of milk solids produced.
Livestock emits 37 % of anthropogenic methane (methane produced by human activities,
agriculture). Methane production is a natural part of the digestion/ fermentation process of
ruminants. Carbon dioxide and methane are the by-products of this fermentation. Any cut in the
methane emissions would be beneficial. Experiments revealed another benefit of the gas-reducing
supplement is increase in daily milk production by nearly 1.3 lit of milk for each cow during the
trials. As methane production is an energy loss from the animal, a decrease in energy loss will
13
improve performance and increase milk production.
Dairy development/research and support programs should be structured to establish a
sustainable and environment friendly dairy farms. Government should increase funding for
programs that support / help and educate farmers for sustainable dairy farming in various waysreducing the cost of establishment / installation and subsidising sustainable technology.
Sustainable and environment friendly dairy farms are important components of regional food
systems, so programs that promote the expansion of these systems can also support the growth of
the dairy farming with sustainability.
4. Sustainable milk production in dairy cows and buffaloes in India:
4.1 Significant changes in the Indian dairy production systems: The liberalization of the
Indian economy, sustained economic and income growth over last couple of decades, and the
need to close the gape between milk supply and demand, has brought following significant
changes in the Indian dairy production systems1. A shift from extensive subsistence type system to intensive commercial type system
2. Use of high yielding foreign genetics, predominantly H.F., over traditional Indian genetics
3.
Cultural shift from primarily older, rural participants to younger, business oriented
participants
Above- (1) and (2) have resulted in higher risk of mastitis, increased lameness, decreased
reproductive performance, increased health problems and reduced lifespan.
4.2 Basic principles for sustainable management of dairy animals in commercial dairy
farms: Translating the Five freedoms (Welfare indicators for animals’ comfort) into basic
principles for humane and sustainable commercial dairy farming include –
1. Freedoms from Hunger and Thirst by ready access to fresh water and diet to maintain full
health and vigour, will also reduce the risk of metabolic disorders
2. Freedoms to express Normal behaviour by providing sufficient space, proper facilities and
company of the animal’s own kind, enabling them to socialize, exercise, forage and natural
herding instinct
3. Freedoms from Fear and distress by ensuring conditions and treatment which avoid mental
suffering, i.e., gentle handling during milking, general handling tying, untying ,weighing, A.I.,
treatment etc.,
4. Freedoms from Pain, injury /Disease by prevention or rapid diagnosis and treatment–dairy
environment be inspected for hazards and identified problems be dealt.
5. Freedoms from Discomfort by providing an appropriate environment including shelter and a
comfortable resting area–Cooling or heating mechanisms Fans, Sprinklers, and wallowing
pond , Ready access to shade and shelter, bare concrete not acceptable, Suitable indoor (sand,
waterbed) and outdoor (ash, woodchips but not saw dust) bedding materials
4.3 Important issues and strategies in Indian dairy context:
1. Transportation of cows and buffaloes: Facilities for loading, transportation, unloading be
designed, constructed and maintained to permit proper handling
2. Castration and Dehorning in dairy animals: Surgical method causes less pain of castration and
use of
commercial electric dehorner in calves under 30 days of age are recommended.
3. Prolong tying of dairy cows and buffaloes without exercise: discomfort to animals and health,
limb/hoof problems, loose housing is preferred.
4. Neglect of unwanted calves: Protection from wind, heat, cold, over-crowding in pen,
Discomfort while transportation
5. Mastitis, Lameness and Ketosis: Different types of stresses, housing and sanitary conditions,
feeding
management during dry period and early lactation predispose / attribute to these
problems.
4.4 Management of dairy animals for economical /Sustainable production:
Management is the key factor which determines the economic sustainability of dairy
farming. Profitability of the farm is directly proportional to the target of getting a healthy dairy
animal per year. The principles for a sustainable farm are - maintain good high yielding animals
14
(in less number) and assist the farm by proving the required environment to maintain the optimum
breeding and lactation efficiencies including supply of farm grown mixed-green fodder round the
year. Optimum values for economical traits for sustainable cattle and buffalo farming. are
presented in Table-3.
Table-3 Optimum values for economical traits in cattle and buffalo for sustainable farming
S.N.
Reproductive
Optimum value
Value indicating serious
characteristics
problem
1
Calving Interval
12.5 to 13 months
> 14 months
(14 -16 months in Indigenous (> 18 months in Indigenous
cows and buffaloes)
cows and buffaloes)
2
Services per conception
< 1.7
> 2.5
3
First service conception 50- 60 %
< 40 %
rate
4
Conception with < 3 > 90%
< 90 %
services
5
Age at first calving
30-33 months in CB and > 35 months, CB and exotic
exotic cattle (45 to 50 months cattle (> 55 months in
in
Indigenous
cows
and
Indigenous cows& buffaloes) buffaloes)
6
Abortion rate
< 5%
> 10 %
7
Culling
%
for < 10 %
> 10 %
reproductive problem
Productive characteristics
1
Wet average, lit /d / milch > 8.5 in CB and exotic cattle < 7 in CB and exotic cattle
animal
> 6.5 in Indigenous cows &
< 5 in Indigenous cows &
buffaloes
buffaloes
2
% Milch animals
> 80% in CB and exotic < 65 % in CB and exotic
cattle
cattle
> 70% in Indigenous cows & < 50% in Indigenous cows &
buffaloes
buffaloes
3
Lactation period
10 months
< 8 or > 12 months
4.5 Management factors :
1. Nutritional management: Nutrition directly affects production and reproduction in dairy
animals (Old adage- “Milk is from the mouth of cow”). Round the year supply of minimum of
10 kg mixed green (legume+cereal) fodder, ad lib. good quality dry fodder and concentrate @ 1
to 2 kg /d h for maintenance and 40 to 50 % of daily milk production as production allowance
have been recommended for dairy bovines. Balanced and economical feeding (as accounts for
60-70% of total rearing cost) maintaining positive energy balance during dry period to improve
body condition and avoiding negative energy balance (200 g/h/d of bypass fat or 300 ml oil) in
high yielding cows and buffaloes with > 20 or 25 lit a day) in early lactation to sustain
production and restore reproductive efficiency. During first 3 months post-partum, 19 % CP
instead of 16 to 18 % CP is recommended in the ration of high yielding dairy bovines. Role of
vitamins (vitamin- ‘A’, ‘ E’ ) and minerals ( Ca, P, Na, Cl and trace minerals like Se, Zn, Co,
Cu, Mn, Fe etc.) and their interactions are also the important considerations in feeding
management of dairy animals, hence 30 gm /d/ head of common salt and mineral mixture, each
are advocated to maintain their efficiencies at optimum.
2. Lactation management: Nursing often delays oesteus and ovulation in dairy animals. Suckling
coupled
with under-nutrition are important factors to lower the reproductive efficiency.
Restricted suckling in indigenous cows and buffaloes and proper feeding to maintain positive
energy balance may be helpful in this regard.
15
3. Breeding management: Record keeping, efficient heat detection ( Based on signs, using
teaser, Heat expectancy chart), Timely breeding (NS / AI), Preparation of list of down-calvers,
care at calving etc.
4. Health management: Overall health status affects production and reproduction in dairy
animals. Mastitis, Ketosis, milk fever, lameness are the health problems associated with dairy
bovines.
Regular / periodical CMT be practiced to minimize incidence of clinical mastitis.
Annual testing for chronic diseases is recommended. Nutritional management during dry period
and early lactation to reduce the cases of metabolic disorders is essential for sustained milk
production.
5. Sustainable production systems for dairy cattle and buffaloes in relation to heat stress:
Heat stress is the sum of forces external to a homeothermic animal that acts to displace body
temperature from the resting state. It disrupts physiology and productive performance.
Depending upon the severity and duration the feed intake (DMI) reduces by 8 to 12% and
milk production by 0.6 kg. per day.
Approaches /Ways to counteract heat stress:
1. Lowering environmental temperature by modifying the animal house/structure, or by
introducing cooling facilities to facilitate heat loss from animals by- i) Wallowing tank for
buffaloes, ii) Fans, iii) Sprinklers/ foggers/misters, iv) Desert coolers and v) Air
conditioners.
2. Altering feeding / Nutritional modification: As heat stress depresses the feed intake, it is
important to increase the energy content (77 % vs. 70 -74 % TDN) of the diet of dairy
animals. Use by-pass protein in form of fish meal and 17.5 % CP (instead 14.5 % CP) diet
have been found to sustain production in heat stressed high yielding dairy cows.
3. Efficient Shelter recommendation-Orientation (East-west), Floor space (Stall length 6
ft.x4 ft W), Flooring material (Concrete, Insulated concrete, Rubber mat, 2’’Straw on
concrete, Mattress), and evaluating animal comfort (to get fair idea about modificationtime and process of standing, lying, stepping-up, physical condition of knee, hock, abscess
brushes etc.), roof height (min. 2.5 mt.), roofing material (colour), shedding (10% gain in
milk production by shedding the cows), ventilation ( either fan powered or automated
natural), evaporative cooling (sprinklers at back not the udder, water application 0.5 to 3
min to cows, enough air using 36” fans 12 to 15 min. at 15 minute cycle or evaporative
cooling foggers), bedding material [fabric covered mattress stall-bed, earth free stall bed,
sand bad, grooved floor design, straw bedded floor, deep straw bedding housing @ 8 to 13
kg/d/cow, slopped floor @ 2.5 kg/d/cow).
Other considerations:
1. Suggested lighting intensity and optimum photo-period is 16 to 18 hours for dairy cow
house in 10 to 30 lx to sustain or increase feed intake and milk yield by 6 to 16% .
2. Avoid over crowding and holding dairy animals in poorly cooled/ventilated holding area.
Also ensure air flow of 4-5 mph.
3. Mechanically opening of roof from the center, folding roof (lifting or lowering at the
eves).
4. Short photo-period (8 L:16 D) during dry period improves milk yield upto 10% during
lactation.
16
Need for Organized Sheep and Goat Farming in Changing Social Perspectives
M.R. Gadariya, S. Marandi, T.K. Patbandha*, K. Ravikala* and P. H. Vataliya**
Instructional Livestock Farm Complex (* LPM, ** AGB)
1. Introduction:
1.1 Importance of Sheep and goat on Indian Livestock sector:
Progressively increasing share of livestock sector is attributed to over-exploitation of land
resources, loss of soil fertility, land degradation, increasing population pressure on agricultural
land, low return from agriculture and changing food habits. Sheep and goat husbandry is popular
among many professional breeders and nomadic tribes and has been a key source for their
sustainable livelihood but has not reached to its true potential. This sector has been affected with
the pests of poverty, illiteracy, absence of market, middlemen and absence of proper scientific
management of flocks of these small ruminants. Present day challenges are complex for sheep and
goat husbandry as families engaged in their rearing are changing their lifestyle and patterns.
In India, goats and sheep contribute significantly to rural economy and the products
obtained from these grazing and browsing small ruminating animals maintained on natural
grazing lands free from harmful substances qualify these animals for organic standards in India.
Natural grasses in community, fallow and roadside land are the sources of feed material for these
animals. These grazing materials are poor in quality resulting in poor performance. Marked
imbalance exists between livestock units and available permanent pastures. Small ruminants are
forced to relish on traditional grazing land and browsing materials. Seasonal variation exists with
regards to quality and quantity of pasture and also the browsing materials affecting health and
performance of sheep and goats.
1.2 Population of Small Ruminants and production of wool :
Present population of sheep and goat respectively, 2.00 and 4.64 mill. in Gujarat and
71.56 and 140.54 mill. in India. Thus Gujarat state possesses 2.80 and 3.30 % of Country’s
livestock population of corresponding species. The state is having 11 to 14 % of each of sheep and
goat numbers of North- western (central arid and semi arid) region.
Table-1. Population of sheep and goat and trend of change in population
Region /Species
Population (mill. Nos.)
% annual change
1992
1997
2002
2007 92-97 97-02 1997-2002 1992-2007
India :Sheep
50.78 57.49
61.47
71.56
2.64 1.38
3.28
1.94
Goat
115.28 122.72 124.36 140.54
1.29
0.27
2.60
1.20
Gujarat: Sheep
2.03
2.15
2.06
2.00
1.21 -0.82
-0.58
-0.08
Goat
4.24
4.38
4.54
4.64
0.66
0.74
0.44
0.57
Saurashtra: Sheep
1.11
1.15
1.13
1.02
0.72 -0.35
-1.95
-0.59
Goat
1.05
1.06
1.06
1.18
0.19
0.00
2.26
0.73
Table-2. Wool and hair production and trend of change in the production
Region
Wool & hair, mill. Kg
% annual change
1992
1997
2002
2007 1992-97 1997-02 2002-07 1992-2007
India
38800
44400 50500 43900
2.89
2.75
-2.61
0.88
Gujarat
1670.9
2418.2 2711 2995.9
8.94
2.42
2.10
5.29
Saurashtra
1008.6
1393
1428 1668.1
7.62
0.50
3.36
4.36
Sheep numbers remained static in Gujarat but increased by 1.94 % p.a. in India. Goat
population increased annually @ 0.44 to 0.74 % in Gujarat and at varying rate of 0.27 to 2.60 %
in India during last 15 years i.e., 1992-2007 (Table-1). This may be attributed to high rate of
17
reproduction (breeds at least thrice in two years and twins and triplets are common) and relative
greater resistance to disease. Total wool production of India and Gujarat during 2007-08 is
estimated to be 43900 mill. kg and 2995.10 mill. kg, respectively. The share of Gujarat during last
15 years is around 6.82 % in India’s wool production. There was an over-all increase of 5.29 %
p.a. in wool production in Gujarat. (Table-2)
2. Scope of Sheep Production:
As compared to cattle, they are more efficient in conversion of feed to products viz., Meat,
Milk and Wool. They give income three times in a year viz., once from sale of lams and two times
from sale of wool. In comparison to cattle, the return on investment on sheep starts earlier e.g.,
lambs may be marketed 8 to 9 months after ewes are bred. Wool clip is easy to store, transport
and market. Labour and housing requirements are minimal.
However sheep keeping is not an attractive profession. Wool has to compete with
synthetic fibers. Sheep are less resistant to diseases and parasites. Price of wool varies by region,
lot and grade and also influenced by political situations.
2.1 Characteristics of sheep production in North Western Region:
White carpet wool produced in the north-western India is exported to foreign countries.
Sheep meat is an important nutritious item in the diet of non-vegetarian section of people. In
India, special tribes of people rear sheep. Shepherds have adjusted the sheep rearing practices to
routine agricultural operation and practices prevalent in different tracts to get their quota of straws
and grass, helping the farmers to fertilize the land when they fold the flocks of 50 to 60 sheep as
the minimum economic unit. Small flock of 20 to 30 ewes is found as side occupation to farming.
Large flocks of 500 to 1000 sheep are found in west arid areas. Characteristics of sheep
production in North Western Region is detailed in Table-3.
Table-3 Characteristics of sheep production in North Western Region:
Comprising of Important / Principal
Contribution
Remarks
states / part
breeds
of zone in
India
Rajasthan,
Bikaneri, (Chokla,
Sheep
Wool from this region is considered
Punjab,
Magra and Nali) ,
Population
suitable for carpet manufacture and is
Haryana,
Lohi,
(Jaiselmeri, : 32 %
exported in large quantities. Joria
Gujarat, MP, Malpura, Sonadi) ,
Wool
prod. Region : Arid region of Kutchh,
and Western Marwadi,Patanwadi ,
: 64%
Saurashtra,
North-Gujarat
and
U.P.
Dumba etc
Rajasthan,
2.2 Sheep rearing in semi-arid region :
Table-4. Features and Cost & Returns from sheep farming with different flock size in Semiarid region:
Particulars
Small (< 30)
Medium(31-60) Large (>60) Over-all
Size of Operational holding, ha.
2.6
4.9
6.9
5.0
Flock size (Sheep)
24.0
43.4
91.4
54.3
Expenditure
Fodder and feed , %
62.5
58.6
52.0
56.1
Medicine, %
26.3
32.0
27.2
28.5
Hired labour, %
5.5
3.7
14.5
9.7
Interest, %
5.6
5.7
5.7
5.7
Total variable cost, Rs.
2115.0
2735.0
5667.0
3520.0
Returns
Animal sale, %
77.4
82.3
81.7
81.4
Milk, %
4.9
2.6
3.3
3.3
Wool, %
Manure, %
Total returns, Rs.
Return Over Variable Cost, Rs.
ROVC , Rs. Per animal
11.0
6.9
12,395.0
10,280.0
428.0
8.1
7.0
21,822.0
19,087.0
440.0
8.5
6.6
48,528.0
42,961.0
470.0
8.7
6.7
28,252.0
24,732.0
456.0
18
Ownership pattern revealed that sheep are reared in larger flocks. The flock size averaged
24 , 43 and 91 sheep, respectively, in small, medium and large category flocks .The cost of sheep
rearing was maximum on feed and fodder (56%), followed by veterinary care (28.5%), hired
labour (9.7%), and interest on capital (5.7%). Over-all annual average variable cost was Rs. 3520
per flock and Rs. 65 per sheep. The return from the sale of live animals (81%), wool (8.2%),
manure (6.7%) and milk (3.3%), together give a return of Rs. 28252 for a flock of about 50 sheep.
Overall return variable cost (net return /profit) was worked out to be Rs. 24732 per flock and Rs.
456 per animal per annum (Table-4).
3. Scope of goat farming as dairy industry and/or meat industry:
The money required to purchase a doe is relatively small. A good doe is expected to milk
for six to ten years. At the end of this, she may be sold for full salvage value. Returns start earlier
as a doeling can be bred at the age of 12 months, i.e., when it weighs 30-35 kg in general breeds.
The income from milk starts at about 16 to 18 months. Tropical goats like those of India produce
triplets and quadruplets. Goats require less feed (1/7th to 1/5th as much feed as a bovine). Goats
milk approaches nearest to human milk in fat and protein. Goat production can be integrated with
cropping system as it controls the growth of waste herbage or weeds roots can be maintained on
those.
However, goats destroy plant life as goat is a browsing animal. It nibbles or eats tender
leaves of shrubs trees and grassland. When not confined, goats destroy forest. Goat’s milk may
have peculiar flavour which is not liked by people. Labour requirement is more and dairying is a
full time job. It requires more labour to manage, feed and milk does as five does are equal to one
cow.
Though majority of goats in India are milked for domestic use and male kids and surplus
animals are sold for slaughter, specific areas in the country can be identified where emphasis is
more on meat or both or fibre only. North western zone comprises Haryana, Punjab,
Rajashthan,Western U.P. parts of M.P. and extends into Gujarat. The goats breeds of this region
are known for milk production. These are Jamnapari, Beetal, Barbari, Zakhrana, Sirohi, Surati,
Zalawadi, Gohilwadi, Kutchhi, Marwari, Mehsani etc. this group comprises 80% of total goat
population.
In India, the goats are in the hands of landless labourers. Most of the goats (80%) are for
meat purpose. But some of them are good milk yielders. Moreover the demand for milk in India is
far greater than the supply. Even when the situations are good, the dairy goat production has not
taken the shape of industry. Commercial goat farming must come up on two points :i) Peculiar
good quality of goat’s milk and ii) Goat’s feeding habits and digestive capacity. The goats’ milk
can be sold by mixing with bovine milk. With the current trend of prices of milk, and in future it
is expected that goat production will develop into industry.
3.1 Important factors governing profit in dairy goat:
In any business, the profit is the main motto. Generally, expenditure remains more or less
same for same number of goats producing more milk or less milk. So to have more profit the milk
production of goats must be on high level.
1. Select the breeding flock carefully. Higher the milk production per goat, higher the profit.
2. Prolificacy of does should be more/optimum with judicious culling of animals with low
production. Sound breeding programme should be followed.
3. Cost of housing and equipments should be as low as possible. They should be designed to
save labour and time.
4. Feed the animals with balanced ration. The feed should be as cheap as possible. If the feed
lacks in any one or more nutrients, there will be loss in production. The feeds of dairy goat
comprises of (1) fodder and (2) concentrates. If good quality fodder like legume grass or hay
is used, animals require less concentrates. This results in minimizing cost of feeding.
5. Keeping of records for milk production, prolificacy, growth etc. will help in proper evaluation
of animals. Records are very important for selection of animals.
19
6. A health programme should be prepared and adhered to, as sick and weak animals will not be
productive.
7. A uniform, attractive and high quality product should be marketed.
8. Goats like to live in natural condition. Hence provide fresh and clean water. They should be
allowed to move freely in the yard.
3.2 Experiences / findings on commercial goat rearing:
Size of initial flock of goats for the new entrepreneurs was observed to be an important
factor for the success of a commercial goat-farming project. The initial flock size of goats in the
small (< 100), medium (100-500) and large (>500) categories was respectively, 39, 53 and 300,
which subsequently rose to 63, 271 and 1169in established flock. The minimum number of
breeding goats in a commercial unit should be 50 to make it a self-sustaining unit (Table-5).
Table -5. Commercial goat farming of different flock size as an Agri-business opportunity:
FLOCK CHARACTERISTICS
SMALL
MEDIUM
LARGE
Flock Size
Flock Size
Flock Size
Initial Flock Size
39.1
53.3
300.0
Strength in Established farm Nos (
< 100 ( 63.4) 100-500 (271.0)
>500 (1169.0)
Av.)
Adult females / males
33.0 / 3.3
1557 / 6.1
610.0/109.0
Growing females / males, 6-12 mo.
7.5 / 2.8
14.0 / 14.1
75.0 / 75.0
Young stock, females / males, < 6 mo.
10.6 / 6.2
40.2 / 40.7
175.0/125.0
PATTERN
OF
CAPITAL
INVESTMENT
Value of animal
64,900
2,80,000
21,00,000
Sheds and structure
96,700
2,54,200
21,00,000
Equipments
22,900
19,700
1,25,000
Total Investment
1,84,500
5,53,900
43,25,000
Investment / goat
5,083
3.419
6,015
Av
feed
cost,
Rs.
/Year
(
%
of
total
feed
cost)
Feed cost
Green
Fodder
17,125 (12.89 % )
Dry
Fodder
33,645 (25.32 %)
Concentrates
77,166 (58.08 %)
Mineral
Mixture
04,446 (03.35 % )
Salt
00,504 (00.38 % )
Total feed cost
1,32,858 (100.00%)
Miscellaneous Expenditure
Electricity
Treatment
Insurance
Prophylaxis
Total
Expenditure / Doe
960
1,730
1,250
744
4,684
130
1,983
3,417
5,300
5,636
16,536
102
1,00,000
5,000
50,500
25,600
1,81,100
252
35,181
50,568
85,749
91,417
2,11,552
3,02,969
6,50,593
11,24,332
17,74,925
COSTS AND RETURNS
Fixed cost
Variable cost
Total cost
Cost per Goat
Returns from kids
Value of manure
Value of milk
Gross returns
Net return per farm
Net return per Goat
2,354
2,137
2,527
1,15,460
7,475
12,969
1,35,904
50,155
371
3,83,942
31,400
17,167
4,32,508
1,29,540
652
18,88,400
1,17,000
30,000
20,35,400
2,60,475
494
20
Information of Table -5 reveled that major initial investment was on the purchase of
breeding stock and construction of sheds and structures, which accounted for 47 per cent and 48
per cent of the total capital investment, respectively. In the traditional flocks, 75-80 per cent of the
total investment was made in acquiring the breeding stock .The total investment per breeding goat
in small (< 100), medium (100-500) and large (>500) categories was estimated to be Rs 5083, Rs
3419 and Rs 6015, respectively. The total investment at current prices should be around Rs 3,500
per breeding goat
Unlike traditional flocks, the expenditure on feed and fodder was the major component of
the cost of goat rearing on commercial farms and it accounted for 59 per cent of the total variable
cost. The concentrate feed and dry fodder accounted for 58 per cent and 25 per cent of the total
feed cost, respectively. Expenditure on electricity on large farms was quite high and needed to be
economized.
Production of Kids: Kids born from the goats were the major output of the commercial goat
farms. The kid mortality was estimated to range from 5.64 per cent in large farm to 12.28 per cent
in small farm. Mortality rate in kids was negatively associated with the flock size. This may be
mainly due to better management, feeding and preventive healthcare provided by the large
farmers. On overall farms, the estimated losses due to diseases in goats were 23.22 per cent of net
returns and 5.21 per cent of gross returns. There was a large variation in the magnitude of losses
due diseases across the farms (Table -5).
Costs and returns: Estimated costs and returns from goat farming revealed that unlike the
traditional flocks, where fixed cost was 10-15 per cent of the total cost, the fixed cost and variable
cost in commercial goat farming constituted 35.36 per cent and 64.64 per cent of the total cost,
respectively. The value of died adult goats alone accounted for 11.38 per cent of the total fixed
cost. This cost can be minimized through proper management. The feed was the major component
(59%) of cost on goat rearing (Table -5). Goat farms must reduce their cost of goat rearing to
remain in business by methods like (i) reducing fixed cost through expansion and minimizing
mortality of goats; and (ii) reducing feed cost through identifying cheaper sources of feeds and
their efficient purchases.
The gross returns from goat farming were maximum from the sale of animals (90 per cent),
followed by manure and milk (Table -5). The sale of milk, which constituted about 25 per cent of
the gross returns on the traditional goat flocks, was only a minuscule part of the returns on
commercial farms because (i) manual milking of a large number of goats involved huge labour
cost and affected other farm operations; and (ii) strategy to make available more milk to the kids
up to 3 months to attain proper growth.
3.3 Goat rearing in semi-arid region :
Analysis of goat rearing in Semi-arid zones (South-western region of UP and Eastern
region of Rajasthan) revealed that goat rearing of varying flock size- very small (1-5 goats), small
(6-15 goats), medium (16-30 goats) and large (> 30 goats) based farms of different categories are
important source of livelihood. The flock size of goat varied from 2 to 70. The total cost per
animal per annum was negatively associated with the flock size. This was mainly attributed to
higher expenditure on supplementary feed in smaller flocks and better utilization of labour in
larger flocks. Inputted value of family labour (51 to 79%) was found to be major components of
total expenditure. This showed that actual expenditure incurred by the family on rearing small
ruminants was very low. In different flock categories, it ranged from Rs. 189 to 532 per goat (and
Rs.163 to 204 per sheep) in UP and Rs. 191 to 319 per goat (and Rs.162 to 183 per sheep) in
Rajasthan .The families keeping small ruminants earned a net annual income of Rs. 1383 to 1788
per goat (and Rs. 364 to 663 per sheep) in UP and Rs. 1303 to 1873 per goat (and Rs. 371 to 602
per sheep) in Rajasthan among different flock categories.
4. Silvi-pastoral system for sheep and goat production:
Silvi-pasure farming approach is based on the integration of woody species with pasture
grasses and legumes in the same piece of land. It serves the dual purpose of forage and wood
production with system conservation. This system of farming has been recognized as low input
technology for the utilization of waste land for meeting the shortage of forage and leaf fodder
21
besides fuel wood and timber. These are suitable for rearing of goat as major part of animal feed
comes from woody perennials. Two tier silvi-pastoral system is maintained with ground grass
cover and tree species as top layer. Whereas, three-tier system is maintained with three layers i.e.,
tree species at top, shrubs as middle and grasses as ground level. Normally tree seedlings are
planted during the monsoon after a good rain followed by planting of pasture grasses and
legumes. Dry forage production of Cenchrus ciliaris and C. setigerous, Dicanthium annulatum
(Junjvo) in association with different tree densities of Acacia tortilis and Leucaena leucocephala
(Subabul) has been observed to vary from 3.1 tones/ha in the second year to 5.1 tones/ha in the
fifth year and with improved management, forage production could further increased from 5.6 to
7.8 tones/ha. Cenchrus ciliaris (Anjan), Dicanthium corricosum (Saniar) grasses and Stylosanthes
hamata and S. scabra legumes with Azadirecta indica (Neem), Ziziphus mauritiana (Bordi), A.
nilotica (Desi babul) and other trees have been used for rearing of small ruminants under NATP
at JAU. The significant reduction in age at first parturition (lambing), higher growth of lambs and
kids along with increase in forage (1.3 to 2.8 tones/ha.) and nutrients' yields per unit area have
been observed under silvi-pastoral system for sheep and goat production (Anonymous, 2004).
5. Prime lamb and kid production:
This is an intensive production system of rearing small ruminants for economic mutton
and chevon production. The production of prime lamb and kid depend on number of factors.
Appropriate feeding, housing, disease prevention along with genetic makeup of animals are
important contributory factors in production of lamb and kid of high value. The feeding of ewes
according to feeding standard during gestation and lactation was found beneficial as compared to
feeding as per standard only during lactation in terms of better body weight on non conventional
creep mixture condition and higher body weight at lambing / kidding, higher birth weight and
subsequent growth rate of their lambs and kids. Improved feedlot performance has been observed
in growing lambs and kids maintained on pre-weaning and post weaning complete feed.
6. Constraints in Commercial Farming of small ruminants :
Though commercial goat farming under intensive and semi-intensive systems of
management has been picking up for the past couple of years, only less than one per cent of goat
population in the country has come under such production system. There has been no organized
effort to develop this sector and hence hardly any support system and infrastructure for
encouraging the commercial sheep and goat farming in the country. Commercial sheep and goat
farmers do face a number of constraints, particularly during the initial phases of the farming.
1. In the absence of proper standards and specially-designed vehicles for transporting the live
sheep and goats, the officials in collision with police harass the farmers during transportation
of stock.
2. High mortality in goats due to is a major concern of the farmers. It results even in closure of a
number of farms in the beginning.
3. Due to lack of knowledge, 70 per cent farmers in small flock category find difficulty in
identifying pure breed animals. Difficulty in getting good quality breeding animals is again a
constraint. Since large goat/sheep flocks of different breeds under commercial production are
only few, the entrepreneurs have to select the breeding animals from the available traditional
flocks. It takes a long time to establish a good flock.
4. Non-availability of veterinary doctors and low cost complete feed for goat and sheep farms.
All the commercial farmers require identification tags for their goats, however they did not
have access to a cost effective tagging material.
5. Another major constraint is realization of low prices for the surplus live goats and ewes. The
trade of live animals, which is un-organized and is in the hands of a large number of
middlemen, traders and butchers. The live animals are not sold on the basis of their body
weight in the livestock markets; this resulted in under-estimation of the value of live animals.
22
7. Implications:
Small ruminants’ farming especially, goat rearing, which was the economic activity of
rural resource-poor people has proved its potential to attract large and progressive farmers and
businessman due to its economic viability under intensive as well as semi-intensive systems of
management for commercial production. The entry of resource-rich people, including poultry
farmers, who have better access to technical knowledge, resources and markets, into this activity
would help in realizing the potential of this enterprise. It would also encourage the aspirant
commercial goat and sheep farmers who do not have access to grazing resources. The lack of
good quality breeding stock being a major constraint in commercialization of goat production, the
farms managed on scientific lines should be encouraged to become the centres of production of
superior quality breeding animals.
Considering good economic potential in commercial goat production, some large industrial
houses (like Hind Agro Industries) may take more interest to goat and also sheep farming
business, especially for the export market. The big poultry farmers in other states have also
successfully started diversifying their business towards commercial goat and / or sheep farming.
The commercial sheep and goat farmers can earn best profit by producing and marketing
prime lams and kids and also pure-bred goats and ewes and festive sale during Id. In the long-run,
vertical and horizontal integrations may be evolved for achieving sustainability of commercial
sheep and goat production and remaining competitive in the national / global market.
Establishment of Service centres may be helpful in providing technical knowledge,
recommended inputs and market information. Small size modern slaughter-houses need to be
established near the production centres to maintain commercialization of goat and sheep
production.
Sheep and goat rearing under silvi-pastural system and prime lamb and kid production under
feed-lot for mutton and chevon production seem to be preferable approaches towards sustainable
organized farming for these small ruminants.
23
Opportunities for Rabbit farming in Gujarat
M.D. Odedra, T.K. Patbandha and K. Ravikala
Dept. of Livestock Production Management
Domestic rabbits are originated from European wild rabbit of the genus Oryctolagus and
the species cuniculus, so zoological name of domestic rabbits is Oryctolagus cuniculus. Rabbits
are mostly reared for meat, fur and wool production. Further rabbit acts as models for research,
and human beings keep as companion animal. Rabbits have high reproductive potentials, early
sexual maturity, ability to rebreed shortly after kindling with short generation interval. They have
fastest growth rate and great potential to utilize low grain, high roughage diets and kitchen waste,
and convert into quality protein for the use of human beings. Rabbits do not compete with human
being like poultry for grains and rabbit meat consumption has no religious taboo like pig and
cattle or buffaloes. Rabbit production plays a significant role for development of livelihoods of
poor households. Hence, rabbit farming is important in developing countries like India as a cheap
source of protein and for upliftment of socio-economic status. Therefore this paper is focussed to
discuss the important opportunities for rabbit farming in Gujarat along with the possible
challenges.
Advantages of rabbit for farming
 Rabbits can be fed with high forage, kitchen waste and low grain diet without affecting
growth rate and do not compete with humans for grains unlike chicken.
 Rabbits have high feed conversion efficiency with feed/grain rations (2.5-3.0 on high grain
diet and 3.5-4.0 on high forage, grain free diet).
 Rabbits convert forage into meat more efficiently than ruminant animal such as cattle and
sheep. From a given amount of alfalfa, rabbit can produce about five times as much meat
as beef cattle.
 They have a high growth rate attaining market weight of about 2 kg at 12 weeks of age.
 Rabbits have the potential of being in a constant state of reproduction. They can be bred
within 24 hours of kindling, during post-partum heat.
 Rabbit meat is a highly nutritious, tasty and excellent in quality. Meat is rich in protein,
low in fat, cholesterol and sodium.
 Rabbits are suited to both small scale (backyard) and large-scale commercial production.
 Unlike chicken rabbits do not compete with humans for grains.
 Consumption of rabbit meat has no religious prohibition like pig, cow and buffalo meat.
 Rabbit can be easily sold when a small amount of money is needed to meet immediate
family needs.
 Rabbits are less prone to diseases compared to poultry.
 Unlike poultry manure, rabbit manure will not burn the plants and can be applied directly
to the plant or its roots.
 Unlike bigger animals such as cattle, rabbits can be tended by women, children or men as
they do not need restraining.
 Rabbit has small carcass that can be consumed by a family in one meal, eliminating the
need for meat storage and refrigeration. The meat is stored on the live animal until needed
resulting in rabbits being referred to as "biological refrigerators.
24
Physiological parameters of rabbit
Body temperature
38.3-39.5ºC (100-103ºF)
Age at sexual maturity
4-5 months depending on size
Oestrous cycle
Continuous
Gestation
30-32 days
Litter size
6-8
Weaning age
4-6 weeks
Breeds and physical characteristics of rabbits available in India
Breeds
Description
Soviet
This breed was evolved in USSR. Adults weigh 4.5 to 5 kg. Though this breed is
Chinchilla
reared for meat but its fur is a fancy in fur crafts.
Grey Giant
This breed is also a native of USSR. Adults weigh 4.5 to 5 kg. Due to the
resemblance of its fur with that of hare, it is often mistaken as hare. It is also
reared for meat and fur skin.
Newzealand This breed was evolved in England. Fur is white and skin is albino. The eye colour
White
is red due to the absence of melanin pigment. Adult weight is 4.5 to 5 kg. Meat
and furskin are the main products.
White Giant White Giant also originated in the erstwhile Soviet Union. It is almost similar in
appearance to Newzealand White. Colour of the fur is white while that of the eyes
and skin is red. The length of hind limbs as well as body size is larger than that of
New Zealand White.
Angora
Angora is a very ancient breed of small rabbit weighing around 3 kilograms. It is a
wool type rabbit with white fur. Annual wool yield recorded is between 300-1000g
in 3 to 4 clippings.
Crossbreds
The crosses between the above mentioned breeds and local types have been
produced. They are found to be highly adaptive to Kerala conditions. The adult
weighs 4 to 4.5 kg and breeds all through the year. Colour of fur is not uniform.
Nutritive value of different types of meat
Meat
Protein %
Fat %
Moisture %
Calories (Kcal/kg)
Rabbit
20.80
10.20
27.90
795
Chicken
20.00
11.00
67.60
810
Veal
18.80
14.00
66.00
910
Beef
16.30
28.00
55.00
1440
Pork
11.90
45.00
42.00
2050
Lamb
15.7
27.7
55.0
1420
Housing, feeding and health management of rabbit
Depending on the locally available resources rabbit can be housed in any of the following
system:
Indoor cage system: In this system wooden or concrete racks are used for housing of rabbits. The
size of cage varies from breed to breed. Cage material should be galvanized wire mesh (14-16
gauze) with enough grid opening. Wood should never be used for making cage.
Indoor floor system: Concrete floor with asbestos/tin or local material roof. Wall made up of
brick up to the height of 2.50 ft above it wire net fencing is given up to 4-5 ft. Animals are kept
25
over clean dry litter made of saw dust. Feed and water are provided by feeder and water as usual.
The main disadvantage in this system is that there is less control over feeding, breeding and
management
Indoor low cost housing: Locally available materials are used for construction of this house. It
has kuccha floor, thatch roof, bamoo fencing. Racks can be made up of pine wood or cages with
wire mesh. It is comfortable during summer but less durable.
Outdoor hutch system: It is made up of wood, bamboo or iron and kept under tree shade.
Grass or paddy straw can also be placed over it during summer.
Outdoor semi-open system: In semi intensive system, the area of 150 sq ft (15 x 10 ft) is
covered by wire mesh/net. One or two hutches is kept for night shelter and open area is kept for
roaming. Green grass Congo Signal, Guinea grass etc. can be planted/grown for grazing the
animal. Feeder and waterer is placed for providing concentrate feed and clean drinking water time
to time. Systematic breeding, hygienic management and disease prevention are problems in this
system.
Floor space requirement for rabbit
 Floor space requirement varies with age groups.
 Weaner (30 – 60 days) 1 sq ft
 Grower (60 – 90 days) 1.5 sq ft
 Finisher (90- 180 days) 2.0 sq ft for adult (above 180 days) 2.5 sq ft
 Nursing mother- 3.5 sq ft floor space/animal is required for maximum growth and
production. In cage system, the individual cages are 2 ft x2.5 ft x 1.5 ft.
 Kindling cage size is 90 x 75 x 45 cm and for kindling purpose, a nest box is required with
the size of 60 x 30 x 30 cm with height up to half-length
 The bottom of the nest box should have small holes to allow excreta kits.
Feeds and feeding
 Rabbit is a monogastric animal and presence of micro flora in the hindgut (caecum) and
the habit of coprophagy makes it capable of consuming a variety of feed.
 In back yard, a few rabbit can be reared with the kitchen waste and other available forage.
 In the large scale balanced rearing, pelleted rabbit ration is essential.
 Rabbit feed consist of roughages and concentrate where roughage is necessary to
stimulates gut motility rather than as nutrient source.
 Proper proportion of fibers in diet will avoid gastro-enteric disorders. It is also useful
source of energy to the rabbits for caecum fermentation.
 The young growing rabbits need 12-14% of fibers and a non-breeding rabbit can consume
about 20-25% of fiber.
 Concentrates are balanced quality food, which is rich in protein and energy and contain
more than 18% protein and less than 18.5% fiber.
 The energy rich concentrates can be mixed 30-60 % in rabbit ration, however, the protein
rich concentrates can be mixed 15-25% in ration according to age and production stages of
rabbits.
 Roughage feeds, legumes fodder such as cow pea, rice bean, soybean, pea; grasses like
setaria, guinea, broom and congo signal even weeds like mikania can also be given to
rabbit. Other roughage feeds are cabbage, radish, carrot and oats.
 Roughage can be fed as such in fresh form or as hay. Even crop residue like groundnut
and soyabean straws can also be included to the extent of 10 –25% in ration.
26
Daily feed requirement of different age groups of rabbit
Category of Animal
Age (days)
Amount of feed (g)/day/animal
Weaner
45-70
50
Grower
71-90
75
Grower
91-120
100
Adult
121-above
120
General management
 Mating is done either in the morning or in the evening.
 The doe is to be introduced to the buck for mating. If the doe is ready for breeding, will
allow the buck to mount and successful service will take place with few minutes.
 After successful service, male will fall down making a characteristic sound.
 Pregnancy can be diagnosed by palpation.
 Quality of feed should be provided during last quarter of pregnancy for better litter size,
litter weight and doe should not disturb at this period.
 Around 20 days after mating, doe should be kept in separate/individual cage with nest box
and nesting.
 Before kindling, doe generally prepares a bed by plunking fur from her body.
 It is necessary to put extra bedding material like saw dust/paddy straw.
Care of newborn
 During kindling assistance is not necessary and better to leave the new born undisturbed
except checking the stillborn and should be removed quickly.
 Newborn kits are helpless because they are blind and devoid of hair during birth.
 The kits start developing hair on 4 days after birth and open their eyes after 10 days.
 Kits should be examined daily for health.
 Bedding material also be checked daily and replaced wet bedding.
 At the age of 10 days, kits start to come out from bed.
 Around 21- 23 days. Start nibbling at the feed given to the mother.
 At around 1 month, they start to take feed properly
Weaning and care of weaners
 The young rabbits are separated from their mother between 42 -45 days depending on their
growth and capacity to eat.
 Before weaning, sexing and tattooing is essential for proper recording of animals.
 Weaning stage is very crucial because the animals are in stress condition.
 Sudden change of feed should also be avoided.
 Immediately after weaning, litter should be kept in-group and then gradually shifted to
individual cage.
Health management:
Pneumonia is most common disease in kits and proper housing and feeding management
will reduce it. Ear canker by psoriatic mange is the most prevalent parasitic infection in rabbit
followed by coccidiosis. Pasteurellosis, Listeriosis, Mastitis, Enterotoxaemia and Tyzzer’s disease
are important bacterial diseases can be treated by antibiotic therapy. Other viral diseases like
Myxomatosis, Rabbit pox, Calcivirus disease, Papillomatosis also affect the rabbit. Nutritional
deficiencies in rabbits can be prevented by providing balanced.
Constraints in rabbit farming
The major constraint or challenges in rabbit farming include:
 The major constraint is the shortage of germplasm. The available germplasm of broiler
type rabbits with the CSWRI Avikanagar and its stations at Garsa and Mannavanur falls
much short of demand.
27

Lack of technical knowledge preventing the farmers to put a step forward. Another major
constraint is non-availability of a well-organized market for rabbit meat.
 There are no organized slaughter houses of rabbit.
 Constant availability of wild rabbits plays a vital role in limiting the rabbit slaughter.
 Most meat consumers recognize rabbit as a pet / fancy / toy animal, which prevents them
slaughter and affects consumer demand.
 Comprehensively, low consumer demand, insufficient promotion, unsteady supply,
unreasonable price, competition with other meats, lack of product diversification and
poorly developed market channels are the true constraints.
 Unlike cattle, chickens and small ruminant, rabbit farming lack of government support.
 As rabbit farming is in its infancy there is inadequate supply of equipment such as cages,
drinkers and feeders and other equipment.
 Lack of research support regarding scientific knowledge on commercial rabbit production.
Opportunities
 Gujarat is well connected with two metro cities, Mumbai and Delhi. Hence marketing is
not a problem for the rabbit farmer in Gujarat.
 Rabbit industry is presently small and evolving, indicating that opportunities exist to start
new operations or to expand the existing ones.
 Backyard rabbitry can be well managed with garden and kitchen wastes and additionally,
rabbit manure can be used as a fertilizer in gardens.
 Like small ruminant production rabbit farming can be helpful for upliftment of livelihood
of poor farmers.
28
Care and management of advance pregnant and early lactating cows and
buffaloes
M.D. Odedra
There is much similarity in the feeding nature and requirements of the two species. Both
are ruminants & utilize large amounts of roughages in their ration. Many of the amino acids & B
complex vitamins are synthesized in rumen making them non essential in the ration of these
animals.
Feeding Milch cows:
However good genotype of a cow be, it is of no use unless they are fed and managed to
achieve maximum economical production. A cow with good genotype represents a factory
capable of producing large quantity of milk and butter fat provided the inputs in the form of feeds
are available in adequate quantity.
A dairy cow needs feed for maintenance, fetal development and milk production. Cow in
first lactation may be growing & producing milk simultaneously so that allowance for growth
should also be included over and above other requirements.
First step in feeding a cow is to calculate the total requirements of a cow as per any of the
common feeding standards.
During past few years price of cereal grains, oil cakes & other by products have risen very
fast & so also cost of concentrates. Research & experience in the country prove feed costs for
milch stock can be significantly reduced by feeding a greater proportion of roughages. It has been
observed that if ad lib. Supply of good quality leguminous fodder is available; no extra
concentrates are required up to 10 kg milk production in cows & 7 kg in buffaloes. Above that the
cow may be fed 1 kg concentrate mixture for every 2.5 kg milk produced. Buffaloes require 1 kg
concentrate for every 2 kg milk. But this is only a thumb rule. Actual feeding may be done on the
basis of the requirements calculated as per feeding standards.
All feeding schedules are meant for the average animals. One must carefully watch the
animal and increase or reduce the ration depending on whether the animal is becoming lean or fat.
Under loose housing system and self feeding practices, it is not possible to fed roughages
to animals individually. Group feeding of roughage combined with individual feeding of
concentrates at the time of milking is a generally accepted practice.
Enhancing conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) in milk:
Green fodder feeding increases milk CLA in cows and buffaloes. Further, it increased up
to 310% in ghee prepared by indigenous method. Milk having high CLA (19.50 mg/g fat) may be
consumed @ 3 litre/day (provide 3 g CLA) to have a protection against cancer; however, normal
milk required more than 13 litre to achieve this protection.
Other managerial practices includes
Care with regard to milking of cow:
 After Parturition when first milking, ensure that all blockages from teats removed.
 Cow may be milked three times a day until the inflammation disappears from the udder.
 Provide enough minerals i.e. calcium & phosphorus through diet & do not milk fully at a
time to avoid milk fever in high yielding cows
Care with regards to feeding:
 Types of feeds provided - laxative, palatable & nutritious.
 Suitable feeds - Wheat bran, oats, and linseed oil seeds.
 DCP & TDN of ration must be 16-18% & 70%, respectively.
 40 gm common salt may be added to grains.
 Succulent green, palatable fodders containing 50-60% legumes are suitable, while amount
of concentrates should be increased gradually in three weeks.
29
Feeding cows in late lactation and dry period:
A cow is generally in mid to late pregnancy during this period. A cow should be fed a well
balanced ration during this period for the following purposes.
 Maintenance of the cow.
 Growth of the animal if she is a pregnant heifer.
 Growth of the fetus.
 For production of colostrum when she calves next.
 To form sufficient nutrient reserve for the ensuing lactation.
The freshly calved high producing cow is unable to eat enough feed to support her milk
production. This means that she should have enough reserves of nutrients to be drawn to cope up
heavy demand in early lactation.
This is followed by relatively stable period of mid lactation. During late lactation, intake
ability of the cow exceeds nutrient need. This the time when the cow needs nutrients for fetal
growth and also cow can replenish the depleted body reserves and gain weight very fast. During
this period the feed efficiency for weight gain is maximum. It has been found that feeding cows in
late lactation is better than feeding them in dry period because of the following reasons.
 Feed efficiency for weight gain is better during late lactation than during dry period.
 Many of the problems resulting in ketosis, abomasal displacement, fatty liver, R.O.P,
retained placenta, prolapse etc. can be minimized by restoring to an overall roughage
feeding during dry period.
From 7-10 months of lactation, cows may be fed 1-2 kg. of conc. feed in addition to their
requirement for maintenance & milk production to replenish the condition they lost during early
lactation. The cows may be made to gain 20-25 kg. body weight during this period. During dry
period they may be fed only good quality green fodder to maintain the condition previously
obtained.
Two weeks prior to calving one should start feeding the cows with high milk production
potential, increasing quantity of concentrates to challenge them to produce at the maximum level.
For challenge feeding 2 weeks before the expected date of calving, start feeding 0.5 kg. of
concentrate. Increase this amount by 300-400g daily until the cow is consuming 1 kg. concentrate
for every 100 kg body weight.
During dry period cows should be given good quality green fodder to provide enough
precursors for vitamin A. They are also given salt, calcium and phosphorus.
Other managerial practices includes
Before Parturition:
Turning cow into a loose box: To isolate from other animals, animal of advance pregnancy must
be separated into calving box which must be cleaned & properly disinfected, bedded with clean,
soft & absorbent litter.
Guarding against milk fever: In advanced pregnancy stage high yielding & first calvers are
susceptible to milk fever. To avoid it, provide enough minerals especially calcium by bone meal
in daily diet.
Avoid milking: Prior to parturition which is likely to delay parturition by few hours.
Watch for parturition signs: Signs to know primary stage of parturition which are udder
becomes large, distended, herd, depressed or hollow appearance on either side of tail head, vulva
enlarged in size, thick mucus discharge from vulva, and uneasiness of the animal.
Expulsion of placenta / after birth: The placenta is discharged within 5-6 hrs. After calving in
normal case while if not discharged within 12 hrs get the help of veterinarian and treat as per
requirement.
 Supply Luke-warm drinking water to cow.
 When placenta expelled, prevent cow from eating.
 The placenta should be properly disposed off by burying in ground.
 Clean cow's body with clean & warm water with antiseptic.
 Supply moistened bran with crude sugar or molasses.
30
Care and management of Draft animals
P.S. Dalal, T.K. Patbandha* and S. Marandi
Instructional Livestock Farm Complex (* LPM)
College of veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry,
Junagadh Agricultural University Junagadh, Gujarat
About fourteen millions years ago most of the animals were living as feral groups on the
earth. Among these feral groups, the primitive man might have domesticated some animals for the
purpose of transportation. As the civilization developed, the transportation and agricultural work
was started with the help of these domesticated animals. Later on idea of milking and importance
of milk as food came into the force. Through experiences, the care and methods of management
of livestock was developed. During the early 20th century Various type of woks like pulling of
carts, lifting of water from the wells, harrowing, threshing of harvested crops etc. was bloomed up
through the usage of draft animals. During this era 43% of livestock population was engaged in
motive power. India has about 70 million draft animals especially cattle and buffalo’s bullocks are
the backbone of agricultural work and also served as means of transportation in rural areas.
Camels, elephants, horses, mules and donkeys are also used as draft animals in various regions of
the country. The herd of the draft power is equal to 8 million tractors which saves about 26
million tonnes of diesel per year. The approximate power developed by various draft animals in
terms of horse-power (H.P.) is as follows;
Animal
Capacity (H.P.)
Horse
1.00
Bullocks
0.75
Camel
0.85
Mules
0.75
Donkey
0.35
Here more emphasis is given on bullocks, horses and camels as a major drafting animal.
Characteristics of bullocks: In India cattle and buffalo’s bullocks are the main source of motive
power in respect of all Agricultural operations and transportation. The average speed of a pair of
bullocks to pull a cart is 4-5 kms per hour and they can travel upto 40 kms under favourable
climate. In Punjab and Haryana male Murrah buffaloes are of efficient capacity for pulling heavy
loaded carts. They cover 3.2 kms per hour. Draft power varies with breed, species, body size and
body weight. Another advantage of buffalo bulls that they can work in muddy soil and water
logging fields. Their carrying capacity is 1.5 to 2.0 tonnes of load. Cross bred bullocks are more
advantageous as for as stamina, strength and vigor is concerned. The National Commission of
Agriculture collected information from Kerala, T.N. A.P. Assam and West Bengal that farmers
prefer cross bred bullocks to local breed. Only drawback of cross bred bullocks is that they cannot
work in the hot part of the day.
Important draft breeds of in India: The important Indian draft breeds are given below
1. Khillari
5 Nagori.
2. Kangyam
6. Kankrej
3. Amritmahal
7. Ongole
4. Hariana
There are many more breeds of cattle bullocks which are popular for draft purpose in their
region.
General management of bullocks: Management includes routine care of feeding, cleaning,
providing comfortable housing, taking work as per their capacity to do work and their general
health.
31
Feeding: The plane of feeding the bullocks may be varied with season, load of work and resting
period and balanced feed must be supplied accordingly. Overfeeding of legume crops should be
avoided to control the bloat. Extra concentrate must be supplied during the busy season alongwith
30 gm mineral mixture daily.
Cleaning: Cleaning refers to keep the body of working bullocks clean by grooming and brushing
and its bedding place too to keep the ectoparasites away.
Health status: Means to maintain good health of bullocks by doing regular deworming and
vaccination against prevalent diseases in their home tract.
Capacity of work: Farmers must be aware of the capacity of load/ work of their pair of bullocks
and they must take work accordingly. They should not be greedy for taking more work than their
capacity. Also give them periodic rest while working and treat them with love and affection.
Other important points to be remembered:
1. Always prefer good way for walking or carting for carrying load during transportation
rather than uneven or rocky way, whether it may be long route of journey. It keeps the
hooves safe due to even pressure of load and also prevents yolk-gall.
2. Sick draft bullocks should not be used for working and sick bullock must get treatment
without any delay.
Care and management of camels
Distribution and utility of camel in India: Single humped camel is mostly concentrated in
north-western part of India like Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat. They are extensively
used in ploughing, carting, riding, crushing of sugarcanes and oil-seeds, lifting of water from
wells for irrigation and transportation of baggage including water in army.
Physical and physiological features of camel:
1. Fine hair coat on body acts as an insulator against high ambient temperature and extreme
cold.
2. Greater thickness of skin checks the water evaporation from the body.
3. Its hump acts as a reservoir of fatty tissue which enables the camel to live long in drought
condition and can survive without water and food for long time (10-14days).
4. Water conservation is very high as compared to other ruminants. They can consume lot of
water and can drink upto 180 litres of water at a time.
5. Skin folds over the eyes and long eye- lashes prevent sand to enter into the eyes during
sand storms in deserts.
6. Its long neck helps to graze branches of tall trees and it can eat thorny plants too.
7. Its thick foot pads helps in walking on loose and sandy surface.
8. It is docile creature with great patience even under adverse conditions.
9. Males during the rutting period become vicious, obstinate and revengeful to the owners.
Types of camels in India: In India two types of camels are used, baggage came and riding camel.
Former can carry 3 to 4 quintal of load and cover a distance of 35 kms. In a day with a speed of 34 kms per hour camel can transport. The riding camel covers a distance of 50 kms per day with a
speed of 10 kms per hour. Good camels can travel upto 100 kms at a stretch.
Important breeds of camel in India: There are three important breeds of camel found in India;
Bikaneri, Jaiselmeri and Sindhi. Jaiselmeri camels are excellent for riding purpose and can cover
200 kms in a night without food and water. Some mixed breeds of camel are also found like
Marwadi, Mevati and Kutchhi etc.
Selection of camel for draft purpose: The following criteria are taken into consideration at the
time purchasing of good camel for draft purpose.
1. Soundness of all four legs.
2. Stamina of the beast.
3. Forward and backward walk.
4. Running ability.
5. Sitting down and getting up carrying load.
6. Soundness for health like erect head, clear eyes and ears and rounded and vertical hump.
Chest should be deep, body short and well ribbed up, belly well intact and rounded, hind
32
quarters plumps and muscular, not too bent at hocks, free from lameness, shipping and
mobility to carry loads , pads should be large enough , elastic and free from cracks.
Feeding of Camels:
When camel is not at work, it should be allowed to graze browse on trees, shrubs
and
bushes at least 6 to 8 hours daily. Increase in size of hump is a good indicator of its
nourishment. When grazing is not sufficient camel may be supplemented by a ration in the form
of green or dry fodder. Simple composition of camel’ ration is under:
Crushed or water soaked gram
:
1 kg
Crushed barley
:
1 kg
Green fodder
:
9-18 kg
Straw
:
7 kg
Common salt
:
28-56 kg
Mineral mixture
60 kg
Grains should be fed in the evening and should not be fed on empty stomach or soon after
quenching a long thirst.
Watering of camels: Water requirement of camel varies with season, type of feed and working
conditions. On an average a camel require 40 to 50 litres of water twice a day. Drinking of water
is being practiced in desert areas. They may drink 135 to 180 litres of water at a time. When they
consume lot of water, RBCs in their blood swells up as much as 240% of the normal size. When
RBCs brust down in other animals if the volume increased by more than 130% of the normal size
and causing death of cells and animal dies due to hydration. Fresh water should be given before
feeding and after unloading.
General managemental practices for camel:
1. Camels are best used for riding or baggage carrying during the cooler part of the day or
night time.
2. After every 15-20 km they must be given rest for urination and defecation and allow them
for grazing while marching.
3. Loading must be done equally on both sides.
4. On reaching destination, load must be removed first and saddle may be loosen to avoid
congestion and sore formation on the back or neck.
5. Similar care must be taken for riding camels.
6. Camels used for draft works like ploughing, water lifting, etc. Should not be used more
than 5 to 6 hours a day.
7. Housing for camel should be well-aerated with proper open space and comfortable
bedding.
8. In military, they should be kept in regular lines and males and females kept separately
during rutting seasons. They should be held by wooden nose-peg.
9. Camels require to be groomed and cleaned periodically to keep free from ectoparasites
10. Hair must be clipped in March or April once a year. Yield of hair on an average is 0.90 to
1.35 kg and used for making garments, blankets which are warmer than wool.
11. After clipping, body is smeared with mustard oil. Then after 48 hours of oil application the
whole body is smeared with mud and kept for 3 days till it gets falls automatically.
12. Routine exercise, grooming and cleaning of draft camel must be done.
Common Diseases of Camel: Camels do not exhibit signs and symptoms of so many diseases
like other animals, they are highly tolerant. Therefore needs regular watch on camel for early
diagnosis and proper treatment. The most common ailments of camels are:
1. Luxation of patella (affliction of stifle joint).
2. Pica (Mineral deficiency).
3. Chronic ulcers and tympany.
4. Fracture of lower jaw (Savage biting of males).
5. Kumari disease (nervous disease).
6. Trypanosoma (Tibersa)
33
7. Infectious diseases like Pneumonia, T.B, Salmonella, Clostridial group.
8. Parasitic infestation.
MANAGEMENT OF EQUINES:
Horses, donkeys and mules are very commonly used by army and civilians in India. These
three species belong to family equidae. However the mule is a sterile cross between mare and jack
donkey. The horse is one of the earliest species that man had domesticated for drafting purpose.
Important horse breeds of India:
1. Kathiawadi
3. Bhuti
5. Spiti
7. Hirzal
2. Marwadi
4. Manipuri
6. Unmol
8. Bluchi
6, 7, 8th are now in Pakistan
General characteristics of equines:
Equine are monogastric and single toed animals. They can digest considerable amount of
fibrous food in caecum. They are swift footed, hence are better draught animals than bullocks.
Draft power developed and speed of work, so horse-power developed. Horses are well known for
its intelligence and common sense while donkeys and mules are reputed for their endurance and
hard working. Horses remain standing even while sleeping because of their check ligament s
present in their hip joints. Very seldom they lie down and roll from side to side in dust or in
pasture grass. Donkeys do lie down more than horses to take rest. Heavy horse can generate as
much force as that of one pair of bullocks. This is advantageous that they can be used in primary
cultivation which requires more force (more than 1 KN).Donkeys and mules are more versatile
than bullocks being better for riding and transportation. Equines do not do well in the humid
climate or while rainfall because of insect born disease, respiratory problem and food problem in
muddy surface. Donkeys are highest diseases resistant species among all draft animals.
General management of draft equines:
General management of draft equines includes nutrition and feeding, housing,
maintenance of health and working practices adapted as per capacity of draft animals.
Nutrition and feeding a stock of horses, mules or donkeys is always a problem due to lack
of desired fodder, forage as per season in urban as well as rural areas. Due to decreasing grassing
lands (pasture).The owner remains under anxiety continuously. He wants to earn money regularly
from his draft animals. During rainy season they must be left for grazing. The good roughage
feeds for stall feeding are alfalfa, berseem and poor quality roughage includes barley and oats
straw. Donkeys are better to digest high fibre, low protein material than horse.
The concentrate required for working equines must be supplied like maize, beans, oats and
barley mixture. If not available purchased forages like hay of groundnut, alfalfa and cow pea are
cheaper alternatives to concentrate.
Methods to improve the feeding of equines:
SN.
NEED MONEY
1.
Purchase concentrate (maize ,bean ,oats and
barley)
2.
Purchase forage like alfalfa berseem, cow
pea, hay and groundnut hay.
3.
4.
5.



NEED TIME
Offer more forage
Collect more weeds, pods and grasses on
roads.
Grow better quality forage like oat, vetch
and Lucerne.
Prolong Feeding.
Feed individually.
Working equines must be given adequate feed and additional concentrate timely and take
care of good water drinking.
Housing should be well-ventilated and neat and clean especially during rainy seasons as
horses like dryness more than donkeys and mules.
Maintenance of health means taking care of ectoparasites, Laminitis, wounds, scratches,
etc.
34

Urination and defecation must be cleaned regularly. Signs and symptoms of colic pain etc
must be observed.
 Routine practice for grooming , cleaning of working equines must be adapted by farm
owners
 Horse shoes must be cleaned and checked regularly.
 Capacity to do work by different Draft equines must be estimated by owner through his
experiences.
 Equines especially horses are very faithful to his or her owner if proper care and
management is done by them. They never deny for work if trained with love and affection.
Important diseases of equines:
When good management is ignored, equines especially horses are subjected to various
infectious as-well-as non-infectious diseases.
 Non-Infectious: Sore-feet, exhausting, nervousness, colic, Pneumonia, fly-blows, run
down condition, sweating, dullness loss of appetite, rise in body temperature and
respiration .
 Infectious: Equine influenza or pink eyes, strangles, glander, epizootic lymphanzitis,
South African horse sickness and tetanus.
Prevention:
Experienced veterinarian must be deployed for treatment after proper diagnosis without
any delay. Vaccination should be done against prevalent infectious diseases .Hygiene and
sanitation should be maintained in the stable. Prompt disposal of manure and waste material
should be followed.Supply uncontaminated feed and water.
35
Recent trends in commercial layer production
S. Marandi, T. K. Patbandha*, K. Ravikala*, M. D. Odedra* and P. S. Dalal
The poultry farming sector of India has attained a lot of success over the past few decades
as it has been among the most rapidly growing industries here. The growth and progress has been
due the investment that has been poured in by the government and private sector.
Growth and development of poultry industry
Indian layer industry has registered a phenomenal growth during the past few decades
rendering nearly 75 billion eggs during the year 2012 (3.5% of the global egg production). At
present, this industry has emerged as the most dynamic and fast expending segment in animal
agriculture with an annual growth rate of 7% for egg production. Per capita annual egg
consumption in India for 2015 has been projected as 180 as against the present level of merely 40
eggs (Singh, 2006). This vast gap indicates tremendous scope of boom in egg industry.
Growth and development in poultry industry may be attributed to increase in human
population of the country as well as that of the world. There is change in the life style of people
with more people becoming non-vegetarian. Strict enforcement of Animal Welfare Laws in
industrially developed countries resulting in shifting of production centre’s to developing
countries like China, India, Brazil and Mexico. Poultry industry has contributed to food
production and food security and has its special role in alleviation of poverty and employment and
empowerment of rural women. Future appears to be very bright for poultry egg and meat
processing industry. Rapid growth of this sector will help to provide wholesome poultry products
to the consumers.
The demand for ready-to-cook chicken and value added poultry products although very
small at present, is likely to grow several folds very soon as has happened in western countries
through appropriate consumer education and if necessary through suitable legislation. The ability
of the Indian poultry sector to fulfill its targeted growth in productivity and output will depend
upon the quality, availability and accessibility of services. Development of human resources and
upgrading the skill and capability of existing human resources will be necessary.
Recent trends
Change in global marketing system, demography and food habit of consumers has resulted
into change in the system of layer production. Followings are some of the trends which have came
into being recently.
1. Organic farming
Organic farming is a system of farming which aims to promote animal health and
environmental sustainability through holistic management for positive health based on a
biologically active soil. To be certified as organic egg, the hen should have been fed with organic
feed, which is produced without synthetic pesticides, drugs, antibiotics or Genetically Modified
Crops. Hens used to produce organic eggs should not be fed rations containing meat by-products,
such as meat and bone meal. The "organic" label has also been applied to eggs produced by hens
that are consuming diets, which do not contain any drugs or hormones. These organic eggs must
come from the hens reared in deep litter systems, with sufficient access to free-range.
Mandatory requirements for organic farming
 100% certified organic feeds.
 1.75 square feet space per bird in the hen house.
 Uninterrupted supply of clean water.
 Natural light in the house.
 Adequate ventilation to prevent ammonia build-up.
 Access to the outdoors when seasonally appropriate.
36


Outdoor area providing five square feet per bird.
Egg storage/ holding eggs at 60 0 F.
2. Backyard system
Backyard poultry rearing system is a relatively new concept. Birds specially developed for
backyard system would act as source of ready money and so called “Walking Banks”. Backyard
poultry farming will generate petty cash for house hold requirement in addition to providing a
balanced food with minimum inputs available in the rural areas. The backyard poultry farming is
more beneficial to small, marginal farmers, land less labors, tribal and backward class people.
Backyard poultry keeping can play a great role in alleviating the protein hunger in rural sections
of our country. It is a land saving, with low financial investment and minimum management
requirements but can bring about a sizable income to the rural families. Feeding of backyard
poultry is made easy by using household wastes, farm products and green vegetation, besides free
scavenging for waste grains and insects.
A number of crossbred genotypes for egg production have been evolved at different
centers by the ICAR institutes and SAUs. Some of them are mentioned below:
Name
Breeds
Purpose
Institute
involved
Male
Female
Vanraja
Cornish
Synthetic population
Dual
ICAR, Hyderabad
Grama priya
Synthetic
White leg horn
Dual
ICAR, Hyderabad
Cari gold
Selective breeding of RIR
Egg
CARI,Izatnagar
Giriraj
Dual
UAS,Bangalore
Krishna – J
Synthetic
Egg
JNKVV,Jabalpur
Kalinga
Selective breeding of RIR
Egg
CPBF,Bhubaneswar
Brown
Gramalakshmi Australorp
White leghorn
Dual
KAU, Kerala
Nandanam
RIR population
Dual
TNVASU,Chennai
Cari – Nirblik Aseel cross
190 eggs
CARI
Cari – Shyam
Kadaknath cross
210 eggs
CARI
Upcari
Frizzle cross
220 eggs
CARI
Hitcari
Naked neck cross
220 eggs
CARI
3. Mixed farming
This is also known as “Integrated Farming” and eco-agricultural approach. This term of
mixed or integrated farming is used for denoting farming practices that adopt and integrate
components of crops, livestock, aquaculture and agroforestry in a manner that mimic natural feed
back loops whereby enhancing the overall synergy of the system. The main consideration in this
system is to minimize the use of external inputs by enhancing the recycling of materials within the
system through a process of value addition, which is achieved by intermediate components that
make use of the by-products (wastes) from one component (Poultry) as inputs (fertilizers, food)
for another. The nature of the components that are integrated or “Mixed” depend on the local
resources, ingenuity of the farmer and marketing opportunity.
Normally under the integrated or mixed farming system a few key components would be
the main stay around which the other activities would be inter linked and build upon, this takes a
holistic approach, where every linked operation using the best available knowledge and
technologies would improve production to maximize it. A symbiotic relationship is formed
between the farming families and their natural resource endowments.
Poultry and fish production
Poultry cages (Chicken or Duck) are constructed on the top of the ponds. The droppings
serve as a potential source of feed for the fish as well as manure. Additional advantages are
elimination of unwanted insects in the pond by the ducks. Pigeon cages have been constructed
above the fish pond with just an initial stock of two pairs, this later multiplied to nine pairs within
14 months. The integration of poultry and fish can increase overall production intensity and
37
economics on land, labour and water requirements for both poultry and fish. One hectare of static
water fish ponds can process the wastes of upto 1500 poultry, producing fish in quantities of upto
10 MT/ha. Poultry wastes are more nutrient dense than other livestock wastes, they contain less
moisture, fibre and compounds such as tannins that discolour water. Integration of village poultry
system with backyard fish culture has brought much benefit with little extra cost.
Poultry integration with cropping systems and agro forestry
Poultry integrated with cropping systems and Agro forestry has provided very good
returns to the farmer. These farms have cows, goats and poultry comprising of chicken, ducks,
turkeys etc. They graze on the grasses, leftover crops and grains, and while wandering they also
become biological mowers. Geese have been used in many cropping systems as deweeders.
In India the rearing of ducks go along with Paddy cultivation where the land is fertilized
with duck dropping, while the ducks get the left over grains, snails, insects etc. A symbiotic
relationship is maintained. The movement of these birds and livestock tend to disturb the insect
pest which takes refuge in ground covers and chicken feed on these insects. Where crop-livestock
integrated farming system is practiced, several factors need to be considered – these include the
choice of livestock, stocking density, fencing and security, eradication of noxious weeds, feed
supply and a possible damage to crops. Involvement of women is more in the mixed farming
systems. Integrated farming systems having many more crops and enterprises, require more
labour, but each enterprise needs a small amount of labour everyday. Hence, family labour is
necessary, it also adds value to the women labourers. The special features of integrated farming
system are the provision of balanced diet to all the members of the family instead of giving one
cereal. Mono-cultivation provides yield after some months, whereas integrated or mixed farming
systems provide diet in various forms around the year. In addition mixed farming system provided
steady income through sale of various farm products
Benefits of mixed farming
a. Offer scope of getting income throughout the year
b. Reduced dependency on external inputs
c. Provides employment opportunity throughout the year
d. Eco friendly
e. Reduces risks due to vagaries of nature
f. Brings about a general level of self-reliance in the community
4. Integration in layer production industry
Integration is the association, coordination, amalgation of companies engaged in various
stages of production of particular product, or related products, so that, there will be a smooth flow
of inputs and outputs from one unit to other, leading to overall reduction in the cost of production
of the final product.
Benefits of integration:
a. Mushroom growth of independent small farms and other production units can be avoided.
b. The cost production of final product will come down for the ultimate benefit of
consumers.
c. It will be possible to go for diversified food products and newer fast foods.
d. All main and by products will be utilized and recycled without any wastage. This will not
only prevent environment poullution, but also reduces the cost of production of the main
product.
e. It will stabilize the price by balancing the supply and demand.
38
4. Hill farming
The dominant features in hill farming are the small land holdings and sloping marginal
land with poultry raising. In the high hill temperature zones, it is more feasible to raise the
available local/indigenous poultry breeds since they are most fit for scavenging on hilly tracts.
Hilly areas-system of rearing poultry
Poultry provides economic and livelihood security to both land holding and landless hill
families. Chicken are traditionally reared by the tribal’s and their husbandry is integrated within
the whole farming system. In village communities, almost every farmer rears a few chicken near
their homes and mostly the birds are managed under a scavenging system. Very little time and
money is spent on rearing them and they become a part of the family. In some hilly tracts some
exotic birds have also been introduced like the Rhode Island Red, White Leghorn, New
Hampshire etc. later the improved variety of birds that have indigenous blood in them have been
introduced and are doing well.
Under the scavenging system, particularly during the colder months, the birds are let loose
to roam freely for part of the day (during the warm part of the day) and then are shut in, and
supplemented with extra feed. This system allows the bird to be protected from inclement weather
and are also protected from predators. Also, the manure from these birds is used to fertilize the
soil. This system is adaptable to a range of flock sizes and is also able to produce more eggs and
meat compared to the scavenging system. In the hill and mountain regions, where food grain is
deficient, the scavenging system could provide eggs for the family without duly worrying about
feeding the birds. Local consumers prefer egg and meat from the indigenous birds rather than
from the exotic birds.
Under the semi-scavenging system, since the birds are reared indoors for a large
proportion of time, they are more prone for managemental diseases like coccidiosis and mortality
and morbidity levels can be high. In this system, the farmer needs to construct a small house
39
depending on the size of the flock. The house is of low cost and is made with locally available
materials.
5. Diversifying poultry industry
The spectacular growth that poultry sector has witnessed worldwide, had been mostly
chicken centric. Continuous selection for fast growth and high egg production among broiler and
layer type of birds respectively, has narrowed down the chicken genetic diversity to the extent that
bulk of the global poultry production relies on just three breeds: white leghorn for eggs; Plymouth
rock and Cornish for broiler production. However, increased urbanization, rising income,
changing food habits and growing quality awareness among consumers have been an impetus for
alternate protein source. Alternate or non-chicken poultry production system offer an opportunity
to widen the resource base for the growing poultry sector and at the same time provides
alternatives both, to the poultry producers as well as consumers. Eggs of few species like Emu,
Japanese quail and duck are believed to possess certain beneficial constituents or composition
which is not found in chicken eggs. Production and consumption trends over recent years are
indicative of an increase in the share of non-chicken poultry species to total poultry meat and egg
production.
Non chicken poultry layer birds may involves the following
1. Duck
Ducks belong to Anatidae Family, Genus Anas and Platyrhynchos species. Important egg purpose
breeds of ducks are:
Khaki Campbell
Origin : England (developed by Mrs. Campbell)
i) Cross between – Rouen male and White Indian Runner female and then with Mallard.
ii) Plumage colour is khaki
iii) The size of head of male is larger than female
iv) Bills and shanks are black in color
v) Light body weight
vi) Egg production 280 to 300 eggs per bird per year
vii) Standard weight
Duck - 2.0 to 2.2 kg
Drake - 2.2 to 2.4 kg
Indian Runner :
Origin: East India.
i) It is a second good layer to Khaki Campbell
ii) Body is broader in front and slightly tapering at back
iii) The outstanding feature of this breed is its perpendicular carriage which gives a lean
appearance with wedge shaped bill.
iv) Egg production 250 to 280 eggs per bird per year.
v) Fawn, white and white penciled varieties are found.
vi) Standard weight
Duck - 1.4 to 2.0 kg
Drake - 1.6 to 2.2 kg
2. Japanese quails
Japanese quail belongs to Family - Phasianidae, Genus - Coturnix, Species - Coturnix
coturnix japonica. Quail farming is popular in Japan, Hongkong, Korea, France, Italy,
Germany and Britain. Japanese quails were introduced in India by C.A.R.I (Central Avian
Research Institute) in 1974 from California. Females (150-180g) are heavier than males
40
(120-130g). They lay eggs at the age of 5 weeks and egg weight is around 10g. Quails lay
about 300 eggs per year.
Varieties/Strains of Japanese quail developed at C.A.R.I., Izatnagar
1.
CARI UTTAM (Pharaoh/Wild type)
2.
CARI UJJWAL (White Breasted Line)
3.
CARI SHWETA (White colour line)
4.
CARI PEARL (White egg shell line)
5.
CARI BROWN (Brown colour line)
3. Although Emu, ostrich and turkey are mostly reared for meat purpose, their unfertile eggs
are also used for table purpose.
41
Industry prospective of broiler production and essentials of biosecurity in
Poultry
S. Marandi, M. R. Gadariya, T. K. Patbandha* and P.S. Dalal
Junagadh Agricultural University Junagadh
Broilers are chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) bred and raised specifically for meat
production. Chickens are one of the most common and widespread domestic animals, and
although the global population has decreased from more than 24 billion in 2003 to 19 billion in
2011, there are more chickens in the world than any other species of bird. Most commercial
broilers bred for meat reach slaughter weight at between 5 to 7 weeks of age, although slower
growing strains reach slaughter weight at approximately 14 weeks of age. Because of this young
age, much of their behaviour and physiology is that of an immature bird. Broilers and egg laying
hen are the same species and share many characteristics, however, due to the rapid growth and
selection for enlarged breast muscles, broilers are susceptible to different welfare concerns,
particularly skeletal.
Broiler production is quite different from egg production. The birds, their nutritional
requirement, housing and environmental requirements, management, processing and marketing of
final products are all different from their counterpart egg production. However, the basic
principles of poultry production can be utilized for efficient production of meat from poultry also.
Some of the specific requirements of efficient broiler production are given below.
The birds required for broiler production should have fast growth rate, high feed
efficiency, early feathering, good body conformation and low mortality. Under Indian conditions,
performance of the leading stock of broiler birds should be as follows:
Average body weight at eight weeks
1.8 to 1.9 Kg
Feed required to produce one kg live weight
about 2.0 kg
Mortality
About 2 percent.
Broiler production was not known in India till 1962 when hybrid broiler bird was imported and
introduced. Presently, this industry is progressing at much faster pace than layers. This is because
broiler meat demand and price have gone up considerably. Higher and quick return and lesser risk
attached with broiler farming than layers are also responsible for quick growth which is evident in
the following table.
Growth of poultry production in India vis-à-vis world
Chicken population (million)
Poultry meat (million tones)
Year
1975
2011
1975
2011
India
141.0
550
1.03
3.20
World
6021.6
19000
2.10
8.20
Looking at the present market trend, Indian markets have demand for smaller broiler of
900 to 1000 gm of weight. This weight may be attained at six weeks of age with present birds.
The broiler industry, which has increased markedly in size during the past two decades represent a
considerable investment in housing, installations, breeding stocks and commercial flocks.
42
Commercially available meat-type chicken in India
Weight at
Weight at six
Breed
seven weeks
weeks (g)
(g)
B-77
1300
1600
CARIBRO-91
1650
2100
CARIBRO
1600
2000
Multicoloured
CARIBRO
1650
2000
Naked necked
Varna
1500
1800
Food conversion
ratio
Livability
(%)
2.3
1.94-2.2
98-99
97-98
1.9-2.1
97-98
1.9-2.0
97-98
2.1-2.25
97
Because of the geographical concentration of broiler industry in specific regions, large
integrated operations are extremely vulnerable to outbreak of disease. Proper investment in
biosecurity and preventive measures is required to optimize performance, productivity and
economic advantage. Biosecurity programs are an integral, cost-effective component of broiler
production.
Vaccination schedule for broilers:
Age
Name of disease
Name of Vaccine
Route
Day old chick
Marek’s disease
MD, HVT strain (live)
3-7 days
Infectious bursal disease
8-10 days
Ranikhet disease
14-18 days
Infectious bursal disease
28-30 days
Ranikhet disease
IBD Lukert Strain + IBD Intraocular
Killed Vaccine
Intramuscular
La Sota N.D. Killed
Drinking water
Intramuscular
IBD intermediate
Drinking water
Intraocular
La Sota
I.O/ D.W.
Subcuataneous
Pullet and breeder farms should be operated on an all-in-all-out basis. No other poultry,
exotic or local bird species should be permitted on farms. Only authorized personnel should visit
farms. Contractors and company employees should not make unauthorized visits to other farms,
come in contact with free-living birds, or attend avian exhibitions or shows. It is advisable for
hired labor to reside on the farm, but their residences should be situated outside the perimeter
fence surrounding live bird housing.
Procedures relating to biosecurity, including scheduling visits to farms by flock
supervisors, decontamination of personnel, and use of showers and protective clothing, should all
be in writing. Each level of management should ensure that subordinates are aware of current
biosecurity precautions. Specific activities that may be associated with the introduction or
dissemination of disease include feed delivery, vaccination, genetic selection, movement of flocks
from pullet to breeder farms, egg collection and depletion of flocks at the end of the breeding
cycle. The procedures should be planned to optimize biosecurity.
Broiler farms should be filled on an all-in-all-out basis. A minimum of 10-12 days should
be allowed between successive flocks. No other poultry or swine should be housed on the same
farm. Broiler should be operated on a limited-access basis with no outside visitors or unauthorized
personnel entering the facility. Flock should be inspected by an experienced supervisor at least
weekly to ensure freedom from obvious clinical abnormalities. In the event of disease signs or an
increase in mortality above the accepted range for age, type of flock or season, live and dead birds
should be submitted to a diagnostic laboratory for evaluation.
Special precautions are required at the time of flock depletion. All equipment, including
forklifts and vehicles used to transport birds, coops should be completely decontaminated by
washing and disinfection before being moved to another farm. Catching crews should follow
43
predetermined biosecurity procedures, including decontamination after completing the catching
program.
Following are the suggested Biosecurity procedures for Broiler farm
Owner/Veterinarian/flock supervisor/catching crew
1. Wash and clean vehicle thoroughly, inside and out, each week.
2. Use clean coverall for each visit. Coveralls to be available at every farm.
3. Use new hairnet for each farm.
4. While entering the premise
 Vehicle should be parked at least 100 feet from broiler house.
 Put on clean coveralls, hairnet, dust mask, and rubber boots.
 Approved disinfectant should be applied at recommended rate.
 Completely wash outside and inside of boots.
 Wash hands with alcohol solution.
 Disinfection of any equipment and vaccine containers before entering broiler house.
5. While exiting the broiler farm
 Hairnet and mask should be left on the farm.
 Thorough disinfection of any equipment taken into poultry house before placing in
vehicle.
 Boots should be removed and washed in disinfectant inside and out.
 Outer clothing should be removed and put in container designated for soiled clothings.
 Dump water and clean interior and exterior of bucket with brush.
 Spray sides of shoes and floorboard of vehicle with disinfectant before placing shoes on
floorboard.
Egg vehicle/litter vehicle drivers
 Drivers should wash and disinfect rubber boots on entry and exit from each farm visited.
 Driver should enter egg-storage room only.
 Drivers should use footbath if entering through main gate.
 Drivers should spray soles of shoes and floorboard of vehicle with disinfectant after every
stop.
 Driver should wash and disinfect floor of egg truck weekly.
Feed delivery
 Hands should be washed with alcohol solution.
 Driver should not enter houses under any circumstances.
 Persons should spray soles of shoes and floorboard of vehicle with disinfectant after every
delivery.
44
Shelter management in modern dairying
T.K. Patbandha, M.R. Gadariya*, K. Ravikala S. Marandi*, and P.H. Vataliya**
College of veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry (* ILFC, ** AGB)
Shelter management is the manipulation of micro climate of animal to suit best to their
welfare, reducing climatic stress without affecting much to the cost of construction. Good shelter
provides comfortable environment to the animals, desirable working conditions to the labour,
integration of housing with feeding, watering, milking and cleaning, and proper removal of
manure. The animal shelter/house should be designed in such a way that it should provide good
micro-climate suitable to the animal that directly affects the productivity, health and reproductive
performance of dairy animal. Animal housing design is primarily concerned with the physical
environment, in particular climatic and mechanical factors; however, all other factors should also
be considered in order to create a good layout, where high yielding animals can be provided with
accurate feeding, easy handling and can produce her best without any stress or suffering.
Problems related with housing are cost, ventilation, scare resources, hygiene, manifestation of
disease, behavioural concern, animal welfare etc. Amelioration of these problems could be
achieved by management intervention with respect to various components of housing and
installation of cooling system to reduce heat load. Agro climatic zone wise housing strategies for
dairy animals can be identified and evaluation of new housing design according to existing local
conditions based on locally available resources will be helpful for the dairy farmers.
Types of housing system
A. Loose housing system
In India scientific housing of animals was practically ignored in the past except in a few
organized Govt. farms where the Western type of dairy cattle housing was followed. In recent past
loose housing system for dairy cattle is being advocated. This system has proved quite suitable
and economical for tropical climate but sufficient modification is required for different regions of
the country.
In loose housing system the animals are kept loose in an open paddock throughout day and
night (except milking). Loose house has both covered area and open area and the floor space
varies according to age of animal. The covered area is provided with common feed manger where
fodder is given and standing platform that provide shelter during adverse climate; whereas, open
area for exercise of animals. Inside the loose house water is provided in common water trough for
all animals. The cows are milked at the milking parlour where they are tied and fed with
concentrate. The herd size or stocking density and feeder space should be optimum otherwise it
develops competitive environment that affect the health and production adversely. In such
housing system at most 30 calves or 50 adult female/group should be kept but both advanced
pregnant females and bulls kept in individual pen. The feeder space should be 0.6-0.75
meters/adult animal and 0.4-0.5 meter/ calves, but water space is always provided for 10% of total
animals as all animals don’t drink together and recommended space is 6.0-7.5 meters per 100
adult cows and 4.0-5.0 meters for 100 calves. In such housing system 10-15% more animals can
be accommodated for short period without affecting their performance.
Loose housing system is followed all over the country such as Punjab, Haryana Rajasthan,
Western U.P. and parts of Gujrat, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra except temperate Himalayan
and heavy rainfall areas. Moreover, at other places this system can be used after little
modifications so as to protect animals from excessive heat, cold and rains water.
The loose housing of cattle has following advantages.
 The construction cost is less and thus economical.
 This system of housing is more flexible and so it can easily be extended to accommodate more
number of animals without much difficulty.
 Animals move freely/comfortably and can eat or drink as and when they desire and normal
behaviour can be observed.
45



Suitable modifications in loose housing system
The climate of India varies from region to region, so any single housing design for dairy
cattle may not be suitable for entire country. Housing of cattle should be planned and designed as
per the agro-climatic conditions prevailing in a particular area. India can be classified in the
following zones as per the agro-climatic conditions.
 Heavy rainfall area
 Plan area with medium rainfall
 Hot dry area
 Temperate high altitude area
Heavy rainfall area: The design of typical loose housing structure for the adult animals would be
similar to general loose housing system except additional provision of covered resting area in one
side of the paddock which will provide sufficient dry area for the animals during rainfall and
strong wind. The floor of the resting area should be slightly elevated from open paddock and one
side should be closed with brick wall as wind breaker.
Hot dry area: The suitable design of loose housing structure for hot dry area could consider that,
covered resting area should be located in the middle of the open paddock. This would provide
indirect shaded area for animals during hot sunny day which saves the animals from direct solar
radiation. All the sides of the resting area should be open for better ventilation.
Temperate high altitude area: In temperate area, loose housing along with closed conventional
housing system is desirable. In this system due attention is given to protect animal from heavy
snow fall, rain and strong wind. Tail to tail system of conventional barn, completely roofed and
enclosed with side wall is suggested with all provision of tying, feeding, watering and milking
inside of the barn. Open paddock area with continuous manger in one side along with covered
standing space is provided. During good weather animals may be allowed to move the open area
and feeding may be done outside.
B. Conventional housing system
Animals are confined together on a platform, secured at neck by stanchion. These are also
called as stanchion barn. The cows are fed as well as milked in this barn. The barn is completely
roofed and the wall also complete windows or ventilators located at suitable places. It is classified
on the basis of barn system:
a. Single row cow byre system:
If the number of animals is less than 10, single row system is preferred. Manger is along
the side wall parallel to the length of shed.
b. Double row cow byre system:
When numbers of animals are more than ten; they are tied in two rows in two ways.
Advantages:
a. Animals are less exposed to harsh climatic condition.
b. Animals can be kept clean
c. Maintain good health and hygiene
Disadvantages:
a. It is comparatively costly.
b. In warmer part of country it is not recommended because the air in the barn tends to humid
and barn floor become damp during autumn and rainy season.
Tail to tail system
In this system animals do not face each other. The manger & feeding passage is separated
and the cleaning passage is common.
Head to head system:
In this system animal face each other and manger may be common or separate.
46
Comparative study of loose and conventional housing system:
Parameter
Loose housing
Conventional housing
Expansion
Easy and less expensive
Difficult and more expensive
Heat detection
Easier
Less easy
Labour saving
More
Less
Stabling costs
Less
More
Comfort to animal
More
Less
Health
More
Good
Benefit of sunlight
More
Less
Cleanliness
Less
More
Benefits of exercise due to
Yes
No
movements
Efficiency and profitability
More
Less
Quality of milk
Good
Better
Comparative study of Tail to tail system and Face to face system:
Parameter
Double row system
Tail to tail system
Face to face system
Feed distribution
Difficult
Easy
Clearing gutter or middle alley
Easy
Difficult
Supervision at milking
Easy
Difficult
Possibility of stealing milk at milking time
Difficult
Easy
Detection of injury on hind quarter
Easy
Difficult
Look of animals at a glance
Easy
Difficult
Fresh air and direct sunlight to animals
More
Less
Floor space for barn
More
Less
Cost of construction
More
Less
Gutter exposed in sun rays and kept quit
Less
More
Easier for cows to get in to stalls
No
Yes
Danger of spread of disease
Less
More
Back tracking of feed trolley
Needed
Not required
Safe for health of cow
Yes
No
Additional considerations for dairy cattle housing structure
Following guidelines are useful for designing effective housing structures:
Orientation of shelter: Shelter provides protection to the animals from various climatic extremes
i.e., rainfall, hot and cold weather, wind, snow, frost etc. The orientation of shelter to be such, so
that it can give maximum protection to the animals from direct sun light and allow proper
ventilation as per wind direction of the location. In coastal area, the sheds shall be oriented across
the prevailing wind direction in order to protect the roof from being blown off by high wind at the
same time to provide sufficient air movement in the shed. In humid region, building should be so
sited as to avail the natural aeration and sunlight of the structure shall be east to west in coastal
area and North to South in the dry hot area.
Slope/Gradient: Proper and sufficient slope in the paddock is very important for maintaining
clean and dry sheds. The slope in the open paddock should be at least 1 in 60 for standing space
should be 1 to 40.
Drain: There should be shallow U shaped drain in open paddock for complete channel out of rain
water. The common drain of the dairy farm should be sufficient and with optimum width for
effective drainage of dairy washing etc. Open drain in dairy farm is preferable than closed
underground drain which sometimes creates problems for proper drainage of dairy washing.
47
Ceiling height: Sufficient ceiling height is pre-requisite to reduce radiation heat load. In warm
and humid region the height of the shed should be about 2 to 3 meters. In hot dry climate the more
ceiling height is recommended (about 4 to 5 meters).
Roof: Roof should be light, strong, durable, weather-proof and bad conductor of heat. Materials
used for constructing roof generally include galvanized sheet or fiber glass sheet or tiles or
thatched etc. The pitch of the roof should be about 22 to 30 degrees. The pitch should be about
350, 25-300, and 12-180 in case of thatch, tiled and sheet roof respectively. Slope is generally kept
steeper in heavy rainfall area and in any case the pitch should not exceed more than 450.
Generally the eaves of the roof shall be projected out 50-75 cm away from the pillars depending
on the rainfall, and hot and cold wind of the area. Height at eves should be about 1.8 to 2.0 meters
but in heavy rainfall area height shall be as lower as possible but not lower than 1.6 meters.
Provision of fan with mist/fogger cooling system could be installed to protect animals from severe
heat stress during summer months. For protecting the animals from cold stress during winter
providing wind breaks on the windward side which could be considered with provision for
comfortable bedding material such as tree leaves/ rubber mats or surplus/ paddy straw etc.
Floors: Floor should be hard impervious easy to clean and non-slippery. It may be of cement
concrete, brick on edge, stone slab or kanker flooring. Cement concrete flooring is suitable for
milking byre, calf pens, calving pens, etc. where regular washing is essential. Floors under the
roofed area of sheds should be made of RCC or paved with cement concrete flooring. The
surfaces of RCC floors should be made rough and non-slippery by making grooves. The grooves
shall be formed in square of 15 X 15 cm for adult cows & buffaloes shed and in squares of 10 X
10 cm for the calf shed. The floors should have a gradient of 1 in 40 towards the drains. The U
shaped drains of 30 cm width and 6 to 8 cm depth should be provided at the ends of covered area.
The slope of the drains shall be 1 in 100 and it shall lead through two settling chambers to the
septic tank. About one half to one third of the open area towards the other end of the milking
cows & buffaloes paddocks, calf’s paddock, heifer’s paddock and dry cows and dry buffaloes
paddocks should preferably be katcha or sand bedded and the remaining one half to two thirds
should be brick paved. The floors of the straw store, chaff cutter shed and implements room may
be brick paved whereas the floors of the milk storage and feed grinding, mixing-cum-storage
room should be made of RCC.
Pillars: Pillars may be either of hard wooden post, cast iron pipes; Columns of bricks or
reinforcement cement concrete (RCC) and shall be placed at intervals of 2.5-2.75 meters.
Walls: The covered areas and the open areas of shed should be enclosed by 5 feet high brick
walls which are 22.5 cm thick. The height of walls along with which mangers have been
constructed inside the sheds shall be 3 feet so as to allow for comfortable feeding from outside the
sheds. The walls of milking cows and milking buffalo paddocks should have 10 feet wide
centrally placed gates opening towards the road and the walls of calf shed, heifer sheds and dry
cows & dry buffaloes sheds should have 6 feet wide centrally placed gates opening towards the
road. Height of straw store walls should be 20 feet. The covered part of the calf pen / shed should
have walls on three sides up to the roof with door in the wall facing the open area. The fourth side
(behind the manger) may be left open in summers and a tarpaulin curtain may be hanged from the
roof in winters. During winter nights calves can be folded into this room and the doors closed.
During daytime the calves can move through the opened doors into the open area to have the
benefit of sunshine.
Fencing: The fencing material should be cheap and locally available. The effective height of the
fence for calf and adult may be 1 meter and 1.2 to 1.5 meters respectively. The fence may be
made by brick wall or iron railing. The provision of suitable size gates is also to be made in the
fencing wall.
Gate: Gate is dairy farm varies in sizes. The width of the gate leading from sheds to sheds to be
about 3-4 meters for easy movement of tractors for cleaning and delivery of fodder. The gate
which leads from paddock to road is to be 3-4 meter. Main gate of the farm premises should be
bigger width (5.5-6 meters) for easy entrance and exit of vehicles.
48
Other structures in a Dairy farm
General barn for cows: All the cows are housed in this barn. Manger in this pen should be 75 cm
wide, 40 cm deep and height of the inside wall of the Manger should be 60 cm. Manger should
have rounded corners. The outer wall of the Manger shall be not more than one meter high so that
feed and fodder can be dumped into the Manger conveniently from outside and over this wall.
Suckling-calf Pens: In this pen young calves are housed still suckling. A separate gate may be
provided to this pen that opens into the general barn so that calves can be taken into milking barn
quickly at milking time. Manger in pen should be 40 cm wide, 15 cm deep and height of the
inside wall of the Manger should be 20 cm.
Heifer pens: Here calves from weaning age to breeding age can be housed. Manger should be 50
cm wide, 20 cm deep and height of the inside wall of the Manger should be 25 cm.
Maternity pens: Pregnant cows are to be transferred into maternity pens two to three weeks
before the expected date of calving and manger size same as that in the general barn. The
outermost maternity pen can be used as a bull pen. However in bull pen extra 100 m 2, enclosure is
to be provided outside the bull pen, as the open area of the pen is not sufficient for the bull to
roam about the exercise but in limitation of space, bulls will have to be exercised by some other
way.
Milking Barn: The milking barn should be nearer to the office which is meant for collection,
weighing and storage of milk. The milking barn is preferably tail to tail system of housing. The
approximate width provided for each animal is 1.2 m and length 1.5 m. The central common
milking passage will be 1.5 meter for comfortable working. The size of the milking barn should
be such that it can accommodate ¼- ½ number of milking cows at a time. Milking barn shall be
cleaned thoroughly after each milking and kept closed until the time of next milking.
Milk house: This is the place where the milk is collected, recorded and stored for short periods.
The room shall have a door and glass window opening into the milking barn for better supervision
of milking. The floors and the walls up to a height of 1.5 metres shall be of smooth surface,
preferably lined with glazed tiles, so that occasional washing can be done.
Ancillary Structures
Stores: Stores for concentrate, dry fodder, equipments, and utensils are essential for dairy farm.
Provision of 0.2 m3 storage space per animal is sufficient for cattle and buffaloes. There should be
one main feed mixing room-cum store room and small stores adjacent to the large shed for
keeping concentrate for one or two days. The storage room should be water and rodent proof.
Dry fodder shed: The common types of dry fodders used in animal feeding are hay or crop byproducts. These fodders are only available at the harvesting season, so one has to store sufficient
quantities of these items for use throughout the year. Space requirement for storage of dry fodder
depends on the manner in which dry fodder are stored; when hay is stored in loose the floor
space/quintal is 1.6 cubic meter, where as when baled and chopped the space is 0.7 and 0.6 cubic
meter, respectively. The adult animal consume approximately 6 kg dry fodder/day but young
stock consume 1-3 kg/day depending on age and based on this annual requirement of fodder and
the required space can be calculated. Generally for storing of straw or hay three sided solid wall
shed is preferred or a simple framed shed with gabled roof is sometimes preferred. The dry fodder
shed should be located far away from the animal shed due to fire hazards.
Silo: Silos: Silos are used for the preparation of silage, fermented preserved high moisture
important feed for dairy animals. Silos may be tower, pit or trench type but in our country trench
silo is commonly used. The size of the silo depends on the demand and the surplus availability of
green fodder. Silo should be nearer to the cow shed to prevent transportation cost.
Drinking water: Drinking water is to be made available in water trough provided for at a suitable
place in each pen. The water trough is generally connected with the water supply and is normally
the extension of the feeding manger from which it is separated by a mid partition.
Handling yard: Handling yard is most important ancillary component in larger farms, used for
collecting, filling and control of individual animal for operation such as weighing, marking, hoof
trimming, vaccination, drenching of medicine etc. Depending on the number and type of the
animals to be handled the size and design of the yard differ. Handling yard comprises of the
49
facilities like collecting yard, chute, trevis, weighing platform and holding yard. To provide
comfortable to both workers and animal the collecting yard and holding place should have shady
trees.
Manure Handling
Careful waste management is dairy farm is needed:
 To utilize the fertilizing qualities of the manure, urine and other wastes;
 To maintain good animal health through sanitary facilities;
 To avoid pollution of air and water and to provide good hygiene around the farmstead
The method of disposal depends on the type of wastes being handled. Solids can be stacked
and spread on fields at the optimum time of year, while liquids must be taken to fields via
channels or collected in tanks and spread from tank-wagons. Manure from a livestock production
unit may contain not only faeces and urine, but also straw or other litter materials, spillage from
feeding, and water.
Manure is handled as solid when the dry matter content exceeds 25%. In this condition the
manure can be stacked up to a height of 1.5 to 2 metres. This condition of the manure is only
obtained when urine is drained away immediately. Manure with less than 20% solids has the
consistency of thick slurry. It must be collected in a tank or pit but is too thick to handle
effectively with pumps. It must be diluted with water to less than 15% solids before it can be
pumped with a conventional centrifugal pump. If diluted in order to use irrigation equipment for
spreading liquid manure, the solids must be below 4%. The amount of manure as well as the
composition varies depending upon factors such as feeding, milk yield, animal weight, position in
the lactation period, and health of the animal.
Animal Dips: Ticks continue to be one of the most harmful livestock pests in hot environments.
Vectors of animal diseases ticks have been a great hindrance to livestock development especially
in areas where breeds of cattle exotic to the environment have been introduced. At present the
only effective method of control for most of these diseases is control of the vector ticks. Dipping
or spraying with an acaricide is the most efficient way of reducing the number of ticks.
Footbaths: Footbaths are provided to wash mud off the feet of the cattle to help keep the dip
clean. At least two baths are recommended, each 4.5 metres long and 25 to 30cm deep, but in
muddy areas it is desirable to have more. The footbaths should be arranged in a cascade, so that
clean water added continuously at the end near the dip, overflows from each bath into the one
before it, with an overflow outlet to the side near the collecting pen. Floor level outlet pipes from
each bath can be opened for cleaning. If water supply is extremely limited, footbath water can be
collected in settling tanks and reused later.
Farm workshop facilities: A workshop provides a focal point at the farmstead for the repair and
maintenance of machines, implements and structures. It also provides a place where tools can be
stored in an orderly manner, a store for supplies and spare parts, and a shelter where work can be
carried out during inclement weather. The size and design of a workshop, however, should be
commensurate with the size of the farm and the work to be done in the shop. The workshop
facilities should be cost effective.
Standard floor, feeder and waterer space requirements of dairy animals
Sr. Type of Animal
Floor Space/ animal (m2)
Manger space/ Waterer
space/
No
animal (cm)
animal (cm)
Covered area Open Area
1
Calves (<8 weeks)
1.0
2.0
40- 50
10-15
2
Calves (>8 weeks)
2.0
4.0
40-50
10-15
3
Heifers
2.0
4.0-5.0
45-60
30-45
4
Adult cows
3.5
7.0
60-75
45-60
5
Adult Buffaloes
4.0
8.0
60-75
60-75
6
Down calvers
12.0
20-25
60-75
60-75
7
Bulls
12.0
120.0
60-75
60-75
8
Bullocks
3.5
7.0
60-75
60-75
50
Ameliorative measures of heat stress reduction
The common practical methods for mitigation of heat stress are broadly grouped into 2
classes i.e. modification of the micro environment in which cattle or buffalo live and the ration
modification. However, here we are bound to focus on modification of the micro environment or
we can say shelter management. The following management strategies should be followed in
modern dairy to mitigate heat stress:
Provision of shade: Trees are considered as natural shade but when it is not possible provide
artificial shade. However, due to increase in global temperature day by day it is difficult to
maintain the temperature of microclimate aside the cows. So now-a-days, in addition to the
general provision of shed different cooling devices are used to modify the micro climate of cows
and buffaloes.
Fans: It has been observed that during hot-humid condition, cows produced more milk
(1.2kg/day) when kept in shed installed with fan during the early lactation period. In case of tail to
tail system of housing fans should be installed above the alley between stall. However, in face to
face system the fan system should be fixed at stall divider supporter post. While installing fan the
space between fans should be 8-10 feet.
Wallowing: Wallowing tank is provided to reduce the heat stress in buffaloes. In modern dairy
farm 2 times wallowing is preferred for buffaloes; in morning around 10-11 am and again in
evening 4-5 pm. In some farm instead of wallowing showering is followed for 15 minutes. At
cattle breeding farm (CBF) once showering is done in routine practice at 4 pm. If labour is
available then we can go for twice at around 10.30am in addition to routine practice. In some
countries artificial cooling ponds are used for the dairy cows and it has been observed that cows
access to cooling ponds had lower incidence of mastitis may be due to enhancement of resistance
by lower heat stress. The water in the wallowing pond should be routinely with fresh water.
Evaporative cooling pad: Cooling pads are effective in areas of low or high humidity and cool
the air while raising the relative humidity. However, along with fan system pads reduced
temperature of shed by 20-24 °F, which resulted in 3-5 kg more milk per cow. This system
requires fans, evaporative cooling pads, and pumps to circulate water to the pads. Coolers are
positioned every 20 ft. in the roof and air is pulled through the cooler at very high rates. Although
there is a substantial initial investment and operating expense, the cost is probably offset by
increased milk yield, improved reproduction, and decreased culling.
Sprinklers/Foggers/Misters: The sprinkler system directly wet the hair coat of animal by
producing larger size droplets and evaporation of this water make the hair and skin cool.
However, fogger and mister instead of producing large droplets produce smaller droplets of water
to the atmosphere, which then evaporated and make the air cool. Animal inhales the cooled air
and exchange heat with the air and remove heat from its body. Sprinkler system reduces body
temperature and respiration rate by 46-50% and 65-81% respectively over shade alone. All these
system increases relative humidity (RH) of the shed so there should be fan system to reduce the
RH. The sprinklers are adjusted in such a way that they sprinkle the animal at 15 min intervals for
0.5-3 minutes. Sprinkler system requires about 10 times more water (25 vs. 2.5 gallon) compared
to mist system. Foggers require 5 micron filter to maintain water quality and to prevent nozzle
clogging. These cooling systems are designed to operate during day time between 10 am to 5 pm
depending on the atmospheric temperature.
Air conditioner system: Cows in air conditioner environment for whole day produces around
9.6% more 4% FCM. At National Dairy research Institute buffalo heifer in short-term cooling for
6 hours (3 hours before and after insemination) had higher conception rate compared to control
group (68 vs. 33%). Air conditioner maintains both air temperature and humidity. However, the
initial investment is more in terms of cost of air conditioner and requirement of closed chamber.
Zone cooling: Cooled air or water can be blown over the head and neck region which causes a
very faster cooling experience by the animals as the blood flow to hypothalamus is cooled.
Conclusion
Shelter management of dairy animals is most important in current global warming scenario.
Proper design and orientation of shelter will improve the integration of feeding, watering, milking
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and cleaning, and efficient manure disposal, and finally proper utilization of labour. Further
utilization of locally available materials for construction of shed will be economical for the
farmers. Proper construction and design of building along with cooling system will reduce the
heat load to animal and will improve the health, productivity and reproductive performance of
dairy cows. Agro climatic zone wise identification of shelter for dairy animals and its evaluation
to suit for different local conditions based on locally available resources will be economic and
suitable for the dairy farming in India.
52
Clean milk production
T.K. Patbandha, K. Ravikala, M.R. Gadariya*, S. Marandi* and P.S. Dalal*
Dept. of Livestock Production Management (* ILFC)
1. Introduction
Clean milk is generally defined as “milk drawn from the udder of healthy animals, which is
collected in clean dry milking pails and free from extraneous matters like dust, dirt, flies, hay and
free from pathogenic bacteria. Clean milk has a normal composition, possesses a natural milk
flavour with low bacterial count and is safe for human consumption”. Clean milk has longer shelf
life and keeping quality, transported to longer distance, high commercial value and helps to
produce good quality dairy products. It also gives protection against diseases like typhoid,
dysentry, diptheria, septic sore throat etc. to the consumers. The main sources of bacterial
contamination of milk are the udder and flanks, milker, milking environment, milking equipment
and vessels used for milk storage and transportation. The animal itself and the milking
environment act as contaminants of particulate matters like dirt, dust and dung etc. Therefore
reduction of contamination at source level will render clean milk production and will be beneficial
for the producers, manufacturers and consumers.
2. Benefits of clean milk production
Clean milk production is beneficial to producers, manufacturers and consumers owing to the
following reasons:
2.1. Producers’ benefits
Clean milk production renders protection against septic sore throat, which is human origin
but sometimes established in cows’ udder. Mastitis can be transmitted from infected udder to
healthy udder, and typhoid, diphtheria, dysentery etc. are common human diseases directly
transmitted to milk through human contact. Therefore, farmers should give due attention
regarding clean milk production, so that milk will be safe for human consumption and these
disease can be prevented. Milk is contaminated by other microbes through body dust of cows as
well as contaminated water, air, utensils etc. that reduces the shelf life of milk and thus producers
face difficulty to dispose the raw milk. Thus clean milk production practices will improve the
keeping quality of raw milk and can be transported over long distance.
2.2. Manufacturers’ benefits
Clean milk has high commercial value as it helps in manufacturing of high quality products
with better keeping quality. Thus it increases the sale and consumption of milk products and
manufacturers get more profit.
2.3. Consumers’ benefits
Clean milk production provides better keeping quality and chances of spoilage are
minimized. Further it gives guarantee to the consumers against milk borne infectious diseases like
typhoid, diarrhoea, dysentery etc.
3. Source of contamination of milk
Different sources of contamination of milk are presented in figure 1. These sources can be
classified into 2 major categories according to their origin like internal factors or external factors.
3.1. Internal factors
 Udder infection like mastitis
 Fore-milk contains more bacteria
3.2. External factors
 Cow/animal’s body
 Udder and teats
 Milker hygiene and habits
 Method of milking
53




Milking utensils
Milk storage utensils
Feed and water
Milking environment
Soil
Feed and Fodder
Water
Environment
Drinking Water
Milker’s Hygiene
Animal
Preparing of
Animal for Milking
Milk
Milking Pail
Bulk Tank
Chilling of Milk
Retail/Consumer
Milk Tanks
Milk Processing Plant
Figure 1: Source of contamination of milk
4. Control measures at farm level for clean milk production
The following measures should be taken care for the production of clean milk at farm level:
i. Animal management at farm level
a. Feeding
b. Housing
c. Animal health
ii. Cleanliness of milking equipments and utensils
iii. Hygienic milking practices
iv. Storage, transport and cooling
4.1. Animal management
Milk from healthy udder is always relatively free from harmful bacteria and on the other
hand, milk from infected udder contains high bacteria count that reduces the shelf life and keeping
quality of milk. In dairy husbandry practices, animal management involves mainly feeding,
housing and health of animal.
a. Feeding
Balanced ration with proper quantities of green fodder, dry fodder and concentrates having
essential nutrients and minerals is important for the dairy animals. Feed ingredients should be
stored in moisture-free conditions otherwise there are chances of fungal contamination. Feed and
fodder should be free from industrial and environmental contaminants, pesticides, insecticides,
fungicides, fumigants, pathogenic agents, aflotoxin as well as heavy metals. Dry fodder like good
quality hay or straw should be given to the cows during lean period and supply adequate amount
of minerals and vitamins that will fulfil the deficiency. Animal should be fed one hour before
milking so that the contamination from feed should be avoided and at the time of milking, nondusty concentrate can be provided to keep animals busy. Silage and wet crop residues should not
be fed at milking place as it may impart foul odour to the milk.
54
b. Housing
Animal shed is the main source of contamination from dairy husbandry practices. At the
same time however, a good shed protects against micro-organisms as it keeps out other animals,
people, wind, rain and excessive heat, all increasing the danger of contamination. Mud, urine,
faeces and feed residues should be regularly removed from the shed. There should have proper
drainage, sufficient ventilation and lighting facilities. In very wet areas, slaked lime may be used
for drying of floor surface. Sufficient water facility should be available for drinking as well as
washing the shed, animal, utensils and milker’s hands etc. The animal shed should be well-roofed,
well ventilated, dry and comfortable with adequate elevation in conventional housing or if loose
housing the floor should be clean and dry. There should be appropriate arrangement for disposal
of animal waste and left over feed and fodder. The milking parlour should be free from flies and
insects which are potential sources of contamination, and piggery and poultry farming should be
avoided near the dairy animal premises.
c. Animal health
The cattle and buffalo herds should be healthy for clean milk production. Herd should be
routinely examined for bovine contagious diseases like FMD, TB, Brucellosis etc. and mastitis.
The diseased or sero-positive animals should be kept in isolation. Sanitary precautions like
cleaning and disinfection of animal sheds to prevent and control diseases should be adopted.
Regular check for udder wounds and mastitis should be done during milking. Vaccination of
animals against FMD, Anthrax, etc. should be done regularly.
The skin of the animal provides a large surface for possible contamination. Long hair on the
flanks, hind legs, tail and udder should be clipped at frequent intervals. If washing of animals is
not practised regularly as is observed in most cases, at least grooming of the animals should be
done to keep the hair and dust away from milk. The udder is the part of the animal needs more
attention to be washed before and after each milking, and dried with a clean cloth or towel.
4.2. Cleanliness of milking equipments and utensils
The common milking equipments like milking pails, milking machine, milk cans, milk
pipeline recorder, bulk, strainer, chiller, bulk tank and storage tank etc. are used starting from
milking to storage. Dirty milking equipment is one of the main sources of infection of milk as
residual milk in utensil helps in growth of microorganisms. Proper cleaning of utensils before and
after milking removes germs and dirt from the utensils. About 15 minutes before milking, milking
equipment should be rinsed with a sanitizing solution to remove dust and contamination. Milking
equipment should also be thoroughly cleaned after use because any milk residues in the
equipment will allow microorganisms to grow rapidly. The utensils and equipment used during
milking should be of standard quality. They should be made up of acceptable, non-absorbent,
corrosion-resistant material and should be easy to clean. The utensils and equipments should not
have any joints or open seams and should be free from rust. The milking utensils and equipment
should be thoroughly cleaned and sanitised after each milking. An acceptable, non-toxic and noncorrosive cleaning and bactericidal agent should be used for cleaning and sanitation, and use of
ash or mud not recommended. After cleaning and sanitation, the utensils and equipments should
be stored in such a manner and location to prevent contamination from flies, insects, dust, dirt,
rodents etc. They should preferably be stored in an inverted position off the ground to facilitate
drainage of wash water. Milking pail should have dome shaped top to prevent contamination of
milk from outside during milking.
4.3. Hygienic milking
Micro organism may enter to milk during hand milking and machine milking. In case of
hand milking, the extent of contamination coming from the milker is higher as compared to
machine milking. The milker should therefore be free from contagious diseases. Nails should be
well trimmed, should wear clean clothes and should wash hands with soap and water before
milking, then dry with a clean towel. A consistent milking method at regular intervals, fast but
gentle and complete milking and sanitary methods during milking are all important aspects. Floor
sweeping just before milking, feeding roughage at the time of milking should be avoided. If the
calves are suckling, the calf should be allowed to suckle at the beginning of the milking. The
55
udders and teats should be washed and massaged for at least 30 seconds and dried prior to
milking. Fore-stripping should be collected in separate utensil/cup for examination and abnormal
milk should be discarded to avoid flies and insects. The fore-milk should not be allowed to run on
the floor as this increases the danger of contamination. The milk should be drawn directly into the
pail as fast as possible and milking should be completed within 6-8 minutes. The milker should
not wipe their hands on the body of the animals or on their own body. After milking, the teats can
be dipped or sprayed with a gentle antiseptic solution like potassium permanganate, iodine
solution etc. The milking area should be thoroughly cleaned after each milking. Milk should be
strained using a clean cloth or a strainer and the cloth should be washed and dried daily.
4.4. Storage, transport and cooling
Advantage of producing clean milk is lost if post milking handling is not carefully done
Milk should be cooled as soon as possible to a temp below 5 °C in a refrigerator to preserve its
keeping quality. The sooner the milk is cooled after removal, the better is the quality. Bacterial
growth is retarded by cooling the milk within 2 hours of milking. Before storage, it is best to filter
the milk with a clean cloth in order to remove large particles that might have entered the milk.
The cloth should be thoroughly cleaned after use and left to dry in the sun. If chilling is not
feasible, preservatives like lactoperoxidase can be added to prolong the time before the milk gets
spoiled. Milk should be stored in clean containers with a lid and kept in a cool and shady place
where the danger of contamination is minimal. Milk should be transported in clean containers,
transport time should be kept to an absolute minimum and violent movement of the milk should
be avoided as milk fat can soon turn rancid in the presence of oxygen.
5. Important steps to be followed in clean milk production
Though major routine practices- i. Management of animal at farm level, ii. Cleanliness of
milking equipments and utensils, iii. Hygienic milking practices and iv. Proper storage, transport
and cooling are considered for clean milk production following general steps should also be
followed for clean milk production:
 Milking shed must be thoroughly cleaned before and after milking with disinfectants.
 Wash the udder and teats with lukewarm potassium permanganate solution and wipe with
clean towel.
 Screen for mastitis by employing “strip cup” method before milking. In this method, milk
of all four quarters will be stripped into a cup covered with black cloth. If the animal is
suffering from mastitis, flakes of milk will be seen on black cloth.
 If mastitis is detected, do not mix the milk of that animal in milk can containing milk from
healthy animals. Milk from affected quarters should be totally discarded.
 Drain the milk till last strip as it contain more SNF and fat.
 Immediately after milking, dip the teats in cup containing disinfectants viz. Povidone
iodine (0.5% W/V) etc. to prevent ascending infection.
 Milker should be free from infectious diseases. Cut his nails regularly, wash his/her hands
and legs before milking and wear cap or head gear.
 He/she shall not wet his hands with water or milk or saliva etc during milking.
 Always use stainless steel or aluminium milk cans specially designed for the purpose. It
prevents contamination and dust falling in milk etc.
 Milking cans should be thoroughly washed with detergent and sun dried every day
immediately after milking.
 Practice “full hand” method of milking. Avoid folding of thumb while milking
(knuckling). It may injure teats and cause wounds on teats.
 Filter the fresh milk using clean dry muslin cloth.
6. Economics of clean milk production
When setting standards for clean milk production, it is important that the standards reflect
the local conditions. If milk is boiled before use and consumed within hours of production, high
capital investments to improve hygiene may not be an economic necessity. With an increasing
time between milking and consumption, hygienic measures should be improved. At the same
56
time, with an increasing scale of farming, there is more room for investments in hygienic
practices. The cost of clean milk production should not exceed the benefit of the farmers. Milk
payments should be an incentive to improve the hygiene, and clean milk production should be
financially rewarded.
7. Supports to farmers
7.1. Efforts made by Government
A scheme called ‘Strengthening Infrastructure for Quality and Clean Milk Production”
(CMP), is being implemented from October 2003 as a step towards clean milk production. This
scheme has following objectives for the financial year 2013-13:
 Creation of necessary infrastructure for production, testing and marketing of quality milk
at the farmers’ level up to the points of consumption.
 Training and strengthening of infrastructure to create mass awareness about importance of
clean milk production.
 To improve the quality of raw milk produced by providing training and creating mass
awareness among milk producers and also by installation of bulk milk cooling facilities at
milk collection centres for immediate chilling of raw milk.
7.2. Support services related to clean milk production
Government should provide “Support- Services” to increase clean milk production. An
effective and well trained animal health service should be made available at all times to look after
the health of animals, arrangements should be made for timely vaccination and checking against
contagious diseases by the qualified veterinarians. Veterinary first aid should be readily available
round-the-clock at village level. To avoid spoilage, milk collection centres should be set up at
locations that are easily accessible to the producers. The knowledge of hygiene is often not
sufficient so one of the most important support-services regarding clean milk production is
“Extension-Education”. The ultimate aim is to develop the awareness amongst the milk producers
towards cleanliness of milk shed, clean milk production and animal health care. These services
should be organised at the village level and main thrust should be given to empower the women
members.
57
Reproductive management of bovines to improve milk production
G B Solanki, K H Parmar, R J Raval AND K B Vala
Department of Veterinary Gynaecology and Obstetrics
College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry
Reproductive inefficiency of dairy cattle causes great frustration for dairy producers. Even
under optimal conditions, the reproductive process is less than perfect because of the multiple
factors involved in producing a live calf. To manage the complexities of the estrous cycle and the
annual reproductive cycle, understanding of many interrelated physiological functions is critical.
Furthermore, reproductive efficiency involves successful management of not only the cows but
also the people who milk, feed, house, inseminate, and care for them.
Although the benefits of improving reproduction are apparent, specific causes of poor
reproductive performance are difficult to identify and are not resolved easily. To improve
reproductive efficiency, the limiting factors must be identified. In general, detecting estrus is the
major limitation to achieving a pregnancy. But once insemination occurs, two sources of
pregnancy failure exist, which include, but are not limited to, fertilization failure and embryonic
death. To maximize the chances of a renewed pregnancy for every heifer or cow that calves into
the herd, a number of important time-dependent components of the estrous cycle must be
managed. It is critical to understand each component of the estrous cycle as well as the annual
reproductive cycle (calving interval) and determine where limited time and resources might be
concentrated best to reach AI-breeding goals.
Maximal reproductive efficiency requires management of the calving interval. This
consists of three major components: the elective waiting period, the active AI-breeding period,
and gestation (including the dry period) plus their various integral parts.
Elective Waiting Period
The first component of a calving interval is the traditional rest period or the elective
waiting period (EWP). This period varies from 40 to 70 d on most farms. Part of its duration is
based on the physiological need for the reproductive tract of the cow to undergo a healing process
or involution. Research indicates that when cows calve without complication, this healing process
requires no more than 40 d.
Peri-Parturient Period
Parturition in the cow is a process that requires attention, care, and cleanliness. A
multitude of calving-related disorders predispose cows to ill health, loss in milk production, and
reduced reproductive efficiency. Whatever can be done to reduce one or more of these disorders
will result in the reduced incidences of other disorders because of their strong interrelationships.
During late gestation, the feto-placental unit is a major nutrient consumer and orchestrates a
homeorhetic priority of nutrient utilization. Once parturition occurs, the mammary gland becomes
the major nutrient user. As a result, an energy prioritization is manifested that places higher
priorities on the use of nutrients for maintenance and for milk secretion than for the onset of
estrous cycles and the initiation of a new pregnancy. Cows that consume less DM than their
contemporaries have delayed first ovulation and first estrus after parturition, produce less milk,
and are less fertile.
Close-up Fresh Period
It is no wonder that newly calved or close-up fresh cows have been the focus of new
veterinary intervention. It is logical to assume, however, that whatever stimulates Dry matter
intake (DMI) and prevents ill health for close-up fresh cows by providing more available nutrients
for reproductive processes will prove beneficial to the cow once maintenance, growth, and milk
production requirements are satisfied.
58
Onset of Estrous Cycle
A recent review of the factors limiting the onset of estrous cycle in lactating cattle cited a
number of events that must occur before cows begin estrous cycles after calving. Because
follicular waves begin soon after calving, concentrations of blood FSH are sufficient, but a major
limiting factor to ovulation is the reinitiation of adequate LH secretion in the form of circhoral LH
pulses to support final follicular maturation and subsequent ovulation of a dominant follicle.
Moreover, the onset of these LH secretory patterns is related to the timing of the postpartum nadir
of energy balance. The stimulation of appetite to ensure adequate DMI in normal, healthy cows is
essential to provide nutrients for maximizing milk secretion, follicular growth, ovulation, uterine
involution, and the initiation of pregnancy.
Increased feeding frequency and better feed bunk management to maintain a fresh,
adequate supply of feed and multiple sources of clean are critical for stimulating appetite and
maximal DMI. However, loss of BCS between parturition and AI may negatively influence
conception, because cows with BCS <3 at calving were less likely to be inseminated and loss of
BCS between calving and 45 DIM was associated with more days open and delayed intervals to
first service. Milk production and DMI of dairy cows are stimulated by increased dietary protein,
but, unfortunately, decreased fertility often is associated with excess feeding of ruminally
degradable or RUP as assessed by elevated blood or milk concentrations of urea. Concentrations
of milk urea N exceeding 19 mg/dl are associated with altered uterine pH and reduced fertility.
Therefore more research is needed to determine if various diets and changes in nutritional
management can be made to improve fertility rather than merely avoiding reductions in fertility.
Programmed Breeding
Programmed breeding is a method to schedule and control the insemination program of
lactating cows in the herd. The advantages for programming estrous cycles include: 1)
convenience of scheduling labor and tasks; 2) controlling the occurrence of estrus, ovulation, or
both; and 3) knowing the stage of the estrous cycle and reproductive status of groups of cows in
the herd. There are three programs which are commonly used on dairy farms: 1) Targeted
Breeding; 2) Ovsynch; and 3) Presynch + Ovsynch.
Targeted Breeding Program. This program has been promoted by one of the PGF2α
manufacturers (Pharmacia & Upjohn) for synchronizing the AI breeding of lactating cows in a
herd. Injections of PGF2α are administered 11 to 14 d apart.
Ovsynch. It is described more accurately as an ovulation synchronization program; hence the
name, Ovsynch. A 100-µg injection of GnRH is given 7 d before a PGF2α injection, then a
second 100-µg injection of GnRH is administered 48 h after PGF2α, with one fixed-time
insemination given 0 to 24 h later. A recent study reported no difference in pregnancy rates when
50 versus 100 µg of GnRH were injected at either time.
Presynch + Ovsynch. The so-called Presynch procedure entails two injections of PGF2α, given
14 d apart, with the second injection given 12 d before initiating the Ovsynch protocol.
ACTIVE AI-BREEDING PERIOD
The duration of this period is a function of the estrus detection rate and the level of
individual cow fertility. The percentage of cows detected in estrus depends on the efficiency of
detecting estrus in all cows, while the level of cow fertility depends upon a number of factors,
including the fertility of the service sire, correct thawing and handling of semen, AI-breeding
technique, and timing of insemination.
Detection of Estrus: The greatest limiting factor to successful fertilization is detection of estrus.
Approximately 50% of the estrous periods go undetected on the average dairy farm. Two
important challenges exist for detecting estrus: accurately recognizing signs of estrus and
identifying all possible periods of estrus in breeding heifers and cows.
Signs of Estrus: A cow will not be detected to stand if no other cow is available to mount. Once
four or more sexually active animals are in estrus in the same pen, standing and mounting activity
normally will be maximized.
Estrus-Detection Aids: Ideal estrus detection system has the following characteristics: 1)
continuous surveillance of the cow; 2) accurate and automatic identification of the cow in estrus;
59
3) operation for the productive lifetime of the cow; 4) minimal labor requirements; and 5) high
accuracy and efficiency (95%) for identifying the appropriate physiological events that correlate
with estrus, ovulation, or both.
Assessing Reproductive Efficiency
When TAI is performed in cows, then by definition conception rate (CR) is equivalent to
pregnancy rate (PR), because the EDR is 100%. Therefore, PR = EDR × CR becomes PR = 1 ×
CR or PR = CR. Pregnancy rate is suggested to be the best measuring stick for success of the AIbreeding program (Stevenson, 2000). For example, If 60% of the cows in the traditional program
are submitted for insemination (60% EDR; 40 eligible cows were not inseminated because they
were not detected in estrus), with a 40% conception rate, 24% of the cows become pregnant in a
21-d period. With the Ovsynch program, 100% of the cows are inseminated (TAI), and with a
similar conception rate, 40% of the cows become pregnant in a 10-d period. Therefore, 16 more
pregnancies are achieved at a similar conception rate.
GESTATION AND DRY PERIOD
The third component of a calving interval is gestation, including the dry period. The
duration of gestation is fairly constant and cannot be shortened significantly without adversely
affecting the health or viability of the newborn.
Dry Period
Evidence supports the concept that the dry period is a critical component to subsequent
performance of dairy cows. Nutrients required during this period include the maintenance and
growth of the cow plus that required by the developing feto-placental unit. The diet for the closeup dry period should contain higher energy density with less fiber.
Other Factors Affecting Fertility
Preventive Herd Health Practices
Appropriate preventive herd health programs should include a vaccination program for
cows and replacements, deworming of animals on pasture, mastitis control, hoof care,
reproductive visits, and other diagnostic procedures applied to blood and tissue samples resulting
from abortions and other unexplained illnesses.
Cow Comfort
For maximum comfort and milk yield in dairy cows, they must stand to eat, stand to be
milked, and lie down to ruminate and rest. Therefore, tie-stall or free-stall comfort is critical to
increased milk yields and acceptable conception rates. During times of heat stress, some
environmental modification is essential during late gestation and during lactation to prevent
hyperthermia and its harmful effects on cows. During the active AI-breeding period, heat stress
reduces uterine blood flow oocyte quality, embryo development, luteal function, and endometrial
function; and milk yields and overall reproductive performance. Modifications in free-stall or
loose housing should include shade, cooling under shades, forced ventilation with fans, and
sprinklers.
Timing of Ovulation and Insemination
Once the egg has ovulated, its estimated viable life is <12 h, unless it becomes fertilized.
Sperm are not capable of fertilizing the egg immediately upon thawing and deposition into the
uterine body of the female because they must travel the uterine horns to the utero-tubal junction,
enter the oviduct, and complete a maturation process known as capacitation. In general, normal,
motile sperm need about 6 to 10 h to reach the lower portion of the oviduct. The key to proper
timing of insemination and maximizing fertilization rates is to inseminate cows at a time to allow
ovulation to occur when adequate numbers of motile sperm are present in the oviduct.
Semen Handling Techniques
The improper handling of semen results in damaged sperm membranes, cold and heatshocked sperm, or impaired sperm motility. To maintain maximum fertilization rates,
recommended semen handling techniques must be followed: 1) when removing straws for
thawing, prevent exposure of other straws by keeping them below the frost line of the tank; 2)
60
thaw straws in water at 37°C (95°F) for at least 30 s; and 3) once thawed, prevent cold shock of
sperm cells until the semen is deposited in the female.
AI Techniques
Actual insemination technique may or may not be a major factor contributing to failure of
fertilization. Fewer numbers of motile sperm gain access to the oviduct when semen is placed in
the cervix than in the uterus. The target for insemination is the uterine body.
Embryonic Losses
Once the eggs are fertilized, the next obstacle is loss of the early embryo that occurs
during the cleavage stage of pregnancy. This is a critical period of development when early losses
can occur. The next critical stage is around d 15 or 16, when the embryo must be developed
sufficiently to override the spontaneous uterine secretion of PGF2α. Additional embryonic losses
can occur during the period of 25 to 40 d after insemination. These so-called late embryonic
deaths probably occur partly as a result of some failure in the attachment of the developing
placenta to the uterine wall. Because of these embryonic and fetal losses, pregnancy diagnosis
should be done at least twice. The first should as early as possible to identify non pregnant cows
and the second sometime after d 70, because only 3.4% of pregnancies in lactating dairy cows are
lost after d 70.
Clinical Mastitis and Abortions
Evidence is mounting that cows with mammary infections are predisposed to early
pregnancy losses because of disruption of normal luteal maintenance. The mechanism by which
mastitis interferes with pregnancy seems related to the secretion of PGF2α.
Male-Related Factors and Sire Usage
If a herd bull is used during summer, it is susceptible to heat stress as well as the cows.
Even short periods of heat stress (>85°F) cause a marked reduction in semen quality that may last
for more than 4 to 5 wk after the end of the heat-stress period.
Future Technologies
Significant use of embryo transfer commenced with the introduction of nonsurgical
recovery and transfer of embryos in the 1970s. One advantage of using embryo transfer of either
fresh or frozen-thawed embryos is the bypassing of the early embryo losses that occur before day
of transfer (i.e., d 7). Because of advances in the in vitro production of embryos as the result of
transvaginal ultrasound guided aspiration of oocytes and the discovery of the effects of follicular
status on oocyte quality and competence for embryonic development, more transfers of
traditionally produced embryos may be expected in the future. Cloning of embryos has increased
in recent years. Embryos produced by IVF can be used effectively to estimate the potential
fertilizing ability of frozen-thawed semen from dairy bulls. Models developed as alternative
progeny-testing schemes based on genetic and economic gains indicate that cloning is highly
beneficial for progeny-testing schemes with lower intensity and accuracy of selection. Refinement
of molecular biology tools related to increased availability of higher quality embryos has favoured
the emergence of screening of potential transgenic-produced cattle and embryo sexing. Other
technologies including cell sorting have allowed successful separation of X and Y-bearing sperm.
Summary and Conclusions
Components and parts of the calving interval outlined above illustrate the key
management steps in maintaining reproductive efficiency in the dairy herd. The close-up dry
period nutrition and vaccination programs must be managed well. Maximal DMI ensure that milk
yield, onset of estrous cycles, and initiation of pregnancy can occur in a timely manner, if the
programmed breeding protocols and good detection of estrus are in place. Use of the Presynch +
Ovsynch program is likely to be the most efficient and least costly way to prepare clusters of
cows for their best chance to conceive at first AI service. In general, those factors resulting from
inadequate detection of estrus or fertilization failure (e.g., semen handling and AI techniques) are
resolved more easily than those related to embryonic death. A continuous effort should be focused
on reducing various stressors that lower reproductive efficiency.
61
Health management in dairy animals with special reference to mastitis
Amit Prasad, J. S. Patel, Joice P Joseph and Bhavika Patel
Department of Veterinary Medicine,
College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry,
Junagadh Agriculture University, Junagadh
Our country now ranks first among the world's milk producing nations, achieving an
annual output of about 130 million tonnes. The per capita availability of the milk has reached a
level of 290 grams per day by the year 2012, which is more than the world average of 284 grams
per day. Most of the milk in the country is produced by small, marginal farmers and landless
labourers. Farmers of marginal, small and semi-medium operational holdings (area less than 4 ha)
own about 87.7% of the livestock. India is endowed with the largest livestock population in the
world. It accounts for about 57.3 per cent of the world's buffalo population and 14.7 per cent of
the cattle population. Animal husbandry and dairying play an important role in national economy
and in socio-economic development of the country.
Mastitis is a complicated and costly problem for the dairy farmer. Mastitis is inflammation
of the cow’s mammary gland usually caused by bacteria entering the teat canal and moving to the
udder. More than 100 different micro-organisms can cause mastitis.
Mastitis treatment and control is one of the largest costs to the dairy industry and is also a
significant factor in dairy cow welfare. Losses arise from:





Milk thrown away due to contamination by medication or being unfit to drink.
A reduction in yields due to illness and any permanent damage to udder tissue.
The extra labour required to tend to mastitic cows.
The costs of veterinary care and medicines.
The cost of reduced longevity due to premature culling.
Prevention and control procedure; The milking routine can have a profoundly critical effect on
the incidence of mastitis in the dairy herd, as contagious forms of mastitis spread easily via the
milking equipment and even the milkers themselves.
The seven preventive procedures are:
1. Maintain freestalls and bedding
2. Use proper milking producers
3. Maintain the milking equipment
4. Dip teats after milking
5. Treat cows at drying-off
6. Early and adequate treatment of clinical cases
7. Cull chronic, non-responding cows
1. Maintain freestalls and bedding: The goal is to have the cows clean, dry and comfortable.
Anything less detracts from their ability to produce milk and renders them susceptible to mastitis
as well as other diseases. Judge cleanliness by observing the udder and rear quarters. If they are
dirty, there is a problem with the lounging area or bedding. Judge dryness in the same way. Judge
comfort by observing their use of the lounging area provided. If they only use it out of necessity,
something is wrong.
Make corrections—not excuses.
2. Use proper milking procedures: The milking routine can have a profoundly critical effect on
the incidence of mastitis in the dairy herd, as contagious forms of mastitis spread easily via the
62
milking equipment and even the milkers themselves. Although routines vary between farms,
parlour types, different systems and so on.
Ideally, cattle should be milked in the following order:






Freshly-calved cows and heifers first, which due to a repressed immune system postbirth, are at the highest susceptibility to mastitis.
Highest yielding cows, being particularly susceptible to mastitis and having least
exposure to illness.
Mid-yielding cows, which may pose a greater risk from being exposed to pathogens
and subclinical carriers for longer.
Low-yielding cows, which will tend to be later lactation animals and will have had the
longest exposure to mastitis-causing pathogens and therefore will likely have the highest
levels of subclinical disease in the herd.
Cows with particularly high Somatic Cell Counts, which will present a reservoir of
infection for the other herd members.
Cows with clinical symptoms of mastitis and those being treated for the disease.
a. Provide a clean, stress-free environment for cows.
b. Check foremilk and udder for mastitis. (Use a strip-cup or similar check for every milking.
How else can you detect and treat mastitis early?)
c. Pre-dip the teats, allowing sufficient time for the product to work, then wipe dry with a clean
dry cloth or towel.
•
Teat washing (and udder washing, should the udder be particularly soiled) is most
effective when done via a drop hose. Any water used for washing should be of drinkable quality.
•
Teat washing, done without care, can actually contribute to bacterial contamination of the
teat canal due to pathogens present in the water being carried from higher up the teat towards the
teat orifice.
d. Dry teats (and udder) completely with individual paper (or cloth) towels.
e. Start milking within 1 – 1½ minutes after the start of stimulation and finish milking within 10
minutes.
h. Dip teats immediately after unit removal with an effective product. (Or, spray from the bottom,
not the side.)
g. Teat sealing is done by dipping the teat in solution of acrylic latex to reduce rate of infection.
h. Also feed the cows so they will remain standing for a while to allow the teat sphincter to
contract before lying down. When the weather is colder than 10 F, let the drop of teat dip hang for
30 seconds and then blot off before turning the cows out. Otherwise you risk freezing the teat
ends and that really leads to mastitis.
Frequency of milking: There is plenty of evidence to prove that cows milked more frequently
than twice-daily produce higher yields and have a generally lower incidence of mastitis
Cow grouping: Dairy cows are usually grouped, particularly when housed, according to the
nutritional requirements and the stage of lactation of the individual cow.
3. Maintain the milking equipment: Follow a planned maintenance program to routinely check,
repair and/or replace oil, belts, rubber and plastic hoses, liners and pulsators. Schedule your
service man for periodic evaluations (every 3–6 months), depending on the number of cows being
milked per unit, and the age of the equipment. You know there will be equipment failures. Plan to
find and correct them before they damage the cows.
4. Dip teats after milking: For the best possible effect, it is important to dip before the teat canal
sphincter begins to close and before any bacteria have the opportunity to colonise and multiply.
63
Dip pots must be cleaned out between milkings as they can become contaminated with bedding
materials and faecal matter from the cows which can affect the product's efficiency
•
Iodine-based treatments (iodophors); Chlorhexidine-based treatments; Hypochlorite-based
treatments; Quarternary Ammonium Compounds;
5. Treat cows at drying-off: Include ALL quarters of ALL cows and use a dry cow treatment
product. Don’t expect it to prevent or cure all mastitis problems, but it is very effective for some
types. Drying off of affected quarter is a procedure in which 30-60 ml of 3% silver nitrate or 20
ml of 5% copersulphate is infused into the affected quarter. This is done in case which are not
responding to therapy.
6. Early and adequate treatment of clinical cases: Diagnosis of mastitis is based on clinical
symptom, physical examination of udder and test on milk abnormality.
The most obvious symptoms of clinical mastitis are abnormalities in:

The udder such as swelling, heat, hardness, redness, or pain; and The milk such as a
watery appearance, flakes, clots, or pus. Other symptoms, depending upon the severity of
the illness and how systemic it has become, can also include:

A reduction in milk yield.

An increase in body temperature.

The lack of appetite.

Sunken eyes.

Signs of diarrhoea and dehydration.

A reduction in mobility, due to the pain of a swollen udder or simply due to feeling
unwell.
Test of milk abnormality includes following test: strip cup test, bromothymol blue test,
bromocresol purple test, chloride test, hotis test, california mastitis test, white side test, catalase
test etc.
Treatment protocol of mastitis depends on stage and severity of infection. treatment protocol
include isolation of affected animal healthy animal, healthy quarter should be milked first and
removal of secretion from affected quarter.
Intra-mammary antibiotic infusion is indicated in local infection were as systemic
antibiotic is indicated in cases showing systemic reaction. rational antibiotic therapy can be done
base on culture and antibiotic sensitivity test of milk. Some mastitis is caused by fungal agents
whih requires antifungal agents. Antibiotic therapy should be continued for at least 5 day to check
development of antibiotic resistance. Apart from this supportive therapy can be given which
includes fluid therapy, antihistamines, corticosteroids. use of streptokinase and streptodornase as
intramamary infusion give better result. Discard the milk from all quarters for the length of time
directed. Insert the teat cannula only 1/4 inch for infusion and use single service treatments, not
multiple dose containers or syringes.
7. Cull chronic, non-responding goats: This is a vital part of a mastitis control program and
should be viewed as a positive effort, rather than as a failure. Culling is especially important when
the main agent involved is staph. If treated early, cases of staph can respond and heal. But once
they have become recurrent they must be viewed as permanently infected carriers and spreaders.
Other procedure that can reduce chance of mastitis
 Treat sore teat and chapped teat using antiseptic solution and glycerine.
 Full hand method of milking.
 Proper disposal od infected milk by adding 5% phenol.
 Calves should be prevented from sucking milk of other cow.
 Let the animal stand for sometime after milking.
 Wash the floor of milking shed.
 Control fly population by using fly repalent spray or insecticidal ear tags.
 Hair on udders and flanks should be clipped to avoid the accumulation of dirt and excess
moisture
64
The procedures outlined above are the sort of thing that every dairyfarm should be doing; with
few if any “shortcuts.”
 Test dairy herds for tuberculosis, caprine arthritis encephalitis, brucellosis, and
leptospirosis.
 Vaccine against Staph. aureous has been used but so far it is of little improtance in
controlling mastitis due to diversity of causative agent. Vaccination against staphylococcal
mastitis (the most common type of mastitis in dairy goats) in cattle has been shown to
reduce severity and possibly duration of infection by these agents. Their efficacy in goats
is unknown.
VACCINATION SCHEDULE OF CATTLE & BUFFALO
Diseases
Vaccine
Dose
Immunity
Anthrax
Anthrax
spore
vaccine
HS
HS Vaccine
BQ
BQ Vaccine
Brucella
Brucella Vaccine
Theileriosis Theileria Vaccine
FMD
Polyvalent
FMD
Vaccine
Rabies
Rabies
post
bite
vaccine
1 ml S/C
1 year
Time
Vaccination
May- June
5 ml S/C
5 ml S/C
2 ml S/C
3 ml S/C
3 ml S/C
6 month & 1 year
6 month& 1 year
1 year
1 year
1 year
May-June
May-June
Feb & Dec
1 ml S/C I/M
1 year
0,3,7,14,28,90
days
of
VACCINATION SCHEDULE OF GOAT
Diseases
Vaccine
FMD
Polyvalent
Vaccine
Anthrax
Anthrax
vaccine
Enterotoxemia
HS
CCPP
PPR
Rabies
Immunity
Time
of
Vaccination
First – 4 month
of age
1 ml S/C
ReVaccination
– Annual
1 year
May-June
1 ml S/C
1 year
May-June
1 year
May-June
1 year
1 year
Before
monsoon
0,3,7,14,28,90
days
Age
spore
Enterotoxemia
Vaccine
HS vaccine
IVRI Vaccine
PPR vccine
Rabies post bite
vaccine
Dose
First- 4 month
of age above
above
2 ml
RevaccineAnnualy
1 ml S/C
0.2 ml S/C
4 month
1 ml S/C
3 year
1 ml S/C
1 year
I/M
This disease is significant from public health point of view as the presence of bacteria in
milk not only render the infected milk unsuitable for human consumption but also help in spread
of of various disease in human eample- tuberculosis, brucellosis etc.
Mastitis control and prevention is clearly attainable but requires diligence and the adoption
of best practices. To manage mastitis, dairy producers must be willing to change old habits or
ineffective and incorrect practices that may be causing or permitting new intramammary
infections to occur.
65
Rumen manipulation techniques in dairy animals
K.S. Dutta, H.H. Savsani, S.S. Patil and D.D. Garg
Dept. of Animal Nutrition
College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry,
Animal husbandry has made significant contribution to human population during past
century. Animal products provide one sixth of human food energy and one third of protein on
global basis . Main animal products come from ruminants such as Cattle, Buffalo, Sheep and Goat
as milk and meat. Ruminants are foregut fermenter and their stomach consists of four
compartments, rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasums. Rumen holds the key position as 50
% digestion occurs in rumen which inhabits a variety of bacteria, protozoa and phacomycetes
fungi. Mammalian system is devoid of enzyme digesting structural carbohydrates, hence,
symbiotic rumen microbes hold a very advantageous position in that they can secrete elaborate
enzyme for fermentation of large amount of fibrous feed consumed by the ruminants. Rumen is an
open self contained anaerobic eco-system in which feed consumed by ruminants is fermented by
rumen microbes to volatile fatty acids and microbial biomass which serve as source of energy and
protein for the host animal.
Ruminants have following advantages over nonruminants:
a. They can digest large amount of fibrous feeds (lingo cellulosic materials) efficiently.
b. They can use non protein nitrogen sources like urea as source of nitrogen to meet part of
their protein requirement.
c. They can detoxify many toxic ingredients in feed.
d. They can synthesize all the essential amino acids even from non protein nitrogen sources
e. They can synthesize all the B-complex vitamins.
Need for Rumen manipulation: During last three decades, livestock production has
increased tremendously through development of high producing animals. Therefore, there
exists considerable scope for selection and improvement of rumen microbiodata strains for
improved feed utilization, better feed conversion efficiency and production performance of
livestock.
In tropical countries like India, ruminants act as important source of protein for
human population. Ruminants of the region are maintained on poor quality roughages or lingo
cellulosic agro-industrial by-products with or without supplementation, resulting in poor
productivity despite the improved genetic quality of livestocks. Additionally, tropical forages
have certain limitations such as:
1. Tropical forages contain more of structure carbohydrates and therefore, have less energy
value and produce less amount of Volatile Fatty Acids and microbial protein.
2. Intake of tropical forages is low because of their poor ruminal digestion and prolonged
retention time.
3. They are deficient in essential nutrients, contain lower amount of energy and protein
4. Their feeding results in imbalance in digestive end products (high acetate and low
propionate) which causes inefficient utilization of Metabolisable energy.
5. Many plant species, particularly legumes and tree leaves contain anti nutritional compounds
In light of these, considerable need and scope exist for manipulation of rumen
fermentation to improve utilization of forages in tropical and developing countries:
Manipulation of rumen fermentation can be considered as an optimization process,
whereby, optimal conditions are sought by maximization and/or minimization of fermentation
process, depending upon factors such as kind and level of feeding and animal production.
66
Objectives of rumen manipulation:
1. To enhace fibrolytic activity of rumen microbes.
2. To increase synthesis of microbial protein
3. Reduction in proteolysis and urolysis: Hydrolysis of feed protein and deamination of
amino acids and reutilization of ammonia for synthesis of microbial protein are energy
consuming process, hence, should be discouraged.
4. Reduction in methanogenesis: Methanogenesis is a wasteful process as 5-10 % of
gross energy is lost as methane. Provision of alternate method of hydrogen sink in the
rumen may help in increasing DE value for production.
5. Prevention of acidosis: In high grain fed animals, the level of lactic acid can be
controlled to avoid acidosis and inhibition of feed utilization due to lowered pH of
rumen liquor.
6. Shifting acetate to propionate production- reduces methanogenesis as well, as
propionate production uses hydrogen and is glucogenic.
7. Novel microbes: The quality of protein is important in high producing ruminants.
Microbes can be engineered to synthesize the amino acids in form of peptides and
supply to the animals in intestine.
8. Metabolism of plant toxin: Rumen fermentation can be modified for efficient
utilization of feeds which contain antinutritional factors like tannin, saponin, mimosine
etc.
Methods of rumen manipulation:
Broadly, the methods of rumen manipulation can be described as :
a. Genetic rumen manipulation
b. Non genetic rumen manipulation
Genetic rumen manipulation: Attempts have been made to develop genetically
engineered microbes by gene transfer / manipulation technique to enhance the animal production.
However, success has been limited and sporadic.
Genetic manipulation could allow the introduction or increase of desired activities such as
cellulolysis and detoxification or decrease of undesired activities such as proteolysis, deamination
and methanogenesis. One approach therefore, would be to select the desirable gene and to
express it in a predominant rumen bacteria. Naturally present micro-organisms in rumen can be
genetically modified to increase and express their capacities of defined functions or to add new
function. The second approach would be to introduce new species or strain of microbe into the
gut. Application of these two approaches has a great potential to increase digestibility of feeds and
to improve animal production.
First step in the process of genetic modification is the selection of desired gene which is to
be engineered and its incorporation into bacteria, deficient in that trait. ex.: incorporation of
cellulose digesting genes into Fibrobacter succinogenes, a succinate producing bacteria. A vector
such as plasmid is required for transfer of such genes to recipient cell. Some of the rumen bacteria
have also been shown to harbour plamids. The plasmid of rumen bacteria can be recombined with
bacteria containing desired gene. The recombined plasmid is then transferred back into rumen
bacteria to facilitate the insertion of desired genetic property. Thus, the genetic manipulation can
be done in bacteria easy to handle e.g. E. coli and the transfer the recombined genetic material
into the rumen bacteria which can be used for practical application. Genes which have cloned
E.coli are endoglucanase, xylanase, beta glucosidase, amylase, glutamic synthetase from donor
source of Bacterioides fibrisolvens,Ruminococcus flavifaciens, Fibrobacter succinogenes,
Neocallimastix frontalis, Streptococcus bovis etc.
Non genetic rumen manipulation: Microbial feed additives (probiotics)
The digestion process in ruminant occurs by chemical reaction and by the fermentation
provided by the rumen microbial flora. During the last decade, the rumen as well as intestinal
microbial flora balance have been recognized as main factors to manipulate in order to obtain the
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best growth performance of the animals. These microbial flora are essential to the animal's health,
whereas, their equilibrium is constantly threatened by proliferation of undesirable microbes,
detrimental to the health and performance of the animals. Therefore, use of live microbial cultures
(probiotics) is being tried now-a-days as natural feed additives for enhancing rumen metabolic
activity and thereby overall animal production. Supplementation of different probiotics
(fungi/yeast and bacteria) resulted in improved nutrient status and productivity of the ruminant
under certain conditions. Fuller (1989) defined probiotics as "A live microbial feed supplement
which beneficially affects the host animals by improving its intestinal microbial balance.
However, in 1989, US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) used the term direct fed microbes
(DFM) instead of probiotic. The FDA defines DFM as a source of live (viable) naturally
occurring microorganisms and this includes bacteria and yeast.
The important microbials used these days are:
Bacterial origin
Lactobacillus casei ,Bacillus subtilise, Lactobacillus cellobiosus, Lactobacillus fermentum
Bifidobacterium bifidus,Lactobacillus lactis,Bifadobacterium infant, Lactobacillus sporogens
Bifadobacterium hermophilum,Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus bulgaricus
Streptococcus thermophilus etc.
Yeast origin Aspergilus oryzae, Saccharomyces cerevisiae etc.
Attempts are being made to isolate the superior strain of rumen fungi for better cellulolytic
activity and their interspecies trans inoculation. The micro organisms which are used as probiotics
should possess the following properties:
 Resistance to low pH and bile salt,
 Production of lactate and other antimicrobial agents,
 A normal inhabitant of the gut in the target animal species
 Able to survive, colonize and multiply at a faster rate in the gut,
 Viable product can be formed at industrial scale for its commercialization,
 Stable and viable during long storage and field conditions,
 Must produce beneficial effect in host animals
The utilization of probiotics in farm animals may contribute in the following aspects:
• Growth promotion,
• Improved feed conversion efficiency,
• Better absorption of nutrients by control of gut epithelial cell proliferation and differentiation,
• Improved metabolism of carbohydrate, calcium and synthesis of vitamins,
• Neutralization of anti nutritional factors i.e., trypsin inhibitor, phytic acid etc,
• Microbial enzyme production, compensating for deficient intestinal enzyme activities of the
host,
• Elimination or control of intestinal microorganisms producing sub clinical or clinical diseases,
• Stimulation of non specific and specific immunity at the intestinal level.
Administration of probiotics in livestock may be most effective under following
conditions:
After birth to encourage the early establishment of beneficial rumen microflora,following
antibiotic treatment,
In the presence of enteric pathogen such as E. coli,Salmonella, Coccidia,
During environmental or mangemental stress.
In calves, administration of probiotics may be most effective under the following
circumstances: After birth, before and after transportation,at post weaning, following over eating
or antibiotic administration
Advantages of Probiotics
1. Provide cost effective manipulation technique
2. Very effective in adult cattle under situation of Ketosis, Antibiotic treatment, Bloat,
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Difficult calving.
3. Effective in neonates in adaptation to solid feed, avoiding establishment of
enteropathogens, and stimulation of early rumen development. Establishment of
beneficial bacteria such as lactobacilliin G.I.tract.
Effect of probiotics on rumen eco system:
1. Rumen degradability: Increased degradability of forages and microbial protein flow into
rumen
2. Microbial population: Yeast feeding has been found to increase the total no. of bacterial
population along with higher proportion of Cellulolytic bacteria thus improving cellulose
digestion.
3. Rumen pH : Yeasts exert buffering effect in the rumen medium and prevent sharp drop in
rumen pH and thus stabilize the pH even in high concentrate fed animals with a lower lactate
concentration
4. VFA production: Stimulation in VFA production and proportion of propionate production at
the expense of acetate
5. Ammonia nitrogen : Animals consuming Yeast culture have lower ruminal ammonia nitrogen
concentration and higher microbial protein synthesis with altered amino acid profile of duodenal
digesta in dairy cows on account of greater number of total bacteria and cellulolytic bacteria.
Lower concentrations of ammonia in the rumen of cows fed yeast culture may reflect
increased transportation of ammonia (preferred N-source of rumen microbes) into microbial
protein. The increased bacterial biomass by feeding yeast culture result in increase in microbial
protein flow from rumen to the duodenum.
6. Rumen enzyme profile: The yeast supplementation in the diet increased the activity of
carboxymethyl cellulose enzyme in the rumen of animals
7. Oxygen scavenger: Yeasts act as a oxygen scavenger in the rumen . Some amount of oxygen
enter the rumen along with feed and it adversely affect the rumen environment as well as growth
of the rumen microbes. There was increased oxygen disappearance (between 46-89%) by adding
Saccharomyces cervisiae in rumen fluid in vitro and stimulate rumen bacterial growth.
Effect of probiotic feeding on animal performance:
1. Feed intake: Supplementation of yeast in animal feed improved palatability on account of
improved taste due to glutamic acid produced by yeast.
2. Nutrient digestibility and balance: Significant improvement has been reported in digestibility
of dry matter, organic matter, crude protein and fibre and retention of energy and Nitrogen .
3. Growth and feed conversion efficiency: Dietary supplementation of yeast to starter diet has
been found to improve growth rate and feed efficiency
4. Milk production: Positive response on milk production has been reported in yeast fed
animals. Response has been greater in early compared to middle of lactation and the response was
greater with diets containing the higher proportion of concentrate
5. Effect on health: Very effective in adult cattle under situation of ketosis, bloat, antibiotic
treatment, difficult calving, lower immunity causing diarrhoea
DEFAUNATION
The process of making the rumen of animals free of rumen protozoa is called defaunation
and the animal is called defaunated animal. The role of rumen ciliate protozoa on the performance
of host animals became debatable issue when Becker and Everett (1930) demonstrated that rumen
protozoa were non-essential for growth in lambs. However, reports of recent years reflect that
though protozoa may be non essential for ruminant, but still they have significant role to play in
the rumen metabolism, specially to stabilize the rumen pH. Rumen protozoa are the largest in size
among rumen microbes and contribute 40-50% of the total microbial biomass and enzyme
activities in the rumen.
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Method of defaunation :
1. Isolation of new born animal: Isolation of newborn animals from 2-3rd day after birth and
preventing them any contact with adult ruminants.
2. Chemical treatment: Copper sulphate, monoxol and Sodium lauryl sulphate are used to
defaunate animals but care should be taken that they are toxic to both microbes and host.
3. Dietary manipulation: The activity of ciliate protozoa is very much affected below pH 5.8
and protozoa are completely eliminated below pH 5. High grain diet cause decrease in pH
below 5 and defaunate the animal but their remains every chance of developing acidosis.
The drenching of vegetable oil eliminate ciliate protozoa and hence can be used as a
defaunating agent
Effect of defaunation on rumen ecosystem:
1. Bacterial population: Increase in bacterial population because rumen protozoa feed on rumen
bacteria.
2. Rumen pH: After ingestion of feed there is more drop in pH of defaunated than faunate
animals. This is because protozoa engulf starch particles which is stored in their body as
Amylopectin and thus decrease the rate of carbohydrate fermentation.
3. Volatile Fatty Acids: Increase in TVFA concentration in defaunated animals have been
reported . Higher VFA concentration in th rumen of faunated animals may also be observed due
to higher hydrolytic enzymes activity in the rumen protozoa because about 40-60 % of hydrolytic
activity is found in the rumen protozoa.
4. Ammonia Nitrogen: Significant reduction in ammonia-N concentration in the rumen of
defaunated animals was reported by several workers. In defaunated animals, the number as well
as activity of rumen bacteria increase, resulting in more uptake/utilization of ammonia by bacteria
and as a result,ruminal ammonia concentration is reduced. Further, low production of free amino
acid from the degradation of protein or peptide in absence of ciliates and/or lower rate of
recycling of microbial nitrogen in the rumen of defaunated animals could have contributed to
lower ruminal ammonia nitrogen concentration. The recycling of bacterial nitrogen in the rumen
is higher in presence of ciliate protozoa and the number of ruminal bacteria capable to utilize
ammonia decrease with increased ruminal break down of dietary protein.
5. Microbial protein synthesis: Microbial protein synthesis in the rumen of defaunated animals
was higher than faunated animals because in absence of rumen ciliate protozoa, the efficiency of
rumen bacterial growth is enhanced and more microbial protein flows from reticulo-rumen to
duodenum . Although bacteria and protozoa are active in synthesis of microbial protein, outflow
of microbial protein in to duodenum is primarily of rumen bacterial origin.
6. Enzyme profile: Elimination of ciliate protozoa decrease ruminal cellulase enzyme activity
because 62 % of total ruminal cellulase activity is associated with ruminal protozoal population.
Protease enzyme activity is higher in faunated animal than in defaunated animal.
7. Methane production: Defaunation is reported to considerably decrease the methane
production compared with the normal faunated animals because Rumen protozoa contribute
hydrogen moiety for the production of methane by the methanogenic bacteria. Further,
ectosymbiotic attachment, methanogens have with ciliate protozoa and elimination of their
symbiotic partner on defaunation results in reduced methane production. Kreuzer (1986)
calculated that defaunation decreased energy losses through methanogenesis by 5.5 to 7.9% of
gross energy intake.
Animal performance:
1. Feed intake and nutrient digestibility: Loss of appetite and reduction in feed intake which
may be due to reduced digestibility of cellulose in defaunated animals
2. Degradation of toxic substances: Defaunated animals are more susceptible to bloat than
normal animals. Ochratoxin produce more toxicity in defaunated animals than faunated animals
3. Growth and feed conversion efficiency:
i. Larger heart girth in defaunated Sheep
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ii. Increased wool growth in defaunated lamb
iii. Availability of ME is higher in defaunated lamb due to reduction of loss of energy as
methane.
iv. Therefore, defaunation has a positive effect on growth rate and feed conversion efficiency
Ionophore antibiotics: Ionophore antibiotics such Monensin Sodium and Lasalo acid alter the
flux of ions across the membrane . Gram positive bacteria are more sensitive to ionophore
antibiotics . There is reduction in gram positive bacteria and increase in proportion of gram
negative bacteria, resulting into shift in fermentation end products. 1 mg./kg. body weight of
lasalo acid controls coccidiosis.
1. Effect on VFA production: Reduction in molar proportion of acetate and butyrate and
increase in molar proportion of propionate. by 50-75 % depending upon basal diet.
2. Effect on Methane production: Reduction in methane production by 30 % as propionate
consume hydrogen. Recommended doses: Rumensin(Monensin Sodium) -20 to 30 gram/ton
feed
Bovatec(Lasalo acid)-10 to 30 gram/ton feed
Essential oil: These are steam volatile organic solvent extracts of plants traditionally known for
their odour, fragrance, flavour or antiseptic and/or preservative properties. Many essential oils are
known for their antimicrobial properties because of their action on cell membrane. The loss of
membrane permeability results in the leakage of ions across the cell membrane, reducing ion
ingredients. Essential oils act like ionophore antibiotics , affecting gram positive bacteria, gram
negative bacteria being lipophilic in nature and hence, escaping membrane damage.
Some essential oils have antimethanogenic properties, some reduce ammonia production and
some also affect fermentation negatively, but generally are supposed to affect fermentation
positively. E.g. garlic oil, cinnamaldehyde(cinnamon), eugenol(clove oil), anisol(anise) etc.
Dietary buffers: Originally added to dairy cow diet for increasing milk fat content.
1. Buffers minimise wide fluctuation in rumen pH post feeding.
2. Buffers improve the digestibility of fibre by stabilizing rumen pH and thus, facilitating the
action of cellulolytic bacteria on fibre as a result of which, there is increased proportion of
acetate to propionate, improving milk fat content.
3. Buffers increased feed intake due to improved fibre digestibility.
e.g. Magnesium oxide , Sodium bicarbonet
Buffers are recommended during
1. Early lactation
2. When large amount of rapidly fermentable carbohydrates are fed.
3. When animals are fed at infrequent intervals
4. When concentrate and forages are fed separately
5. When particle size of total feed is small.
6. When dry matter intake is low
7. When milk fat is low
Recommended dosage: Sodium bicarbonet-0.75 to 1.5 % diet DM
Magnesium oxide: 0.5 to 0.75 % diet Dm
Fibrolytic enzymes:
1. Fibrolytic enzymes increase ruminal and total tract digestibility of DM, NDF and improve
milk production
2. Fungal protease improve cellulose digestibility of poor quality roughages.
3. Fibrolytic enzymes cause significant improvement in milk yield of FCM and SCM
e.g. : Cellulase, Hemicellulase, Xyllanase. These are more stable when incubated with
protease enzyme.
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Methane analogues and blocker of methanogenesis: Methane produced during ruminal
metabolism has no energy value to the animal. Various chemicals especially methane
analogues like halomethanes and amichloral block methanogenesis. These compounds have
been found to improve energetic efficiency and N-retention in cattle and Sheep.
Extrusion cooking: Extrusion cooking of urea with formaldehyde and preparation ureacereal commercial product (Starea) has been found to reduce urolysis. Similarly "Uromol" a
heated product of urea and molasses also releases ammonia slowly in rumen
Immunization: An alternative approach to modify rumen fermentation is to induce
ruminant to produce antibodies (e.g. S.bovis to control acidosis, ciliate protozoa to
defaunate rumen, methanogens to mitigate methane production) Since, rumen is
immunologically inert, the preferred route is salivary. Antibodies are glycoproteins and
glycoproteins are somewhat resistant to proteolysis. Hence, are ruminally inert and escape
ruminal proteolysis and bind to target cell. But, none of above vaccines has shown any
promising effect. However, Sub cut injection of jackbean urease has been reported to reduce
urolysis and improve growth by producing immunization against urease activity through
circulating antibodies.
Bacteriophages: Bacteriophages or or bacterial viruses are obligate parasites that infect
bacterial cells and cause lysis. The rumen is inhabited by a large no. of bacteriophages and
it is likely that these contribute to the "homeostatis" of the microbial population. Generally,
phages are highly host specific and the specificity could extend to the strain level within a
species, which could be either an advantage or disadvantage, depending on the target. An
obvious advantage with phage treatment is that they are self replicating. However, there is
also a possibility of resistance development in bacteriophages. Bacteriophage treatment
eliminates specific microbes like S.bovis, methanogens, hyper ammonia producing bacteria,
or pathogens like E.coli and Salmonella, which is advantageous.
Bacteriocins: These are peptides naturally produced by some bacteria that are inhibitory to
other, generally related bacteria by affecting their cell membranes. These substances may
play an important role in microbial competition and other interactions in rumen.
Bacteriocins or bacteriocin like inhibitory substances (BLIS) production has been detected
in certain strains of Butyrovibrio, Ruminococcus, Streptococcus and Lactobacillus. Some of
bacteriocins have been shown to inhibit methanogens. Though, these are peptides, these are
generally resistant to gut proteases. Probiotics containing bacteriocins can also be used
instead of bacteriocins.
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Recent advances in Feed processing Technology
Dr. K.S. Murthy
Green and dry roughages are ruminant's natural feed. Domestication of these species
coupled with breeding for higher growth and production levels, assert that these herbivorous
animals be fed Scientifically and according to production levels. Since fibrous crop residues,
agro-industrial by- products of conventional and unconventional origin are primary feed
resources, feed processing assumes greater significance in Indian context. Feed processing is
relatively new concept started in the latter half of nineteenth century. In the year 1911, only 28
feed ingredients were acceptable for sale according to Association of American Feed Control
Officials, and American Feed manufacturing Association defined 230 feed ingredients in its 1969
handbook. Urea was accepted as a feed for ruminants in the year 1930, due shortage of protein
feeds during World War II. The total world's manufactured feed tonnage exceeds 700 million
tons. In Asian context, China alone produces 42% of total compound feed, followed by Japan
(28%), Korea (19%) and India (7%). Poultry feeds form the bulk of the manufactured compound
feed (35% of the world and 56% of Asia, respectively). In India, compound feed grew from a
production level of 50,000 tons in early sixties to 60 million tons in the year 2010. Compound
cattle feed production got a fillip in the year 1966, when AMUL established its cattle feed factory
at Kanjari village near Anand. Compound Livestock Feed Manufacturer's Association ( CLFMA)
formed in the year 1967 looks after the interests of feed manufacturers in our country.
Advantages of processing feed ingredients
1. Feed ingredients vary in particle size, bulk density, texture and to have uniform feed it is there
fore necessary to grind them to uniform size, mix and pelletize them to have uniform feed.
2. Particle size reduction increases the surface area of the feed ingredients thereby allowing more
bacterial action in rumen and lower gut resulting in better digestibilities.
3. Reduces bulk density of crop residues such as wheat straw etc
4. During Pelletizing/ extrusion, starch from cereal grains gets gelatinized and become more
digestible.
5. Harmful bacteria present in feed like E. coli get destroyed during pelletization.
6.Feed processing allows mixing and pelleting of liquid feed ingredients such as molasses, animal
fats, corn steep liquor etc.,
7. We can add to the feed formula micro nutrients such as minerals, vitamins, antibiotics,
probiotics, nutraceuticals, coccidiostats etc.
Feed Processing technologies available:
1. Grain Processing
1.1. Dry grain Processing
1.1.1. Dry Grinding: Grinding in hammer mills/Attrition mills. Coarse grinding of cereal grains is
preferable to reduce dust in feed plant as well as to maintain ideal feed passage time in G.I. Tract
1.1.2. Dry Rolling or Cracking: Dry rolled grains are prepared by passing the grain through a
roller mill and these grains are used in complete feeds or in grain supplements.
1.1.3. Popping : Dry heat at 370-425 0c for 15-30 seconds causes sudden expansion of grains
which rupture endosperm to release starch for better availability to rumen microorganisms.
Popping increases feed consumption by 5-10%, improves digestibility and popped grains are good
molasses carrier.
1.1.4. Extruding : The process where in starch is gelatinized is executed in pellet mills as well as
extrusion cookers that are of two types-short time high temperature cookers and pressure
extrusion cookers. In the former, the cookers are designed to work the moisturized cereal mixer
into a dough at modest temperature of 180-2100 F plus a means of elevating the temperature of
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dough in the extruder during a very short period of 10-12 seconds to a desired higher temperature
230-4000 F within which temperature range gelatinization becomes relatively complete. Pressure
cooking extruders apply stem at 20 to 100Psi and gelatinization is accomplished in 2-10 minutes
at 250-3500 F.
With out steam, pressure and frictional heat yields flakes. When whole soybean
are subject to this technology pressure and heat crushes and cooks the bean. Meal and oil are
extruded and the oil is rapidly reabsorbed by the warm meal and the product will be ready for
mixing into feed.
1.1.5. Micronizing: Jowar grains are heated by micro waves with 3x10 8 to3x1011 cycles per
second emitted from infrared burners. Instant heat (3000 F) causes grain to crack and puff.
1.1.6. Roasting: Grains are lifted through jets of flame with an exit temperature of 3000 F. Density
of maize is 21.4 while roasted cron is 13.6 kg. Roasting has proved to improve weight gains in
steers by 9% and improves feed intake by 7%. Roasting also reduces antinutritional factors such
as trypsin inhibitors present in legume seeds.
1.2. Wet grain processing
1.2.1. Soaking: Grains soaked for 12-24 hrs are softer and swell during soaking making them
more palatable.
1.2.2. Steam rolling: Two methods of steam rolling of barley and milo are in sue today. Steam
preconditioning at atmospheric pressure for 18-20 minutes (temperature 2150 F and the grains are
rolled in a roller. Steaming and rolling results in 19% and 30% gelatinization respectively.
Another method is, pressure preconditioning for 50 seconds to 2 minutes at 20-60psi (250-3000 F)
and then rolled in large diameter rolling units. Gelatinization achieved is 25% in preconditioning
and up to 60% after rolling.
1.2.3. Steam processing and flaking: Steam conditioning of grain at atmospheric pressure or under
pressure or pressure cooking to achieve same amount of cooking and rolling the grain through a
close tolerance roller mill to produce flaked product. Flat flaking at high pressure cooking
resulted in high starch digestion and increasing flatness of flakes improved enzymatic digestion.
Jowar grain has wax coat which is more difficult to penetrate compared to maize.
1.2.4. Pressure cooking: High temperature and moisture of grain from pressure cooker need to be
cooled and moisture level be lowered (2000 F and 20%, respectively)) to permit flaking. Pressure
cooked flakes will not breakup in mixing and feeding operations.
1.2.5. Exploding: Grains are subjected to high pressure steam in closed chamber for about 20 sec
followed by sudden decrease to atmospheric pressure, resulting in rapid expansion of grain
kernels. Exploded grains are low density product and need to be rolled before feeding.
1.2.6. Reconstitution: Water is added to raise moisture content of grain to 25-30% and the grains
are stored in oxygen limiting silos fro 14-21 days before feeding. Solubility of grain protein will
be improved due to reconstitution.
1.2.7. Pelleting 13-17% moisture and 170-1900 F are optimum conditions for pelleting grains.
1.2.8. Ensiling at high moisture content : High moisture grains(20-35% ) when harvested may be
ground or ground and rolled and ensiled in oxygen limiting silos or preserved by addition of 11.5% Propionic acid to inhibit mould growth on storage. This is practically helpful when weather
conditions do not permit normal drying in the field.
2. Roughage processing techniques
2.1. Dry Processing
2.2.1. Baling
2.2.2. Field chopped
2.2.3. Ground: Fine grinding of roughages is not recommended due to increase in dust in feed
mills and lowering of crude fibre digestibility. Grinding of low quality roughages results in
improvement in DM digestibility but high quality roughages are unaffected.
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2.2.4. Pelleted: Pelleted roughage will weigh about 40lb/cu.ft as compared to 5-6lb/cft for long
hay. Pelleting the forage increased daily gains by 400%, reduced feed requirements by over 200%
and increased feed intake by nearly 2.27 kg / day. Propionic acid production in rumen increases
markedly resulting in increased milk production.
2.2.5. Cubing: Cubes of alfala hay resembles wafers with a length of 1.5" and 1.5 on each side.
Bulk density of cubes is 11.4 to 14.5 kg/cu.ft compared to 18.2 kg for pelleted hay. Ideal moisture
content for cubing is around 10%. ADG increased 41% when cubes of alfala were fed to steers
compared to ground rations with 22 % less feed requirement on cubes.
2.2.6. Dehydration: Green forage is chopped and passed through the dehydrator at 6000 F for short
time. This method of preservation retains maximum amount of DM, protein, carotene and there is
no loss of leaves. After dehydration forage is ground and pelleted. Normally young and growing
forage rather than mature old forages are dehydrated.
3. Advantages of Feed processing
3.1. Improves voluntary feed intake
3.2. Improves nutritive value
3.3. Facilitates preparation of Completer feeds
3.4. Grinding and pelleting reduces particle size and increases bulk density. Grinding reduces feed
wastage for different complete feeds from 1.3 to 3.3%. Bulk density increased increased by 500%
for chopped mixed grass hay whereas the increase was 150-300% for complete feeds. Pelleting
also increased bulk density by 29-3135% depending on the level and type of crop residue used in
complete feed,
4. Oil Seed cake processing
4.1. Hydraulic pressure or Ghani Pressing: Oil seeds are pressed under high pressure and the oil
seed cake obtained contains 8% fat.
4.2. Expellar process: Oil seeds are fed in to a revolving screw of diminishing circumference, the
oil being collected and carried off in small channels. Cake obtained by this method contains 6%
fat. Heat generated during the process due to friction denatures protein. Denaturation of protein
helps in reducing the solubility of protein in rumen there by increasing its utility in lower gut.
4.3. Solvent extraction Method: Seeds are crushed and placed in a large container and a solvent
like ether, benzene, or hexane is allowed to percolate. Extracted material is heated with steam to
remove the solvent. Cake obtained in this method contains less than 1% fat. Trypsin inhibitors,
haemoagglutinins, saponins in Soybean meal obtained by this method are deactivated. Rapeseed
meal contains glucosinolates that are hydrolysed by endogenous myrosinase during crushing of
seeds.
5. Complete feeds
Complete feeds incorporate both roughage and concentrate ingredients of the ration and
blended in the form of mash or pellets and are offered to animals besides water. In western
countries ,for beef production, this is a favoured feeding regimen ,because , it saves labour ,
maintains ideal rumen pH, maintains ideal roughage and concentrate ratio and favourable TVFA
pattern in rumen and improves animal performance. Complete feeds for beef cattle contain as high
as 70% grains to achieve faster growth rate up to 1500g/day. However, high concentrate
containing feeds tend to result in acidosis and erosion of rumen papilla. High concentrate
containing feeds tend to result in acidosis and erosion of rumen papilla. In India, feeding
experiments incorporating high levels of roughage (65%) in complete feeds were conducted .
Though these experiments proved that unpalatable crop residues could be better utilized for nonproductive animals, complete feeds are not popular, due to the fact that roughage processing
facilities are limited in the country and dairy farmers have not adopted the idea in a big way.
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6. Total mixed ration
Similar to complete feeds, though processed separately, concentrate and roughage part of
the ration are mixed as a total ration and then offered to dairy animals. Advantages of feeding
total mixed rations are similar to that of complete feeds.
7. Technologies for improving by-products of plant, animal and fermentation industry
origin
7.1. Autoclaving under pressure : At a high temperature of 115-1400 C under pressure following
by drying and removal of fats by pressing or extraction is commonly employed to obtain meat,
bone, poultry, fish , feather and other meals produced from dead and condemned animals.
7.2. Hydro-thermal, acidic and alkali hydrolyses : A hydro-thermal process at 135-1500 C,
followed by drying ,performs hydrolysis of keratin in feathers, hooves, animal hair, tannery
wastes and some plant product containing glucosinalates, Acid or alkali hydrolysis is slowly
replacing thermal method.
7.3. Microbiological and chemical souring : Souring results in deodorization of treated product
and removes harmful substances such as isothiocyanates from rape seed, souring of skim milk and
whey, preserving by-products animal origin , blood, rumen c0ntents and animal and poultry
excrements which are now used as a fodder ingredient. For example, skim milk is fermented with
lactobacilli for 24 hrs and then added to pig feed on the farms. Fish wastes and inedible fish are
treated with 0.2 kg conc. sulphuric acid, 0.2 kg hydrochloric acid and 2.0 to 2.5 kg 80% formic
acid Hydrolysis - auto analysis sis performed at 25-350 C. Treated product can be fed to pigs @
1kg /pig/day.
7.4. Microbiological biosybthesis of SCP, enzymes, amino acids, vitamins such as B 12. : Lignocellulosic crop residues are fermented using various strains of yeast, fungi and bacteria.
8. Methods for Treatment/improvement of straw and other fibrous by-products :
8.1. Urea/ammonia treatment: In India urea treatment of straws is widely adopted by farmers.
Effect of urea-ammoniation of straw may be due to either added nitrogen or solubilising cell wall
structure o r increasing the digestibility of both. Poor quality straws such as wheat and paddy are
treated with 4% urea solution. Dissolve 4 kg urea in 50 litres of water and this solution is sprayed
on 100 kg straw . Once this layer of sprayed straw is spread, prepare another layer and spray the
solution and continue till the entire straw is finished. Cover the straw with plastic sheet/ tarpaulin
and leave the treated straw for a period of minimum 21 days. During this period nitrogen
percolates straw and increases the nitrogen content of poor quality straws. Also, lingo-cellulosic
content is broken down to release cellulose for bacterial digestion in rumen. Do not expose the
straw entirely and partially remove the cover. Initially animals reluctantly consume treated straw
due to ammonia smell, but once habituated, the intake of straw will increase. Animal experiments
conducted at Cattle breeding Farm concluded that urea treated straw can support moderate milk
production in Gir cows up to 4 litres of milk with out any green fodder supplementation in
monsoon season.
8.2. Calcium hydroxide treatment
8.3. Dip treatment
8.4. Spray treatment
8.5. SO2 treatment
8.6. Microbiological treatment
8.7. Physical treatments like chopping, grinding , steaming , pelleting etc.
76
Utilization of by-products in animal feeding specific to Saurashtra region
Dr. K.S. Murthy
Bulk of the feeds offered to ruminants in our country are by-products of plant origin and
are lingo-cellulosic in nature. Basic ration of ruminants is roughages, but due to domestication of
ruminants for higher production levels , rations are manipulated to contain concentrate and
roughage portions. Industrialization and urbanization resulted in reduced gochar land and fodder
crops are replaced by cash crops. Feeds that are traditionally used for feeding are called nonconventional feeds. The main source of such feeds are agriculture, forest, marine and slaughter
house by-products. Some by-products are traditionally fed in a particular area but are not fed in
other parts , eg. mauva cake and kuvadia seeds are fed in Panchamahals district but are not offered
as feed in Saurashtra region. Use of wider range of by-products is necessary to reduce cost of milk
production and animal performance. It is necessary to have knowledge of any incriminating
factors present in unconventional feeds that are detrimental to the health of animal and also
methods to nullify the effects of incriminating factors. Special attention is given in this topic to
the by-products available for feeding in Saurahstra region.
Groundnut haulms or gotar
Groundnut is the principal crop grown in Saurahstra region and the yield of nut is around 4
milliom MT annually. After harvesting of pods , left over plant residue is called as groundnut
haulms/gotar/Manvi na palo. Ratio of nuts to haulms is 40:60. Approximately 6 million MT of
haulms is available for feeding to cattle. Haulms contain 9 % DM basis) 13.12 CP,3.22 EE,31.86
CF,38.95 NFE,12.85 Ash, 0.48 P , 2.34 Ca, 1.24 Mg. Haulms is a rich source of Carotene that is a
precursor of Vitamin A. DCP and TDN contents of Groundnut haulms are 7.64 and 56.18 %,
respectively. It is a good source of protein, calcium and carotene and hence can be used along
with wheat straw to improve the nutritive value of the latter. Wheat straw is not fed to animals in
Saurashtra region and is routinely burnt in the agricultural field. This practice not only destroys
valuable microflora of soil but also valuable by agricultural product for feeding ruminants. A
simple technique to improve this low quality roughage is to mix it with groundnut haulms and
feed to cattle.
Experiments conducted at cattle Breeding Farm, JAU, Junagdh concluded that:
1. In maintenance rations, haulms can be incorporated up to 40% of the ration to have idal
rumen pH, TVFA and various nitrogen fractions.
2. Incorporation of groundnut gotar at 40, 30, 20 % parts of whole ration, resulted in average
daily body weight gain of 497, 463 and 444 g, respectively with no significant differences
in DMI, feed efficiency and digestibility of nutrients. Cost of feeding per kg live weight
gain was 12% lower at 40% level of inclusion than at other levels.
3. In lactating cow rations, in combination with wheat straw (40: 60) ,groundnut gotar
containing rations recorded lower milk and FCM production cost 6.5 and 6.9 %
respectively, compared to control.
4. Groundnut gotar had good compatability when fed with jowar straw for maintenance
purpose in gir bullocks at 40% level of inclusion in the ration.
Prosopis Juliflora or Vilayati babul pods
Vilayati babul pods are available to the extent of more than one lakh tons in Saurashtra
area. Pods contain around 20% sugars in the form of sucrose, hence these pods can be used in
place of molasses in pelleting. Pods impart sweet taste to the ration and increases palatability.
They contain (DM basis) 13% CP, 25% CF, 4% EE, 54 % NFE, 7 % DCP and 75.2% TDN,
respectively. Vilayati babul pods should not be fed as such because, seeds contain 30% CP and
animals do not digest these seeds and hence passed in dung. to realise protein value seeds/pods
should be ground or crushed. Even children consume these pods in Kutch district. Animal
77
experiments undertaken at Animal Nutrition Research Station, Anand, revealed that Prosopis
juliflora pods can be used up to 20%,45% and 30% levels in the rations of growing calves, adult
bullocks and milch cows, respectively. Pods can be incorporated at 10% level in the rations of
layer and broiler birds.
Babul (Acacia nilotica (L) Del.) pods, seds and babul seeds chuni
Availability of babul pods is to tune of 1.5 lakh tons in this area. Babul seed meal is
available after extraction of oil from babul seeds. Babul seeds are separated from pods and are
ground and available as babul seed chuni which is widely used by compound feed industry. Babul
pods contain (DM basis) 12% CP, 10% EE, 17% CF, 55% NFE, 1.4% Ca and 0.3% P,
respectively. Babul pods chuni can be incorporated in concentrate mixtures of lactating cows up
to 15 % level. Chuni contains 18.6% CP, 10% CF, 62 % NFE and 4.4% EE, respectively and
provides 14 % DCP and 59 % TDN. About 3 % tannin content in seed chuni, acts as a deterrent to
CP digestibility. Animal experiments studied at ANRS, Anand recommended that Babul seeds
chuni can be used up to 30%, 45 %, 15% and 10 % respectively, in the rations of growing calves,
adult bullocks, lactating animals and broiler finisher.
Kuvadia seeds (Cassia tora)
Kuvadia seeds are available to the extent of more than 1000 tons in Saurashtra region.
They contain about 0.8% Crysophenic acid that imparts bitter taste to seeds and hence animals do
not consume as such. Soaking of seeds in cold and boiling water removes 28.3% and 37.5%
crysophenic acid and make these seeds palatable. Solvent extraction also removes crysophenic
acid. Boiled seeds are commonly fed in Panchmahals , Sabarkanta and Banaskanta districts..
Cassia tora seeds contain 18% CP and provide 16% DCP and 67% TDN, respectively, indicating
that it is a good protein and energy source. Recommended level of inclusion of Cassia tora seeds,
based on animal experiments, in the rations of bullocks, milcj cows and poultry are 15%, 10% and
15%, respectively. Another name for the seeds is puwad seeds and is now used widely by
compounded feed industry. Crysophenic acid obtained by oil extraction is used in Pharmaceutical
industry and is used for joint pains.
Mango seed kernel ( Mangifera indica Linn )
Mango fruit canning industry supplies this by-product to the tune of 10000 tons in
Saurashtra region and kernels are highly palatable. Mango seed kernels are poor source of protein
and supplies 1.2% DCP, but is an excellent source of energy containing 13 % EE and 77 % NFE
thus providing 74 % TDN. However, high tannin content ( 5.3 % ) its extensive use as animal
feed may affect growth and health of animals. Its safe use as a feed ingredient is limited up to
20%, 40%, 10% and 15 % in the rations of growing calves, bullocks, milch cows and poultry,
respectively.
Subabul (Leucaena leucocephala ) seeds
Subabaul trees are grown widely as a part of agro forestry scheme and leaves are
commonly fed as green fodder. Seeds are contain a toxic principle " mimosin" which has adverse
effect on growth, reproduction and health of animals , hence when fed should be fed along with
addition of Iron and Iodine containing mineral mixture. Subabul when offered as green fodder
should not be fed more than 33% of total ration. Subabul seeds contain (DM basis) 29.9%
CP,8.9% CF, 8.9% EE, 48% NFE, 0.4% P and 0.4% Ca , respectively. Nutritive value of seeds in
terms of DCP and TDN is 19.6 % and 68.4% respectively. Safer level of inclusion in concentrate
mixtures of lactating and growing animals is 15 and 30% and in the rations of adult bullocks is
30% level respectively.
Sea weeds ( Sargassum spp.)
Gujarat has the longest sea coast (1600km) in the country and majority of it falls in
Saurashtra region. Sea wees are available to the extent of 35,000 tons from sSaurahstra coast and
78
these weeds are used mainly for extraction of Sodium algenate for usage in Ice cream making.
Freshly weeds are high in moisture content and smelly and hence are not relished by animals.
Drying of these weeds do not make them palatable their usage is wider only when offered along
with palatable feeds such as molasses. Sea weeds are rich source of iodine and initial feeding of
feeds has galatogenic effect. BMR in animals fed on Iodine rich feeds is manipulated and will be
on higher side than normal. With the result, due to higher BMR, milk production will be
improved initially. However, this cannot be sustained and mmilk production will come down,
once the animals are adopted to feeding galactogenic substances. As field Veterinarians, you may
be aware about sales persons presenting before you some products that increase milk production
instantly. These products contain basically nothing but galactogauges. Normal composition
reveals that they contain 10% CP, 10.3% CF, 0.8% EE, 48% NFE, 4.2 % Ca and 0.03% P on DM
basis. Growing calves and lactating animals can tolerate up to 20% and 15 % of inclusion in their
rations respectively.
Chjer leaves and fruits (Avicennia officinalis ) are also available and are growing near sea
water. During scarcity, cher leaves and ripen fruits floating on water can be harvested and fed to
cattle Livestock owners believe that these by products increase milk fat content.
Banana root bulb, stem and leaves (Musa paradisiacal Linn)
Chemical composition of banana root bulb revealed 8.7% Cp, 2.8% EE, 47.2% CF, 42.2%
NFE, 0.9% Ca and 0.3% P on DM basis. It provides 5% DCP and 70% TDN on DM basis. Thus it
is a good energy source and after cleaning can be fed up to 20-25 kg to an adult cattle.
Banana stems and leaves together contain 6.5% DCP and 75% TDN on DM basis. Its high
moisture content helps to meet water requirement of animals during Scarcity. About 15-17 kg
stems and leaves should be chopped into small pieces and fed along with dry fodder to an adult
animal. Higher intake of this product leads to diarrhoea, hence, it is advisable to feed it along with
dry fodder. During summer months, cattle from Saurashtra region migrate towards Cental and
South Gujarat areas. It is a common site, many of these cattle, thrive on Banana crop residues in
fields after harvesting of fruits.
Mahuva ( Madhuca indica J.F.Gmel ) seed cake and flowers
Mahuva seed cake is obtained after extraction of oil from mahuva seeds. Oil used in
vanspati making and industry while the cake is normally used as fertilizer to agricultural fields.
Avaialbility in Gujarat is around 10,000 tons, but its use as cattle feed is very limited. Expeller
cake of mahuva seeds contain 19.8% CP, 12.7% EE, 2.4% CF, 60.0% NFE, 0.24% Ca and 0.4% P
on DM basis and provides 8.0 % DCP and 60.0% TDN. Tannin content in the seed cake is 1.5%.
It contains saponin like toxic principle "Mowrin " that makes it bitter in taste. In Panchmahals
district, it is extensively used for feeding to buffaloes. About 1-1.5 kg of seed cake is offered
along with 1 kg of Til cake to milch buffaloes. In the rations of adopted animals during scarcity, it
can be fed up to 50% in the rations for maintenance and 20% in concentrate mixtures of lactating
animals.
Mahuva flowers can also be used during scarcity and contain 5.5% CP, 1.8% EE an d84.1
% NFE, providing 2.1% DCP and 68.6% TDN. Due to its sweetness flowers are readily relished
by animals and can be safely used in the rations of all category of animals up to 20% level.
Raintree pods ( Pithecolobium saman)
Raintrees are commonly seen on road sides in Saurashtra region and the pulp of pods is
also sweet like the pulp of vilayati baval pods. Though pods are palatable, livestock owners do not
offer these as feed to cattle. In Mehsana district, raintree pods are used for feeding along with
other feeds. Rain tree pods provide 16.37% CP.
79
Chemical composition of some un-conventional roughages ( % DM basis )
Sr.No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Name of the tree
Papaya leaves
Papaya stem
Water hyacinth
Sugarcane tops
Cactus
Sugarcane bagasse
Saw dust
Chicory
CP
26.9
6.3
14.0
8.7
3.3
3.5
0.6
14.2
EE
5.7
1.1
1.2
2.7
3.8
1.8
4.7
7.3
CF
9.6
18.0
20.1
45.2
12.0
36.1
64.1
12.6
Chemical composition of common fresh tree leaves of Saurashtra region
Sr.No. Name of the tree
CP
EE
CF
1
Castor
26.5
0.9
12.2
2
Neem
15.6
4.4
13.4
3
Gundi
13.8
5.3
7.7
4
Tamarind
13.5
6.8
18.1
5
Ber
12.9
3.0
18.3
6
Sisam
10.0
3.1
32.0
7
Banyan
9.7
2.9
23.2
8
Pipal
9.3
2.7
17.1
9
Jamun
8.4
4.3
17.3
10
Babul
7.0
2.6
33.3
11
Mango
7.4
3.8
21.1
12
Rayan
9.3
6.2
23.3
NFE
41.2
52.6
37.1
24.4
56.1
47.9
29.9
48.0
P
0.59
0.19
0.35
0.01
0.09
0.01
0.31
Ca
1.92
1.90
1.10
0.73
0.40
0.20
2.93
( % DM basis )
NFE
P
50.4
0.43
54.7
0.24
52.9
0.41
52.1
0.24
54.7
0.23
45.8
0.16
50.1
0.18
54.1
0.21
63.4
0.17
51.2
0.11
54.0
0.17
53.8
0.21
Ca
2.78
2.5
4.58
2.28
2.16
1.96
2.43
2.93
1.30
1.24
2.09
1.43
Chemical composition of common dry fallen tree leaves of Saurashtra region( % DM basis )
Sr.No. Name of the tree
CP
EE
CF
NFE
P
1
Neem
8.2
4.5
13.1
61.4
0.06
2
Tamarind
7.4
8.3
18.0
47.3
0.19
3
Sisam
7.8
3.8
15.9
53.5
0.06
4
Banyan
6.3
4.0
22.8
47.7
0.04
5
Pipal
7.6
3.5
19.6
49.0
0.16
6
Jamun
5.7
6.1
28.4
48.2
0.02
7
Mango
3.3
4.5
21.1
52.1
0.07
8
Rayan
6.6
5.8
25.4
52.1
0.09
Ca
3.89
2.72
4.15
4.12
3.72
3.47
2.72
2.07
Garlic crop residue that is obtained after harvesting of garlic is fed along with wheat straw
in Bhesan taluka of Junagadh district. Water melon waste after human consumption is also
offered to catlle. Of interest to animal feeding is , water melon seeds are crushed and resultant
cake referred to " Bijda cake " is used by compound feed industry. Ketki and Thor though often
considered as scarcity feeds, they can be fed to cattle any time. Thor is cultivated in Brazil and
Mexico for feeding. Thorns are to be burnt and the rest of the plant can be fed to cattle. Thornless
varieties of Thor ( Fafda Thor ) were already developed in Mexico. Green tree leaves serve the
purpose of green fodder as they are rich in carotene, protein and rich in Calcium. Cabbage and
cauliflower waste after harvesting of vegetables is fed to cattle in Kheda district. However,
feeding of these wastes is not recorded. Cabbage and cauliflower waste is rich in molybdenum
and high in moisture and feeding of these wastes alone causes diarrhoea. It is advisable to feed
these wastes along with any other dry fodder, such as wheat straw. Udad gotar and mag gotar are
also fed to dairy animals in Porbandar and Jamnagar districts. These gotars are high in salt
content. In Bhavnagar district, coconut cake is offered to milch animals with the belief that its
80
feeding increases milk fat per cent. Another major by product offered to milch animals is whole
cotton seed. Due to extensive cultivation of BT cotton, Cotton seed and its by-products are
available. Seeds contain Gossypol an incriminating factor that affects reproduction in farm
animals. It is believed that feeding of whole cotton seed results in increase in milk fat content.
Cotton seedcake contains 55% bypass (CP content 37%) protein, that escapes rumen degradation
for better utilization in lower gut. Digestibility of cellulose in Cotton seed by products is as high
as 80%, with the result energy availability is high on cotton seed cake feeding. A note of concern
is that cotton stalks are burnt or crushed or dug in the soil after harvesting. Studied conducted at
different research stations indicated that cotton stalks are superior in nutritive to paddy or wheat
straw. It is advisable to incorporate, either in the form of complete feeds or treated with urea and
then fed as roughage source.
It is advisable to consult an Animal Nutritionist, before any new agricultural by-product is
fed to animals. Most of the by -products are tested and information is readily available. Many of
these by-products contain one or the other incriminating factors that limit their usage at higher
level of feeding.
81
Livestock feed resource management and ration formulation
D. D. Garg, H. H. Savsani*, S. S. Patil and K. S. Dutta
Department of Animal Nutrition,
College of Veterinary Science & A.H.,
Feed is the largest input in any livestock enterprise and the rapid increase in feed prices
and shortage of feed resources has been one of the major constraints for farmers, livestock
industries, planners and the policy makers and responsible for low livestock productivity. Recent
assessment of feed resources for the year 2008 by NIANP using the secondary data has pointed
out a deficit of dry fodder, green fodder and concentrates to an extent of 19, 62, and 45%,
respectively. Feed scarcity is indicated as a factor responsible for the lower reproductive and
growth performance of animals especially during the dry season. The efficiency of use of the
available feed resources is especially important as it is the primary determinant of animal
performance and productivity.
A discussion on the available feeds and feed security is therefore timely, in the face of
rapidly depleting resources-arable land, water, fossil fuels, nitrogen fertilisers that are produced
from fossil fuels. The crisis is compounded by looming climate change, spiralling food costs and
financial crises, each of which is likely to be crucial. Approaches for the efficient use of the feed
resources are depend on our understanding of how the available feeds are being managed, the
extent, efficiency and their intensive use.
While managing livestock feed resources it knowledge of the quantitative availability of
feeds (forages, crop residues, AIBP and NCFR), understanding their physical characteristics,
nutrient composition and digestibility, Potential inclusion and efficiency of use in production
systems and cost of feeding as percentage of total production costs is imperative.
Total quantitative availability of feed resources
It is important to keep in perspective the categories and types of feeds available. This is
fundamental to provide understanding of their efficient and potential use. Four categories of feeds
are identifiable:
i) Pastures and forages - these include native and improved grasses, herbaceous legumes and
multi-purpose trees
ii) Crop residues - these include cereal straws and stover
iii) Agro-industrial by-products (AIBP) - cereal bran, coconut cake. palm kernel cake, soya bean
meal. molasses, distillers dried grains and solubles (DDGS);
iv) Non-conventional feed resources (NCFR)-this category includes diverse feeds and by
definition refer to those feeds that are not traditionally used in animal feeding; examples are oil
palm leaves palm press fibre, cassava foliage, spent brewer’s grains, sugar cane bagasse,
rubber seed meal and aquatic plants etc.
For quantitative assessment of the availability of feeds. in approximate terms, the data can be
determined from three primary approaches:
i) Knowledge of the area under crops with feed production potential such as cereals and tree crops
like coconuts and oil palm using extraction rates that have been derived experimentally and
from the field, for example for NCFR
ii) Applying forage dry matter yields for wayside grazing and total road mileage, cereal bunds,
undergrowth in tree crops and forest margins, and land area under introduced grasses and
legumes
iii) Similarly also, for the more extensive grazing areas in rainfed environments, including the
rangelands.
*Presented by H.H. Savsani
82
Chemical composition and nutritive value
Palatability, physical characteristics and deficiencies of critical essential minerals and
crude protein influence feed intake, and are important parameters that are associated with total
feed availability and feed quality. It is important therefore to also assess the extent of the dietary
value to animals of forages and feeds alike. In turn, the extent of this biomass availability and
potential use will determine an approximation of carrying capacity, animal productivity and
potential improvements.
Most of the countries have good documentation on the chemical composition and nutritive
value of feeds in published or unpublished form. Even if they did not have it, much of the data for
the more common feeds such as grasses and crop residues are accessible from the neighbouring
countries and other sources. There is therefore no need for further work and wasteful of funds on
this matter. The only exception to this is for new feeds which have not been characterised,
chemical composition data is inadequate or unknown, and those with anti-nutritional properties.
The latter include bio-active compounds such as alkaloids, phenolics and tannins. Plants
containing above 5% tannins usually tend to have anti-nutritional properties.
Priorities for feed resource use
Along with improved understanding of types, availability and nutritional vale of feeds, it
is equally important to have priorities for their use. The priorities for use are determined by
potential value to individual animal species, quantities available, and production location.
Priorities for feed resource availability and use also enables home mixing of feeds and concentrate
diets for higher yielding animals like dairy buffaloes and cows.
With specific reference to non-forage resources, feeds are grouped into three categories
with priority of using them for specific class of animals
i) Good quality - high nutrient content and used strategically mainly for non-ruminant production
and milk production in dairy buffaloes, cows and goats
ii) Medium quality - also useful for production in nonruminants and ruminants
iii) Low quality - mainly FCRs which provide energy for maintenance and for draught in adult
ruminants, camels and equines.
Promoting intensive use of crop residues
Increasing productivity from ruminants in the future implies a need for more intensive
utilisation of crop residues. The principal aim should be improved feeding and nutrition, and
maximum use of the available feed resources, notably cropresidues and low quality roughages,
and especially various leguminous forages as supplements. The potential of these is unexplored
and their use as supplements can be intensified. Straws have a number of uses, and current
feeding practices to ruminants are without appreciation of production responses that could be
achieved with treatment and supplementation. Straws can support moderate-high levels of
production in ruminants provided efficient means of treating the straw to enhance digestibility and
any deficiencies of nutrients in a diet are corrected. If additional by-pass protein is then provided,
levels of production and efficiency of use of biomass for growth and milk production are greatly
improved.
The scientific basis of feeding supplements to ruminants fed on poor quality forages has
been discussed in a number of papers, and the efficient use of such feeds is a major way to
increase animal protein for human consumption in the future.
Development of all year round feeding systems
The strategy to ensure the efficient use of the available feeds to match the requirements of
the animal resources to the extent possible should have the final objective of developing
sustainable all year round feeding systems. This implies good understanding of the biophysical
environment and prevailing situations, year round sources of feed supplies, feed deficit times and
possible adverse weather conditions such as droughts and floods. In order to ensure adequate feed
83
supplies to meet current and expanding needs, it is equally important to explore and address
additional sources of feed supply and to ensure maximum efficiency of its use.
There are several possibilities to achieve this such as intercropping with cereal crops, food
–feed cropping systems e.g. cassava-cowpea, rice-mungbean, harvesting aquatic plants (e.g
duckweed) from waste water. Producing increased feed supplies provides good opportunities to
conserve feeds, especially when these are surplus to requirements. More importantly it helps
overcomes seasonal shortages in feed supplies and helps to expand production systems.
Conservation measures need to ensure that there is little or no wastage in the stored feeds.
Additionally, surplus feeds also enable farmers to occasionally sell the feeds for profit.
Preservation of feeds and fodder
Forages produced in surplus amount during the season can be stored by making hay and
silage according to the weather condition, quantity and type of fodder available, and facilities
existing at farmers level. Forages are preserved in the form of hay to conserve the nutrients,
especially protein, before they decline in the plant. Legume forages with high protein content are
suitable for hay making. Farmers need not so much equipments or facilities for hay making.
However it is often too wet to dry the successfully and special machinery, has to be used to assist
the forage to dry quickly and forage crops such as maize, are too thick-stemmed to dry
successfully as hay.
In such situations silage is considered the better way to conserve forage crops. Forage
which has been grown while still green and nutritious can be conserved through a natural
‘pickling’ process. Lactic acid is produced when the sugars in the forage plants are fermented by
bacteria in a sealed container (‘silo’) with no air. Forage conserved this way is known as ‘ensiled
forage’ or ‘silage’ and will keep for long period without deteriorating. Silage is very palatable to
livestock and can be fed at any time. There is no need to dry out the plant material any more than
that, so wet weather is not such a constraint as it is with making hay. Silage making is long
practiced by the larger agricultural sector, but the production method relies on heavy equipment
and large production, in order to dig or build storage pits and to compress the green mass, putting
it beyond the reach of smallholder farmers.
Fodder banking
Creation of fodder banks at Panchayat samiti levels may be enforced for fodder security in
famine years. The fodder bank concept should include bailing/densification, storage and transport
of fodder to cater the needs of deficient areas. The fodder banks could be ultimate solution and
contingent plan to meet the demand of lean period shortage particularly during drought and
floods. These banks could be used to store the ingredients unfit for human consumption, grasses
from periphery of forest area, wastelands, crop residues in densified form, for coarse cereals,
legumes, haulmes left after grain removal etc.
Feed Production Technologies: Judicious use of feed resources for livestock
There is an urgent need to accelerate technology application. Several valuable
technologies have been reviewed and identified such as Feeding of Urea molasses mineral blocks
(UMMB), intensive use of urea treated cereal straws, Feeding of total mixed ration, feed block
technology, ration balancing etc.
UMMB
Our livestock mostly depend on straw. This straw contains low level of nitrogen so that
rumen microorganisms unable to show their desired activity due to lack of necessary amounts of
ammonia and amino acids. UMB may be used for supplementation of straw based diet in dairy
cattle production. Supplementation with straw based diet could increase feed intake, daily milk
yield, and longer lactation period, live weight gain in cow and calves. Besides these, it acts as a
storage feed during rainy season and other critical periods like periods of livestock feed scarcity.
The UMB is a high protein concentrated feed containing necessary amount of minerals and
vitamins. It supplies Non Protein Nitrogen (NPN) to the rumen microbes without risk. This
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technology is applicable in areas where ruminants are basically fed fibrous crop residues or poorquality basal rations which contain limited amounts of nutrients. It is used to supplement lowquality roughage such as rice straw. Urea-molasses-mineral block (UMMB) is prepared in a solid,
hard, compact form, but it is water soluble. It is given to ruminants as a lick. The block can be
prepared using several formulations depending on the supply and price of the needed ingredients.
Total mixed ration/complete feed system and feed densification
The various feeding systems of dairy cattle feeding have been developed to optimize the
utilization of available feed resources to ensure sustainable production. The initial concept of
feeding dairy cattle with basic roughage ration separately and supplementing it with energy and
protein concentrates now gradually being replaced by feeding of “Total Mixed Ration”(TMR) or
complete feed which is a single feed mixture consisting of all dietary nutrients, except water and
is given as a sole source of feed. It supplies readymade, balanced, low cost diet for cattle, buffalo
and goat. It prevents selective consumption or intake of particular ingredient and reduces wastage
to a great extent. In place of pelleting, the complete feed can be converted into blocks, that do not
need grinding of roughages and then compaction is a practical approach to increase their nutritive
value and reduce the cost of transportation and storage. In our country, complete feed system has
a particular relevance, since our principle feed ingredient are roughage and agro byproducts,
which need suitable supplementation with energy, protein and mineral ingredients to balance the
whole ration. In this system, the high yielders are allowed to realize their potential enabling them
to eat according to their yield while avoiding wastage by low yielder. Digestive disorders
associated with sudden change over to high concentrate feeds during early lactation are better
managed through TMR,
TMR has balanced ratio of concentrates to roughage and allows nutrients consumed, and
low feeding costs. It ensures better consumption, avoids refusal or unpalatable nutrients, reduces
eating and rumination time and thus increases resting time. A more even intake of feed into rumen
leads to less fluctuation in release of ammonia and non protein nitrogen is more efficiently
utilized. Waste materials like baggase, cotton-seed hulls, corn silage, alphalpha grass silage,
ground hay, sunflower straw and poultry dropping were successfully used in complete feed diet.
RATON FORMULATION FOR DAIRY ANIMALS
Formulation of ration involves selecting and combing a number of feedstuffs to meet the
animal’s requirements at the lowest possible cost, for the most economical level of production.
Ration formulation as a daily farm practice requires knowledge on availability, price and
composition of feeds. It also requires insight into the nutrient requirements of the animals.
Ration formulation involves the selection and allocation of feed ingredients in such a way that the
cost of the ration is kept low while sufficient nutrients are supplied to the animal for its
maintenance and for its desired production level. Traditionally, farmers have used some sort of
least cost ration formulation (LCRF) method to achieve this, which was based on farmers’
experiences. Ration formulation becomes a purely mathematical process of minimizing the feed
prices and commercialization of dairy farms prompts farmers or feed companies to use LCRF in
that way. The required information to apply LCRF consists of:
1. The type and quantity of feed resources available in that area
2. Nutritive value of available feed resources i.e. concentration of energy (TDN), protein
(CP) and other nutrients.
3. Maximum and minimum levels of inclusion of these feed resources in the rations.
4. The price of each feed resource.
5. The nutrient requirements for maintenance, production, reproduction and growth of the
animal, as per recommendations.
6. Physiological status and level of production of animals.
7. The desirable production level.
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Ideal feed formula should:
1. Have flexibility of adding or withdrawal of feed ingredients according to availability.
2. Include variety of feed ingredients.
3. Be economical, so include locally available feed ingredients.
4. Additional amount of vitamins and minerals should be added.
5. Be formulated according to requirement of animal based on Age, body weight, breed and
physiological status of animal.
6. Be formulated according to recommended standards of feeding.
Ration Formulation Methods
 Under the field condition there is difficult to suggest the farmer exact and scientific
formulation, but if one can know the DM requirement of animal may suggest the proportion of
concentrate and roughage to be included in the ration. If the animal is productive then Thumb
Rules are to be used for extra allowances.
 Cattle feed factories are manufacturing the compound concentrate mixture according to BIS
specification (Table 1) type I & II for high yielders and medium/low yielders, respectively.
Nutrients
Type I
Type II
Moisture
11
11
Crude Protein
22
20
Ether Extract
3
2.5
Crude Fiber
7
12
Acid Insoluble Ash
3
4
 Usually, the formulation of ration is depending upon the DM requirement of dairy cattle and
buffalo which in turns depends on the body weight of animal and also on level of production.

For cattle
: 2.0-2.5 kg DM/100kg body weight
For cross bred cattle and buffalo : 2.5-3.0 kg DM/100kg body weight
Total DM
2/3 Roughage
1/3 Concentrates
1/3 Green
2/3 Dry
(If green fodder is legume)
Provide only 1/4 part
The formulation of balanced ration for different kinds and categories of livestock are as followsSteps to Formulate Ration: For the computation of balanced ration for dairy cattle the following
steps are to be followed.
Step-I: Determine the total dry matter requirement of animal which is usually @ 2.0 to 2.5
kg/100 kg body weight. The requirement of buffaloes is 3.0 kg/100 kg b. wt.
Step-II: Determine the roughage/concentrate ratio. It is usually 2/3:1/3 for productive animals
and 3/4:1/4 for non productive animals.
Step-III: Determine the nutritive requirement of animal through following table: For the purpose
of calculation of nutrient requirement, the most convenient system is DCP/TDN, which
mostly followed in many countries although in some countries DCP/SE, DCP/ME
system is also being followed.
Step-IV: Determine the nutritive value of available feeds from following table and then
calculate the nutrients supplied through roughage
Step-V:
Calculation of nutrients to be supplied through concentrate: Deduct the amount of
nutrients supplied through the roughage from the total nutrient requirements of the
animal and then calculate the amount of nutrients to be supplied through the
concentrate
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Step-VI: Preparation of concentrate ration from available feeds
Step-VII: Balancing of nutrients: In this step the ration is computed from available roughage
and concentrates in keeping view of quantity of total dry matter requirement and
balancing of nutrients is done according to total requirement for maintenance and
production.
Thumb rule for formulation of ration
For Zebu Cattle
For cross bred/Buffaloes
For maintenance:
Straw
4 kg.
4-6 kg.
Concentrate
1-1.25 kg
2.0 kg.
For Gestation:
1.25 kg conc.
1.75 kg conc.
For milk production (Conc.):
1 kg/2.5 lit. of milk 1 kg/2 lit. of milk
(a) For High yielders 10.0 kg extra amount of green fodder should be provided to meet the
demand of energy requirement which could not be met by the thumb rule method
(b) The concentrate mixture of about 14-16% DCP and 68- 70% TDN could be prepared
without actual computation of nutrients by following assumptions
Ingredients
Range
Parts taken
Oil cakes
25-35 parts
35
Cereals
25-35
30
Cereal by products 10-25
17
Pulse chunni
5-20
15
Mineral mix.
2
2
Common salt
1
1
100
To fulfill the requirement of livestock at various physiological states, now it is to be
prerequisites that balancing of nutrients in feed of livestock. To balance the energy and protein
ratio in compound concentrate mixture, it is essential to include proper amount and proportion of
energy and protein rich ingredients. Here, briefly described the methods which are helpful to for
balancing of nutrients.
1) Hit and trial method / trial and error method
2) Algebraic method/Simultaneous Equation Method
3) Pearson square method
4) Linear - Programming (LP)
Practical aspects of feeding and computation:
1. When straw is used as the major roughage, incorporation of mineral supplements @ 1-2%
and vitamin supplement @ 20-30 g/100kg concentrate mixture is essential.
2. For high yielder, liberal feeding of pregnant dams should be done during 6 weeks prior to
calving. About 2-3 kg concentrate for Zebu cattle and 4-5 kg above the maintenance
allowance for crossbred cattle and buffaloes is recommended.
3. For every 10 kg of good quality green fodder, 1 kg concentrate mixture can be cut from the
concentrate quota.
4. For high yielder with high fat percentage (e. g. buffaloes), either about 10 kg extra amount
of green fodder should be supplied or TDN content of concentrate mixture should be
increased beyond 80% to meet out the energy requirement, when straw is the major
roughage.
5. When straw constitute the sole source of roughage, some green feed should be fed (2-4 kg)
to supply enough carotene. Also Ca and P supplements like bone meal or mineral mixture
should be included.
6. Ration during the first few days after calving should be light and increased gradually.
7. When leguminous green fodder is available in plenty, then about 8 liters of milk production
can be sustained even without concentrate feeding.
8. When good quality non leguminous fodder are available in plenty, then a maximum of about
5 liters of milk can be sustained without feeding concentrate.
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Feeding of bypass nutrients to improve animal performance
H.H. Savsani, S.S. Patil, D.D. Garg, K.S. Dutta and N.K. Ribadiya
The term 'Bypass Nutrient' refers to that fraction of the nutrients which gets fermented in
the rumen to a comparatively low degree. It then becomes available at the lower part of the
gastro-intestinal tract in the intact from for subsequent digestion and absorption. These slowly
degradable proteins also have a function to provide the rumen microbes with a steady supply of
nutrients, rather than with sudden bursts from easily soluble nutrients. These concepts were
introduced in the early eighties, primarily to replace the conventional digestible crude protein
system which has many limitations.
Bulk of the diets fed to ruminants in this country is dominated by crop residues because of
the shortage of green fodder and concentrates. Due to limited availability of feeds, our animals, by
and large are not able to derive sufficient energy from these diets, as per the requirement for
productive purposes, resulting in lower production. High producing animals in early lactation do
not consume sufficient DM to support optimum production of milk. Amount of energy required
for maintenance of body tissues and milk production often exceeds the amount of energy
available from the diet thus forcing mobilization of body fat reserves to satisfy energy
requirement. This situation leads to substantial loss in body weight, which adversely affects
production and reproduction. Inclusion of fat in the diet of ruminants can increase energy density
of the diet. However, inclusion of unprotected fat in the ration of ruminants is not recommended,
as this fat causes inhibition of rumen fermentation, especially that of cellulose. This can result in
lower DM intake and consequently lower milk production. Level of unprotected fat in the total
diet should not exceed 4%. This problem can however, be easily overcome by feeding protected
lipids to ruminants. By using some physical and chemical agents for protecting, these fats are
protected from ruminal hydrolysis and bio-hydrogenation for subsequent digestion and absorption
in lower tract. Supplementation of bypass fat not only increases energy intake but also possibly
increases unsaturated fatty acid content in milk.
Whereas, the supplementation of bypass protein in the diets of lactating animals increases
the milk yield due to proportionate increase in the supply of amino acids to the host
postruminally. The chelated minerals are reported to be more bioavailable and/or more similar to
form which occur in the body than inorganic sources and improve growth, milk production,
reproduction, health of animals and reduces environmental pollutants. Therefore, there is need to
avoid negative energy balance during early lactation and to enhance the milk productivity with
desirable composition, which will have far reaching benefits on their reproductive performance by
supplementation of protected nutrients and chelated minerals in the ration of medium and high
yielding lactating animals.
Bypass nutrient technology
Bypass nutrients defined as a nutrient (s) fed in such a form that provides an increase in
the flow of that nutrient (s) unchanged to the abomasums, yet is available to the animal in the
intestine. Simply bypass nutrient means that the essential and more important nutrient (hight BV)
should escape from the rumen or face minimum ruminal fermentation. The reasons for protecting
different nutrients are based on their mode of utilization in the rumen. Various type of bypass
nutrients are – bypass protein, bypass fat, bypass starch, bypass/chelated minerals and chelated
vitamins.
Bypass protein
Highly degradable proteinous oil cakes when ingested by ruminants, result in large scale
ammonia production, much of it gets wasted as urea excreted through urine. Even the animal has
to spent energy to convert ammonia into urea in liver. In order to increase the efficiency of protein
utilization from the highly degradable cakes, these proteins need to be protected from excessive
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ruminal degradation and can be used as bypass protein, so that the amino acids from these protein
feeds are absorbed intact from the intestines of the animal for tissue protein synthesis as well as
for the process of gluconeogenesis in liver.
Specification for bypass protein feed (1988)
Particular
(% )
Moisture (Max.)
11.0
CP (Min.)
25.0
RDP (Max.)
7.5
UDP (Min.)
17.5
EE (Min.)
3.5
CF (Max.)
8.0
AIA (Mas.)
3.0
Mineral mixture (Min.)
2.0
Vitamin A (IU/kg)
5000
Common salt (Max.)
1.5
Calcite powder (Max.)
1.5
Urea
Nil
Grains (Min.)
10.0
Methods to Increase Bypass Protein Content of Fee stuffs
Although considerable proportions of dietary proteins are resistant to fermentative
digestion in the rumen, the quantities which bypass the rumen do not appear to be sufficient to
supplement the microbial protein completely in some feeding situations. Methods which can be
adopted for increasing the bypass protein content are
i. Selection of feeding ingredients on the basis of their degradability: Relatively good
proportion of bypass protein can be provided by selecting the ingredients of high
bypass protein value while formulating the rations.
Natural bypass protein contents of feed
Particular
Sunflower meal
Rapeseed meal
Guar meal
Soyabean meal
Cottonseed meal
Groundnut meal
:
:
:
:
:
:
% Protection of CP
31.0
37.0
41.0
37.0
52.0
31.0
Usually, rumen degradability of crude protein from protein meals is in the range of 6075%. As a result, net availability of amino acids for milk production is low. If these protein meals
are given suitable chemical treatment to reduce rumen degradability of protein to 25%, net
availability of amino acids could be increased for milk synthesis.
ii.
Physical processing: Alterations in the physical form influences the behavior of the feed
particles in the rumen environment. The most often applied way, of changing the
physical form of the diet is grinding. Increasing the surface area will usually increase
the rate of degradability, but the reduced particle size may reduce the retention time in
the rumen resulting in increased bypass. Heating protein supplements at 1300 C. for 2 or
3 hours increases bypass protein content without affecting the digestibility in the
intestine.
iii. Chemical treatment: (1) Alkali treatment (NaOH) (ii) Alkali treatment (NH4OH) (iii)
Xylose treatment (iv) Formaldehyde treatment: Protein degradation in the rumen can be
reduced by treatment with chemicals such as formaldehyde (@1g.100g crude protein)
and tannins resulting in increased bypass protein.
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Performance of animals fed bypass protein:
In India dairy animal by and large, do not get their required dietary energy through the
normal feed which the animals are offered, as the feed is mostly devoid of energy rich grains.
Thus, essentially the feeding of bypass protein increases the efficiency of protein and energy
utilization within the ruminant system. Numbers of studies have been conducted on feeding of
naturally occurring bypass protein and protected protein and most of these experiments yielding
positive results in terms of growth, milk yield and FCM yield.
Bypass fat
Negative energy balance in dairy cows arises because of reduced feed intake due to the
stress of calving and onset of milk production resulting in mobilization of body fat reserves to
meet energy requirement, leading to ketosis and other post-calving complications and poor
reproductive efficiency. Reduced disease resistance may also lead to secondary infection and an
overall loss in milk yield. To overcome this condition, the energy density of the offered ration
must be increased. Feeding ruminally inert Ca soaps of fatty acids to high producing lactating
cows, can enhance energy density of the ration and energy intake in early lactation without
compromising the activity of rumen microflora.
Bypass Fat technology involves feeding management through passive rumen
manipulation. The problem of negative energy balance can be easily overcome by feeding
protected/bypass lipids to ruminants. By protecting the lipids from ruminal hydrolysis and biohydrogenation, fats are digested and absorbed in lower tract. Through the supplementation of
bypass fat not only the energy intake is increased but also it is possible to increase unsaturated
fatty acid content in milk.
Several methods are available to make fat inert in the rumen environment so as to
supplement fat at higher levels without any adverse effect on fiber digestion.
(1)Natural protection (2) Crystalline fat (3) PUFA (4) Fatty acyl amides
(5) Encapsulation with formaldehyde treated protein (6) Calcium salt of fatty acids (7) Prilled
fatty acids (8) Extrusion of oil seeds
Out of all these methods, the calcium salts of fatty acids is the most commonly used
method, as the method is cheaper and appears more effective. Generally, the production of
calcium salts of fatty acids can be done by two methods viz. (1) Fusion Method and (2) Double
decomposition method.
Fusion method: In this method, oils and fatty acids are heated with calcium oxide or
calcium hydroxide in the presence of catalyst, in a closed vessel at a required temperature and
pressure. Water produced during the reaction and the added water is driven off as steam and the
resulting product is a hard mass of saponified salts of fatty acids or bypass fat. It is a single step
method and is very simple and user friendly.
Double Decomposition Method: This method requires heating of the known quantity of
fat supplement in a metal container, followed by addition of an alkali (aqueous sodium hydroxide
solution) in the melted fatty matter with constant stirring till the fatty acids are dissolved
completely. After saponification, the heating is withdrawn. While the contents are still worm,
calcium chloride solution is added slowly to the water soluble sodium soap with constant stirring,
which ultimately causes precipitation of calcium soaps. Excess water is then removed by
filtration. The calcium soap is then dried at low temperature and the lumps are broken and ground,
to be used as protected or bypass fat. These are dry at room temperature, are easily transportable
and can be mixed into diets without creating specialized infrastructure for mixing.
Effect of feeding bypass fat on animal performence:
 Increasing energy density of rations to overcome the negative energy balance
 Optimum balance of nutrients.
 Reduced risk of metabolic problems
 Altering the quantity, physical and nutritional properties of milk fat.
 Reduced bodyweight loss
 Reduced inter-calving period.
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 Regulating reproductive functions
 Increased milk production in the lactating animal
 Reduce incidence of retention of foetal membranes and increased the calf birth weight.
Chelated minerals
Livestock require minerals specially micro minerals, in appropriate amounts and
biologically available forms for efficient production performance and maintenance of normal
health. Deficiencies of minerals occur frequently in diets consisting of common feed ingredients,
and these must be provided in a supplemental form. Though the requirement of minerals is in
micro quantities, yet they have very important role in various biological processes involved in the
body like for vitamin synthesis, hormone production, as activator of enzymes, in collagen
formation, tissue synthesis, oxygen transport, energy production and other physiological
processes related to growth, reproduction and health. Mineral supplements are required to fortify
animal diets. There are two major classes of mineral sources: inorganic and organic (metal
chelate). Organic minerals, however, have been shown to be more effectively absorbed by the
animal.
Availability of Organic mineral complexes (Chelates)
A chelate is described as a metal complex in which the metal atom is held in the complex
through more than one point of attachment to the ligand (chelating agent), with the metal atom
occupying a central position in the complex. Natural digestion of foods produces numerous
ligands that can complex (chelate) with minerals in the diet and facilitate their passage from the
lumen of the intestine into the cells of the intestinal wall, where they eventually chelate with
natural ligands that transport the minerals throughout the body. In theory, the introduction of
chelated minerals will increase absorption and utilization of the mineral because of a more
favorable binding or stability constant. Therefore, in an animal’s digestive system, organic trace
minerals, those that are bound to an organic ligand such as protein, amino acids or carbohydrates,
may be more biologically available than inorganic trace minerals. Naturally occurring chelating
agents are widely distributed in all living systems in nature including carbohydrates, lipids, amino
acids, phosphates (phytic acid), porphyrins (e.g. hemoglobin and chlorophyll) and vitamins
(Vitamin B12 and Ascorbic acid).
Commercially produced complexes
(1)Metal Complexes (specific amino acid): Most common metal complexes are zinc
Methionine, copper lysine and manganese Methionine
(2) Metal proteinates (MPT): These are formed from the chelation of a soluble mineral salt with
amino acids and/or hydrolyzed protein. The final product may contain single amino acid,
dipeptides, tripeptides or other protein derivatives.
(3) Metal polysaccharide complexes: These are formed by complexing a soluble salt with
polysaccharide solution declared as an ingredient of the specific metal complex. This product is
more of an organic mineral matrix.
Performance of animal fed ration supplemented with chelated minerals:
Chelated form of CU, MN and Zn had banificial effect on growth and immune response in
growing calves and prepared chelated minerals were similar to imported sources in their
efficiency. Feeding a Studies on lactation and reproductive performance of dairy cattle fed with
combination of zinc Methionine, manganese Methionine, copper lysine and cobalt glucoheptonate
revealed positive effect and found that the cows fed a combination of these minerals produced
more milk, energy corrected milk, fat corrected milk, milk fat and milk protein than control cows.
Thus it may be concluded that in Indian context, supplementation of bypass fat, bypass
protein and chelated minerals is beneficial to improve milk production, fat percentage and
reproductive parameters in animals which enhance overall returns to the livestock farmers.
91
Micro nutrient requirement of livestock for sustaining productivity
S.S. Patil, H.H. Savsani*, D.D. Garg and K.S. Dutta
Introduction
Micronutrient defined as an element with nutritional relevance for livestock and required
in small quantity i.e. it is possible for an animal to become ‘deficient’ in that element and show
physical signs of that deficiency. These signs may be ‘clinical’ or ‘sub-clinical’. Clinical signs are
those that are seen by naked eyes and apparent such as browning of the hair in the case of copper
deficiency; in these instances diagnosis is relatively simple. More commonly (and more
problematically) animals can be sub-clinically deficient, where outward signs are not obviously
seen, but where production is compromised. Examples here are loss of fertility through
phosphorous deficiency and loss of immunity to infection through Vit A deficiency. Twenty-four
minerals and four vitamins are considered to be nutritionally essential, or probably essential, to
the animal.
The need for micronutrients
Every elements has at least one major role in the physiological functioning of the animal.
This is usually also the primary cause for the clinical deficiency symptoms that may be apparent.
It is worth noting that many of the functions that are dependent on micronutrients are delivered
biochemically through the actions of enzymes and co-enzymes. Enzymes that are associated with
micronutrients and dependant on them are often termed the ‘metallo-enzymes. They assist mainly
in the chemical transformations that enable biochemical reactions to occur, and, therefore, for the
animal to gain energy for maintenance and production. In addition, the roles are often complex
and different elements may interact with each other. Also, some elements may be toxic if supplied
in greater quantities than the animal requires.
Calcium (Ca) and Phosphorus (P)
Livestock are more likely to suffer from a lack of both calcium and phosphorus than from
a lack of any other mineral with the possible exception of salt. Strong homeostatic mechanisms
exist which regulate the absorption of calcium, i.e. only sufficient is absorbed to meet the animal's
requirements. Two aspects must be considered when discussing these two minerals, viz.
deficiencies, and the ratio of calcium to phosphorus in the diet.
Deficiency Symptoms
Decreased growth, unthriftiness, decreased milk production, poor conception and pica
(depraved appetite) are the general symptoms of calcium and phosphorus deficiency. A young
animal in advanced stages of deficiency develops rickets (bones bend under the weight of the
animal and, owing to the pull of muscles, they become deformed), while older animals develop
osteomalacia (the same condition as rickets, but because adult bones are solid they fracture
instead of bending). The ends of long bones become thicker and the middle becomes thinner. The
animals suffer from stiffness of the joints and develop lameness. The first symptom of calcium
and/or phosphorus deficiency is poor conception. Animals are erratic in coming on heat, the heat
is often difficult to detect, and the animals do not conceive.
Calcium to phosphorus Ratio
Recommended ratio of dietary Ca:P is between 2:1 and 1:1. However, it has been shown
that as long as the ratio is not more than 3:1 there is no adverse effect on fertility.
*Presented by H.H. Savsani
92
Diseases associated with calcium and phosphorus deficiencies
Milk fever
Milk fever is characterized by symptoms such as muscular spasms, paralysis, and a loss of
consciousness leading to coma and death. These conditions are associated with an abrupt drop in
the level of calcium in the blood, which is not necessarily caused by a dietary deficiency of
calcium. Rather, it is due to the dis-functioning of the parathyroid glands. Reducing the calcium
level in the ration during the last three weeks of the dry period seems to stimulate the parathyroid
gland to produce calcitonin and consequently decreases the incidence of milk fever by improving
calcium absorption. There is considerable evidence that intramuscular injections of vitamin
D3 (0.4g) given 7 days before calving were effective in preventing milk fever. If calving did not
take place within the 7 days a second injection was given.
Pica (depraved appetite)
This condition occurs in animals deficient in phosphorus. They develop an unspecified
craving, and consume foreign material such as soil, flesh, wood or bones.
Botulism
This disease occurs when animals deficient in phosphorus start chewing bones infected by
this bacterium during the putrefaction of flesh that was attached to the bones. The toxin produced
by this bacterium can lead to death in animals.
Magnesium (Mg)
Magnesium is a structural part of bone and is closely associated with calcium, phosphorus
and vitamin D in bone formation. Magnesium is one of the activators in phosphorus metabolism.
It is also involved in carbohydrate metabolism and plays a major role in the neuromuscular
functions of the muscles. Although there are reserves of magnesium in bone and soft tissue, the
speed of mobilization of these reserves when required, is slow and of little help in an
emergency, e.g. in cases of grass tetany.
Two types of magnesium deficiency are known in cattle:
1. Calves, fed milk only (which is low in magnesium) for a long period, develop skin lesions,
nervous muscular irritability and, eventually, convulsions leading to death.
2. Older animals develop grass tetany. Grass tetany often occurs in spring when animals are
put out on lush young grass after winter feeding, especially if the pasture was heavily
fertilized with ammonium sulphate. The symptoms which develop resemble those of milk
fever, but the animals show more acute excitability, they stagger (grass tetany) and have
convulsions.
It is suggested that the supplementation of 4 to 6 g Mg per day to cows on pasture could
be beneficial, e.g. 7 to 10 kg magnesium oxide per 100 kg lick fed at the rate of 100 grams per
cow per day. Both calcium and magnesium supplementation have been shown to alleviate fertility
problems in cattle grazing on kikuyu with high potassium and low calcium-plus-magnesium
levels. Magnesium requirements per cow per day are approximately 9 g for maintenance, and an
additional 0.74 g per litre of milk. For a cow yielding 20 litres of milk the total requirement for
magnesium therefore would be 24 grams.
Potassium (K)
Potassium is the third most abundant mineral element in the animal body. It is a major
intracellular cation and is involved in the osmotic regulation of tissue fluids and in acid-base
balance. An ionic balance exists amongst K, Na, Ca and Mg.
The requirements for K by ruminants are estimated to be between 0.5 and 0.8% of the diet.
An excess of potassium can aggravate a sodium deficiency, depressing sodium levels by 30 to 60
%. This may be particularly serious on kikuyu pastures, which are inherently low in sodium.
Sodium (Na)
Sodium is a major extracelluar cation and plays an active part in regulating the neutrality
of blood serum. Considerable amounts of sodium appear in the muscles and it is associated with
their contraction. A shortage of sodium adversely affects utilization of both digested proteins and
energy, and also prevents reproduction. A shortage of sodium has been associated with cases of
93
bloat on kikuyu pastures that were heavily fertilized with nitrogen. High levels of potassium have
been shown to depress the concentration of sodium in plants.
Chlorine (Cl)
The chlorides of the blood, consisting mainly of sodium chlorides, make up more than half
of the acidic ions. Consequently the chlorides have a principal effect on the acid-base relationship.
Chlorine is connected with the formation of hydrochloric acid, an acidic secretion in the
abomasum of ruminants.
Salt
Salt deficiency in cattle results in lack of appetite, rapid loss of weight and a decline in
milk production. Animals show unco-ordinated movements, a stiff walk, they shiver and are
weak. Complete collapse and death is known to occur in high-producing cows. Chlorine is more
abundant in feeds than is sodium and there is no evidence of a chlorine shortage in dairy rations.
Consequently, the extent of supplementation must be based on sodium. Only a small amount of
the required sodium will be met from the ration, therefore most of it should be supplied as salt.
Provided that cows receive enough water, they have considerable tolerance to salt.
Sulphur (S)
Sulphur occurs in the animal's body mainly in the sulphur containing proteins, that is,
proteins which have the amino acids cystine and methionine as part of their molecular structure.
Some "B" vitamins and the hormone insulin, also contain sulphur. A deficiency of sulphur is
seldom a problem if protein levels in the rations are high. Sulphur is the most important mineral
for the proper development and maintenance of ruminal microflora, because it may limit the
synthesis of both cystine and methionine which are essential for the synthesis of microbial bodyproteins.
The optimum level of sulphur in the ration should be between 0.16 and 0.24% of sulphur.
An excess of sulphur, on the other hand, can be a factor contributing to copper deficiency,
especially if the ration has a high molybdenum content.
Iodine (I)
Iodine is found only in minute amounts in the animal's body (less than 0.000 04%) but it is
essential for normal development. Half of the total amount of iodine is present in the thyroid
gland and is essential for the formation of thyroxine which is a secretion of this gland. A lack of
this secretion lowers basal metabolism and the thyroid gland then fails to control the rate of body
metabolism. The animal body tries to increase secretion of this gland by enlarging it. This
enlargement is called goitre. Iodine deficiency occurs in areas where the water and feed are
deficient in iodine. Goitrogenic (producing goitre) feeds such as brassicas (e.g. rape, kale, turnips,
cabbage) will aggravate a deficiency. Star grass and clover can cause an indirect iodine deficiency
through the production of cyanogens.
In calves, deficiency symptoms are stunted growth, an enlarged thyroid gland, apathy,
blindness, hairlessness and a harsh coat. Calves born to cows suffering from iodine deficiency
will have enlarged thyroid glands. In cows, an iodine deficiency results in retained placentas and
also impairs reproductive performance. Any one, or more, of the following symptoms occuring in
cows can indicate an iodine deficiency (infertility usually occurs at early stages of a deficiency)
are arrested foetal development at any stage of pregnancy leading to death of the foetus, abortions,
stillbirths, the birth of a hairless calf and irregular or suppressed oestrus.
In bulls, symptoms are a decline in sexual vigour, and deterioration in semen quality.
Iodine requirements for growing animals are 0.12 mg/kg dry matter of the diet and for pregnant
and lactating cows the concentration of iodine should be 0.8 mg/kg dry matter of feed.
Manganese (Mn)
Although manganese deficiencies rarely occur in ruminants, they can cause many
problems, because manganese is associated with tissue respiration and affects both growth and
reproduction. It stabilizes calcium and phosphorus metabolism and therefore has an influence on
bone formation. It also affects the function of the endocrine organs, enhances fat utilization in the
body and counteracts fatty degeneration of the liver. Heat cycles in cows and heifers are difficult
to detect (silent heat) and conception is poor. A deficiency of manganese in pregnant cows causes
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weak legs in newly born calves. High calcium and low phosphorus levels in the ration seem to
increase the requirement for manganese. The recommended dietary allowance for manganese is
40 mg/kg dry matter (DM).
Zinc (Zn)
Zinc is a structural component of various enzymes. Some play a part in digestion and
some act as activators to other enzymes. Zinc also intensifies the effect of insulin by protecting it
from decomposition by insulinase, and influences the reproductive system. Most of the zinc in an
animal's body is contained in the skin, hair and wool.
A deficiency causes parakeratosis. This disease is manifested by slow growth, skin lesions
and hair loss. Cattle can develop spots on the tender parts of the skin, not unlike those occurring
during photosensitization. Other symptoms of zinc deficiency in ruminants are inflamed
membranes of the nose and mouth. The reproductive efficiency of males is lowered. Hair loss in
cattle has been observed. Excessive calcium in the diet can affect absorption of zinc, but, in
general, deficiency in ruminants is rare. Ruminants can tolerate high levels of zinc, although
feeding an excess of zinc (500 mg/kg DM) can produce toxicity, the symptoms of which are
sluggishness, loss of appetite and diarrhoea. The recommended dietary allowance for zinc is 40
mg/kg DM.
Copper (Cu)
Copper, apart from being a catalyst necessary for the absorption of iron into haemoglobin,
participates in the processes of pigmentation and keratinization of hair. It is a structural
component of certain proteins and an activator of various enzymes. It is also essential for the
proper development and function of rumen micro-organisms.
Any or several of the following symptoms are common when the diet of cattle is deficient in
copper like rapid loss in livemass, anaemia, abnormal appetite, hair discoloration, diarrhea, uncoordinated movements, bone malformation, osteomalacia, often, a pacing gait and fertility is also
affected, a lack of sexual activity is common, and abortions and retained placentas often result.
The dietary concentration of copper should be about 10 mg Cu/kg of dry matter. In cases of
suspected deficiency the inclusion of 0.25 to 0.5% of copper sulphate in the mineral lick is
advisable.
Molybdenum (Mo)
Molybdenum is a structural component of the enzyme nitrate reductase, which reduces
non-toxic nitrates to toxic nitrites. An excess of molybdenum will cause accumulation of nitrites
in the rumen, with resulting toxicity.
The other adverse effects of excessive molybdenum such as its antagonistic effect on
copper assimilation, by the formation of insoluble compounds of copper-molybdenum sulphate, is
well known. The formation of these insoluble compounds induces a physiological copper
deficiency. Diarrhoea, emaciation, black hair turning grey, swollen vulva, weakness from
exertion, and stiffness are known symptoms. No deficiency of molybdenum under natural grazing
conditions has yet been recorded. The molybdenum requirements of grazing livestock are
estimated to be 1 mg/kg DM, or less.
Iron (Fe)
Iron deficiency causes anaemia which is characterized by the general appearance of
malnutrition, and the very unpronounced, and fewer, blood vessels in the whites of the eyes.
Generally speaking, only calves fed for a long time on large quantities of milk are liable to
develop anaemia because milk is a poor source of iron. The food eaten by ruminants weaned from
milk is abundant in iron, consequently the anaemia caused by iron deficiency is not likely to
occur. Dietary allowances for cattle are 30 mg Fe/kg DM for dry stock and 40 mg Fe/kg DM for
pregnant and lactating cows.
Cobalt (Co)
Cobalt is a structural part of vitamin B12 and a lack of cobalt renders it impossible for the
ruminal microflora to synthesise vitamin B12. The ruminal microflora require cobalt to be
supplied on a continuous basis and therefore it is pointless to inject cobalt.
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The symptoms of a cobalt deficiency are unthrifty condition, lack of appetite, muscular
unco-ordination and anaemia. No direct evidence of any cobalt deficiency has been found in
KwaZulu-Natal, but the suspicion exists that a sub-clinical deficiency could occur after a
prolonged period of heavy rainfall. Cobalt in excessive amounts can be toxic and under practical
conditions the daily intake of 220 to 275 mg of cobalt per 100 kg live-mass will produce toxicity
symptoms within 4 to 30 days. The symptoms of toxicity are reduced feed intake, loss of livemass, emaciation, anaemia, elevated liver cobalt and respiratory distress and excess salivation.
A dietary concentration of 0.1 mg Co/kg dry matter should meet cattle requirements for
cobalt. In cobalt-deficient areas, the addition of 50 to 60 grams cobalt sulphate per 100 kg salt
normally should be sufficient to correct the deficiency.
Selenium (Se)
Selenium behaves in a similar manner to vitamin E. It appears that in dairy cows an
adequate intake of selenium can compensate for an inadequate intake of vitamin E and vice versa.
The symptoms of deficiency are not necessarily caused by a dietary deficiency of selenium.
Selenium, however, cannot take over all of the functions of this vitamin, but the level of vitamin E
in the diet will affect the animal's response to the feeding of selenium. High dietary concentrations
of sulphur, as well as the heavy metals such as arsenic, mercury, silver, copper and cadmium have
been shown to reduce the availability of selenium. Fertilization of the soil with elemental sulphur
or superphosphate could induce clinical selenium deficiencies in animals in areas where marginal
deficiencies exist. Generally speaking, a range of from 0.1 to 0.5 mg/kg Se in dry matter in the
diet is acceptable to the animal. Diets with less than 0.1 mg/kg would be likely to cause
deficiency while those with more than 5,0 mg/kg would be likely to be toxic.
Methods of supplementing cattle with minerals
There are six common methods of supplementing cattle with minerals:
1. offering free choice, individual mineral sources in a cafeteria system
2. offering a mixture of minerals as a lick
3. supplementing with minerals mixed with concentrates
4. feeding a mixture of minerals individually to cows
5. injections or oral dosing
6. slow-releasing bullets or soluble inpregnated glass.
Vitamins
Vitamins are complex organic compounds that function as parts of enzyme systems
essential for the transformation of energy and regulation of body metababolism, and are required
in minute amounts for normal growth, production, reproduction and/or health.
General Considerations
Vitamins A, D, K, E, C and the B Group are essential to animal health. A considerable
variety of these, namely all the B vitamins and vitamin K, can be synthesized by the ruminal
microflora. A deficiency of vitamin B12 can occur, but only if cobalt is lacking. All green feeds
are rich in vitamin C and in carotene, the latter being the provitamin (precurser) to vitamin A.
Vitamin E occurs in most feeds, and it has been shown that a deficiency is most unlikely to occur
unless the diet is short in selenium. Vitamin C deficiency has never been demonstrated in
ruminants. Vitamin deficiencies in cattle are rare and supplementation is only required in certain
specific circumstances.
Vitamin A
This vitamin has two primary functions in the animal body. First, it is essential for the
maintenance of the epithelium, which forms the protective membranes in the respiratory and
digestive tracts, and the lining of the eyes. If this vitamin is deficient, the epithelium becomes
keratinized and cracks occur, giving easy access to bacteria and viruses, resulting in infectious
diseases. Second, vitamin A plays an important role in the chemical processes which occur in the
eye and are essential for vision. Vitamin A deficiency, in addition to causing malfunction in the
processes referred to above, also will cause changes in bone structure and will affect reproduction
by interfering with the production of sperm in males, and by causing resorption of the foetus in
females.
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The symptoms of vitamin A deficiency are scouring, low resistance to bacterial infection,
stiffness of joints and unco-ordinated movements, lesions around the eyes and dull watery eyes
followed by night blindness at more advanced stages. The fertility of cows is always affected. A
shortened period of gestation, a high incidence of retained placentas, stillbirths and abortions are
common symptoms. Often calves are born blind and their movements are unco-ordinated.
Vitamin D
Vitamin D occurs in plant material in the form of a provitamin which is converted in the
animal body, when exposed to sunlight, to vitamin D. Adult cattle, unless stall fed, will not be
vitamin D deficient. Calves, when kept for long periods under cover without being allowed
exposure to the sun, can develop rickets. The symptoms are the same as those observed in cases
of calcium and phosphorus deficiencies. Supplementation of the diet of calves with halibut or
cod-liver oil will prevent rickets.
Vitamin E
Vitamin E, apart from its other minor functions, has very strong antioxidant properties and
is involved in the mammalian antioxidant defence system where it stimulates the immune
response, thereby bringing about disease resistance.
For certain purposes, the antioxidant functions of vitamin E can be performed by other
antioxidants. Selenium for example, which is present in glutathiozone peroxidase, decomposes
peroxides, which are toxic. This is one of the reasons for the interaction between vitamin E and
selenium, and in many cases either selenium or vitamin E can correct dietary deficiencies.
Vitamin E, on the other hand, will not be effective in cases where the selenium content of the diet
is high (above 0,08%). In herds where the incidence of retained placenta is high, injecting each
cow with selenium 21 to 25 days before calving is effective in reducing the incidence of retained
placenta, in such cases vitamin E has no effect.
Bureau of Indian Standards specification for mineral mixture for cattle
Type
I Type
II
S. No Characteristics
(with salt) (without salt)
1.
Moisture, percent by mass, Max.
5
5
2.
Calcium, percent by mass, Min.
18
23
3.
Phosphorus, percent by mass, Min.
9
12
4.
Magnesium, percent by mass, Min.
5
6.5
5.
Salt (Chloride as Sodium Chloride), percent by mass, Min. 22
6.
Iron, percent by mass, Min.
0.4
0.5
7.
Iodine (as KI), percent by mass.
0.02
0.026
8.
Copper, percent by mass, Min.
0.06
0.077
9.
Manganese, percent by mass, Min.
0.10
0.12
10.
Cobalt, percent by mass, Min.
0.009
0.012
11.
Fluorine, percent by mass, Max.
0.05
0.07
12.
Zinc, per cent by mass, Min.
0.30
0.38
13.
Sulphur, percent by mass, Max.
0.40
0.50
14. Acid insoluble ash, percent by mass
3.00
2.50
Rate of feeding mineral mixture to different categories of animals
Sr. No.
Type of animal
Rate of feeding
1
Growing animals
15-20
2
Low milk producers
20-30
3
Medium milk producers
30-50
4
High milk producers
50-70
5
Pregnant animals
About 100g
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Conclusion:
Micronutrients are essential to animal health and production. Micronutrient deficiencies,
or imbalances, affect fertility, often producing specific symptoms. Only by trying
supplementation with specific minerals, and by observing animal response can one be certain of
the existence of a deficiency or imbalance. Laboratory-determined imbalances in blood, liver and
kidney samples can give a good indication of deficiencies, but these analyses are expensive, and,
more important, with the exception of blood samples, for practical purposes, are impossible in the
producing animal. As the general levels of dairy production per cow rise, it is likely that
Micronutrients deficiencies will become more common and, if manifested by clinical symptoms,
easier to diagnose. Nevertheless, even if subclinical deficiencies are suspected, the indiscriminate
supplementation of feeds with minerals must be avoided, because raising mineral levels can cause
not only toxicity (in excess), but also the antagonistic effect of some minerals on others, can
create imbalances and induce physiological deficiencies.
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Conservation of animal genetic resources of India
P.H. Vataliya, A.R. Ahlawat, V.B. Dongre and G.S. Sonawane
Dept. of Animal Genetics & Breeding
Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh.
Introduction;
India is one of the 12 mega biodiversity centers of the world. A rich repository of farm
animal biodiversity which comprises of a large number of breeds of cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat,
pigs, equines, camel, yak, mithun, poultry, ducks, rabbits etc. AnGR possess unique genes and
combinations of genes which are responsible for various traits of economic & environmental
importance viz. disease resistance and stress resistance, quantity ,quality and composition of
animal products, adaptation to different environments or farming systems, ability to utilize coarse
roughage and crop residues and many other characristics which yet not aware.
Contributions of livestock Bio-diversity:
Food: Milk production - 127.9 million ton
Egg production - 66.5 billion
Wool - 44.7 million kg
Meat – 5.5 million ton
Draught Power: Animals still provide the most affordable form of draught power and transport
in rural areas
Employment: 14.9 million in principal and 11.1 million in subsidiary status
Others: fuel, manure, leather & hides and other offal provide additional income.
Total Value of output: Rs. 4,59,051 crores
Contribution to GDP: 4% to total GDP (2010-11)
26% to GDP from Ag & allied sector (2010-11).
Animal Genetic Resources of India:
I. Cattle Diversity:
There has been an annual decrease in indigenous cattle population @1.5%. whereas there
has been an annual increase in crossbred cattle population @ 4.5%. The cattle genetic resource
can be broadly classified as:
Milch: Sahiwal, Gir, Rathi and Red Sindhi
Draft:Amritmahal, Bachaur, Bargur, Dangi, Hallikar, Kangayam, Kenkatha, Kherigarh, Khillar,
Khariar, Kosali, Malvi, Nagori, Nimari, Ponwar, Umblachery, Red Kandhari, Siri, Binjharpuri,
Ghumsuri, Motu Pullikulam
Dual Purpose: Deoni, Gaolao, Hariana, Kankrej, Krishna Valley, Mewati, Ongole and
Tharparkar, Vechur, Punganur, Malnad Gidda are the dwarf breeds.
II. Buffalo Diversity:
Population of recognized breeds constitute about 30% of the total buffalo population.
About70% of buffaloes are non-descript. Murrah is the major breed constituting about 87% of the
population of recognized breeds. The Buffalo genetic resource can be broadly classified as:
Large sized: Murrah, Nili-Ravi, Jaffarabadi, Banni
Medium sized: Mehsana, Marathwada, Nagpuri, Pandharpuri, Bhadawari, Surti,, Chilika,
Kalahandi, Toda
Other Populations: Manda, Paralakhemundi, Sambalpuri, Jerangi, Dharwadi/Gowli, South
Kanara, Godavari, Ganjam, Swamp
III. Goat Diversity:
Milch breeds: Beetal, Jamunapari, Jhakrana, Surti, Kutchi, Mehsana, Malabari
Meat: Black Bengal, Ganjam
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Dual Purpose: Barbari, Berari, Sirohi, Attapady (Milk/Meat ) Black, Gohilwadi, Zalawadi,
Marwari, Osmanabadi, Sangamneri Kannaidu, Konkon Kanyal
Milk/Meat/Fibre: Gaddi, Chegu, Changthangi
IV. Sheep Diversity:
Apparel Wool: Nilgiri
Carpet Wool: Gaddi, Rampur-Bushair, Bhakarwal, Poonchi, Karnah, Gurej, Changthangi,
Chokla, Magra, Pugal, Tibetan
Meat & Carpet Wool: Nali, Marwari, Jaisalmeri, Malpura,
Sonadi,
Patanwadi,
Muzaffarnagri, Jalauni, Deccani, Hassan, Coimbatore, Balangir, Bellary
Meat: Nellore, Mecheri, Ramnad-white, Kilakarsal,Vembur, Madras Red, Tiruchi Black,
Kenguri,Chhota-Nagpuri, Shahbadi, Ganjam, Garole , Bonpala, Mandya
V. Other Livestock and Poultry Diversity:
Camel: Bikaneri, Jaisalmeri, Malvi, Marwari, Kutchi, Jalori,Mewari, Mewati,
Horse/Ponies: Marwari, Kathiawari, Zanskari, Bhutia, Spiti, Manipuri
Chicken: Ankleshwar, Aseel, Busra, Chittagong, Danki, Daothigir, Ghagus, Harringhata black,
Kadaknath, Kalasthi, Kashmir Favorolla, Miri, Nicobari, Punjab Brown, Tellichery.
Reasons for Loss of Farm Animal Biodiversity
a. Changing ecological & agricultural scenario-Shift from subsistence farming to
commercial farming.
b. Shrinkage of grazing areas due to intensive agriculture,urbanization and industrialization
c. Shift in the priority from DAP to milk production.
d. More focus on very few numbers of high producing breeds and adopting monoculture
farming system.
e. A large number of livestock breeds are at risk of becoming extinct and there is high rate of
loss in the livestock biodiversity.
Conservation strategies
In-situ models of conservation:
It is one of the best ways of maintaining a breed and if the sample size is failry large ,
sufficient genetic diversity in the breed population can be maintained. In this model Purebred
elite animals of a breed are identified and bred with superior germplasm at farmer’s households
and multiplied in breeding tract for increasing pure bred population. This has resulted in to the
revival of different livestock breeds. A few Gaushalas are also carrying out the task of
improvement and Conservation of local cattle breeds. DAHD & Fisheries Govt. of India has
initiated Conservation of Threatened Breeds of Small Ruminants, Rabbits, Pigs, Pack Animals
and Equines.
Ex-situ conservation model of conservation:
The breeds which are declining fast and economical non viable in present times are being
conserved in ex-situ form for posterity. This model involves conservation of animal germplam in
vivo, but out of the environment in which it was developed. And in vitro including, inter alia, the
cryo conservation of semen, oocytes, embryo, cells and tissues. A National Animal Genebank has
been established and currently mantains Over 1,25,000 semen doses from 270 bulls, rams and
bucks of 37 breeds of 7 species has been cryopreserved at National Gene Bank. Linkages are
being explored with AH Departments and other agencies to declare their Semen Banks as part of
National Gene Bank. Genomic DNA from 130 breeds/populations preserved. It has also buffalo
mammary gland EST library.
Current status of conservation:
The new avatar of all India coordinated project is the network projects on different species
(Cattle, Buffalo, Sheep, Goat, AGR) which are presently undertaking breed improvement
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schemes for a number of defined breeds. Following breeds have been specifically taken up for
conservation under various schemes of ICAR,
In situ conservation:
Cattle
Tharparkar, Shaiwal,Punagapur
Buffalo
Toda, Bhadawari, Tarai. Surti
sheep
Magra, Nilgiri, Bhakarwal
Goat
Chegu
Horse
Spiti
Camel
Jaisalmeri
Poultry
Nicobari fowl
Ex situ conservation:
Cattle
Buffalo
sheep
Goat
Camel
Nagpuri, Rathi and Kangayam
Pandharpuri and Bhadawari
Gaddi,Karnah, Gurej
Gaddi
Jaisalmeri
Future prespective and road map for conservation of AnGR.
a. Empowering the native livestock keepers through developing their economies by
judicious utilization of local genetic resources, providing benefit sharing of their rights
for genetic resources and associated tradional knowledge
b. Enabling them and their production system and environment for maintaining and
sustainable utilization of genetic resources
c. Value addition of native genetic resources by providing brand names and price tags
economic development of animal keepers
d. Linking of tradional breed conservation and productivity enhancement activities with
overall economic development of animal keepers.
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To accomplish these goals for comprehensive conservation and effective
utilization of country’s vast and diverse AnGR, a road map with the following strategic
action needs to be followed:
Need for a comprehensive and farmer proactive livestock policy, which should provide
sound livelihood to Indian livestock keepers.
A regulatory legal framework for implementation of livestock breeding and
management policies for conservation and genetic enhancement of farm animal breeds.
A legislation act for Protection of Farm Animal Breeds and Livestock Keeper’s rights
in line with Protection of Plant Variety and Farmers Right Act.
Harmonizing the roles and functions of plethora of agencies working for management
of AnGR to avoid overlapping and appropriate utilization of funds
Bringing awareness and capacity building of livestock keepers and field functionaries
Developing a mechanism for ABS & Exchange of Germplasm for an effective
management of AnGR especially of regional and international transboundary breeds
Promoting Breed Societies and participation of livestock keepers in conservation and
utilization of AnGR
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Strategies for organised breeding programmes in sheep and goat
P.U. Gajbhiye
Cattle Breeding Farm,
Introduction
Goats and Sheep constitute a very important species of livestock in India, mainly on account
of their short generation intervals, higher rates of prolificacy and the ease with which the goats as
also their products can be marketed. They contribute greatly to the agrarian economy, especially
in areas where crop and dairy farming are not economical, and play an important role in the
livelihood of a large proportion of small and marginal farmers and landless labourers. Sheep and
goat are capable of converting the available sparse vegetation into valuable products like
mutton/chevon, wool/pashmina/mohair, skin, milk and manure. Usually sheep and goat are raised
as an extra investment without a major labor input compared to large ruminants. Goat is called as
running dairy machine due to its excellent milk conversion efficiency from limited resources
availability. In India nowadays there is severe reduction in grazing land. Despite all these
constraints, sheep and goat are continuously providing the animal protein to the enormous
growing India’s population comparatively at lower cost of production per animal. The present
population of sheep (71.6 million) and goat (140.5 million) in India is 212.1 million (18th
livestock census, 2007). India stands 2nd in goat population and 3rd in sheep population in the
world. The present production of meat in India is estimated at 6.27 million tons in 2010 (FAO,
2012), which is 2.21% of the world's meat production. The contribution of meat from sheep and
goat are 4.61% and 9.36 respectively. Hence, sheep and goats are the major meat producing
species in the livestock meat production system of the India and providing round the year
employment opportunities and household nutritional security. The per capita availability of meat
in India is far below the actual requirement and about 95% of the meat produced from sheep and
goats is consumed locally.
Besides, there is wide scope for supply of mutton and chevon in export markets to the
countries of middle-east, South East Asia and Gulf region. Breeding strategies are major
component in the overall improvement in efficiency of sheep and goat production. Therefore, the
prolificacy, frequency of lambing and weaning percentage should be increased. Similarly, despite
having large sheep population, we have to import carpet grade wool to cater the need of installed
capacity of our carpet industry in view of its huge potential for carpets’ export. This is due to the
fact that per sheep wool production of our indigenous breeds is low compared to developed
countries (viz. Australia and New Zealand). The contribution of sheep to the rural employment
through skin and wool based industries is also substantial. To improve the productive potential of
indigenous sheep, scientific breeding programmes such as selection and cross breeding will have
to be adopted. In order to meet the heavy demand of mutton/chevon, wool, milk and other
commodities, it is necessary to increase per animal productivity. It is only possible when an
integrated approach for optimizing nutritional and management inputs with adequate disease
control measures are adopted to increase the genetic merit of the indigenous sheep and goat for
bringing gainful advantages in quantity and quality of commodities/ (meat and wool etc) from
sheep and goat. So in Sheep and goat breeding the main strategy are genetic resource
improvement, conservation and introgression of commercially important gene for enhancing
meat, milk and wool production. The local initiatives to promote quality labels and innovative
products for cheeses, meat and fibres could help goats in keeping a role for sustainable
development in an eco-friendly environment all over the world. However, the future of the goat
and sheep rearing as a significant economic activity will also be very dependent on the standards
of living in the countries where there is a market for the sheep and goat products.
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Breed Structure and Distribution of Sheep and Goats:
India has been divided into four ecozones for the purpose of description of sheep and goat
breed depending upon their production type and adaptation. Sheep and goat breeds have been
evolved primarily through the process of natural selection under prevailing environmental
condition of the region. There are 42 recognized sheep and 23 goat breeds in the country besides
non-descript animals and distributed in different agro-climatic regions. In the absence of any
breed societies or registering agencies, very little systematic effort has been made in this direction
to evaluate and document the breed characters and specifications of their phenotypes except under
organized Govt. sector where flocks of native sheep and goat breeds are maintained for breed
improvement programmes.
The goat in temperate Himalayan region produces fibres of superior quality under coat
called as ‘Cashmere’ or ‘Pashmina’. All the milk breeds are found in the North-Western region of
the country whereas southern region mainly possesses dual purpose breeds (milk and meat). The
highly prolific meat breeds are found in the Eastern region. Goats are widely distributed all over
the country in different ecological regions (2.4% of the total population in temperate Himalayan
region, 39.3% in North western region, 32.1 % in Eastern region and 26.1% in Southern region).
India is gifted with large and biologically diverse sheep and goat population. Available sheep
breeds are so much diversified that some of the breeds produce fleeces having fibre diameter
below 30 micron whereas other breeds are totally hairy and don’t produce any wool. Garole sheep
is reputed for multiple-birth and found in the Sundarban area of West Bengal. Litter size and first
lambing is mostly two and at subsequent lambing is 2 to 3. Prolificacy reported is singles 2530%, twins 55-60%, triplets 15-20% and quadruplets 1-2%. All the indigenous sheep and goat
breeds are known for their better adaptability under diverse climatic conditions which is obvious
from their long struggle against diseases and heat stress.
Population Trends and Annual Growth in Sheep and Goats:
India ranks 2nd in goat population and 3rd in sheep population in the world. The goat
population continue to increase in all parts of the country at the rate of about 2-3 % per annum
inspite of a heavy take off rate and also regular prejudice to exterminate goats by foresters and
soil conservationists. The highest growth of 5.2% per annum was recorded during 1977-82. The
goat population in different states and union territories indicate the highest goat density/sq km in
West Bengal (225.71) followed by Bihar (86.45). In West Bengal the goat number has increased
many folds during last decade. 20.59 % of the total goat population is concentrated in West
Bengal, 13.64% in Bihar, 11.41% in Rajasthan and 10.27% in Uttar Pradesh.
Popualtion structure in Gujarat State :
Gujarat has Two important breeds of Sheep ie Patanwadi and Marwari, both are recognized
for carpet wool production and average annual wool production ranging between 1200 to 1400
gms per head. One more lately recognized breed of sheep is Dumba which has almost hairy wool
and is well recognized for mutton purpose. Similaraly among the Goat breeds , Gujarat has 1.
Zalawadi 2. Gohilwadi 3. Sorathi 4. Surati and 5. Kachhi All are dual type ie Milk and meat
production.
There are 23.56 Lakhs of sheep and 46.40 Lakhs of Goat in Gujarat state (Census 2010-11).
Average mear production per head is 11.00 Kg in both the species. There are no systematic
breeding strategies applied so far for the genetic improvement of these species in the state and the
breeding and production is still in the hands of traditional breeders (Maldharies) of the Gujarat
state.
Production Systems:
Sheep production in India is mostly an extensive system where flocks migrate in search of
food and water in different parts of country. In north temperate region sheep move to alpine
pastures during summer months, in north western region, flocks migrate from dearth zone to
regions where stubble and other grazing resource is available in sufficient amount. Temporary
migration depends upon the monsoon rain, climatic condition and availability of fodder.
Introduction of temperate mutton and wool breeds may not be preferred over well-adapted local
breeds by farmers. However, the local shepherd is keen to take advantage of the heterosis by
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crossing indigenous ewes with rams of superior breeds from exotic origin. In this process the
purity of breed has been diluted. The notable change observed in sheep farming practices in India
during the last three decades is gradual reduction in income from wool of sheep as compared meat
and manure. Sheep farmers have also shifted their emphasis in selection of rams for body weight
rather than wool. For improving apparel wool production indigenous breeds of Jammu and
Kashmir have been crossed with exotic fine wool breeds. About 80% of sheep are covered under
this programme and 43% of sheep population of J and K has been converted into crossbreeds.
Management practices and systems of sheep and goat production in the country are unique
and diversified depending upon geo-ecological situations and agricultural cropping system in
different parts of the country. Breeding is mainly confined to seasons when grazing resources are
adequate although they bred round the year as males are kept with the flocks. Sheep and goat
raising in India is primarily in the hands of people who lack economic and technical resources.
This reflects the ignorance of the farmers and also reluctance to accept the progressive methods
and technologies due to inadequate awareness. There is need to intensify of efforts for providing
the technologies in rural areas so it will be a positive step for enhancing the productivity of sheep
and goats.
Production Profile in Sheep and Goat:
Keeping in view the consistent demand of meat in domestic markets and also the export
potential, the meat production is likely to increase in coming years. This needs to intensify the
efforts to increase the production efficiency of meat from native sheep and goats taking into
consideration the integration of all those factors which are important and proper exploitation of
desirable traits for bringing about gainful advantages in meat yield. The native sheep and goats
have low genetic potential for higher body weight growth and meat yield which needs attention to
improving by exploiting available genetic variability, adapting appropriate breeding technologies
and innovative management systems.
About 65% of the total wool produced in the country is contributed by the North-Western
region having 42% of the total sheep population. The average wool production per sheep in India
is only 0.9 kg as against the world average of 2.4 kg. Presently, about 50 million kg of wools
(both apparel and carpet types) are being imported to meet the obligation of the industry. While it
may not be possible to produce the apparel wool in required quantity, there is every possibility of
meeting the requirement of carpet wool if suitable and aggressive development programmes are
undertaken. India can make a thrust in export trade (to hard currency areas) by making handknotted carpets, druggets, hosiery items etc. Therefore, improving quantity and quality of carpet
wool has to be given due priority.
Breeding Researches for Improving Sheep and Goat Productivity:
Efficiency of meat production mainly depends on the functional ability of sheep and goats
in terms of body weights, feed conversion efficiency and carcass merit. Very little work on these
aspects in sheep and goats has been done in India although this has a direct impact on whole
economy of meat production. Studies carried out in Indian goat breeds for their body weight
growth, feed conversion efficiency and carcass traits indicated the inherent potential of these
breeds for meat production. Environmental factors like sex of kid, season of kidding, weight and
age at slaughter and type of feeding significantly influenced the dressing %. Crosses of Beetal
with exotic dairy breeds of Alpine and Saanan had the improvement in body weights at slaughter.
Anglo-Nubian out of all the exotic breeds had merit for improving body weights of indigenous
breeds.
Studies carried out on growth performance of indigenous sheep breeds reveal that Malpura
and Muzaffarnagri out of the North-Western breeds and Nellore, Mandya and Madras red out of
Southern breeds have the great potential for their use as improver breeds for meat production.
Extensive breeding studies on cross breeding of indigenous sheep breeds for mutton production
have been carried out at different locations in the country. The results of crossbreeding studies
involving native breeds of Malpura, Sonadi, Nellore, Mandya and Muzaffarnagri with Suffolk and
Dorset maintained under feedlot showed substantial improvement in body weight at slaughter,
feed conversion efficiency and also in dressing %.
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Improvement Strategies:
1.
Selection within Native Breeds:
Indigenous sheep and goat breeds have been developed and established under the existing
conditions of diversified climatic and managemental systems with a level of efficiency in
performance. The existing large variability of these breeds in terms of their potential for higher
body weights, efficient feed utilization and conversion into higher carcass yield has not been
exploited on scientific lines. Although the improvement through selection is slow ranging from 1
to 2.5% per year but the improvement is of permanent nature. Maximum advantage can be had if
the animals having outstanding body weights are selected and bred, this can further be enhanced
by providing optimum level of feeding and management. The estimates of genetic and phenotypic
parameters in sheep and goats from different studies indicates that selection based at 6 months
body weights will improve the market weights, yearling weight and higher meat yield. Lambs
and kids born as twins, if considered for selection are likely to bring more advantage in meat
production.
Open nucleus breeding system:
The characteristic of this system is that the sire breeding nucleus is not closed, so that gene
flow occurs not only from apex to base but also in reverse direction, from base to the nucleus.
Normally, in group breeding schemes only females are transferred from base to nucleus, this is
not necessary restriction. If open nucleus systems are used in the traditional hierarchy, there could
be transfer of males from daughter flock to parent flock or stud. The effect of open nucleus on the
rate of genetic gain is that because gene now flow from base to nucleus as well as from nucleus
to base, and any genetic gain made in the base by selection of base replacement will contribute
also to genetic gain made in the nucleus. The extent to which this happens is dependent on rate of
gene flow from base to nucleus. An open nucleus has two sources of long term gain of unequal
magnitude.
While determining the strategies for genetic improvement in sheep, the characters of
importance are given as:
1.
Wool production :
(a)
High Clean wool weight per animal
(b)
Fibre diameter, medium to fine for apperal wool and coarser for carpet wool
(c)
Percent clean yield
(d)
Percent medullation , zero or low for apperal wool and certain percent for carpet wool
2.
For all types of production like wool or wool +meat or meat
(a)
Reproduction rate at high level
(b)
For meat production Body weight
(c)
Growth rate
(d)
Efficiency of feed conversion.
2.
Use of Native Improver Breeds:
Improvement of native sheep and goat breeds which have low potential for higher body
weights and yielding carcasses of low merit is possible by introducing the genetic inheritance of
such native breeds which have potential for efficient meat production. Superior sheep breeds of
Nali and Lohi have been used extensively in the Indo-gangetic plains and Nellore in Southern
states for upgrading local and non-descript sheep. North Indian sheep breeds have also been used
to introduce fleece cover in South Indian wool less mutton breeds. Introduction of improver breed
have shown a wide range of improvement in mutton yield.
The Jammunapari and Beetal which are large sized goat breeds are being used for
upgrading the indigenous local breeds for meat production. Results of such experiments have
shown improvement in body weights and size. Performance studies involving Jammunapari and
Beetal as sire line and crossed with Black Bengal goats revealed that the crossbreds were heavier
in body weights than the Black Bengal goats indicating the advantage of using indigenous breeds
of Jammunapari and Beetal goats as improver breeds. Similar advantage was also noticed in the
crossbreds of Sirohi when Beetal was used as improver breed.
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3.
Crossbreeding with Exotic Breeds:
Crossbreeding technology is one of the recognized breeding method to bring quick
improvement in body weights and carcass yield for increased and efficient meat production.
Exotic mutton type breeds of sheep like Suffolk and Dorset and goat breeds like Saanan, Alpine
and Anglo-Nubian were extensively used in the country for attaining higher body weights, milk
and meat production. Crosses of Suffolk and Dorset with Malpura and Sonadi were significantly
heavier in body weights as compared to natives. The improvement in weaning weight of
crossbreds ranged from 11.56% to 16.51% over the native Malpura and Sonadi lambs. Results of
crossbreeding of indigenous Beetal goats with exotic goat breeds showed an improvement of
53.3% in pre-slaughter weight and 39.2% in hot carcass weight. Such programmes were confined
in the organized sector only under controlled conditions and were extended to field populations on
limited scale.
Recommendations:

There is a need to strengthen the ram/buck rearing centers for production of superior
breeding stock of indigenous meat type breeds and open nucleus system involving local sheep and
goat farmers should be followed.

Selection index incorporating six-month body weight and first six monthly greasy fleece
weight has yielded encouraging results towards enhancing body weight besides fleece production.

For profitable meat production, we need to evolve a breed, which must have fast and
efficient growing lambs/kinds. The ewes/does should be prolific and must have good mothering
ability. Fast growth and early maturity are the most important characteristics for meat production.
Selection programs were undertaken in indigenous stock to increase their productivity and
superior indigenous breeds used for upgradation of non descript breeds.

Potential mutton type breed such as Malpura, Sonadi, Muzzaffarnagari, Madras Red,
Mandya, Nellore, Deccani, Mecheri, Ganjam etc., may be restricted to selective breeding by using
superior rams of the respective breeds for enhancing mutton production.Similary in Goats
Jamunapari, Zalawadi, breeds which are well recognized for Chevon production and Black
Bengal for quality meat production be propogated in the breeding tract for enhancing meat
production.

The carpet wool type breeds such as Chokla, Nali, Patanwadi, Marwari, Magra, Pugal,
Gaddi and Jaisalmeri etc. may be further improved through selective breeding by distribution of
good quality rams of the respective breeds. Wool quality traits of these breeds meet closer to the
requirements of industry for carpet wool.

Efforts should be made to introduce luster in indigenous carpet wool breeds to harvest
maximum return through sale of quality carpet wool.

Apparel wool production may be intensified only in the temperate areas such as northern
temperate hilly region and Nilgiri and Kodai hills of southern region. In these areas 3/4 th crosses
of Rambouillet or Merino including Bharat Merino may be propagated in addition to Kashmir
Merino and annual clips may be obtained to meet the requirements for apparel manufacture.

Crossbreds may be tried in the area where feed and fodder are available adequately and
they are not required to travel long distances in search of food.

Garole an indigenous prolific breed should be used for crossbreeding of sheep belonging
to different locations of country subject to sufficient milk availability for multiple lambs.
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Strategies for layer and broiler poultry breeding
P. H. Vataliya, G. S. Sonawane, V. B. Dongre and A. R. Ahlawat
Introduction:
Poultry meat and eggs are two major staple foods for the rapidly expanding population of
the world. They overcome religious restrictions, such as pork encounters and beef from cow. It is
number one and could be considered as ideal for supplying the protein requirements of the world.
Modern poultry production is based on high broiler growth performance within a limited time
frame and at the same time obtains as many as eggs from the parent stock as possible. These two
do not seem to easily match; yet good reproduction results are within reach but that stress on
adequate and precise management of the breeder flock. The increase in broiler performance in
commercial breeds has been tremendous. This performance is not only established in growth per
day, but also in feed conversion, carcass yield, breast meat yield, mortality, leg quality, etc. The
modern broiler of today is barely comparable with the bird of 20 or 30 years ago due to very
intense and very sophisticated genetic selection. The development of poultry industry from an
extremely unorganized system to highly disciplined production complexes took place in less than
half a century. The success is mainly due to “scientific breeding of chickens”. This article have
discussed about different strategies with special reference to breeder and layer sectors, regarding
production and management changes to produce such breeds to sustain in rapid changing
dimension of food habits.
Global Chicken Scenario:
The global chicken meat industry, mainly derived from broiler meat production, has
grown by 19.2% over the five years from 2006-10 (FAO Stats, 2012) to 86.2 million
tonnes/annum. Asia now dominates the world market, mainly due to China and India, followed by
N. America and closely by a rapidly growing S. America. The global egg market is 63.6 million
tonnes (FAO Stats, 2012) (74% of the meat market) and growing more slowly at 9.5% over the
2006-10 period. Asia dominates, here again due to China and India; the European Union (EU - 27
countries) is next but there is little growth. In India, domestic poultry meat production (broiler carcass weight) is estimated to have increased from less than 1.0 million tons in 2000 to 3.4
million tons in 2012 with per capita consumption increasing from 0.8 kg to 2.8 kg per annum
during same period. Table egg production is estimated to have increased from 30 billion eggs in
2000 to 66 billion eggs in 2012 with per capita egg consumption increasing from 28 to 55 eggs
during that period (www.icra.in). The healthy growth in poultry output over last decade makes
India one of the fastest growing major world market in the segment with future growth potential
remaining strong on back of wide gap against global per capital consumption norms and favorable
socio economic factors. At present, India is the 3rd largest egg producer and ranks 6th in respect of
broiler production in the world. Indian poultry sector has been growing at around 8-10% annually
over the last decade with broiler meat volumes growing at more than 10% while table egg at 4-5%
driven by increased favourable socio economic factors like rising purchasing power, changing
food habits, and increasing urbanization. The poultry farming in the country is now recognized as
an organized and scientifically based industry with tremendous employment opportunity and as a
potential tool to fight poverty and malnutrition. Therefore it is very necessary for breeding of
better chickens in coming up years.
The figures shown (Table 1-2) confirm the importance of poultry products to feed the
tremendous growing world population and it is also significant that they have been growing, in
spite of a global economic recession. Generally, chicken are considered the cheapest of the meats
in comparison with pork, beef and lamb and eggs also offer exceptional value and are
comparatively easy to access by most populations.
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Table 1: Global chicken and egg markets 2006-2010 (FAO stats, 2012)
Chicken meat (million tonnes)
Eggs (million tonnes)
Region
2006 2010 Share in Change 2006 2010
Share in
Change
2010 (%)
(%)
2010 (%)
(%)
World
72.3 86.2
100
58.1
63.6
100
19.2
9.5
EU
8.2
9.7
11.2
18.0
6.7
10.6
1.4
N. America
17.2 18.0
20.9
4.7
5.8
9.2
0.2
S. America
12.7 16.3
18.9
28.3
3.9
6.1
9.5
Asia
23.5 28.6
21.7
37.5
12.9
33.2
59
Total regions
84.3
84.9
Table 2: Top 10 countries for chicken meat and egg production (FAO stats, 2012)
Chicken meat 2010
Eggs 2010
Rank
Country
Tonnes
Country
Tonnes (million)
(million)
1
USA
16.97
China
23.83
2
China
11.84
USA
5.41
3
Brazil
10.69
India
3.41
4
Mexico
2.68
Japan
2.52
5
Russia
2.53
Mexico
2.38
Russia
2.26
6
India
2.3
7
Indonesia
1.65
Brazil
1.95
8
Iran
1.65
Indonesia
1.11
9
Argentina
1.60
Ukraine
0.97
10
S. Africa
1.47
Spain
0.84
Total
52.5 (61%)
44.7 (70%)
Poultry Breeding:
The poultry breeding for improvement of egg and meat production is concerned with the
development of strain (s) having maximum efficiency ratio per unit time. The efficiency ratio is
defined as output per unit of input. For improvement of egg production breeding goals are
generally more saleable eggs per hen housed; lower feed cost per egg; better egg quality;
adaptability to different management systems; stress resistance and livability and high
reproductive efficiency of parents. The profitability of an integrated broiler enterprise however, is
determined not only by the efficiency of broiler progeny but also by the performance of the
parents. Thus genetic improvement in parent stock influences net return directly through chick
cost and indirectly through correlated response in broiler progeny. Broiler breeder has, therefore,
to satisfy the requirements of two types such as hatcheries dealing with grandparent stocks/ parent
stocks and the commercial growers. The important traits for hatcheries are body weight, sexual
maturity, egg production, egg size, egg shape, egg shell strength, fertility, hatchability, chick
quality, feather type, heat resistance, livability, etc. In case of commercial growers are body
weights, uniformity of growth, body conformation, feed conversion, livability, leg and skeletal
strength, ascites resistance, heat resistance, degree of feathering, feather and skin colour, etc. The
relative emphasis to be laid on these characters depends upon their level in the base population
and the market demands.
Choice of Breeding Plans:
The genetic constitution of a population can be changed by selection and mating systems follows
in flock.
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Table 3: Schematic Categorization of Breeding Plan
Breeding plan
Intra-population selection
(Based on pure breeding – to utilize
additive genetic variance)
Inter-population selection
(Based on crossbreeding- to utilize AGA
and NAGA)
1. Individual or mass selection.
1.
Inbreeding and hybridization.
2. Family selection: full sib, half sib.
2.
Cross breeding: different forms.
3. Sib selection: full sib, half sib.
3.
Recurrent selection (RS).
4. Within family selection.
4.
Reciprocal
(RRS)
5. Progeny testing.
5.
Modified RRS
6. Combined selection
6.
Specialized sire and dam lines.
recurrent
selection
A) Selection:
Selection in the narrow sense is limited to the following categories: individual (mass or
phenotypic) selection, family selection (including full or half sibs, progeny testing, recurrent or
cross line selection), within –family selection of better individuals, combinations of two or more
above. In addition, selection can be applied directly to the trait one wishes to improve, or
indirectly, to a secondary characteristic that is correlated to that trait. All successful applied
programs are combinations or variations of all of these methods individually, including how and
when they function in the selection process.
a) Individual selection: Mass selection is one of the simplest systems in which breeding
value of the birds is judged from their own performance without any consideration to the
merits of their relatives. It is effective for traits exhibiting high heritability. In most poultry
species characteristics like growth rate and egg size can be improved rapidly by selecting
those individuals having the desired performance for the characteristic undergoing
selection.
b) Family selection: Family selection can take several different forms. It can be based upon
either full or half sib family averages or other relationships or it can be applied directly to
the candidates or indirectly on tested sibs or progeny. Each of these variations has its
greatest use for traits that are lowly to moderately heritable. In poultry, these include
livability, fertility, hatchability, egg production, sexual maturity, feed conversion etc. The
utility of family selection methods is dependent on the theory that a measure of
performance based upon a group of individuals of similar genetic constitution is a far
better predictor of breeding value than is the record of a single individual from that family,
especially when that trait is sensitive to non–genetic or environmental influences.
c) Within –Family Selection: It is based on the deviation of the individual from the family
to which it belongs, and is used probably only in combination with one or more of the
other methods, and is applied in the following manner. The families are first ranked,
usually in descending order for the characteristic in question. Then, certain percentage, of
individuals is selected from each of the respective families.
d) Direct vs Indirect Selection: Direct selection is based on selection on the character to be
improved itself, whereas indirect selection is based on a trait that is correlated to the
character to be improved. Both methods are used extensively and are responsible for much
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of the gain that has been made in certain traits in layer and broiler industries. For example,
in broilers and turkeys, much of the gain in feed conversion efficiency is the indirect result
of having selected these species for increasing growth rate, whereas in layers, the
improvement in this characteristic has resulted partially due to selection for lower mature
body weight. When combined with either individual or variation of family selection, this
method can enhance the selection process and improve the rate of genetic gain.
e) Combined selection: The most efficient method is, however, the one in which birds are
selected by considering their own egg production (in case of pullets) and also the average
egg production of their relatives such as full sisters and half sisters etc. In this method, the
individual’s own egg production and of its relatives are combined to form an index for
each bird. The birds having the highest indices are selected for breeding. In order to attain
maximum genetic progress, indices must be calculated after giving proper weighing to the
records of different relatives. Osberne (1957) has given formula for calculating weighting
factors to be assigned to the averages of sire and dam family averages for selecting pullets
and cockerels. The following three parameters are needed for calculating these weighting
factors:
1.
Number of pullets per dam
2.
Number of dams mated to each sire
3.
Value of heritability.
Selection indices for pullets are of the following form:
I + b1
DF + b1
SF
Where PI stands for individual’s own egg production; DF stands for dam family average and SF
for sire family average. The b1 and b2 are the weighting factors for sire –family and dam –family
averages, respectively. In case of males, since the individual’s own record for egg production is
not available, the formula for calculating their breeding value is as under:
DF
SF
B) Mating system: Breeding System for capitalization of Heterosis
The commercial chicken stock can be classified as purebreds and crosses according to
their breeding backgrounds. The crosses may be made between the non –inbred parents i.e. the
strain or breed crosses or these may be obtained by crossing the inbred line belonging to the same
breed or different breed. Here heterosis is not only the major factor accounting for high egg and
meat production performance but also important for development of high performing crosses.
Commercial chickens (egg type and meat type) available today belong to one of the four
categories: pure strain, strain cross, breed crosses or inbred hybrids.
a) Inbreeding and hybridization
Different highly inbred lines are produced with wide genetic diversity. These lines are crossed
with each other in diallel manner to produce crossbreds. Heterosis and specific combining ability
are exploited. But in case of poultry, it is very difficult to maintain highly inbred lines as the
reproduction is highly affected and sometimes the lines are even lost. It is very expensive and
time consuming also.
Recurrent selection (RS)
Recurrent selection for specific combining ability (SCA) is basically a system of progeny
testing. It involves (1) a segregating population (breed, strain or line) and (2) a constant tester
line (inbred line or a F1 cross of two inbred lines). Females of segregating population (S1) are
crossed with males of tester line. Selection of females from S1 is based on the performance of
‘test cross progeny’ (TCP). Half sib or full sib males of selected females of S1 are also selected
and these proven males and females are randomly mated together (avoiding inbreeding) to
reproduce the population. Tester line is propagated without any selection. Selection may be
110
continued until individuals of the segregating population uniformly combine well with the tester
line, and performance of TCP is stabilized. Disadvantage – it is difficult to maintain inbred lines.
b) Reciprocal recurrent selection (RRS)
It differs from RS only in that segregating populations (A and B) are utilized on both sides
of the cross. The selection of purebred bird is based on the performance of AxB and/or BxA
hybrids. Selected individuals are mated at random within each population to form new A and B
populations. It is a kind of progeny testing and each cycle covers two generations. It utilizes both
SCA and GCA.
c)
Modified RRS
It was developed to improve RRS by shortening generation interval, using purebred
performance or considering environmental effects. Main types are given below:
Half-sib RRS (HS-RRS): The selection is based on the performance of half sib crossbreds and it
takes only one generation.
M-RRS: It is based on mean performance of purebred and crossbred animals in order to use both
purebred and crossbred information.
PC-RRS: It is based on purebred and crossbred performance in two stage selection with
independent culling levels for purebred and crossbred progeny performance. The purebred
selection proceeds each cycle of crossbred selection.
Environmental RRS (E-RRS): E-RRS is based on the mean performance of crossbreds and
purebreds in an adverse and optimal environment, respectively. It would provide a wider range of
genes under selection if different sets of genes were operating in different environments.
d) Crossbreeding:
Different breeds/strains/lines are used to produce two, three and four way crosses. Two
factors are of primary importance. Firstly, there is the phenomenon of heterosis which is
expressed in the performance of hybrids, and secondly, the selection of lines showing
considerable genetic differences but good specific combining ability. This requires maintenance
of breeds or lines within a breed and selection within lines on cross performance. Backcrosses
have also been produced. Different diallel experiments have been reported.
e)
Specialized sire and dam lines
The traits involved in meat production can be divided into two groups, (i) those concerning
reproductive performance in the dam (involving adult females) and (ii) those representing growth
and carcass characteristics in the progeny (relates to young meat animals). The dam line is
selected for number of offsprings produced and the sire line for growth and carcass traits.
Performance on crossing is treated additively as the sum of contributions of the parental lines. The
rate of improvement through specialized sire and dam lines is never less than that in a single line
and can be considerably greater but only if there is an unfavorable genetic correlation between
progeny number and performance and if there is a certain balance between the heritabilities and
economic weights of the two sets of traits. In dam line, progeny growth and carcass performance
must also be considered in addition to the number of offsprings.
Collection of Data and Evaluation of Genetic Progress:
Unbiased recording of data is as important as any other steps in a breeding project. This is
the basis for estimating the genetic worth of individuals. Thus an efficient method of collection of
data needs to be evolved with less chances of error. Finally, proper evaluation of accurate data
collected from a well planned breeding experiment is the only deciding factor, for termination,
continuation or modification of a programme. Without proper evaluation of genetic progress, no
111
vital decision can be taken. Estimation of genetic progress is a complex problem because
environmental factors vary simultaneously. Four comparisons can be used:
1. Prediction of changes, based on selection differentials
2. comparison of each selected generation against an “unselected control population
3. comparison of each selected generation against a “repeat–mating control”, representing the
previous generation
4. Comparison of competitor’s products over several years, e.g. based on random sample test
results.
Poultry Breeding Work in India
The systematic poultry breeding research for the development of superior commercial
hybrid egg and broiler production stocks was initiated in the early 1970s by the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR) and State Agricultural Universities. The all –India Coordinated
Research project (AICRP) on poultry breeding based on units at the Central Avian Research
Institute (CARI) and at various universities and institutions in the country was the first major step
in this direction. At this time, poultry breeding programmes with similar objectives were also
started at the Central Breeding Farms of the Government of India located at Hesserghatta,
Bombay, and Bhubaneswar –for egg production stock –and at Chandigarh –for meat stock. The
intensive effort made by these organizations has resulted in the development of commercial
hybrid stocks such as:
1. Layers:HH–260, BH–78, ILI–80, ILM–90, ILR –90, Kalinga Brown etc
2. Broilers: B-77, IBI-91, IBL-80, IBB-83, CHABRO etc.
As the result of the intense selection for body weight the broiler stocks have registered
considerable improvements in growth rate leading to a reduction in marketing age and consequent
increases in the efficiency of feed utilization.
Significant improvement has also been achieved in egg production, egg weight and the laying
house viability of commercial layers. However, the bulk of commercial layer and broiler stocks
produced by private hatcheries are largely based on arrangements with the foreign breeding
organizations. Today, almost all the best known international layer and broiler stocks are available
in the country. The public sector poultry breeding farms are making efforts to meet a part of the
growth in demand for parent stock.
Many of the poultry breeding programmes for the improvement of egg and meat
production currently in progress are likely to be continued in the future, although emphasis is
likely to be on such breeding strategies as:
1. The development of specialized sire and dam lines in broilers
2. Genotype- Environment Interaction: The lines from which the terminal cross is produced the
parents of them at some stage need to be adopted in the different climatic zone of
performance.
3. Introgression of Major Genes: Recent research in poultry breeding has identified several
major genes, which can be utilized for productive adoptability to tropical climate and
management conditions. The use of sex linked dwarf gene (Dw) in breeding produces a
dwarf hen; when mated to a normal male, produces normal sized broilers. The benefits of
dwarf gene lower cost of feeding and housing in such hens, increase in egg size and egg
number hence a reduction in cost per chick. The Naked Neck gene when incorporated in
dwarf layer selection resulted the reduction of interval between oviposition due to
significantly improved ovulation rate. Egg number at moderate temperature is not
significantly affected by naked neck gene but at higher temperature, the Na lines seem to
have a better rate of lay. To use of dwarf gene to expose “new” variation for high rate of
layer selection lines approaching the so-called 24-h “limit”.
4. Selection for feed efficiency: Substantial improvements in the conversion of feed into eggs
have been realized in commercial stocks. The improvement in feed efficiency is in fact,
primarily due to the increased egg mass which today’s hen produces. Feed is the single
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input, which accounts for 70% cost of production and is getting dearer in relation to time
scale. If layer production need to continue in organized sector, this single trait is the future
determinant for existing in the industry. The variability available in the population showed
that there is a major scope to utilize this trait.
5. Selection against the leg abnormalities and to reduce excessive abdominal fat
6. Disease resistance: Incorporation of disease resistance into breeding programmes would be
enhanced by adequate methods. General disease resistance instead of resistance to specific
diseases might be a useful concept. In terms of practical application of some of the selection
experiments, two areas may be stressed. 1. The use of gene frequency changes under
selection for the search of Quantitative Trait Link Loci’s of immune response. 2. The use of
correlated responses.
7. Marker Assisted Selection: Finding loci with a large effect on the quantitative trait of
interest is the prerequisite for Marker-Assisted Selection (MAS). Association between DNA
fingerprint band patterns and quantitative trait might not be consistent in different genetic
background. Thus, MAS will have limited value until close linkages or the QTL’s
themselves are identified. To date, MAS has not been tested on a wide scale.
8. Selection for short interval between eggs in continuous light: As a way of circumventing the
so-called 24-h barrier to further progress could increase the response to conventional
selection.
9. Selection to control the pullet –year egg size: Genetic variation exists for controlling the
shape of the curve of egg weight to age of pullet. Selection for reduced variability of pullet
year egg size has indicated that it could solve this problem and yield a correlated response in
higher egg production.
10. Selection for egg quality: Birds having low yolk cholesterol, higher albumen or higher yolk
contents as per the commercial need and quality improvement, etc.
11. The development of new pure lines and crosses using the present stocks or by synthesizing
high yielding commercial stocks available in the market.
12. To conserve and improve high yielding pure line stocks and indigenous germplasm.
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Equine breeding with special reference to kathiawari horses
A.R. Ahlawat, M.D. Odedra*, G.S. Sonawane, V.B. Dongre and P.H. Vataliya
Dept. Animal Genetics & Breeding (* LPM)
Introduction:
The Indian horse breeds are distinct not only because of their adaptation to different agro
climatic conditions prevailing in the country but also because they have unique traits such as
sturdiness, endurance potential, relative disease resistance etc. As per 18th livestock census
(2007), the total population of horses in our country is only 6.11 lakhs, showing a decline of
10.5% as compared to population of 7.51 lakhs in 2003 (Livestock census, 2003). The maximum
population is concentrated in Jammu and Kashmir (1.04 lakhs) followed by Uttar Pradesh (0.93
lakh). The changed scenario after development of road network and mechanization has led to this
drastic decline in population. This factor combined with indiscriminate breeding with exotic or
non-descript animals have resulted in the reduction of population of true breeding horseswith
typical breed characteristics relatively at a faster pace. At present, only a few thousand of each of
these breeds is available, necessitating their conservation. There are six registered breeds of
horses and ponies in India. Two are large sized namely Marwari and Kathiawari. The other four
breeds, Zanskari, Spiti, Bhutia, and Manipuri are small sized and classified as ponies. These pony
breeds have close resemblance with Tibetan ponies.
Horse Genetic Resources:
I. Marwari:
These are native to Marwar and Mewar regions of Rajasthan and are also referred to as
Malani horses in Barmer district is their breeding nucleus. Their present population is less than
5000. They are mainly distributed in Udaipur, Nagore, Pali, Sirohi, Jaisalmerdistricts of Rajasthan
and Banaskantha and Mehsana districts of Gujarat.A wide range of colours is observed, most
prevalent being dark brown, bay, dark bay, chestnut, dun, grey, , skewbald, pie bald. The head is
overall refined, flat chisel shaped forehead with soft muzzle, medium sized ears,curved inwards at
the tips which are often touching each other and can rotate 180 degrees around the vertical axis.
The height at withers is 156 cm. The extensor and flexor muscles are strong and sharply defined.
The fetlock is round and strong. It is an elegant breed known for its skills and agility. It has strong
limbs with clearly defined tendons, square frame and thin coat which provides ability to cope with
heat and cold without excess dehydration. It has well developed sense of hearing and smell. Due
to these abilities, they are of choice as personal riding, as well as games and sports.
II. Kathiawari:
This has evolved from Arabian horses and local mares of Kathiawar. The breed is native
to Saurashtra region of Gujarat comprising Junagadh, Amreli, Bhavnagar, Rajkot, Surendranagar
districts. They are mainly used for transportation, riding and sports. The common body colours
are bay, chestnut, skewbald, grey, dun, roan, piebald and black. The long and curly hair is present
on mane and tail. As compared to Marwari these have smaller ears, broader forehead and
mandibles, larger, expressive eyes, smaller muzzle, bigger nostrils, shorter face and backwith
concave profile. The forehead and tail give a triangular appearance. The special feature of this
breed is ‘Rewal gait’.
III. Zanskari:
These ponies are found in Zanskar and Ladakh areas of Jammu and Kashmir. These are
known for their hardiness, and ability to work at high altitudes. The animals are alert and well
built with compact muscular bodies covered with fine glossy and long hair. Grey and bay & black
are common coat colours. Tail is long, heavy touching the ground. Height at withers is about
125cms. These are known for their ability to work tirelessly and carry loadsin high altitude. Their
uses include riding, draught, sports, logistic support in Indian army.
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IV. Spiti:
The Spiti ponies are mainly distributed in the Kaja Subdivision of Lahul and Spiti district
and Yanthang area of Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh.These are smaller in size with height
of 132 cm. The body is compact, thick set and muscular with short and sturdy legs and long
coarse hair. The head is straight with heavy forelock. The Himachal Pradesh government has
established a Breeding Farm at Lari in Spiti subdivision for conservation of this breed. These
strong and hardy ponies are adapted to cold desert regions and are capable of thriving under
adverse conditions of nutrition, food scarcity, hypoxia and low temperature. These are used as
pack animals and for riding.
V. Bhutia:
These ponies with their estimated population of less than 5000 are distributed in the
Middle/Eastern Himalayas all along the Tibet borderand are reared by Bhutia tribe. They are
mainly distributed in Sikkim, Darjeeling,and Arunachal Pradesh in the area adjoining Bhutan.
The main coat colours are grey and iron grey.They are low at witherswith mean height of 126 cm
with feet fairly open at hooves. They are used for riding and carrying packs and usually keep to
extreme edges of the mountain tracks to avoid bumping of the pack to cliff wall.
VI. Manipuri:
These are mainly found in Manipur and Assam and are referred to as original polo ponies.
These are well known for elegance, endurance and speed. They are evolved from ponies brought
from Tibet around 1200 years ago and Arabian horses. The main body colours are bay, dark bay,
brown, reddish brown. The muzzle is broad with dilated nostrils. Body is compact with less
prominent withers. The height is about 129 cm. They are mainly used for sports, ceremonial
purposes and routine pack animals.
Equine Breeding:
The horse is known to have the lowest reproductive efficiency. Some of the factors
contributing to the low reproductive efficiency in mare include; seasonal occurrence of estrus,
expanded estrus behaviour, uncertainty of time of ovulation and incorrect heat detection in the
mares.
Reproductive cycle:
The average estrus cycle is 21-23 days. Signs of estrus include raising of the tail
without switching, spreading the hind legs apart, flexing the pelvis. The labia of the vulva
contracts and relaxes and there is eversion of the clitoris commonly known as Winking. Mares in
heat urinate frequently when teased. On an average the heat period is 7 days. Irregular or
prolonged estrous cycle may be caused by several factors. The length of the daylight exposure is
the most important one. Oestrus cycle is shorter in the months of April and October and longer
between December and February in the northern hemisphere.
A prolonged corpus luteum is another factor that may influence the oestrus cycle length, the
prolonged corpus luteum continues to secrete enough progesterone to suppress the signs of estrus.
A mare may have a normal ovary function but show no signs of estrus. These mares may be
cycling normally but will show no signs of heat.
Mating:
The mating can be:
a. Pasture breeding
b. In this method, the owners efforts are minimum, except keeping the fence in good
order and making timely repairs. Also, the other group of mares and stallion are
away. For pasture breeding an experienced stallion is necessary. Young stallions
need be hand mated several times before they are introduced to pasture breeding.
Mares are examined for pregnancy diagnosis at two weeks interval after one
month of introduction of the stallion in the herd.
Advantages:
1. All work done by stallion
2. Owner to supervise the herd
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3. Stallion bred in such a way has better conception rate than at hand mating.
Disadvantage:
i. Loss of supervision
ii. More risk of injuries
iii. Establishment of social hierarchy by horses poses problems
Hand breeding:
It is more popular and approved by equine registration authorities. This is good
when only few mares are to be covered. In this stakkion is brought to the mare and
mating takes place under restraint. Floor of the area is important for maximum grip
when mounting.
Advantages:
i. This ensures care of valuable animals
ii. Little chance of accidents as both are kept separately
iii. Satisfactory supervision
Disadvantages:
i. Capital cost of housing
ii. Lower foaling rate than pasture mating or A.I.
Artificial Insemination:
Advantages:
i. More efficient use of stallion
ii. Decreased risk of injury
iii. Opportunity to evaluate semen quality
Manipulating the mares reproductive cycle:
It may be needed for either of the two reasons:
1. To produce foals early in the year.
2. Where the mare has difficulty cycling naturally.
It is possible in a number of ways:
A: Hormonally - Hormonal manipulation is best undertaken with veterinary advice.
B. Placing a mare under artificial light can trick her system into cycling earlier in the season
under natural conditions. Mares exposed daily to light period of 16 hrs (including natural daylight
hours) will experience their first ovulation 60-90 days after the light programme begins. A 100- to
150-watt bulb is usually sufficient. To have mares cycling and ready to begin breeding between
mid- February and the beginning of March, for example, the mare must be placed under the daily
extended light period between mid-November and the beginning of December.
C: Increased diet and ambient temperature can also assist in preparing the mare for early
breeding especially when combined with increasing exposure to light. Fresh air and freedom help
keep horses healthy; however, if the goal is to trick the mare into believing it is spring, then it is
more advisable that they are not turned out in very wintry conditions.
Timing of Breeding:
Breeding on the foal heat (six to ten days post-foaling) should only be considered if the mare
has had a normal delivery, passed her placenta (the after birth) within four hours of delivery and
experienced not her apparent problems. Maiden and barren mares generally have a lower
conception rate at the first heat of the season are usually receptive to being bred for five to seven
days. They normally ovulate during the last 24 to 48 hours of that heat period but accurately
predicting exactly which day a mare will ovulate is impossible with teasing alone. The traditional
natural breeding strategy is to cover a mare very 48 hours during her heat, beginning on the second
day of showing oestrus signs. This is continued until she is no longer receptive to the stallion. The
average fertile stallion’s semen will last for atleast 48 hours in the mare. The main disadvantage with
this strategy is an increased risk of the mare developing a uterine infection and overuse of a busy
stallion. Semen is not sterile, and every natural covering introduces contaminant sand bacteria as
well as sperm into the uterus. A healthy, young mare with good perineal conformation can clear
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contamination within 48 hours. This sort of mare is less likely to become infected as a result of
breeding. The following categories of mares have a much more difficult time clearing contamination:
older mares which are predisposed to wind sucking through poor perinea conformation; mares
predisposed to pooling of urine in the vagina; mares that experience accumulation of uterine fluid;
and, mares which have cervix that fail store lax completely during oestrus. Another strategy is to
breed the mare before, and as close to the time of ovulation as possible. This will limit the number of
coverings inseminations necessary, which is important: with stallions with large books of mares; when
the number of artificial insemination breeding doses is limited; and, where frozen semen is used.
When the mare is bred 48 hours or less before her ovulation she should only need to be bred once
during the cycle.
Post-Breeding Management:
After a mare has been covered or inseminated, daily teasing should continue and scanning
performed to confirm she has ovulated and gone out of heat. The vet may recommend
administration of the hormone LH (luteinising hormone) to ensure ovulation after
covering/insemination. Examination of the mare’s reproductive tract by the vet with in the first six to
twenty four hours after breeding also means any abnormal build up of uterine fluid will be
identified quickly and treated. As the embryo does not enter the uterus for five to six days after
ovulation there is no risk to the embryo in treating the uterus during this period. Rapid
identification and treatment of mares that do not clear contamination, fluid and inflammation after
breeding can help prevent persistent inflammation of the uterus lining (endometritis) and save a
pregnancy.
Repeated examination and teasing of the mare after breeding helps to detect double
ovulations (which can result in twin pregnancies)when they occur. It is best to follow mares through
the first 48 hours after ovulation to ensure that there are no lingering problems. Mares which fail to
conceive after covering are expected to begin teasing back 16 to 18 days after ovulation. Ultrasound
scanning for pregnancy should begin by day 15/16 after ovulation.
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Molecular approach to improve production, reproduction and growth traits in
cattle and buffaloes
G. S. Sonawane, V. B. Dongre, A. R. Ahlawat and P. H. Vataliya
Department of Animal Genetics & Breeding,
Introduction
Molecular Genetics is the study of the genetic makeup of individuals at the DNA level. It
is the identification and mapping of genes and genetic polymorphisms. Recent developments in
DNA technologies have made it possible to realize a large number of genetic polymorphisms at
the DNA sequence level and to apply them as markers for evaluation of the genetic basis for
observed phenotypic variability. The promising applications of molecular markers in livestock
improvement have been reviewed with reference to conventional and transgenic breeding
strategies. In conventional breeding strategies molecular markers have several short range or
immediate applications (viz., parentage determination, genetic distance estimation, determination
of twin zygosity and freemartinism, sexing of preimplantation embryos and identification of
disease carrier) and long range applications (viz., gene mapping and marker assisted selection). In
transgenic breeding, molecular markers can be used as reference points for identification,
isolation and manipulation of the relevant genes and for identification of the animals carrying the
transgenes. There are opportunities for using molecular genetics to recognize genes that are
involved in variety of traits. Geared up with this information it would be possible to select
improved cattle and buffalo on the basis of their genetic makeup. If applied with care, the use of
molecular information in selection programmes has the potential to improve production,
reproduction and growth traits; then again enhance environmental adaptation and maintain genetic
diversity. The first task is to understand the genetic control of the trait of interest and then to
identify the genes involved. The progresses in expansion of molecular genetics suggest their
potential use for genetic improvement in overall livestock species. The progress in recombinant
DNA technology and gene cloning during last two decades has brought revolutionary changes in
the field of basic as well as applied genetics which provides several new approaches for genome
analysis with greater genetic resolution. Currently, more powerful and less laborious techniques to
uncover new types of DNA markers are progressively being introduced. The introduction of
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in conjunction with the constantly increasing DNA sequence
data also represents a milestone in this endeavor. The present discussion is a brief account of
molecular genetics and their various applications in Cattle and Buffaloes improvement
programmes.
Conventional Cattle and Buffalo Improvement Programmes
Conventional animals breeding programmes depend on selection programmes based on
phenotypic selection where traits are measured directly and animals with superior performance in
the traits are used as breeding stock where the trait is limited, such as milk production, progeny
test schemes have allowed the genetic merit of the sex not displaying the trait to be estimated.
There are several problems associated with phenotypic selection:
1. Reduction in genetic variation.
2. It applied only in direct measurable traits.
3. Expensive
4. Generation interval increased particularly in sex limited production traits
Why is Molecular Genetics?
The use of molecular genetics potentially intends to select breeding animal at an early age
(even embryos); to select for a wide range of traits and to enhance reliability in predicting the
mature phenotype of the individual. The broad categories of existing gene- based options include:
1. Molecular analysis for genetic diversity
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2. Animal identification and relationships
3. Reproductive improvement
4. Transgenic livestock
5. Germ line manipulation
6. Gene based trait selection
7. Animal health: diagnosis, protection and treatment
8. Ruminant and non-ruminant nutrition and metabolism
To date, most of genetic progress for quantitative traits in livestock has been made by
selection on phenotype or on Estimated Breeding Values (EBV) derived from phenotype, without
knowledge of the number of genes that affect the trait or the effects of each gene. In this
quantitative genetic approach to genetic improvement, the genetic architecture of traits has
essentially been treated as a ‘black box’. Genetic progress may be enhanced if we could gain
insight into the black box of quantitative traits. Molecular genetics allows studying the
genetic make-up of individuals at the DNA level.
The main reasons why molecular genetic information can result in greater genetic gain
than phenotypic information are:
1) Assuming no genotyping errors, molecular genetic information is not affected by
environmental effects and, therefore, has heritability equal to 1
2) Molecular genetic information can be available at an early age, in principle at the embryo
stage, thereby allowing early selection and reduction of generation intervals
3) Molecular genetic information can be obtained on all selection candidates, which is
especially beneficial for which individual selection is not possible
Molecular Genetic Technologies:
Molecular technologies are summarized in Fig.1.
Fig. 1: Molecular genetics technologies
Their usefulness in genetic improvement of livestock has been explained in following:
1. Marker Assisted Selection: Animal scientists are currently hanging their hopes on genetic
markers. These markers have no function of their own they simply identify a particular region of
genetic orders. This region will contain hundreds of genes that do have a function, but we do not
generally know which genes they are or what their function is. If they are, we then know that one
or more genes in the region of the marker are having a valuable effect. We do not need to discover
which genes are involved, but can go to use the information on the genetic markers to make future
selection decisions, since animals that inherit the marker will also inherit the useful effects
associated with it. This is known as marker assisted selection, the use of genetic technology and
MAS in animal production has moved from a theoretical concept to the beginnings of practical
application during the 1990s. The low and medium density linkage maps that have been
constructed generally consist of several hundred to over a thousand micro satellite markers
distributed throughout the genome. Using well established statistical techniques and specially
constructed three generation families, linkage between these markers and production traits can
now be established. Further cycles of work are therefore required to locate the gene or genes
involved more precisely. The methodology for creating these higher density maps is still evolving
and a number of different approaches are being used.
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During the past few decades, advances in molecular genetics have led to the identification
of multiple genes or genetic markers associated with genes that affect traits of interest in
livestock, including genes for single-gene traits and QTL or genomic regions that affect
quantitative traits. This has provided opportunities to enhance response to selection, in particular
for traits that are difficult to improve by conventional selection (low heritability or traits for which
measurement of phenotype is difficult, expensive, only possible late in life, or not possible on
selection candidates). Examples of genetic tests that are available to or used in industry programs
are documented and classified into causative mutations (direct markers), linked markers in
population-wide linkage disequilibrium with the QTL (LD markers) and linked markers in
population-wide equilibrium with the QTL (LE markers).
Genetic markers can also be used to control inbreeding, parental verification and product
tracing. Pedigree verification is an important aspect of the use of molecular markers in several
breeding programs. It was found that an increase of 6 to 15% from MAS in the selection response
for milk production in cattle nucleus that used multiple ovulation and embryo transfer (MOET) in
the first six generations of selection.
2. PCR Technology: The PCR is a method that efficiently increases the number of DNA
molecules in a logarithmic and controlled fashion. PCR is a major scientific development and tag
polymerase the enzyme essential to PCR’s success. The chemistry involved in the PCR depends
on the complementarity (matching) of the nucleotide bases in the double stranded DNA helix.
PCR can be used very effectively to modify DNA. Modification means that addition of restriction
enzyme sites and generation of desired site directed mutations or deletions. PCR has a profound
effect on all molecular studies. The PCR today plays a central role in genetic typing of
individuals.
3. DNA Sequencing Technology: DNA sequencing is the process of determining the exact order
of the billions of chemical building blocks that make up the DNA. DNA sequencing technology is
now being used by public and private researchers to decipher the genetic blueprint of humans,
plants, animals and micro-organisms. Highest resolution of DNA variation can be obtained using
sequence analysis. Sequence analysis provides the fundamental structure of gene systems. DNA
sequencing is generally not practical to identify variation between animals for the whole genome,
but is a vital tool in the analysis of gene structure and expression.
An aid in the development of livestock genome maps has been the high level of conservation of
gene sequences between humans, cattle, sheep, goat, pig and mice. By such reason, once loci of
particular DNA sequences has been mapped in one species, the information is frequently of help
in the genome mapping in another. Livestock species mapping had been greatly facilitated by the
increasing availability of human and murine sequences.
4. Cloning technology: Cloning technology allows us to generate a population of genetically
identical molecules, cells, animals. Because cloning technology can be used to produce
molecules, cells, plants and some animals, its applications are extraordinarily broad.
Molecular or gene cloning: Molecular, or gene, cloning, the process of creating genetically
identical DNA molecules, provides the foundation of the molecular biology revolution and is a
fundamental and essential tool of biotechnology research, development and commercialization.
Virtually all applications of recombinant DNA technology, from the Human Genome Project to
pharmaceutical manufacturing to the production of transgenic animals, depend on molecular
cloning. The research findings made possible through molecular cloning include identifying,
localizing and characterizing genes; creating genetic maps and sequencing entire genomes;
associating genes with traits and determining the molecular basis of the trait.
Animal cloning: Animal cloning has helped us rapidly incorporate improvements into livestock
herds for more than two decades and has been an important tool for scientific researchers since
the 1950s. Dolly was considered a scientific breakthrough not because she was a clone, but
because the source of the genetic material that was used to produce Dolly was an adult cell, not an
embryonic one. Recombinant DNA technologies, in conjunction with animal cloning, are
providing us with excellent animal models for studying genetic diseases, aging and cancer and, in
the future, will help us discover drugs and evaluate other forms of therapy, such as gene and cell
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therapy. Animal cloning also provides zoo researchers with a tool for helping to save endangered
species. Cloning may also be used commercially for animals.
5. Transgenesis: Gene transfer (or Tran genesis) means the stable incorporation of a gene from
another species in such a way that it functions in the receiving species and is passed on from one
generation to the next. Gene transfer has been achieved in all the major livestock species and
since the first success in 1985, more than 50 different transgenes have been inserted into farm
animals. Because so many separate steps are involved, the success rates are often low usually one
or two per cent. This imposes an enormous cost in the case of cattle; so most work has been done
in mice, pigs and sheep. Normal selection programs can be quite efficient in utilizing them where
there measurement and recording in herds/flocks is feasible. The use of markers could add to the
efficiency of the process. If a gene is sufficiently well characterized to permit its use in
transgenesis, then it will also be possible to genetically characterize individuals carrying the gene
and to make direct selection and propagation highly efficient.
The objective of gene transfer is to produce in the animal a protein which it does not
normally produce. This can be done for two kinds of proteins. The first group would be expected
to improve the normal functioning of the animal. In dairy animals, most consideration has been
given to genes which modify fat or protein synthesis in the mammary gland. Transgenic animals
have one or more copies of one or various foreign gene(s) incorporated in their genome or,
alternatively, selected genes have been ‘knocked out’. The fact that it is possible to introduce or to
delete genes, offers considerable opportunities in the areas of increasing productivity, product
quality and perhaps even adaptive fitness. In initial experiments, genes responsible for growth
have been inserted. The technology is currently very costly and inefficient and applications in the
near future seem to be limited to the production of transgenic animals as bio-reactors.
The pivotal technological advances discussed above provide for the first time realistic
prospects for directed genetic alteration of the livestock genome. While the key molecular and
reproductive techniques require expertise, the skills are not prohibitively specialized and
widespread adoption of transgenic approaches can be anticipated. In many cases, transgenesis can
be expected to augment breeding programs with traditional objectives, allowing rapid and
predictable introduction of genetic modifications affecting size, growth rates, food conversion
efficiencies, product quality and waste management into animals of high value. Compared with
introduction of genetic modifications by interbreeding, this approach would reduce the
requirement for phenotypic screening.
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Breeding strategies for improvement of milk production in cattle and buffaloes
V. B. Dongre, G. S. Sonawane, A. R. Ahlawat and P. H. Vataliya
Department of Animal Genetics & Breeding,
Introduction
India is the hub of the different livestock breeds of the world possesses 37 breeds of
cattle, 13 buffalo, 23 goat, 39 sheep, 6 horses & ponies, 8 camel, 2 pig, 1 donkey and 15 chicken.
The cattle and buffalo genetic resources with vast populations of 199.10 millions and 105.6
millions, respectively are widely distributed in diverse 15 agro-ecological regions of the country.
Those reared in small herd size of 1-2 animals mainly by small, marginal and land less farmers of
different socio-economic levels and lack planned breeding strategies. Before developing the
breeding strategies for conservation and improving the productivity performance of a particular
breed in a given agro-climatic region, it is imperative to have a basic and comprehensive
information on its agro-climatic conditions, agriculture and livestock production systems in
vogue, available animal genetic resources and their production potentials, utilization pattern,
socio-economic levels of farmers/ breeders as well as available infrastructure and development
facilities. Based upon the collated information of the region as well as the types of animal
resource population, following breeding strategies can be adopted for conservation and bringing
further genetic improvement of cattle and buffalo genetic resources in the country.
Improvement of Indigenous Cattle and Buffaloes
Selective Breeding
The low producing, local non-descript cattle constituting about 80% of total cattle
population in the country should be the target population to be improved upon. To meet the large
demand of superior breeding bulls of well-defined indigenous cattle like Sahiwal, Gir, Kankrej,
Tharparkar, etc. and multiplication of their quality germplasm for enhancing the productivity of
nondescript cattle as well as transforming non-descript to well defined purebreds, it is imperative
to have large-scale genetic improvement programmes in different indigenous cattle breeds in their
native breeding tracts through selective breeding. Therefore the superior milch cattle breeds like
Sahiwal, Gir, Red Sindhi and Tharparkar and dual-purpose breeds like Hariana, Ongole, and
Kankrej need to be genetically improved by selective breeding. In Gujarat, the indigenous cattle
breeds like Gir and Kankrej need to be improved by selective breeding. It is expected that genetic
improvement will be achieved ranging from 1 to 1.5% per annum in herds at organized farms and
8-10% per annum in farmers’ herds by selective breeding.
The genetic improvement of buffalo herds in the country can be brought through selective
breeding within breeds by progeny-testing of bulls associating multiple organized herds and
farmer herds under field conditions. Further, grading up of non-descript low producing buffaloes
by use of superior proven buffalo bulls to exploit the large degree of genetic variability between
and within the buffalo breeds. For effective implementation of such programmes particularly on
large scale, existing organized farms of Murrah, Surti, Mehsana, Nili Ravi, Nagpuri, Bhadawari
and Jaffarabadi buffalo breeds should be strengthened for production of breeding bulls. In the
states like Gujarat, Surti, Mehsana, Jaffrabadi & Banni is recommended to be the breed of choice.
The genetic improvement in indigenous buffalo breeds for higher milk production, reduction in
age at maturity, reduction in service period, dry period and calving interval will lead to higher
economic returns to the farmers.
Improvement of Non-descript Cattle
i) Crossbreeding
The alternative approach to improve non-descript indigenous cattle can be improved
through crossbreeding with exotic dairy cattle breeds of temperate origin particularly in milk shed
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areas around semi-urban and industrial towns where good market for milk and milk products is
available and adequate quantity of quality water, feed and fodder resources exists. Crossbreeding
with exotic dairy cattle breeds like Holstein, Brown Swiss and Jersey can be an effective tool of
rapid genetic improvement for enhancing multifold productivity of non-descript cattle. In
Gujarat, Holstein Friesian cattle is the breed of choice in the irrigated plains while Jersey is the
breed of choice in Hilly terrain and coastal areas for crossbreeding. The optimum levels of exotic
inheritance in crossbred cattle should range between 50 and 75 per cent. The semen of exotic bulls
of high transmitting ability for milk yield and milk constituents should be used.
Table1: Approach to decide Breeding Strategies in different regions of the country
Target
base Harsh Environment*
Favourable Environment**
breed
Cattle
Buffalo
Farmers with
Poor
Resources
Farmers
with
Good Resources
Farmers with
Poor
Resources
Farmers with
Good
Resources
Non-descript
Upgrading
with Local or
Outside
Indigenous
breed
Upgrading with
Local or Outside
Indigenous
breed or CB< =
50
Upgrading
with Local or
Outside
Indigenous
breed
or
CB=50
CB=50
Indigenous
breeds
Selective
breeding
within breed
Selective
breeding within
breed
Selective
breeding
within breed
Selective
breeding
within breed
Crossbreds
CB<50
CB=50
CB=50
CB>50
Non-descript
Upgrading
with Local or
outside breed
- Mehsana or
Murrah
Upgrading with
Local or outside
breed - Mehsana
or Murrah
Upgrading
with Local or
outside breed Mehsana
or
Murrah
Upgrading
with Local or
outside breed
- Mehsana or
Murrah
Indigenous
breeds
Selective
breeding
within breed
Selective
breeding within
breed
Selective
breeding
within breed
Selective
breeding
within breed
* Harsh Environment:Poor vegetation, low rainfall and high temperature-Humidity Index (> 90)
** Favorable climate: Good vegetation, medium to good rainfall, moderate TemperatureHumidity Index (<90)
The crossbreeding of non-descript zebu cows with semen of progeny tested bulls of exotic dairy
cattle breeds will result in enhancing milk production by 5 to 8 times to that of non-descript cows,
reducing age at first calving and shortening calving interval in crossbred progenies. The crossbred
cows thus produced through crossbreeding programme should be mated subsequently with
crossbred bulls of high genetic merit selected on the basis of pedigree, sib and progeny
performance in such a way that level of exotic inheritance is maintained between 50 to 75 percent
in crossbred cows. However, to cover the large and fast growing population of about 20 millions
crossbred cattle currently available in the country, it requires strong networking of infrastructure
facilities including AI, distribution of quality germplasm of superior genetic merit animals, bull
mother farms and semen banks, trained man-power, animal health care and marketing of milk and
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milk products through formation of co-operative milk unions for proper implementation of the
animal improvement programmes.
ii) Grading up
In the areas, where feed and fodder resources are not available in sufficient quantity, the
farmers are not resource-rich, infrastructure facilities being inadequate and marketing facilities of
milk and milk products being poor, the non-descript cattle can be genetically improved by grading
up using elite bulls of well known indigenous breeds like Sahiwal, Tharparkar, Red Sindhi, Gir,
Deoni, Hariana, Kankrej etc. available in the breeding tract. The breeds of cattle to be used for
grading up may be selected on the basis of main utility of non-descript cattle whether for milk,
draught or milk and draught both besides resource availability and animal product marketing.
The non-descript cattle primarily used for draught or dual purpose can also be improved
upon accordingly. In a period of 5-6 generations of continuous grading up, the non-descript stock
will be transformed into well-defined purebreds. The well-defined breeds are maintained on
several organised government and non-government farms. The unique genotypes with high
draught power, swiftness, speed, tilling and tracting power can also be identified and used for
improving draught breeds and non-descript cattle being used for draught purpose. Thus, there is
further scope of not only improving these breeds but to improve the low producing vast
population of non-descript cattle. Therefore, these breeds need to be further improved for
production of superior germplasm and their dissemination.
Improvement of Non-descript Buffaloes
Grading up
The production potential of non-descript buffaloes can be increased rapidly through
mating with superior sires of improved breeds like Jaffrabadi, Murrah, Surti and Mehsana. Surti is
recommended for Karnataka, Kerala, parts of Gujarat and Rajasthan, Murrah and Nili Ravi for
Punjab and in other parts of the country where sufficient feed and fodder resources are available,
Murrah is recommended. However, superior bulls of other well-defined breeds of buffaloes
should also be identified, used for multiplication of germ plasm and extensive use in their
breeding tracts so that the breeds are conserved and improved simultaneously.
Strategies for Performance Evaluation and Selection of Animals
Main components for success in breeding
Breeding policy
Produce high genetic merit
bulls through:

Progeny Testing- in
partnership with farmers.

Pedigree
selection
(indigenous breeds)

ONBS– using Embryo
transfer
Produce quality semen by:
 Using only high genetic merit
bulls free from disease
 Adhering to standards laid
down
 Complying with bio-security
measures
Provide
quality
AI
service by:
 Animal identification
 Effective LN delivery
system
 Using semen
from
certified Semen station
 Ensuring hygiene &
protocol
 Reducing number of
AIs per conception
 Providing
advisory
services & inputs
124
Strategies developed for selection of cows based upon their expected producing ability and
young males based on their expected predicted difference using pedigree information, physical
attributes, growth, sex libido, semen characteristics, karyotyping and subsequently evaluating
them on the basis of their progeny performance etc. could be utilized for improvement of cattle
and buffalo herds maintained on organized farms of central/ state government and other
developmental agencies. For bringing effective genetic improvement in dairy animals, rigorous
selection pressure must be ensured on the basis of milk production of cows.
Here it is very important to increase the herd replacement rate and minimize involuntary
culling on the basis of reasons other than milk production. For this, proper herd management
practices such as suitable housing, proper adoption of reproductive health management practices,
adequate availability of quality feed and fodder, timely disease control measures to minimize the
mortality and morbidity need to be employed. Since large proportion of genetic gain is resulted
through proper selection of superior breeding bulls, it should be ensured that the young bulls are
the progenies of elite matings and subsequently be progeny tested on large test population
associating multiple organized farms and farmer herds. Elite cows for nominated mating may be
chosen from organized herds or from farmers’ herds. For large-scale selection of farmers’ elite
cows and their use for nominated mating for production of large number of young bulls, it is
imperative to introduce animal registration and performance recording of farmer herds The
strategies for undertaking large scale genetic improvement programmes on widely distributed
population of cattle and buffaloes in the country require huge number of genetically superior
breeding bulls. According to an estimate, to cover even 20% breedable bovine population in the
country for breeding through AI as many as 700 proven bulls of crossbred cattle, 3800 proven
bulls of well-defined indigenous cattle breeds and 7600 proven buffalo breeding bulls are
required.
Table-2. Breeding strategies for bovines as recommended by GOI.
Sr.N
Type of animal
o.
1 Indigenous dairy breeds of
2 Indigenous draught breeds of
3 Indigenous dual purpose
breeds of cattle
4 Non-descript cattle
5
Non-descript buffaloes
Breeding strategy
Purpose
Selective breeding
Milk production
Selective breeding
Draught power
Selective breeding
Milk
production
and
draught power
Milk production /draught
power
Grading
up
with
improved
indigenous
cattle breeds
Crossbreeding
with
exotic dairy breeds
followed by selective
breeding
Grading up
Milk production
Milk production/ draught
power
Therefore, for accomplishing the huge task of bringing about genetic improvement of
cattle and buffalo genetic resources in the country through above proposed breeding strategies
besides developing basic infrastructure facilities, identification of important developmental
organizations, the following action plan for proper implementing the programmes is suggested:


Identification of native breeding tracks of the breed to be improved upon.
Networking of breed-specific organized government/ private cattle and buffalo farms and
large progressive farmer’s herds for identification of large number of breeding bulls and
125



linking with performance recording and progeny testing of bulls under farmer herds in village
conditions.
Infrastructure development in the operational areas including establishment of AI centers,
animal health centers milk procurement and extension centers fully equipped with trained man
power to enlarge network of breeding facilities for covering large number of breedable bovine
population animals.
Establishment and strengthening of breed nucleus herds/bull mother farms, young bull rearing
centers, semen and embryo collection and processing laboratories.
Establishment of data bank to carry out activities on animal identification and performance
recording linked with progeny testing programme for selection of large number of high
genetic merit bulls.
Summary
Various breed improvement programme in the country must form co-ordinating bodies for
monitoring the quality germplasm production, performance recording, evaluation and selection of
young bulls and testing their genetic merit both at organized herds including progressive
gaushalas maintaining indigenous breeds and farmers’ herds under field conditions. Faster
multiplication of superior germplasm by selected organized breeding herds through adoption of
open nucleus breeding system with emerging artificial reproductive techniques is needed. For
developing breeding strategies for improving the productivity of different types of farm animal
populations in different regions of the country as well as with different socio-economic levels of
farmers, various animal breeding technologies developed need to be used on large scale by
developmental organizations for proper implementation of genetic improvement and development
programmes particularly on farmer herds.
126

On Department of Livestock Production Management College of

Transcription

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