Second Language Acquisition - Office for Improving Second

Second Language Acquisition
Prepared By:
Dr. Emma Alicia Garza
Assistant Professor
Texas A&M University-Kingsville
Second Language Acquisition
Presentation Script
Slide 1:
The topic for this training session is Second Language
Acquisition. As teachers of second language learners, we must
have a basic working knowledge base regarding the process that
language learners go through to learn a second language. This
knowledge base will be based on research-grounded theories of
second language acquisition. The foundation for many of the
pedagogical practices, strategies and methodologies used in
bilingual and ESL classrooms are derived from theory.
What is Second
Language Acquisition?
In second language learning, language plays an
institutional and social role in the community. It
functions as a recognized means of communication
among members who speak some other language as their
native tongue.
In foreign language learning, language plays no major
role in the community and is primarily learned in the
classroom.
The distinction between second and foreign language learning
is what is learned and how it is learned.
Slide 2:
Learning a second language requires:
1. formal language instruction in an academic setting;
2. interactions with the second language outside of the
classroom;
3. pedagogical practices, strategies and methodologies which
facilitate second language learning (how); and
4. teaching the four language skills: listening, speaking,
reading, writing along with comprehension and thinking
(what).
Slide 3:
The study of second language acquisition involves:
1. how second languages are learned ( the process);
2. how learners create a new language system with limited
exposure (interactions);
3. language proficiency levels (competence and performance
of the language); and
4. why some learners achieve native-like proficiency.
How Do Learners Acquire a
Second Language?
Learners acquire a second language by making use of
existing knowledge of the native language, general
learning strategies, or universal properties of language
to internalize knowledge of the second language.
These processes serve as a means by which the
learner constructs an interlanguage (a transitional
system reflecting the learner’s current L2 knowledge).
Communication strategies are employed by the
learner to make use of existing knowledge to
cope with communication difficulties.
Slide 4:
Learners acquire a second language by drawing on their
background experiences and prior knowledge in their first
language. They experiment with the second language by using
features found in their first language which are similar to those
in the second language. This dependence on the first language
serves to help the learner construct an interlanguage, a
transitional system consisting of the learner’s current second
language knowledge. Communication strategies help the
learners use what they already know to overcome breakdowns
in communication.
Slide 5:
Individual differences affect second language acquisition.
These differences may be developmental, cognitive, affective or
social. There are factors that are fixed which we cannot control
such as age and language learning aptitude. There are some
variable factors such as motivation which are controlled by
social setting and the course taken for developing the second
language.
Teachers need to know that variable factors are controlled
through the learning environment, by knowing their students’
cognitive styles, their learning preferences, how they teach, and
what they teach.
Slide 6:
There are many different types of learner strategies which
teachers need to be aware of in order to understand the
strategies children bring with them and how they learn best.
Language learners may need to be taught strategies for relating
new knowledge to prior knowledge, for organizing information
more effectively and for seeking opportunities for
communicating with target language speakers.
Slide 7:
Researchers identified a natural order of strategies for
developing a second language. The order of development starts
with the very simple imitation of a word or language structure,
to self-talk, to self-correcting, and to role-playing. An
awareness of this natural order can help teachers of second
language learners plan lessons to facilitate language learning
and increase the learners’ self-esteem and self-confidence.
Slide 8:
There are several theories of second language acquisition which
have provided information on how second languages are
learned. The Universalists studied a wide-range of languages to
find out how languages vary and what makes them vary. They
looked at language patterns, language universals (features of
language which are common across many languages) as well as
other properties of language.
Slide 9:
Universalists also claimed that language is acquired through
innateness (nature) and that certain conditions trigger the
development of language (nurture). The search for meaning is
innate. Activities and instructional materials need to be
presented in a meaningful, relevant and interesting manner in
order to allow students to make language learning connections.
Slide 10:
Behaviorists claimed that learners learn by undergoing training
and practice through a series of stimulus and response chains
and operant conditioning. The environment provides the
stimulus and the learner provides the response. According to
the Behaviorist theory, reinforcement motivates the formation
of a language habit.
Behaviorist Theory
(Continued)
Theory
When the learner learns a language, this learning includes a set of stimulusresponse-reward (S-R-R) chains.
Imitation provides the learner with a repertoire of appropriate, productive
responses. The learner learns to imitate or approximate the productive
responses provided by the environment.
The characteristics of human and non-human learners include the ability to:
Slide 11:
1.
respond to stimuli in a certain way;
2.
intuitively evaluate the reward potential of responses;
3.
extract the important parameters that made up the stimulus response
(positive reward chains); and
4.
generalize these parameters to similar situations to form classes of
S-R-R chains.
Language learning requires effort and practice. Behaviorists
further claimed that learners imitate or approximate productive
responses. For instance, learning how to write is not universal
across cultures because some cultures do not have a history of
written language, therefore learning how to write involves a
conscious effort and specific training, as well as a willingness
to learn by trial and error. Responding to stimuli in this instance
is critical in order for writing to take place.
Slide 12:
Nativists claimed that language learning is biologically
determined. Each person is born with an innate ability to learn
language. The basic innate language learning capacities are
referred to as the Language Acquisition Device (LAD). This
view asserts that the environment only serves to trigger the
Language Acquisition Device (LAD) which determines what
children acquire. Children acquire much of their language
ability before coming to school, thus supporting the innate
structures argument.
Nativist Theory
(Continued)
Theory
McNeill (1966) described the LAD as consisting of four innate linguistic
properties:
1.
the ability to distinguish speech sounds from other sounds in the environment;
2.
the ability to organize linguistic events into various classes that can be refined later;
3.
knowledge that only a certain kind of linguistic system is possible and that other kinds
are not; and
4.
the ability to engage in constant evaluation of the developing linguistic system in order
to construct the simplest possible system out of the linguistic data that are encountered.
Nativists have contributed to the discoveries of how the system of child
language works. Theorists such as Chomsky, McNeill, and others helped
us understand that a child’s language, at any given point, is a legitimate
system in its own right.
Slide 13:
The Nativists also contend that learners actively construct
grammar for themselves by actively listening to the language
around them and trying to determine the patterns in the
utterances. Learners progress through language in predictable
stages. The learner will not respond to error correction if he/she
is not developmentally ready.
Slide 14:
Cognitivists claimed that the conditions for learning language
are the same conditions that are necessary for any kind of
learning. They believed that human beings have the capacity for
developing logical thinking. Acquiring knowledge is a
cognitive process which involves automatic processing
(rountinzed) and controlled (temporary) learning.
Cognitivist Theory
(Continued)
Theory
Language Learning as a Cognitive Process
1.
Learning a language involves internal representations that regulate and guide performance.
2.
Automatic processing activates certain nodes in memory when appropriate input is
present. Activation is a learned response.
3.
Memory is a large collection of nodes.
4.
Controlled processing is not a learned response. It is a temporary activation of nodes in a
sequence.
5.
Skills are learned and routinized only after the earlier use of controlled processes have
been used.
6.
Learner strategies contain both declarative knowledge i.e. knowing the ‘what’ of the
language-internalized rules and memorized chunks of language, and procedural knowledge
i.e. know the ‘how’ of the language system to employ strategies.
Slide 15:
The Cognitive theory underscores the fact that the learner
brings an innate mental capacity to the learning task. He/she
also brings perceptions of relationships between what he knows
and what he/she needs to know. Learner strategies are used for
learning the rules of a language and how to use the language for
different audiences and purposes.
Theories of Second Language
Acquisition (Continued
Theory
Social Interactionist Theory supports the view that the
development of language comes from the early interactions
between infants and caregivers.
Social interactionists stress:
„
„
„
„
the importance of a child’s interactions with parents and other caregivers;
the importance of “motherese”;
contributions of context and world knowledge; and
the importance of goals
Glew (1998) claims that learners have to be pushed in their negotiation of
meaning to produce comprehensible output. The classroom context needs to
provide adequate opportunities for target language use to allow learners to
develop competence in the target language.
Slide 16:
Social interactionists believe that human language emerged
from the social role that language plays in human interactions.
They further believed that the environment plays a key role and
that adults in the child’s linguistic environment are instrumental
in language acquisition. Language learners need many
opportunities for using the target language in order to develop
competence.
Slide 17:
Social interaction is the key to language processing. Input from
the social interactions provides a model for negotiation
opportunities. Vygotsky (1978) believed that learners bring two
levels of development to the learning: an actual developmental
level and a potential developmental level. These two levels are
referred to as the Zone of Proximal Development. Learners can
move from actual development to proximal development
through social interactions with others.
Slide 18:
Krashen proposed five hypotheses for second language
acquisition. He explored the notion that acquisition is different
from learning because one takes place in a natural environment
while the other takes place in an academic setting. He further
claimed that we learn language in a predictable order. Some
language structures are learned earlier than others. The monitor
is the self-correcting mechanism that learners use to edit what
they say before they speak or write. The learner can overuse the
monitor and stifle communication.
Slide 19:
Krashen proposed that when learners are provided with
comprehensible input they acquire more. When the learner’s
affective filter is up, this means that information is not reaching
the learner. This may be because of fear, anxiety or low selfconfidence in language learning. The ideal situation is for the
filter to be down so that the language acquisition device can
receive the input necessary for language acquisition.
Cummin’s Second Language
Framework
Cummins makes a distinction between social language and
academic language.
1. Social language refers to the everyday conversational language which is supported
by the use of illustrations, realia, demonstrations, etc. (Context Embedded). Studies
show that language learners acquire social language in approximately two years.
Social language deals with the here-and-now language, therefore second language
learners tend to acquire it faster.
2. Academic language is the language of school tasks which is more abstract and
decontextualized (Context Reduced).
Some second language learners who develop fluent spoken English have difficulties in
reading and writing because they may be at different levels of proficiency while they are
moving from social language (BICS) to academic language (CALP). It takes between five
to seven years for second language learners to acquire academic language.
Slide 20:
James Cummins developed a framework for second language
acquisition that involves the identification of both social and
academic languages. The basic interpersonal communication
skills are acquired from everyday use of the language and are
supported by cues in the environment (context-embedded). The
cognitive academic language proficiency is more abstract
language which is not supported by environmental cues
(context-reduced).
Slides 21-22: Context-embedded tasks are for the most part cognitively
undemanding because learners are able to depend on cues for
assistance. There are some tasks that are context-embedded,
more complex and impose cognitive demands. The learners in
these situations can still rely on environmental cues for help.
Slides 23-24: Context-reduced tasks can be both cognitively undemanding
and cognitively demanding as well. Cognitively undemanding
tasks are simple to carry out but do not contain environmental
cues i.e. reading for personal purposes. Cognitively demanding,
context-reduced tasks are more abstract and decontextualized.
Slides 25-26: The components of communicative competence include:
1) grammatical competence which is knowing the structure of
the language;
2) sociolinguistic competence which involves the use
of the language for different audiences, purposes and norms of
communication;
3) discourse competence which includes combing and
connecting utterances both spoken and written; and
4) strategic competence which involves using language to
meet communication goals.
Slide 27:
Competence is the underlying knowledge which is the mental
representation of linguistic rules. This knowledge is nonobservable because it is internal. Performance is the overtly
observable production of competence (comprehension and
production of language).
Slide 28:
The three general principles of language learning include: 1) the
law of exercise-active and repeated responses to stimuli
(practice); 2) the law of effect-reinforcing learner responses
(providing immediate corrective feedback); and 3) the principle
of shaping-learning language through learning chunks (bit-bybit).
Slide 29:
These principles operate under the assumption that language
learning is the formation of habit. The learner’s automatic
responses were prompted by stimuli. Interesting and motivating
stimuli turns responses into automatic, routinized learning. The
level of difficulty required to learn a second language depends
on the amount of time it takes to learn a second language
pattern. The time from which controlled responses (short-term)
turn into automatic responses (long-term) is dependent on
learner differences, learning conditions, and teaching pedagogy.
Input and Interaction
L2 acquisition can only take place when the learner has access to input in the second language.
This input may come in written or spoken form.
Spoken input occurs in face-to-face interactions. Non-reciprocal discourse includes listening to
the radio or watching a film.
Behaviorists claim that presenting learners with input in the right doses and then reinforcing
their attempts to practice them can control the process of acquisition.
Chomsky pointed out that in many cases there was a very poor match between the kind of
language found in the input that learners received and the kind of language they themselves
produced.
Comprehensible input (Krashen’s, 1985 Input Hypothesis) proposed that learners acquire
morphological features in a natural order as a result of comprehending input addressed to them.
Long (1981a) argued that input which is made comprehensible by means of the conversational
adjustments that occur when there is a comprehension problem is especially important for
acquisition.
Swain (1985) proposed the comprehensible output hypothesis which states that learners need
opportunities for “pushed output” in speech or writing that makes demands on them for correct
and appropriate use of the L2.
Slide 30:
Input and interaction are very important factors in second
language acquisition. Second language acquisition can only
take place when the learner has access to input in the target
language. Teachers can provide comprehensible input in their
instructional delivery coupled with opportunities for
interactions.
Adjustments are made in order to facilitate the comprehension
of messages. Just as important is comprehensible output.
Learners need to be given opportunities to produce spoken or
written discourse which forces them to use correct and
appropriate use of the second language.
The Role of the Native Language in
Second Language Acquisition
Language
Trans fer
The role of native language in second language acquisition has come to be known as
“language transfer.”
It has been assumed that in a second language learning situation learners rely extensively
on their native language.
According to Lado (1957) individuals tend to transfer forms and meanings, the
distribution of the forms and meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign
language and culture.
This transfer is productive when the learner attempts to speak the language.
This transfer is receptive when the learner attempts to grasp and understand the language
and culture as practiced by native speakers.
Lado’s work and much of the work of that time (1950’s) was based on the need to
produce pedagogically relevant materials. A contrastive analysis of the native language
and the target language was conducted in order to determine similarities and differences
in the languages.
Slide 31:
The first language has a distinct role in second language
acquisition. When language learners have a strong linguistic
and communicative foundation in their native language, then
the process of second language acquisition involves language
transfer. Learners transfer forms and meanings as they attempt
to speak or write the second language.
Transfer takes on a receptive role when the learners listen to
native speakers of the language and try to understand what is
being said. Similarities in the two languages are transferred
positively (language facilitation), while differences cause a nonproductive transfer (language interference).
Framework for
Explaining L1 Transfer
Language
Trans fer
The L1 system is used for both comprehension and production.
The interlanguage system is also used in comprehending and
receiving messages.
The L1 system is used in hypothesis construction responsible for
interlanguage development.
Comprehensible input serves as a major source of information for
hypothesis construction.
L2 output may be used for hypothesis construction.
Slide 32:
Language learners rely on their first language to produce
language and to comprehend it. Hypotheses construction of
language comes when learners manipulate and test language
forms to further their interlanguage, the stages of development
between L1 and L2. The second language output helps the
learner test hypotheses of how language works and helps them
construct new ones. Teachers provide comprehensible input in
order to help learners acquire information for hypotheses
construction.
Slide 33:
Language transfer is a cognitive process which involves the strategic use
of the first language in learning the second language. The flexible thinking
that occurs in the learner’s mind is representative of the
interconnectedness between the two languages. Bi-cognitive thinking
occurs spontaneously and with great ease. Learners think in their first
language, transfer that thinking into the second language and then produce
the utterances that meet the communication situation.
There is a distinction between transfer experienced for communication
purposes and transfer experienced for second language learning. First
language transfer helps the learner receive and produce messages for
communication purposes. Transfer in learning situations happens when the
learner uses the first language to formulate hypotheses about second
language rules.
Language
Language Transfer
Trans fer
Where the two languages were identical, learning could take place through
positive transfer to the native-language pattern.
Where the two languages were different, learning difficulty arose and errors
occurred resulting from negative transfer.
Chomsky (1959) set in motion a re-evaluation of many of the behaviorists
claims. This re-evaluation included area such as:
the dangers of extrapolating from laboratory studies of animal behavior
to the language behavior of humans were pointed out;
2.
the terms stimulus and response were exposed as vacuous where
language behavior was concerned;
3.
analogy could not account for the language user’s ability to generate
totally novel utterances; and
4.
studies of children acquiring their L1 showed that parents rarely
corrected their children’s linguistic errors, thus casting doubt on the
importance of reinforcement in language learning.
All this led to the reconsideration of the role of L1 in L2 learning.
1.
Slide 34:
When language features in the two languages are similar,
positive transfer from the first language to the second language
occurs. When language features in the two languages are
different, learning difficulties and errors happen. This transfer
process made it evident to researchers that the native language
definitely plays a major role in second language acquisition.
The Nature of the
Interlanguage Continuum
Cognitive theories of interlanguage claim that with the assistance of
learning strategies, learners build mental grammars of the second
language.
Learners draw on the rules they have constructed to interpret and
produce utterances.
Learner’s utterances are only erroneous with reference to the target
language norms, not to the norms of their own grammars.
The interlanguage continuum consists of a series of overlapping
grammars. Each share some rules with the previously constructed
grammar, but also contains some new or revised rules.
A rule has the status of a hypothesis.
Slide 35:
The implication of the interlanguage continuum for teachers is
that with assistance from learning strategies, learners are able to
build mental grammars (rules) of the second language. The
continuum represents different interlanguage stages
(overlapping grammars) that the learners go through to use the
rules they have learned to interpret and produce speech. Rules
are classified hypotheses because the learner tests certain
language rules in his/her development.
Selinker’s Interlanguage
Theory
Selinker’s Interlanguage Theory maintains the separateness of a second language learner’s system and gives the system a structurally
intermediate status between the native and target languages.
According to Selinker, second language learners are producing their own self-contained linguistic system. The system is not a native language
or target language system, rather it falls between the two.
Stages of Interlanguage Development include:
1) random errors (presystematic);
2) experimentation and inaccurate guessing;
3) emergent-growing in consistency in linguistic production;
4) backsliding-appears to have grasped but later regressed and unable to correct errors;
5) systematic stage-ability to correct errors on their own; rules may not be well-formed but display more internal self-consistency;
6) stabilization-few errors are made, have mastered the system to the point of fluency; and
7) intralingual-inconsistencies within the target language; Global errors-affect meaning;local errors-close similarities in word form (i.e.
spelling).
Interlanguage Continuum
Interlanguage Stages
L1
L2
______/____/______/____/_______/_____/___/_____/_____/______
Basilang
Mesolang
Acrolang
Slide 36:
Each of the stages of the interlanguage continuum represents
each grammar that the learner builds which represents more
complexity as he/she moves on the continuum. Second
language learners begin in their first language and as teachers
provide the formal and informal second language instruction,
learners move forward in their development. When learners
encounter difficulties in any of their interlanguage stages, they
can fossilize (learning stops at some given point) or they may
experience backsliding (regression).
The continuum can be related to language learner categories
used for identifying bilingual/ESL students. Basilang is
equivalent to the beginner; mesolang is the category of an
intermediate learner; and acrolang is the category for the
advanced learner.
Slide 37:
The identification of errors that language learners make is
important in order to understand the source of errors and the
corrective measures teachers can offer. Errors happen when
learners lack knowledge of second language rules, while
mistakes occur when learners are unable to perform their
competence (underlying knowledge that is non-observable).
Overt errors are deviations in form and covert errors are those
that are well-formed but do not communicate what the learner
intended.
Learner Errors
Error Analysis is used for examining errors as a way of investigating learning
processes.
Much of the early work on learner errors focused on the extent to which L2
acquisition was the result of L1 transfer or creative construction (construction of
unique rules similar to those which children form in the course of acquiring the native
language).
The presence of errors that mirrored L1 structures was taken as evidence of transfer
(interlingual), while those errors similar to those observed in L1 acquisition were
indicative of creative construction (intralingual).
The study of learner errors showed that although many errors were caused by
transferring L1 habits, many more were not.
It was found that learners went through stages of acquisition and the nature of errors
varied according to their level of development.
Error analysis could not show when learners resorted to avoidance and it ignored what
learners could do correctly.
Slide 38:
For teachers of English language learners, it is important to
understand the role of errors in second language learning. Error
analysis is important because it gives us the opportunity to
examine learner errors and determine if errors are a
consequence of first language interference or not. Implications
for teachers come in planning instruction that addresses patterns
in errors made by students experiencing language interference,
grouping practices to target the identified errors, and
instructional methodologies and strategies for helping learners
overcome some of their errors.
Slide 39:
Errors made by a language learner can give teachers insight as
to how much knowledge the learner has in the second language.
They are a means of diagnosing progress or lack of progress in
second language development. Errors are to be seen as part of a
process of second language acquisition not just as the result of
imperfect learning.
Slide 40:
Errors are systematic and will occur until the language learner
recognizes them and corrects them. If communication is clear,
even when learners produce errors such as “no want” then the
error is in the language structure and not in the learner’s system
(interlanguage).
Slide 41:
Contrastive analysis helps teachers understand potential errors language
learners make. This understanding will allow teachers to identify what
needs to be learned and what is already in the learner’s system.
What needs to be learned will be the focus of instruction and what is
already learned will be the knowledge the learner brings to the learning
situations.
The pedagogical materials that resulted from contrastive analysis were
based on the claim that language is a habit; language learning involves the
establishment of a new set of habits; the native language interferes with
the reception and production of a second language; and accounting for
errors involves considering differences between the first and the second
languages. The greater the differences the more errors will occur; and
difficulty and ease in learning a second language are determined by
differences and similarities between the two languages in contrast.
Language Acquisition for School:
The Prism Model
Thomas & Collier, 1997
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L1 + L2 Cognitive Development
Slide 42:
Thomas and Collier (1997), proposed the Prism Model of
Language Acquisition for School. This model includes first and
second language cognitive development, academic
development, language development as well as social and
cultural processes.
Slide 43:
The cognitive development component is a subconscious
process that is developmental. Thought processes are built
through interactions. It is critical that cognitive development
take place in the first language so that the foundation is strong
and positive transfer of skills and concepts occurs.
Slide 44:
Academic knowledge, concepts and skills transfer from the first to the
second language. In order to make the necessary instructional adjustments,
teachers need to provide instruction in the learners’ first language and a
strong English as a Second Language component during the instructional
day in order to make academic content meaningful. The interruption of
academic development in the first language will likely promote academic
failure. A good balance of academic instruction (Cognitive Academic
Language Proficiency) in the first language and vocabulary and oral
language development (Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills)
through ESL will facilitate language transfer and transition when the
learner is ready.
According to research, it takes a language learner from 5-7 years to reach
academic proficiency in the second language. It takes from 2-3 years to
acquire BICS. Therefore, teaching BICS in the two languages and having
a strong ESL program are essential if language learners are to be ready for
transitioning from the first to the second language.
Slide 45:
Language development includes Basic Interpersonal
Communication Skills (BICS) which are acquired
subconsciously as well as the innate ability learners bring with
them to the academic setting (CALP). In order to assure both
cognitive and academic success in learning a second language,
the learner must be taught in his/her first language to a high
cognitive level so that the learner can develop the necessary
competence and performance in the second language.
Slide 46:
Second language learners go through everyday experiences
which impact the acquisition of the second language. The
home-school connection is very important in order to help
language learners respond to second language learning more
effectively. The sociocultural support that language learners
need must be evident at home, at school, in the community and
in society at large. The instructional environment can either
create social unity, linguistic and ethnic respect, and value for
bilingualism or it may promote a psychological distance
between two groups, cultures and languages.
Slide 47:
In conclusion, teachers working with second language learners
must consider the learners’ linguistic, cultural, and academic
needs, as well as the levels of language proficiency. Teachers
should encourage their students to experiment with language
and not be afraid of making errors. Errors are part of the
learning process just as error correction is part of the teaching
process. Teachers should not ignore errors, but focusing too
much on them can cause anxiety, fear and hamper learning.