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March Issue
The Nucleus 2016
American School of Milan
BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
The Impacts of Global Climate Change on the Arctic Food Web
By Scintilla Benevolo
ABSTRACT— Global climate change is becoming a serious issue our society cannot find a solution to. Two outcomes of
this phenomenon can be seen in the Artic, where the ice is rapidly melting along with the permafrost. This will have a
drastic impact on the Arctic food webs, the energy flows, the nutrient flows and our society, which cannot ignore climate
change anymore.
The melting of the ice is having a dramatic impact
on the species within the arctic food web. For example, the
number of polar bears, which are at the top of the food web,
will keep decreasing as the years go by. This is due to the
fact that polar bears give birth and hunt on ice. It is
essential for the mothers’ survival to be able to hunt rapidly
and successfully since, when they emerge from their dens
with the cubs, they have not eaten for five to seven months.
Furthermore, the longer the female polar bears live without
food, the harder for them it will become to reproduce since
their fat stores will be impacted. The instability and
shrinking of the ice, caused by warmer temperatures, is
thus perilous for this specie. Also, with the rising
temperatures, competition will increase because the
temperature species will begin to spread northward.
Consequently, there is a risk of hybridization between polar
bears, brown bears and grizzly bears. With the extinction of
a specie at the top of the food web, disruptions will occur. In
fact, the disappearance of the polar bears will result in
some populations booming, and others diminishing.
Ice algae, as the ice melts, will no longer have a permanent
habitat. Most of these algae have already died between the
1970s and the 1990s, and are being replaced by a lessproductive, freshwater specie. Some of the areas affected
by this phenomenon are Bering Sea and Hudson Bay,
which are situated in the lower artic. The death of this
algae, which is a producer and therefore at the bottom of
the marine food web, will have drastic effects since all
organism depend on producers.
Along with the arctic food web, the flows of
nutrients and energy will also be heavily influenced. With
the disappearance of the producers, there can be no
decomposers, therefore carbon and hydrogen will not be
recycled anymore. Also, the melting of the permafrost will
release huge amounts of carbon in the atmosphere. This
will disturb the balance of the carbon cycle, since there will
be more carbon in the air than in the land, and it will also
increase global warming. Furthermore, if most of the arctic
decomposers die, the energy will remain blocked in the
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detritus, which will disrupt the flow of energy within the
ecosystem.
Although the arctic food web may risk to be wiped
out completely, this will have a positive impact on the
temperate species which will be able to take over. As the
ice melts and the temperatures increase, they will move
northward and will have a better chance of surviving the
competition with the arctic species since they are used to
living in warm habitats. Also, if the arctic producers go
extinct, they will be replaced by the temperate ones, which
will favor the take-over of new species.
Economically, global climate change has both
advantages and disadvantages. Since the ice caps are
melting, a new trading route, the Northern Sea route
(NSR), is being established by Russia. This route will start
in the Kara Sea and end in the Pacific Ocean, passing
through the Artic. The NSR will encourage trade since the
vessels will take two-thirds less of the time they would
normally take if passing through the Suez Canal. Also, this
route will be safer since pirate attacks at the Horn of Africa
would be avoided, and there would therefore be no risk of
losing cargo. Furthermore, Russia desires to build a port in
Ob Bay, at Sabetta, which would help develop the natural
gas resources that lie on the Yamal Peninsula. Although
this would benefit most economies worldwide, it is also
important to take into consideration that, most of the year,
the route will be blocked by ice. Because of global climate
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change the ice will be thin and breakable, but this would
mean travelling very slowly, and consuming much more
fuel. Furthermore, building arctic bulk carrier vessels is
much more expensive and, with the route being used by a
small number of vessels, tariffs will remain high. The
melting of the permafrost, which would result in a release
of carbon, will also damage the economy since
governments will need to spend more money on health
care. Therefore, global climate change has more significant
economic disadvantages than it does have advantages.
From an ecological perspective, the Antarctic food
web and life will be completely replaced by temperate
species if we don’t put an end to global climate change.
Gradually, more arctic species will die, adapt to the new
temperatures, or hybridize with species from more
southern regions. If this were to occur, a whole ecosystem
would collapse. Esthetically, the geography of the world
would also alter itself since, as the glaciers melt, the ice
levels rise, and populations living on coasts will find
themselves completely submerged.
To conclude, the impacts of the global climate
change are not ethical for they are unsustainable. Although
the melting of the ice could conclude in some economic
advantage, the release of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
would tragically impact health, and will therefore harm the
future generations.
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March Issue
The Nucleus 2016
American School of Milan
Biological 'clock' Discovered in Sea Turtle Shells
By Gabriele Calabria
ABSTRACT—Radiocarbon dating of atomic bomb fallout found in sea turtle shells can be used to reliably estimate the
ages, growth rates and reproductive maturity of sea turtle populations in the wild, according researchers. The newly
tested technique provides scientists with a more accurate means of estimating turtle growth and maturity and may help
shed new light on the status of endangered sea turtles populations worldwide.
Researchers have found that they can reliably estimate the ages, growth rates and reproductive maturity of sea
turtle populations by performing radiocarbon dating of atomic bomb fallout found in their shells. While it may sound
strange, the researchers say their technique provides more accurate estimates than other methods currently in use and
may help shed new light on factors influencing the decline and lack of recovery of some endangered sea turtles
populations.
The most basic questions of sea turtle life history are also the
most elusive, "said Kyle Van Houtan, fisheries research ecologist at
NOAA’s Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center and adjunct associate
professor at Duke’s Nicholas School of the Environment. The hawksbill
sea turtles used in the study were already deceased, and either died of
natural causes or were harvested for their decorative shells as part of the
global tortoiseshell trade. The researchers worked with federal agencies,
law enforcement and museum archives to obtain the specimens.
Each turtle’s approximate age was calculated by comparing the
bomb-testing radiocarbon accumulated in its shell to background rates of
bomb-testing radiocarbon deposited in Hawaii’s corals. According to a statement from the researchers, levels of carbon14 increased rapidly in the biosphere from the mid-1950s to about 1970 as a result of Cold War-era nuclear tests but
have dropped at predictable rates since then, allowing scientists to determine the age of an organism based on its
carbon-14 content.
In addition to their natural beauty, the shells of two deceased
specimens of Hawksbill sea turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) hold clues
to the growth rates and sexual maturity of the endangered species.
Credit: Duke University, Kyle Van Houtan This is the first time that
carbon-14 dating of shell tissue has been used to estimate age, growth
and maturity in sea turtles. Scientists typically employ other, less precise
methods such as using turtle length as a proxy for age, or analyzing the
incomplete growth layers in hollow bone tissue.
Van Houtan also believes the new technique could help shed light on why some populations — including
Hawaiian hawksbills, the smallest sea turtle population on Earth — aren’t rebounding as quickly as expected despite
years of concerted conservation. “Our analysis finds that hawksbills in the Hawaii population deposit eight growth lines
annually, which suggests that females begin breeding at 29 years — significantly later than any other hawksbill
population in the world. This may explain why they haven’t yet rebounded,” Van Houtan said.
The bomb radiocarbon tests also indicate another red flag. “They appear to have been omnivores as recently as
the 1980s. Now, they appear to be primarily herbivores. Such a dramatic decline in their food supply could delay growth
and maturity, and may reflect ecosystem changes that are quite ominous in the long term for hawksbill populations in
Hawaii,” he said.
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March Issue
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New Tarantula Named After Johnny Cash
By Matteo De Palma
ABSTRACT—The following article provides an explanation of the background and discovery of a new species of spiders in
the United States. It is a milestone in biology as it is a deeper understanding of spiders, which could allow further expansion of knowledge in various other fields.
A new species of tarantula has emerged, and been attributed the name of famous singer/songwriter Johnny
Cash. The new tarantula is one of fourteen new spiders discovered in the southwestern United States, and the amount of
information we have regarding their adaptability, anatomy, survival traits, etc. is very limited. Biologists at Auburn University and Millsaps College have described these hairy, large-bodied spiders in the open-access journal ZooKeys: "We
often hear about how new species are being discovered from remote corners of the Earth, but what is remarkable is that
these spiders are in our own backyard," says Dr. Chris Hamilton, lead author of the study. "With the Earth in the midst of
a sixth mass extinction, it is astonishing how little we know about our planet's biodiversity, even for charismatic groups
such as tarantulas."
The Aphonopelma genus are among the most unique species of spider in the United States. One aspect that
scientists find most intriguing is that there is no definite size among the species meaning that some can reach 15cm or
more, whereas others can fit on the face of an American quarter-dollar coin.
The Aphonopelma species can be found in twelve states across the southern third of the country, ranging west
of the Mississippi River to California. These spiders are most seen during the warmer months when the adult males
leave their burrows in search of mates, yet very little was known about the spiders prior to the study. Dr. Hamilton states
that there are fifty different species of tarantulas which have been previously reported from the US, but that many of
them were poorly defined and actually belonged to the same species. To reach a further understanding of the different
characteristics that divide these tarantulas from the ordinary species, the research team implemented a modern and
“integrative” approach to taxonomy by employing anatomical, behavioural, distributional, and genetic data. Their results
provided enough evidence to note that there are 29 species in the US, of which 14 are completely new to science.
Returning to the first paragraph, one of the species was named “Aphonopelma johnnycashi” after the
influential American song writer Johnny Cash. Dr. Hamilton decided upon the name due to the scientist’s first
encounter with the species in California near Folsom
Prison (famous for Cash’s song “Folsom Prison Blues”)
and because the males usually have a dark black pigment, giving tribute to Cash’s distinctive style of dress
where he has been referred to as a “Men in Black”.
Although never having been studied before, this
new spider could be in use of conservation efforts in the not-so-distant future. This is because of the destruction of their
habitats due to climate change and human intrusion in their homes. A co-author on the study, Brent Hendrixson, stated
that “Two of the new species are confined to single mountain ranges in south-eastern Arizona, one of the United States'
biodiversity hotspots,” and that “these fragile habitats are threatened by increased urbanization, recreation, and climate
change. There is also some concern that these spiders will become popular in the pet trade due to their rarity, so we
need to consider the impact that collectors may have on populations as well."
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March Issue
The Nucleus 2016
American School of Milan
BIO AND ES: Crossword Puzzle
From the New York Times!
http://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/07/24/student-crossword-endangered-species/?_r=0
Solutions:
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March Issue
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CHEMISTRY
PVC and Plasticizers
By Francesco Grechi
ABSTRACT—This article seeks to provide a brief introduction to chemical polymers, and how substances called
plasticizers can be used to manipulate their levels of rigidity. All explanations are done in reference to the Poly(1chloroethylene) polymer, commonly known as PVC.
Poly(1-chloroethylene), better known by its abbreviation “PVC”, is the third-most widely produced
synthetic plastic polymer. It exists in two main types commercially, rigid (RPVC) and flexible. As the names
suggest, these two species of the polymer differ greatly in their elastic behavior. RPVC is used primarily in
construction, and is perhaps most commonly associated with cheap plastic sewage pipes. On the other hand,
flexible PVC is used as a substitute for elastomers (namely rubber) in a variety of fields, including plumbing and
electrical engineering. This might seem puzzling; how is it possible that the same chemical species can display
such radically different physical properties? The answer to this question lies in a technique called “plasticization”.
If you were to ask a chemical engineer what the definition of plasticization is, he would probably tell you
that it is the process by which plasticizers are added to polymers. Yet, this raises two more questions; what
exactly is a polymer, and what is a plasticizer?
A chemical polymer is defined as a large molecule composed of many
repeated subunits (called “monomers”). To understand this, imagine a metal chain
comprised of many identical metallic links attached to one another. In essence, a
polymer is just like that metal chain, only that its fundamental monomers are
identical molecules or atoms, not metallic links. For example, PVC’s monomer is
chloroethene (CH2CHCl)
This comparison is extremely useful to understand polymer chains, but can give the wrong impression.
Unlike with a metallic chain, you will never have a single isolated polymer chain on its own. In fact, a sample of a
polymer is composed of thousands of individual chains. These chains will be attracted to one another by
electrostatic forces, known as “intermolecular forces”. As a result, the chains will be strongly linked to one
another, increasing the rigidity of the polymer as a whole. In the case of PVC, these intermolecular forces are so
large that, when synthesized, PVC is extremely hard and brittle.
This is where plasticizers come into play. A plasticizer is a molecule that embeds itself between adjacent
chains, and reduces the effect of intermolecular forces. This causes a decrease in the overall melting point of the
polymer, resulting in increased flexibility and fluidity. Tying back to PVC, plasticizers that are commonly used to
create flexible PVC belong to the phthalate family; the most commonly used is bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate
[C8H4(C8H17COO)2]. Increasing the quantity of plasticizer added to the polymer will increase the flexibility of
the polymer as a whole; RPVC contains less plasticizer than flexible PVC does. Therefore, by regulating the
amount of plasticizer added, chemical engineers can synthesize polymers of differing rigidity levels.
On an interesting side note, plasticizers tend to evaporate over time. Therefore, a sample of flexible PVC
will eventually convert into RPVC if left alone. If you have ever driven in a new car, you will definitely have
experienced this. PVC can be found in the inner linings of automobiles; over time the plasticizer contained in it
will evaporate and contribute to the smell associated with the “new-ness” of the car.
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March Issue
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The Modern Periodic Table
By Anais Emanuele
ABSTRACT— The following article strives to provide knowledge regarding the history of the periodic table of elements
and the modern periodic table, mainly focusing on the scientist and genius, Mendeleev.
Prior to Dimitri Mendeleev, many scientists including Alexandre Béguyer de Chancourtois, John Newlands and Julius
Lothar Meyer, had attempted to organize in a certain order, which would later be systematized as a table, the elements that
had been newly discovered. However none of the scientists’ attempts were proven to be effective. In 1869, Dimitri
Mendeleev’s also endeavored to organize these elements in an effective and strategic approach, which was then considered
to be so successful that it formed the foundation of the modern periodic table. The current periodic table, is in fact, similar to
the one created by Mendeleev.
After having arranged and rearranged the elements numerous times, Mendeleev realized that by ordering the
elements by increasing atomic mass and by placing the elements with similar properties beneath each other, a trend arose.
This trend consisted in the frequent reemergence of certain categories of elements. For instance, when a reactive non-metal
appeared and was placed in a specific area, the element which followed up was usually a highly reactive light metal, which
succeeded by a barely reactive light metal. Dimitri Mendeleev, who is considered father of the periodic table, was furthermore
successful, in that he was able to fix two major problems, which kept occurring and whom nobody seemed to be able to fix.
These two major problems consisted in the two elements Tellurium (Te) and Iodine (I), as well as the three unknown holes.
Mendeleev recognized that Tellurium had a mass which was greater than that of Iodine, however its properties resembled
more those of the halogens Oxygen (O), Sulfur (S) and Selenium (Se). Thus, in order to coherently and efficiently solve this
problem, Mendeleev chose to swap the two elements, Te and I, over, allowing them to resemble their halogens. Subsequently
having fixed the problem with the two elements, Tellurium and Iodine, he was left with an additional problem to solve, the
three holes. The expert noticed that in his attempt in creating the periodic table, there were three holes, three elements which
had not yet been discovered. He predicted the properties of the elements, which were later shown to be exceptionally
accurate, and gave them the prefix eka, and the suffix of the halogen found above them. The three unknown elements were
consequently called, eka-boron, eka-aluminum and eka-silicon. When the three elements were discovered, in the following
years that past, they were respectively named Scandium (Sc), Gallium (Ga) and Germanium (Ge).
Approximately six years after the death of the genius known as Dimitri Mendeleev, another very important scientist
greatly contributed in the formation of the modern periodic table, Henry Mosley. In 1913, he arranged the elements by
increasing positive charge, and hence by increasing atomic number, which almost always corresponded to the same order of
atomic mass. Mosley was able to properly provide explanation, for his X-ray experiment, which allowed him to determine the
atomic number. He explained that when an electron drops from a greater energy level, which in known as excited state, to a
lower one, which is known as ground state, the energy is emancipated as electromagnetic waves, thus X-rays. The amount of
energy that is released, is subject to the intensity of the electron attraction to the nucleus. The greater amount of protons an
atom has in its nucleus, the greater the electrons will
be attracted and the greater the energy that will be
released. In addition, the number of protons, in an
element corresponds to its atomic number.
Thus it is clear to see how many great
scientists’ minds, especially those of Dimitri
Mendeleev and Henry Mosley, have largely
contributed to the creation of the marvelous modern
periodic table, to such an extent that we still use it to
this very day.
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The new era in carbon allotropes
ABSTRACT—This article will talk about the uses and application of graphene.
Some elements on the periodic table are said to be allotropic. That means that they have different physical
structures of the same element. Carbon, for example, has five different allotropes: graphite, diamond, fullerene, silicon dioxide
and finally graphene.
In its structure, graphene is very similar to graphite. They are both made out of hexagonal rings. Graphite though,
has hexagonal rings stacked one on top of each other. Graphene, on the other hand, is made out of a single layer of hexagonal
rings. The first time graphene was produced by a team of scientists, they took a piece of graphite and made it as thein as
possible by dissecting it layer by layer. This last process is known as mechanical exfoliation. Therefore graphene, is essentially
one layer of graphite.
As a result of making it so thin, graphene is only one atom thick. Its properties as the lightest and strongest material,
compared to its ability to conduct heat and electricity better than anything else. In future scientists hope that graphene will be
able to mix with other 2-D crystals, thus to create more even more complex compounds that would vary even in uses.
One field in which graphene is hoped to be very profitable is bio engineering. Scientists hope that this allotrope
might revolutionize this filed. In the first place graphene’s ample surface area, conductivity capabilities, strength and thinness
could help bio engineers create faster and more efficient bioelectric sensory devices. These last ones should have the
capability to measure hemoglobin levels and glucose levels. However, bio engineers are hoping that this technology be
delivered by 2030.
Furthermore graphene’s use will also be extended to optical electronics. For example touch screens. Today touch
screens use liquid crystal displays (LCD) or organic light emitting diodes (OLED). Today the most used material is Indium Tin
oxide (ITO). However, graphene has proven to work just as well since it can optically transmit 97.7% of light. Furthermore the
fact that graphene is so flexible, thin and strong makes it the new candidate in optical electronics.
Seeing as this carbon allotrope is so strong, light and stiff aerospace engineers are using carbon fiber in the production of
aircraft. However, what they are really hoping to do is substitute the whole steel structure of the plane with a material that
incorporates graphene. This is because it is o light and strong. Thus improving fuel efficiency, range and weight.
Another application that could integrate graphene in the future is in photovoltaic cells. Today they use silicon or ITO.
However, because of graphene’s light levels of absorption whilst offering a high electron mobility means that it could be used
in photovoltaic cells. An advantage of using graphene is that it is more flexible than the other two. Thus it could be used in
clothing, or to recharge our phones.
However, one limitation of graphene is that if it is high-quality, in the sense that as a conductor it does not stop. This
is why there still needs to be some research put into the use of graphene and it substituting other elements in technologies.
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March Issue
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CHEMISTRY: Crossword Puzzle
By: Giovanna Pinciroli
HORIZONTAL
VERTICAL
1. Its three isotopes are Protium, Deuterium and Tritium
2. It can replace Iodine - and form a red-brown color - but it is weaker
than chlorine
3. A red-brick color originates from its flame, and it is the lightest of
the alkali earth metals
4. Soft, silvery, and very abundant on the Earth's crust
6. The third noble gas
8. Mistaken by many for a transitional metal, this element is colorless
10. In the past, it was essential in the composition of thermometers
12. It makes up 21% of the atmosphere
15. Some people lack this element in their blood
Gold
5.
Aluminum
4.
Calcium
3.
Bromine
2.
Hydrogen
1.
10.
9.
8.
7.
6.
Mercury
Sodium
Zinc
Chlorine
Argon
15.
14.
13.
12.
11.
5. It is very valuable
7. The gas derived from this element was
originally used to bleach textiles
9. A close friend of both Lithium and
Potassium
11. Its octet is filled with six electrons
13. Commonly referred to as W
14. Friends with Germanium and Selenium
10
Iron
Arsenic
Tungsten
Oxygen
Boron
March Issue
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MATHEMATICS
Counting the Hard Way – Number Systems
By Yookyung Kim
ABSTRACT— This article explores the weaknesses of widely used decimal system.
Show me 10 fingers. Now tell me. How many
fingers did you just hold up? Most of you would find this
question to be extremely pointless. It seems so obvious that
I already know that the answer is ten. The truth is, there
are infinitely many ways of interpreting the number ’10.’
This number could be any number: two in a binary system,
twelve in a duodecimal system, and sixteen in a
hexadecimal system. But most of us count in decimal
system, which utilizes ten different symbols to express
numbers in base ten. It is the default setting of our
subconscious mind and the reason why we automatically
interpreted the number ‘10’ as ten. Despite the difference
in language, lifestyle and cultures, most countries have
developed their own way of counting based on decimal
system, primarily due to our simple biological feature – we
have ten fingers. Today, the international collaboration in
expanding the human knowledge has determined the
decimal system using Arabic numerals as the standard way
of counting.
Most would think that the decimal system should
be the most efficient system since the majority of modern
humans has recognized it as the “simplest way of
counting.” But consider reading clocks. Try to convert an
hour and ten minutes in hours. Our natural instincts
trained by the decimal system would first lead us to an
erroneous answer – 1.10 hours. But then our educated
mind would remind us that there are sixty minutes in an
hour. So we divide 10 by 60, which would give us 1/6. Not
the best fraction to work with. However, if we were to use a
duodecimal system to calculate its value, 1/6 would be
equal to simply 0.2. We confront the first limitation of
decimal system since our measurements of time is based
on the duodecimal system.
It is easier for humans to use decimal because we
have ten fingers. In the same way, it is much simpler to use
binary system in computing as switches on a computer can
have only two states – on and off. Due to its simplicity and
mathematical operations unique to it, the binary system is
used in programming in order to maximize the computing
speed. On the other hand, we can observe the
disadvantage of binary system when it comes to larger
numbers ((1000)10 = (0000001111101000)2). People can
easily lose track in the endless repetition of 0s and 1s, so
binary number is not the most appropriate system to be
used in daily life.
Although different systems have own unique
advantages and disadvantages, people think that it would
be too cumbersome to change the counting system to suit
different purposes. It seems that it would take considerable
amount of time for people to stop relying on their ten
fingers to count. However, the supporters of the
duodecimal system claim that converting numbers into a
new system can easily learned over time like learning a
new language. The concept of counting in different number
system may sound too challenging at the beginning. Still, it
would be beneficial to diverge from the traditional way of
counting and understand how to work with other number
systems.
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March Issue
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What to know before playing the lottery
By Edoardo Rundeddu
ABSTRACT—This article will analyze Superenalotto, an Italian lottery in terms of probability of winning and cost of the game.
Superenalotto, the most popular Italian lottery, is
based on a very simple game. You first choose six
numbers between 1 and 90, and if either part of them
or all correspond to the six winner numbers you win a
prize. The cost to play one combination is €0.50. The
question I have always asked myself is - to what extent
is this a fair game?
and the number of combinations that can occur.
Therefore, Fair
return=€0.50×622'614'630=€311'301'315, which is
slightly less than twice the largest prize ever allocated.
While €177’729’043 is certainly a huge amount of
money, the problem is that it is not enough.
And, if we look at the issue from a different point of
To simplify this problem I will only consider the event of view, it is obvious that Superenalotto is not a fair game.
getting the jackpot prize. Firstly, it is necessary to
In many countries, Italy included, gambling is an activity
determine the probability of having six numbers
controlled by the government, which gains revenue by
extracted as winners. The number of different
keeping the money that does not become the jackpot. If
combinations of six elements is given by the formula n! the fair return calculated previously was actually real,
/ (n-k)! k! where n is the total available numbers and k then theoretically someone could play all the possible
is the amount of winner numbers, so in this case we
combinations and then win the 1st prize without losing
have 90! / (84)! 6! =622'614'630. The probability of
anything.
winning the maximum prize is therefore only 1 /
Therefore, from a mathematical point of view, it is clear
622'614'630 (pretty low right?).
that, in the long run, those betting in a lottery will
To give a meaning to this number, the odds of being hit always lose, and the government will always win.
by a lightning in the US in a given year is estimated to However, math cannot clarify why many people
be 1 in 700’000. The chances of finding a pearl in an routinely gamble at games like Superenalotto. The
oyster is 1 in 12’000. And, unless you are Leonardo di explanation lies in the fact that humans are generally
Caprio, the odds for anyone winning a Hollywood Oscar willing to invest little amount of money in the dream of
an enormous return, even when the probability that this
award is 1 in 12,200.
event occurs is insignificantly small.
So it easy to understand that for such a rare event, a
very high prize must be associated. But is
€177’729’043, the greatest sum ever won (October
30th, 2010) enough? To better understand
Superenalotto, I will use a different example. Let’s
assume you are playing a dice game, where you bet €1
that you get a 3. Because getting a 3 has the
probability of 16 then the fair return would be €6. This
because the product of the probability and the prize is
equal to the initial bet.
The lottery works in the same way! To find the fair
return, we would have to multiply the cost of the game
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March Issue
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Prime Numbers
By Matteo De Angelis
ABSTRACT— This article will focus on the nature, history and properties of prime numbers.
Prime numbers have always been a mystery since their
discovery, approximately 8th to 6th century BC during the ancient
Greece. But what makes this numbers so special that scientists
haven’t found a straightforward formula yet? Why are this
numbers even studied? I mean they are just numbers, right?
This reasoning is not completely wrong, but there must be a
reason why big price awards are given nowadays to whoever is
able to find new prime numbers with an extremely high numbers
of digits.
showed that giving n=5 so 232 + 1 the result is not a prime
number as it can be divided by 641. The more the time passed
the more prime numbers were discovered and it became a
serious issue to find others. But as more numbers were
discovered, technology advanced and developed and since 1951
all the largest known primes have been found by computers. The
search for ever larger primes has generated interest outside
mathematical circles. The Great Internet Mersenne Prime
Search (Marin Mersenne was a monk that made a big
contribution in trying to understand better prime numbers
looking at them in the form 2p – 1 where p is a prime number)
and other distributed computing projects to find large primes
have become popular, while mathematicians continue to
struggle with the theory of primes.
First of all what is a prime number? It’s any natural
number greater than 1 that can be divided by itself or by 1
without a reminder. This definition makes clear that prime
numbers are not something common. For example 2 is the only
even prime number as, obviously, every even number can be
divided by 2. This already takes away half of the numbers and
Now a question that you could be asking to yourself is:
there are a lot of other little tricks to find out if a number can be Other than for money, why would I care about prime numbers?
divided by the first 10 numbers. The problem comes when the
Well, for a long time, prime numbers were thought to have
extremely limited application outside of pure mathematics. This
numbers start to get bigger.
changed in the 1970s when the concepts of public-key
Even though the bigger the numbers become the rarer cryptography were invented, in which prime numbers formed the
they get to be prime, these are infinite. This was first proved by basis of the first algorithms such as the RSA cryptosystem
Euclid. He proved this by contradiction, which means that he
algorithm. But primes can be seen also in nature. One example
proved his point by showing that the opposite must be false.
of the use of prime numbers in nature is as an evolutionary
What he affirms is that if prime numbers are not infinite, there strategy used by cicadas of the genus Magicicada. They only
must be a bigger one, let’s call it n. Now if we calculate the
pupate and then emerge from their burrows after 7, 13 or 17
product of all these numbers together (n included) we will obtain years, at which point they fly about, breed, and then die after a
a number (call it “a”) which is divisible by every apparent prime few weeks at most. The logic for this is believed to be that the
number. The final step is to add 1 to the number found, this
prime number intervals between emergences make it very
result will lead to a new prime number greater than the others. difficult for predators to evolve that could specialize as
Many others, after him, proved the infinity of prime numbers, but predators on Magicicadas.
Euclid was the first.
To conclude I must say prime numbers are amazing. They are at
Instead the first one who attempted to find a formula in the basis of cryptosystem algorithms that protect your credit
order to find a prime number was, in 1640, Pierre de Fermat,
card and can be even be found in nature. My suggestion is to get
who stated, without proving it, that all the numbers that can be involved and try to find a new prime number or better a way too
written as 22^n + 1 are prime. This was later denied by Euler who find them all, because it will be worth it!
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MATH: Sudoku
Evil Sudoku (http://sudoku.math.com/)
Solutions:
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PHYSICS
We measured gravitational waves
By Eleonora Pigoli
Abstract: This article is about the recent detection of gravitational waves, by the hands of the LIGO group.
If you have been following the news lately, you might have heard that on February 11th the LIGO group were
finally able to accurately detect gravitational waves. That is huge news in the physics world because it finally proves, or
to put more accurately does not disprove, Einstein’s theory of General Relativity. Now, unless you’re taking an IB physics
class or are really passionate about the subject, you probably don’t know what that is and how gravitational waves come
into the picture. So let me help.
First things first, what is general relativity and why is it important? Well, in 1915 a man named Albert Einstein
described gravity as a bending of space-time geometry. Now hold up, what is space-time geometry and why does it
bend? Space- time is what you can picture as the fabric that makes up the universe. Think of it as a rubber sheet that
we all float on. Now, anything that has mass, according to Einstein, affects the space-time fabric by bending it. So, if you
have mass and bend the fabric, everything else on the sheet will be affected by it. Taking a person as an example is not
quite fitting as you mass is way too small to make a difference in the grand scheme of things. Let’s think of the Earth or
the Sun instead. When they make a bend in space-time, everything around them is affected and when something with
mass comes close to them instead of going straight through, they follow the path that is dictated by the bend in the
fabric. They are drawn into the gravitational field of the sun or of the earth. This is why we have orbits.
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Alright. Now that we have a better understanding
of gravity and space-time, where do waves come in?
Einstein described gravity as a bend of space-time
geometry, but also wrote a series of equations, known as
field equations, to back up his theory. These equations
describe how gravity reacts and behaves when there is a
change in matter on the space-time fabric we were talking
about before. These equations can be derived into others
which relate space and time and gravity. The solution to
these equations is represented by a wave function. So,
from a purely mathematical standpoint, if Einstein was
right then we should be able to detect waves as a result of
gravity. From a physics point of view the idea is that if you
create a bend in space-time you should see the ripples
caused by it. Think of it like a lake. If you throw in a pebble,
you see ripples on the surface of the water. It is the same
idea. The gravitational waves are the ripples.
American School of Milan
compression in space-time with say a ruler, we would fail
because the space between the ticks on the ruler would
also stretch. To detect the waves and the stretch we need a
ruler that is not affected by these distortions. The LIGO
group used light. They set up two 4km tunnels to make up
an L shape and bounced lasers back and forth between the
ends of the tunnels. If the light took more time to get back
than what it was supposed to, then they could say with
certainty that there had been a distortion.
By now you will have realized that it takes a
stunning amount of precision to get an accurate result and
be sure that you measured a gravitational wave and not an
error. The LIGO group had a little help in this, in that they
used the waves from something very big and very fast. We
were lucky enough to find out that two black holes had
recently (1.3 billion years ago) collided. This event had
always been predicted but never observed, at least until
The real issue however is that gravitational waves now. The gravitational waves from these two black holes
are tiny. Really tiny. So tiny in fact that they can very easily were big enough to be detected with accuracy.
be confused with noise. So, how do we measure them?
First, we need to figure out what instrument to use. We
So, we detected gravitational waves. We proved
must understand that gravitational waves are produced
Einstein’s theory of general relativity. Why does that
whenever something with mass accelerates, changing the matter? Well, we now know a little more about our universe
distortion of space-time. Now that brings us to our main
and how it works. Isn’t that amazing? I think it most
problem. If we decided to measure a stretch or
definitely is.
A Deeper Look at Gravitational Waves: Their Detection
By Hongseok Lee
ABSTRACT—“Every time you go on the news, the hot topic is the detection of gravitational waves. But what are
gravitational waves and why are they so significant? This article will explain to you all you need to know about them.
In February 11, 2016, Washington D.C., the LIGO (Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory)
announced the discovery of gravitational waves, a physical phenomenon proposed by Albert Einstein a 100 years ago.
This announcement brought shock and cheers to the scientific community. But what is it that makes this discovery of
gravitational waves so significant?
But before we go into that topic, let’s first see what gravitational waves are. Gravitational waves are ripples in
the fabric of space-time that take the form of waves. For example, let’s assume the universe as a giant piece of fabric. If
you place an object on it, it would cause it to sag, forcing the other objects to be attracted towards it. Einstein described
this as gravity. He also stated that gravitational waves are the ripples that objects create when they move through the
fabric of space-time. Although the space is not a 2D surface, this analogy can help us visualize what happens when an
object accelerates through space. However, this concept of gravitational waves has been causing disputes within the
scientific community, for gravitational waves goes directly against the Newtonian theory of gravitation.
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So what makes this discovery so significant? First of all, it
proves that Einstein was right. Although he did propose
this theory in 1916, he did not have sufficient data to
confirm his theory. However, after a century, his idea was
finally proven to be true.
waves cover this distance in less than ten thousandth’s of a
second. And in these pipes, there are lasers that reflect
back and forth. So how does this facility work? Basically,
as the binary black holes spin around each other, they
stretch and squeeze each other, causing vibrations. These
vibrations (a.k.a. gravitational waves) causes the lasers in
Also, this discovery is important in the sense that it would the two different pipes to change their distance. One
completely change the method which we would observe the stretches while the other shrinks. However, the
universe. Previously, the primary method of analyzing the displacement is so minimal that high-tech detector is
universe was through light emitted from the (astronomic
needed to detect this. So this is how the LIGO detected the
reactions) within the galaxy. However, this method had its gravitational waves in 11th of February.
weaknesses in the (fact) that it could not observe
(important) physical phenomenon such as black holes.
But some might question, “Well, all of this is interesting,
However, the detection of gravitational waves allows the
but how can this be useful in real life?” It can be replied
scientists to successfully analyze such phenomenon
with the analogy of the X-ray. When Wilhelm Roentgen first
without too much difficulty and it may lead to discoveries of discovered X-Rays in 1895, nobody thought that these
radiations would be applicable to daily life. What do we
new physics and astronomical phenomena.
have now? From simple diagnosis to serious treatment,
One example of this would be the discovery of the binary
these radioactive waves are used extensively. Like so, the
black holes. The LIGO actually had managed to speculate gravitational waves can be put to practical purposes if we
the motions of the binary black holes and their
put them to use.
characteristics through detection of gravitational waves
that only lasted 20 millionth of a second. The discovery of To conclude, it has been 100 years since Einstein first
gravitational waves confirmed that binary black holes
proposed the general relativity and gravitational waves.
actually existed and it also analyzed their motions as well. Although he did not manage to back up his theory with
sufficient data, his successors managed to do so a century
So how did the LIGO actually “discover” gravitational
later. Gravitational waves are not just some cosmic data
waves? The secret lies in the gigantic L-shaped pipes. The that is insignificant. Rather, it is a discovery and a tool that
distance from one edge of the facility to the other is 19
would completely change the course of human physics.
hundred miles, which may seem like a lot, but gravitational
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Physics behind the Leap Year
By Federica Arcidiaco
ABSTRACT—“By this point in our lives, we have all lived through at least three leap years, the most recent being just this
year. But do you really know the reason for this extra day? The truth is that this periodic phenomenon can all be
explained thanks to the physics of the Earth’s rotation around itself and the sun.
A leap year is a year that
contains an extra day, which
is added to maintain the
calendar’s synchronization
with the astronomical year.
This day happens to occur at
the end of the shortest
month of the year, creating the elusive entity that is
February 29th. But why does this happen?
However, there is another astronomical factor that is
important to mention as it also explains why the
tropical year does not consist of a whole 360 degree
revolution: precession. Axial precession, the more
specific term, is the movement of the rotational axis of
an astronomical body. What this means, is that the
gravitational pull of the sun on the Earth is changing
the orientation of the rotational axis of the planet. The
Earth’s precessional cycle is approximately 26,000
years. This is why the relative position of the North Star
We all know that the Earth rotates, both around itself (from our point of view) changes by approximately 1
and around the sun. This is what we base our 24-hour degree every 72 years, drawing a circle that takes
days and our 365 or 366-day years on. However,
25,771 years to complete. This messes with the length
these numbers aren’t completely accurate. The Earth of the tropical year as it affects the orientation, which is
doesn’t actually take 24 hours to complete one full
one of the key references used in the calculations.
rotation. It actually takes 23 hours, 56 minutes and
4.09 seconds. The difference seems like nothing (we
are only talking about adding an extra 3 minutes and
55.91 seconds to our days), but if we actually stuck to
this precise measurement, it would throw the whole
system off as the sun would be shining at midnight for
half of the year.
The second imprecision in our astronomical years is the
length year itself. We measure a year by finding how
long it takes for the Earth to return to the point where
it was oriented the exact same way towards the sun
and at the same distance. However, the result of this
calculation is actually slightly larger than what we
believe our years to be. A tropical year actually
terminates when the Earth has revolved approximately
359.986 degrees around the sun, which is enough to
make the calculated tropical year 20 minutes shorter So, if you combine the Earth’s rotation around itself, its
than that of the Gregorian calendar (our current
revolution around the Sun, and the effect of precession,
calendar).
we can find out exactly how many days actually make
up a tropical year. This digit is 365.242188931, which
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is as far as our 2016 technology can measure. If we
chose to completely ignore the extra 0.25 of this
number and say that every year is composed of 365
days, we would end up being off by slightly less than a
month every century! This is why we put in an extra day
every 4 years, to amount for the missing 25%.
years from three out of four century marks, the years
gained three whole days every four centuries. This
difference was large enough that, by the time that the
Gregorian Calendar was instilled in 1582, 10 days had
to be added to compensate for the days that had been
gained. This means that in Italy, Spain, Portugal and
Poland, October 5th through October 14th, 1582 never
People have been following this logic for a long time,
actually existed!
since the Julian Calendar, introduced by Julius Caesar in This is the physics that exists behind the existence of
45BC. This ancient calendar, though, lacked one
the leap day, an example that truly shows how accurate
seemingly insignificant but crucial detail that is
and precise the study of astronomy is, as 25% of a day
incorporated in today’s Gregorian Calendar.
can lead to months of lost time. However, Earth’s days
and years are constantly, even if imperceptibly,
You may already know that not every turn of the
changing. For example, the recent earthquake in Japan
century is a leap year. Only the century marks that are actually shortened the day by 1.8 microseconds.
divisible by four get the extra day, meaning that while
2000 was a leap year, 1900 was not. This isn’t a detail
that Pope Gregory XIII’s astronomers included just to So enjoy the leap year, as with all these constant
confuse people when they were making their calendar changes in rotation and revolution, these extra days
in the late 1500s. This measure was necessary as, by won’t be reoccurring forever.
following the Julian Calendar and not taking away leap
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PHYSICS: Crossword Puzzle
Taken from:
http://www.armoredpenguin.com
/crossword/bin/crossword.cgi?c
md=solve&filefrag=best/physics
/amazing.physics.01.html
HORIZONTAL
VERTICAL
3.Particles of a medium vibrate perpendicularly to the direction of the motion
of the wave.
4.Work done divided by the time taken to do the work.
8.The perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the point where the
force is exerted.
11.The bending around obstacles.
15.The speed of sound depends on …
16.Combination of transverse and longitudinal water waves.
18.Particles of a medium travel parallel to the direction of the wave.
19.Source of all waves is something that …
20.The net force of an object moving in a circle towards the center of the circle.
21.The change in angular velocity divided by the time required to make the
change.
1.The change in direction or bending of light at the boundary between two
media.
2.Light rays converge at a point (can be projected onto a screen).
5.The distance from one crest to the other crest.
6.This wave needs a medium through which they can travel.
7.The force of attraction between two objects must be proportional to the
object's masses.
9.The incident angle that causes the refracted ray to lie right along the
boundary of the substance is unique to the substance.
10.Light rays do not converge at a point (can't be projected on a screen).
12.Number of oscillations in pressure each second heard as pitch.
13.Determines speed of light in the medium.
14.Which of Kepler's law states that the planets move in elliptical orbits, with the
sun at one focus?
17.What mirror reflects light from its inner curved surface.
Solutions:
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STAFF AND CREDITS
CREATORS:
Director and Editor—Giovanna Pinciroli
Layout and Design — Gabriele Calabria
Editor—Francesco Maiocchi
DIRECTORS OF DEPARTMENT:
Biology and Environmental Science—Scintilla Benevolo
Chemistry—Leo Segre
Math—Edoardo Rundeddu
Physics—Federica Arcidiaco
ARTICLES BY:
Scintilla Benevolo
Gabriele Calabria
Matteo De Palma
Francesco Grechi
Anais Emanuele
Leo Segre
Yookyung Kim
Edoardo Rundeddu
Matteo De Angelis
Eleonora Pigoli
Hongseok Lee
Federica Arcidiaco
SPECIAL THANKS:
Mr. Bonifacio—Supervisor
Ms. Rizzuto—CAS Coordinator
Mr. Amodio— Publishing
Francesco Grechi—Former Director
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